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O K C [ 401 ] O R C
Crlnt ftrong, and gives an enemy no reafon to expert better
'i fucceis by attacking one place than another. Ctefar
, Onha;.1. (jrew wh0]e army in this form, when he fought a-
gaitilt Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls were
formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and
Cotta, when fighting agaxnft the Romans. The orb
was generally fonned fix deep.
ORBIT, in AJlronomij, the path of a planet or co¬
met, or the curve that it defcribes in its revolution
round its central body •, thus, the earth’s orbit is the
curve which it defcribes in its annual courfe round the
fun, and ufually called the ecliptic. See Astronomy,
pajjim.
ORCADES, the Orkney IJlands. See Orkney.
ORCHARD, a garden-department, configned en¬
tirely to the growth of ftandard fruit-trees, for furnith¬
ing a large fupply of the moll ufefui kinds of fruit. For
the particular management of the orchard, fee Garden¬
ing.
In the orchard you may have, as ftandards, all forts
of apple-trees, moil forts of pears and plums, and all
forts of cherries : which four ipecies are the capital or¬
chard fruits 5 each of them comprifing numerous valu¬
able varieties. But to have a complete orchard, you
may alio have quinces, medlars, mulberries, fervice-
trees, filberts, Spanith truts, berberxies; likewife wal¬
nuts and chefnuts 5 which two latter are particularly ap¬
plicable for the boundaries of orchards, to fereen the
other trees from the infults of impetuous winds and cold
blafts. Ail the trees ought to be arranged in rows from
20 to 30 feet diftance, as hereafter direfled.
But fometimes orchards confift entirely of apple-trees,
particularly in the cyder-making counties, where they
are cultivated in very great quantities in large fields,
and in hedge-rows, for the fruit to make cyder for pub¬
lic fupply.
And fometimes whole orchards of very confiderable
extent are entirely of cherry-trees. But in this cafe, it
is when the fruit is defigned for fale in fome great city,
as London, &c. for the fupply of which city, great
numbers of large cherry orchards are in fome of the ad¬
jacent counties, but more particularly in Kent, which
is famous for very extenfive cherry-orchards j many of
which are entirely of that fort called Kentijb cherry, as
being generally a great bearer •, others are ftored with
all the principal forts of cultivated cherries, from the
earlieft to the lateft kinds.
A general orchard, however, compofed of all the be¬
fore-mentioned fruit-trees, fiiould confift of a double
portion of apple-trees or more, becaufe they are confi-
derably the moft ufefui fruit, and may be continued for
ufe the year round.
The utility of a general orchard, both for private ufe
and profit, ftored with the various forts of fruit-trees,
muft be very great, as wrell as afford infinite pleafure
from the delightful appearance it makes from early
fpring till late 1 autumn : In fpring the various trees
in bloffom are highly ornamental •, in fummer, the plea¬
fure is heightened by obferving the various fruits advan¬
cing to perfeftion •, and as the feafon advances, the ma¬
ture growth of the different fpecies arriving to perfec¬
tion, in regular fucceflion, from May or June, until the
end of Odlober, muft afford exceeding deljght, as well
as great profit.
Of the Extent, Situation, and Soil for the Orchard.—
VOL. XV. Part II.
As to the proper extent of ground for an orchard, this Orchard,
muft be proportioned, in fome meafure, to the extent v ""l"
of land you have to work on, and the quantity of fruit
required either for private ufe or for public fupply ; fo
that an orchard may be from half an acre to 20 or more-
in extent.
With refpedl to the fituation and afpeef for an orch¬
ard, we may obferve very thriving orchards both in low
and high fituations, and on declivities and plains, in va-
rious^aipedts or expofures, provided the natural foil is
good : we ihould, however, avoid very lowT damp fitu¬
ations as much as the nature of the place will admit,
for in very wet foils no fruit trees will profper, nor the
fruit be fine : but a moderately low fituation, free from
copious wet, may be more eligible than an elevated
ground, as being lefs expofed to tempeftuous winds v
though a fituation having a imall declivity is very de-
firable, efpecially if its afpedt incline towards the eaft,
fouth-eaft, or foutherly, which are rather more eligible
than a wellerly afpedf •, but a north afpedt is the worft
of all for an orchard, unlefs particularly compenfated by
the peculiar temperament or good quality of the foil.
Arid as for fail, any common field or pafture that
produees good crops of corn, grafs, or kitchen-garden
vegetables, is fuitable for an orchard ; if it Ihould prove
of a loamy nature, it will be a particular advantage :
any foil, however, of a good quality, not too light and
dry, or too heavy, ftubborn, or wet, but of a medium
nature, of a foft, pliant temperature, not lefs than one
fpade deep of good ftaple, will be proper for this pur-
pofe.
Preparation of the Ground.—The preparation of the
ground for the reception of trees, is by trencliing ; or,
if for very confiderable orchards, by deep ploughing
but trench-digging, one or two fpades, as the foil will
admit, is the moft eligible, either wholly, or only for
the prefent in the places where the lines of trees are to
ftand, a fpace of fix or eight feet wide, all the way in
each row, efpecially if it be grafs-ground, and intended
to be kept in the fward 5 or if any under-crops are de¬
figned to be railed, the ground may be wholly trench¬
ed at fi) ft : in either cafe trench tire ground in the ufual
way to .he depth of the natural foil ; and if in grafs,
turn the fward clean to the bottom of each trench,
which, when rotted, will prove an excellent manure.
In planting orchards, however, on grafs-grounds,
fome only dig pits for each tree, capacious enough for
the reception of the roots, loofening the bottom well,
wfithout the labour of digging any other part of the
ground.
The ground muft be fenced fecurely againft cattle,
&c. either with a good ditch and hedge, or with a pal-
ing-tence, as may be moft convenient.
Method of planting the Trees.—The beft feafon for
planting all the forts of fruit-trees is autumn, foon af¬
ter the fall of the leaf, from about the latter end of
October until December ; or indeed it might be per¬
formed any time in open weather from Offober until
March.
Choofe principally full ftandards, with ftraight clean
ftems, fix feet high ; each with a branchy well-formed
head, or from two or three to four or five years growth j
and let feveral varieties of each particular fpecies be cho-
fen, that ripen their fruit at different times, from the
earlieft to the lateft, according to the nature of the dif-
3 E ferent
O R C [40
ft rent forts, that there may be a proper fupply of every
fort regularly during their proper feafbn. Of apples and
pears in particular, choofe a much greater quantity of
the autumnal and late ripening kinds than of the early
forts, but molt of all of apples ; for the fummer-ripen-
ing fruit is but of fhort duration, only proper for tem¬
porary fervice 5 but the later ripening kinds keep found
fome confiderable time for autumnal ufe 5 and the lateil
forts that ripen in Odlober, continue in perfection for
various ufes all winter, and feveral forts until the feafon
of apples come again.
Having made choice of the proper forts, and marked
them, let them be taken up with the utmoft care, fo as
to preferve all their roots as entire as poffible ; and when
taken up, prune off any broken or bruifed parts of the
roots, and juft tip the ends of the principal roots, in ge¬
neral, with the knife on the under fide with a kind of
Hope outwTard.
If the trees have been already headed, or fo trained
as to have branched out into regular (hoots to form each
a proper head, they muft be planted with the faid heads
entire, only retrenching or fhortening any irregular or
ill-placed (hoot that takes an aukwrard direCfion, or
grows acrofs its neighbours, or fuch as may run confi-
derably longer than all the reft, &c.
The arrangement of the trees in the orchard muft be
in row's, each kind feparate, at diftances according to
the nature of the growth of the different forts ; but for
the larger growing kinds, fueh as apples, pears, plums,
cherries, &c. they ftiould (land from 25 to 30 or 40
feet every way afunder, though 25 or 30 feet at moft is
a reafonable diftance for all thefe kinds.
Each fpecies and its varieties (hould generally be in
rowrs by themfelves, the better to fuit their refpeclive
modes of growth: though for variety there may be fome
rows of apples and pears arranged alternately, as alfo of
plums and cherries 5 and towards the boundaries there
may be ranges of lefler growth, as quinces, medlars, fil¬
berts, &c. and the outer row of all may be walnut-
trees, and fome chefnuts, fet pretty clofe to defend the
other trees from violent winds.
According to the above diftances, proceed to ftake
out the ground for making the holes for the reception
of the trees, which if made to range every wray, will
have a very agreeable effecl, and admit the currency of
air, and the fun’s influence more effectually.
But in planting very extenfive orchards, fome divide
the ground into large fquares or quarters, of different
dimenfions, with intervals of 50 feet wide between 5
ferving both as walks, and for admitting a greater cur¬
rency of air •, in different quarters planting different
forts of fruit, as applas in one, pears in another,
plums and cherries in others, &c. and thus it may be
repeated to as many quarters for each fpecies and its va¬
rieties as may be convenient.
As to the mode of planting the trees : A wide hole
muft be dug for each tree, capacious enough to receive
all the roots freely every way without touching the
(ides. When the holes are all ready, proceed to plant¬
ing, one tree in each hole, a perfon holding the ftem
eredft, w'hilft another trims in the earth, previouljy
breaking it fmall, and calling It in equally aril about the
roots, frequently (baking the tree to caufe the mould to
fettle in clofe about all the fmaller roots and fibres, and
fo as to raife the tree gradually up, that the crown of
2 ]' O II C
the roots may he but two or three inches below the ge- Orchard.
neral furface } and when the hole is filled up, tread it *
gently, (hit round the outfide, then near the ftem of
the tree, forming the furface a little hollow", and then,
if on the top of all be laid fome inverted turf to the
wfidth of the hole, forming it with a fort of circular
bank, three or four inches high, it will fupport the
tree, and guard the roots from drying winds and the
fummer’s drought: obferving that each tree (land per-
fedlly upright, and that they range exaftly in their pro¬
per row's.
Method of improving the Fruit.—The following me¬
thod is faid to have been fuccefsfully employed, by a
German clergyman, in promoting the growth of young
trees, and increafing the (ize and flavour of the fruit in
orchards. Having planted feveral young plum trees in
an orchard, he covered the ground, for fome years,
around the trunks, as far as the roots extended, with
flax-lhows, or the refufe of flax when it is fcutched or
heckled ; by w'hich means thefe trees, though in a grafs-
field, increafed in a wonderful manner, and far excelled
others planted in cultivated ground. As far as the
(hows reached, the grafs and weeds were choaked j and
the foil under them was fo tender and foft, that no bet¬
ter mould could have been wiftied for by a florid.
When he obferved this, he covered the ground w'ith
the fame fubftance, as far as the roots extended, around
an old plum-tree, which appeared to be in a languiftiing
(late, and which ftood in a grafs-field. The confequen-
ces w'ere, that it acquired a ftrong new bark, produced
larger and better-tafted fruit, and that thofe young
(lioots, w'hich before grew up around the ftem, and
which it was every year neceftary to deftroy, were pre¬
vented from fprouting forth, as the covering of flax-
(hows impeded the free accefs of air at the bottom of the
trunk.
In the year 1793* he tranfplanted, from feed-beds,
into the nurfery, feveral fruit-trees 5 the ground around
fome of which he covered, as above, w'ith flax-(hows.
Notw'ithllanding the great heat of the fummer, none of
thofe trees where the earth was covered with (hows died
or decayed, becaufe the (hows prevented the earth un¬
der them from being dried by the fun. Of thofe trees,
around which the ground was not covered as before
mentioned, the fourth part mifearried 5 and thofe that
continued alive were far weaker than the foimer.
The leaves which fall from trees in autumn may alft
be employed for covering the ground in like manner;
but ftones, or logs of wmed muft be laid on them, to
prevent their being difperfed by the wind. In grafs-
land, a fmall trench may be made around the roots of
the tree, w'hen planted, in order to receive the leave?.
If flax (hows are ufed, this is not neceffary •, they lie
on the furface of the ground fo fail as to refill the force
of the moft violent dorm. The leaves w'hich our author
found moft eftedlual in promoting the growlh and ferti¬
lity of fruit trees, are thofe of the walnut-tree. Whe¬
ther it is, that, on account of their containing a greater
abundance of ialine particles, they communicate manure
to the ground, which thereby becomes tender under
them ; or that they attract nitrous particles from the at-
mofphere", or that, by both thefe means, they tend to
nourifti the tree both above and below'.
Thofe wTho are defirous of railing tender exotic trees
from the feed, in order to accuftom them to our climate,
may.
O Pv D [ 403 ] O Pi 13
Crdieftra may, wKen they tranfplant them, employ flax-fliows
1! with great advantage. This covering will prevent the
Qrd£a!' , froft from making its way to the roots •, and rats and
n'”v mice, on account of the fliarp prickly points of the
tlax-fliows, will not be able to fhelter themfelves under
them.
ORCHESTRA, in the Grecian theatres, was that
part of the profcenium or Rage where the chorus ufed to
dance. In the middle of it wras placed the Aoyuov or
pulpit. The orcheftra was femicircular, and furround-
ed with feats. In the Roman theatres it made no part
of the fcena, but anfwered pretty nearly to the pit in
our playhoufes, being taken up with feats for fenators,
magiftrates, veftals, and other perfons of diftinftion.
The aflors never went down into it. See Theatre.
ORCHIA lex, inilituted by Orchius the tribune in
the year of Rome 566. Its intention was to limit the
number of guefts that were to be admitted at ac enter¬
tainment p and it alfo enforced, that during fupper,
which was the chief meal among the Romans, the doors
of every houfe (hould be left open.
ORCHIS, fool-stones •, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the gynandria clafs, and in the natural method
giving name to the feventh order, Orchidece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ORCUS, god of the infernal regions, the fame with
Pluto, fo called from the Greek word e^oj, fignifying
a “ tomb or fepulchre,” or from o^y.a?, “ an oath by the
river Styx.” The ancients gave this name to all the
divinities of the infernal regions, even to Cerberus.
There was a river of the fame name in Theffaly, which
took its fife from the marlhes of the Styx, and the wa¬
ters of which were fo thick that they iloated like oil
upon the furface of the fiver Peneus, into which they
difcharged themfelves. This river probably fuggefted
to the poets the idea of the infernal abodes, which they
Renominated Orcus. This deity has been confounded
with Charon, he had a temple at Rome.
ORDEAL, an ancient form of trial. See Trial.
—It was an appeal to the immediate interpolition of di¬
vine power, and was particularly diftinguilhed by the
appellation of judicium Dei; and fometimes vulgaris
purgation to diflinguifh it from the canonical purgation,
which was by the oath of the party. There were two
forts of it more common than the reft, at lead in Eu¬
rope ; fire-ordeal, and water-ordeal. The former was
confined to perfons of higher rank, the latter to the
common people. Both thefe might be performed by
deputy; but the principal was to anfwer for the fuccefs - Ordeal,
of the trial ; the deputy only venturing fome corporal
pain, for hire or perhaps for friendfhip.
That the purgation by ordeal, of fome kind or other,
is very ancient, admits not of a doubt ; and that it was
very univerfal in the times of fuperftitious barbarity, i
equally certain. It feems even to have been known to
the ancient Greeks} for in the Antigone of Sophocles,
a perfon fufpedted by Creon of a mifdemeanour, de¬
clares himfelf ready “ to handle hot iron and to walk
over fire” in order to manifeft his innocence 5 which the
fcholiaft tells us was then a veiy ulual purgation. And
Grotius gives us many inftances of water-ordeal in Bi-
thynia, Sardinia, and other places. It feems, however,
to be carried to a greater height among the Hindoos,
than ever it has been in any nation or among any peo¬
ple, however rude or barbarous •, for in a paper of the
Afiatic Refearches communicated by Warren Haftings,
Efq. we find that the trial by ordeal among them is
condufted in nine different ways : firft, by the balance ;
fecondly, by fire } thirdly, by water 5 fourthly, by poi-
fon 5 fifthly, by the Coftra, or water in which an idol has
been wafhed; fixthly, by rice ; feventhly, by boiling
oil -p eighthly, by red-hot iron ; ninthly, by images.
I. Ordeal by the balance is thus performed. The
beam having been previoufly adjufted, the cord fixed,
and both fcales made perfectly even, the perfon accufed
and a Pandit faft a whole day j then, after the accufed
has been bathed in facred water, the homa, or oblation,
prefented to fire, and the deities worftiipped, he is care¬
fully weighed 5 and when he is taken out of the fcale,
the Pandits proftrate themfelves before it, pronounce a
certain mentra or incantation, agreeably to the Saftras,
and, having written the fubftance of the accufation on a
piece of paper, bind it on his head. Six minutes after,
they place him again in the fcale; and, if he weigh
more than before, he is held guilty ; if lefs, innocent $
if exadtly the fame, he muft be weighed a third time j
when, as it is written in the Mitacfhera, there will cer¬
tainly be a difference in his weight. Should the ba¬
lance, though wrell fixed, break down, this would be
confidered as a proof of his guilt.
II. F or the fire-ordeal, • an excavation, nine hands
long, two fpans broad, and one fpan deep, is made in
the ground, and filled with a fire of pippal wTood : into
this the perfon accufed muft walk bare-footed *, and, if
his foot be unhurt, they hold him blamelefs } if burned,
guilty (a).
3 E 2 III.
(a) In Europe fire-ordeal was performed either by taking up in the hand, unhurt, a piece of red-hot iron, of
one, two, or three pounds weight •, or elfe by walking, barefoot, and blindfold, over nine red-hot plough-fliares,
laid lengthwife at unequal diftances ■, and if the party efcaped being hurt, he was adjudged innocent, but^if it hap¬
pened otherwife, as without collufion it ufually did, he was then condemned as guilty. However, by this latter
method Queen Emma, the mother of Edward the Confeffor, is mentioned to have cleared her charafter, when fu-
fpefted of familiarity with Alwyn bifhop of Winchefter. The firft account we have of Chriftians appealing to the
fire-ordeal, as a proof of their innocence, is that of Simplicius, bifhop of Autun, who lived in the fourth century.
'Phis prelate, as the ftory is related, before his promotion to the epifcopal order, had married a wife, who loved
him tenderly, and who, unwilling to quit him after his advancement, continued to fleep in the fame chamber with
him. The fanclity of Simplicius fuffered, at leaf! in the voice of fame, by the conftaney of his wife’s affedlion 5
and it was rumoured about, that the holy man, though a billiop, perfifted, in oppofition to the ecclefiaftical canons,
to tafte the fweets of matrimony : upon which his wife, in the prefence of a great concourfe of people, took up a
confiderable quantity of burning coals, which fine held in her clothes, and applied to her breafts, without the leaft
hurt to her perfon or her garments as the legend fays and her example being followed by her hufband with the
like
O K D [ 404 ] O R D
HI. Water-ordeal is performed by canifmg the perfon
accufed to ftand in a fufficient depth of water, either
flowing or flagnant, to reach his navel j but care fhould
be taken that no ravenous animal be in it, and that it
be not moved by much air ; a brahman is then directed
to go into the water, holding a ftaff in his hand } and a
foldier fhoots three arrows on dry ground from a bow
of cane ; a man is next defpatched to bring the arrow
which has been fhot fartheft 5 and, after he lias taken it
up, another is ordered to run from the edge of the wa¬
ter } at which inftant the perfon accufed is told to grafp
the foot or the ftaff of the brahman, who Hands near
him in the water, and immediately to dive into it. He
muft remain under water, till the tw7o men w'ho wrent to
fetch the arrows are returned •, for, if he raile his head
or body above the furface, before the arrows are brought
back, his guilt is confidered as fully proved. In the
villages near Benares, it is the practice for the perlon
who is to be tried by this kind of ordeal, to Hand in
water up to. his navel, and then, holding the foot of a
brahman, to dive under it as long as a man can walk
paces very gently $ if, before the man has vTaiked
thus far, the accufed rife above the water, he is con¬
demned ; if not, acquitted (b).
IV. There are two forts of trial by poifon •, firfl, the
pandits having performed their homa, and the perlon
accufed his ablution, two rettis and a half, or feven bar¬
ley-corns of vifhanaga, a poifonous root, or of fauc'hya,
that is, white arfenic, are mixed in eight mafias, or 64
rettis, of clarified butter, which the accufed mud eat
from the hand of a brahman : if the poifon produce no
vifible effect, he is abfolved *, otherwife condemned.
Secondly, the hooded fnake, called naga, is thrown in¬
to a' deep earthen pot, into which is dropped a ring, a
feal, or a coin •, this the perfon acculcd is ordered to
take out with his hand 5 and, if the ferpent bite him,
he is pronounced guilty •, it mot, innocent.
V. Trial by the coHia is as follows : the accufed is
made to drink three daughts of the water, in which
the images of the fun, of Devi, and other deities, have
been walhed for that purpofe •, and if,- within 14 days,
he has any ficknefs or indifpofftion, his crime is confider-
ed as proved.
VI. When feveral perfons are fufpe&ed of theft,
fome dry rice is weighed with the facred Hone called
fa/gram, or certain Jlocas are read over it; after which
the fufpecled perfons are feverally ordered to chew a
quantity of it: as foon as they have chewed it, they are
to throw it on fome leaves of pippal, or, if none be at
hand, on fome b'/iurja patra, or bark of a tree, from
Nepal or Cafhmir. The man, from whofe mouth the
rice comes dry or flamed with blood, is holden guilty 5
the reff is acquitted.
VII. The ordeal by hot oil is very Ample : when it
is heated fufficiently, the accufed thruffs his hand into
it ; and, if he be not burned, is held innocent (c).
VIII.
like fuccefs, the filly multitude admired the miracle, and proclaimed the innocence of the loving pair. A fimilar
trick was played by St Brice, in the fifth century. Alofi. Keel. Hi/l. vol. ii.
('b) A very peculiar fpecies of water-ordeal is laid to prevail among the Indians on the coafl of Tvlalabar. A per-
ion accufed of an enormous crime is obliged to fwim over a large riven abounding with crocodiles 5 and if heefcapes
unhurt, he is efleemed innocent.
At Siam, befides the ufual methods of fire and water ordeal, both'parties are fometimes expofed to the fury of
a tiger let loofe for that purpofe } and if the beall fpares either, that perfon is accounted innocent } if neither,
both are held to be guilty} but if he fpares both, the trial is incomplete, and they proceed to a more certain cri¬
terion.
In Europe water-ordeal was performed, either by plunging the bare arm up to the elbow in boiling-water, and
efcaping unhurt thereby, or by cafling the perfon fufpedled into a river or pond of cold water 5 and it he floated
therein without any aftion of fwimming, it was deemed an evidence of his guilt , but if he funk, he was ac¬
quitted. It is eafy to trace out the traditional relics of this water-ordeal, in the ignorant barbarity Hill pradtiied
in many countries to difeover witches, by cafling them into a pool of water, and drowning them to prove their
innocence. And in the eaftern empire the fire-ordeal was ufed for the fame purpofe by the emperor Ihecdore
Lafcaris •, w7ho, attributing his ficknefs to magic, caufed all thofe whom he fulpefted to handle the hot iron :
thus joining (as has been wTcll remarked) to the moft dubious crime in the world, the moft dubious proof of in¬
nocence.
(c) This fpecies of trial by ordeal is thus performed : The ground appointed for the trial is Cleared and rubbed
wuth cow-dung, and the next day at funrife the Pamlit worfhips Ganefa or the Hindoo Janus, presents his oblations,
and pays adoration to other deities, conformably to the Sa/ira : then having read the incantation pieferibed, lie
places a round pan qf gold, filver, copper, iron, or clay, with a diameter of fixteen fingers, and four fingers deep j
and throve into it one fir, or eighty ficca wTeight, of clarified butter or oil offifamum. After this a ring of gold,
or filver, or iron, is cleaned and rvafhed with water, and caft into the oil} which they proceed to heat, and when
it is very hot put into it a frefh leaf ofpippala, or of bi/wa : when the leaf is burned, the oil is known to be fufh-
ciently hot. Then, having pronounced a mentra over the oil, they order the party accufed to take the ring out of
the pan } and if he take it out wnthout being burned, or -without a blifter on his hand, his innocence, is conndered
as proved } if not, his guilt. It is reported that this cuftom, with fome flight variations, ftill prevails among the
Indians on the coafl: of Malabar. The procefs there is faid to begin after the accufed perfon has been thoroughly
wafhed in the prefence of the prince of the country, the priefts, &c. :—the pot is filled with boiling lead j and the
accufed muft take the ring out three times fucceflively. On the Malabar coaft, this ordeal feems only to be ufed
when the perfon is accufed of a capital crime } for after the procefs the arm is bound ivith cloth and fealed } and
after feveral days, being brought out publicly, and the arm infpedfed, if it is found burnt he is inftantly nut to
death } if not, his accufer undergoes the fame trial, and being burnt, forfeits his life.
O R D [ 405 ] O R D
Ordeal. VIII. In the fame manner they maice an iron hall,
v - or j_]ie }iea(l of a lance, red hot, and place it in the
hands of the perfon accuied who, if it burn him not,
is judged guiltlefs.
IX. To perform the ordeal by dharmdch, which is
the name of the foca appropriated to this mode of trial,
either an image, named Dhartna, or the genius of jui-
tice, is made of filver, and another, called Adharma, of
clay or iron, both of which are thrown into a large
earthen jar ; and the accufed having thruft his hand in¬
to it, is acquitted if he bring out the filver image, but
condemned if he draw forth the iron ; or, the figure of
a deity is painted on white cloth, and another on black;
the frft of which they name dkarma, and the fecond
adharma : thel’e are federally rolled up in cow-dung, and
thrown into a large jar without having ever been fhown
to the accufed ; who muft put his hand into the jar, and
is acquitted or convifted as he draws out the figure on
white or on black cloth.
Though we have proceeded thus far, we have not ex-
haufted Mr Haftings’s communication. He goes on to
lhow’(to greater extent than our limits permit us to fol¬
low him) the manner in which each ordeal above men¬
tioned was executed, giving examples, and unfolding
other particulars of fome importance in developing the
nature of thefe barbarous cuftoms. Tor thefe particu¬
lars, however, we muft refer to the book itfelf. But
as this fubjecl unqueftionably occupies an important de¬
partment in the hiftory of human fuperftition, we ftiall
give the Indian law of ordeal from the fame paper \
when we fhall introduce fome further particulars con¬
cerning this extraordinary cuftom, which are not to be
found in the above account, but which deferve tp be
noticed.
“ 1. The balance, fire, wrater, poifon, the idol—■-thefe
are the ordeals ufed here below for the proof of inno¬
cence, wdien the accufations are heavy, and vftien the
accufer offers to hazard a mulct, (if he ftiould fail) :
2. Or one party may be tried, if he pleafe, by or¬
deal, and the other muft then rifk an amercement} but
the trial may take place even without any wager, if the
crime committed be injurious to the prince.
3. The fovereign having fummoned the accufed while
his clothes are yet moift from bathing, at funrife, before
he has broken his faft, lhall caufe all trials by ordeal to
be conducted in the prefence of Brahmans.
4. The balance is for women, children, old men, the
blind, the lame, Brahmans, and the fick ; for the
dra, fire or w^ater, or feven barley-corns of poifon.
5. Unlefs the lofs of the accufer amount to a thou-
fand pieces of filver, the accufed muft not be tried by
, the red-hot ball, nor by poifon, nor by the fcales; but
if the offence be againft the king, or if the crime be
heinous, he. muft acquit himfelf by one of thofe trials in
all cafes.
6. He who has recourfe to the balance muft be at¬
tended by perfons experienced in weighing, and go
down into one fcale, with an equal weight placed on the
other, and a groove (wuth water in it) marked on the
beam.
7. ‘ Thou, O balance, art the manfion of truth; Ordeal,
thou waft anciently contrived by deities T declare the ' ■"-v—“
truth, therefore, O giver of fuccefs, and clear me from
all fufpicion.
8. ‘ If I am guilty, O venerably as my own mother,
then fink me down, but if hnocent raife me aloft.’
Thus ftiall he addrefs the balance.
9. If he fink he is convitled, or if the fcales be bro¬
ken : but if the firing be not brokdn, and he rife, aloft,
he muft be acquitted.
ig. On the trial by fire, let both hands of the accu¬
fed be rubbed with rice in the hulk, and well examined;
then let feven leaves of the A/watAha (the religious
fig-tree) be placed on them, and bound with ieven
threads.
ix. ‘ Thou, O fire, pervadeft all beings: O caufe
of purity, who giveft evidence of virtue and of fin, de¬
clare the truth in this my hand.’
12. When he has pronounced this, the prieft lhall
place in both his hands an iron ball, red-hot, and
weighing fifty pa las (d).
13. Having taken it, he lhall ftep gradually into fe¬
ven circles, each with, a diameter of fixteen fingers, and
feparated from the next by the fame fpacer
14. If, having call away the hot ball, he lhall again
have his hands rubbed with rice in the hulk, and lhalL
Ihow them unburned, he will prove his innocence.
Should the iron fall during the trial, or Ihould a doubt
arife (on the regularity of the proceedings), he muft be
tried again.
15. ‘ Preferve me, O Varuna, by declaring the
truth.’ Thus having invoked the god of waters, the
accufed lhall plunge his head into the river or pool,,
and hold both thighs of a man, who ftiall Hand in it up
to his navel:
16. A fwift runner lhall then haften to fetch an ar¬
row ftiot at the moment of his plunging ; and if, while
the runner is gone, the prieft lhall lee the head of the
accuied under water, he muft be difcharged as inno¬
cent.
17. ‘ Thou, O poifon, art the child of Brahma,
ftedfaft in juftice and in truth : clear me then from
this heavy charge, and if I have fpoken truly, become
neiftar to me.’
18. Saying this, he lhall fwallow the poifon Sdrnga,
from the tree which grows on the mountain Hima¬
laya ; and if he digefts it without any inflammation, the
prince lhall pronounce him guiltlefs.
19. Or the prieft ftiall perform rites to the image of
fome tremendous deity ; and, having bathed the idol,
ftiall make the accuied to drink three handfuls of the
water that has dropped from it.
20. If in fourteen days after he fuffers no dreadful
calamity from the a<ft of the deity or of the king, he
muft indubitably be acquitted.”
T he fuperftitious weaknefs of mankind, when left
to themfelves, is aftonilhing. There is indeed no¬
thing fo abfurd but they may be made moft firmly to
believe, nor fo impious but they will do. Nor can a
more notorious inftance of the truth of this affertion
be
: , /
(d) A pa la is four car [has, and a carflja eighty raclicas, or feeds of the gunga creeper, each weighing above- .
a grain and a quarter, or correctly, it57 gr. 0
O R D [ 4(
Ordeal, be pofiibly given than that of the trial by crdeal. The
~_v~“ grofs abfurdity as well as impiety of pronouncing a
man guilty unlefs he was cleared by a miracle, anti of
expecting that all the powers of nature Ihould be fuf-
pended by an immediate interpofition of Providence
to fave the innocent, whenever it was prefumptuoufly
required, is felf-evident. Yet the origin of it may be
traced as well to neceflity as to fuperftition. At the
time in which it originated in England, as well as in
other countries of Europe, it was no eafy matter for
an innocent perfon, wThen accufed of guilt, to get him-
felf cleared by the then eftablifhed mode of trial (See
Trial.) It was therefore natural for fuperfiition to
fly to Heaven for thofe teftimonies of innocence which
the abfurdity of human laws often prevented men from
obtaining in the ordinary way; and in this way doubt-
lefs did the trial by ordeal commence : and thus be¬
gun by necefhtous fuperftition, it was foftered by im¬
pious prieftcraft and unjuft power. There was during
all the proceffes great room for collufion and deceit}
and there can be no queftion but it was often praftifed :
.it could not therefore on any account, or in any cafe, be
a fign of innocence or of guilt.
Befides thofe particular methods of trial which we
have already mentioned, there were fome few more
common in European countries ; as the judicial combat
—the ordeal of the crofs—the ordeal of the corfned.
The judicial combat was well fuited to the genius
and fpirit of fierce and warlike nations, and was, as we
may reafonably expect, one of the moft ancient and uni-
verfal modes of trial. We know that it was exceedingly
common in Germany in very remote ages. It was alio
ufed in fome countries on the continent at pretty early
periods : it is not, however, mentioned in any of the
Anglo-Saxon laws 5 and it does not appear to have
been much ufed in England till after the Conqueft.
There are, however, two remarkable inftances of it
upon record, which we (hall give in the words of Dr
Henry : “ Henry de Eflex, hereditary ftandard-bearer
of England, fled from a battle in Wales, A. D. 1158,
threw from him the royal ftandard, and cried out,
with others, that the king was flain. Some time af¬
ter, he was accufed of having done this with a treafon-
able intention, by Robert de Montfort, another great
baron, who offered to prove the truth of his accufation
by combat. Henry de Eflex denied the charge, and
accepted the challenge. When all preliminaries were
adjufted, this combat was accordingly fought, in the
prefence of Henry II. and all his court. Efiex was de¬
feated, and expefted to be carried out to immediate ex¬
ecution. But the king, who was no friend to this
kind of trial, fpared his life, and contented himfelf with
confifcating his eftate, and making him a monk in the
abbey of Reading.
“ The priory of Tinmouth, in Northumberland,
was a cell of the abbey of St Alban’s. One Simon
of Tinmouth claimed a right to two corrodies, or the
maintenance of two perfons in the priory, which the
prior and monks denied. This caufe was brought be¬
fore the abbot of St Alban’s and his court-baron, who
appointed it to be tried by combat on a certain day,
before him and his barons. Half Gubion, prior of
Tinmouth, appeared at the time and place appointed,
attended by his champion, one William Begun, a man
6 ] O R D
of gigantic feature. The combat was fought, Begun Ord
was defeated, and the prior loft his caufe ; at which '
he was fo much chagrined, that he immediately refign-
ed his office. This judicial combat is the more remark¬
able, that it ivas fought in the court of a fpiritual baron,
and that one of the parties was a prieft.”
We need fcarcely add, that this deteftable form of
trial was the foundation of the no lei’s deteftable crime
of duelling, which fo much difgraces our age and na¬
tion ; which is defended only by ignorance, falfe honour,
and injuftice 5 which is a relick of barbarous fuperfti¬
tion and which was abfolutely unknown to thofe brave
and generous nations, the Greeks and Homans, which it
is fo much the fafhion to admire, and who in this parti¬
cular fo well merit our imitation. See Duel.
It was fo much the cuftom in the middle ages of
Chriftianity, to refpecl the crofs even to fuperftition,
that it would have been indeed wonderful if the fame
ignorant bigotry had not converted it into an ordeal:
accordingly we find it ufed for this puipofe, in fo
many different ways as almoft to preclude defeription.
We fhall, however, tranferibe, for the fatisfaction of
our readers, Dr Henry’s account of it, and of the
corfned : “ In criminal trials, the judgement of the
crofs was commonly thus condu&ed. When the pri-
foner had declared his innocence upon oath, and ap¬
pealed to the judgement of the crofs, two flicks ivere
prepared exabfly like one another : the ’ figure of the
crofs wras cut on one of thefe flicks, and nothing on
the other : each of them was then wrapped up in a
quantity of fine white wool, and laid on the altar, or
on the relicks of the faints 5 after which a folemn prayer
was put up to God, that he -would be pleafed to dif-
cover, by evident figns, whether the prifoner was in¬
nocent or guilty. Thefe folemnities being finifhed, a
prieft approached the altar, and took up one of the
flicks, which was uncovered writh much anxiety. If
it was the flick marked with the crofs, the prifoner
was pronounced innocent: if it was the other, he was
declared guilty. When the judgement of the crofs was
appealed to in civil caufes, the trial was conducted in
this manner: The judges, parties, and all concerned,
being affembled in a church, each of the parties chofe
a prieft, the youngeft and ftouteft that he could find,
to be his reprefentative in the trial. Thefe reprefenta-
tives were then placed one on each fide of fome famous
crucifix ; and at a fignal given, they both at once
ftretched their arms at full length, fo as to form a
crofs xwith their body. In this painful pofture thev
continued to Hand while divine fervice was performing 5
and the party whofe reprefentative dropped his arms
firft loft his caufe.
“ The corfhed, or the confecrated bread and cheefe,
was the ordeal to which the clergy commonly appealed
when they were accufed of any crimes; in which they
adled a very prudent part, as it was attended with no
danger or inconveniency. This ordeal was performed
in this manner: A piece of barley bread, and a -piece
of cheefe, were laid upon the altar, over which a prieft
pronounced certain conjurations, and prayed with great
fervency, that if the perfon accufed was guilty, God
would fend his angel Gabriel to flop his throat, that
he might not be able to fwallow that bread and cheefe.
Thefe prayers being ended, the culprit approached the
altar,
4
O II D [4
Orckal. altar, took up the bread and cheefe, and leganto eat
T--'' it. If he (wallowed freely, he -was declared innocent
but if it ftuck in his throat, and he could not fwallow
(which we may prefume feldom or never happened), he
was pronounced guilty.”
There were befides thefe a variety of other ordeals
prabtifed in Chriftian countries, many of which retain
the fame names as among Pagans, and differ only in
the mode of execution. In all nations of Chriftians
where thofe trials were ufed, we find the clergy enga¬
ged in them. Indeed, in England, fo late as King
John’s time, we find grants to the biftiops and clergy
to ufe the judicium ferri, aqiue, et ignis. And, both in
England and Sweden, the clergy prelided at this trial,
and it was only performed in the churches or in other
confeerated ground: for which Stiemhook gives the
reafon, Non deflit illis opera- ct labor is pretium ; femper
enim ab ejufmodijudicio aliqiiid lucrifacerdotibus obvenie-
bat. But, to give it its due praife, we find the canon
law very early declaring againll trial by ordeal, or
vulgarispurgatio, as being the fabric of the devil, cum
Jit contra praceptum Domini, Non tentabis Dominum
Deum tuum. Upon this authority, though the canons
themfelves were of no validity in England, it was
thought proper (as had been done in Denmark above a
century before) to difufe and abolifli this trial entirely
in our courts of juftice, by an aft of Parliament in
3 Hen. III. according to Sir Edward Coke, or rather
by an order of the king in council.
It may dill perhaps be a pojlulatuni with fome of our
readers how the effefts of thefe trials were evaded, and
how it was poflible to appear to do, what we know
could not be really done, without material injury to
the perfons concerned : on this fubjeft the learned hi-
Itorian whom we have already quoted, obferves with
regard to the ordeals in ancient Britain, which, mutatis
mutandis, will anfwer for others, that, “ If we fuppofe
fewT or none efcaped conviftion who expofed themfelves
to thofe fiery trials, we fhall be very much miflaken.
For the hiftories of thofe times contain innumerable ex¬
amples of perfons plunging their naked arms into boil¬
ing water, handling red-hot balls of iron, and walking
upon burning ploughfhares, without receiving the leait
injury. Many learned men have been much puzzled
to account for this, and difpofed to think that Provi¬
dence gracioufly interpcfed, in a miraculous manner, for
the prefervation of injured innocence. But if we ex¬
amine every circumftance of thofe fiery ordeals with
due attention, we (hall fee fufficient reafon to lufpeft
that the whole was a grofs impofition on the credulity
of mankind. The accufed perfon was committed whol¬
ly to the prieft, who was to perform the ceremony three
days before the trial, in which he had time enough to
bargain with him for his deliverance, and give him in-
llruftions how to aft his part. On the day of trial,
no perfon was permitted to enter the church but the
prieft and the accufed till after the iron was heated,
when twelve friends of the accufer, and twelve of the
accufed, and no more, were admitted, and ranged
along the wmll on each fide of the church, at a refpeft-
ful diftance. . After the iron was taken out of the fire,
feveral prayers were faid •, the accufed drank a cup of
holy water, and fprinkled his hand with it, which
might take a confiderable time if the pricil was indul-
07 ] O 11 D
gent. The (pace cf nine feet was meafured by the
accufed himfelf with his own feet, and he would pro¬
bably give but fcanty meafure. Fie was obliged only
to touch one of the marks with the toe of his right
foot, and allowed to ftretch the other foot as far to¬
wards the other mark as he could, fo that the convey¬
ance was almoft inllantaneous. His hand was not im¬
mediately examined, but wrapped in a cloth prepared
for that purpofe three days. May we not then, from
all theie precautions, fufpeft that thefe priefts were in
poffeflion of fome fecret that fecured the hand from
the impreflions of fuch a momentary touch of hot
Cideal.
iron, or removed all appearance of thefe impreffions
in three days ; and that they made ufe of this fecret
when they fare reafon ? Such readers as arc curious in
matters of this kind may find two different direftions
for making ointments that will have this effeft, in the
work here quoted*. What greatly ftrengthens thefe Canger
fufpicions is, that we meet with no example of any Glojf. tom.
champion of the church who fuffered the lead injury'“'?• 397-
from the touch of hot iron in this ordeal: but when
any one was (b fool-hardy as to appeal to it, or to that
of hot water, with a view' to deprive the church of any
of her poffeflions, he never failed to burn his fingers,
and lofe his caufe.”
To this we {hall add what the learned Beckmann
has faid concerning the impofition that was probably
praftifed in the ordeal by fire. “ I am not acquainted
with every thing that concerns the trial by ordeal,
when perfons accufed were obliged to prove their inno¬
cence by holding in their hands red-hot iron ; but I am
almoft convinced that this alfa wTas a juggling trick of
the popes, which they employed as might beft fuit their
views. It is well known that this mode of exculpation
was allowed only to weak perfons, who were unfit to
wield arms, and particularly to monks and ecclefiaftics,
to whom, for the fake of their fecurity, that by (ingle
combat wras forbidden. The trial itfelf took place in
the church, entirely under the infpeftion of the clergy j
mafs was celebrated at the fame time j the defendant
and the iron were confecrated by being fprinkled with
holy water ; the clergy made the iron hot themfelves 5
and they u(ed all thefe preparatives, as jugglers do many
motions, only to divert the attention of the fpeftatorsl
It was neceffary that the accufed perfon fhould remain at
leaft three days and three nights under their immediate
care, and continue as long after. They covered his hands
both before and after the proof 5 fealed and unfealed the
covering : The former, as they pretended, to prevent the
hands from being prepared any how by art 5 the latter,
to fee if they were burnt.
Some artificial preparation was therefore known, elfe
no precautions would have been neceffary. It is high¬
ly probable, that during the three firft days the preven¬
tive was applied to thofe perfons whom they wifhed to
appear innocent ; and that the three days after the trial
were requhlte to let the hands refume their natural ft ate.
The facred fealing fecured them from the examination
of prefumpm ous unbelievers 5 for to determine whether
the hands were burnt, the three laft days were certain¬
ly not wanted. When the ordeal was aboliihed, and
this art rendered ufelefs, the clergy no longer kept
it a fecret. In the 13th century, an account of it
was publifhed by Albertus Magnus, a Dominican
monk
>
O R D
Order, monk (a). If his receipt be genuine, it feenis to have con-
““ fified rather in covering the hands with a kind of pafte
than in hardening them. The lap of the altluva (marfh-
mallow), the flimy feeds of the flea-bane, which is ftill
ufed for ftiffening by the hat-makers and filk-weavers,
together with the white of an egg, were employed to
make the pafte adhere. And by thefe means the hands
• were as fafe as if they had been fecured by gloves.
“ The ufe of this juggling trick is very old, and may
be traced back Lo a Pagan origin. In the Antigone of
Sophocles, the guards placed over the body of Polynices,
tvhich had been buried contrary to the orders of Creon,
offered, in order to prove their innocence, to fubmit to
any trial. We will,•(hid they, take up red-hot iron in
* Vol. iii. our hands, or walk through fire
ORDER, in Architetture, is a fyftem of the feveral
members, ornaments, and proportions of columns and
pilafters •, or a regular arrangement of the projecting
parts of a building, efpecially the column, fo as to form
one beautiful whole. See Architecture.
Order is alfo ufed for a divifion or clafs of any
thing : thus the tribe of animals called birds is fubdivid-
ed into fix orders. See Ornithology.
Order, in Rhetoric, is the placing of each word and
member of a fentence in fuch a manner, aswi!1 moll
contribute to the force, beauty, or evidence of the
whole ; according to the genius and cuftom of clifi’erent
languages. With regard to order, we may obferve in
general, that, in Eriglifh, the nearer we keep to the na¬
tural or grammatical order, it is generally the befl ; but
in Latin, we are to follow the ufe of the belt writers;
joint regard being always had to the judgement of
the ear, and the perfpicuity of the fenfe, in both lan¬
guages.
Order is alfo ufed for a clafs or divifion of the mem¬
bers of the body of a ftate 5 with regard to affemblies,
precedency, &c.
In this fenfe, order is a kind of dignity, which, under
the fame name, is common to feveral perfons •, and which,
of itfelf, does not give them any particular public au¬
thority, but only rank, and a capacity of arriving at
honours and employments.
To abridge this definition, order 'may be faid to be
3 dignity attended with an aptitude for public employ.
By which it is diftinguhhed from an office, which is the
exercife of a public truft.
In this fenfe, nobility is an order, &c. The cleri¬
cal e is alfo an order, &c.
OitDER is alfo the title of certain ancient books, con¬
taining the divine office, with the order and manner of
its performance.
Roman order is that wherein are laid down the ce¬
remonies which obtain in the Romiffi church. See Ri¬
tual.
Order, hi Botany, is a name given to a fubdivifion
pf plants in the Linnaean fyftem. See Botany.
6 it d
ORDERS, by way ofeminency, or Ho/y ORBERS, Order,
note a charafter peculiar to ecclefiaftics, whereby they "—■—y—“
are let apart for the miniftry. See Ordination.
This the Romanifts make their fixth facrament.
In no reformed church are there more than three or¬
ders } viz. biihops, priefts, and deacons. In the Romiffi
church there are feven, exclufive of the epifoopate, all
which the council of Trent enjoins to be received, and
believed, on pain of anathema.
They are diftinguilhed into petty, or fecular orders}
and major, or facred orders.
Orders, the petty, or minor, are four ; viz. thofe »f
doorkeeper, exorcift, reader, and acolyth.
Thofe in petty orders may marry without any difpen-
fation : in effeif, the petty orders are looked on as little
other than formalities, and as degrees neceilary to arrive
at the higher orders. Yet the council of Trent is very
ferious about them 5 enfoins that none be admitted into
them without underftanding Latin ; and recommends it
to the biihops, to obferve the intervals of conferring them,
that the perfons may have a futficient time to exercile
the funtfion of each order ; but it leave! the biihops a
power of dilpenfing with thofe rules; fo that the four
orders are ulually conferred the fame day, and only make •
the firft part of the ceremony of ordination.
The Greeks difavow thefe petty orders, and pafs im¬
mediately to the fubdeaconate ; and the reformed to the
deaconate.
Their firft rife Fleury dates in the time of the emper¬
or Juftinian. There is no call nor benefice required for
the four petty orders and even a baftard may enjoy
them without any difpenfation 5 nor does a fecond mar¬
riage difqualify.
ORDERS, facred, or major, we have already obferved,
are three : viz. thofe of deacon, prieft, and bifliop.
The council of Trent retrieving the ancient difei-
pline, forbids any perfon being admitted to the major
orders,janlcfs he be in peaceable poffeffion of a benefice
fafficient for a decent fubfiftence; allowing no ordi¬
nations on patrimonies or penfions, except where the
bilhon judges it for the fervice of the church.
A perfon is faid to be promoted to orders per fal-
tum, when he has not before paffed the inferior or¬
ders. The council of Conftantinople forbids any bi¬
fliop being ordained without paffing all the degrees,
yet churcb-hiftory furnifties us with inftances of bi-
fliops confecrated, without having paffed the order of
priefthood •, and Panormus ftill thinks fuch an ordination
valid.
Military ORDERS, are companies of knights, infti-
tuted by kings and princes, either for defence of the
faith, or to confer marks of honour, and make diftinc-
tions among their I'ubjedls.
Re/iqious Orders, are congregations or focieties of
monaftics, living under the fame luperior, in the fame
manner, and wearing the fame habit. Religious or¬
ders
[ 4°& ]
(a) In his work De Mirabilibus Mundi, at the end of his book De Secretis Mulierutn, Amftelod. 1702, 12mo,
p. 100. Experimentum mirabile quod facit hominem ire in ignem fine Ifefione, vel portare ignem vel ferrum
ignitum fine laefione in manu. Recipe fuccum bifmalvse, et albumen ovi, et femen pfylli et ealeem, et pulveriza, et
confice cum illo albumine ovi fuccum raphani; commifce ; ex hac confe£fione illineas corpus tuum vel manum, et
dimitte ficcari, et poftea iterum illineas, et poll hoc poteris audaifer fuftinere ignem fine nocumento.
3
Order
I!
Ordinance.
O R D t 4°9
Aers may be reduced to five kinds j viz. monks, canons,
knights, mendicants, and regular clerks. See Monk,
Canon, &c.
Father Mabillon proves, that till the ninth century,
almoft all the monafteries in Europe followed the rule
of St Benedict •, and that the diftin&ion of orders did
not commence till upon the reunion of feveral mona-
lleries into one congregation : that St Odo, abbot of
Cluny, firft began this reunion, bringing feveral houfes
under the dependence of Cluny: that, a little after¬
wards, in the nth century, the Camaldulians arofe ;
then, by degrees, the congregation of Vallombrofa j
the Ciftercians, Carthufians, Auguftines ; and at laft,
in the 13 th century, the Mendicants. He adds, that
Lupus Servatus, abbot of Ferrieres, in the ninth cen-
tQry, is the firll that feems to diftinguifh the order of
St Benedift from the reft, and to fpeak of it as a parti¬
cular order.
White Order denotes the order of regular canons of
St Auguftine. See Augustines.
B/ack Order denoted the order of Benedictines.
Thefe names were firft given thefe two orders from
the colour of their habit ; but are difufed nnce the
inftitution of feveral other orders, who wear the fame
colours.
Gray ORDER wTas the ancient name of the Cisterci¬
ans •, but fince the change of the habit, the name fuits
them no more.
Orders, religious military, are thofe inftituted in de¬
fence of the faith, and privileged to fay mafs 5 and who
are prohibited marriage, &c.
Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St John
©f Jerufalem. Such alfo were the knights Templars,
the knights of Calatrava, knights of St Lazarus, Teu¬
tonic knights, &c. See Malta, Templar, &c.
Father Putignani accounts thofe military orders where
marriage is not allowed, real religious orders. Pape-
broch fays, it is in vain to fearch for military orders be¬
fore the I 2th century.
Orders, in a military fenfe, all that is lawfully
commanded by fuperior officers. Orders are given out
every day, whether in camp, garrifcug or on a march,
by the commanding officer j which orders are afterwards
given to every officer in writing by their refpeclive fer-
jeants.
ORDINAL, a book containing the order or manner
of performing divine fervice. See Ritual.
ORDINAL Numbers, thofe which exprefs order, as
ift, 2d, 3d, &c.
ORDINANCE or Ordonnance, a law, ftatute, or
command of a fovereign or fuperior ; thus the afts of
parliament are fometimes termed ordinances of parlia¬
ment, as in the parliament-rolls. Though in fome cafes
we find a difference made between the two ; ordinances
being only temporary things, by way of prohibition;
and capable of being altered by the commons alone :
whereas an aft is a perpetual law, and cannot be altered
but by king, lords, and commons.
Coke afferts, that an ordinance of parliament dif¬
fers from an aft, as the latter can only be made by
the king, and the threefold confent of the eftates 5
whereas the former may be made by one or two of
them.
ORDINANCE of the For eft, is a ftatute made in the
34th year of Henry I. relating to fore ft-matters.
~ VoL. XV. Part II.
] ORB
In the French jurifprudence, ordinances are fuch Ordinary
laws as are eftabliffied by the king’s authority alone. 0rdllfatioiv
A 11 1   1  1   H 4rsa.r> tsi+1 a £)t SI awmi*
All ordonnances begin with, a tons prefens, et a vemr
faint.
ORDINARY, in general, fignifies common, ufual •,
thus, an ambaffador, or envoy in ordinary, is one fent
to refide ftatedly, and for a number of years, in the
court of fome foreign prince or ftate, in order to keep
up a good underftanding, and watch over the intereft
of his own nation.—This term is alfo applied to feve¬
ral officers in the king’s houfhold, who attend on com¬
mon occafions. Thus we fay, phyfician in ordinary,
&c.
Ordinary, in naval language, denotes the eftablifh-
ment of the perfons employed by government to take
charge of the {hips of war, which are laid up in the
feveral harbours adjacent to the royal dock-yards.
Thefe are principally compofed of the warrant-officers
of the faid ffiips, as the gunner, boatfwain, carpenter,
deputy-purfer, and cook, and three fervants. ft here is
befides a crew of labourers inrolled in the lift of the or¬
dinary, who pafs from ftiip to ihip occafionally, to pump,
moor, remove, or clean them, whenever it is necei-
fary.
The term ordinary is alfo applied fometimes to the
ffiips themfelves ; it is likewife ufed to diftinguifh the
inferior failors from the moft expert and diligent, ft he
latter, are rated able on the navy books, and have
higher pay than thofe who are rated ordinary.
Ordinary, in common or canon law, means one
who has ordinary or immediate jurifdiftion in matters
ecclefiaftical, in any place. In this fenfe archdeacons
are ordinaries, but the appellation is moft frequently
applied to the biffiop of the diocefe, who has of courfe
the ordinary ecclefiaflical jurifdiftion, and the colla¬
tion to benefices within fuch diocefe. ft'here are fome
chapels, chapters, abbeys, &c. exempted from the ju¬
rifdiftion of the ordinary. The archbiffiop is ordinary
of the whole province, to vifit, and receive appeals
from the inferior judicatures, ft’he Romifti writers on
canon law call the pope by way of eminence ordinary
of ordinaries, fince by the Lateran council he has ufurp-
ed the right of collating, by probation, to all benefices j
in exclufion of the common collators.
Ordinary of Affixes and Seffions, was a deputy of
the biffiop of the diocefe, anciently appointed to give
malefaftors their neck-verfes, and judge whether they
read or not : alfo to perform divine lervice for them,
and affift in preparing them for death. So the
Or DINAR Y of Newgate, is one wdio is attendant in
ordinary upon the condemned malefaftors in that prifon
to prepare them for death ; and he records the behavi¬
our of fuch perfons.
Ordinary, or Honourable Ordinary, in Heraldry,
a denomination given to certain charges properly be¬
longing to that art. See Heraldry, Chap. III. feft. i.
ORDINATES, in Geometry and Conics, are, lines
drawm from any point of the circumference of an ellipfis,
or other conic feftion, perpendicularly acrofs the axis,
to the other fide. See CONIC-Sediions.
ORDINATION, the aft of conferring holy orders,
or of initiating a perfon into the priefthood by prayer
and the laying on of hands.
Ordination has always been efteemed a principal pre¬
rogative of Liflicps, and they ftill retain the funftion
3 F as
o II D [ 410 ] O R D
O 'dination, as a mark of fpiritual fovereignty in their diocefe.
, ‘fl^lnce-| Without ordination, no perfon can receive any benefice,
parfonage, vicarage, &c. A perfon muft be 23 years
of age, or near it, before lie can be ordained deacon, or
have any fliare in the. mini (try 5 and full 24 before he
can be ordained pried, and by that means be permitted
to adminilter the holy communion. A bilhop, on the
ordination of clergymen, is to examine them in the pre-
fence of the miniiters, who, in the ordination of priefts,
but not ot deacons, aflift him at the impofition of hands;
but this is only done as a mark of affent, not becaufc it
is thought neceffary. In cafe any crime, as drunken-
nefs, perjury, forgery, &c. be alleged againft any one
that is to be ordained, either pried or deacon, the bilhop
ought to defid from ordaining him. The perfon to be
ordained is to bring a tedimenia! of his life and doctrine
to the bidiop, and to give account of his faith in Latin ;
and both prieds and deacons are obliged to fubferibe the
39 articles.,
I he ordination of bifhops is more properly and more
commonly called confecratian.
In the ancient difeipline there was no fuch thing as
a vague and abfolute ordination } but every one was to
have a church, whereof he was to be ordained clerk, or
pried. In the twelfth century they grew more remifs,
and ordained without any title or benefice.
The Council of Trent redored the ancient difeipline,
and appointed that none diould be ordained but thofe
who were provided of a benifice fufficient to fubfid them.
Which practice dill obtains in England.
The council of Rome, in 944, orders, that no ordi¬
nations (hall be held except on the fird, fourth, fevenih,
and ten months. In England, by can. 31. ordination
days are the four Sundays immediately following the
Ember-weeks ; being the fecond Sunday in Lent, Tri-
nity-Sunday, and the Sundays following the fird Wed-
nefday after September the 14th, and December the
13th. Thefe are the dated times 5 but ordinations may
take place at any other time, according to the diferetion
ot the bidrop or circumdances of the cafe.
Pope Alexander II. condemns ordination per fahum,
as they call it \ i. e. the leaping to a fuperior order
without pading through the inferior.
Ordination is one of the facraments of the church of
Rome.
In the edablidunent of Scotland, where there are no
bilhops, the power of ordination is lodged in the pref-
bytery, and by the Independents in the fufiVage of the
people. See Episcopacy, PpiEsbyterians, and In¬
dependents.
V
ORDNANCE, a general name for all forts of great
guns ufed in war. See Gunnery.
Boring of ORDNANCE. Till within thefe 20 years,
iron ordnance were cad with a cylindrical cavity, near¬
ly of the dimenfion of the caliber of the piece, wLich
was afterwards enlarged to the proper caliber by means
of deel-cutters fixed into the dog-head of a boring-
bar-iron. Three fide cutters equididant were requifite
to preferve the caliber draight and cylindrical j and a
fingle cutter was ufed at the end of the bar to fmootli
the breech of the piece. In boring ordnance cad hol¬
low, the piece was fixed upon a carriage that could be
moved backwards and forwards in a direft line with the
centre of a water-wheel; in this centre was fixed the
boring-bar, of a fufficient length to reach up to the
breech of the piece, or more properly to the further end OrcPstrcs.
of the caliber. I he carriage with the piece being
drawn backwards from the centre of the water-wheel to
introduce the boring and finifhing bars and cutters, it is
then prelfed forwards upon this bar by means of levers,
weights, &.c. and the water-wheel being fet agoing, the
bar and fullers are turned round, and clean out and
fmooth the caliber to its proper dimenfions.
Experience at lad pointed out many inconveniences
arifing from the method of ending guns hollow, and
widening the calibers by thefe boring bars. Tor the
body of iron of the hollow-gun, being, at cading, in
contadl with the core that made the caliber within-iide,,
and with the mould without-fide, began to confolidatc
towards thefe fides in the fird place, fooner than in the
intermediate Ipace, where of courfe the cordraction of
the iron takes place \ by which means, all guns cad
hollow become more or lefs fpongy ■where they ought
to have been mod com pa cl ; and numberlefs cavities
alio were created round the cores, from dagnated air
generated in them, which wrere too deep to be cut out
by the boring.
J o remedy thefe defeels, iron ordnance is nowr uni-
verfally cad folid, by which means the column of iron
is greatly enlarged, and the grain more compreffed y
and the contraction of the iron becomes in the heart
of the column, and confequcntly is cut out by the per¬
foration for the caliber.
Guns are bored out of the folid reverfely from the pp.te
hollow method. The piece A is placed upon two dan- GCCXC
dards BR, by means of two journeys, turned round by
the water-wheel C, the breech D being introduced
into the centre of the wheel, with the muzzle towards,
the Hiding carriage E, which is preffed forwards by
a ratch F, and weights, in the fame way as the gun-car¬
nage was in hollow-boring. Upon this Hiding car¬
nage is fixed, truly horizontal and centrical to the gun,
the drill-bar G, to the end of which is fixed a carp’s
tongue drill or cutter H j which, being prefied for ward
upon the piece whild it is turning round, perforates the
bore, which is afterwards finilhed with bores and cut¬
ters as the hollow' guns w'ere. The principal difficulty
of perforating folid guns truly centrical, arifes from the
contraciiou of the iron above-mentioned ; which, refill¬
ing the drill unequally, tends to throw' it out of the
centrical line.
Office of ORDNANCE, an office kept within the Tower
of London, which fuperintends and difpofes of all the
arms, inftruments, and utenfils of war, both by foa
and land, in all the magazines, garrifons, and forts, in
Great Britain. We have the following copious ac¬
count of this eftabliffiment in Beatfon’s Political Index.
In ancient times, before the invention of guns, this
office wras fupplied by oflicers under the following
names : the howyer, the crofs lawyer, the galeator or
purveyor of helmets, the armourer, and the keeper of the
tents; and in this Hate it continued till Henry-VIII.
placed it under the management of a mailer, a lieute¬
nant, furveyor, &c. &c.
Some improvements have been fince made; and this
very important branch is now under the direftion of
the mailer general of the ordnance, having under him
a lieutenant general, a farveyor general, a clerk, a
Itorekeeper, a clerk of the deliveries, and a treafurer,
with a very great number of inferior officers, employed
in
Boring* of O H D X AXC E . PJato CCCXC.
O R D f ,
On!’ ance. in the Tower of London, at Woolwich, and in almoft
^ - all the forts, garrifons, and principal ports in his Ma-
jeily’s dominions. The office of ordnance is divided into
x two diitinft branches, the ci\dl and the military 5 the
latter being fubordinate, and under the authority of the
former, l or the better underltanding the bufineis of the
different oihcers, they lhall be dillinctly treated of, be¬
ginning with the principal one, viz.
Majter General of the ORDNANCE is deemed the prin¬
cipal officer in the civil branch of the ordnance 5 yet he
is always cliofen Irorn amongit the fir ft generals in his
Majeliy s fervice. His truit is very great, as in him is
vetted the foie power ot ftoring all the military magazines
in the king’s dominions with proper munitions of war,
and likewile to iupply the royal navy with what they
may need in his department, the parliament granting
money in the moft liberal manner for this purpoie. He
is colonel in chief of the royal regiment of artillery, at
prefent confiding of four battalions ; and he is inverted
with a peculiar juntdidtion over all his majerty-s engineers
employed in the teveral fortifications in his majefty’s domi¬
nions : and to him they are all accountable for their pro¬
ceedings, and from hirn they receive their particular or¬
ders and inrtrudlions, according to the diredrtions and
commands given by his majefty in council. As mailer
general of the ordnance he has the appointment of almofl
all the inferior officers and fervants. He has a fecretary,
and an under-fecretary ; and befides there is a fecretary
and a counfel to the board of ordnance.
Lieutenant General of the ORDNANCE receives all or¬
ders and warrants figned by the mailer general, and from
the other principal officers, and fees them duly executed,
iiTues orders as the occalions of the Hate require,, and gives
directions for difcharging the artillery when required at
coronations, birth-days, figiial vi(tories, and other folemn
occafions. It is alfo his peculiar office to fee the train
of artillery, and all its equipage, fitted for motion, when
ordered to be drawn into the field, or fent upon any par-
ticniar fervice. He is colonel en fecond of the royal re¬
giment of artillery, and has a fecretary and feveral infe¬
rior officers and clerks under him.
Surveyor General of the ORDNANCE infpecls the ftores
and provifions of war in the cuftody of the ftorekeeper,
and fees that they are ranged and placed in fuch order
as is moll proper for their prefervation. He allows all
bills of deb'L and keeps a check upon all labourers
and artificers work 5 fees that the ftores received be
good and ferviceable, duly proved and marked, as they
ought to be, with the king’s mark, taking to his aflift-
ance the reft of the officers and proof-mafters. To aflifl
him in the bufinefs of his office, he has under him
the proof-mafter of England, and clerks, and other infe-
• 1 ior officers.
Clerk of the ORDNANCE, an officer whole function is
to record all orders and inftructions given for the go¬
vernment of the office5 all patents and grants; the names
of all officers, clerks, artificers, gunners, labourers, &c.
who enjoy thole grants, or any other fee for the fame ;
to draw all ellimates for provifions and fupplies to be
made, and all letters, inftrublions, commifiions, deputa¬
tions, and contracts for his majefty’s fervice ; to make
all bills of imprert and debentures, for the payment and
fatisfaftion of work done and provifions received in the
laid office; and all quarter books for the falaries and
allowances of all officers, clerks, &c. belonging to the
m 3 O R D
oihce ; and to keep journals and ledgers of the receipts Oirtnar e,
and returns of his majefty’s ftores, to ferve as a check O^ovkes.
between the two accountants of the office, the one for vr~~w
money, and the other for ftores.
Storekeeper of the ORDNANCE takes into his cuftody
all his majefty’s ordnance, munitions and ftores belong¬
ing thereto, and indents and puts them in legal fecurity,
after they^ have been furveyed by the furveyor-general*
any part of which he mufl not deliver without a warrant
figned by the proper officers: nor mufl he receive back
any lloies formerly iftued till they have been reviewed
by the purveyor, and regiftered by the clerk of the ord¬
nance ^in the book of remains ; and he mult take care
that whatever is under his cuftody be kept fafe, and in
fuch readmefs as to be fit for lervice upon the moft
peremptory demand.
Clerk of the Deliveries of the ORDNANCE draws all
orders for delivery of any ftores, and fees them duly exe¬
cuted ; charges by indenture the particular receiver of the
ftcies delivered ; and, in order to difcharge the ftore¬
keeper, regifters the copies of all warrants for the deli¬
veries, as well as the proportions delivered.
Treafurer and Paymajler of the ORDNANCE receives
and nays all moneys, both falaries and debentures in and
belonging to this office. In his office are feveral clerks,
ordinary and extraordinary, for the difpatch of bufinefs.
Office of Ordnance. Befides the principal officers al¬
ready mentioned, there belong to this office two proof-
mafters ; a clerk of the works 3 a purveyor for the land,
and a purveyor for the fea ; an architecl ; an aftrGnomi¬
cal obferver ; and other officers. The other part of this
office, which is termed the military branch of the ord¬
nance, is a chief engineer, who has under him two direc-.
tins, four fub-direftors, with an unlimited number of en¬
gineers in ordinary, engineers extraordinary, fub-engi-
neers, and praiftitioner engineers.
Ordnance Bills, commonly called ordnance deben¬
tures, are bills iriued by the board of ordnancev on the
trealurer of that office, for the payment of ftores, &c.
T. heie are not payable at any certain time, and do not.
bear any intereft, fo that the difcount upon them is often
very high ; but they are feldom much above* wo years
m arrears.
^ ORDONNANCE, in architeflure, is the ccmpo-
fition of a building, and the difpolition of its parts,
botn with regard to the whole and to one another ; or,
as Mr Evelyn expreffes it, determining the mfiafure of
what is affigned to the feveral apartments. Thus ordon-
nance is the judicious contrivance of the plan or mould;
as when the court, hall, lodgings, &c. are neither too
large nor too fmall, but the court affords convenient
light to the apartments about it; the hall is of fit capa¬
city to receive company; and the bed-chamber, &c. of
a proper iize. When thefe divifions are either too great
or too fmall, with reifpefl to the whole, as where there
is a large court to a little houfe, or a fmall hall to a
magnificent palace, the fault is in the ordonnance. See
Architecture.
Ordonnance, in painting, is ufed for the difpofition
of the parts of a pi&ure, either with regard to the whole-
piece, or to the feveral parts, as the groups, maffes, con¬
trails, &c. See Painting.
ORDOVICES, ancient Britons, of whom we have
the following account in Henry’s Hiftory of Great Bri¬
tain. They lived “ in that country which is now called
3F2 No^h
ORE [41
North Wales, and contains the counties of Montgomery,
Merioneth, Caernarvon, Denbigh, and Flint. Thele
Ordovices, or (as they are called by Tacitus) Ordeuices,
are fuppofed to have been originally of the fame tribe or
nation with the Huicii of Warwickfliire, who were under
fome kind of fubjeclion to the Cornavii 5 but the Huicii
of North Wales, being a free and independent people,
were called Ordh Huici, ot the free Huici. When they
wTere invaded by the Romans, they fhdwed a fpirit wor¬
thy of their name, and fought with great bravery in de¬
fence of their freedom and independency. Though they
received a great defeat from the Roman general Ofto-
rius, in conjunction with the Silures, they maintained the
war for a conliderable time, until they were finally fub-
dued, with great daughter, by the renowned Agricola.
It was probably owing to the nature of the country, and
16 the vicinity of Diva, now Chefter, wdrere a wdiole
legion was quartered, that the Romans had fo few towns
or Rations in the territories of the Ordovices. Mediola¬
num, which is mentioned by Ptolemy, was the capital
of the nation, and was probably fituated at Maywood,
in Montgomery (hire. It wras a place of fome confidera-
tion in the Roman times, but was afterwards quite de-
molifhed by Edwin, king of Northumberland. Befides
this, the Romans had a few other towns in this country 5
as Segontium, now Caernarvon ; Conovium, now Con-
rvay ; and Varas, now Bodvary, which are all mentioned
in the eleventh journey of Antoninus. The country of
the' Ordovices was comprehended in the Roman province
which was called Britannia Secunda.”
ORE, a mineral body, partly or entirely compofed
ORES, Reduction
TN the treatment of metallic ores, it has been already
hinted, that two objefts are in view: the one is to obtain
■a knowledge, of the nature and proportions of their com¬
ponent parts j and the other is to be acquainted with the
beft methods of feparating the metals which they contain,
that they may be applied in their pure or uncombined
Rate, to ufeful purpofes. In the following treatife, there¬
fore, we fhall keep in view the fame objects : and under
each of the metals we fliall firfl detail the mofl improved
methods of analy&sg its different ores *, and, fecondly, give
a fhort account of \he beR and moR approved proceffes
that are employed in their reduction. The laR objeft,
however, refers only to Tome of the metals, others not
being found in fufficient quantity, or not being applicable
to ufeful purpofes.
In this treatife we fliall confider the metals in the
fame order in which they have been defcribed under
Mineralogy, and to each metal we fliall devote a
particular chapter.
Chap. I. Of the Ores of Platina.
Platina, on account of its infufibiKty, denfity, and
indeflruftibility, is one of the moR important and ufe¬
ful of the metals yet known, and particularly for diffe¬
rent chemical inffruments and utenfils, becaufe there are
few chemical agents whofe effects it cannot refifl. Pla¬
tina is onl^ found in the Rate of alloy, with rhodium
^pd pallad^m, two of the newly difccvered metals $ and
2 ] ORE
of metallic fubflances, in the natural Rate in which it
exifls in the earth. Metallic fubflances are found, either
native, that is, pure, and uncombined with other fub-
Rances, or alloyed with other metals, or combined with
oxygen, or fulphur, or with acids \ and thus it appears,
that metals exifl in ores, in four different Rates. 1. In
the metallic Rate, when they are either pure, or com¬
bined wdth each other, as in the Rate of alloy. 2. In the
Rate of an oxide. 3. Combined with fulphur in the Rate
of fulphuret. And 4. with acids, forming falts. For the
particular defcription of ores, fee Mineralogy j and
for the mode of their diRribution in the earth, fee Geo¬
logy.
But ores are rarely found exadlly in the Rate of com¬
bination now mentioned. It feldom indeed happens,
that they are not mixed v.dth various earthy minerals.
As all metals are extra&ed from ores, it is of great im¬
portance to be acquainted in the firfl place, with the
materials of which they are compofed, as they are ob¬
tained from the earth, with the view of afcertaining the
nature and proportions of the various ingredients which
enter into the compolition •, and in the fecond place, to
know the fimplefland eafieR proceffes by which the metals
may be feparated, for the purpofes of economy and
manufadtures. Hence, in the treatment of ores, two
objects are in view. The firfl is their analyfis, which is
the province of the chemical philofopher •, and the fecond
is their reduction in the large way, which is the bufinefs
of the metallurgifl. The moR improved methods for
accompliflring each of thefe objects, will be detailed in
the following treatife.
and Analysis of.
it is accompanied alfo with another alloy, iridium and
ofmium, alfo newly difcovered metals, as well as with
particles of iron, gold, and fome other fubflances. The
difcovery of thefe metals, and the importance of platina
itfelf, have rendered the ores of this metal peculiarly in-
terefling. We fliall therefore in the prefent chapter,
give a pretty full detail of the methods of analyfing the
ore, and of working it for the purpofes of manufacture.
Thefe fubjefts will occupy the two following fections.
Sect. I. Of the Analyfis of the Ores of Platina.
The whole of the platina which is brought to Europe,
has been previoufly fubjedted to the procefs of amalga¬
mation in South America *, and hence it happens, that a
fmall quantity of mercury remains in it, fometimes in
very fmall diffindl particles*, but more commonly in a
Rate of combination with gold, in the form of an amal¬
gam. In treating the ores of platina, therefore, the firfl
objeft is to feparate the mercury, and the eafieR procefs
is to drive it off by means of heat, either in an open
ladle, if it be not intended to colledt the mercury, or in
an earthen retort, if the objedt of the operator be to re¬
tain that metal. The platina remaining after the mer¬
cury is thus driven off, appears much yellower, becaufe
the particles of gold difperfed through it exhibit their
peculiar colour. The ore is next to be fpread out thin
on a fmooth table, and by means of a pair of common
bellows, the lighter particles may be feparated with to¬
lerable
Chap. X. , O R hi
Platina. lerable accuracy from the heavier or.es. The lighter
particles in the ore are found, on examination, to be mi¬
nute cryftals and fragments of quartz, and two kinds of
iron ore, which are alfo in fragments, or in the form of
fmall oftahedrons. Some of the particles of iron are
attradled by the magnet, forming the ore of iron called
magnetic iron-fand; but others, which are not attracted
by the magnet, give out, when roafted, a flight lulphu-
reous odour.
The lighter particles being feparated by mechanical
aclion, the heavier particles are to be treated with a
fmall quantity of llightly diluted nitro-muriatic acid,
and by this means the whole of the gold is taken up,
with a portion of iron, and a fmall quantity of platina
and the other ingredients. The gold may be thrown
down from this iolution by adding green fulphate of
iron, and it may be purified by mixing it with nitre and
borax. If the quantity of platina to be purified be con-
fiderable, it is an objeff rvorth the attention of the
chemifl, to feparate and collefr the gold, becaufe the
proportion of the latter contained in crude platina is not
fmall. Prouft obtained feven ounces of gold from a
quantity of platina confifting of 100 ounces ; and from
another quantity of the fame weight he feparated not
* Ann. de lefs than 13 ounces of gold*. It may be obferved that
Chtm\. the platina which is whiteft, is found to be the richelt in
xxx vm. I46‘g0ld, and that the black varieties fcarcely contain any at
all.
The gold being feparated, the platina is next to be
digefted in nitro-muriatic acid, and excepting a black
matter, the whole is diflblved. This black matter,
wdren firft obferved, wms fuppofed to be plumbago 5 but
it appears from the difcovery of Mr Tennant, to be a
compound of twTo new metals, to which he has given the
names of ofmium and iridium. By adding muriate of
ammonia to the nitro-muriatic folution, almoft the whole
of the platina is precipitated in the form of a yellow
powder. This pow'der is a muriate of ammonia and pla^
tina, and it is nearly infoluble. The folution being next
treated with zinc, the whole of its metallic contents, ex¬
cepting the iron, are thrown dowm. The precipitate
thus obtained is to be walked and digefted in nitric acid
much diluted. By this means the copper and lead with
which crude platina is ufually contaminated, are fepa¬
rated. The remainder is to be diffolved in nitro-muria¬
tic acid : to the latter folution add common fait, and
evaporate the whole to drynefs *, the fait remaining con¬
tains the muriates of foda and of platina, palladium and
rhodium 5 and as the fait of rhodium is found to be in¬
foluble in alcohol, it may, by means-of it, be feparated
from the former. The platina and palladium now remain
in the alcoholic folution, and from this the greater part
of the platina may be feparated by means of muriate of
ammonia ; and after diluting the folution by adding
pruftiate of potalh, a deep orange precipitate is obtained,
which is palladium. By concentrating the remaining li¬
quor, the platina may be precipitated by means of muriate
of ammonia.
Sect. II. Of the Metdiods of working Platina.
Platina, on account of its peculiar properties in refill¬
ing great degrees of heat and the action of many of the
moft powerful chemical agents, is by far the moft impor¬
tant and valuable of the metals yet known for the pur-
4iS
Platina.
S, &c.
pofe of conftru£ting various inftruments and utenfils
which are found highly ufeful in chemical-analyfis. But ' v
the refraclory nature of this metal has prefented many
difficulties, and has greatly exercifed the ingenuity and
Ikill of chemifts and artifts to render it malleable and
capable of affuming the requifite forms. It has been ob-
icrved that the largeft and whiteft grains picked out
from crude platina have a confiderable degree- of mallea¬
bility even when cold ; but when they are heated, this
property appears in greater perfection : and if two of
thefe grains be brought into contact, and fubje&ed to the
higheft degree of white heat, the ftroke of a hammer
will make them adhere more or lefs perfectly, i 1 this
way, a fmall mafs of metal may be obtained by the union
of a few grains. But it is obvious that the patience and
dexterity required in this flow and tedious procefs will
prevent it from being pradlically ufeful.
In the progrefs of experiments made on platina, it was
difeovered that arfenic combined readily with that metal,
and formed an alloy of eafy fufibility. The great vola¬
tility of the arfenic, particularly when in contadl with
charcoal, gave reafon to hope that the whole of it, by
proper management, might be driven off, leaving the
platina behind in a mafs, and retaining its. peculiar and
charafleriftic properties. In this wTay difterent chemifts
fucceeded in forming, of this alloy, crucibles and other
chemical utenfils, which were found to be lefs fufible
than filver, and were capable of refilling many of the
comrpon chemical agents. The moft fuccefsful me¬
thod of rendering platina malleable, and working it by
means of this alloy, was difeovered by Jeanety, a Parifian
filverfmith, who long direfled his attention to this
objefl. An account of his method has been given by
Berthollet and Pelletier, of which the following is an
abftrafl*. * . ,
1 ke crude platxna being firft ground in water, and Chim. xir.
walked for the purpofe of feparating the earthy matters, 20.
three half pounds of the metal, three pounds of white
arfenic, and one pound of pearl allies, are to be well
mixed together. A crucible, capable of holding 20
pounds of this mixture, is then to be placed in a furnace
of any convenient conllruflion. When the crucible is"
thoroughly red-hot, introduce one-third of the mixture,
and continue ftirring it with a rod of platina till it comes
to a ftate of quiet fufion; then add another one-third,
ftirring it in the lame manner till the fufion is comple¬
ted, and afterwards add the remaining one-third, and
apply a ftrong her t, fo that the whole may become very
fluid. Then withdraw the crucible, and when it
has cooled gradually, break ft up*, a well formed me¬
tallic button will be found in it, covered by blackifli
brown fcoriae, which has a confiderable aclion on the
magnetic needle. The button, which is very brittle,
being broken to pieces, is to be fufed again with white
arfenic and pearl alhes as before, and the metallic maf?
obtained from this fecond fufion is generally found to
have no effedl on the magnetic needle*, but if this
Ihould not be the cafe, a third fufion in the fame wray
becomes neceffary.
The firil ftep of the procefs is now completed. A
flat-bottomed cylindrical crucible, about three inches and
a half in diameter, is to be made thoroughly hot in a.
furnace, and charged with one pound and a half of the
arfenicated platina, mixed with an equal weight of white
arfenic, and one half pound of pot-alh j and when this-
mixture
ORE
mixture Iras been completely fund, the crucible is to be
removed from the fire, and allowed to cool in a horizon¬
tal petition, that the thicknefs of the cake of metal may
be uniform. When the crucible is cold, it is to be care¬
fully broken, and the fcorim being removed, a cake of
metal is obtained, well-formed and fonorous, weighing
three ounces more than the arfenicated platina employed.
The metal is now quite faturated with arfenic. It has
been obferved, that there is no inconvenience from in¬
corporating too much arfenic, for it would appear that
the full fuccefs and rapidity of the purification of the
platina, are exattly in proportion to the quantity of ar¬
fenic Avith which it has previoufiy combined..
The mafs of metal thus obtained, is placed in a muffle,
and the heat is gradually increafed, till the evaporation
of the arfenic commence •, after which the temperature
is to be kept up as nearly as poffibie at the fame degree,
for the fpace of fix hours, carefully watching not to in-
creafe it, left the cake fhould be brought to a ftate of fu-
fion. At the end of the fix hours, the cake has ufually
become confiderably porous ; it is then to be withdrawn,
and extinguifhed in common oil} after which it is re¬
turned to the muffle, by which means a further quan¬
tity of arfenic is drawn off; and this alternate heating
and application of oil are to be continued till the arlenic
no longer makes its appearance. In proportion as the
arfenic°is driven off, the fufibility of the mafs diminilhes,
fo that a greater degree of heat may be applied in the
latter ftage of the procefs. After having carefully ournt
off at a high degree of heat the whole of the charcoal
which is produced by the decompofitlon of tne oil, the
fpongy cake of metal is to be digefted in nitrous acid,
and then edulcorated by repeated boiling in water.
Three or more of the cakes are then to be placed in a
crucible, and expofed to the higheft degree of heat in a
powerful furnace, and while they are thus rendered loft,
an iron peftle let down upon them, wTill make them co¬
here •, and being withdrawm from the crucible, they are
to be heated to the utmoft in a fmith’s fire, and carefully
forged like iron on the anvil, into compact bars.
The cheapnefs of the procefs now. detailed is the only
advantage which it holds out, for the platina does not
*equire to be previoully diffolved in nitromuriatic acid j
but it is to be obferved, that the metal by this treatment
is by no means perfeftly pure ; a fmall portion of arfe-
nic and iron ftill adhering to it, and probably feme lead
and copper, which may have been accidentally mixed
with the ore, while it contains the Thole of the palla¬
dium, ofmium, iridium, and rhodium 5 and thus con¬
taminated, it is obvious, that it muft be lefs capable
of refifting the adlion of alkalies, and high degrees of
heat without injury, than when it is brought to a ftate of
greater purity. Accordingly, other proceffes for the
purification of this valuable metal, have been contrived
and praftifed.
The following is the procefs propofed by Count Mouf-
fm Poulhkin, to render platina malleable. 1. Precipi¬
tate the platina from its folution by muriate of ammonia,
and walh the precipitate with a little cold water.
2. “ Reduce it in a convenient crucible to the well-
known fpongy metallic texture, which walh two or
three times with boiling water to carry off any portion
wf faline matter which may have efcaped the action of
the fire.
3, Boil it for about half an hour in as much water,
2
S,-&c. . ' Ch
mixed with one-tenth part of muriatic acid, as will cover
the mafs to the depth of about half an inch, in a conve- ^
nient glafs veffel. This will carry off any quantity of
iron that might Hill exift in the metal.
4. “ Decant the acid water, and edulcorate or ftrong-
ly ignite the plating.
C. “ To one part of this metal take two parts of mer¬
cury, and amalgamate in a glals or porphyry mortar.
This amalgamation takes place very readily. The pro¬
per method of conducting it is to take about two drams
of mercury to three drams of platina, and amalgamate
them together 5 and to this amalgam may be added al¬
ternate fmall quantities of platina and mercury till the
whole of the two metals are combined. Several pounds
may be thus amalgamated in a few hours, and in the large
wray a proper mill might fflorten the operation.
6 A After the amalgam is completely produced, it muff
by quickly moulded in bars or plates, or any other
forms that maybe preferred; taking care that thefc
moulded pieces Ihould at leaft be half an inch in thick¬
nefs, and of a proper length to manage them afterwards
in the fire ; it is rdfo requifile that the mould Ihould be
perfectly even and fmooth. Half an hour after the pieces
are foimed they begin to harden by the oxidation of the
mercury, and change their brilliant metallic colour for a
dull leaden one.
7. u As foou as the pieces have acquired a proper de¬
gree of hardnefs to be handled without danger of break¬
ing, which commonly takes place in a little more than
an hour, place them in a proper furnace, and keep them
ignited under a muffle or in a fm'all reverberatory. No
other precaution is neceflary in this operation, but that
of not breaking the pieces during their tranfport. The
mercuryflies eff during the heat, arid the platina re¬
mains perfectly folid; fo that, after being ftrongly ig¬
nited two or three times before the bellows, it may be
forged, or laminated in the fame manner as gold or fil-
ver; care being taken, at the commencement of the
forging, or of paffmg it between rollers, not to apply too
great a force till the metal has acquired all its denfity.
It is almoft fuperfluous to add, that in evaporating the
mercury from large quantities of amalgam, a proper ap¬
paratus, fuch as in the filver amalgamation, muft be em¬
ployed to receive the volatilized mercury; but for fmall
quantities, where the lofs of this metal is of no confe-
quence, the furnace muft have a proper chimney to car¬
ry off the metallic vapours. When the platina comes
out of the firft fire, its dimenfions are about two thir¬
teenth parts fmaller every way than the original amal-
«gam from the mould. The whole of tins operation
feems to be governed by the preffure of the atmofphere
and the laws of cohefive attraction : for the air is driven
out from between the molecules of the platina, which
by their folution in mercury are moft probably in their
primitive and confequently uniform figure. It is very
vifible, and at the fame time a very amufing phenome¬
non to obferve, (during the procefs of ignition, which
is performed in four or five minutes) how the platina
contracts every way into itfelf, as if preffed by fome ex¬
ternal force.”
The count then adds, “ that, as foon as my amalgam
of mercury is made, I comprefs the fame in tubes, of
weed, by the preffure of an iron ferew upon a cylinder ot
wood, adapted to the bore of the tube. This forces out
the fuperabundant mercury from the amalgam, and
renders
Chap*. I. ORE
Platina. renders it folid. After two or three hours I burn upon
'—v the coals, or in a crucible lined with charcoal, the Iheath
in which the amalgam is contained, and urge the fire to
a white heat j after which I take out the platina in a very
* Nirhol. folid ftate, fit to be forged*.”
Jout n. ix. A fimpler method for rendering platina malleable, and
“S- at the fame time not lefs effeftual, has been propofed by
Mr Knight. The following is an account of this me¬
thod in the words of the author.
“ To a given quantity of crude platina I add fifteen
times its weight of mtro-muriatic acid (compofed of
equal parts of nitric and muriatic acids) in a tubulated
glafs retort, with a tubulated receiver adapted to it.
It is then boiled, by means of an Argand’s lamp, till
the acid has affumed a deep faffron colour: it is then
poured off; and if any platina remain undiffolved,
more acid is added, and it is again boiled until the
whole is taken up. The liquor, being fuffered to reft
till quite clear, is again decanted : a folution of lal-am-
moniac is then added, by little and little, till it no longer
gives a cloudinefs. By this means the platina is thrown
down in the form of a lemon-coloured precipitate, which
having fubfided, the liquor is poured off, and the preci¬
pitate repeatedly walked with diftilled water till it ccafes
to give an acid tafte } (too much water is injurious, the
precipitate being in a certain degree foluble in that li¬
quid) : the water is then poured off, and the precipitate
evaporated to drynefs.
“ So far my procefs is in a great meafure fimilar to that
which fome others have alfo followed •, but my method
of managing the fubfequent, and which are indeed the
principal manipulations, will be found to poffefs many
advantages over any that has yet been made public. The
belt procefs hitherto followed has been, to give the pre¬
cipitate a white heat in a crucible, which in fome mea-
lure agglutinates the particles.*, and then to throw the
mafs into a red-hot mortar, or any fimilar implement,
and endeavour to unite them by ufing a peftle or Ham¬
per. But the mafs is fo fpongy that it is hardly poflible
to get a Angle ftroke applied to it before the welding
heat is gone 5 and though by peculiar dexterity and
addrefs lome have in this way fucceeded, it has been
found to require fuch innumerable heatings and ham¬
merings, that moft of thofe who have attempted it, have
cither failed entirely, or given it up as being too labori¬
ous and expenfive. I have fitcceeded in obviating all
thefe difficulties by adopting the following fimple, eafy,
and expeditious method :—
“ A ftrong, hollow, inverted cone of crucible earth
being procured, with a correfponding ftopper to fit it,
made of the fame materials, the point of the latter is
cut off about three-fourths from the bafe. The platina,
now in the ftate of a light yellow powder, is preffed
tight into the cone, and, a. cover being fixed flightly on,
it is placed in an air furnace, and the fire raifed gra¬
dually to a ftrong white heat. In the mean time the
conical ftopper, fixed in a pair of iron tongs fuitable for
the purpofe, is brought to a red or to a bright red heat.
The cover being then removed from the cone, the tongs
with the heated ftopper is introduced through a hole
in the cover of the furnace, and prefled at firft gently on
the platina, at this time in a ftate nearly as fdft as dough,
till it at length acquires a more folid confiftence. It is
then repeatedly flruck with the ftopper, as hard as the
nature of the materials will admit, till it appears to re-
S, &c. 4
ceive no farther impreftion. The cone is then removed Piam
from the furnace, and being ftruck lightly with a ham-
mer, the platina falls out in a metallic button, from
which ftate it may be drawn, by repeatedly heating and
gently hammering, into a bar fit for flatting, drawing
into wire, planiftting, &c.
“ Befides the comparative facility of this procefs, it
has the farther advantage of rendering the platina much
purer than when red-hot iron is obliged to be had recourfe
to ; for platina, when of a white heat, has a ftrong af¬
finity for iron, and, with whatever care it may have been
previoufly feparated from that metal, will be found to
have taken up a portion of it, when it is employed of a
red heat, to ferve to unite the particles of the platina.
To the luperior purity of platina, rendered malleable by
the procefs before defended, I attribute the greater fpe-
cific gravity which I find it to poffefs, than that prepared
by other methods. Having taken the fpecific gravity
of about ten pennyweights of it, which I had previoufty
paffed repeatedly through a flatting mill, I found it to
be 2 2.26f.” • f Pi//.
Another method, which has been fuccefsfully pracli- V1
fed, was contrived by Mr Cock. The following is an
account of his procefs. After the folution of the platina
in nitro-muriatic acid, the liquor is filtered through clean
fand, for the purpofe. of feparating the black powder
which floats in it. The clear folution is then decom-
pofed by means of fal ammoniac ; the yellow precipitate
being coliefled, is to be moderately well waftied in warm
water and dried j and being diftributed into laucers placed
in a fmall oven, conftrufted for the purpofe, in which
they are to be expofed for a ftiort time to a low red
heat, that the platina may be brought to the metallic ,
ftate, and the greater part of the fal ammoniac may be
fublimed. When the platina, after this treatment, is
withdrawn, it is in the form of a gray coloured, fpongy
mafs ; and in this ftate half an ounce of it is to be put
into a ftrong iron mould, one inch and a half wide, and
two and a half long. It is then to be compreffed as
ftrongly as pofiible, by ftriking with a mallet upon a
wooden peftle accurately cut to fit the mould ; another
half ounce is then added, and treated in the fame man¬
ner, till fix ounces have been forced into the mould : a
loofe iron cover, juft; capable of Aiding down the mould,
is then laid'upon the platina. This part of the procefs
requires particular care *, for if any material quantity of
air be left in the mafs, the bar into which it is formed is
extremely apt to fcale and be full of flaws in the fub-
fequent operations. The preffuro being properly made,
the mould is to be taken to pieces, and the platina will
be found in the form of a denfe compact parallelepiped.
It is next to be placed in a forge fire of charcoal, and
heated to the moft intenfe white heat, in order to drive
off the muriate of ammonia which remains: this being
done, it is to be quickly placed on a clear bright anvil,
and gently hammered in every dire6tion by a clean
hammer. This is feveral times to be repeated, at the
end of which the mafs wall be perfectly compaft, and
fit to be laminated or wrought in any other manner at
the pleafure of the artift. It is to be obferved^ that
while the platina is heating, it muft be loofe in the fire,
for if it were held by the tongs, they would infallibly
become wrelded to the platina, and by this means greatly
damage it. When the platina is thus drawn down to
a compact bar, h will be covered by a femivitreous cruft,
fomewhat
416 ORE
Gold. fomewliat reddifh, chiefly proceeding from particles of
the allies melted down upon it, and extended by the
hammer over its furface. To remove this, the bar, af¬
ter being made red hot, is to be fprinked over with glafs
of borax reduced to powder, and then kept at a white
heat for a few minutes j it is to be plunged into diluted
muriatic acid when moderately cool, by which the
borax and other vitreous matters will be dilfolved, and
the platina with a perfectly clean white furface left be-
* Aikin's hind *■
Diftion. of
Chem. See. Chap. II. Of the Ores of Gold.
Gold exifts in nature only in the metallic Hate j but
it is fcarcely ever found perfectly pure, for it is alloyed
in different proportions with filver, copper, tellurium,
and fome other metals. When it is alloyed with filver
or copper, or even with both, the gold retains its ducti¬
lity j but when combined with tellurium, its diftinftive
charadlers entirely difappear.
S, &c. Chap. II.
faturated with muriatic acid, a rod of zinc being intro- Gold,
duced, will precipitate the copper in the metallic ftate. r-“-/
Auriferous pyrites. It appears that iron pyrites of a
bronze yellow colour in maffes, or in ftriated cubes, and
hepatic pyrites, which are found in veins in primitive
mountains, contain a quantity of pure gold, or of gold
alloyed with lilver, which is worth the trouble and ex¬
pence of extracting it. A confiderable proportion, not
only of the American, but alfo of the Hungarian gold,
is obtained from ore of this kind. The produce of the
latter fometimes does not exceed a few grains of gold in
the quintal, but occafionally the auriferous pyrites of the
Hungarian mines yield not lefs than 450 ounces of gold
ih the quintal of the ore.
The following is the method of analyfis to be fol¬
lowed in ores of this kind. The pyrites being reduced
to powder, is digefted in muriatic acid, occafionally
adding a fmall portion of nitric acid, till every thing
foluble is taken up. The reiidue, after being well wafli-
ed and dried, is to be weighed, and expofed to a heat
which is juft fufficient to burn off the fulphur, the quan¬
tity of which is indicated by the lofs of weight. The
refidue is again to be digefted in nitro-muriatic acid,
and this folution is to be added to the firft. The earthy
refidue, which contains the filver in the ftate of muriate,
is then to be fufed with an equal weight of glafs of bo¬
rax, and three times the quantity of pearl allies. By
this procefs the filver is reduced and may be feparated
from the alkali and the earth by means of muriatic acid
very much diluted. The nitro-muriatic folution isTo be
neutralized by a fixed alkali, and if it be afterwards
treated with nitrate of mercury prepared in the cold, the
gold will be thrown dowm in the ftate of a brown powder.
It may be reduced to the metallic ftate by filling it with
nitre. The oxide of iron which remains in folution, may
be obtained in the ufual way in the ftate of magnetic
oxide.
Auriferous galena.—Galena, or the native fulphuret
of lead, almoft always contains a fmall portion of filver,
and very often it is in fuch quantity as to be worth the
trouble of extraditing it. Galena fometimes has alfo
combined with it a little gold as well as filver, and it is
worked as one of the ores of gold. This is the cafe with
fome of the galena of Hungary, as that of Boicza yields
i^oz. of alloy in the quintal, of which 31 parts are filver,
and one of gold.
The analyfis of auriferous galena is to be conducted
nearly in the fame way as the auriferous pyrites. The
pulverifed ore being digefted in nitro-muriatic acid, the
gold and the lead, and, if any are prefent, the iron and
antimony, are taken up •, leaving behind the earthy
matters, as well as the fulphur and filver, which may be
feparated according to the method employed in the for¬
mer procefs. By gradually evaporating the nitro-muria¬
tic folution, a cryftallized muriate of lead is obtained
and by again diluting the folution wdth water, the gold
may be feparated by adding nitrate of mercury.
The analyfis of the ores of gold containing tellurium,
will be given under the head of that metal.
Sect. II. ReduBion of the Ores of Gold.
Many of the moft profitable veins of gold are of tri¬
fling magnitude, but at the fame time yield ample re¬
turns to the miner, although they are mixed with fo
large
Sect. I. Of the Analyfis of the Ores of Gold.
The method of analyfing gold ores is very Ample.
The principal difficulty with which it is attended arifes
from the fmall proportion of this metal contained in the
greater part, even of thofe ores which are confidered as
very rich. Native gold contains invariably, but generally
in fmall proportion, filver or copper, and fometimes
both, and the gangue is often a very hard quartz. In
this cafe the following is an approved mode of proceed¬
ing. Reduce the ore to fine powder, mix it with fix
times its weight of carbonate of foda, or, what anfwers
better, with four parts of carbonate of foda, and one of
glafs of borax: put the mixture into an earthen crucible,
and melt it. Pour out the fufed mafs on a ftone flab,
and detach the fmall portion remaining in the crucible
by means of a little diluted muriatic acid. Reduce the
mafs to coarfe pow'der \ put it into a flafk with the muria¬
tic folution j add ftrong muriatic acid, and apply a gentle
heat. Continue the digeftion, adding from time to time
a little nitrous acid, till no farther a&ion is produced,
and the undiffolved refidue becomes of -a pure white co¬
lour. Then pour off the liquor, wafti the refidue, and
add the wafliings to the liquor.
1. After the infoluble refidue is dried, expofe it to
the fun, and if it contain any muriate of filver, it will
affume a purplifti colour. When this is the cafe, let it
be mixed with three times its weight of pearl afti, and
fufed in an earthen crucible for five minutes. The filver
will thus be reduced to metallic globules, and will be
obtained pure by digefting it in muriatic acid, which
combines with the earth and alkali, but does not aft on
the filver.
2. The nitro-muriatic folution is now to be carefully
neutralized by means of foda or of potafti j and a folution
of green fulphate of iron is to be added, as long as any
precipitate is formed. The precipitate thus obtained is
gold, and this being carefully collefted, is to be fufed in
a fmall crucible with nitre juft in fufficient quantity to
cover its furface.
3. The refidual liquor, after being decompofed by the
carbonate of an alkali, and the precipitate being w ell
wafhed, is to be digefted in liquid ammonia, todiffolvethe
copper. The ammoniacal folution being flightly fuper-
4
Chap. II. - ORE
Gold, large a proportion of flony matter and oilier impurities as
*-Y~— would render the working of any other metal altogether
unprofitable. This obvioufly arifes from the great com¬
mercial importance of gold compared wdth other metals,
which no doubt is owing a£ well to its rarity as to its
peculiar properties. In the Hungarian gold mines,
which are the richeft yet known in the old continent,
the attention of the miner is not merely limited to the
firings of ore, but to the whole contents of the vein,
which are ufually extracted and raifed to the furface in
large mafles. Thefe maiTes are diftributed to the work¬
men, who break them down, firft with large hammers,
and afterwards with fmaller ones, till they are reduced
to pieces of the fize of a walnut. In the courfe of this
procefs, every piece is carefully examined, and arranged
according to its value. The fmalleft vifiible grain of
native gold is feparated from the quartz in which it is
chiefly imbedded, and put by itfelf. The auriferous
pyrites and galena are alfo put into feparate heaps ; even
the fmall fplinters that are detached in breaking down
the mafles, and the fand and mud of the mine, are all
collefted, waflied, and fifted, and arranged according
to their apparent richnefs. What has been rejected in
the flrfh examination, is -re-examined by boys, whofe
labour is not of great value, and who pick out aLmoft
the whole that has been overlooked by the men, and ar¬
range it in the fame manner.
The native gold with the matrix attached to it, is
again to be broken by hand into Hill fmaller pieces, by
which means other impurities and Itony matters are fe¬
parated. The ore is then introduced into a wmoden box
floored with call-iron plates ; and by the aftion of two
or more heavy fpars of oak, which are Ihod wdth iron,
and alternately WTorked like the common flamping mill,
it is reduced to a fine powder. This powder, wdiich is
called flour, is then removed into a veflfel like a large
bafon, and is mixed with fuch a quantity of fait and wa¬
ter as will render it damp. The workman then takes a
thin porous leather bag, introduces a quantity of mer¬
cury into it, and by a regular and continued preffure forces
the mercury in very minute drops through the leather. In
this divided Hate it falls upon the pulverized ore, and is im¬
mediately kneaded up with it, till the requilite quantity,
which depends on the proportion of gold, has been added.
After completing this part of the procefs, the next objedl
is to incorporate the mercury and the gold. This is ef¬
fected by rubbing the mixture together for fome time by
means of a wooden peftle. The mixture is then heated
in a proper veflel, and fubjefted for three or four days,
to the temperature of boiling water •, and, laftly, the mix¬
ture is to be carefully walhed by fmall parcels at a time,
fo that the earthy particles may be carried off by the nea¬
ter. The mercury combined with the gold, only remains
behind, in the form of amalgam. A portion of this mer¬
cury is then feparated by preffure in a leathern bag, and
the remainder is driven off by diflillation, leaving behind
the gold and filver with which it may be alloyed.
But a more complicated procefs is requifite in feparat-
ing that portion of the gold which is invifibly difperfed
in the pyrites, in galena, and other metallic fubflances,
as wxdl as the ftony parts of the matrix. In the treat¬
ment and forting already deferibed, thofe ores are fepa¬
rated, not only according to their apparent richnefs, but
they are arranged alfo according to the degrees of hard-
nefs. They are then carried to the flamping mill, of
Vol. XV. Part II.
S, Sec. 417
which the principal parts are, 1. The coffers or ciftems, Gold,
in which the ore is reduced to powder, and through which ——v*~—'
a flream of water continually paffes, and fo managed as
tobeinCreafed ordiminithed at pleafure : 2. The Hampers,
or vertical beams, which are {hod with iron ; and 3. The
axle, which is fixed horizontally, and one end of which
works in a pivot, while the other is rivetted into the
centre of a large water wheel. The mode of action of
this apparatus is obvious. A ftream of wrater falls upon
the wheel, and turns it round, as well as the axle to
which it is attached. The cogs, which are faltened to
the axle, alternately raife the Hampers to a given height,
and then let them fall upon the ore placed in the coffers.
And as the ore is fufficiently broken, it is carried by the
flream of water continually paffmg through, out at the
fides of the coffer into the labyrinths, wThere the flony and
metallic contents of the ore are depofited, according to
their fpecific gravity, nearer to or at a greater diflance
from the aperture. The coffer is a rectangular hole
funk below the level of the ground, and it is about five
feet in length, two feet and fometimes lefs in width,
and four feet deep. Five Hampers are employed, they
are Hrong oaken beams fliod with iron, and weighing
about 200 pounds each. They are placed fide by fide,
at the diflance of about 2^ inches from each other.
When the ore is to be pounded, the firft thing is to
cover the bottom of the coffer with a flooring or pave¬
ment, compofed of large pieces of the hardeft and pooreft
part of the vein. Thefe pieces are to be clofe fet toge¬
ther, and a floor of this kind is found to anfwer better
than an iron floor. The thicknefs of the floor is to be
proportioned according to the degree of hardnefs of the
ere to be pounded j for it is obvious that the higher it
is, the fmaller will be the fpace through w'hich the Ham¬
pers fall; and their momentum will therefore be propor¬
tionally diminifhed. One precaution muft be invariably
obferved, that the part of the floor immediately under
the middle flamper be about two inches lower than that
below the ftamper on each fide, and that this again be an
inch lower than that beneath the two outermoft Hampers.
After the coffer is thus prepared, the machinery is fet
in motion, a fmall Hream of w ater being allowed to flow
into the coffer. The ore is to be carefully thrown in,
jufl below the middle flamper, or the proper quantity is
fupplied by means of a hopper. The ore being thus
broken down by the middle ftamper, is gradually deli¬
vered to the Hampers on each fide, where it is ftill far¬
ther reduced tp powder, and from them it paffes on to
the twTo outermoft Hampers, where it is reduced to fuch
a degree of finenefs as to be for a lime fufpended in the
water, and carried along with the ftream through the
openings at the ends of the coffer.
In ftamping the ores of gold and filver, great atten¬
tion is neceffary, that no pieces of ore be fubjefted to
the procefs that can be conveniently feparated from the
gangue by the hand 5 and that the ore be reduced to a
coarfe or fine powder, according to its nature. When na¬
tive gold is difperfed in minute particles, in a hard fili-
ceous matrix, it is found impoflibie to feparate the wdrole
of the metal, unlefs it be very finely pulverized ; and in
this cafe the ore may be reduced to fine powder, both on
account of the great difference of the fpecific gravity of
the two ingredients of the ore, and alfo becaufe the fili-
ceous particles, however minute, acquire no degree of
tenacity, fo as to adhere to the particles of gold. In
3 G ftamping
4iS - O K E
^ Gjld. {lamping ores of tills kind, therefore, the coffers may be
fet very low, that the hampers may have the greater
power, and a fmall flream of water only may be let in,
that the current which pafles out may carry with it only
the fmaller particles. But when the gold is difperfed in
art indurated and ochrey clay, or in calcareous fpar ; if
the ore in this cafe be not finely pulverized, a great pro¬
portion of the metal will be retained in the earthy ma¬
trix ; and if the {damping be continued too long, the
whole will be brought to a fluid mud, which will pre¬
vent the fubfidence of the particles of gold. In the
management of this part of the procefs, no fmall degree
of {kill and experience is requifite, to obtain the great ell
produce of gold.
The reduction of the ore to grains of a uniform fize,
greatly facilitates, the waffling which follows the {lamp¬
ing, and yields a greater produifl of metal. This is ef-
fedffed by taking care that the ore, when find introduced
into the coffer, fliall fall under the middle flamper, and
alfo by the velocity of the water wheel being properly
regulated. When the motion of the {tampers is too
flow, lofs of time is the only confequence 5 but when
the motion is greatly accelerated, the water is violently
thrown about, carrying with it to the apertures at the
end* of the coffer, pieces of the ore that are not fufficient-
Jy comminuted.
The ore being reduced to particles of a fufficient de¬
gree of finenefs to be carried by the force of the water
out of the coffer, paffes into fliallow channels of different
dimenfions. Thefe channels or troughs, the whole feries
of which is called a labyrinth, are conftrufted of wcod
•'Or Hone, and communicate with each other at the extremi-
lies. The various parts of the ore are depofited in thefe
channels, according to their fpecific gravities; the hea-
vieft particles are detained in the firft, and the lighted:
are carried along, and fubfide in the lafi: and loweft.
Each of the channels has a groove at its lowell extremity,
and thus admits of being clofed at pleafyre by pieces
of wood about an inch in height, which flide down upon
each other. By varying the rapidity of the current
through the channels, the heavy particles can be more
accurately feparated from the lighter ones, which is done
by diminiihing the flope, and increafing the width and
length of the channels.
But with whatever care the firft operation of the
waffling may be conduced, it is by no means fufficient
to feparate the whole of the fand from the ore. A
fecond waffling on tables, as they are called, is requifite.
Thefe tables are long wooden planes, which are confi-
derably inclined, and are croffed at regular diflances by
narrow fliallow grooves. A long wicker halket, or
perforated wooden trough, filled with the waffled ore,
is fixed to the upper extremity of the table, and a fmall
llream of water is admitted, which paffing between the
twigs of the bafket, carries with it particles of the ore.
Thefe particles are either carried by the current off the
table, or are depofited, according to their fpecific
gravity, in the grooves, the heaviell particles fubfiding
firff. In this way the auriferous ores of iron and copper
pyrites, galena, &c. are fufficiently feparated from the
quartz and other ftony matter, to be fit for the furnace
but for the ores of native gold, a third waffling is necef-
fary. This is performed in fmall quantities at a time, in
a wooden veffel refembling in fliape a common fire ffiovel
without a handle, but having the fidcs more elevated, and
S, &cc. Chap. If.
being furnifiied with two ear-, by which it is held during Gold,
the operation, ihe ore is put into this veffel, which is ^
gently immerfed in water, and a circular motion is com¬
municated to it by a peculiar dexterity, which can only
be acquired by prafilice. By this motion in the water
the lighter particles are gradually thrown out of the vef¬
fel, and fcarcely any thing remains behind but the gold,
which is either amalgamated or fufed with the addition
ol a little nitre, in an earthen crucible. Here it may
be added, that the feparation of the gold which is found
in alluvial foil, or in the fands of rivers, is conducted
precifely in the fame way, only that it is not neceffary
to be 1’ubjecled to the proceis of {lamping previous to
waffling.
The produce of the proper auriferous ores is feldom
of fufficient value to admit of the fame attention in
waffling as native gold ; and therefore it is always
found, after this operation, mixed with a confiderabie
proportion of earthy matters. When the metallic part
is compofed of pyrites, which is frequently the cafe, it
may be ufeful, previous to the fufion of the ore, to give
it a moderate roailing, for the purpofe of expelling the
greater part of the fulphur} but it muff be obierved,
that this procefs is to be regulated by the quantity, and
refraflory nature of the flony part ot the ere ; becaule
the fulphur in the fubfequent fufion acts the part of a
flux, and therefore the cleaner the ore, the more perfect¬
ly it may be roaffed. This part of the procefs being
completed, a little quicklime, as a flux, is added, and
carefully mixed with the ore, and a portion of galena,
according to the proportion of gold and filver contained
in the pyrites, previoufly difeovered by affaying it.
This mixture is next to be introduced into a reverbera¬
tory furnace, which is to be raifed to a red heat } and
when the mixture begins to clot together, it is to be
flirred from time to time, and kept at a temperature in¬
ferior to that of fufion, till part of the fulphur is ex¬
pelled ; and when this is accomplifhed, the fire is to be
increafed, fo that the whole may be brought to a Hate
of thin fufion, after which it is let out in the ufual way,
and received in a mould of fand. During the proceis
of fufion, the iron having a very ftrong affinity for ful¬
phur, recombines with that portion of which it had been
deprived by the roafting, in confequence of the decom-
pofition of the fulphurets of lead and copper with which
it is mixed ; and thefe metals, by their fpecific gravity,
fall in drops through the vitreous ferruginous fcorise,
and carry with them the gold and filver, with which
they unite at the bottom into a denfe mafs of metal.
Thus it happens that the pig formed in the mould con-
fills of two parts, which adhere to each other, but may
be eafily feparated by the hammer. The fuperior and
the larger portion, is a cellular mafs of fcoria, and the
lower is a black, heavy, ccmpaft mafs, containing the
gold and filver, along with lead, copper, and a portion
of fulphur and iron. It is again broken into pieces,
and roafted and fufed once or twice, till the whole of
the fulphur and other impurities are feparated, and no¬
thing remains but the metallic fubftances.
In the farther treatment of the ores of gold, the ob¬
ject of the refiner is to feparate it from the metallic fub-
ffances with which it is alloyed. We fliall now men¬
tion the different methods which are followed in fepa-
rating the metals from gold with which it is ufually aL
loyed.
1. Separation..
Chap. II. ' ORE
Gold. i. Separation of gold from platina.—As platina, like
“""'v '' gold itielf, is not fufcepiible of oxidation by expofure to
heat and air, it cannot be feparated by the procefs of
cupellation ; and piatina having as little affinity for fuL-
phur as gold itfelf, that fubtlance, or the fulphurated
metals, cannot be fuccefsfully employed for this purpofe.
It has been found that mercury combines more readily
with gold than with platina, and from the knowledge
of this circumftance a method has been deviled ot fepa-
rating thei’e metals. When the proportion of platina is
lb large, that the mafs is brittle, it mull be reduced to
powder in a mortar ; but if it be duclile, it may be re¬
duced to fmall pieces by granulation. A quantity of
mercury equal to feven or eight times the weight of the
alloy, is then to be heated in an iron crucible, and raifed
to the boiling point. The alloy being firil made red
hot, is to be dropt in, and the whole kept for half an
hour nearly at the fame temperature. The mixture is
then emptied into an iron mortar, and being covered
with hot water, is to be carefully triturated for fome
hours, the water being renerved from time to time. In
this way the gold combines with the mercury, and a
confiderable proportion of the platina will rife to the
furface of the amalgam in the Hate of a black powder,
which may be eaiily fcraped off. In this way the alloy
is to be purified as much as poffible, and the fuperfluous
mercury may be feparated by ftraining through leather,
and the amalgam is deprived of the remaining mercury
by the procels of diftillation. The gold, which ftill
holds a fmall quantity of platina, is, nowT to be melted
with three times its weight of fib er •, and the mixture
being granulated, is to be parted by means of nitrous
acid. It has been found (although it be a lingular cir-
cumfiance) that pure platina, or even when mixed with
gold, is perfectly infoluble in this acid j but, when com¬
bined with a large proportion of filver, it is readily dif-
folved, and the folution is of a dark yellovvifh brown
colour; and, therefore, by digefting this triple alloy of
gold, platina, and filver, in nitrous acid, the filver and
platina are diflblved, and the gold remains behind. But
it may be neceflary to alcertain whether the whole of
the platina be feparated. This is done by melting a
few grains of the gold, after careful walhing, with
three times their weight of filver, and treating it as be¬
fore with nitrous acid. If it contain one half per cent,
or even a fmaller proportion of platina, the acid will
be perceptibly coloured, and this being the cafe, the pro¬
cefs muff be repeated again on the whole mafs. But
this is rarely neceffary when the previous trituration with
mercury has been carefully performed. By adding to
the remaining nitrous folution, a folution of common
Cdt, the filver will be precipitated, leaving the platina
in the folution.
By the following method, which is ftill more compen¬
dious, gold may be feparated from platina. The alloy
is diffolved in nitro-muriatic acid, and the gold is preci¬
pitated by means of carbonate of foda, or a large quan-
tity or green fulphate of iron, neither of which has the
effeft of decompofing the folution of platina. The pre¬
cipitated gold being dried, and mixed with a little bo¬
rax and nitre, is fubjecled to fufion, after which it will
be found in a ft ate of perfecl purity.
2. Separation of gold from fiber.—In ores in which
the proportion of gold is fmall, the filver may be con¬
veniently feparated by means of fulphur. The alloy is
S, &C.
firlt melted, and granulated, by pouring it into cold wa¬
ter, which is kept in confiant agitation with a rod or
wicker brulh. From an eighth to a fifth of the granu->
lated metal is referved, and the remainder is carefully1
mixed with about ■§■ of its weight of powdered fulphur*
which adheres readily to the moift grains. The mix¬
ture is introduced into a covered crucible, and kept for
fome time at a gentle heat, that the metal may be com¬
pletely penetrated by the fulphur, after which the heat
is increafed till the whole mals is brought into fufion.
This fulphuret of filver becomes a tough, vifcous fluid,
which retains the particles of gold, and prevents, them
from fubfiding. The mafs being kept in fufion for
about an hour, that the union of the fulphur and filver
may be completed, and any excefs may be burnt off', a
third part of the referved filver in grains is to be added,
and when it is -melted, is to be ftirred with a wooden,
rod, that it may be accurately mixed with the other ma¬
terials, and brought into contact with the gold, with
which it immediately enters into combination. Tha fu¬
fion being continued another hour, a fimilar quantity of
grained filver is to be added, and after a third hour has
elapl'cd, the remaining third is introduced, and treated
in the fame manner. The crucible, which is now7 to be
kept carefully covered, is to be expofed to a high tem¬
perature for three hours, while the melted mafs is ftirred
from the bottom every half hour. At the end of this
time the lurface of the mafs, inftead of being dark
brown, becomes whitifli as the fulphur efcapes, and fome
bright white drops of melted ftlver, about the fize of
peafe, make their appearance. The fufed mafs is now
to be poured into a greafed cone ; and when it is cold, it
will be found to be compofed of a mafs of fulphuret of
filver, refting upon a white metallic button, which is
nearly equal in weight to the added filver, and contains
the whole of the gold that originally exifted in the en¬
tire mals. If it appears that any of the gold remains
among the fulphuret of filver, it may be leparated by
fufion in an open crucible. By this procefs part of the
fulphur is burnt off, and a correfponding quantity of fil¬
ver is reduced to the metallic ftate, which being careful¬
ly mixed with the remainder, and repeatedly ftirred with
a piece of ftick, the whole of the gold remaining in the
filver, which is ftill fulphurated, will be attrafled 5 and
by being poured into a cone, will be collefted at the
bottom in a mafs.
The filver containing the gold, which is collected in
thefe two operations, being melted and granulated, is
fubjefted to one or more repetitions of the fame procefs,
till the filver that remains is found to contain a fufficient
proportion of gold, to render it worth while to proceed
to the procefs of parting by means of aquafortis. The
whole of the filver may be feparated by means of ful¬
phur •, but when the proportion of gold is confiderable,
the fulphuret of filver always takes up a part of it,
which cannot again be entirely feparated without re¬
peated fufions ; and therefore, wffien the gold is equal
to of the filver, a further purification by means of
fulphur, wall fcarcely be found advantageous.
An ingenious and economical method of feparating
the gold from old gilt filver lace or wire, has been ex-
tenfively praftifed in Saxony. This method proceeds
on the principle, that the affinity of gold for copper,
and of filver for lead, is much greater than the affinity
which fubfifts between gold and filver; and it is con-
3 G 2 dueled
420 . ORE
, GjId~ dueled in die following manner. The alloyed metal is
v —r granulated, and r'^ of it is mixed with £ its weight
of litharge, and of fandiver. This is called the precipi¬
tating mixture. The next is mixed with ^ of powder¬
ed fuiphur, and is brought into fulion, which being com¬
plete, as will appear,from the flafhing at the furface, of
the precipitating mixture is added at three different times,
allowing an interval of live minutes between each time 5
anu the fulion is then continued for ten minutes longer.
Part of the fulphurated fflver is taken out with a fmall cru-
cxole made red hot, and the remainder being poured in¬
to the melting cone, a quantity of metallic liiver com¬
bined with the greateft part of the gold, fublldes to the
bottom. The liilphuret of filver is again melted, and
the remaining part of the precipitating mixture is added
as at firff, and thus a lecond portion of gold alloyed with
fflver is obtained. But as the fulphuret ftill retains a
fmall portion of gold, it is to be fufed a third time ;
and a precipitating mixture, equal in weight to the for¬
mer, but confiding of an alloy of equal parts of copper and
lead, is to be added, and thus a third precipitate of gold
holding filver is obtained, and the fulphuret is now de¬
prived of the whole of its gold.
The different metallic maffes thus obtained, are melt¬
ed with of lead, then granulated, and treated in the
fame way as at firft, with fuiphur and the precipitating
mixtures. The fflver thus obtained being rich in gold,
is firlt to be granulated, then mixed with of fuiphur,
and kept in fufion for about half an hour without any addi¬
tion ; and being poured into a cone, the fulphuret is fepa-
rated from the metal, and this laff is treated two or three
times more with fuiphur, in a fimilar manner. The me¬
tallic button obtained, which now appears of a yellow
colour, is to be melted with one fixteenth of copper,
then granulated, and mixed with one fixteenth of ful- -
phurj and the mixture being firft gently heated in a
covered crucible, and kept in fufion for about a quarter
of an hour, is poured into a' cone, at the bottom of
which the gold is collefted of a brafs colour, and about
eighteen carats fine. The purification is afterwards
completed by means of fulphuret of antimony, a pro-
cefs which will be afterwards deferibed.
3- Parting operation.—When the proportion of the
gold and filver, alloyed together, is fuch, that the for¬
mer is not much lefs than one fixteenth, or greater than
one fourth of the whole mafs, the operation of parting
may be followed. In this method the gold is feparated
from the filver by means of diluted nitric acid, or, as
it is termed by manufacturers, aquafortis, which diflblves
the filver, and leaves the gold untouched. The button,
of gold and filver is prepared for this procefs by flatten¬
ing with the hammer, again heating it red hot, and
I lowly cooling to anneal it for the purpofe of increafing
its malleability. It is then to be extended into a fmall
plate as thin as a wafer, by pafiing it between rollers of
poliftied fteel, again heated, but only to rednefs, and laft
of all rolled up in the form of a fmall loofe coil or fpi-
ral, called a cornet. The annealing is ufeful in allow¬
ing the metal to be rolled up without cracking, and at
the fame time the freer aCHon of the acid, in confe-
quence of the texture of the metal being fomewhat
opened.
T. he comet thus prepared is introduced into a pear-
farmed matrafs, called a parting-g/ajs, and three or
four times its weight of pure nitric acid of 1.25 fpecific
gravity are added 5 the mouth being ftightly covered to
s» &«• • Chap. n.
keep out the duft, the glafs is fet on a fund bath, or over Gold,
charcoal, to boil. As loon as it becomes warm, the acid ' " y - -J
begins to acl on the filver, and diflblves it with the evo¬
lution of nitrous fumes. During the wdiole action of
the acid, the cornet appears all over ftudded with mi¬
nute bubbles, and when thefe difeontinue, or run into
one another, forming a few large ones, the aClion of the
acid is nearly over. The procefs is ufually completed
in about fifteen or twenty minutes from the time that
the acid begins to boil. 1 he cornet now appears cor¬
roded throughout, and has loft during the folution the
wdiole of the liiver ; and the remaining gold which is
ffender and brittle, retains the fame fpiral form. Indeed
it is of confiderable importance that it fhould not be
broken, for much of the accuracy of the operation depends
on having the gold in pne piece and not in fragments.
The acid folution of filver, while yet hot, is next to
be carefully poured olf, and a portion of frefti acid,
fomewhat ftronger, is to be added, to feparate ail the re¬
mains of filver 5 the boiling is to be repeated as before,
but only for five or fix minutes; it is then poured off
and added to the former folution, and the parting-glafs
is filled with hot diftilled water, to wafh off the remains of
the folution. The cornet, which is now of a brow n co¬
lour and fpongy texture, and has little of the metallic ap¬
pearance, is taken out in the following manner. A fmall
crucible is inverted over the mouth of the paffting-glafs,
wdiile it is yet filled with the diflilled water, and the
latter being rapidly inverted upon the crucible, the cor¬
net falls foftly through the w^ater down the neck of the
glafs into the crucible, where it is depofited, and the wa¬
ter is carefully poured off. The crucible after being
dried is next heated to rednefs under a muffle. The
cornet contracts greatly in all dii'edlicns, becomes of a
firm texture, and refumes its metallic luftre 5 and after
being brought to a red heat and cooled, it exhibits the
appearance of a cornet of pure gold, having all the
fplendour, foftnefs, and flexibility of this precious metal.
By accurate weighing, the amount of the produft is
precifely afeertained, and thus the operation of parting
is completed.
But if the proportion of gold amount to one third
of the mafs, it combines with part of the filver, and pre¬
texts the latter by its infolubility from being aXted on by
the acid, fo that in the procefs of parting, too great a
proportion of gold in the alloy mult be avoided ; ancT
farther, as the acid is expenfive, unlefs the filver be rich
in gold, this procefs, wdiich is in many refpects conve¬
nient, will not be found economical. In reducing the
finenefs of the alloy which is too rich in gold to be ad-
vantageoufly parted by itfelf, it will be the objeXt of the
refiner not to employ pure filver, but fuch as contains a
fmall portion of gold ; and at the fame time, it will be'
his ftudy to fave the quantity of acid.
The following is the ufual method of conduXling the’
procefs of parting. After felecling a proper quantity
of rich and poor ingots of mixed metal, the wdrole is ter
be fufed in an iron crucible ; and being w^ell mixed by
frequent ftirring, it is to be removed by a clean iron la¬
dle, and granulated in cold w'ater. The parting glaffes,
which are nearly of the form of a truncated cone with
a rounded bottom, are about twelve inches high and fe-
ven inches wide at the lower extremity, and they fhould
be of equal thicknefs, well annealed, and free from any
kind of flaws. About forty ounces, of metal are intro¬
duced into each glafs, and the nitrous acid, half fatura-
Chap. II. ORE
Gold. ted with filver, is added till it ftand two or three fingers
•' breadth above the furface oi the metal. Twenty or
even more of thefe glaffes are placed in a fand bath,
and the heat, which Ihould at fir It be moderate, is gra¬
dually increafed till it nearly reach the boiling point
about the time that the acid is faturated. The nitrate
of filver is poured off, a new portion of flronger acid is
added, and boiled as before till it is nearly faturated,
when almoll: the whole of the filver is taken up, and
what remains undififolved has the appearance of a brown
mud, and confifts of the gold finely divided with a fmall
portion of filver. The acid again faturated is poured
off, and a third portion of Hill ftronger acid is added,
which is kept at the boiling temperature till the evolu¬
tion of nitrous gas ceafes, and the bubbles are enlarged,
which (hews that all the filver is taken up. The acid
is then decanted off, and referved for the firft part of a
future procefs of the fame kind } and the gold is repeat-
ly walked with frefh portions of hot wrater till the
walkings dropped on a poliflied copper plate produce no
{tain ; and the pov/der, being dried and mixed with a
little nitre and borax, is fufed, and is then in a ftate of
purity.
To decompofe the nitrate of filver with the view’ of
procuring the pure metal, the folution is poured into a
wooden veffel lined with copper, and in which are pla¬
ced plates of copper that the filver may be precipitated
from its folution in confequence of the greater affinity
of the nitrous acid for the copper. The furface of the
plates is to be cleared from time to time of the filver
cruft, that a frefh furface of copper may be expofed to
the action of the acid, and the decompofition of the ni¬
trate of filver may be promoted ; after which the ni¬
trate of copper formed in the folution is decanted off,
the plates are fcraped, and the filver being waftied is
fufed with nitre, and is alfo obtained in a ftate of pu¬
rity.
4. Separation of gold from fiver or other metals by
fulpjiuret of antimony.—All the common metals, ex¬
cepting zinc, w’hich come under the denomination of
imperfect metals, may be feparated from gold by this •
procefs 5 for as gold is incapable of combining with ful-
phur, and as the affinity of almoft all the other metals
for fulphur is ftronger than that of antimony, it is fuffi-
ciently obvious, that an alloy of gold with any of thefe
metals, as for inftance gold and copper, being added to
fulphuret of antimony, the fulphur will combine with
the copper, and the antimony wall form an alloy wath
the gold. When common crucibles are employed for
this procefs, fome previous preparation is neceffary. A
well burned crucible is felefted, and foaked for two or
three days in linfeed oil, which is then to be cleared
away from the inner furface till fome finely powdered
glafs of borax dulled upon it ftiall juft adhere, when it
is to be put into a dry place for twro or three weeks, af¬
ter which it is fit for ufe.
The gold alloy is firft melted in the crucible, and then
about twice its weight of coarlely-powalered fulphuret
of antimony is thrown in at two or three different times.
At each addition the mixture froths and fw-ells up, fo
that the crucible muft be larger than the quantity con¬
tained, and great caution muft be obferved to prevent
any bits of charcoal dropping into the crucible; for
then the mafs of melted matter would certainly flow
over. When the mixture begins to fparkle on the furface,
S, • See. 421
and appears to be perfectly fluid, it is to be poured into Gold,
a melting cone which has been previoully heated and v
greafed, and the fettling of the gold at the bottom is
promoted by communicating a tremulous ’motion to the
cone by means of flight blows. When the matter has
become cold, it is removed from the cone by giving it
a few blows in an inverted pofition. The mafs is com-
pofed of an alloy of gold and antimony covered with
fcoriae confifting of the metal formerly alloyed with the
gold now in combination with the fulphur or the anti¬
mony. But the gold ftill retains a little of its alloy,
and from this it is to be freed *, the fame prccefs is to be
repeated not only a fecond, but even a third and fourth
time, with a fimilar quantity of fulphuret of antimony.
The metals from which gold may be advantageoufty
purified by this procefs are iron, copper, tin, lead, and
filver.
s. Separation of goldfrom antimony.—When the pro¬
portion of antimony exceeds that of the gold, the alloy
is brittle. It muft .be reduced to fmall pieces, mixed
with one-fourth its weight of fulphur, melted in a cover¬
ed earthen crucible, and after the fufion is completed,
poured into a melting cone previouily heated and greai-
ed. When examined after being cooled, it will be
found to confift of twro parts, which may be eafily fe¬
parated by melting the alloy, expofing it to a high tem¬
perature, and at the fame time direfting a ilream of air
from a pair of bellows into the crucible which contains
it. By this means the antimony is oxidated, and driven
off in the form of white vapour. The gold having ac¬
quired a clear bright green colour, it is to be poured
out and melted again in a fmalier crucible with a little
nitre. The remaining portions of antimoiry will be oxi¬
dated, and driven off from the gold as before. The
fmall proportion of gold which remains attached to the
fulphuret of antimony, may be feparated by bringing the
whole mafs into thin fufion, and precipitating part of
the antimony by adding about one-fifth of its weight of
iron filings. In this way the gold falls down in the
form of alloy with the antimony, and it may be feparat¬
ed by means of the procefs deferibed above.
Separation of gold from lead by cupellation.—This is
the moft economical method of feparating gold from
lead. The nature of the procefs of cupellation, and the
method of conducliqg it, have been already deferibed
under Chemistry, N0 2026. p. 682. But befides lead,
other metals may be feparated from gold, by employing
that metal as a flux, the effefls of which in {corifying
and carrying down moft of the imperfefl metals, are
fuch, that by the procefs of cupellation with lead, which
is to be repeated according to the proportion of the
alloy, and its affinity for the gold, almoft every particle
of the metals combined with it, maybe feparated. This
method .is ufually followed where the proportion of alloy
is but fmall •> but when it is more confiderable, :ome of
the other methods are preferable. Itis found, however,
that in the cupellation oBpure gold with lead, it always
retains a fmall portion of this metal, which affects its
colour and dutlility. But if the alloy to be purified,
contain, befide lead, to the amount of one-twenty-fourth
of the gold of copper, the whole of the lead may be
feparated, but fcarcely any of-the copper; and if it
contain filver in a greater proportion than that of cop¬
per, the latter may be feparated by the procefs of cupel¬
lation, and a little of the lead remains. But if the filver
exceed
O R E
exceed the gold, or be equal to it, the copper and lead
may be entirely feparated, while the gold and lilver re¬
main behind. From a knowledge of thefe facts, the re¬
finers, in feparating the bafe metals from gold,, by the
procefs of cupellation, add to the mixture a'confiderable
proportion of filver. When the gold is alloyed with
tin, cupellation with lead alone will not fucceed, be-
caufe the tin, writh part of the lead, forms a Ipongy
and refractory oxide, and floats on the furface of the
fluid metal, and at the lame time retains part of the gold.
But as iron is found to combine with tin into an alloy
that may be icorified by lead, the addition of iron filings
during the procefs removes the difficulty.
I he following table thews the quantity of gold which
is got from the different countries of the old and new
world, taken on an average, between the years 1700
and 1802.
Old Contineht. Kilogrammes.
Siberia,
Africa,
Hungary,
Saltzburg,
Norway,
I otal of the Old Continent,
4000
New Continent.
North America, !30o
South America—
Spanilh poffeffions,
Portuguefe poffeffions,
Total of the New Continent,
*■ Brongni-
flrt, ii. 351.
13800
17800
S> &c- Chap. m.
takes place j then bod the liquor, and feparate the pre- Mercury,
cipitate by filtration, dhe muriatic precipitate is next '"“""v —"llJ
to be digeiled in nitro-muriatic acicf moderately diluted,
which takes up every thing excepting the muriate of
filver, from which, after being wafhed and dried, the
proportion of filver in the ore may be eafily al'certained.
The nitro-muriatic folution is now to be decompoled at
a boiling heat, by a. carbonated alkali, and the white
precipitate thus obtained being added to tlie former car¬
bonated precipitate, mix them with a little oil, or what
anfwers better, fugar, and diftill in a fmall coaled glafs
retort. Raife it gradually to a red heat, and ccntinue
at that temperature while any mercury comes over.
The refidue in the retort confifts of a little metallic
bifmuth and charcoal.
Native amalgam.—With the view of afeertaining the
proportion of mercury and filver in this ore, Klaproth
examined fome of the garnet-like cryftals from the
quickfilver mines of Deux Pouts. Some pure cryftals
weighing 33-f grains were introduced into a barometer
tube of a larger diameter than ufual, and clofed at the
lower end. This end was placed in fand, within a fmall
cruciole} heat was applied, and its intenfity gradually
increafed to the degree of ignition. After cooling, he
cut off the lower end from the tube, and found that it
contained the filver, which had undergone ignition in
its former cryftalline form, and weighing 12 grains.
On colleaing the mercury which had been fublimed in
the tube, he obtained 21 grains. Therefore fince the
deficiency of one-third ot a grain may be reckoned as a
lofs of quickfilver, the following ^vill be the proportion
of the parts in 100 of this cryftallized amalgam of
filver. 0
The kilograftime being equal to 2lbs. 30Z. jdrs.
avoirdupois, the whole amount is equal to about 39,285
pounds Avoirdupois.
Chap. III. Of the Ores of Mercury.
The ores of mercury prefent lefs variety than thofe
of many other metals; and on account of its peculiar
properties, the management of its ores, whether for the
purpofes of analyfis or reduction, is lefs complicated and
difficult.
Sect. I. Of the Analysis of the Ores of Mercury.
T o analyze the ore of native mercury, or native
amalgam, it is to be digefted in nitric acid of moderate
ftrength ; the mercury and filver, and bifmuth, will be
diffolved, and if the ore fhould contain a minute portion
of gold, it will remain untouched in the form of a
brown powder at the bottom of the folution. The ni¬
trous folution is next to be gently evaporated till it is
fo far concentrated as to be on the point of cryftallizing.
It is then to be poured into a large quantity of pure wa¬
ter, by which means the moft part of the bifmuth will
be feparated, and a folution of common fait, or ahy
other neutral muriate, being added to the filtered liquor,
the filver and mercury will be precipitated in the form
of muriate. After this is feparated, add to the clear
liquor fome caibonsted alkali, while any precipitation
Silver,
Mercury,
64
100
Cinnabar.—The analyfis of cinnabar may be conduc¬
ed in the following manner. The ore being reduced
to a fine powder, is repeatedly digefted in a mixture of
1 part of nitric acid, and 3 of muriatic, moderately di¬
luted, by which every thing in the ore is diffolved ex¬
cepting ^ the filiceous earth and the fulphur. The re¬
fidue being waflied, dried, and weighed, is fubjeCed to
a red heat, and the remaining filex being deduCed, the
difference of weight (hews the amount of the fulphur.
The nitro-muriatic folution is next to be decompofed at
a boiling heat, by carbonated alkali, and the precipi¬
tate obtained being mixed with a little lamp-black, and
diitilled, the mercury paffes over in the metallic form.
The refidue in the retort confifts of magnetic oxide of
iron, and any accidental earth excepting filex that is
contained in the ore, together with a little charcoal,
which may be feparated in the ufual way.
Hepatic ores.—The hepatic ores of mercury, and fuch
as contain bituminous fubftances, may be treated in the
fame way 5 but thefe ores are fometimes combined with
a little filver, and therefore the matter which remains
undifiolved in nitro-munatic acid, may be muriate of
filver, as well as fulphur and filex. When the fulphur
is burnt off, the refidue is to be mixed with twice its
weight of pearl-afh, and being ftrongly ignited in an
earthen crucible, diluted muriatic acid is added, by
which the alkali and the earth will be taken up, and
the
Chap. III. ORE
Mercury, the lilver will remain behind in the form of fmall me-
' tallic grains.
Corneous ore of mercury.—To analyze this fpecies of
mercurial ore, let it be digefted in a little dittilled vi¬
negar, by which the native mercury which is difperfed
though the ore will be left behind. Add to the clear
fblutien nitrate of barytes, by which the fulphuric acid
will be feparated in the Hate of fulphate of barytes;
and this being removed, drop in nitrate of filver, by
which the muriatic acid will be feparated in the form of
muriate of filver. The mercury now remains in folutipn
in the Hate of nitrate, and being precipitated by means
of iron, it is afterwards walhed in muriatic acid, and
thus appears in the metallic ftate< It may alfo be re¬
duced to the metallic Hate by precipitating by carbon¬
ated alkali, and diftilling the precipitate with a little
lamp black.
A fimple and eafy procefs is followed in a (laying the
ore of mercury in the dry way. The ore to be examin¬
ed is fir ft to be reduced to powder, and carefully mixed
with one-fourth of its weight of quicklime, and an equal
portion of iron filings. It is then to be expofed to a
red heat in an iron or earthen retort, as long as any mer¬
cury pafles over into the receiver.
, »
Sect. II. Of the Reduction of the Ores of Mercury.
A very fimple procefs is followed for reducing the
ores of mercury. The following is the method prac-
tifed at the celebrated mines of Almaden in Spain.
The pieces of pure cinnabar are firft felecled and fepa¬
rated from the ore, to be fold to painters and manufac¬
turers of fealing-wax. The reft is forted into three
parts, of which the firft is the richeft, and is broken in¬
to pieces of a moderate fize ; the fecond, containing a
fmaller proportion of metal, is broken into fmaller
pieces ; and the third confitts of the duft and fmaller
fragments of the other two. Thefe are kneaded up
with clay, and being formed into bricks, are carefully
dried in the fun. The furnace which is ufed - for ex-
t rafting the mercury is built in an oblong form, and is
divided horizontally by an iron grate, into an upper
and lower compartment, and near its top it communi¬
cates with a feries of aludels. In charging the furnace,
a ftratum of ftat rough ftones is placed on the grate,
intervals between each of the ftones being left for the
paflage of the fire. A bed of ore of the fecond quality
is laid on the ftratum of ftones, and then a ftratum of
the ore of the firft quality, after which another of the
fecond kind, and laft of all a ftratum of the third kind,
which has been made up into bricks. A few faggots
are then thrown into the lower cavity of the furnace,
and lighted up; and a gentle fire is to be kept up by oc-
cafionally adding faggots for eight or twelve hours, ac¬
cording to the previous ftate of the ore with regard to
moifture. After the moifture is feparated, which is
known by the vapour ceafing to be exhaled, the fire¬
place is filled again with faggots, and by the time they
are confumed, a fufficient heat will be communicated
to the ore, to allow the combuftion to go on, by
means of the fulphur which it contains, without re¬
quiring any more fuel. In the courfe of the next two
days, -while the fulphur burns (lowly away, the mercury
rifes in the ftate of vapour, and pafles into the aludels,
\vbcre it is condenfed. . When the whole of the metal
S, &c. 425
is extrafted, the fcoria is taken out of the furnace, and the Mercury,
aludels are emptied of their contents. But beiides the _v J
mercury, they are found to contain a quantity of black
matter like foot. This matter is eafily feparated by
fpreading the whole about on an inclined table, fo that
the mercury may run to the lower extremity, where it
is collefted in a channel, and the impure footy matter
remains behind.
The method of extrafting mercury from its ores now
deferibed, is advantageous, on account of the flmplicity
of the apparatus, and the fmaller expence of fuel •, but •
it would appear that a portion of the mercury remaining
in the ore is loft. There is betides a confiderable lols
in throwing away the foot, after (eparating the running
mercury on the tables, not only becaule many of the
globules of the metal itfelf are thrown away, but alfo
the calomel, and cinnabar, which are found to be in
conflderable proportion, are wafted. Hence it has been
recommended as a more profitable method, i. To fe-
parate the fulphate of ammonia, which, according to the
examination of Prouft, forms part of the matter depo-
fited in the alude’s, and then by mixing what remains,
with 12 or 15 percent, of quicklime, diftill it in an iron
retort, by which means the whole-of the running mer¬
cury would be obtained, as well as that which is pro¬
duced by the decompofition of the calomel and cinna¬
bar.
A more Improved procefs is praftifed at the mines of
Deux Fonts, and Idria. The ore, as it is brought out
of the mine, is carefully forted by the hand, and thefe
parts that feem deftitute of metal, are rejefted. This
procefs, although tedious and expenfive, is found to be
more advantageous than the older method of feparating
the cinnabar by wafhing, in which there is a great lois
of metal. The ore being thus (orted, it is reduced to
powder, and accurately mixed with one-fifth of quick¬
lime, which has fallen to powder by expofing it to the
air *, but it ought to be obferved that the quantity of
quicklime Is to be regulated by the proportion of cinnabar
contained in the ore. The mixture being thus prepared,
is introduced into iron retorts, which are capable of
holding about 6olbs. weight. The retorts to the num¬
ber of 40 or 50, are fixed in a long furnace, and a glais
receiver is attached to each, but it is not luted. A
moderate heat is then applied for the purpofe of driving
off the whole of the moifture 5 and when this- is done,
the joinings of the veffels are to be clofely ftopt with
tempered clay, and a full red heat is to be applied, and
continued for feven or eight hours, at the end of which
time the whole of the mercury will be volatilized, and
condenfed in the receiver. By this procefs it is found,
that loclbs of the ore yield from 6oz. to iooz. of
metal.
Chap. IV. Of the Ores of Silver.
The ores of filver prefent a confiderable variety.
Sometimes it is found in the metallic ftate in maffes of
from 3olbs. to qolbs. weight, but it is oftener combined
with fulphur in the ftate of fulphuret j with other me¬
tals, efpecially antimony, arfenic, iron, copper, lead, and
bifinuth *, or with acids, as the carbonic and the muria¬
tic, forming the carbonate and muriate of filver. The
analyfis and reduftion of thefe different ores, it is fcarce-
ly neceffary to obferve, muff be condufted according to
‘ the -
4H - , : ORE
, ■:>llvLri the nature and proportion of the ingredients which en-
ter into the compofi lion of the ore to be examined or re¬
duced.
Sect. I. Of the Anahjsis of the Ores of Silver.
When a filver ore is to be examined, and the only
objeft in view is to afcertain the proportion of filver it
contains, the operation is ufually conduced in the dry
way. The ore is firft roafted and reduced to powder;
it is then mixed with litharge in proportion to the earthy
mater combined with the ore, and quickly vitrified.
The mafs thus obtained is again reduced to powder, and
being mixed with black flux, is to be fufed in a cruci¬
ble, with a fufficient degree of heat. By this procefs
the lead of the litharge is revived, and collefted at the
bottom of the crucible, carrying with it the whole of
the filver, as well as fome of the other metals which
may be combined with the ore. The button thus ob¬
tained is to be fubjeded to the procefs of cupellation,
with the requifite quantity of pure lead, and in this way
the bafe metals are fcorified, and the filver remains be¬
hind in a ftate of purity, or combined only with the
gold, which many of the ores of filver contain in fmall
proportion. The gold is to be feparated by fonre of the
methods which we have already defcribed, in treating
of the ores of gold. This operation, in which the ob-
jed only is to afcertain, as in this cafe, the quantity of
filver, is called ajfaymg. In the examination of ores in
this view, more a flays than one fhould always be per¬
formed, that an accurate and nearly invariable refult
may be obtained.
But in examining metallic ores, it is always more
fatisfadory to afcertain the whole of the ingredients of
which they are compofed. We fhall therefore proceed
to give an account of the beft conduded analyfis of the
ores of filver.
Corneous fiver ore.—The following is the analyfis of
this ore by Klaproth.
“ Upon 200 grains of the corneous filver ore I poured
three times their weight of pure nitric acid j but no
adion took place, either in the cold or in the heat of
boiling; only a fubtle brown red iron-ochre was fepa¬
rated, -which, being wafhed off from the remaining ore,
and dried, amounted to four grains. Cauftic ammonia,
added to the nitric acid employed, precipitated five
grains more of iron. When it was' afterwards mixed
with muriatic acid, only a pale milky colour was pro¬
duced, but no real corneous filver ore depofited. It
followed from this, that neither any free native filver,
nor any portion of it mineralized by fulphur, had been
contained in that ore. The horn-filver, after treat¬
ment with nitric acid, was reduced by twee its weight
of fait of tartar, and yielded 133 grains of reguline
filver.
“ 1. For the purpofe of finding out, more accurately,
its conftituent parts, I mixed 200 grains with 600 grains
of the pureft alkali prepared from tartar, and brought
the mixture into the ftate of fufion in a glafs retort, ap-
plying the neceffary degree of heat. After refrigera¬
tion, I broke off the upper half of the retort, foftened
the fufed mafs, which was of a light-brown colour, with
hot diftilled water, filtered the whole, and edulcorated
the-refidue.
“ 2. This refidue was then diffolved in nitric acid. The
f 2 t
§, * 'Chap. IV.
folution acquired a brown tinge, and the feum floating Silver,
upon the liquor aflumed the colour of bricks. WTen 1 J
the argenteGus parts were completely diffolved, there
remained 8h grains of a brown-red powder, which im¬
parted a golden yellow colour to the aqua regia, with
which it was digefted, and left ra white refidue behind.
This laft confifted of horn-filver, mingled with a flight
portion of the gangue, or matrix of the ore, and afford¬
ed, on reduftion, two grains more of filver. Cauftic
ammonia precipitated from the yellow folution feven
grains of oxyded iron.
“ 3. The nitric folution of the filver was precipitated
by common fait*, and the muriat of filver thus obtained
weighed, after redudtion by means of foda, 134! grains
of reguline filver.
“ 4- The fluid, left after the feparation of the horn-
filver, had a pale-yellow colour, owing to a portion of
iron; which, precipitated by pure ammonia, weighed
five grains.
“ 5. After this, I proceeded to examine the faline mafs,
diffolved in diftilled w7ater, and fepara'ted from the filver,
after the corneous-ore had been fufed with pure alkali.
On faturating this mafs with diftilled vinegar, the folu¬
tion was rendered turbid, and a loofe white earth de¬
pofited, which, collefted and dried, amounted to three
grains and a half of argillaceous earth.
“ 6. The alumina being feparated, the folution wTas re¬
duced to a dry fait by evaporation, and the alkohol,
affufed upon it, took up the acetite of pot-afti. The
neutral fait, which was left behind by this procefs, and
which confifted of the mineralizing muriatic acid and
the alkali employed, I diffolved in water, and obtained
from it, by repeated evaporation and cryftallization,
117! grains of muriat of potafii.
“ 7. In order to learn whether and in what proportion
fulphuric acid, which by fome -writers has been mention¬
ed as one of the conftituent parts of the corneous filver
ore, were really prefent in it, I again diffclved that fait
in diftilled water, and dropped into it liquid muriat of
barytes. The mixture became turbid, exhibiting that
appearance which indicates the prefence of only a flight
quantity of fulphuric acid. I continued to add the
barytes, until no more turbidnefs appeared. The weight
of the precipitate thus obtained was three grains: but,
as in thefe three grains of fulpirated barytes the acid
cannot properly be eftimated to be more than half a
grain, I think this quantity is too trifling to be confider-
ed as one of the effential conftituent parts of the corne¬
ous filver ore. But if that half grain of fulphuric acid
be eftimated equal to x-^ [grain of fulphur of potath,
and be fubtradled from the above 1174- grains of digef-
tive fait, or muriat of potaftr, there will remain of the
latter only 116 grains, in which the concentrated muri¬
atic acid amounts to 42 grains. Therefore,
“ One hundred parts of this corneous ore contain
Silver, 67-75
Muriatic acid, 21
Oxide of iron, 6
Alumina, 1.75
Sulphuric acid, 0.25
96.75.”
Redfilver ore.—The following is the malyfis of this
ore, alfo by Klaproth. ,
“ Upon
Chap. IV. ORE
Silver. “ Upon 500 grains of bright, cryftalKne, red filver-ore,
moil finely pulverized, I poured fix times their quantity
of a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid of 1.3 50 fpe-
cific gravity and diftilled water. The phial was kept
for feveral hour# in a low digeftlng heat, lb that the
agency of the acid could be but moderate. I then di¬
luted the folution with water \ caufed it to boil; and,
alter the refiduum had fubfided to the bottom, I decant¬
ed the clear folution. Upon the remaining pulverulent
ore, a quantity of nitric acid and water, equal to the
preceding, was again aitufed 5 and, in the fame manner,
proceeded with as at firft. The ore appeared now to
have been effectually decompofed; and for this reafon
the felutions, together with the refiduum, were put on
the filter, and the latter properly walhed.
“ The filtered nitric folution had no colour at all, ha¬
ving been very much diluted by the water by which the
refidue had been edulcorated. I lubjected it to evapo¬
ration to -g-th part, and found the bottom of the evapo¬
rating glafs veffel, after cooling, covered with copious,
finely grained, refplendent, and heavy cryftals of a
gray white. To afcertain their nature, I procured, by
a feparate procefs, a quantity of a folution of the fame
red filver-ore, fufficient for this enquiry, and found that
they were fulphate of filver. Being affared of this, I
diifoived that fulphate by a proportionate quantity of
water, affilled by heat, added it again to the nitric fo¬
lution, and combined this laft with muriatic acid, as l©ng
as any muriate oh filver wrould precipitate •, wdiich, when
collected, edulcorated, and dried, was found to weigh
39ti grains.
“ The fluid, from rvhich the hom-filver had been thus
feparated, was then reduced to a fc* Her bulk, by dif-
tillation from a retort. This concentrated fluid became
turbid, and left another grain of muriated filver on the
filter. At this time it contained no other foreign fub-
itance, except a confiderable portion of fulphuric acid.
“ What remained undiflblved by the nitric acid, con-
fifted of an afli-gray, pretty loofe, or flocculent powder, of
20 2 grains irr weight. When this had been gently di-
gefted for half an hour, with a mixture of five parts of
muriatic acid, mixed with one part of the nitric, and
then diluted with half its quantity of water, there re¬
mained, after filtering, careful edulcoration, and drying,
65 grains which were the fulphureous contents of the
ore. When this refidue had been gently heated, the
fulphur deflagrated, leaving 6b grains of muriated filver
behind. This fulphur, therefore, confifted of 58b grains.
“ After the filtered folution had been evaporated in
part, it was poured into a large quantity of water. By
management, a white precipitate immediately enfued,
wdiich being feparated by the filter, edulcorated, and
dried, and laftly heated in a porcelain cup, gave 133
grains in weight. But I could not find the leafl: trace
of arfenic in it, though I had fiibiefted it to all the trials
'deemed proper for difcovering its prefence. On the
-contrary, it was manifeft, that this precipitate wholly
confifted of oxide of antimony, quite of the fame nature
with that which is produced when muriatic folutions of
antimony are precipitated by water On expofing it to
heat, a fmall portion of moifture ftil) evaporated, attend¬
ed with a muriatic fmell, which was hardly perceptible.
When again put on a teft, and mingled with a third
part of charcoal duft, the coaly powi r wTas flowdy con-
fumed, by burning, without any aricnical fmell, and left
Vol. XV. Part II,
S, &c. 425
behind it the metallic oxide, poffcffed of a gray colour, Silver,
and partly blended, partly covered with a quantity of ——-v——'
fine, gray-white, ftiining, acicular cryftals, or the flowers
of antimony, as they are called. But when it was fufed
in a covered crucible with tartar and powdered charcoal,
it was completely revived into reguline antimony, which
being blown off with the bellows, a bead of filver was
left, weighing half a grain.
“ The liquor alfo, from which the antimonial oxide was
feparated, contained free fulphuric acid. On this ac¬
count 1 put it into a retort, together with the nitric
acid, from which the filver had been precipitated in the
ftate of horn-filver, by means of muriatic acid, and con¬
tinued the diilillation until, at this temperature, nothing
more would pals over} but, on railing the heat, thick
white vapours had begun to rife. The fluid left behind
in the retort was found, upon trial, to be concentrated
fulphuric acid. Upon diluting this laft with wrater, and
fubfequent affufion of muriated barytes, the fulphate of
barytes from thence produced, amounted, after edulcora¬
tion and deficcation, to 194 grains.
“ Confequently, the conftituent parts difeovered by
thefe refearches, are, filver, antimony, fulphur, and ful¬
phuric acid ^ ^ * Effays. ]
Vitreous Jllver ore.—This has been alfo analyzed by
Klaproth, according to the following method.
“ 1. If dudlile vitreous filver ore be fufed upon a piece
of charcoal, by the afliftance of the blow^-pipe, its ful¬
phur is quickly volatilized, and a button of pure filver
remains. But it is otherwife with the brittle ore : for
the bead left after the evaporation of the fulphur is
brittle, and cannot be purified by the addition of borax.
Howrever, if a little nitrate of potafh be added to the red-
hot bead, it will deftroy the portion of bafer metal which
it contains, and then the borate of foda caufes it to yield
a pure button of filver.
“ 2. One hundred grains of ore, previoufly levigated,
ivere gently boiled in a lufficient quantity of nitric acid,
diluted with an equal quantity of water. This opera¬
tion was repeatedly performed, till the black colour of
the powdered ore difappeared, and the infoluble portion
had become of a loofe texture, and had acquired a gray-
yellow colour. When filtered and dried, this refidue
weighed 26 grains.
“ 3. On adding a folution of common fait to the above
filtered folution, which had affumed a pale-greenifh
colour, a copious precipitate of horn filver enfued,
which, edulcorated and dried, gave 88^ grains. Four
parts of this afforded three of filver, by fufion with
foda.
“ 4. The remaining folution was next combined with
fulphate of foda •, but neither any turbidnefs, nor any in¬
dication of the prefence of lead, appeared. Upon this,
cauftic ammonia was affufed to excefs $ and the gray
precipitate, which then fell down, and which the vola¬
tile alkali could not again render foluble, weighed five
grains. Urged by heat, it melted into a confiftence
like pap, at the fame time that a weak arfenical fmell
was perceived. After this precipitate had been once
more diffolved in nitric acid, the addition of foda caufed
it to yield a whitifh yellow, alkaline fulphuret a dirty
brown, and Pruflian alkali a deep blue precipitate,
liable to the attraction of the loadftone, after ignition.
Therefore, it confifted of iron, with a flight trace of ar¬
fenic.
3h
5. The
C/! K)
6
ORES, &c.
ilver.
1 EJays.
“ 5. The proportion bf copper, indicated by a blue
colour, in confequence of the addition of ammonia, and
which llill remained in the folution, was but flight. For,
after the folution had been faturated with Mphuric acid,
poliihed iron immerfed in it, was inverted with fo flight
a coppery cruft, that no copper to any amount could be
colledted. /
“ 6. Thofe 26 grains, which continued infoluble in the
nitric acid (2.), were digefted in nitro-muriatic acid,
till nothing appeared to remain but the mere fulphur.
Its weight amounted to 13 grains-, but, after deflagra¬
tion, it left behind it about one grain of quartzofe matter
of the mine.
“ 7- From this it is obvious, that 13 grains, or one-half
ot the above 26 grains, were held in folution by the ni¬
tro-muriatic acid ; and thefe were precipitated entirely
in the form of a white powder, upon the affurton of 20
parts of water. When ignited, this precipitate affumed
a yellowifti colour ; but there was nothing, either of
arfenic, or any other volatile fubftance, perceivable. By
combination with foda, it became reduced to pure regu-
line antimony ; which, as fuch, admitted of being blown
off without leaving any reiidue, in its ufual form of a
thick white fmoke, adhering to the contiguous bodies
in the form of needle-fhaped flowers (oxide) of anti¬
mony. Thofe 13 grains of oxided antimony are equi¬
valent to ten grains of that matter in the reguline
ftate
For the analyfis of fome of the other ores of fiver,
we muft refer our readers to the ingenious and elaborate
Eflays of the fagacious Klaproth, from which we have
extracted what is given above on this fubject.
Sect. II. ReduElion of the Ores of Silver.
Although the ores of fiver contain a larger pro¬
portion of extraneous matters than the ores of fome other
metals, the value of that metal being greater than that of
many others, admits of greater expence in the procefles
employed for their reduction. The ores of fiver are
reduced, either by fufion, or amalgamation.
ReduBion of fiver ores by yh/fo/z.—Native fulphuret
of lead, or galena, commonly contains a portion of fi¬
ver, and often in fuch quantity, as to make its fepara-
tion from the lead a profitable undertaking. The pro¬
portion of fiver contained in lead is very variable. The
greateft produce of fiver which we have heard of, was
got from the lead ore of Craven in Yorkfhire, which
amounted to 230 ounces of fiver in the ton of lead.
The mines of Cardiganflflre yielded formerly 80 ounces
per ton ; the Durham and Weftmoreland mines afford
lead, from which 17 ounces of fiver are obtained upon
an average per ton. The lead procured from the mines
of Way, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland, yielded,
we have been informed, 40 ounces per ton; and the a-
verage produce of lead at the refinery at Poullaouen, in
Brittany in France, is above. 39 ounces of fiver per
ton. The following is the procefs carried on at the
Tatter ertablilhment, for feparating the fiver from the
lead.
After the lead has been ex trailed from the ore, the
obieert of the refiner is to obtain the fiver in a feparate
ftate, which is difperfed through the mafs of lead. This
is performed by the procefs of cupellation on a large
fcale, or refining, as it is ufually termed. The floor of
the reverberatory furnace, in which the procefs is con¬
duced, is horizontal, and it is lined with wood athes
and land mixed together, and well beaten, and formed
into a ihallow baton, which is the cupel. There is an
aperture at one fide of the cupel, which forms a right
angle with the flue by which the flame from the fire¬
place paffes into the cavity of the furnace. Through
this aperture the lead, brought to the ftate of litharge,
runs and oppofte to it there is another aperture by
which a blaft of air is admitted. The top of the fur¬
nace has a circular aperture direCly above, and corre-
fponds in extent with the cupel, which may be ihut up
with a frame work of iron filled with bricks. When
the furnace is ready, the cupel is lined with hay, and is
then charged with about 177 quintals of lead, in bars
or pigs, through the circular aperture, and the cover
being put on, the fire is lighted up. In the courfe of
fix hours, the whole of the lead being melted, and
brought to a red heat, a blaft of air is direCed upon the
furface of the lead, and the alhes of the hay, and other
impurities are removed with a wooden rake. The blaft:
being continued for half an hour and more, the furface
of the lead begins to be covered with a thick cruft of
oxide, which is feraped off, and is foon fucceeded by
another, but it is not till the furface has been cleared five
or fix times, that the true litharge appears. When this is
the cafe, the temperature is raifed to a cherry red, and
by the a&ion of the blaft, with the occafional aid of the
workman, the litharge flows put through the aperture
mentioned above. The intenfe heat volatilizes a con-
fiderable portion of lead, and fo fills the interior of the
furnace with vapours, that a perfon of experience only
can difeover wh* is going on in the cupel. At the
end of 38 or 40 hours from the time that the fire is
lighted, the contents of the cupel are reduced to about
fix quintals, and the litharge which comes over at this
time is kept feparate, becaufe it contains a fmall portion
of filver. At laft the litharge ceafes to flow, and the
furface of the melted metal appears covered only by a
thin pellicle. It then becomes gradually convex at the
edges the pellicle breaks up, and the furface of the
metal appears quite bright. The blaft is now to be
turned off, the fire damped, and an aperture in the fur¬
nace, previoufly flopped with clay, is opened to admit
a tin plate tube, through which a ftream of water is
poured into the cupel, in order to cool the metal rapid¬
ly, that it may be prevented from fpirting, which would
be the cafe, if this precaution were not obferved at the
moment of congelation. But the filver thus obtained
is ftill contaminated with a portion of lead, from which
it is freed by a fecond cupellation, which is performed
in a moveable cupel containing about 700 or 800 ounces,
and is placed in a fmall reverberatory furnace, which
being heated about three hours, is charged with filver
of the firft cupellation. After the fufion of the filver,
a proper working heat is kept up for four or five hours,
when the refining is ufually completed. The lofs of
lead by volatilization during the refining procefs is efti-
mated at about eight per cent. When the quantity of
litharge produced is large, it is reconverted into lead,
by being returned into the reverberatory furnace, and
treated in the fame manner as the ore. This forms lead
of the beft and fofteft quality, becaufe it is in a ftate of
the greateft purity. And befides, the fcorias that re¬
main after the redu&ion of the ore, and the litharge,
along
Chap. IV.
Silver.
Chap. IV.
ORE
Silver. along with the old cupels, and the metallic foot which
u.i——1 is depofited in the chimney of the furnace, are treated
in a common blaft furnace, and a conliderable portion
of lead is thus obtained.
A different pradlice is followed in the Englilh re¬
fineries.” A common reverberatory furnace, having the
area perforated with a large oval hole to' receive the
cupel, is employed. The cupel is formed of fix parts
of well burnt bone afhes, and one of good fern alhes
mixed together, and moiilened to a prope'r conliftence.
A quantity of this mixture is brewed to the depth of
about two inches in an iron frame, which confifts of a
raifed elliptical rim, with five broad bars rivetted to its
bottom, fo as to occupy nearly one-half of its area. The
allies are rammed down very clofe with a -wooden beat¬
er, and particularly within the bars of the frame, as it
is laid on a flat floor. More alhes are then added, and
beaten carefully in, till the frame is quite full. By
means of a lharp-edged fpade, five inches Iquare, a ca¬
vity is formed in the tell for containing the melted me¬
tal, and at one end of the frame a femi-elliptical hole is
cut through the breaft, which latter is to be left of fuf-
ficient folidity and thicknefe. The tell is now to be
turned on its fide, and drelfed from all fuperfluous allies
adhering to the bottom, taking care that none fliall be
left flulh with the bottom of the frame or crofs bars,
otherwile the tell might be bulged, by fixing it at the
bottom of the furnace. The rim being plallered with
clay or moiilened alhes, the tell is placed upon the fup-
porting crofs bars, and fixed firmly with wedges againll
the bottom of the furnace, the breaft being next to the
feeding hole. A moderate heat is now applied, and
gradually increafed till the tell be red hot; and when it
ceafes to emit beam from the under fide^ it is fufficient-
ly dry. This previous preparation being completed,
the following is the method of operation as it is defcrib-
*Nichol. ed by Mr Sadler *.
Journ. “ Lead previoufly melted in an iron pot is ladled
kxv. 3. into the teb until the hollow part be nearly filled, the
operator clofes the feeding aperture, and increafes the
heat of the furnace until the furface of the lead is well
covered with litharge j he then removes the door from
the feeding hole, and with an iron rod, which has one
end bent down at right angles about three inches and
made flat or chilfel-fliaped, fcrapes the fmall gutter or
channel until the litharge jub flows into it, the blab
from a pair of double bellows is then directed from the
back part over the furface of the tell, the litharge is
urged forward, and flows from the gutter upon the
floor of the, refinery ; the operation now goes forward,
gradually adding lead as the efcape of litharge makes
it neceffary, until the gutter is fo worn down that the teb
does not contain more than an inch in depth of lead,
the blab is then taken off, the gutter filled up with
moibened allies, and a frelh one made on the other fide
the bread ; the teb is again filled, though not fo full as
at firb, and the operation carried on until this gutter
alfo is worn down and the teb contain from about 50 to
70 pounds of alloy. This quantity is run into an iron
pot, and fet by until a fufficient number of pieces have
been collected to make it worth while to take off a plate
of pure filver from them.
“ The quantity of alloy left in the working off each
teb mult depend in a great meafure upon the quan-
' ily of filver which by edimalion it is fuppofed to contain.
S, &c.
A fufficient quantity of lead Ihould always be left in the
alloy to make it fufe eafily in the iron pot.
“ When the teb is removed from the furnace and bn>
ken up, the litharge will be found to have penetrated
to an inconfiderable but an equal depth in the alhes j
that part not impregnated with litharge may be pul¬
verized, mixed with frelh abies, and again ufed for ano¬
ther teb.
“ The operation of taking off the filver pure differs in
no refpect from the foregoing, only more care is ob-
ferved in the working, not to fuffer the efcape of any
metallic particles with the litharge, as that would oc-
cafion confiderable wabe of filver. As the procefs ad¬
vances, and the proportion of filver to lead increafes,
the litharge affumes a darker colour, a greater heat be¬
comes neceffary, and at lab the brightning takes place ;
the interior of the furnace, wdiich during the whole of
the procefs had been very obfeure and miby, clears up.
When the operator obferves the furface of the filver to
be free from litharge, he removes the blab of the bel¬
low's, and fuffers the furnace to cool gradually *- as the
filver cools many protuberances arife on the furface, and
fluid filver is ejected from them with confiderable force,
which falling again on the plate, fpots it very fantaff ical-
ly with fmall globules.
“ The latter portions of litharge bring oyer a confider¬
able quantity of filver with them ; this is generally re¬
duced by itfelf and again refined.
“ The litharge as it falls upon the floor of the refinery
is occafionally removed ; it is in clots at firb, but after
a biort time as it cools it falls for the mob part like
flaked lime, and appears in the brilliant feales it is
met with in commerce : if it is intended as an article
for fale, nothing more is neceffary than to lift it from
the clots which have not fallen and pack it in
barrels.
“ If, on the contrary, it is intended to be manufadlured
into pure lead, it is placed in a reverberatory furnace,
mixed with clean fmall-coal, and expofed to a heat jub
fufficient to fufe the litharge. The metal as it is reduced
flov/s through an aperture into an iron pot, and is cab
into pigs for fale. During the reducing, care is taken
to keep the whole furface of the litharge in the furnace
Covered with fmall-coal.
t; In fome fmelt works, inflead of a reverberatory fur¬
nace for reducing, a blab furnace is made ufe of, on ac¬
count of the greater produce, but the lead fo reduced is
never fo pure as that made in the wind furnace. The
oxides of the metals, which require a greater heat to re¬
duce than the lead, are in the blab furnace generally re¬
duced with it.
“ The volatile oxides, as zinc, antimony, and arfenic,
are mobly'carried off by evaporation during refining ; a
confiderable portion of the oxide of lead itfelf is carried
off by evaporation, making the interior of the furnace
fo miby and obfeure that a perfon unufed to refining
cannot fee more than a few inches into it.
“ A confiderable portion of thefe oxides is driven by
the blab of the bellows through the feeding aperture,
and would be diffipated in the refining-houfe, to the
great injury of the workmen’s healths ; to prevent
their ill effefls, the arch or dome over the feeding hole
is creeled to carry the fume into the back of the fur¬
nace.”
We fhall
now deferibe the method of treating the
3 H 2 proper
\
8
O ft E
rer< proper ores of filver, as it is conducled by Schreibei' at
Allemont in France. 'Ihefe ores are native iiiver, and
the'falphuret of filver mixed with arfenical cobalt, py¬
rites, iron ochre, clay, calcareous Ipar, and fome other
earthy minerals. The iiiver being difperfed in very minute
grains through the gangue, cannot be feparated from the
Jlony parts by waihing. After the ore is picked by
the hand, it is pounded dry in the damping mill, and is
reduced to the coniiilence of coarie land. RoalVna-,
previous to fufion is not required j but the ore being re-
iracfory, it is found necefl’ary to employ a flux compo-
led oi quicklime, fcorise from a preceding fufion, and
llag from the iron forges. To fupply the proper quan¬
tity of lead, powdered galena, with the litharge and
icon ye furniihed by the refinery, and with old cupels
ground to powder, is added to the ore, in fuch propor¬
tions that the lead, which is obtained by the fuiion,
may contain twTo jrer cent, of iiiver, allowing 20 per
cent, at lead of the lead to be lod by evaporation, or
combining with the fcorke. After being properly mix¬
ed, the materials are fubjecfed to the heat of a powerful
blad furnace, with alternate charges of charcoal. J he
products ot the fufion are lead combined with filver, a
black, compact, fulphureous, femi-metallic fubitance
which is called matt, and fome fcoriae. The fcoriae
thus obtained is neglefted, excepting a certain propor¬
tion, which is referved as a flux for the next parcel of
ore. But the matt, which is tolerably rich in filver, is
again melted with litharge, and the lead carries with it
atmod the whole of the diver ; and although this fecond
matt contain a portion of filver, it is not found worth
while to fubjeff it to a fecond lufion. After refining the
lead procured by tbefe operations, it is found to yield
about two per cent, of filver. The procefs of cupella-
tion is performed at a higher heat than ufual, which it
is fuppofed is neceflary by the preience of a fmall por¬
tion of iron •, but the confequence of employing this high
temperature is to increaft the wade of the metal by evapo¬
ration j for indead of feven or eight per cent, it amounts
to no lefs than 20 per cent. And as every pound avoir¬
dupois of the lead thus volatilized, contains from bx to
ten grains of filver, the lofs in this procefs is very great.
Perhaps it might be diminidied by mixing a larger pro¬
portion of lead with the filver ore.
But other filver ores afford both lead and copper, and
in this cafe a more complicated operation becomes re-
quifite. In the fird part of the procefs the poored kinds
of filver ore, or fuch as contain but a fmall proportion
of copper and lead, and a great deal of dony matter,
are to be mixed with the poorer pyritical ores, or fuch
as contain little lilver and copper, and a great deal of
fulphur and iron. A portion of fcoriae obtained from a
former procefs, and containing the oxides of lead and
copper, with fome filver, is added to this mixture by
way of flux. The materials thus prepared being ex-
pofed to heat in a blad furnace, read! on each other,
and enter into fufion. The dony matter is diffolved,
and the melted mafs feparates into two didinbd parts, of
which the heavied occupying the bottom of the furnace,
forms about one-fourth of the whole mafs. This is
called matt, and contains all the filver, with the greater
part of the copper, mod of the lead, iron, and fulphur,
and generally zinc and arfenic. The flag which fwims
on the furface, as being the lighter portion, confids of
The greater part of the fulphur, oxide of iron, and earthy
S, &c. Chap. IV.
matters ; the fmall proportion of lead and copper is not Silver,
worth the trouble of extraction. * ' 1 v
To drive off part of the fulphur and other volatile
impurities, the crude matt obtained in the preceding
operation is roaded, and being mixed with one and a
half times its weight of a richer kind of filver ore, and
twice its weight of lead fccriae, by way of flux, it is
again iufed, and thus a rich matt is procured, which
may contain from nine to ten pounds of lead, from thrae
to four pounds of copper, and from fix to feven ounces
of filver in the quintal, befides a quantity of fcorue
which holds a little filver, and which may therefore be
fuccefsfully employed as a flux in fubfequent fufions.
This rich matt being roafled, is mixed with half its
weight of litharge and fcoriae in equal proportions, and
again fubje&ed to fufion. The product of this fufion is
a quantity of metallic lead, containing from fix to eight
ounces of filver in the quintal ; a limilar quantity of
cojiper matt, which contains from 30 to 40 pounds of
copper, and about four ounces of filver in the quintal \
and laltly a quantity of fcorke, which contains from fix
to 10 pounds of lead, and about 40 grains of filver in
the quintal.
The copper matt of the above operation is next roafl¬
ed, and fufed with a quantity of lead and copper fco-
rne, and the product obtained is black copper, which
contains from 60 to 80 pounds of copper, and from five
to ten ounces of filver in the quintal. This black cop¬
per being melted with litharge and fcorke, the mod
part of the filver combines with the lead, and after one
or two fufions, the copper is entirely freed, not only from
the lead and filver, but alfo from the fulphur, iron, and
other impurities.
Liquation.—The affinity between lead and filver is
much flronger than the affinity between lead and cop¬
per. In confequence of this aflinity, lead and filver are
eafily feparated from copper, by being expofed to a mo¬
derate heat. This procefs is called liquation or eliqua-
tion. When the black unrefined copper, or copper matt,
contains the proper proportion of filver for this opera¬
tion, it is fird fufed with lead or litharge, or with a
mixture of the two, and an alloy confiding of copper,
lead, and filver, is thus obtained. This is cad into
moulds, fo that the metallic produfl ffiall be in the
form of round maffes or loaves, which being fet in a
furnace on an inclined plane of iron, with a fmall chan¬
nel grooved out, are expofed to a moderate red heat.
By this procefs the lead melts, or, as it were, fweats
out of the loaf, and carrying the diver along with it,
on account of its flronger affinity for this metal, runs
down the groove, while the copper remains behind as a
dark red fpongy mafs. The lead containing the filver
being fubjefted to the procels of cupellation, the latter
is obtained feparate. But, in adopting this procefs, the
proportion of the three metals mult be attended to. The
lead ffiould not be more than four times the weight of
the copper, otherwife the alloy becomes fo fufible, that
part of the copper will be melted and -carried along
with the lead and filver ; or, if too great a degree of
heat is applied, the whole loaf of liquation will be fufed,
\and The procefs mud again be repeated. The pro¬
portion of lead fhould at lead be 7\ times the quantity
of copper, otherwife a confiderable proportion of it, and
alfo part of the filver, will remain in the loaf after heat¬
ing. But as this procefs is now more randy followed,
we
Chap. IV. ORE
Siiver. we fh:ill not enter Into any farther detail of the particu-
w Y-—..' jars conne£ted with it.
ReduEiion of jilver ores by amalgamation.—This pro-
cefs, by which lilver ores are reduced, and which is
now pretty generally followed, in dift’erent parts of Eu¬
rope, wras firit practifed by the Spaniards in South
America. The ores which are fubjected to amalgama¬
tion, are luch as contain only a fmall quantity of lead
or copper} but it is of lome imnortance that there
fnould be a certain proportion of iron pyrites, and if
this proportion be not naturally mixed wTith the ore, it
is a good practice to fupply the deficiency, by adding
what is wanting to the dreifed ore, fo that the pyritical
contents may, as nearly as pofiable, be in a certain pro¬
portion to the quantity of filver, which is to be alcer-
tamed by previouily affaying a portion of the ore.
The ore being reduced to the conliftence of coarfe
fand, is carefully mixed with common fait, in the
proportion of eight or nine per cent, wdien the filver in
the ore amounts to eight ounces per quintal; and -when
the latter amounts to 3 2 ounces, or even a greater pro¬
portion, from 10 to 12 per cent, of fait is to be added.
The next p roc eft is roafting the ore, in which about
three quintals are fpread on the floor of a reverberatory
furnace, and fubjehled to a moderate red heat. During
the roalting the ore is to be turned twice or thrice, that
every part of it may be equally expofed to the heat.
The firfi; charge being withdrawn, an experienced
workman knows by its appearance whether the propor¬
tion of fait be too little or too much, and, as may be
required, more fait or ore is added to the unroafted par¬
cel. When the whole of the ore is roafted, it is ground
in a mill, palled through fieves, by which it is made as
fine as meal, and is then prepared for the proper procefs
of amalgamation. This is performed in the following
manner. A number of fmall barrels, which are made
to revolve rapidly on their axes by means of machinery,
or fixed tubs, either open or covered, having in the
centre of each an inftrument refembling a chocolate
mill, which may be turned rapidly by fimilar machi¬
nery. The tubs or barrels are filled about one-third
with water, and afterwards a fufficient quantity of roaft-
ed ore and mercury, in nearly equal proportions, is in¬
troduced, fo that the whole may be of the confiftence
of thin mud. The machinery is put in motion, and
continued without interruption for 30 or 48 hours, ac¬
cording to the nature of the ore, when the amalgama¬
tion is completed. About a quarter of an hour after
the agitation of the matter in the barrels has ceafed, the
greater part of it falls to the bottom, and is withdrawn
by opening a hole made for the purpofe. The earthy
refidue is carefully walked by fmail portions at a time,
and thus a good deal of the amalgam which, from be¬
ing very minutely divided, could not fink through and
mix with the reft, is recovered. The earth, however,
if originally rich in filver, ftill retains a fmall propor¬
tion. It is therefore dried, and being mixed with about
3 per cent, of fait, is again roafted ; but at a higher
temperature than at firft, and the procefs of amalgama¬
tion being again repeated, the whole of the filver is ex¬
tracted. The fluid amalgam is ftrained through a clofe-
ly woven bag, and is thus feparated into nearly pure
mercury and a ftiff amalgam •, and the latter being fub¬
jected to diftillation, the mercury is driven over, and
S, &C. 429
the filver remains behind. The copper, which is com- Sliver,
bined with the filver, is feparated by cupellation. '——v
The procefs of amalgamation is thus explained. The
greater part of the fulphur of the filver and pyrites is,
by roafting, burnt off, and converted into falphurous
acid, which latter, as loon as it is formed, and alTifted
alfo by the affinity of the filver for muriatic acid, de-
compofes the common fait, forming a fidphate or ful-
phite of foda, vdiile the muriatic acid combining with
the filver, forms muriate of filver. In the amalgama¬
tion which follows, the mercury, being in great propor¬
tion, decompofes the muriate of filver, and is partly
converted into calomel. Hence it appears, that the
lofs of mercury, which is fometimes very confiderable in
this procefs, arifes, firft, from the converlion of part of
it into calomel j and, fecondly, from the extremely mi¬
nute divifion of another part, fo that it is carried off in
waffling the earthy refidue j but the proportion of the
latter depends much on management.
By the following method filver may be feparated
from copper, according to Napione, wdthout the expen-
five and complicated procefs of liquation. The mixed
metal is melted ; a quantity of fulphur is fprinkled over
its furface, while the whole is ftirred about with a flick
by an afliftant, fo that the fulphur may combine with
the copper into a matt, which floats above the metal,
and is to be removed wdth a pair of tongs, previouffy
moiftening its furface with wrater, to make it folid.
Another portion of fulphur is next to be ftirred in, and
the fecond matt produced is to be removed in the fame
manner. This procefs being repeated a fufficient num¬
ber of times, the greater part of the copper is converted
into matt, holding a fmall proportion of filver, while
the remaining copper, which retains the moft of the fil¬
ver, originally diffufed through the whole mafs, be¬
comes rich enough to be lent immediately to the re¬
finery. In treating the matt, it is firft to be reduced
to powder, mixed with common fait and quicklime, in
the proportion of 12 per cent, of each, roafted for 10
hours, amalgamated as before •, and after three fuccef-
five roaftings and amalgamations, the whole of the fil
ver may be extracted.
TABLE of the quantity of Silver introduced into Com -
mercey taken at an average between the years 179Q
and 1802.
Old Continent.
Siberia,
Hungary,
Auftrian States,
Hartz and Heffe,
Saxony,
Norway,
France,
Kilogrammes.
20,000
5000
5000
10,000
10,000
5000
New Continent.
North America,
Spaniffi poffeffions
South America,
600,000
ini
j- 275,000
Kilogrammes,
or about 2,091,162 lbs. avoirdupois.
72,500
875,000
947.5°°.
Chain.
ORE
i
43°
Copper.
v Chap. V. Of the Ores of Copper.
The ores of copper are very various. This metal is
found native, in the Hate of oxide, in the date of ful-
phure*-, and in that of fait, combined with carbonic,
muriatic, phofphoric, and arfenic acids.
Sect. I. Of the Analysis of the Ores of Copper.
The atialylis of the ores of copper, it is obvious, muft
vary, according to the nature of the fubftances with
which they are combined } but as a great proportion of
the ores of that metal are combined with fulphur or
arfenic, when they are to be treated in the dry way,
they are firfl roafted, for the purpofe of expelling thofe
fubitances. To effeft this, the ore is mixed with about
one half its bulk of-charcoal powder, or fine faw-duft,
and then fubje&ed to a low red heat, on a flat tile or
muffle, on which it fliould be thinly fpread. The ful¬
phur or the arfenic rifes in fumes ; and to accelerate the
feparation of thefe fubftances, the mixture fflould be
frequently ftirred, obferving at the fame time not to in-
creafe the heat to fuch a degree as to make the ore clot
together, which is one of the objefts in the ufe of the
faw-dufl or charcoal. When it appears that the fumes
ceafe to rife, and the whole of the charcoal is burnt off,
the part of the ore remaining is now in the date of
oxide, but mixed with a quantity of fulphur or arfenic,
which cannot be entirely feparated by reading, and
with the earthy matters with wThich the ore wras origi¬
nally combined.
The next objefl is to reduce the oxides, thus obtain¬
ed, to the metallic date •, and in this procefs of reduc¬
tion the oxide is expofed to a high temperature, in con-
la£l with fome carbonaceous matter, and fecluded from
the air. It has been a common practice to add fome al¬
kaline matters by way of dux, to promote the fufion of
the extraneous matters combined with the ore 5 but the
experience and obfervation of more enlightened chemids
have proved, that a portion of the metallic oxide is al¬
ways diffolved by faline duxes, fo that by adays in the
dry way with faline duxes, a lefs proportion of metal than
the ore really contains, is obtained from it. The lofs,
according to Klaproth, between the treatment of a cop¬
per ore in the dry way, and the fame ore, in the moid
way, amounted to no lefs than 9 per cent. To obviate this
inconvenience, a dux is employed by fome, compofed of
fudble glafs, into which a large proportion of alkali and
dlica enters, without any metallic matter, or duor fpar,
lime, and particularly borax. Ey the latter, a thinner
fufion of the vitrifying mixture, than by an equal quan¬
tity of any other fubdance, is produced, fo that a fmall-
er proportion of borax than of the alkaline matters an-
fwers all the purpofes of a dux ; and thus the lofs of
the metallic oxide, by dilution, is lefs.
But in reducing the pure oxides, or the carbonated
oxides of copper, the method wdiich is attended with
fcarcely any lofs, is by fub]ceding them in contaed with
charcoal, in a covered crucible, to an intenfe heat. It
is indeed in this way that the reduction of roaded cop¬
per ores is condufted on a large fcale •, but as thefe lat¬
ter contain fulphur, arfenic, iron, and other impurities,
the procefs mud be many times repeated before the cop¬
per is brought to a malleable date.
4
S, &c. Chap. V.
In reducing the fulphurated ores of copper, a button Chopper,
of metal, of contiderable purity, may be fometimes ob- '-—nr*—^
tained by means of a Angle operation. The tedious
procefs of reading is avoided by adding to the ore two
or three times its weight of nitre, and projetding it into a
hot crucible. When thrown into the crucible, a defla¬
gration takes place, in which the fulphur is burnt, and
converted into fulphuric acid, which unites with the
potaffl of the decompofed nitre. The metal being now
freed from the fulphur, is in a date of complete oxida¬
tion by the nitric acid, and may be reduced by adding
a flux of tartar and pitch, or other dmilar matters, and
applying a drong heat ibr a fufficient length of time.
But it feems to be more advifable to feparate the metal¬
lic oxide after deflagration. This may be done by wafli-
ing the mixture, after which the oxide is to be reduced
by the proper flux.
In the analyfls of copper ores in the moid way, the
metal is obtained feparate in three dates 5 either in the
metallic date, in the date of black oxide, or in that of
green carbonate. If a poliffled piece of iron be intro¬
duced into an acid folution of copper, it is immediately
covered with a coating of fflining metallic copper, which
is owing to a part of the iron being diflblved by the
acid, and a correfponding portion of copper being fepa¬
rated from the folution. The whole of the copper may
be precipitated in this wTay, and at lad the folution con¬
tains only iron. The precipitate, which is in the form
of ragged filaments, may be waffled, dried, and weigh¬
ed, fo that the proportion of the metal in the ore exa¬
mined may be afeertained. It may be added, that the
precipitation is greatly promoted, by boiling for a fflort
time, efpecially towards the end of the procefs, which
produces the feparation of the lad portions of the cop¬
per 5 and it fflould be farther obferved, that a perfect
feparation of copper from iron is obtained only when the
folution is made in fulphuric or muriatic acid, and
not in nitric acid. The method of feparating copper
from filver has been already mentioned. It may be fe¬
parated from lead, by adding fulphate of foda to the fo¬
lution, by which an infoluble fulphate of lead is obtain¬
ed, and the copper remains behind. To feparate cop¬
per from antimony, the oxides of copper and antimony
are digeded with nitric acid; the copper is diflblved,
and the antimony is left. By immerfing^a piece of me¬
tallic tin in the folution, copper may be feparated from
tin •, for by this means the copper only is precipitated.
Arfenic is feparated from copper by diflblving in nitrous
acid, and adding acetate or nitrate of lead, which pro¬
duces an infoluble arfeniate of lead, and leaves the chop¬
per behind. In cafe there fliould be an excels of lead,
the addition of fulphate of foda will throw7 it dowm in
the form of infoluble fulphate. When nickel is com¬
bined with copper, it is ufually conjoined with iron.
Ammonia precipitates all the three metals ; but, wfflen
added in excefs, redifiblves the nickel and copper. To
obtain the latter feparate, fuperfaturate wdlh muriatic
acid, and introduce a poliffled piece of iron, by which
the copper is precipitated, and the nickel remains in the
folution.
To afeertain the quantity of precipitated copper ob-
lained from the examination of an ore, it is to be waffl¬
ed and dried, put into a fmall crucible, moiftened with
a drop or two of oil, and covered with borax. Thus
prepared, it is fubjefted to ftrong heat for a few mi¬
nutes,
/
Chap. V.
ORES, &c.
Copper, nules, and a folid button of malleable copper is produ-
* ced, which may be accurately weighed. But if the
product of the analyhs be in the date of green carbo¬
nate, which is obtained by adding carbonate of potafh
or foda to a folution of copper, the green precipitate,
thus formed, is to be wafhed and dried at the tempera¬
ture of boiling water. An hundred and eighty parts of
this carbonate are equivalent to loo of metallic copper.
The quantity of copper obtained by analylis may be
eftimated alfo in the date of black oxide. If the green
carbonate be boiled for a few moments in caudic pot-
ath, it thrinks and becomes a deep brownifh black fine
powTder, which is a pure oxide of copper in its highed
date of oxidation. One hundred parts of this oxide,
after being well walked, and dried in a low red heat,
for a minute or two, are condantly found to contain 80
parts of pure metallic copper.
We diall now give a few examples of the analyfes of
particular ores of copper.
Vitreous copper ore, or fulphuret of copper from Sibe¬
ria.—The following is the mode of analyfis of vitreous
copper ore by Klaproth.
*•' “ i. Upon 200 grains of the ore, coarfely powdered,
moderately drong nitric acid was affufed, which attack¬
ed and diflblved them with frothing and extrication of
red vapours. The folution was clear, and the fulphur
alone in the ore was left behind, fioating in the fluid,
in gray, loofe flocculi, without any other refidue;
which indicated that no antimony was prefent. The
fulphur collected on the filter was heated in a fmall cru¬
cible to inflammation, and it burned with its peculiar
odour, without any trace of arfenic ; yet leaving a flight
portion of oxidated iron and filiceous earth.
“ 2. The folution, which had a pure blue colour, was
treated fird with muriate, and then with fulphate of
foda. But none of thefe, nor any other fait, rendered
it turbid, or produced any other alteration; by which
it appears, that this ore contains neither filver nor
lead.
u 3. To determine, with proper accuracy, the propor¬
tion of the condituent parts, I repeated the examination
in the following manner. Two hundred grains of the
powdered ore were combined and heated with muriatic
acid, to the degree of boiling. But as this alone ma-
nifeded no action on it, I added nitric acid gradually,
by drops, which exerted a drong attack in each in¬
dance. When the folution of the ore had been accom-
plidied, I feparated the fluid from the fulphur floating
on the furface •, and digeded this lad once more with a
frefli quantity of muriatic acid, dropping into it fome
nitric acid, after which I collected it upon the filter.
This fulphur, waflied and deficcated, weighed 38 1- grs.
out of which, after its combudion, grain of filiceous
earth remained 5 fo that the true amount of fulphur was
37 grains.
“ 4. The folution exhibited a glafs-green colour. I di¬
vided it into two parts. Into one half polidied iron was
immerfed, upon which the copper precipitated of a den-
dritical form, and pure metallic brilliance. It weighed
78^ grains, when waflied, and immediately deficcated
in a moderate temperature.
“ 5. In order to afcertain the proportion of iron con¬
tained in the ore, I combined the other half of the fo¬
lution with caudic ammonia added to excefs of fatura-
-tion. The precipitated iron remained behind, in the
form of a fubtle brown mud, which, collected on the
filter, deficcated and ignited, weighed three grains.
But as the iron is contained in the mixture of the ore,
not in this calciform date, but in the reguline, which
lad is to the fird in the proportion of 3 to 4, thefe three
grains of oxidated iron give 2^ of metallic iron to be
added in the computation.
“ Therefore, an hundred parts of the Siberian vitreous
copper ore confid of,
Copper,
Iron,
Sulphur,
Silex,
78.50
2.2 c
18.50
°'75
100.00
* EJaytr
Variegated copper ore.—This ore was analyfed by1 ^
Klaproth, in the following manner.
“ 1. One hundred grains of the pulverized ore were
fubje£ted to gentle digedion with nitric acid, i?hofe ac¬
tion upon it was but moderate. From the refidue, the
fulphur was driven out by combudion. This refidue,
when a feCond time digeded with nitric acid, diflblved
in it, leaving only a flight portion of a red oxide of
iron. On examining the folution, fird by common
fait, and then by Glauber fait, it continued limpid and
unchanged.
“ 2. Upon 200 grains of the powdered ore, muriatic
acid was affufed, the mixture heated, and then com¬
bined in fmall portions with nitric acid. The folution,
which was thus performed, had a brown colour while
concentrated j but as foon as it was diluted with water,
it acquired a green. The remaining fulphur was gray,
tenacious, and fpongy, and weighed 72 grains when
dry. By flow combudion it left 35 grains, of which,
after extraftion by muriatic acid, five grains dill re¬
mained behind. Thefe lod one grain more of fulphur
by burning, and the remaining four grains diffolved en¬
tirely in muriatic acid. Whence the quantity of ful¬
phur amounted to 38 grains.
“ 3. The muriatic folution wTas divided into two equal
parts j and the copper was precipitated from one of
them by means of iron. It amounted to 69! grains.
“ 4. The other half was fuperfaturated with caudic
ammonia, and the oxide of iron which fell down was
colledded. This, when moidened wfith linfeed oil, and
expofed to a low red heat, weighed 1 o grains \ which
are equal to 7 ’- grains of metallic or reguline iron.
“ Thus, in 100 parts of this variegated copper ore from
Norway were found,
Copper,
Sulphur,
Iron,
Oxygen,
69.50
19.
7-5°
4*
100.00
“ In fupplying the deficiency in the fum of weights of
the copper, iron, and fulphur, from the hundred, by
putting oxygen in the account, I mean to characterize
this lad as a condant condituent part of variegated cop¬
per ore, producing in it thofe variegated colours: in
the fame manner, as in deel, in copper pyrites, and
other
432
ORE
Copper, otter metallic fubftances, the beginning of tlieir oxida-
' '' v tion is indicated by a fimilar diveriity of colours.
“ In the laft mentioned fubftances, however, the
changeable colours are only owing to external caufes ;
for which reafon, they prefent themfelves only on the
furface, when, long expofed to air. On the contrary,
the variegated copper ore is penetrated throughout its
whole mafs by the oxidating principle. This corre-
fponds with the deficiency of weight to make up the
turn of the fixed conftituent parts of the ore here ana-
lyfed ; whereas no fuch lots is obfervable in the vitreous
copper ore, treated and decompofed by the fame me¬
thod. It is on this account alfo, that the aftion of the
nitric acid is lefs ftrong, and the difengagement of ni¬
trous gas is lefs copious, in the variegated than in the
* Ibid. i. vitreous copper ore
545* Malachite, or carbonate of copper.—Klaproth analy-
fed a Siberian ore of this fpecies, according to the fol¬
lowing procefs.
“ i. One thoufand grains of compact reniform mala¬
chite, fti. n the Tuijin mines, on the Ural, wrere redu¬
ced to powder, and heated to complete rednefs in a fmall
glafs retort, connected wdth the pneumatic apparatus.
Much carbonic acid gas was difengaged in this procefs,
to the amount of 252 cubic inches, without reckoning
that part which was abforbed by the water of the appa¬
ratus. This gas was entirely abforbed by lime water,
at the fame time that a proportionate quantity of car¬
bonated or crude calcareous earth wTas produced. In
the intermediate fmall receiver a moifture colledled,
weighing 78 grains, which, upon trial, proved to be
pure water.
2. The pulverulent refidue taken out of the retort ap¬
peared of a black colour, and weighed 716 grains. To
ferve for the following experiments, it w^as divided into
■four parts, at 179 grains each; and hence correfpond-
ing to 250 grains of the rough malachite.
3. One hundred and feventy-nine grains of ignited
malachite, combined with three times its quantity of
black flux, were put into an aflay crucible, without lin¬
ing it, and covered with muriated foda. In this fitua-
tion it wras committed to the fire of the blaft furnace,
and when the coals had become red hot without the ac¬
tion of the bellows, it was kept melting for the fpace
of 20 minutes. After cooling, it was obferved that,
in the broken retort, the whole mixture, under the co¬
vering of common fait, had run into an uniform, com-
pa6t, and opaque mafs, of the bright red colour of or¬
dinary fealing wax, and that no metallic button had
been formed.
“ It follows from this, that there wras not carbone
enough prefent to take up entirely the oxygen of the
metallic oxide. Therefore the copper has, by means ©f
this fmall remainder of oxygen ftill united with it, been
brought into the ftate of red oxide of copper ; and, as
fiich, it has diffufed itfelf uniformly through the alka¬
line fait.
“ 4. One hundred and feventy-nine grains of ignited
malachite wrere mingled with three times their quantity
of black flux, and one-tenth of powdered charcoal.
When fufed in this ftate, during 20 minutes, under a
ftratum of common fait, in an aflay crucible not lined
in the infide, they afforded a button of reguline cop¬
per, which had run wrell together, and weighed 136J
grains.
S, &x. Chap. V.
“ 5. Another 179 grains of ignited malachite, mixed Copper,
with thrice as many grains of black flux, and one-fifth '—“‘Y-—''
part of their weight of colophony, and likewife fufed
for 20 minutes, under a cover of muriate of foda, in a
crucible not fecured by lining, yielded a w^ell-melted
button of reguline copper, weighing 138 grains.
“ 6. The remaining 179 grains of ignited malachite
wrere, like the preceding, melted during the time of 20
minutes, under a cover of common fait. But the allay
crucible had previoufly been lined with powdered char¬
coal, and the malachite mingled wdth an equal weight
of calcined borax, with half its quantity of wfliite glafs,
and one-fourth part of colophony, or boiled turpentine.
By this procefs 1 obtained, indeed, a well-fuled button
of reguline copper; but with a confiderable lofs, as it
weighed only 1054 grains.
“ In order to difcover more accurately the conftituent
parts of malachite, I performed the following experi¬
ments.
“ 7. One hundred grains of malachite, reduced to powT-
der by trituration, w’ere diffolved in nitric acid ; which
wTas effeCled without leaving any refidue. The folution
had a bright-blue colour, and was faturated to excels
with cauftic ammonia ; but the precipitate produced
was entirely, and wfithout turbidnefs, rediffolved by the
excefs of the alkali. This thewed that the malachite
here examined was perfectly free from iron, and fimilar
admixtures.
“ 8. I combined 100 grains of triturated malachite
with a fufticient quantity of fulphuric acid, previoufly
diluted with five parts of water, and accurately weighed
together with the veffel. After the malachite had
been wholly diffolved, which was effected gradually,
and with a moderately ftrong effervefcence, the lofs of
weight, occafioned by the carbonic acid gas that wras
extricated, was found to confift of 18 grains.
“ 9. One hundred grains of the fame powdered mala¬
chite were ignited, at a moderate heat, in a covered cru¬
cible. The black refidue had loft 29-^ grains in weight.
If from thefe be fubtrafted 18 grains for the carbonic
acid, the remaining 114 grains of lofs will confift of
water.
“ 10. And laftly, 100 grains, which had been diffol¬
ved in diluted fulphuric acid, and precipitated by zinc,
yielded 58 grains of pure copper.
“ In confequence of thefe experiments, the Siberian
malachite cpnfifts, in the 100, of,
Copper,
Carbonic acid,
Oxygen,
Water,
58.
18.
12.50
11.50
100.00
* o
* Hid. i.
Muriate of copper.—This ore, when expofed upon 55°*
charcoal to the aftion of the blow-pipe, gave to the
flame a blue and green colour; the muriatic acid was
foon driven off, and a metallic button of pure copper
remained.
This ore of copper wras examined and analyfed by
Klaproth in the following manner. A portion of the
ore being reduced to powder, and boiled with water,
communicated no colour to the folution ; and, with the
addition of a folution of nitrate of filver, afforded a
fmall quantity of a white precipitate which blackened
m
3
Chap. V. ORE
Copper, in the day light. This experiment {hews, that the pro-
u—-v   portion of muriatic acid is too fmall to give a compound
loluble in water.
“ i. One hundred grains of the elutriated mineral dif-
folved readily and quietly in nitric acid affufed in
the cold. The folution poffeffed a pure blue colour,
and depofited a little of a brown iron ochre, which, fe-
parated by filtering, weighed a grain and a half. It
was then diluted with water, and treated with a nitric
folution of filver. The precipitated muriate of filver,
when edulcorated, dried, and melted at a moderate de-
gree of heat, in a filver pan, weighed 64! grains.
“ One hundred parts of metallic filver yield by fuch
combination 133 parts of muriated filver. But as this
metal, to be rendered foluble in acids, takes up 12 per
cent, of oxygen, thefe muft be fubtradled j fo that of
this increafe of weight by 33 parts, there remain 20 4-
for the muriatic acid.
“■ Thefe principles being laid down, the above 64-3-
grains of muriated filver will fix the proportion of the
muriatic acid, contained in 100 parts of the ore, very
nearly to 10 grains.
“ 2. That I might be fure of having completely fepa-
rated the muriatic acid from the nitric folution of this
copper ore, I added the nitrated filver in a finall de¬
gree of excefsj and this lilver I afterwards threw
down with muriatic acid, and filtered it off. Which
done, the copper was precipitated in the metallic Hate,
by means of a piece of polilhed iron immerfed in the fo¬
lution. It amounted to 57^ grains when colie ft ed and
carefully dried.
“ The copper, however, is contained in the ore as an
oxide. In this ftate its weight is increafed 25 per cent,
by the oxygen 5 which, for thofe 57.50 grains of me¬
tallic copper, juft now mentioned, gives, by calculation,
14.38 grains.
“ Now, fince what is yet deficient from the firft wTeight
of the ore employed is to be confidered for the greateft
part as its wrater of cryftallization, and fince thofe 14
grains of ferruginous ochre do not belong to the com-
pofition of the ore, the conftituent parts of the muriat¬
ed ore of copper may be faid to be in the 100 as fol¬
lows :
Oxide of copper, 73.
Muriatic acid, IO.I
Water of cryftallization, 16.9
* EJfays, '
ii. 158. * IOO.O.,•
P//<3^>//tf/e of copper.—The following is the method of
analyfis adopted by Klaproth, in the examination of this
ore.
“ 1. Becaufethis ore is very much intermixed with its
quartzofe matrix, I pulverized a portion of it, previoufly
freed as much as poflible from the ftony matter, and af-
certained the W’eight of quartz ftill united with it, by
folution in nitric acid. The quartz amounted to 16
parts in 100 of the purified ore.
“ On this confideration, I weighed 116 grains of the
powdered ore, and poured nitric acid upon it. The
mixture became of itfelf moderately warm. When the
folution, aflifted by a little heat, was thoroughly brought
about, and by means of filtration freed from the undif-
folved quartzy matrix, it {hewed by its pure {ky-blue
colour, that it contained no iron.
You XV. Part II.
vS, &C.
“ 2. After the {mall portion of the predominant acid
had been faturated with potaftr, I added to the folution
diffolved acetate of lead, until no farther precipitation
took place. The precipitate wras at firft drenched for a
while with weak acetic acid, then elixiviated with wa¬
ter, and at laft perfectly dried in a low heat. It
weighed 138 grains.
“ That this precipitate wras a combination of lead with
phofphoric acid, of this I had myfelf allured by a pre¬
vious experiment, made with another portion of the
fame foflil. It exhibited the phenomenon, which is pe¬
culiar to phofphated lead j namely, that under the
blow-pipe it runs into a pearl, which in the very mo¬
ment of fixation, rapidly affumes a garnet-like form with
ftiining furfaces.
“ Upon another portion of that precipitate, half its.
weight of fulphuric acid, fufficiently weakened with
water, was poured and digefted with it. The clear-
fluid, which had been filtered off from the generated
fulphate of lead, and contained free phofphoric acid,
was firft half faturated with foda, and upon this per-
feftly neutralized with ammonia. By cryftallization,
it yielded microcofmic fait, or phofphate of foda and
ammonia.
“ 3. In order to difeover the proportion of the phof¬
phoric acid combined with thofe 138 grains of the pre-.
cipitate mentioned before, I proceeded to the following
experiment.
“ I burned pure phofphoru* under a large glafs-bell,
diffolved the obtained dry phofphoric acid in water, paf-
fed it through the filter, and reduced it by evaporation,
in a fand heat, to a fmaller volume. When towards
the end of this procefs, flames of phofphorated hydro¬
gen gas appeared, I added nitric acid by drops till no
longer any red vapours were difengaged.
“ Of this perfeftly oxygenated unftuous liquid phof¬
phoric acid, I diluted 100 grains with water, and neutra¬
lized the liquor with finely powdered white marble ; of
which 3 24 grains were employed. The mixture was
evaporated to drynefs, and the dry mafs kept in a mo¬
derate red heat for half an hour. This ignited phof¬
phate of lime weighed 2564 grains. In the 324 grains
of marble employed in this experiment, the portion of
lime, or pure calcareous earth, amounts to 178.20
grains, which if fubtrafted from the above 256.50
grains, determine the quantity of the phofphoric acid
ingredient in that calcareous phofphate to be 78.30-
grains.
“ From thefe data, taken together, it now was render¬
ed evident, that in thofe 138 grains of phofphated lead,
which have been produced by the combination of lead
with the phofphoric acid, conftituting a component prin¬
ciple of the portion of the ore examined,—the concrete
phofphoric acid amounts to 30.95 grains.
“ 4. The remaining part of the folution, which yet
contained the cupreous part of the ore, was firft treated
with falphate of foda, to feparate the fmall portion of
lead it ftill held diffolved from a flight excefs of acetat-
ed lead added in the procefs (2.) Which done, it was
mixed with a little of uncombined fulphuric acid, and a
piece of poliftred iron put into it to precipitate the cop¬
per, which I found to weigh 54.50 grains. But as this
metal is contained in the ore in an oxidated ftate, which
requires 25 per cent, of oxygen 5 there muft 68.13
grains be reckoned for the oxide of copper,
3 I “ One
434 ,. 0 P‘ E
Copper. « One hundred grains of this phofphated ore of cop-
, , per, therefore, conlift of,
Oxide of copper, 68.13
Phofphoric acid, 3°-95
* Ibid. r ^99.08.”
Arfcniate of copper, or 7ieedlc-fhaped copper ore.—This
ore was examined by Klaproth, according to the follow¬
ing prqcefs.
“ 1. Under the blow-pipe, upon charcoal, this ore de¬
tonates, emits a white arfenical fmoke, and runs into
fmall reddifh-gray globules, which, when again fluxed
with borax, yield a pure regulus of copper.
“ 2. A pure, maflive fpecimen of this ore, weighing
50 grains, was kept, in a porcelain crucible during 15
minutes, in a moderate red heat. Its figure was not
altered by the fire ; but its dark olive Colour was chan¬
ged into a bright grafs green, inclining to that of the
filkin. Its weight was diminilhed by 1 ^ grain. •
“ 3. Nitric acid diflblves it quietly in the cold, and
the folution poffeffes an undefiled blue colour. By the
addition of nitrated filver, the mixture is not in the
leafl rendered turbid. Acetate of barytes produces a
precipitate which entirely difappears upon dilution with
water. The affufion of diffolved acetate of lead, forms
with this folution a white precipitate, which upon the
charcoal emits arfenical vapours, and is reduced to me¬
tallic lead, when combined with an excefs of ammonia,
the precipitate falling down at firft, is dire&ly rediflbl-
ved, no cloudinefs left behind, and the deep-blue co¬
lour is reftored to the liquor.
“ 4. Alfo by the acetic acid this ore is gradually dif-
lolved. Upon the evaporation of the folvent, a dark-
green fait of a dendritical form remains behind.-
“5. One hundred grains of the acicular olive copper
ore, which had previoufly been freed, by means of elu-
triation, from the admixed reddifli iron ochre, foon dif¬
folved in nitric acid, and without the application of
heat. The folution, being accurately neutralized with
carbonated potafh, -was combined with diflblved acetate
of lead, until all precipitation ceafed. The obtained
precipitate, when edulcorated and dried in a raifed tem¬
perature, weighed 1334- grains.
“ 6. To he more convinced that this precipitate was
an arfeniated lead, I drenched it with water, and digefted
it with half its weight of fulphuric acid. The liquor
feparated by filtration, contained uncombined arfenic
acid. I neutralized it with foda, and treated one part
of it with a folution of nitrated filver. This produced
a copious precipitate of arfeniated filver, which poflef-
fed the brick-red colour peculiar to it, emitted arfenical
vapours upon the charcoal, and was readily reduced to
pure filver. The remaining part of the folution, when
mixed with liquid nitrate of iron, afforded the common
whitilh precipitate of arfeniated iron.
“ Now in order to afcertain, by means of a compara¬
tive experiment, the proportion of the acid of arfenic
combined with the 1334-grains of the above precipi¬
tate (1.), I diffolved in water 100 grains of folid arfe¬
nical acid, and added to it a folution of acetated lead in
fmall portions fo long as any precipitate would appear.
The arfeniated lead then obtained weighed 297 grains
after edulcoration and drying in a warm place. Hence
it followed, that the quantity of concrete,acid of arfenic,
S, &c. Chap. V.
combined with thofe 1334 grains of the precipitate, Copper,
which the acid of aj;fenic contained in the ore had pro- ' v~
duced, muff be efumated at 45 grains.
“ And to be more affured that all the arfenical acid had
been feparated from the nitric folution of the ore, I
added a little more of acetated lead than would have
been abfolutely requifite. 'I'his was afterwards again
precipitated as fulphate of lead by adding fulphated
Ibda, and filtered off. To the lolutkm, thus freed
from the laff: precipitate, I added uncombined fulphuric
acid, and precipitated the copper, now difengaged frcm
its mineralizing acid, by means of a polifhed piece of
iron, in the metallic ftate. Thus I obtained of it 4c 4
grains.
“ But fince in the compofition of the olive copper ore
the copper is contained in the ftate of an oxide, it yet
remained to difeover the proportion of oxygen. To at¬
tain this end, I diflblved 200 grains of pure copper in
nitric acid, diluted the folution with a fufficient quan¬
tity of water, and again precipitated the metal with a
lixivium of cauftic potafh. The precipitate had a light-
blue colour ; but after the mixture had flood a couple
of days in a moderately warm place, that blue colour
■was changed into a brown. When feparated by filtra¬
tion, walhed with a large quantity of water, and de-
ficcaled in a low heat, this precipitate amounted to 269
grains. Upon ignition it weighed only 250 grains,
and appeared in the form of a very fubtle, fully-black
powder.
“ Therefore, becaufe according to this experiment,
copper acquires an increafe of 25 per cent, of weight by
combining with oxygen, it is obvious, that for the
above 404 grains of metallic copper, we mull put in
the account 50.62 grains of oxidated copper.
“ In confequence of this decompofition, joo parts of
the olive copper ore contain,
Oxide of copper, 50.62
Acid of arfenic, 45.
Water of cryftallization, 3-50
*99.12.” * Ibid.
ii. 150.
Sect. II. Of the Rcdutlion of the Ores of Copper.
The proceffes employed for the redu&ion of cop-^
per ores in the large way are extremely Ample. It
fcarcely ever happens, it has been remarked, that the
fame order in conducing the different reducing procef¬
fes, even in cafes where the quality of the ore is found
to be the fame, is obferved at two works. The fame
remark, however, might probably be made with regard
to other manufaftories, where the fame practical ma¬
nagement being long eftablilhed, and attended with or¬
dinary fuccefs, its inconveniences or advantages are rare¬
ly inveftigated, with regard to the abridgement of la¬
bour, or the diminution of expence. We ftiall now de-
feribe the proceffes for the reduftion of copper ores,
which are followed in different places, by which our
readers, who are interefted in the fubjedl, will be en¬
abled to appreciate the advantages of each, or to fug¬
ged: improvements of which they are fufceptible •, and
with this view, we (hall deferibe the operations for re¬
ducing copper ores which are followTed in Cornwall, and
in Anglefea,.
Method,
*
t
*
Chap. V. ORE
Copper. Method of reducing copper ores in Cornwall.—The ore
is firfl broken to pieces, of the iize of a hazle nut. This
operation is known by the name of cobbing. The rich¬
er pieces of ore are then picked out by the hand. The
next operation is roafting, which is performed in large
reverberatory furnaces, 16 feet long, and 14 feet broad.
The bottom of the furnace is compofed of fire bricks,
covered with fand, two feet thick. This fand becomes
a femivitrified mafs by the intenfe heat. The height of
the chimney is from 40 to 50 feet, the draught of
which is fo ftrong, that the fulphur and arfenic, fepa-
rated during the roafting, are carried almoft entirely
through it. The ore is introduced through a kind of
funnel, and fpread to the thicknefs of a foot over the
bottom of the furnace. The fuel is placed at the anterior
part of the furnace, fo that the flame mull pafs over
the furface of the ore as it is directed by the current of
air towards the chimney. The ore is roafted in this
furnace with a dull red heat for 12 hours, and is fre¬
quently ftirred with an iron rake, to expofe frefh furfa-
ces to the flame.
The ore being fufficiently roafted, is carried to an¬
other furnace, nine feet long by fix wide, where it is ex-
pofed to a fufing heat, without addition, except that of
a little calcareous fand, when the flag does not rife
freely. It is raked out at the end of every four hours,
when it is of the confiftence of foft dough, and is intro¬
duced into oblong moulds, a little water being fprink-
led upon it, to make it fink down. The flag being ra¬
ked off, a frefh quantity of calcined ore is introduced
into the furnace, and the copper is tapped off by a hole
in its fide, which had been flopped up with wet clay
mixed w ith one-fourth part of new coal, which prevents
the clay from becoming fo hard as to render it difficult
to open the hole by means of an iron pick. As the
rough copper flows from the furnace, it is conduced by
a gutter intd a large bucket, fulpended by chains in a
well, through which a ftream of wrater is paffing. The
metal, as it falls into the water, is granulated, wuthout
explofion or danger, and is afterwards taken out by rai¬
ling the bucket.
But in tlris ftate the copper is very impure, being
quite brittle, and mixed with arfenic and fulphur, which
can only be feparated by other procefles. For this pur-
pofe it is again melted, and granulated two or three
times. Each time a flag is thrown up in the furnace •,
but as it contains fome copper, it is not, like the firfl
flag, rejefled, but w'orked over and over again with
new charges of calcined ore. The nature of the ore
muft determine the number of fufions and granulations.
After the granulation, the mafs is melted and caft into
pigs, which have a bliftered appearance on the furfage.
Thefe are again broken up, and melted and roafted fe-
veral times, by which the metal becomes purer, and is
then caft into iron moulds, after which it is carried to
the refining furnace ; and being again melted with the
addition of fome'charcoal, it is brought to fuch a de¬
gree of purity as to bear the hammer, and be fit for the
market. In this way, by repeated calcination and fii-
fion, the common ores of copper are freed from arfenic,
fulphur, and earthy matters, and brought to the metal¬
lic ftate. Here it is proper to add, that where there is
variety of ores, no fmall degree of judgement is requi-
fite in forting and diftributing them for the furnace,
that the more fufible ores being mixed with fuch as are
S, &c.
435
more refradlory, will render the poorer ores, by the ad- Copper,
dition of a portion of the richer, worth the work-
ing-
Method of reducing copper ores in Anglcfea.—The ore,
wffiich is the fulphuret of copper, is broken into fmall
pieces, and expofed to heat in a kiln, wffiich is clofe co¬
vered. A little fire is applied to the mafs of ore in
different places, by which the whole is gradually kind¬
led. The kiln is furnifhed with flues, which open into
a long, clofe, pent-houfe gallery, for the purpofe of col-
lecling the fulphur, which rifes in the ftate of vapour
to the top of the kiln, paffes through the flues into the
long gallery, where it is llowly condenfed, is aftenvards
taken out, and farther prepared for fale. The mafs of
ore, after it is once kindled, burns of itfelf for about fix
months, and in this time the fulphur chamber is four
times cleared out. The improved fulphur chambers are
conftrmfted in the form of lime kilns, having the ore at
the bottom, and the fulphur fubliming at the top. The
richer part of the roafted ore is exported w'ith*ut being
fubjedled to any other preparation, but the poorelt part
is melted on the fpot, and contains, befides a great deal
of fulphur, many other impurities. The fmelting houfes
confift of a range of large reverberatory furnaces, hav¬
ing chimneys above 40 feet high, thus producing a very
ftrong current of air. Thirty-one of thefe furnaces are
arranged fide by fide under the fame roof. The fuel,
wffiich is coal, is burnt on a grate at the anterior part of
the furnace, and the flame is carried over the ore pla¬
ced on the bottom of it, by the draught of air. Twelve
hundred weight of roafted ore is introduced into the
furnace, mixed with a fmall portion of coal dull. Here
the ore is melted, and brought to an impure regulus,
and when it is fufficiently fufed, it is drawn oft into
earthen moulds. Each charge of the furnace is worked
off in about five hours, and yields about half a hundred
weight of rough copper, which after being farther pu¬
rified, affords about 50 per cent, of pure metal.
In reducing copper ores at Neufol in Hungary, lead
is employed in the refining part of the procefs. The
rough copper is fpread out on the rough bed of a fur¬
nace, and after being fix hours in fufion, a quantity of
lead, in the proportion of from fix to eight per cent, of
the copper, is thrown in. This immediately begins to
vitrify, and form a thick fcoria, along with the impuri¬
ties of the copper. The fcoriae are fucceffively remo¬
ved, till the whole is feparated, and the copper is puri¬
fied. The fcoriae retain a portion of the copper, and
are employed in a future operation. The procefs con¬
tinues from ten to twelve hours, with fifty quintals of
raw copper.
Some of the finer copper ores contain fuch a propor¬
tion of filver, as to render it worth while to extract the
metal. In the different roaftings and fufions which are
employed to bring the copper to a ftate of purity, the
filver always remains combined with it, fo that it muft
be feparated by another procefs. The method of fepa-
rating filver from copper has been already defcribed, in
treating of the reduction of the ores of filver.
The fprings wffiich are found in copper mines, or flow
from rocks which afford copper ores, are often fo ftrong-
ly impregnated wfith blue vitriol or native fulphate of
copper, as to yield a confiderable quantity of this me¬
tal. It is obtained by the following procefs. Large,
fquare open pits, are formed of rammed clay, two or
3 I 2 three
436 ORE
lion. three feet deep. Into thefe pits the vitriol water is
" y 'pumped a quantity of refufe iron is thrown in, which
being allowed to remain for a conliderable time, the
iron is diffolved by its ftronger affinity for the acid, and
the copper being feparated, is precipitated in the form
of brown mud. After the water appears to be exhauft-
ed of the copper, the oxide of copper collefted at the
bottom is raked out, and being dried in the fun, may be
reduced in the ufual way. This material, which is the
richeil employed in obtaining metallic copper, yielding
fifty per cent, although contaminated with fome iron
and clay, is rarely fmelted, excepting along with the
poorer ores, fome of which do not afford more than five
per cent, of pure metal.
The plates of copper of a fine red colour, ufually
known by the name of rofette copper, are made by a
particular management. When the metal is found to be
in a ftate of fufficient purity, the furface while in fufion
is well fcummed, and allowed to cool till it is juft ready
to fix. At this time the workman bruffies it over with
a wet broom, by which the furface is immediately fixed,
and a thin plate is feparated from the metal below,
which is ftill in a fluid ftate. The plate thus produced
is taken off and thrown into water, where it becomes of
a high red colour. The fame operation is repeated and
continued fucceffively till the whole of the fluid metal
is converted into thin irregular plates of the above
defcription.
Chap. VI. Of the Ores of Iron.
The ores of iron, which prefent a confiderable varie¬
ty, are reduced, on account of the refractory nature of
this metal, with no fmall difficulty. The moft power¬
ful agents muft be employed for this purpofe. And as
the conftruClion of furnaces is a matter of the greateft
importance in the fmelting of iron ores, we were led,
when treating of that fubjeft, to enter into a pretty
full account of the proceffes themfelves 5 to this account
the reader is referred for information on the methods
followed in the reduction off thefe ores. The prefent
chapter therefore will be only occupied in giving an
abridged view of their analyfis.
Sect. I. Of the Analyfs of Iron Ores.
Native Iron.—In analyfing this ore, it may be dif¬
folved in diluted nitric acid 5 the lead may be feparated
by adding fulphate of foda, thus forming an infoluble
fulphate of lead 5 the oxides of iron and copper may
be precipitated by means of cauftic fixed alkali at a
boiling heat; the addition of cauftic ammonia will dif-
folve the copper, and the iron will remain behind.
Pyrites.—Iron pyrites is either magnetical, or is de-
ftitute of this property. When the ore is magnetical,
it may be either proper magnetical pyrites, or common
pyrites with a mixture of magnetic iron, either in the
metallic ftate, or in that of black oxide. If the mag-
netifm be owing to black oxide mixed with common
pyrites, no hydrogen gas will be produced by digefting
it in muriatic acid ; and if metallic iron and pyrites
be combined together, the gas obtained will be hydro¬
gen gas : but if the ore examined be magnetic pyrites,
the gas evolved by muriatic acid will be fulphurated
hydrogen. The following analyfis is applicable to both
S, &c. Chap. VI.
fpecies of pyrites. I. After reducing the pyrites to a Iron,
very fine powder, let it be digefted in nitric acid of mo-
derate ftrength, and boiled almoft to drynefs ; then add a
freflr portion of acid, and repeat this procefs till the
whole fulphur is converted into fulphuric acid. 2. Pour
off the liquor, edulcorate the undiffolved refidue, and
add the waffiings to the liquor. 3. Add to this carbo¬
nate of foda to a flight excefs, and feparate the precipi¬
tate, if any take place. 4. After neutralifing the refi-
dual liquor by a little nitrous acid, it may be decompo-
fed by muriate of barytes, which is to be added while
any precipitate takes place. A hundred parts of this
precipitate indicate 14.5 of fulphur in the ore. 5. The
infoluble refidue (2.) is next to be digefted with cauftic
foda, and being evaporated to drynefs and {lightly igni¬
ted, the precipitate (3.) is to be added, and the whole
diffolved in muriatic acid, and boiled nearly to drynefs.
By the affufion of water the filica will be left in the
ftate of a white infoluble powder. 6. Mix the muriatic
folution with ammonia in flight excefs, and the alumina
and oxide of iron wall be precipitated together, leaving
the lime, if there ffiould be any, in the folution, from
which it may be obtained in the ftate of carbonate, by
a mild alkali. 7. The iron and alumina may be fepa¬
rated by boiling in nitric acid, which leaves the metal¬
lic oxide untouched, or by digeftion in cauftic potaffi or
foda, which produces a fimilar effeft.
Magnetic Iron Ore, Specular Iron Ore, and Red Iron
Ore,—are compofed chiefly of oxide of iron, with an
accidental quantity of filica and alumina. Thefe ores
are with difficulty afted on by acids alone. In conduc¬
ing the analyfis, therefore, 1. The ore is to be reduced
to a fine powder, and heated in a filver crucible, with
cauftic foda in folution. When the whole moifture is
evaporated, the remaining matter is to be ignited to a
low degree for a few minutes •, next diffolve the whole
contents of the crucible in diluted muriatic acid 5 eva¬
porate the folution nearly to drynefs, and boil the refi¬
due in diftilled water, acidulated with a little muriatic
acid, and the filica will remain behind undiffolved. 2.
The folution being confiderably reduced by evaporation,
add cauftic foda to a flight excefs, and boil it upon the
precipitate which is thus obtained. This precipitate,
after being edulcorated, is pure oxide of iron, and being
heated with a little wax, it may be brought to the ftate
of magnetic oxide, one hundred parts of which indicate
feventy-three of metallic iron. In this way the quanti¬
ty of iron in the ore may be eftimated. 3. The alka¬
line folution contains the alumina, which may be fepara¬
ted by muriate of ammonia, and after being waffied and
ignited, its quantity may be afcertained.
Black Iron Ore, and Brown Iron Ore.—Befides the
ingredients contained in the former fpecies, thefe ores are
combined with a portion of manganefe ; the precipitate
obtained, therefore, is a mixture of the oxides of iron
and manganefe. Thefe oxides may be feparated by dif-
folving them in muriatic acid, and adding to the hot fo¬
lution cauftic foda, drop by drop, till the liquor becomes
colourlefs, or till the precipitate thrown down at each
addition of the alkali begins to be white. In this way
the oxide of iron is precipitated, while that of the man¬
ganefe remains in folution. The iron being removed,
the oxide of manganefe may be obtained, by continuing
the addition of foda till no farther precipitate is produ¬
ced, The two oxides may alfo be feparafed by adding
fuccinate
Chap. VI. ■ ORE
Iron. fuccinate of foda to the muriatic folution, by which
'““'v—-'' means the iron is precipitated, and the manganefe re¬
mains in folution.
Sparry Iron Ore.—This ore of iron, which is fuppo-
fed to contain carbonic aeid, the oxides of iron and
manganefe, lime, magnelia and barytes, in the ftate of
carbonate, wTith a fmall portion of lilica and alumina,
may be examined according to the following analylis.
i. Digeft the ore reduced to very fine powder, in muri¬
atic acid, with a little nitric acid : a flight efiervefcence
takes place, and the lofs of weight indicates the quanti-'
ty of carbonic acid driven off. 2. The infoluble por¬
tion of the ore, after being twice or thrice digefted in
muriatic acid, is filica. 3. The muriatic folutions and
wafhings, being mixed together, are to be concentrated
by evaporation, and decompofed at a boiling heat, by
adding cauftic foda in excefs. 4. Boil the precipitate
and fupematant fluid together for a fhort time, the alu¬
mina only will be dilfolved. 5. The infoluble portion
is next to be well wafhed and ignited, and being once
abftrafted with nitric acid, the lime, barytes, and mag-
nefia, wall be diflblved, leaving behind the oxides of iron
and manganefe. 6. To feparate the oxides, digeft the
mixture with a gentle heat in diluted nitric acid, with
the addition of a fmall bit of fugar} the manganefe is
diffolved, and the remaining oxide of iron may be
brought to the magnetic ftate, by heating it with wax.
7. The nitrate of manganefe may be precipitated by
carbonate of foda, and after wafhing and drying it at a
heat below rednefs, pure carbonate of manganefe is ob¬
tained, one hundred parts of wThich indicate fifty-five of
metallic manganefe. 8. To the nitric folution (5O? a
good deal diluted with water, add fulphuric acid as
long as any precipitate is formed. The fulphate of
barytes thus obtained being removed, the other earths
may be thrown down by means of the carbonate of an
alkali; they are again diffolved in diluted fulphuric acid,
and the fulphates of lime and magnefia thus produced,
being precipitated by alcohol, may be feparated from
each other by cold water. In this way the fulphate of
magnefia is diffolved, with only a very inconfiderable
quantity of the fulphate of lime.
Argillaceous iron ore, bog iron ore, blue earthy and
green earthy iron ores,—are chiefly compofed of the
oxides of iron and manganefe, pholphate of iron, filica,
alumina, and lime. The analyfis of thefe ores may be
conducted according to the following procefs. 1. After
the ore is reduced to powder, and ignited, abftraft it
two or three times with nitric acid; pour off the acid,
and walh the refidue with a fmall portion of ftrong ni¬
tric acid. 2. Add the acids together, evaporate nearly
to drynefs, walh the refidue with cold water •, the phof-
phate of iron remains behind. 3. Ignite the infoluble
refidue (1.) with cauftic foda, and feparate the lilica as
in a former analyfis, by muriatic acid. 4. Mix the ni¬
tric and muriatic liquors, boil them with an excefs of
cauftic foda, and the alumina wrill be diffolved, while the
metallic oxides and lime are precipitated. 5. After ig¬
nition, abftract the compound precipitate with nitric
acid , the lime is now diffolved, and nothing remains
but the oxides of iron and manganefe, which may be
feparated according to the preceding analyfis.
Arfeniate of Iron.—This ore is found to contain
oxides of iron and copper, with arfenic acid, befides a
portion of filica, and fometimes lime. It was ana-
S, &c.
lyfed by Mr Chenevix, according to the following
procefs. Being reduced to powder, and fubjected to
lefs than a red heat, the water of cryftallization is dri¬
ven off; the refidue is next boiled with cauftic potalh,
and the alkaline folution being feparated by filtration, is
to be neutralized with nitric acid. The addition of ni¬
trate of lead affords a precipitate of arfeniate of lead,
one hundred parts of which indicate thirty-three of
arfenic acid. Muriatic acid is next to be added to the
refidue, which is infoluble in potafh j the iron and cop¬
per are thus diffolved, and the filica remains behind.
By fuperfaturating the muriatic folution with ammonia,
the oxide of iron will be precipitated, and the oxide of
copper will remain in folution by the alkali.
But, for practical purpofes, we fliall give a fliort view
of the Ampler methods of affaying the ores of ironr
which are chiefly employed in manufafture, with the
view of afcertaining the quantity of metal to be ob¬
tained from them, when treated in the large wray.
Among the older metallurgifts it was ufual to employ
active faline fluxes in affaying the ores of iron; but as
the metallic part of the ore can only be brought into
fufion at a very high temperature, the fame degree of
heat effects the vitrification of the earthy matters, when
aided by lime and bottle glafs, fo that the ufe of borax,
or alkaline falts, which are more expenfive, may be dif-
penfed with.
To affay the richer varieties of magnetic iron ore,
particularly iron fand, reduce them to a fine powder,
add one twelfth of charcoal, or double the quantity of
fine faw dull, and expofe the mixture in a covered cru¬
cible for an hour to the heat of a powerful wind fur¬
nace. After this the iron will be found at the bottom
of the crucible, in the form of an irregular button, and
covered with .* fmall portion of cellular fcoriax This
procefs will be fufficient where the quantity of earthy
matter is fmall, but as the common magnetic iron ore
contains a confiderable proportion of filica, a flux of the
following materials may be neceffary. For every eighty
parts of ore take eight of bottle glafs, fix of limeftone
or chalk, and one of charcoal, mix the whole carefully
together with the ore, and expofe the mixture to heat as
in the former cafe. If the operation have fucceeded^
a button of iron will be found at the bottom of the
crucible, covered by a compaft, vitreous, greenifli
flag* . . .
As the fpecular iron ore generally contains a portion
of fulphur, from the admixture of pyrites, it muft be
roafted at a moderate red heat, till the liilphureous odour
is no longer perceptible •, then to eight parts of the ore,
add eight of bottle glafs, fix of chalk, and one twelftk,
of charcoal, and treat the mixture as before. The
red, brown, and black iron ores, may be affayed in the
fame way.
Sparry iron ore may be affayed without roafting, by
reducing it to powder, and placing it in a crucible
lined with a mixture of charcoal and clay, and then
covering it with about one fourth of its weight of cal¬
cined borax.
In affaying argillaceous and bog ores of iron, they
are firft to be roafted, and then mixed with eight parts of
bottle glafs, feven of chalk, and one and a half of char*
coal, to eight parts of ore, and fubjefted to fufion in an
unlined crucible. It is fcarcely neceffary to obferve,
that the proportion of chalk may be diminiflied in treat-
wg,
438 ORE
Leatl. ing thofe varieties of ore which contain calcareous earth
jn quantity.
SECT. II. Of the ReduBlon of the Ores of Iron.
In treating of the conftruftion of furnaces, the pro¬
per form and management of which are of the utmofl
importance in extracting the metal from the ores of
iron, we were led to enter pretty fully into the nature
and effedts of the fmelting procefs, or the method of
reducing iron ores. We (hall not, therefore, refume
the fubjeCt in this place. See Furnace.
Chap. VII. Of Lead.
In the prefent chapter we {hall firft give an account
of the molt improved methods of analyfing the ores of
lead} and fecondly, treat of the belt methods of redu¬
cing or fmelting thefe ores.
Sect. I. Of the Analyjis of Lead Ores.
The analyfis of the ores of lead is lefs difficult than
that of the other metals of which wre have juit now
treated 5 and when accuracy is wanted, the humid way
of analyfis is to be preferred. The method of fepara-
ting lead from filver has been already noticed, as well
as that by which it is feparated from iron and copper.
The fame procefs as that employed for feparating iron
and copper from lead, may be followed with regard to
the feparation of lead from tin, cobalt, and zinc. We
ffiall now give an account of the analyfis of particular
lead ores.
Galena, or fulphuret of lead.—This fpecies, which is
the moft common ore of lead, was a-alyfed by Vau-
\Jour.des quelin, by the following procefs f. I. Three hundred
Mmes, parts of the ore reduced to powder, were roafted, and
Tn° Jxviii. l0p;? during the procefs, twelve per cent. 2. Three
hundred parts of the fame ore wrere heated with nitric
acid very much diluted 5 a flrong odour of fulphurated
hydrogen was perceived, and the folution of the lead
being completed and filtered, there remained on the fil¬
ter pure filica, which being heated to rednefs and cool-
•ed, weighed fifty grains, or 16.67 parts per cent. 3.
The folution of lead in nitric acid being decompofed by
means of fulphate of foda, and the fulphate of lead pre¬
cipitated being wafhed and dried, weighed 250 grains,
or 63.1 of metallic lead per cent. 4. After the ful¬
phate of lead was feparated, ammonia was added, and a
precipitate of oxide of iron was obtained, which being
fubjecfed to a red heat, weighed ten grains, or was eqvial
to 3.33 per cent. 5. Carbonate of potaffi being added
to the refidual liquor, threw down nine grains of carbo¬
nate of lime, which is equal to three per cent. The
fulphuret of lead thus analyzed, afforded in one hundred
parts,
Sulphur, - 12.
Silica, - - 16.67
Metallic lead, - 63.1
Oxide of iron, - 3.33
Carbonate of lime, - 3. .
Lofs, - 1.9
100.00
S, &c. Chap. VII.
To affay galena in the dry way, it is to be mixed af- Lead,
ter roafling with, three times its weight of black flux, ^ v ~ f
covered with fait, and melted. A button of lead will
be found at the bottom of the crucible, but the filver
and other metals which exilled in the ore, are flill com¬
bined with the metallic lead.
Sulphuret of lead, antimony and copper.—An ore of
this kind was analyfed by Mr Hatchett, by the follow¬
ing procefs. Two hundred grains of the ore were heat¬
ed in a matrafs, with two ounces of muriatic acid, and
nitric acid was very fiowly added, till the whole exhibi¬
ted a moderate effervefcence. Being gently heated for
an hour, the folution affumcd a green colour, and a
quantity of fulphur which floated on the furface, being
collected, digefled feparately with a little muriatic acid,
and wraihed and dried, weighed thirty-four grains j and
as it burnt entirely away w ithout any refiduum, in a red
earthen cup, it w'as perfectly pure. The folution with
the muriatic acid, in which the lulphur had been wafh¬
ed, was firft boiled, and afterwards mixed with fix pints
of boiling diftilled water, to which it communicated a
milky appearance. It was filtered while hot, and the
filter walked with another portion of boiling water.
The wffiite precipitate, which was oxide of antimony,
was dried in a fand bath, and weighed fixty-thvee grains.
When the liquor with the wTafhings cooled, feme cryftals
of muriate of lead w'ere depofited. The liquor wras af¬
terwards evaporated nearly to drynefs, and a few drops
of fulphuric acid were added, to leparate the lead which
remained in folution. The refidue being again diffolv^d
in boiling water, was entirely decompofed by fulphate
of foda, and the fulphate of lead thus obtained being
added to the former portion, wras wafhed and dried on a
fand bath. It weighed 120 grains.
The liquor, which wTas now bluiih green, a {fumed a
deep blue colour lay the addition of ammonia; a fmall
portion of the oxide of iron was feparated, which, when
dried and heated with wax, became magnetic, and
amounted to 2.4 grains. The liquor, after being eva¬
porated nearly to drynefs, was boiled with a ftrong lolu-
tion of potaffi, till it was nearly dry, and the refidue
being wafhed with water, a black oxide of copper re¬
mained ; which, after being dried, weighed thirty-two
grains.
White lead ore, or carbonate of lead.—The white
tabular lead ore, from Leadhills in Scotland, was ana¬
lyfed by Klaproth, according to the following pro¬
cefs.
“ x. One hundred grains of it, in pure fpecimens, and
previoufly triturated to a powder, were by fmall portions
introduced into a mixture of 200 of nitric acid with
300 grains of w^ater, and put in equilibrium upon the
balance. The ore diffolved readily, and with a ftrong
effervefcence, without leaving any refidue. By the car-
bpnic acid that efcaped, there was a lofs of 16 grains of
wreight.
“ 2. The folution, which vras clear and colourlefs, was
diluted with neater, and a cylinder of zinc put into it.
After 24 hours, the whole of the lead had fliot into
beautiful metallic laminae, which colledled, waffied, and
both quickly and carefully dried, to the end that no
oxidation might take place, afforded 77 grains of lead
in the reguline ftate, which correfpond with 82 grains
of oxidated lead.
“ Confequently, the conftituent parts of this tabular
2 and
Chap. VII. ORE
Lead, and carbonated white lead ore, bear to each other the
following proportion :
t Ibid.
ih 125.
Oxide of lead,
Carbonic acid,
Water.
*
ii. 132.
82.
16.
2.
IOO.” %
Green lead ore, or phofphate of lead.—The following
is an example of the method of analyfmg this fpej'ies of
ore, adopted by Klaproth.
“ 1. An hundred grains of this ore, in very pure fpeci-
mens, left on folution in dilute nitric acid one half grain
of the quartzofe matrix behind ; which I feparated and
replaced by an equal quantity of pure ore. The co-
lourlefs folution, treated with nitrate of filver, yielded
10 grains of muriated filver: which indicates 1 •54 of
concrete muriatic acid, contained m 100 of the ore.
“ 2. In the next inflance, the ingredient lead was fe¬
parated by means of fulphuric acid. The collected ful-
phate-of lead, after gentle ignition, weighed 1044-
grains 5 for which 77.10 grains of oxidated lead muft be
put in the account.
“ 3. When after this the nitric folution had been freed,
by nitrated barytes, from the portion of fulphuric acid
added to excels, and fubfequently treated with ammonia
fo far, that the acid Hill predominated, I continued
adding a folution of acetated lead, till no more turbid-
nefs was effected. The generated phofphate of lead,
v.hen collected and expofed to a gentle red-heat, pro¬
ved to weigh 85 grains 5 and confequently, the pro¬
portion of the phofphoric acid mult have been
grains.
f 4- The remaining fluid was mixed with muriatic
acid, the mixture evaporated to drynefs, and extracted
with ardent fpirit. Ihe refidue, after completely eva¬
porating the fpirit, was again dilfolved in water, and
treated with Prufiian alkali. A. precipitation of pruffi-
ated iron enfued, which indicated the amount of oxide
of iron 10 grains.
“ I rom the refults of this decompofition it follows,
that the conftituent parts of green lead ore, and their
proportion to each other, are :
Oxide of lead
Phofphoric acid
Muriatic acid
Oxide of iron
77.10
19.
I*54
0.10
f 97.74.”
Red lead ore, or chromate of lead.—In analyfing this
ore, Vauquelin adopted the following fimple procefs.
Itqual weights of the ore reduced to fine powder,
itrong muriatic acid, and diftilled water, were digefted
together at a moderate temperature, and ftirred from
time to time. The chromate of lead is thus decompo-
fed, and converted, for the moft part, to muriate of lead,
which is of a white colour. When the acid has ceafed
to a6I, pour off the liquor, add frefh muriatic acid, dilu¬
ted as before with an equal weight of wrater, and to the
amount of about one fourth of the former quantity,
and digeft till the whole of the orange coloured par¬
ticles among the white muriate difappear. This liquor
is to be .addsd to the former, along with the walhings ^
S, &c. 439
the whole is to be heated, and placed in a cool place for Lead,
a fewT days, that the fmall portion of muriate of lead
which it holds in folution, may be depofited } and this
being removed, add very gradually oxide of filver, preci¬
pitated from its folution in nitric-acid by cauftic potafi;,
till the lafi; portions aflume a red purple colour. In
this way the whole of the muriatic acid is feparated,
and the liquors contain only chromic acid, which is de¬
pofited by How evaporation in the form of fmall, prif-
matic, ruby red cryfials. The quantity of muriate of
lead, obtained by this procefs being afeertained, will
drew the quantity of metallic lead contained in the
ore.
Yellow lead ore, or tnolybdate of lead.—Klaproth
analyfed this ore in the following manner.
“ 1. A hundred grains of the cryftals were carefully
freed from the adhering calcareous earth and ochre of
iron, and then finely pulverized. They were then dif-
folved in muriatic acid, aflifted by heat, alternately
affufing upon them the acid, and a large quantity of
rvater. In this inftance a trace of filiceous earth, though
fcarcely difcernible, appeared.
“ 2. The greateft part of muriate of lead, generated
in the procefs, wxis depofited in fine needles, even before
the folution had completely grown cold. The fuper-
natant clear fluid was then poured off, reduced to a
fmaller volume by evaporation, and freed from the mu-
tiated lead, which ftill feparated. The muriated me¬
tal, collected with care, and brilkly deficcated, weighed
744 grains. By difiblving it in hot whaler, and lleeping
into the folution a poliflied piece of iron, the lead pre¬
cipitated upon this laft in fine lamellae, and in the me¬
tallic Hate.
“ 3. But in order to find more accurately- what pro¬
portion this muriated lead might bear to pure oxide of
lead, I made the following experiment.
_ “ Two hundred grains of lead, cut into fhreds, were
diflblved in 300 grains of nitric acid, diluted with 10
ounces of water, and, with the afliftance of digeftion, in
a boiling heat. The folution was.then divided into two
parts.
“ a. Into one half I dropped muriatic acid, as long
as it produced any turbidnefs •, evaporating afterwards
the mixture to the moft perfect drynefs of the refidue.
The muriate of lead here produced weighed 133
grains.
“ b. From the fecond half of the nitric folution I
precipitated the oxide of lead by diffolved cauftic pot-
afh. This oxide, when edulcorated and brilkly dried
till it began to turn yellowifh, amounted to x 15 grains'.
“ From this it folknved that thofe 744 grains of mn-
riated lead, obtained from 100 grains of the yellow mo¬
lybdate of lead (2.), are equal to 64.42 grains of pure
oxide of lead.
“ 4. The concentrated muriatic folution of molyb-
dena, which had a blue colour, wras mixed with nitric
acid, and lodged in a fand-bath for farther evaporation.
Being thus circumftanced, it was again diverted of its
blue colour, and a yellow oxide of molybdena fepara¬
ted. But when the evaporation had been carried on
to complete drynefs, I collected and weighed the re¬
maining lemon-yellow oxide of molybdena ; and found
it amount to 344 grains.
“ Wherefore, one hundred parts of the pureft cryftals
of the yellow7 lead ore. from Carin’thia, contain,
Oxide •
44°
Lead.
ORE
Oxide of lead 64.42
Oxide of molybdena 34.25
*"r * 9S-67-”
Sulphate of lead.—This ore of lead was analyfed by
Klaproth according to the following procefs.
“ 1. One hundred grains of tabular fulphate of lead
from Wanlockhead, in feleft pure fpecimens, loft 2|
grains, by being heated in a covered crucible. When
finely pulverized and ignited in a platina crucible with
400 grains of carbonate of pota(h,they yielded a brown-
ilh-yellow, moderately concrete mafs. Upon this fub-
ftance, previoufly triturated, water w7as affufed and heat
applied to promote the folution of the foluble parts.
As in the cafe of the preceding foffil, fo in this an
oxide of lead depofited from the liquor, which, when
waftied, dried and moderately ignited, weighed. f]o\
grains. Diluted nitric acid took the whole of it up
without the aflxftance of heat, and afforded a clear lo-
lution, from which the lead has been precipitated in the
reguline ftate, by means of zinc. The metallic lead,
thus obtained, when collected, wafhed and quickly dried,
amounted to 654 grains.
“ 2. In order to afcertain the quantity of fulphuric
jacid contained in the alkaline folution, it was combined
with nitric acid added to fuper-faturation in fome de¬
gree, and, in the next inftance, treated with acetate of
barytes. By this management fulphate of barytes was
formed and precipitated, to the amount of 76 grains,
after being heated to rednefs: which indicates 25-3:
grains of concrete fulphuric acid.
44 According to this decompofition, an hundred parts
of this tabular fulphate of lead confift of,
S, See. Chap. VII.
denly folid, and are removed to the fide of the furnace. Tin.
The tap hole is now opened, and the lead runs into v “*
moulds, in which oblong maffes or pigs, about 60 pounds
each, are formed. After the lead has run out of the
furnace, the hole is again clofed, the fcorim are replaced
in the bed ; and the heat being raifed to a glowing red,
they are foon melted. The greater part of the lead fe-
parates from the flag, and collects in a mafs at the bot¬
tom. The fcoriae become folid with the addition of a
little lime, and the lead is let off into the mould. The
fecond fcoriae ftill contain a portion of lead, from fi^ to
eight per cent. } but as it is not worth the expence of
extracting, it is thrown away. It is found that the
firft running of lead is the belt •, the fecond, which is ob¬
tained from the fcoriae, being confiderably harder, on ac¬
count of a greater proportion of iron combined wdth it.
The procefs which is followed, at leaft in moft parts
of Scotland, is fomewhat different from that now de-
feribed, particularly in the previous preparation of the ore.
The maffes of ore, as it is brought from the mine, being
feparated from any adhering impurities, are reduced to
fmall pieces, well waftied, and then pulverifed. In this
ftate it is ready for the fmelting procefs, which till of
late was ufually performed in an open furnace.
In fome mining countries there is a confiderable pro¬
portion of white lead ore mixed with the galena ; doubts
have been entertained whether it be profitable to retain
this ore, even although it contain a large proportion of
metal, becaiife in the reverberatory furnace it is vitrified
immediately on the application of the heat, and a Cling
as a powerful flux, the whole is brought into fufion be¬
fore the fulphur be entirely feparated j fo that the pro¬
portion of fcoriae in this cafe is greatly augmented, with
very little increafe in the produce of lead.
Oxide of lead 70'5°
Sulphuric acid 25.75
Water of cryftallization 2.25
f Ibid. f 98.50”
ii. 130.
Sect. II. Of the Reduciion of the Ores of Lead.
Galena is by far the moft abundant ore of lead, and
indeed almoft the only ore which is fubjefted to the pro¬
cefs of redudion. The treatment of this ore of lead
in this way is very Ample. The firft objeCf in drefling
the ore, is to feparate the extraneous matters or impuri¬
ties, fuch as iron pyrites, blende, calcareous fpar, quartz,
&c. The purer part of the ore is broken to pieces
about the fize of a hazle nut, and waftied from any earthy
matters which adhere to it, and then it is ready to
be fmelted. A ton, or a greater quantity of the ore,
is fpread on the floor of a common reverberatory fur¬
nace, with a low arch, and with the flame of pit coal
it is quickly brought to a red heat; being, during this
time, occafionally ftirred with iron rakes, to expofe frefti
furfaces to the adion of the heat. When it begins to
affume the confiftence of pafte, the heat is lowered, and
kept at a dull red, till the whole of the fulphur is near¬
ly driven off; when the heat is increafed, and the ore
brought to perfed fufion. The mafs confifts of two
fluids, the upper being a vitreous flag, and the lower me¬
tallic lead. The fire is now damped, and a few fpadefuls
of quicklime thrown in, by which the fcoriae become fud-
4
Crap. VIII. Of the Ores of Tin.
There is no great variety of the ores of tin. It is
ufually found in the ftate of oxide, or in that of fulphu-
ret, when it is alfo combined with copper, and a fmall
proportion of iron.
Sect. I. Analyfs of the Ores of Tin.
Before treating of the analyfis of the ore of tin,
we ftiall firft deferibe a very Ample procefs for affaying
it. The ore is firft reduced to the confiftence of coarfe
fand, and feparated from the ftony matters by waftiing.
If it appear, by fubjeding a grain or two to the adion
of the blow-pipe, that it contains arfenic, 200 grains
of the ore mixed with a little charcoal, are to be roafted
in a calcining teft at a low red heat, till the w'hole of
the arfenic is driven off. The refidue is withdrawn,
mixed with a little pitch and fine faw-duft, introduced
into a crucible lined with charcoal, and after a cover is
luted on, placed in a large furnace, whofe heat is to be
raifed to a bright red. In about 20 minutes the reduc¬
tion is completed, the crucible is removed, and a button
of metallic tin is found at the, bottom, covered with a
little fcoriae. But if the ore (hould contain no arfenic,
the previous procefs of roafting is unneceffary.
Tin f one.—The beft method of analyfing the ores of
tin, is that contrived by Klaproth, by means of the
fixed alkalies, which was conduced according to the
following procefs.
1
I
Chap.
Tin.
Vin. ' ORE
“ i. One hundred grains of tin-flone from Alternon,
- in Cornwall, previoufly ground to a fubtle powder, were
mixed in a filver veffel with a lixivium containing 600
grains of cauftic potafli. This mixture was evaporated
to drynefs in a fand heat, and then moderately ignited
for half an hour. When the gray-white trials, thus ob¬
tained, had been foftened while yet warm, with boiling
water, it left on the filter 11 grains of an undiflolved
refidae.
“ 2. Thefe 11 grains, again ignited with fix times
their tveight of cauftic potalh, and diflolved in boiling
water, left now only grain of a fine yellowilh-gray
powder behind.
“ The alkaline folution (i. and 2.), which wras in
fome degree colourlefs, was faturated with muriatic
acid. A brilliant white, tender oxide of tin was thrown
doivn, giving to the mixture a milky appearance. Ihis
precipitate, re-diffolved by an additional quantity of mu¬
riatic acid, was precipitated afrefli by means of carbona¬
ted foda. When lixiviated and dried in a gentle heat,
it acquired the form of bright yellowilh tranfparent
lumps, having in their fracture a vitreous luftre.
“ q. This precipitate, being finely powdered, foonand
entirely diffolved in muriatic acid, aftifted by a gentle
heat. Into the colourlefs folution, previoufty diluted
with from two to three parts of water, I put a flick of
zinc} and the oxide of tin, tnus reduced, gathered
around it in delicate dendritic laminae of a metallic
luftre. Thefe, when collected, waftied, and fufed, un¬
der a cover of tallow, in a capiule placed upon char¬
coal, yielded a button of pure metallic tin, weighing
“ 5. The above mentioned refidue of i-J grain, left
by the treatment with cauftic potafh (2.), afforded with
muriatic acid a yellowdih iolution } from which, by
means of a little piece of zinc introduced into it, one
half grain of tin wras ftill depofited. Pruflian alkali,
added to the remainder of the iolution, produced a fmall
portion of a light-blue precipitate •, of which, after fub-
trafling the oxide of tin now combined with itrhardly
one fourth of a grain remained, to be put to the ac¬
count of the iron contained in the tin-flone, here exa¬
mined.
“ In thefe experiments, (excepting only a flight indi¬
cation of iilex, amounting to about three fourths of a
grain), no trace has appeared, either of tungftenic oxide,
w hich fome mineralogifts have fuppofed to be one of the
conftituent parts of tin-ftone, or of any other fixed fub-
ffance. Therefore, wdiat is deficient in the fum, to
make up the original weight of the foffil analyfed, muft
be afcribed to the lofs of oxygen } and thus the confti¬
tuent parts of pure tin-ftone from Alternon are to each
other in the following proportion :
* EJfayu
Tin 77-50
Iron 0.25
Silex 0.75
Oxygen 21.50
100.00
Tic analyfis of grained tin ore, or wood tin, may be
condmfted in the fame way as the former.
Tin pyrites.—The following is the procefs which
Klaproth adopted in the analyfis of this fpecies of tin
ere.
Voi~ XV. Part II.
S, &.C<
“ 1. Two drams of finely triturated tin pyrites were
treated with an aqua regia, compofed of one ounce of
muriatic and a half ounce of nitric acid. Witnin 24
hours the greateft; part -of the metallic portion was dif¬
folved in it, without application of heat j while the ful-
phur rofe up, and floated on the furface of the menftru-
um. After the mixture had been digefted upon it for
fome time in a low fand-heat, I diluted it with water,
and filtered it. It left 43 grains of fulphur on the pa¬
per, ftill, howrever, mixed with metallic particles.
When the fulphur had been gently burnt off on a tell,
there flill remained 13 grains } of which eight were dil-
folved by nitro-muriatic acid. The remaining part w as
then ignited with a little wax 5 upon which the magnet
attracted one grain of it.—What remained was part of
the filiceous matrix, and weighed three grams.
“ 2. The folution of the metallic portion (1.) was
combined with carbonate of potafh j and the dirty green
precipitate, thus obtained, was re-diffolved in muriatic
acid, diluted with three parts of water. Into this fluid
a cylinder of pure metallic tin, weighing 217 grains,
was immerfed. The refult was, that the portion of cop¬
per contained in the folution, depofited itfelf on the
cylinder of tin $ at the fame time that the fluid began
to lofe its green colour, from the bottom upwards} un¬
til, after the complete precipitation of the copper in the
reguline ftate, it became quite colourlefs.
“ 3. The copper thus obtained weighed 44 grains.
By brifk digeftion in nitric acid, it diffolved, forming a
blue tinflure, and left one grain of tin behind, in the
character of a white oxide. Thus the portion of pure
copper conftfted of 43 grains.
“ 4. The cylinder of tin, employed to precipitate
the copper, now weighed 128 grains ; fo that 89 grains
of it had entered into the muriatic folution. I rom this,
by means of a cylinder of zinc, I re-produced the whole
of its diffolved tin, which was loofely depofited on the
zinc in a tender dendritical form. Upon being affured,
that all the tin had been precipitated, I collefted it care¬
fully, lixiviated it cleanly, and fuffered it to dry. It
weighed 130 grains, I made it to melt into grains,
having it previoufly mixed with tallow, and under a co¬
ver of charcoal dull, in a fmall crucible; w’hich done, I
feparated the powTder of the coal by elutriation. A-
mong the wafhed grains of tin, I obferved fome black
particles of iron, which were attrafted by the magnet,
and weighed one grain. Uedu£ling this, there remain
129 grains for the weight of the tin. By i'ubtracling
again from thefe laft, thofe 89 grains, which proceeded
from the cylinder of tin employed for the precipitation
of the copper (2.) there remained 40 grains for the por¬
tion of tin contained in the tin pyrites examined.
Hence, including that one grain of tin, which had been
feparated from the folution of the copper (3.), the por¬
tion of pure tin contained in this ore amounts to 41
grains. An hundred parts yielded,
441
Tin.
Sulphur 25
Tin 34
Copper 36
Iron 2
Bartliy matters 13
100*”
3*
* Ibid. i.
s^-
Sect.
O R
442
Tin.
E
Sect. II. Of the ReduBion of the Ores of Tin.
Tin ftone, or vein tin, as it is called in Cornwall, con¬
tains a large proportion of ftony matters. It is tirfl
broken by hammers into pieces of the fize of a hen’s
egg, when it is ready for the operation of fbmping,
which is performed in the way already defcribed for the
ores of gold, excepting that there are only three hamp¬
ers. A tin plate about a foot fquare, and pierced with
holes to admit a moderate fixed knitting-needle, is in¬
fected in front of the trough, and that furface of the
plate with the rough extremities of the holes is on the
infide, by which the holes are prevented from being
plugged up with the ore. As the ore is reduced to the
proper finenefs, it paffes with the water through the
holes into the labyrinth, where it is collefted, and after
being walhed on a wooden table, when it is ready for
roafting. In this itate it has a confiderable proportion
of copper and iron pyrites, and is called black tin. Af¬
ter being calcined at a low red heat for feveral hours, in
a large reverberatory furnace, the ore comes out of a
bright ochrey red colour, owing to the decompofition
and oxidation of fome of the metallic fubltances 5 but
the oxide of tin, when the operation is properly con¬
duced, remains unaltered. The ore is walhed a fecond
time, to feparate the remaining impurities j and the water
which is impregnated with fulphate of copper, is retain^
ed and decompofed by means of old iron.
The redu&ion of the ore is the next ftep in the pro-
cefs. Seven cwt. of roailed ore, with one fifth of its
bulk of fmall coal, are introduced into a reverberatory
furnace, which is about feven feet long, and 34 wude.
No lime, or indeed flux of any kind is required. A
brilk heat is kept up for about fix hours ; the tin finking
down as it is reduced, and covered with black fcorise.
The furnace is now tapt, and the metal flows into a
Ihallow pit. When the whole of the metal has run
out, the fcor;ae are removed from the furnace, and a
frelh charge is made. The metal in the pit throws up
a flag, rich in metal, which is immediately returned into
the furnace; and after the melted tin has cooled a little,
it is taken out with iron ladles, and poured into granite
moulds. Each charge affords on an average from four
to five cwt. of metal ; but as the firft fcoriae are not en¬
tirely free from metal, they are again ftamped and walh¬
ed, and mixed with a new parcel of roafted ore. The
pigs of tin are next put into a fmall reverberatory fur¬
nace ; where, without any addition, they are fubjeCed
to a very gentle heat ; the pureft part of the tin melts
firft, and is drawn off, forming what is called common
grained tin j the other part contains fome copper, arfe-
nic and iron, which is brought to a ftate of fufion, and
call into pigs, forming common tin.
Stream tin ore, which is peculiar to Cornwall, is
prepared for the furnace by reducing it to powder, and
palTing it through wire fieves, which have 16 melhes in
the fquare inch. A blaft furnace is employed, which is
about feven feet high, and is fupplied with air from two
cylinders walhed by an overlhot wTater wheel. The me¬
thod of managing the furnace, after being fully heated,
is the following. Three or four Ihovels full of ore, and
two or three half bulhels of charcoal, without any kind
of flux, form a charge with which the furnace is fed
at Ihort intervals. There is a foiall channel at the bot-
s,
&e.
Chap. IX.
tom of the furnace, through which the reduced tin is
conftantly flowing into a pit below, and the flag which
accompanies it is removed from time to time, and re¬
turned into the furnace. When the pit is full, the melt¬
ed metal is removed into an iron boiler three feet in
diameter, having a fmall fire under it, to keep the me¬
tal in fufion. Two or three large pieces of charcoal
are then placed upon the tin, and forced to the bottom by
means of an iron inftrument refembling a wheel, with a
long handle fixed in the axle. This produces a violent
ebullition, and a little flag, before mixed with the metal,
rifes to the furface, and is removed. In a minute or
twro the metal is tried, as it is called, by taking up a la-
dleful, and returning it again into the mals ; wrhen, if it
affume a bright filver-like appearance, and a uniform
confiftence, the purification is complete. When cool to
the proper degree, it is removed into the moulds, where
it is formed into pigs of two or three cwt. Stream tin
ore yields from 65 to 75 per cent, of the beft and pu¬
reft tin *.
Chap. IX. Of the Ores of Bifmuth.
Bifmuth.
* Aikiu'r
Ditlion.
Chem. &c.
ii.
Bismuth is found in the metallic ftate, accompa¬
nied by native filver, blende, and galena, fome other
metals, and earthy fubftances. It is alfo met with in
the ftate of oxide, and alfo in the ftate of fulphuret.
Sect. I. Of the Anahjfs of the Ores of Bifmuth.
In conducing the analyfis of the ores of bifmuth,
previous roafting is not requifite. The native bifmuth,
or oxide of biimuth, diffolves readily in nitrous acid,
diluted with about one third of water, and either in the
cold, or with a moderate heat j but boiling is neceffary
for the fulphuret, to precipitate the fulphur, and diffolve
the bifmuth. The greater part of the nitrate of biimuth
may be precipitated from the folution, and feparaied
from the metals with which it is ufually alloyed, by ad¬
ding a large quantity of water. But to'leparate the
bifmuth totally, evaporate the clear liquor which remains
over the precipitated oxide to a fmall bulk, fo as to re¬
tain in folution the nitrates of the other metals. Add
muriatic acid by drops, as long as any w'hite cloud is
formed. This laft precipitate confifts of the remaining
portion of the oxide of bifmuth, mixed with muriate of
filver, if the ore examined contain any of that metal.
Then add a few’ drops of ftrong nitric acid, w’hich dif¬
folves the bifmuth, and leaves the filver \ and to this
porlion of the nitrate of bifmuth add water, which fe-
parates the whole by precipitation. To afcertain whe¬
ther the folution contains any filver, expofe the precipi¬
tate by muriatic acid to the light, which will become of
a bluifti or flatey colour, if any filver has been diffolv-
ed j but if not, the pure white colour remains unalter¬
ed. As the oxide of bifmuth is compofed of 81.3 per
cent, of metal, and 18.7 of oxygen, the proportion of
metal in the ore may be precifely afcertained by weigh¬
ing it. The other metals held in foluticn by the nitrous
acid, which are chiefly lead, iron, copper and cobalt,
may be feparated in the ufual way.
Sect. II. Of the Reduction of the Ores of Bifmuth.
The low degree of heat at which bifmuth is fufible,
renders
Chap. X.
O U E
Bifmuth. renders the reduction of tde ores of this metal a very
     Pimple procefs. In the treatment of the native metal,
and the oxide, the weight ol the ore of black flux is
put into a crucible along with it, covered with fait, to
about a finger’s breadth, and melted for 5 minutes with
a brilk fire : when it is cold, the bifmuth is found m a
clean button. The flux employed by others is one part
of borax, and the fame quantity of powdered glais,^ to
two of the ore, and the fufion is effe&ed in a cruciole
lined with charcoal. With the oxide, a little oil, rofin,
or charcoal, fliould alfo be mixed. Previous roafting is
neceflary in the treatment of the fulphuret of bilmuth,
to feparale the fulphur *, the other part of the treatment
is the fame with that now defcribed.
But in the large way, the ores of biffnuth are redu¬
ced merely by heating them along with burning fuel.
Sometimes a (hallow hole is made in the ground, and
filled loofely with pieces of wood and buflies, and after
the fire is kindled, the ore reduced to finally pieces is
thrown in •, and fometimes the flump of a hollow pme
tree is filled with wTood and ore alternately, and fet on
fire 5 the bifmuth feparates from its matrix, and collecls
in a mafs at the bottom.
Chap. X. Of the Ores of Zinc.
The ores of zinc are, the native carbonate, or com¬
mon calamine, the oxide of zinc, and the fulphuret.
Sect. I. Analyfs of the Ores of Zinc.
On account of the great volatility of zinc, it cannot
be examined in the dry way, or fubjeded to affay, with¬
out particular precaution. In affaying blende,_ or the
fulphuret of zinc, the ore, after being bruifed, is to be
carefully feparated from particles of galena, or other
impurities. It is then to be roafted, and the fulphur be¬
ing driven off, to be reduced to fine powder, mixed with
half its weight of charcoal, introduced into an earth¬
en retort, to which a tube is fitted. I he retort being
expofcd to a ftrong heat in a wind furnace, for three
quarters of an hour, is to be gradually cooled, and on
breaking it, the zinc is found in the neck, in metallic
drops. The objeft may be accompliftied in another
way. Prepare the ore as before, and having mixed it
with charcoal, let it be ftratified in a crucible, with its
own weight of copper clippings 5 and having luted on
a perforated cover, fubject it for nearly an hour to a low
white heat. Allow it to cool, and examine and wafh
the contents. The globules of brafl formed are thus
eafily feparated from the other impurities, and the excefs
of weight of the brafs above the copper, indicates the
quantity of zinc given out by the ore.
Blende, or fulphuret of %inc.—This ore is. found to
contain not only zinc and fulphur, but fometimes iron,
lead, copper, and arfenic, with filica, alumina, and a
portion of water. It may be analyfed by the following
procefs :
x. Introduce into a fmall coated glafs retort, 200
grains of ore reduced to powder, and let it. be gently
ignited for a quarter of an hour. The fluid collected
in the receiver will be found to be water.
2. Digeft another portion of ore in repeated quanti¬
ties of diluted nitric acid, till every thing foluble is ta-
S, &c.
ken up wafti the refidue } weigh and ignite it j the ^
lofs of weight indicates the quantity of fulphur which
is burnt off.
3. Digeft the refidue in a little nitro-muriatic acid,
till the infoluble portion becomes quite white, which is
pure filica.
4. Add to the nitric folution (2.) a few drops of ful-
phate of foda •, evaporate gently, and continue to add
fulphate of foda while a precipitate is formed, and. after
being evaporated nearly to drynefs, digeft in diluted
muriatic acid 5 the fulphate of lead, remains behind.
5. Add together the nitro-muriatic folutions (3, 4..).$
decompofe by carbonate of foda, and digeft the precipi¬
tate in cauftic ammonia} the zinc and copper are thus
diffolved.
6. Let the ammoniacal folution (5.) be faturated with
muriatic acid , boil it, and add cauftic foda, while a
precipitate takes place: this is the brown oxide of
copper.
7. Oxide of zinc rtow only remains in the foda folu¬
tion, xvhich is to be faturated with muriatic acid, and
decompofed by carbonate of foda. Ihe precipitate ob¬
tained after ignition is oxide of zinc.
8. The refidue which was infoluble in ammonia (5.),
is to be treated repeatedly with nitric acid, and digefted
in cauftic foda. Oxide of iron, contaminated (lightly
with arfenic, remains infoluble.
q. Having faturated the foda folution (8.) with nitric
acid, add nitrate of lead, till no farther precipitate is
formed } the precipitate is arfeniate of lead.
jo. And to the refidual liquor, add firft, fulphate
of foda, to feparate any nitrate of lead that may re¬
main } filter the liquor, decompofe it by carbonate of
ammonia 5 the precipitate, wafhed and ignited, is pure
alumina.
Calamine, or carbonate of %ine.—The ores of this
fpecies contain, befides the carbonate of zinc, the car¬
bonates of lead, iron, and lime. The following is the
mode of analyfis.
1. The ore reduced to powder is to be diffolved in
diluted nitric acid ; the lofs of weight during the folu-
tion indicates the quantity of carbonic acid. Neutralize
the folution with cauftic foda, evaporate gently, and
add from time to time, a few drops 01 fulphate of loda
while any precipitate is formed.
2. Having thus cautioufly brought it nearly to dry¬
nefs, digeft it in highly reflified alcohol, and afterwards
in a little cold water, which will take up every thing
but the fulphates of lead and lime.
3. Thefe may then be feparated by digeftion in ful-
phuric acid very much diluted, which will take up the
fulphate of lime, leaving the fulphate of lead pure.
4. Neutralize the muriatic folution by foda, and eva¬
porate nearly to drynefs j then add al cohol to the re¬
fidue, which will throw down the fulphate of lime with
a little fulphate of foda, which latter may then be waffl¬
ed away by a little cold water.
5. The alcoholic folution (2.) after evaporation to
drynefs, may be digefted in cauftic ammonia, which
will take up the oxide of zinc, and leave behind the
oxide of iron.
6. The alkaline folution, after being flightly fuperfa-
turated with muriatic acid, is to be decompofed by a.
perfefllv carbonated alkali, by which the zinc is pro-
3 K 2 cured
443
^dnc.
. \
444 ORE
Zinei cured in the ftate of carbonate; and this, after edulcora-
v " tion, being diffolved by fulphuric acid, and the folution
ignited in a platina crucible, affords dry fulphate of
zinc, containing 50 per cent, of oxide of zinc.
7. Thus, all the conftituent parts are afcertained ex¬
cept the water: to determine the proportion of this,
take a frefh parcel of the ore, weigh it, and then ignite
it for half an hour, note the lofs of weight, and transfer
the refidue into muriatic acid ; if while it diffolves in
this fluid it gives out any gas, let the lofs of weight be
noted ; then add together the Ioffes by ignition and folu¬
tion •, deduft from the fum the known weight of the'
carbonic acid, and the refidue is water.
Sect. II. Of the ReduElion of the Ores of Tjinc.
The ore being reduced to fmall pieces, and the dif¬
ferent impurities being feparated, it is next calcined in
a reverberatory furnace at a moderate red heat, and if
the ore be calamine, the carbonic acid is driven off, and
if blende, it is deprived of its fulphur. After this it is
wafhed, and the metallic oxide being feparated from the
earthy parts, it is dried, and carefully mixed with about
one-eighth of its weight of charcoal, by grinding the
ingredients together in a mill, and is now ready for the
fmelting procefs. This is performed in a circular fur¬
nace, in which are fixed fix large earthen pots, about
four feet high and nearly of the fhape of oil jars. An
iron tube is inferted into the bottom of each pot, and,
paffmg through the arched floor of the furnace, ter¬
minates in a veffel of water placed beneath, while the
other end of the tube rifes within the crucible to a few
inches of the top. The crucibles are then filled with
the mixture of the ore and charcoal, to the level of the
tube, the cover of each is carefully luted on, and an in-
tenfe heat is to be kept up for feveral hours. The zinc,
as the procefs of reduftion goes on, rifes in the form of
vapour to the top of the pot, but as it cannot efcape, it
defeends through the iron tube, paffes into the water,
and is condenfed in fmall drops. The globules are after-
wards fufed, and call into the form of ingots, when it is
fit for the market.
But as common zinc contains a little of other metals,
as copper, lead, arfenic, iron, and manganefe, which
impair its quality, thefe impurities are partially feparated
by melting the zinc in a crucible, and ftirring into it,
with a flick or earthen rod, a mixture of fulphur and
fat; by the latter the zinc is preferved from oxidation,
and the fulphur combines with all the other metals ex¬
cept the zinc, and converting them into fulphurets, they
rife to the top in the form of fcoriae, which may be re¬
moved. This procefs is to be repeated as long as any
fcoriae appear. The method of purifying zinc propofed
by Proufl, is fimple diflillation in an earthen retort.
The zinc paffes over, and the oxides of the other metals
remain behind. But it is fuppofed that the arfenic or
lead cannot be feparated in this way.
Ghap. XI. Of the Ores of Antimony.
Native antimony is a very rare production •, the
moft common ore of antimony is the fulphuret j but it is
alfo fometimes found in the ftate of oxide.
S, 8tc. Chap. XI.
Antimony.
Sect I. Of the Analyfs of the Ores of Antimony, " V”
Gray ore of antimony, or fulphuret of antimony.—As
the fulphurets of antimony are the principal ores of this
metal, we lhall only deferibe the procefs by which the
analyfis of thefe pres may be conduced.
1. Five hundred grains being reduced to fine powder,
are to be digefted with 1500 grains of pure nitric acid
of fpecific gravity 1.25, and 1000 grains of water, for
half an hour, at 150° Fahrenheit ; then add a quantity
of pure water, equal to the reft of the thud 5 mix the
whole well together, and pour off the liquor as foon as
it becomes clear. This confifts of the nitrates of filver,
lead, and copper, and perhaps a little iron diffolved in an
excels of acid. By fimple boiling and filtration, the
iron is feparated in the ftate of red oxide.
2. Add to the folution muriate oi ioda, while any
precipitate takes place, and let the whole fland ftill the
fupernatant liquor becomes clear ; the precipitate is pure
muriate of filver. ,
3. The folution (2.) is next to be faturated with pot-
afh or foda, and concentrated by evaporation to one-
third of its bulk. The addition of cauiiic ammonia in
excefs thrown down the lead in the ftate of oxide, and
the copper remains in folution.
4. Acidulate (lightly the folution (3.) with nitrous
acid ; add carbonate of potaih, by which the green oxide
of copper will be precipitated, and being fubjedled to a
low7 red heat, is reduced to the ftate of brown oxide, of
which 100 parts indicate 85 of metal.
5. The portion of ore (1.) which was infoluble, is
next to be digefted at a degree of heat below boiling,
with fucceitive portions of nitromuriatic acid, compofed
of nitric acid, as long as any thing is taken up. The
different folutions are then mixed, concentrated by eva¬
poration, and poured into a large portion of pure w7ater ;
a precipitate immediately takes place, wbich is the
white oxide of antimony, wbich, after being feparated
and w7a{hed, is to be mixed writh twice its w'eight of
crude tartar and a little nitre, and then expofed to a full
red heat, which in a few minutes reduces it to the me¬
tallic ftate.
6. The folution (4.) contains now a little fulphuric
acid and iron, wuth fome earthy matters. By adding
nitrate of barytes while any precipitate is produced, the
quantity of acid may be afcertained, and then adding
cauftic potafh in excefs, wbich aflifted by a boiling heat,
will precipitate the iron, and retain the alumina and fi-
lica.
7. The infoluble refidue (6.) contains fulphur and
earth •, it is decompofed by a red heat, the fulphur be¬
ing diflipated, and the earth remains.
Sect. II. Of the ReduBion of the Ores of Antimony.
The ore of antimony, wbich is found in fufficient
quantity to be employed in the procefs of reduction in
the lar ge way, is the fulphuret, the analyfis of which has
now been detailed. The ore being feparated from the
greater part of the ftony matters which adhere to it, is
placed on the bed of a reverberatory furnace, and cover¬
ed with charcoal powder; and being brought to a low
red heat, the fttlphuret enters into fufion, and the
earthy.
Chap. XT.
ORE
Antimony earthy parts floating on the furface, arc removed with a
> rake. The melted part is call iuto the form of large
cakes, and is the crude antimony of the (hops.
The metal is obtained in a llate of purity from the
crude antimony, or fulphuret, by different procefles
The following is recommended as one ot the beL, and
moft frequently praclifed. The fulphuret being redu¬
ced to fmall pieces, is ffrewed thinly on the floor ol a
reverberatory furnace, to drive off the fulphur. _ 1 he
heat at firft muff not exceed that of the melting point of
tin, othervvife the antimony will melt. A lambent blue
flame is obferved over the furface of the ore, which pro¬
ceeds from the combuftion of the fulphur j the metal is
deprived of its luffre, and is converted into a grayifh
oxide. In the courfe of fome hours, by carefully Itining
the ore, and cautioufly increaflng the temperature, as
the fufibility dimintihes, it at laft ceafes to give out ful-
phureous vapours, and can bear a moderate red heat
without melting. After the roafting, the ore is re¬
moved from the fire, and is found changed into an afti-
gray oxide, weighing from 30 to 36 per cent, lets than
the fulphuret, but it is not yet entirely free fiom ful¬
phur. To reduce the oxide, mix it with half its weight
of crude tartar, and fubje£t to a full red heat in a cover¬
ed crucible. The oxide is decompofed by the carbona¬
ceous part of the tartar, and the antimony reduced to
the metallic form, is collefted at the bottom of the cru¬
cible. A fmall proportion, however, ftill remains, dif-
folved by the fulphuret of potafh formed by the alkaline
bafe of the tartar, and the. fulphur of the oxide. The
quantity of metal which is thus obtained in the large
way, amounts to 66 or 70 per cent, of the oxide em¬
ployed. The lofs, however, would be greater, if the
ore has not been properly roafted.
The reduaion is effeaed alfo by another procefs,
which is fuppofed to be more economical. The roafted
oxide is mixed with oil or fat, and a little powdered
charcoal, and then introduced into a crucible 5 and as the
metal begins to appear, powdered nitre,, in the propor¬
tion of an ounce to a pound of oxide, is gradually in-
iected, after which the whole mafs is brought to thin
fufion, affording a pure metal, and in greater proportion
than in the ufual way.
The only other procefs which we fhall mention, for
reducing fulphuret of antimony, is that by means of
fome of the other metals, for which the fulphur has a
greater affinity than for the antimony. Proceeding on
this principle, iron, copper, lead, filver, and tin, may be
employed in the procefs 5 but as iron is not only more
effeftual, but alfo cheaper, it is preferred. The anti¬
mony obtained by this procefs, was formerly called
martial regulus, not only on account of the iron being
ufed in the preparation, but, not improperly, on account
of a fmall portion of that metal which ftill adheres to it.
The proportions recommended are the following : Eight
ounces of fmall iron nails are heated in a crucible
almoft to whitenefs •, 16 ounces of crude or roafted
fulphuret of antimony,coarfely pounded, are then added:
the crucible is covered, and the fire kept up •, and in a
few minutes, when the whole is melted, three ounces
of nitre are to be added *, after a flight detonation has
taken place, the whole is brought to perfect fufion. It
is then put into an iron cone previoufly heated and
greafed, and as the mafs becomes folid, the fides of
the cone are ftruck, to promote the precipitation, of
S, &c.
the metal. When cold and weighed, a mafs of an¬
timony is obtained, equal to about 10 ounces of the fni-
phuret employed, covered with alkaline ferruginous
fcorite, from which it is eafily feparated by a blow of
the hammer. _ .
But the metal is not yet entirely free from iron and \
fulphur j to purify it ftill farther, therefore, it is to be.
remelted. Two ounces of crude antimony, and three of
nitre being added, and when the detonation has ceafed,
it is poured into a cone, and the metal is feparated as
before, from tbe fcoriae. buie the metal again } project
upon it three ounces of nitre j leparate the purified
metal from the fcoriae remelt with a ftrong heat, pro-
jetting gradually three ounces of nitre, anc immediately
pour it into a cone. About eight ounces of a beautiful
ftellated regulus, covered with yellovvith white leorite,
are thus obtained.
Chap. XII. Of the Ores of Cohalt.
Cobalt exifts ufually in a ftate of combination with
arfenic and fulphur, or in the ftate of oxide. Scarcely
any of its ores are free from arfenic and iron. Nickel
is alio fometimes abundantly mixed with the ores of co¬
balt, and occafionally a little rnanganefe and copper.
Sect. I. Of the Analysis of the Ores of Cobalt.
White and gray cobalt ores, confifting chiefly of ar¬
fenic and cobalt, may be examined in the dry way, ac¬
cording to the following procefs, which, however, is not
to be confidered as very perfect. The ore is to be mix¬
ed with charcoal or fawT-duft, and roafted to drive off
the arfenic. The oxide after calcination is mixed wuth
four times its weight of an equal mixture of carbonate
of potaih and tartar, and heated intenlely, at. the tem¬
perature which is required for melting caft-iron. .A
button of metallic cobalt is found beneath the fcoriae,
■which are always of a deep blue, or nearly black colour,
owing to the combination of part of the oxide of cobalt.
A hundred grains of this ore, treated by Klaproth ac¬
cording to this procefs, yielded 44 grains of metallic
cobalt; but if the ore contained iron, copper, or nickel,
it muft have been alloyed with thefe metals, and perhaps
nst entirely free from arfenic.
But the analyfis may be conduced with more accu¬
racy according to the following procefs by Taffaert *. # Ann- de
1. With a view to afeertain the quantity of arfenic, C£m.xxvui.
he digefted 100 parts of cobalt ore with diluted nitric P- 5>a*
acid. ' The whole was diffolved in a few hours, and de-
pofited on cooling, white cryftalline grains. By eva¬
poration more cryftals were depofited j the whole col¬
lected and dried, -weighed 56 parts, and excepting three
parts, the whole was fublimed. Thefe 53 parts are
oxide of arfenic, and indicate 49 Per cenri niotal in
the ore.
2. Three hundred parts of the ore digefted with four
times as much nitric acid, afforded a role-coloured folu-
tion. After partial evaporation, and with the addition
of water and heat, a pale-red precipitate- (1.) was
formed, leaving a rofe-coloured folution. The folution
being boiled with an excefs of potafh, afforded an oxide
of cobalt, which was rofe-coloured, and then green,
and when dried in a red heat, black. Ihe amount was •>
85 parts,
a. Thefe-
o
5* on
ORE
alt. 3. Tnefe 85 parts, dilToived in ni fro-muriatic acid,
•gave, with the addition of pure ammonia, a black pre¬
cipitate, which, excepting a fmall portion, was again
diffolved by an excefs of alkali. The undiffolved por¬
tion treated again with nitro-muriatic acid and ammo-
' nia, was reduced to four parts, and appeared to be oxide
of iron.
4. The rofe-coloured precipitate (2.), which was a
mixture of arfeniate of cobalt and iron, being decom-
pofed by cauftic potalh in excefs, afforded a precipitate,
which weighed, after being dried, 100 parts.
5. The 100 parts (4.) being again ditTolved in nitric
acid, and the folution being partially evaporated, and
then diluted with water, gave a precipitate of 27 parts
of oxide of iron, and left a clear folution of cobalt.
6. The nitrate of cobalt (if.) was decompofed by am¬
monia ; and the precipitate rediifolved by an excefs of
the alkali, excepting an infoluble oxide of iron, amount¬
ing to 15 parts. The folulion was then added to the
ammoniated cobalt (3.).
7. The infoluble precipitates of oxide of iron (3.
5. and 6.) were then mixed and examined. With
borax they gave a blue glafs, indicating a portion of co¬
balt dill combined. They wrere then diffolved in ni¬
tro-muriatic acid, precipitated by ammonia, and the
wet precipitate was introduced into acetic acid, which at
firft diffolved the whole, but by boiling and evaporation
nearly to drynefs, four times fucceflively, the oxide of
iron became infoluble, while the cobalt remained in fo¬
lution, and as it was more freed from iron, it affumed
more of a fine rofe colour. The folution of acetate of
cobalt was fuperfaturated with ammonia, and the folu¬
tion of ammoniated cobalt was added to the different
portions of the fame, obtained in former experiments.
To expel the ammonia, the whole folution was boiled,
and by adding pot alb, the whole oxide of cobalt was
precipitated, which being wafhed and dried, amounted
to 133 parts. The oxide being reduced in a crucible
lined with charcoal, afforded pure metallic cobalt, of
fpecific gravity 8.538.
8. To determine the quantity of fulphur, 100 parts of
the ore were feparately boiled with (;oo of nitric acid,
and diluted with water, to feparate the whole of the
oxide of arfenic that depofited fpontaneoufly. The ful¬
phur -was now converted into fulphuric acid 5 nitrate of
barytes wTas added, and a precipitate of fulphate of
barytes was formed, the quantity of which being afcer-
tained, the proportion of fulphur might in this way be
eftimated.
Sect. II. Of the Reduciion of the Ores of Cohalt.
As cobalt in the metallic Hate is not applied to any
ufeful purpofe, the redudlion of its ores in this view is
not an objecl of manufacture. Eut as it is extenfively
employed in the Hate of oxide, to give a fine blue colour
to glafs, porcelain, &c. we fiiall here give a fhort account
of the method of preparing the ores for this purpofe.
When the oxide cf cobalt is limply mixed, after calci-
mation, with a quantity of vitrifiable earth, it is then
known by the name of <zaffre, and it is in the form of
a brown, gritty powder j but if it be melted with a
quantity of vitrifiable matters, it yields a glafs of a very
deep blue colour, which being reduced to a fine powder,
conllitutes the fmalt of commerce.
3
S, &c. Chap. XIII.
Preparation of %ajfrc.—This fubftance is chiefly pre- Nickel,
pared in the large way, in different parts of Germany, V~“
but particularly in Saxony, and the following is the me*
thod of its preparation. The furnace employed is fome-
wrhat like a baker’s oven, and is fo conltrucled, that the
flame of wood may be reverberated on all fides. The
cobalt ore is placed on the hearth of the furnace, and
by the a*Slion of the flame foon becomes red hot; a
denfe arfenical vapour arifes, which is conduced through
a horizontal wooden fquare trough or chimney, fome-
times 100 fathoms long. In this chimney the arfenic is
chiefly condenfed, yet it is faid, that fome of the va¬
pours, on account of their great volatility, efcape. The
calcination is continued till the exhalation of vapours
nearly ceafes : the ore is then reduced to powder, cal->
cined a fecond time, again ground, and paffed through
a fine fieve. The powder is then mixed with two parts
of powdered flint or quartz, after which it is moiftened,
and packed into barrels, where it acquires a great degree
of hardnefs. This is the zaffre of commerce, in the ftate
in which it is exported 5 the exportation of the Ample
coloured oxide being prohibited under heavy penalties,
it is faid that the flints are added with a view to conceal
the real nature of the fubftance.
Preparation of Smalt.—This is alfo fometimes called
zaffre, and when reduced to a very fine powder, it is
called assure blue. It is prepared with about equal parts
of calcified cobalt ore, potafh, and ground flints. This
mixture is firft fritted, and afterwards made into glafs,
in pots like thofe of the glafs-houfe. Eight or ten hours
are required for its fufion. When the blue colour is
perfect, the fufed matter is taken out with iron ladles,
and dropt into cold water, which makes it crack in all
dire&ions, fo that it is eafily reduced to fine powder.
This operation is performed in a mill of very hard ftone,
inclofed in a rvooden cafe. In the preparation of the
fmalt by the above procefs, a portion of bifmuth, which
ufually accompanies the ores of cobalt, is found. Above
it there is alfo a mixed alloy of iron, copper, and ar¬
fenic.
Chap. XIII. Of the Gres of Nickel.
Nickel, as it is found in the ftate of ore, is ufually
combined with arfenic and fulphur, copper and iron, or
with oxygen^ in the form of oxide.
Sect. I. Of the Analysis of the Ores of Nickel.
When the ore contains, befide nickel, arfenic, ful¬
phur, copper, and iron, with which it is ufually ac¬
companied, cobalt, filver, and bifmuth, with fome earthy
matters, the analyfis may be condufted according to the
following procefs.
1. The ore being reduced to an impalpable powdfer,
is to be two or three times digefted in nitric acid, con-
fiderably diluted, after which every thing foluble will
be taken up. During the procefs, nitrous gas is given
out.
2. The infoluble part confifts moftly of fulphur and
filica, which after being dried, -weighed and heated, the
fulphur burns off, and the difference of weight before
and after ignition, indicates its amount. The refidue,
after boiling in a little nitrous acid, is pure filica.
3. Saturate the two nitrous folutions (1. and 2.) with
pure
Chap. XIV. O R E
M-anganefe pure foda, evaporate confiderably, and pour the folution
'v ' into cold diltilled water ; the oxide of bifmuth is preci¬
pitated.
4. Add muriate of foda by drops to the filtered folu¬
tion, while any precipitate is formed, which is the muri¬
ate of filver.
' 5. Evaporate the folution nearly to drynefs, boil it
with (trong nitric acid while nitrous gas is given out 5
red oxide of iron is precipitated during the procefs.
6. Remove the oxide of iron, faturate the liquor with
foda, and add nitrate of lead while any precipitate takes
place. This is the arfeniate of lead, which may be fe-
parated by filtration.
7. Decompofe the nitrous folution by carbonate of
foda : digeft the wathed precipitate in liquid ammonia *,
the oxide of iron mixed with alumina, is left behind,
and may be feparated by cauftic fixed alkali.
8. Let the ammoniacal folution be (lightly fuperfa-
turated with nitric acid, and a poliihed bar of iron in¬
troduced 5 in this w ay the copper will be feparated :
then decompofe the liquid by carbonate of foda, and di¬
geft the precipitate in ammonia, and the iron employed
in feparating the copper will be removed.
9. The folution now contains only nickel and cobalt.
Let it be evaporated till the excefs of ammonia be ex¬
pelled. This is the cafe when the vapour ceafes to dif-
colour moift turmeric paper. Then add pure potalli or
foda to the folution largely diluted, wdiile any precipi¬
tation takes place. The precipitate is the oxide of
nickel. The cobalt now' only remaining in the folu¬
tion, may be feparated in the ufual wray. To reduce the
oxide of nickel, mix it wdth glafs of borax and a fmall
quantity of carbonaceous matter, and then fubjedft it in
a crucible to the moft powerful furnace heat. A but¬
ton of pure nickel is thus produced.
As the ores of nickel are not very abundant, and as
this metal is little employed for purpofes of manufafture,
the rediuftion of its ores does not extend beyond chemi¬
cal analyfis, which we have now detailed.
Chap. XIV. Of the Ores of Manganfe.
Manganese ufually exifts in the ftate of oxide, com¬
bined wfith a fmall proportion of iron, or in the ftate of
carbonate, and fometimes in that of fulphuret.
Sect. I. Of the Analysis of the Ores of Manganefe.
Radiated gray ore of manganefe.—This ore was ana-
lyfed by Klaproth according to the follow ing procefs.
“ Two hundred grains of the ore, in grofsly broken cryf-
tals, wrere heated to a thorough rednefs in a fmall coated
glafs retort, connected wuth the pneumatic apparatus.
The gas colle&ed amounted only to nine grains, upon
deducing the common air of the apparatus ; but (hewed
by the lively combuftion of an iron ware confined in it,
that it was pure oxygen gas.
“ 2. In the fmall intermediate hollow glafs-fphere of
the apparatus, a confiderable quantity of moifture has
condenfed, which weighed 14 grains, and w’as pure wa¬
ter.
“ 3. The manganefe, having fuftained that ignition,
weighed 181 grains. The external luitre of the cryftals
was very much diminiftied, and their gray colour turned
biackifh.
S, &C. 447
« One hundred parts of this ore have, confequently, Manganefe.
been decompofed into,
Black oxide of manganefe, 90-5°
Water, 7-
Oxygen gas, 2.25
00.7 ? * EJFays>
‘J 11. 245.
As manganefe is chiefly employed for economical pur¬
pofes, in the ftate of oxide, the reduction of its ores forms
no object of manufacture.
Chap. XV. Of the Ores of Molyhdena.
For an account of the treatment of the ores of moly-
bdena, which exifts in the ftate of fulphuret and in that of
oxide only, fee Chemistry 3. fee alio the analyfis of the
molybdate of lead, in the chapter -on lead, in this article.
Chap. XVI. Of the Ores of Arfenic.
Arsenic is found native, when it is alloyed with a
fmall portion of iron, and fometimes al(b with a little
gold or filver 3 in the ftate of (ulphuret, or in the ftate
of oxide.
Sect. I. Of the Analyfis of the Ores of Arfenic.
The method of analyfing the ores of arfenic by Berg¬
man, has been already given under Arsenic in the article
Chemistry, as well as the method of fubliming the
metal in clofe veffels, to obtain it in a ftate of purity.
The following is recommended as a fuccefsful procefs
for preparing this metal for nice chemical purpofes. •
Mix a quantity of arfeniate of potafti with about part
of charcoal, and let it be fublimed in a clofe glafs vef-
fel, flowly heated to rednefs. The metallic arfenic thus
obtained is in the form of beautiful brilliant cryftals.
Sect. II. Preparation of White Arfenic and Orpiment,
White arfenic.—In the large way, this is prepared,
by roafting the arfenjcal ores, previoufly ground to
powder, and mixed with charcoal or faw dull, at a
low red heat for feveral hours. The roafied ore is then ,
fubjefted to a fecond fublimation, according to the fol¬
lowing method 3 which is practiied in Bohemia. The
veffels in which the fublimation is performed, are ftrong
fquare boxes of call iron furniftied with conical heads,
which are clofely luted with clay. Thefe boxes are ar¬
ranged in a fpacious brick area, which is heated by
flues proceeding from two furnaces, placed a little be¬
low them. "W hen the impure arfenic has become red-
hot, it is removed into the boxes by 15 pounds at a time,
where it is brought into fulion, and about an hour after
begins to fublime into the conical head. When the ar¬
fenic ceafes to rife, another quantity is introduced into
the veffel, and treated in the fame way. Thefe additions -
are continued till about 150 pounds of arfenic have been
thus treated in each veffel 3 a period of about 12 hours
is requifite for the fublimation of the whole quantity.
When^the veffels are cold, the conical head is taken
off, and the fublimed arfenic is broken off with hammers,
at the fame time any impurities that adhere to it are fe¬
parated, for a fecond operation.
Orpiment,—-*’ -
448 O Pi E
-Arfenic. Orpimcnt.—This fubftance is prepared in the fame
“v ' manner, and with the fame apparatus, but the arfenic
is previoufly mixed with half its weight of fulphur. In
both cafes a uniform red heat fhould be kept up during
the operation, fo that the materials in the lower veffel
may be always in fufion ; and when thefe materials are
of any tolerable degree of purity, almolt the whole is
fublimed.
S, &c. Chap. XVI.
As the remaining metals have yet been found only in
very fmall quantity, the reduction of their ores is not an
obje£t of much importance. A Ihort account of the
method of analyfing them will be found under Che¬
mistry, and the characters of the ores, with their con-
ftituent parts, will be found under Mineralogy.
For the account of an elaborate analyfis of the ores of
tellurium, fee Klaproth’s Effays, ii. I.
ORE
ORELLANx\, Francis, the firft European, as is
commonly thought, wdio difcovered the river of the
Amazons. In 1539, he embarked near Quito, upon the
river Coca, rvhich farther down takes the name of Napo.
From this he fell into another large river ; and, leaving
himfelf entirely to the direction of the current, he arrived
at Cape North, on the coaft of Guiana, after failing nearly
1800 leagues. Orellana perilhed 10 years after, with
three veffels which had been intruded to him in Spain,
without being able to find again the mouth of this river.
In failing dowm the river, he met with fome armed wo¬
men, againft whom an Indian cacique had told him to
be on his guard; and he thence named it the river of the
Amazons.
ORENSE, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Galicia, with a bilhop’s fee, famous for its hot
baths, is feated at the foot of a mountain, on the river
Minho, over which there is a handfome bridge of one
arch. W. Long. y. 27. N. Lat. 42. 16.
ORESTES, In Ancient Hi/lory, a fon of Agamem¬
non and Clytemneftra. When his father was cruelly
murdered by Clytemneftra and iEgifthus, young Oreftes
was faved from his mother’s dagger by means of his
fifter Eleftra, called by Homer Loadicea, having been
privately conveyed to the houfe of Strophius, who was
king of Phocis, and who had married a fifter of Aga¬
memnon. He was tenderly treated by Strophius, who
carefully educated him with his fon Pylades. The two
young princes foon became acquainted, and from their
familiarity arofe the moft inviolable attachment and
friendlhip. When Oreftes came to years of difcretion,
he vifited Mycenae, and avenged his father’s death by
affaffinating his mother Clytemneftra and her adulterer
/Egiithus. Various accounts are given of the way in
■which thefe murders wTere committed. After their
commiflion, however, he v7as acknowledged king of
Mycenae •, but being tormented by the Furies, a punifti-
ment wrhich the ancients always thought followed parri¬
cide, he exiled himfelf to Argos, where he was ftill pur-
fued by the vengeful goddeffes. Apollo, however, puri¬
fied him, and he was acquitted by the unanimous opinion
of the Areopagites, whom Minerva herfelf inftituted on
this occafion, according to the narration of the poet
iEfchylus, who flatters the Athenians in his tragical
ftory, by reprefenting them as paffing judgement even
upon the gods themfelves. According to Paufanias,
Oreftes was purified of the murder, not at Delphi, but
at Trcezene, where ftill was feen a large ftone at the
entrance of Diana’s temple, upon which the ceremonies
■of purification had been performed by nine of the prin¬
cipal citizens of the place. There was alfo at Megalo-
2
ORE
polls, in Arcadia, a temple dedicated to the Furies, near
which Oreftes cut off one of his fingers with his teeth
in a fit of infanity. Thefe different traditions are con¬
futed by Euripides, who lays that Oreftes, alter the
murder of his mother, confulted the oracle of Apollo at
Delphi, where he was informed that nothing could de¬
liver him from the perfecutions of the Furies, if he did
not bring into Greece Diana’s ftatue, which was in the
Taurica Cherfonefus, and which, as it is reported by
fome, had fallen down from heaven. I his was an ar¬
duous enterprife. The king of Cherfonefus always fa-
crificed on the altars of the goddeis all fuch as entered
the borders of his country. Oreftes and his friend were
therefore both carried before Thoas the king of the
place, and they were doomed to be facrificed. Iphige-
nia, Oreftes’s fifter, was then prieftefs of Diana’s temple,
and it was her office to immolate thefe ftrangers. The
intelligence that they were Grecians delayed the prepa¬
rations, and Iphigenia was anxious to learn fomething
about a country which had given her birth. She even
interefted herfelf in their misfortunes, and offered to
fpare the life of one of them, provided he would convey
letters to Greece from her hand. 1 his was a difficult
trial : never was friendlhip more truly difplayed, ac¬
cording to the words of Ovid, ex Pont. 3. e/. 2.
Irejubet Pylades carum moriturus Orejlem.
Hie negat; inque viceni pugnat uterque mon.
At laft, however, Pylades gave way to the preffing in¬
treaties of his friend, and confented to carry the letters
of Iphigenia to Greece. Xhefe were addreffed to Oreftes
himfelf •, and therefore thefe circumftances foon led to a
dilcovery of the connexions of the prieftefs with the man
whom {he was going to immolate. Iphigenia was con
vinced that he was her brother Oreftes; and when the
caufe of their journey had been explained, fhe herfelf re-
folved with the two friends to fly from Cherfonefus, and
to carry away the ftatue of Diana. Their flight was
difcovered, and Thoas prepared to purfue them j but
Minerva interfered, and told him tnat all had been done
by the will and with the approbation of the gods. Some
imagine that Oreftes came to Cappadocia from Cher¬
fonefus, and that there he left the ftatue of Diana at
Comana. Others contradiX this tradition j and Pau¬
fanias thinks that the ftatue of Diana Orthia was the
fame as that which had been carried away from the
Cherfonefus. Some again fuppofe that Oreftes brought
it to Aricia in Italy, where Diana’s worfhip was eftab-
lifhed. It was after this that Oreftes afeended the throne
of Argos, where he reigned in perfeX fecurity, married
Hermione the daughter of Menelaus, and gave his fifter
Oreftes
O R F [ 449 1
to his friend Pylades. The marriage of Oreftes with not be any
Hermione is alfo a matter of difpute among the ancients.
Orflfyreus’s All are agreed that (he had been promifed to the fon of
Wheel. Agamemnon 5 but Meneiaus had married her to Neo-
ptolemus the fon of Achilles, who had thown himfelf fo
truly interefted in his caufe during the T rojan war. I he
marriage of Mermione with Neoptoremus difpleaied Orel-
tes j he remembered that (he had been early promifed to
him ; he was therefore determined to recover her by force
or artifice. This he did by procuring the affaffination
of Neoptolemus. According to Ovid’s epiftle of Her¬
mione to Oreftes, Hermione had always been faithful to
her firft lover, and even it was by her perfuafions that
Oreftes removed her from the houfe of Neoptolemus,
for ftie was diflatisfied with the partiality of Neoptolemus
for Andromache, and her attachment for Oreftes was
increafed. There are, indeed, various opinions likewife
about this : he, however, certainly managed to fecure
her affeftions, and retired to his kingdom of Argos.
His old age was crowned with peace and fecurity, and
he died in the 90th year of his age, leaving his throne
to his fon Tifamanes by Hermione. Three years after,
the Heraclidae recovered the Peloponnefus, and banifii-
ed the defeendants of Meneiaus from the throne of
Argos. Oreftes died in Arcadia, as fome fay, by the
bite of a ferpent : and the Lacedemonians, who had
become his fubjefts at the death of Meneiaus, were di-
redled by an oracle to bring his bones to Sparta. They
were fome time after difeovered at Tegea, and his ftature
appeared to be feven cubits, according to the traditions
mentioned by Herodotus and others. The friendfhip of
Oreftes and of Pylades became proverbial: and the two
friends received divine honours among the Scythians, and
were worfhipped in temples.
ORFA, a confiderable town of Diarbeck (anciently
Mefopotamia) in Alia, very pleafantly fituated, and well
fortified. It formerly belonged to Perfia; but is now in
the Turkilh dominions, and is a place of very good
trade. It has a ftately caftle Handing on a hill, which
makes a great fhow at a diftance. They pretend to fliow
the well where Rachel watered her father’s camels when
Jacob met her, and they call it Abraham's well. E. Long.
37. 45. N. Lat. 36. 20.
ORFFYREUS’s Wheel, in Mechanics, is a machine
fo called from its inventor, which he afferted to be a
perpetual motion. This machine, according to the ac¬
count given of it by Gravefande, in his Oeuvres Philofo-
phiques, publilhed by Allemand, Amft. 1774, con-
fifted externally of a large circular wheel, or rather drum,
12 feet in diameter, and 14 inches deep; being very
light, as it was formed of an affemblage of deals, having
the intervals between them covered with waxed cloth, to
conceal the interior parts of it. The two extremities of
an iron axis, on which it turned, refted on two fupports.
On giving a flight impulfe to the wheel, in either direc¬
tion, its motion Avas gradually accelerated ; fo that after
two or three revolutions it acquired fo great a velocity as
to make 25 or 26 turns in a minute. This rapid motion
it actually preferred during the fpace of tAvo months, in
a chamber of the landgrave of Hefle, the door of Avhich
was kept locked, and fealed with the landgrave’s own
feal. At the end of that time it was flopped, to prevent
the wear of the materials. The profeflbr, \A7ho had been
an eye-witnefs to thefe circumftances, examined all the
external parts of it, and was convinced that there could
Vol. XV. Part II.
O R G
communication betAA~een it and any neigh¬
bouring room. Orffyreus however Avas fo incenfed, or
pretended to be fo, that he broke the machine
pieces and wrote on the A\*all, that it wras the impertinent
curiofity of Profefior Gravelande which made him take
this ftep. The prince of Heffe, who had feen the inte¬
rior parts of this Ardieel, but fworn to lecreiy, being
afked by Gravefande, whether, after it had been in mo¬
tion for fome time, there Avas any change obfervable m
it, and whether it contained any pieces that indicated
fraud or deception, anfwered both queftions in the ne¬
gative, and declared that the machine was of a very
Ample conftruction.
ORFORD, a toAvn of Suffolk in England, 88 miles
from London, fituated between two channels, where the
river Ore, after having joined the Aid, falls into the
fea. It was once a large populous town, with a caftle ;
of which, and of a nunnery near the quay, there are
Hill fome ruins. The towers of the caftle and its church
are a fea-mark for colliers, coafters, and fliips that come
from Holland. There is a light-houfe at Orford-Neffe,
which is alfo of great ufe to feamen, and is a fhelter for
them wdien a north-eaft wind blows hard upon the ftiore.
The town Avas incorporated by Plenry III. has a mayor,
18 portmen, 12 chief burgeffes, a recorder, a tOAA'n-
clerk, and Iavo ferjeants at mace. Though it fent mem¬
bers to parliament, in the 26th of Edward I. yet it had
no more ele£iions till the reign of Edward IV. It ftill
fends two members to parliament, and has the title of an
earldojn. There are ftill remaining the ruins of an holy
houfe Avhere the feamen’s wives ufed to pray for the fafety
of their huthands. By the AvithdraAving of the fea, it has
been deprived of its ch’ef advantage, for it noAV deferves
not the name of a harbour. It had the honour to give
title of earl to the brave admiral Ruffel, which, after
being many years extinft, Avas revived in the perfon of
Sir Robert Walpole. E. Long. 1. 46. N. Lat. 52. 15.
ORGAL, among dyers, denotes the lees of wine
dried.
ORGAN, in general, is an inftrument or machine
defigned for the produ&ion of fome certain aflicn or
operation ; in which fenfe the mechanic powers, ma¬
chines, and even the veins, arteries, nerves, mufcles, and
bones of the human body, may be called organs.
Organ, in Mujic, denotes the largeft and moft har¬
monious of all wdnd-inftruments ; on which account it
is called the organ, o^yxvov, the inftrument, by Avay of
excellence; chiefly ufed for playing a thorough bafs,
wdth all its accompaniments.
That organs are the invention of remote antiquity
has been argued, and feems now to be generally al-
kwed ; but the particular time and country in wdiich
the difeovery Avas made appears to be loft amidft the
ruins of time. In ancient authors there are a variety
of paffages Avhere mention is made of the organ, but
it is at leaft poflible that an inftrument is meant very
different from that which now goes by the fame name.
From St Auguftin’s commentary on the 4th verfe of
the 150th Ffalm we learn, that the Greeks had ano¬
ther name for thofe inftruments in which belloAvs A\Tere
employed ; that the name organ Avas appropriated to
this particular inftrument merely from the ufage of
the Latin tongue •, and that it was indifferently given
to all inftruments ufed to accompany the voice in con¬
cert. We mention this, not becaufu Ave doubt of the
3 L antiquity
Orford
1!
Organ.
O R G [ 450 I O R G
Organ, antiquity of the organ, but merely to ihow that the
IT'' time of its invention cannot be determined by the era
of the authors where its name occurs. As the fol-
Gent. Mag. lowing obfervation, extracted from a periodical work
W'hich has long been in deferved efteem with the pub¬
lic, are intended to afcertain its early ufe, we fubmit
them, without commentary, to the judgement of our
headers. Caffiodorus has deicribed our organ in a few
words, lib. 1. Epil. 45. Praifing that art, which makes
Organa extraneis vocibus infonare, et peregrinis jlatibus
complete ut mujica pojjit arte cantare. And the emperor
Julian has given air exadt defcription of it in an epigram,
which may be found in the Anthologia, b. i. ch. 86. In
his time thefe inftruments were in fuch requefl, that
Ammianus Marcellinus, b. xiv. ch. 6. complains that
they occafioned the ftudy of the fciences to be abandoned.
However, thofe mufical inftruments whofe melody is
produced by wind, had been known at Rome long before.
Witnefs that agreeable poem of Capa, which for its ele¬
gance has been afcribed to Virgil *, where we find that
the mufician introduces the wind into her pipes by means
of a pair of bellows, which {he holds under her arms and
blows. In the hydraulic organ, the water moves the air,
inftead of bellows. Cornelius Severus, in his JEtna, has
given an exadf defcription of it (a). And though there
were two kinds of hydraulic and pneumatic inftruments,
the firft of which played by the infpiration and action of
bellows, and the other by the action of water, it is cer¬
tain, neverthelefs, that both of them were pneumatic,
being infpired by the wind. And Heron of Alexandria,
in his Pneumatics, has treated of hydraulics as belonging
to pneumatics. This Heron lived in the time of Ptolemy
Euergetes, king of Egypt. When Suetonius fays, that
Nero Organa Injdraulica novi et ignoti generis circum-
duxit, he did not mean that they were unknown at Rome
before Nero, but that thofe of Nero were of a new con-
ftruftion. Thofe were the hydraulics of a new fabric,
which he exhibited to the people at the public games, a.s
Suetonius relates a little after. Heliogabalus, one of
the worthy fucceflbrs of Nero, like him was fond of
thefe hydraulics; and Alexander Severus, his coufin
and fucceffor, had the fame inclination. Claudian, who Organ,
lived fome time after, has left us this elegant defcription- * ~
of them :
Et qui magna Uvi detrmiens murmura taciu
Innumeras voces fegetis moderator aetnc ;
Intonet erranti digito, penitufque traba/i
Vecie iaborantes in carmina concitat undas.
This very conftruclion which is obferved in the pipes of
an organ, gradually decreafing in magnitude, has been
reprefented in an epigram of Optatianus Porphyrius, who
lived in the time of Conftantine. This epigram, which
is quoted in Pillion’s colle£lion of ancient epigrams, is
compofed of verfes of an unequal length, fucceffively in-
creating. This correfponds with thofe words of the old
5 fcholiaft on Juvenal, fat. 8. ver. 270. Tunica Galli
utuntur in facris in modurn organi utrinque decrefcentibus
mrgu/is purpureis.
On the whole, then, the antiquity of organs, or of
inftruments of a very fimilar nature, can fcarcely be
difputed j but nothing very particular refpecfing the
time, place, or manner, of the invention can pothbly be
determined from thofe incidental obfervations which oc¬
cur in the writings of the ancients (b). It appears indeed
to have been borrowed by the Latins from the Greeks,
but not to have been in general ufe till the eighth cen¬
tury ; and it has been affirmed, that, in France, it was
not known till the time of Louis le Debonair, i. e.
A. D. 815. when an Italian prieft taught the ufe and
conftruftion of it, which he himfelf had learned at Con-
ftantinople. By fome, hovrever, it has been carried as
far back as Charlemagne, and by others as far as Pepin.
Bellarmine fays that the organ began to be ufed in the
fervice of the church about the year 660, as Platina re¬
lates out of the Pontifical: for when Pope Vitalian re¬
formed the finging of the Roman church, he added to it
organs in order to fupport and embeliffi it. Amraonius
thinks, however, that this happened after the year 820,
in the time of Louis the Pious. Perhaps the learned
Bingham is our fureft guide in determining this point.
He pofitively afferts f that there vrere no fuch things astOxmiNES
organs ^acra-
(a) Which is thus tranflated by Mr Jabez Hughes :
As in an organ *, firft the ruffiing air * Organa*
A mafs of waters does before it bear 5
And then the waters, in their turn, we find
Drive through the hollow pipes the vanquifh’d wind 5-
Which ftrongly from its ftrait confinement fent,
Comes loudly rattling through the narrow vent;
Still as the waters prefs, the fpirits found,
And fpread the bubbling fymphony around.
So air and water meet, &c.
It is by no means certain that Cornelius Severus was the author of this poem, though it is publifhed under his
name by Le Clerc. Seneca’s authority, on which the Younger Scaliger founds his opinion, enforces no fuch con-
clufion. He only fays, that “ Severus was not difeouraged from writing on this fubjeff, by its having been already
treated by Ovid and Virgil.” Barthius, in his notes on Claudian, refers it to Manilius, and in his Adverfaria to
fome Chriftian writer. By others it has been afcribed to Virgil, and by Scaliger, the father, to Quintilius Varus.
But though it is lefs clear and methodical than Virgil, and though it has been much mutilated by time, it certainly
was penned by a mafterly and truly poetical hand.
(b) Vitruvius deferibes an organ in his loth book, and St Jerome mentions one with 12 pair of bellows
which might be heard a thoufand paces, or a mile; and another at Jerufalem which might be heard at the
Mount of Olives.
O II G [ 4,
Organ, organs in ufe in the ancient church ; and that though
—v ■ church-mufic was as old as the apoitles, indrumental
muiic was not lb. He alfo fays that it was the general
opinion of the learned in his days, that organs were not
introduced into churches till after the time of Ihomas
Aquinas, A. D. 1250; and for this opinion, as far as
the authority of Aquinas will go, we have a poiitive
proof j tor in his lums we find thefe words: “ Our
church does not ufe mulical inftruments, as harps, and
pfalLries, to praife God withal, that ihe may not feem
to Judaize (c).” From hence it has reafonably been
* Bingham concluded, particularly by the learned Gregory *, that
uli fup ret they were not uled in churches in his time. Mr Whar¬
ton has alfo obferved that Marinas Sonatas (who tlou-
nthed A. I). 1290) fiiil introduced wind-organs into
churches ^ from this circumitance he derived the namh
Tone 1/us, ihe name for organ in the Italian language.
About this lame time Hurandus in his Rationale fpeaks
ol them as generally received in the church} and he,
in Ivlr Gregory’s opinion, is the firft author who
takes notice of it. Thefe authorities are ftrong, and
the opinions founded on them by the learned render
them itill more convincing: it appears, however, from
the teitnnony of Gervas the monk of Canterbury, who
Hounihed A. D. 1200, that organs were introduced
upwards of 100 years even before that time ; for in
his defeription of Lanfranc’s church, as it was before
the fire in 1174, he has thefe words, “ Crux aujlra-
lis fupra fornicem organa gejiare folebat.'1'1 We do not
fay that this invalidates the reafoning of the learned
.Bingham •, of that our readers are to judge, and in form¬
ing their judgements they will be determined by the
credit of the teifimonies which are here oppofed to each
other. If we fuppofe that of Gervas the llrongeft, and
in oppofition to the other conclude from it, that organs
were introduced into England long before the 13th cen¬
tury, it will give fome countenance to an opinion which
prevails pretty generally, viz. that in Italy, Germany,
and England, they became frequent about the 10th
century. See Music, p. 493* however we are dil-
pofed to determine this matter (which is in itfelf but of
little confequence), it is certain that the ufe of the organ
was very common in the latter ages of the church, and
the propriety of it was undifputed. In the laft century,
however, during the civil wars, organs were remo¬
ved from the churches in England ; and lo gene¬
rally reprobated, that, at the Reftoration, there could
fcarce be found either organifts, organ builders, or
, fingers (d).
The organs in Germany (fays Dr Burney) in mag-
;i ] O R G
nitude, and the organifts in abilities, feem unrivalled Organ. ,
in any other part of Europe, particularly in the ufe of “ v
pedals. In Marpurg’s Elfays, vol. iii. there is a mi¬
nute account of a variety of organs in Germany •, of
all which the longeft pipe of the manuals is 16 feet
long, and of the pedals 32'. One of the large!! or¬
gans in Germany, but which Marpurg has omitted
in his lift, is at Gorlitz in Upper Lufatia. It would
be to no purpofe to enlarge our article with a more
minute account of the ftate of organic mufic in dif¬
ferent parts of the world j in various parts of the ar¬
ticle Music, obfervations conn eft ed with this fubjeft
will be found, and to that we muft refer. We may
particularly notice, for the perufal of thofe who wi!h
for further information on this fubjeft, the obferva¬
tions which have been made on organs in the Hi-
Jlory of Music, at p. 493. We need fcarcely refer
to the life of Handel, which all our readers who are
fond of mufic of any kind, particularly facred, have un¬
doubtedly perufed. ,
The church-organ confifts of two parts \ the main
body, called the great organ; and the poutive or little
organ, which forms a {mail cafe or buffet, commonly
placed before the great organ. The fize of an organ
is generally expreffed by the length of its large!! pipe :
thus they fay, an organ of 8, 16, 32 feet, &c. The
organ in the cathedral church at Ulm in Germany is
93 feet high and 28 broad : its large!! pipe is 13 inches
diameter, and it has 16 pair of bellows.
The feveral parts of the church-organ are as follow. Plate
HIH is the found-board \ which is compofed of two CCCXCL
parts, the upper board or cover HHH, and the under *’
board HI, which is much thicker than the other j
each of thefe confiils of feveral planks laid with their
edges to each other, and joined very clofe together.
In the under fide of the lower board there are made
feveral channels, which run in the direftion LL, MM,
&c. and are continued as far as there are flops in the
organ, and come almoft to the edge HK. Thefe
channels are covered over very clofe with parchment
or leather all the way, except a hole that is commonly
at the fore-end next HK, upon which a valve or puff
is placed. Thefe channels are called partitions. When
this valve or flap is {hut, it keeps out the air, and ad¬
mits it when open. On the upper fide of the lower
board there are likewife cut feveral broad fquare chan¬
nels, lying crofs the former, but not fo deep as to
reach them ; thefe lie in the direftion LN, PQ, &c.
To fit thefe channels, there are the fame number of
wooden Aiders or regifters /,/,/, &c. running the
3 L 2 whole
(c) The lawfulnefs of ufmg organs in churches, has, however, been ably defended by an appeal to the ufe which
the Jews made of inftruments of mufic in divine fervice y and with much reafon } for were the ule criminal in us, a*
was afferted by many well-meaning men of the laft century, and as it is ftill thought by fome in this, it would un-
queftionably have been equally unlawful for the JewTs. The Chriftians in Aquinas s time, however^afted wifely in
avoiding the ufe of them, if by fo doing they would have given offence to their weaker brethien. For though they
are highly ornamental, and in fome churches may be productive of good effefts, yet the ufe of them is far from being
effential, and may be eafily difpenfed wdth. . .
(d) Organs have never yet been ufed in the eftabliftiment of Scotland, ftnee that became Prelbytenan ; but they
are ufed in Holland, where that form of church-government alfo obtains. Bifhop Horne, in a fermon which he
preached at the opening of the new organ at Canterbury in 1784, fays that he believes lome Preibyterian diffenters
in England have adopted it in their places of worftup. See his Sermon, page 8.
O K G ' [ 4i
■whole length •, and thefe may be drawn out or thruft
in at pleafure. The number of thefe is the fame as that
of the flops in the organ.
IKKK is the wind-cheft, which is a fquare box fit¬
ted clofe to the under fide of the lower board, and
made air-tight, fo that no air can get out but what
goes through the valves along the partitions.
VV are the valves or puff’s which open into the wind-
cheft ; they are all inclofed in it, and may be placed in
any part of it, as occafion {hall require. One of thefe
valves, with the fpring that fhuts it, and the wire that
opens it, is reprefented by fig. 2.
C, D, E, F, &c. are the keys on which the fingers
are placed when the organ is played : thefe keys lie
over the horizontal bar of wood W, in which are ftuck
an equal number of wire-pins z, z, on which keys are
fixed 5 and the keys move up and down on the bar,
as on a centre. There is another bar, againft which
the keys fall when put down, and which is here mark¬
ed 3 : on this alfo are feveral wires, which go through
the keys, to guide them •, and on this bar a lift is fa-
flened to hinder the keys from knocking againft the
wood.
The keys are made to communicate with the valves
feveral ways, as wre {hall now defcribe. Firft, r, s, s,
are the key-rollers, moving on the pivots t, t: thefe
rollers lie horizontally, one above another, and are of
fuch a length as to reach from the valve to the key :
a, a, a, are arms or levers fixed to the key-rollers :
*io, wy the valve-wires fixed to the arms a, a, and to
the valves V, and go through the holes h, h, in the bot¬
tom of the wind-cheft : b, L, by are likewife arms fixed
to the key-rollers : d, d, the key-wires, fixed to the
arms b, by and to the keys C, D, E. Now, when the
end of any one of the keys C, D, E, is put down, it
pulls down the arm b, by the w’ire d, which turns about
the roller r with the arm a, that pulls dowm the wire
iUy which opens the valve that is (hut by the fpring as
foon as the preffure is taken off the key. In this con-
ftruftion there muft be a wTorm fpring faftened to the
key, and to the bar W on the further fide, to keep
down the end 5 of the key.
Another method of opening the valves is thus : x yy
x y, are {lender levers, moveable on the centres 1,1$
5 x, 5 x, are wires going from the further ends of the
keys to the ends x of the levers; y V, y V, are other
wires, reaching from the ends y of the levers, through
the holes b, to the valves V. So that putting down
the key C, D, &c. raifes the end 5, which thrufts up
the end x of the lever, by the wire 5 x; this depreffes
the end y of the lever, which pulls down the wire y V,
and opens the valve V.
A third way of opening the valve is this: At the
end of the key by is a lever 8, 9, moving in the centre
7. This makes, with the key, a compound lever.
From the end 9, a wire goes to the valve. Now the
pitting down the end 6 of the key, raifes the end 8,
«drich depreffes the end 9, of the lever 8, 9, pulls
down the wire, and opens the valve. There is only
one of thefe drawn in the fcheme, and but a few of the
others, to avoid confufion.
R, R, are the rollers, to move the Aiders, by help
of the arms c f, cfy which are fixed horizontally in
thefe rollers : k eyk e, are alfo levers fixed in the rollers}
/*>,/<?, are the handles, which lie horizontally, and pafs
2 1 O Pv G
through the holes //; they are faftened to the lever Org;
i 6y being moveable about a joint at e. ' v
Now, any handle //>, being drawn out, pulls the end
e towards /, which turns about R along with the
arm cf; and the end f pulls cut the Aider fg; and
when p is thruft in, the arm cf likewife thrufts in the
Aider
Upon the feveral rows of holes which appear on the
top of the upper board, there are fet up an equal num¬
ber of rows of pipes. The pipes of an organ are of
two kinds j the one has a mouth like a fiute, the other
with reeds. The firft, called pipes of mutatiotiy confift,
(1.) of a foot A ABB (fig. 3.), which is a hollow
cone, that receives the wind that is to found the pipe :
(2.) To this foot is faftened the body of the pipe
BBDD. Betw’een the foot and the body of the pipe
is a diaphragm or partition FEE, that has a long but
narrow7 aperture, by which the wand comes out; over
this aperture is the mouth BBC, whofe upper lip C,
being level, cuts the wind as it comes out.
The pipes are of pewter, of lead mixed with a
twelfth part of tin, and of wood. Thofe of pewter
are always open at their extremities: their diameter
is very {mail, and their found very clear and AirilL
Thofe of lead mixed with tin are larger •, the ftiorteft
are open, the longelt quite flopped 5 thofe of a mean
fize are partly flopped, and have befide a little ear on
each fide the mouth, to be drawn clofer or fet further
afunder, in order to raife or lower the found. The
wooden pipes are fquare, and their extremity is flop¬
ped wbth a valve or tampion of leather. The found
of the wrooden and leaden pipes is very foft 5 the large
ones flopped are commonly of wood, the fmall ones
of lead. The longeft pipes give the graveft found,
and the fhorteft the moft acute : their lengths and
widths are determined by a fixed proportion to their
founds *, and their divifions are regulated by a rule,
which is called the diapafen. The longeft has common¬
ly 16 feet j but in very large organs it has 32 feet. The
pedal tubes are always open, though made of wood and
of lead. Whatever note any open pipe founds, when
its mouth is flopped, it will found an oftave kwer; and
a pipe of twice its capacity will likewife found an ottave
lower.
A reed-pipe confifts of a foot AABB (fig. 4.), that
carries the wind into the fliallot or reed CD, which is a
hollow demi-cylinder, fitted at its extremity D, into a
fort of mould, by a wooden tampion G. The Aiallot is
covered with a plate of copper KKLL, fitted at its ex-,
tremity II, into the mould, by the fame wooden tam¬
pion. Its other extremity KK is at liberty : fo that the
air entering the Ihallot makes it tremble or ftiake againft
the reed *, and the longer that part of the tongue 1L,
which is at liberty, is made, the deeper is the found.
The mould II, that ferves to fix the ftiallot or reed, the
tongue, tampion, &c. ferves alfo to flop the foot of the
pipe, and make the wind go out wholly at the reed.
Laftly, in the mould is foldered the tube HH, whofe
inward opening is a continuation of that of the reed :
the form of this tube is different in different ranks of
pipes. The degree of aculenefs or gravity in the found
of a reed pipe, depends on the length of the tongue, and
that of the pipe CK, taken from the extremity of the
ftiallot to the extremity of the tube. The quantity or
intention of the found depends on the width of the reed,.
the
V\.
r
’c
9
f
,-r'.
C) K G A N . Plate C C CXCI.
Oryan.
J'ate
0 Pi G [ 453 3
the tongue, ?.nd the tubeas alfo on tne tnicKnefs of oclaves
the tongue, the figure of the tube, and the quantity
of wind. To diverfify the ibunds of the pipes, a valve
is added to the pon-vent, which makes the wind go
out in fits or (hakes. lit fig- I • X reprefents a ilute-
pipe of wood, Z a flute-pipe of metal, Y a tiumpet-
pipe of metal. The pipes, to prevent them fiom ±all-
ing, pdfs through holes made in boards, placed upon
the upper board. _ _
The pipes are made to communicate with the wmd-
cheft in the following manner. There are holes bored
that go through the upper and lower boards, and
through the (lider (when it is drawn out), into the
partition below ; fo that any pipes placed, upon thole
holes will then communicate with the partition, which
by its valve, communicates with the wind-chell. But
when the (hder is thruft in, its holes do not anfwer to
thofe in the upper and lower boards •, therefore, tne com¬
munication is (lopped, fo that no wind can get to the pipe.
To everv large organ there mud be at lead tv\ o pair
of bellows, which are marked in fig. i. by. IU, i(J.
O, O, are the handles, moving upon the axis n n, n n,
■ Each of thefe bellows confidls of two boards,, the low¬
ed of which is immoveable ; and in this there is a valve
r, opening inwards, and a tube leading to it, called
the conveying tube. There is alfo a hole in this under
board, from which a tube leads to the port-vent, Inch
is a fquare tube marked 4, riling upward, and inferted
into the under fide of the wind-cheit at 2. In the tuoe
leading to the port-vent, there is a valve that opens to¬
wards the port-vent, and fuffers the air to go up tne
port-vent, but not to return. Now the handle O being
pulled down, raifes the upper board 1, and the air en¬
ters through the valve r; and wdien the handle is let
go, the weight of the upper board, which carries three
or four pounds to every fquare foot, continually defeen-
ding, drives the air through the port-vent to the found-
board : and as the bellows work alternately, one pair is
conftantly defeending, which occafions a continual, blait
through the port-vent. In chamber-organs there is but
one pair of bellows’, but they are formed of three boards,
in the manner of a fmith’s belkuvs, and lo have a conti¬
nual blaft. All the internal llruCture of the organ is
concealed from the fight by the front of the inllrument,
which (lands upon the part between the numbers 3 and
6 (fig. I.). . . TITTVT
In every organ, the number of partitions LL, MiM,
&c. there are in the found-board (fig- t-)* that of the
valves VV, that of the rollers s s, or of the levers
* i/ or 8 9 and their wires, and that of the keys ABC,
Sec. mud be always equal. Large organs have com¬
monly four or five fets of keys, befide thofe that be¬
long to the pedals or large pipes, the (lops to wdnch
are played by the feet} (aid to be the invention or
Bernard, a German, about the . year 1400. Thefe
command certain pipes, which, to increafe the narmony,
are turned below the diapafon. ide keys of an organ
are ufually divided into four oflaves ’, which are, the firll
fub-o6lave, fecond fub-o£lave, middle otlave, and firft
odlave. Each oftave is divided into 1 2 (lops or frets,
of which feven are black and five white} the former
mark the natural notes, and the latter the artificial notes,
that is, flats and (harps. The number of keys, therefore,
when there are four oblaves, mu(l be 48. ^ Some orga-
nifts add one or more (lops to the firft and fecond fub-
O K G
The pedals have two or three o£laves, at the  
option of the organift j fo that the number of (tops is in¬
determinate. The keys are placed between GG (fig. 1.),
but the fcheme could not contain them all. 1 here, are
alfo as many handles /, /, Sic. rollers RR, Sic., fliders
Jifi &-c’ as there are (lops upon the organ} and it mull
be obferved, that between the Aiders/iy', Sic. there are
as many fliders on the right hand, and the fame number
of handles and rollers, and other rows of pipes placed
between LN, PO, which could not be expreiied in the
figure. ^ *
The lead pipes and partitions are placed toward tne
middle of the organ, and the greateft on the. outfide.
The (lops of an organ have various denominations, ac¬
cording to the founds they are to produce 5 fome of
which are diapafon, principal, fifteenth, twelfth, teaice,
cornet, trumpet, French horn, vox humana, flute, baf-
foon, cremona, &c. The foreign organs, eipecially thofe
of Germany, have many more : particularly that in the
abbey church of Weingarten, a town in the Upper Pa¬
latinate, which has 66 (lops, and contains no fewer than
6666 pipes. The organ at Haerlem is faid to have 60
(lops, many of them but little known to the Enghlh
workmen, and diftinguilhed by names that exprefs the
found which they produce.
When this magnificent inftrument is played, the
handle O of the bellows is firft put down, which raifes
the upper board T, and gives room for the air to en¬
ter by the valve r. TLhen the otner handle O is put
down : In the mean time the board T, belonging to
the firft handle, defeending, and (hutting the valve r,
drives the air through the other valve, up the poit-
vent, and into the wind-cheft. Then drawing out any
handle, as that of the flute-ftop /> /, which draws out
the Aider fg, all the pipes in the. fet LN are ready to
play, as foon as the keys C, D, E, &c. are put down .
therefore if the key D be put down, it opens the cor-
refponding valve m V, through which the air enters
into the pipe X, and makes it found, . In the fame
manner any other pipe in the fet LN, will found when
its key is put down •, but no pipe, in any other fet, will
found till the Aider be drawn out by its correfponding.
handle. _ „ ,
Among the modern improvements ox the organ, the
mod remarkable are the fwell and the tremblant:. the
former, invented by an Englifii artift, confifts. m a
number of pipes placed in a remote part of tne mftru-
ment, and inclofed in a kind of box, which being
gradually opened by the preffure of the foot, increales
the found as the wind does the found of a peal 01
bells, or fuppreffes it in like manner by the contrary
aftion. The tremblant is a contrivance by means ol
a valve in the port-vent or palfage from the wmd-
cheft, to check the wind, and admit it only by darts 5
fo that the notes feem to Hammer, and the whole m-
ftrument to fob, in a manner very offenfive to the ear.-
There is a tremblant in the organ at the German cha¬
pel in the Savoy. See Hawkins’s Hijlory of Mufic, and
Hydraulic ORGAN, denotes a mufical machine that
plays by water inftead of wind. Of thefe there are fe-
veral in Italy, in the grottoes of vineyards. Ctefebes of
Alexandria, who lived in the time of Ptolemy Euerge-
tes, is faid to have invented organs, that played by com-
prefling the air with water, as is dill praclifed, Archi-
0 medes
Organ,
° R I t 454 ] OKI
Orgafm medes and Vitruvius have left us defcriptions of the hy- ORIBASU3, a celebrated phyfician greatly dleeni- Cribafu?.
Oribafia draulic organ; ... ed by the emperor Julian, in whofe reign he flourithed. OrichaU
—... In the cabinet of Queen Chriftina is a beautiful and He abridged the works of Galen, and of all the moft clun-
large medallion of Valentinian, on the reverie whereof refpeclabie writers on phyfic. This was done at the re- * '
is teen one of thefe hydraulic organs ; with two men, one
on the right, the other on the left, feeming to pump the
water which plays it, and to lilten to its found. It has
only eight pipes, placed on a round pedeftal. The in-
feription is flacea spetri, if it be not wrong copied,
■which we fufpeft to be the cafe.
ORGASM, o^yxo-ftof, denoting violence or turgefcen-
cy ; formed from c^yxu, turgeo, “ I fwell,” an ecftafy or
impetuous defire of coition, occafioned by a turgelcency
of the feminal veffels, which are no longer able to re-
ftrain their contents. The ancients alfo extend orgafm
to the other humours, and even excrements, which be¬
ing accumulated, and coming to ferment, demand excre¬
tion. Quincy ufes orgafm for an impetuous or too
quick motion of the blood or fpirits; whereby the muf-
cles are diftended with an uncommon force.
ORGIA, feaits and facrifices in honour of Bacchus,
held every third year, and chiefly celebrated by wild
diffracted women, called Bacchcc. The chief folem-
nities w'ere performed in the night, to conceal, per¬
haps, their fliocking impurities ; and a mountain was
generally chofen as the place of celebration. They were
inftituted by Orpheus ; and from him are fometimes
called Orphicn. Authors are not agreed as to the deri¬
vation of the word j but ifwTe confider the frantic pro¬
ceedings of the Bacchanalians, furor, bids fair for
the true etymology. See Bacchanalia.
Orgia, according to Serviusfvas a common name for
all kinds of facrifices among the Greeks, as ceremonire
was amonglt the Romans.
ORGUES, in the military art, are thick long pieces
of wood, pointed at one end, and fhod with iron,
clear one of another ; hanging each by a particular
rope or cord, over the gateway of a ftrong place, per¬
pendicularly, to be let fall in cafe of the approach of an
enemy.
Orgues are preferable to herfes, or portcullices, be-
caufe thefe may be either broke by a petard, or they
jnay be Hopped in their falling down : but a petard is
ufelefs againft an orgue ; for if it break one or two of
the pieces, they immediately fall down again and fill up
the vacancy j or if they flop one or two of the pieces
from falling, it is no hinderance to the reft ; for be¬
ing all feparate, they have no dependence upon one ano¬
ther.
Orgues, is alfo ufed for a machine compofed of fe-
veral harquebufs or mulket barrels bound together, by
means whereof feveral explofions are made at the fame
time. It is ufed to defend breaches and other places
attacked.
ORGY A, o^yvtx, an ancient Grecian meafure Con¬
taining fix feet.
QRIBASIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 47th order, Stellate?. See Botany Index.
queft of the emperor. He accompanied Julian into the
eaft, but his fldll proved inefle&ual in attempting to
cure the fatal wound which his benefactor had received.
After Julian’s death he fell into the hands of the bar¬
barians.
ORICHALCUM, or Aurichalcum, a metallic,
fubltance refembling gold in colour, but very inferior
in value. It was wHl known to the old Romans, who
often took advantage of its refemblance to gold : for
fome facnlegious characters, who could not refift the
temptation of taking gold from temples and other pu¬
blic places, chofe to conceal their guilt by replacing it
with orichalcum. It was thus that Julius Ctefar acted
when he robbed the capitol of 3000 pounds weight of
gold 5 in which he was followed by Vitellius, who de-
fpoiled the temples of their gifts and ornaments, and
replaced them with this inferior metal. It has been a
matter of difpute with philofophers and others, what
this metal could be, or how it was procured or made j
it is probable at leaft that it was greatly analogous to
our brafs, if not tvholly the fame with it (See Brass).
The value of our brafs is much Jefs than that of gold,
and the refemblance of brafs to gold, in colour, is ob¬
vious at firft fight. Both brafs and gold, indeed, are
fufceptible of a variety of fhades of yellow 3 and, if
very pale brafs be compared with gold, mixed with
much copper, fuch as the foreign goldfmiths, efpecial-
ly, ufe in their toys, a difparity may be feen 5 but the
neamefs of the refemblance is fufliciently afeertained
in general, from obferving that fubftances gilded with
brafs, or as it is commonly called Dutch leaf are not
eafily diftinguiflied from fuch as are gilded with gold
leaf.
The Romans were not only in pofleflion of a metallic
fubftance, called by them orichalcum, and refembling
gold in colour, but they knew alfo the manner of making
it, and the materials from which they made it were the
very fame from which we make brafs. There are, in¬
deed, authors of great repute who think very different--
ly 5 and who confider the art of making brafs as an in¬
vention wdiolly modern. Thus M. Cronftedt does not
think it juft to conclude from old coins and other anti¬
quities, that it is evidently proved that the making of
brafs was known in the moft ancient times * 5 and the * Mine*
authors of the French Encyclopedic affure us, that ourp. 2x8.
brafs is a very recent invention (a). It appears, how7-
ever, from Pliny’s Nat. Hift. lib. xxxiv. §. 2. and from
the concurring teftimony of other writers, that orichal¬
cum wTas not a pure or original metal; but that its bafis
was copper, w'hich the Romans changed into orichalcum
by means of cadmia, a fpecies of earth which they threw
upon the copper, and which it abforbed. It has indeed
been contended, that the cadmia of Pliny wras native
arfenic ; an opinion which fcarcely merits confutation,
but which muft appear extremely groundlefs, when we
refledt
(a) Art. Orichalque.—“ The veffels here called brazen, after ancient authors, cannot have been of the ma¬
terials our prefent hrafs is compofed of 5 the art of making it is a modern difeovery.” See Laughton's Hi/lory of
Ancient Egypt, p. 58. *
4
O Pi I
[ 455 ]
O R I
* Fol.
Tran/.
vol. i. p. 16,
reileifl that it is impoflible to make either brafs or cop¬
per from arfenic, and that Pliny exprefsly calls it aJlone
from which brafs was made. The teilimony of Am-
brofe bifliop of Milan, in the 4th century, and of Pri-
m&fius bilhop of Adrumetum, in Africa, in the 6th, and
of Ifidorus bithop of Seville in the 7th, all feem to con¬
firm Pliny’s account. We may therefore fafely con¬
clude that the Romans knew the method of making
brafs by mixing cadmia or calamine with copper 5 yet it
is probable they were not the inventors of this art, but
that they borrowed it from fome other country. It ap¬
pears from a variety of tellimonies that brafs rvas made
in Afia, in a manner very limilar to that at Rome; and
a variety of places are mentioned in that extenfive coun¬
try where it was commonly made; and it is fuppofed by
fome that in India, as well as in other parts of Afia, it
was made in the remotefl: ages.
With refpeft to orichalcum, it is generally fuppofed
that there were two forts of it, one factitious, the
other natural. The factitious, wdiether we confider its
qualities or compofition, appears to have been the
lame with our brafs. As to the natural orichalcum,
there is no impofiibility in fuppofing, that copper
ore may be fo intimately blended with an ore of zinc,
or of fome other metallic fubftance, that the com¬
pound, when fmelted, may yield a mixed metal of a
paler hue than copper, and refcmbling the colour of
either gold or filver. In Du Halde’s hiftory of China,
we meet with the following account of the Chinefe
white copper. “ The mofi: extraordinary copper is
called de-tong, or white copper: it is white when dug
out of the mine, and ftill more white within than with¬
out. It appears by a vaft number of experiments made
at Pekin, that its colour is owing to no mixture j on
the contrary all mixtures diminifh its beauty j for, wdren
it is rightly managed, it looks exaCtly like filver: and
were there not a neceflity of mixing a little tutenag, or
fome fuch metal writh it, to foften it and prevent its
brittlenefs, it wmuld be fo much the more extraordinary,
as this fort of copper is perhaps to be met with no¬
where but in China, and that only in the province of
ICun-n-an* d'1 Notwithftanding what is here faid, of the
colour of this copper being owing to no mixture, it is
certain that the Chinefe white copper, as brought to
us, is a mixed metal} fo that the ore from which
it is extradled mufl confift of various metallic fubltan-
ces, and from fome fuch ore it is poflible that the natu¬
ral orichalcum, if ever it exifted, may have been made.
But, notwithftanding that the exiftence of natural ori¬
chalcum cannot be fhown to be impoftible, yet there is
fome reafon to doubt wdiether it ever had a real exift¬
ence or not.
We know of no country in which it is found at
prefent •, nor was it anywhere found in the age of
Pliny • nor does he feem to have known the country
where it ever had been found. He admits, indeed,
its having been formerly dug out of the earth; but it
is remarkable, that in the very palfage where he is
mentioning by name the countries mold celebrated for
the production of‘different kinds of copper, he only
fays in general concerning orichalcum, that it had
been found in other countries, without fpecifying any
particular country. Plato acknowledges, that ori¬
chalcum was a thing only talked of even in his time ;
it wras nowhere then to be met with, though in the
Orig;en.
ifland of Atlantis it had been formerly extraCled from Orklia!-
its mine. The Greeks were in pofieffion of a metallic cum
fubftance, called orichalcum, before the foundation of
Rome ; for it is mentioned by Homer and by Hefiod ; >
and by both of them in fuch a manner as fhows that it
was then held in great efteem. Other ancient wri¬
ters have expreffed themfelves in fimilar terms of com¬
mendation •, and it is principally from the circumftance
of the high reputed value of onchalcum that authors
are induced to fuppofe the ancient orichalcum to have
been a natural fubftance, and very different from the
factitious one in ufe at Rome, and probably in Afia, and
which it has been drown was nothing different from our
brafs.
But this conclufion cannot be validly drawm from their
encomiums upon it 5 for at whatever time the method
of making it was firft difcovered, both its novelty and
fcarcenefs, joined to its utility, would enhance its value,
at leaft there can be no abfurdity in fuppofing, that when
firft introduced it was greatly prized, even though it be-
granted that it poffeffed no other properties than fuch as
appertain to brafs.
RefpeCting the etymolgy of the wTord there is great
diverfity of opinions. Thofe who write it aurichalcum
think it is compofed of the Latin word aurum, “ gold.”
and the Greek “ brafs or copper.” The mod: ge-
reral opinion is, however, that it is compofed of ’egaj “ a
mountain” and alluding perhaps to its being
found in mountains or mountainous countries. The
above account is chiefly extracted from a paper in the te-
cond volume of Memoirs of the Literary and Philofo-
phical Society of Manchefter, written by the prefent bi¬
thop of Landaff, Dr Watfon, and communicated by Dr
Percival. To this paper then we refer our readers who
defire a more copious account of it. To the above tw’o
etymological meanings of the word wre (hall fubjoin
the following, mentioned by the learned bithop, and
w'hich, in our opinion, is equally well founded, and cer¬
tainly as ingenious, as the other two.
The Hebrew word Or, Aur, fignifies light, fire, flame 3,
the Latin terms uro “ to burn,” and aurum “ gold,”
are derived from it, inafmuch as gold refembles the co¬
lour of flame : and hence it is not improbable, that ori¬
chalcum may be compofed of an Hebrew and Greek
term, and that it is rightly rtnd.trtd.,Jlame-coloured cop¬
per. In confirmation of this it may be obferved, that the
Latin epithet lucidum, and the Greek one (pxuvov, are
both applied to orichalcum by the ancients. See alfo
Beckmann, Hift. of Invent, iii. 71.
ORIFICE, the mouth or aperture of a tube, pipe, or
other cavity.
ORIGANUM, Origany, or Marjoram, a genus
of plants belonging to the didynamfa clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 42d order, Verticil lata;.
See Botany Index.
ORIENT, a town and harbour of France, in the
department of Morbihan, in the bottom of the bay of
St Louis. Since the year, 1720, a handfome towm has
been built here, where the French Eaft India company
have large magazines. The Englilh attempted to be¬
come mafters of it in 1746, but mifearried. W. Long,
3. 22. N. Lat. 47. 45.
ORIENTAL Philosophy. See Philosophy.
ORIGEN, one of the moft celebrated ecclefiaftical
■writers, greateft geniufes, and moft learned men of
the
O R I
the primitive church, during the third century, was
born at Alexandria in the year 185: and was fur-
named Adamantus, either from his indefatigable applica¬
tion to ftudy, or from the firmnefs he difcovered amidft
the torments he fullered for the faith. Leonidas, his
father, trained him at home wdth great care, and made
him apply to the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures from
his infancy, in wdiich he made furprifing progrefs.
The fon’s inclination and turn fuited exactly with the
father's defign j for he purfued his ftudies ivith a moft
extraordinary zeal and ardour: and, being endued
with a quick apprehenfion and a ftrong imagination,
did not content himfelf with that fenfe which at foil
prefented itfelf, but farther endeavoured to dive into
myfterious and allegorical explications of the facred
books. He would fometimes even puzzle his father,
by too much foliciting him for recondite meanings j
which obliged the good man to reprehend him a little,
and withal to advife him not to attempt to penetrate
too far in the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures, but to
content himfelf with their moft clear, obvious, and
natural fenfe. Hence it appears, how early he was
feized with that furor allcgoricus, as a learned modern
calls it, that rage of expounding the Scriptures alle¬
gorically, which grew afterwards to be even a diftem-
per, and carried him to exceffes which can never be
excufed (a). He had afterwards in philofophy Am-
monius the celebrated Chriftian philofopher, and St
Clement of Alexandria for his mafter in divinity. At 18
years of age he fucceeded that great man in the office
of catechift*, an important employment, which confifted
in teaching divinity, and expounding the Scriptures.
Leonidas his father had fuffered martyrdom the year
before, during the perlecution of Severus in 202; and
Origen had ihown fuch eagernefs to follow his father
to martyrdom, that his mother was obliged to hide
his clothes to prevent his going abroad. Origen had
a great concourfe of auditors who attended his fchool,
fome of whom were of the faithful, and the others pa¬
gans. He confirmed and ftrengthened the firft in their
faith, and converted moft of the others; and there w ere
fuch a number of martyrs amongft his difciples, that it
might be faid, that he kept rather a fchool of martyr¬
dom than of divinity. He taught the doclrines of Chri-
ftianity to the girls and women as rvell as to the men •,
and taking in a too literal fenfe what Chrift fays of be¬
coming voluntary eunuchs, caftrated himfelf, to prevent
his deferving or fuffering fcandal. He took a voyage
to Rome in 211, in the beginning of Caracalla’s reign,
under the pontificate of Zepherinus. At his return he
publiffied many works, by which he acquired an extra¬
ordinary reputation, that drew to him a great number of
O R I
auditors. But Demetrius, bifhop of Alexandria, con- Ciigeti.
ceiving a jealoufy of him, endeavoured by various pre- " v
tences to injure him. At length Origcti went 10 An¬
tioch, wffiether the emprefs Mammaea had fent for him
to hear him difccurfe on the Chriftian religion. He did
not however flay long there, but returned to Alexandria,
where he continued to teach till the year 228, when
he left that city, and travelled into Achaia. In that
journey he went into Paleftine, and wras ordained by
the biffiops of that province at 42 years of age. His
being ordained by foreign biftiops, without the per-
miflion of Demetrius, renewed that prelate’s refent-
ment againft him 5 on which Origen haftily returned
to Alexandria, to endeavour to mollify him : but De¬
metrius drove him from thence in 231, and caufed
him to be excommunicated, and even depofed in a
council held in Egypt. Origen then retired to Ceefa-
rea in Paleftine, wffiere he raifed a celebrated fchool,
and had St Gregory Thaumaturgus, and a great
number of other perfons vTho w’ere illuftrious for their
virtue and learning, for his difciples. He afterwards
travelled to Athens j and then, at the defire of Firmi-
' lianus, ftaid fome time at Caefarea in Cappadocia j
wffience he was invited into Arabia, to convince and
bring back to the truth Beryllus bifhop of Boftra 5 who
maintained that the Word had no exiftence before his
incarnation. Origen had the happinefs to make him
fenfible of his miftake ; and fome years after wTas fent
for into Arabia by an affembly of biffiops, to difpute
againft the Arabians, wffio maintained that the fouls
of the dead remained in a ftate of infenfibility till the
general refurredfion. At length the feventh perfecu-
tion of the Chriftians began in the reign of Decius,
and none were ufed with greater feverity than Origen.
He fupported with incredible conftancy the dreadful
torments wffiich the perfecutors of the Chriftians in¬
vented againft them} torments that w7ere the more
infupportable, as they wrere made to continue a long
time, and as they took the greateft care to prevent his
expiring in the midft of his tortures : but in the midft
of the moft excruciating torments, he difcovered an
heroic courage, and fuffered nothing to efcape him
that wTas unworthy a difciple of Jefus Chrift. He
died at Tyre in 2 54, aged 69. He was the author of
a great number of excellent works. The principal of
thofe which have been handed down to us are, 1. A
Treatife againft Celfus, of which Spencer has given a
good edition in Greek and Latin, wdth notes: this
learned treatife has been tranflated into French by Elias
Bouhereau, a proteftant minifter, born at Rochelle.
2. A great number of Homilies, with Commentaries
on the Holy Scriptures. ‘ '3. Phi/ocalia, and feveral
other
[ 456 1
(a) He is the firft Chriftian (whofe notions on this fubjeft have come down to us) who believed in the re-
ftitution of all things. This is his fixth diftingurffiing tenet -, to which is added this Angular notion, that as
Chrift had been crucified in this world to fave mankind, he is to be crucified in the next to fave the devils.
The other obnoxious tenets of Origen are thefe five: viz. 1. That in the Trinity the Father is greater than
the Son, and the Son than the Holy Ghoft. 2. The pre-exiftence of fouls, wffiich Origen confidered as fent
into mortal bodies for the puniihment of fins committed in a former ftate of being. 3. That the foul of Chrift was
united to the world before the incarnation. 4. That the fun, moon, and ftars, &c. were animated and en¬
dowed with rational fouls. <f. That after the refurreftion, all bodies will be of a round figure. It is probable
that the myftic theology of the modern Quakers and other feels is derived from Origen. See Mojheim. EccL
Hi/?, vol. I ft.
3
OR! [ 457 1 O R I
Crigen otKer treatxfes. 4. Fragments of his Hexaples, col-
lefted by Father Montfaucon, in two volumes folio.
Of all Origen’s books, the lofs of the Hexaples is moft
to be regretted. This work was thus named from its
containing fix columns; in the firft of which was the
Hebrew text of the Bible 3 in the fecond, the fame
text in Greek charaflers 3 in the third, the Greek
-verfion of the Septuagint 3 in the fourth, that of A-
quila 3 in the fifth, that of Symmachus 3 and in the
lixth Theodofian’s Greek verfion. This admirable
work gave the firft hint for our Polyglot Bibles.
5. The book of Principles 3 of which we have only an
incorreft Latin verfion. In all his writings he difco-
vers a furprifing degree of modefty, candour, and humi¬
lity 3 a noble and fublime genius, profound learning,
and vaft erudition. His manners were extremely pure,
and he had a warm zeal for fpreading the truths and
morals of the Gofpel.
Much has been written both for and againft this
celebrated father, both by his contemporaries and
others: he has indeed fuffered great abufe, which he
did not deferve, and which we fhall not retail 3 con-
BiU Aut. tenting ourfelves with the following account of his
Ecdef, charafter by Dupin, and fome remarks on it by Dr
tom. i. Jortin. “ Origen (fays Dupin) had very quick parts,
a very ftrong and enlarged imagination 3 but he relied
too much on the vivacity of his genius, and often loft
himfelf, out of too great earneftnefs to fathom and
fubtilife every thing. He had a very happy inven¬
tion, and a more happy delivery of what he invented :
but he had not that exa&nefs in his inventions, nor
that gracefulnefs of delivery as might be wifhed. He
carried on his works with fo gre^t eafe, that he is faid
to have di&ated to feven or eight perfons at a time 3
and he was fo ready in exprefting himfelf, that he
made the greateft part of his homilies extempore : upon
which account his ftyle was not very correft or coherent.
He had a vaft memory, but often trufted too much to it.
He was a perfon of moft profound learning : he parti¬
cularly ftudied Plato’s philofophy, and was indeed too
much addifted to it for a Chriftian. He underftood
likewife the doftrines of other philofophers. He ap¬
plied himfelf mightily to the ftudy of human learning.
He was neither ignorant of hiftory nor mythology 3 and
he had as great a knowledge in all the profane fciences,
as thofe who ftudied nothing elfe. But he particularly
excelled in the knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,
which he learned all by heart 3 and that he might
negleift nothing for attaining a right underftanding of
the letter thereof, he carefully examined all the verfions
of the Bible, and compared them all together with the
Hebrew text, fubjoining a literal commentary upon the
moil difficult places. He was not very well {killed iu
the Hebrew 3 yet he knew enough of it to underftand
it, and to obferve the difference of the text and the
tranflations. Neverthelefs, he did not adhere to the li¬
teral explication of the Bible, but thought it neceffary,
for the fake of gaining it credit with the heathens, who
defpifed its plainnefs and fimplicity, and of rendering it
more ufeful to the world, to give myftical and allegori¬
cal interpretations of every thing in it.”
Jortin's- Dr Jortin tells us, “ That Origen was very learned
Remarks, and ingenious, and indefatigably induftrious. His whole
v°l n. ]jfe from eal-ly years was fpent in examining, teach-
#• *34) 23s- ing^ ancj explaining the Scriptures 3 to prhich he joined
Vol. XV. Part II.
the ftudy of philofophy and of all polite literature. He Origenkins
was humble, modeft, and patient, under great injuries . ,
and cruel treatment, which he received from Chriftians. f
and Pagans : for though he ever had a confiderable
number of friends and admirers, on account of his ami¬
able qualities and ufeful accomplilhments, he was per-
fecuted and calumniated by men, who had neither his
learning nor his virtue, degraded from the order of
prefhyters, driven from his home, and excommunicated
by one Demetrius bilhop of Alexandria, who envied
him, fays Eufebius, for the reputation which he had
gained. His inquifitive genius, and his mixing philo-
fophy with Chriftianity, led him perhaps into fome
learned Angularities and ingenious reveries 3 but he was
by temper far from dogmatizing in fuch points, from
fomenting fchifms, and fetting up himfelf for the head
of a party. He lived in times when Chriftians were
not fo ftiackled with fyftems and determinations as they
were afterwards, nor fo much expofed to difingenuous
and illiberal obje&ions 3 and had more liberty to purfue
their inquiries and to fpeak their mind.—He was ever
extremely fober and exemplary, praftifing what he
preached to others 3 and he lived and died poor, and de-
ftitute even of common conveniences.”—The moft com¬
plete edition of his works is that of Father Delarue, a
Benedi&ine, in Greek and Latin. The celebrated
Montfaucon likewife publiffied, in 2 vols folio, fome re¬
mains and fragments of his Hexapla.
He ought not to be confounded with another Ort-
GEN, a Platonic philofopher, and the difciple and friend
of Porphyry, who ftudied philofophy under Ammo-
nius : perhaps this Origen was the founder of the Ori-
GENIANS.
ORIGENIANS (Origeniani), ancient heretics, who
even furpaffed the abominations of the Gnoftics.
Epiphanius fpeaks of them as fubfifting in his time j
but their numbers, he fays, were inconfiderable. He
feems to fix their rife about the time of the great Ori¬
gen ; but does not fay that they derived their name from
him. On the contrary, he diftinguiffies them from the
Origenijlx, whom he derives from Origen Adamantius;
adding, indeed, that they firft took their name from one
Origen ; by which he intimates, that it was not the great
Origen. And St Auguftine exprefsly afferts, that it was
another. Their doftrines were ffiameful: they reject¬
ed marriage 3 they ufed feveral apocryphal books, as the
a£ts of St Andrew, &c. and endeavoured to excufe their
open crimes, by faying, that the Catholics did the fame
in private.
ORIGENISTS, in church-hiftory, a Chriftian fed
in the fourth century, fo called from their drawing their
opinions from the writings of Origen. The Origenifts
maintained, that the fouls of men had a pre-exiftent
ftate : that they were holy intelligences, and had fin¬
ned in heaven before the body was created : that Chrift
is only the Son of God by adoption 3 that he has been
fucceffively united with all the angelical natures, and
has been a cherub, a feraph, and all the celeftial vir¬
tues one after another 3 that, in future ages, he will be
cruci£ed for the falvation of the devils, as he has al¬
ready been for that of men 3 and that their puniihment,
and that of the damned, will continue only for a certain
limited time.
ORIGINAL, a firft draught or defign of any thing,
which ferves as a model to be imitated or cojfied.
3 M Original
O R I [ 458 ] O R I
Original ORIGINAL Sin, tlie crime of eatjng the forbidden
S;,n fruit, of which, it is faid, all mankind are guilty at
Oiion. their conception, by the imputation of Adam’s tranf-
v——' greflion; which is accounted for by fuppofing, that
Adam, as he was to be the father, was alfo the federal
head and reprefentaiive, of the whole human race : and
that, on his. finning, all that were to fpring from him
partook of his crimes. See Theology, &c.
ORIGUELA, a town of Valentia in Spain. It is
feated between the mountains on the banks of the river
Segura, in a place fortified by nature, and in a fertile
plain, abounding in all things, efpecially corn. It is
furrounded with pleafant gardens, and has a univerfity
and a bifhop’s fee. It is defended by an old caftle ; and
is the capital of a government independent of Valentia,
whole jurifdiclion extends 30 miles in length and 13 in
breadth. W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 38. 22.
ORILLON, in Fortification, is a fmall rounding of
earth, faced with a wall; railed on the Ihoutder of thofe
baftions that have cafemates, to cover the cannon in the
retired flank, and prevent their being difmounted by the
enemy. See Fortification.
ORIOLUS, or Oriole, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of picse. See Ornithology Index.
ORION, in fabulous hiflory, was the Ion of Jupi¬
ter, Neptune, and Mercury. For as thefe gods were
vifiting the earth, they entered the houfe of Hyrieus,
a native of Tanagra, in Boeotia, under the character of
benighted travellers, on account of his being famed
for hofpitality to ftrangers. Hyrieus treated them in
the bell manner in his power j and even killed an ox,
the only one he had, for their entertainment. At
which the gods wTere fo pleafed, that they offered the
old man whatever lie would alk •, who letting them
know that he defired nothing fo much as a fon, they,
•to gratify his with, caufed the ox’s hide to be brought
before them, in which, having depofited their urine,
they bade him keep it under ground for nine months.
He then dug for the Ikin, and found in it a beautiful
child, whom he called Ur ion ab urina. The name was
■afterwards changed into Orion by the corruption of
one letter, as Ovid obferves : Perdidit antiquam litera
prima fonum. Orion foon became confpicuous 5 and
Diana took him among her attendants, and even be¬
came deeply enamoured of him. His gigantic ftature,
however, difpleafed Oenopion king of Chios, whofe
daughter Hero or Merope he requefted in marriage.
The king, not willing to deny him openly, promifed
to make him his fon-in-law as foon as he delivered his
illand from wild beafts. This talk, which Oenopion
fuppofed to be impraclicable, was foon performed by
Orion, who eagerly demanded his reward. Oenopion,
on pretence of complying, intoxicated his illuftrious
gueft, and put out his eyes on the fea-lhore, where he
had laid himfelf down to fleep. Orion found himfelf
blind when he awoke. He went, directed by the found,
to a neighbouring forge, where he placed one of the
workmen on his back, and by his directions went to a
■place where the riling fun was feen with the greateft
advantage. Here he turned his face towards the lumi¬
nary •, and, according to report, he immediately recover¬
ed his eye-fight, and haftened to punifli the perfidious
cruelty of Oenopion. Orion was reported to be an ex¬
cellent workman in iron, and to have fabricated a fub-
terraneous palace for Vulcan.
Aurora, whom Venus had infpired with love, car- Orion,
ried him away into the ifland of Delos, that ihe might Oriftagni.
enjoy his company with greater fecurity j but Diana, v
who was jealous of this, deilroyed him with her ar¬
row’s. Some fay, that Orion had provoked Diana’s
refentment, by offering violence to Opis, one of her
female attendants j or, as others fay, becaufe he had
attempted the virtue of the goddefs herfelf. Accord¬
ing to Ovid, Orion died of the bile of a fcorpion,
which the earth produced to punilh his vanity, in
boafting that no animal on earth could conquer him.
Some fay that Orion was fon of Neptune and Euryale,
and that he had received from his father the privilege
and power of walking over the fca without wetting his
feet. Others affert, that he was a fon of Terra, like
the reft of the giants. He had married a nymph call¬
ed Side, before his connexion with the family of Oeno¬
pion ; but Sida was the * mfe of her own death, by
boafting herfelf fairer than Juno. Diodorus fays, that
Orion was a celebrated hunter, luperior to the reft of
mankind, by his ftrength and uncommon ftature. He
built the port of Zancle, and fortified the coaft of Sicily
againft the frequent inundations of the fea, by heaping
a mound of earth called Pelorum, on which he built a
temple to the gods of the fea. After death Orion was
placed in heaven, where one of the confteliations itill
bears his name. The conftellation of Orion was placed
near the feet of the bull. It was compofed of 17 ftars
in the form of a man holding a fword j for which rea-
fon the poets often fpeak of Orion’s fword. As the
conftellation of Orion, which rifes about the 9th day of
March, and fets about the 21ft of June, is generally
fuppofed to be accompanied at its riling with great rains
and ftorms, it has acquired the epithet of aquofus, given
it by Virgil. Orion was buried in the ifland of Delos •,
and the monument which the people of Tanagra in Boe¬
otia fliowed, as containing his remains, was nothing but
a cenotaph. The daughters of Orion diftinguilhed them-
felves as much as their father 5 and when the oracle had
declared that Bceotia Ihould not be delivered from a
dreadful peftilence before twro of Jupiter’s children were
immolated on the altars, they joyfully accepted the of¬
fer, and voluntarily facrificed themfelves for the good
of their country. Their names were Menippe and Me-
tioche. They had been carefully educated by Diana 5
and Venus and Minerva had made them very rich and
valuable prefents. The deities of hell were ftruck at
the patriotifm of thefe two females 5 and inftantly two
ftars were obferved to arife from the earth, which ftill
fmoked with their blood, and they were placed in the
heavens in the form of a crown. According to Ovid,
their bodies were burned by the Thebans, and from their
alhes arofe two perfons, whom the gods foon after changed
into conftellations.
Orion, in AJironomy, one of the conftellations of
the fouthern hemifphere., The word is formed from
the Greek “ to make waterthe ancients fup¬
pofing that it raifed tempefts at its riling and fetting.
The ftars in the conftellation Orion, in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 37, in Tycho’s 62, in the Britannic cata¬
logue 80.
ORISTAGNI, an ancient town of the ifland of
Sardinia, with an archbilhop’s fee. It is pretty large
and well fortified ; but thinly inhabited, on account
of the unhealthy air ; it is feated on the veftern coaft,
in
O R K [ 459 ] O R K
Orift^ni m a bay of ibe lame name, in E. Long. 8. 58. N. Lat.
W 39. 55.
Orkney OIUXA, a kingdom of Indoftan, lying on the gulf
1 of Bengal. It is divided from the ancient kingdom of
Golconda by a ridge of mountains, the end of which
runs a little way into the fea. It is fertile in corn and
cattle, and they have feveral good towns and harbours
on the coaft ; there are alfo manufaftures of different
kinds carried on throughout the kingdom. Ihe prince
is a Gentoo, who pays to the Great Mogul a tribute to
the amount of about 1 2,oocl. yearly.
Orixa, a genus of plants belonging to the tetrandria
clafs ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
that are doubtful. See Botany Index.
ORKNEY islands, called Or cades by the ancients,
certain iflands on the north of Scotland (a), from which
they are feparated by a frith 20 miles in length and 10 Orkney,
in breadth.
As writing feems to have been unknown in the
northern illands, during thofe periods which the an¬
tiquarian would call the molt curious and important,
the chief part of our information refpe&ing the an¬
cient ftate of the Orkneys mull; be derived from tradi¬
tion and conjecture. Their mountainous fituation, and
natural jealoufy of ftrangers, oblirucled the progrefs
both of knowledge and religion : for inftead of receiving
either from their fouthern neighbours, we are certain
that they derived their knowledge of Chriftianity from
Norway, during the expeditions undertaken by that na¬
tion (in the end of. the 10th or beginning of the nth
century) to make fettlements in the Orkneys and on the
coalt of Caithnefs (b). The belt (becaufe it is in all
3 M 2 probability
(A) The northern ifles of Scotland have been often mentioned by ancient authors, and called by different
names from thofe they now go by; fo that it is fometimes difficult to know which of them are meant. ^ The
ancient name, however, of the illands which are the fubjeCt of this article, has never been difputed. The Ebndce,
it is agreed, are the modern Hebrides; and there is no doubt of the ancient Orcades being the fame with the
Orkneys. Of Thule, however, we are not fo certain ; and whether it means the Shetland ifles, or Iceland,
remains undetermined. Pythias, a IVIaffihan, pretends to have vilited thefe iLands, and paiticulaily dhule }
but he does not mention the Orcades. The geographer Mela, who was contemporary with the emperor Clau¬
dius, is the next writer who defcribes the northern illands. Of the Orkneys he gives a remarkably juft account,
and fays they were thirty in number, with narrow7 channels between them j but he is lefs accurate with refpeCt
to "the reft. Pliny the Elder is the third who mentions the northern illands. He makes the dumber of the
Orkneys to be forty, and of the Hebrides to be thirty. Solinus, the fuppofed contemporary with ^ gricola,
is the next after Pliny. In his time, and according to his account, thefe iilands had not a Angle inhabitant, and
were overgrown ■with rulhy grafs. It feems on the whole to be pretty generally allowed, that Julius Agricola,
who firft failed round Britain, difcovered the Orcades, till then unknown, and fubdued them *. Claudius-was
fo far from reducing them (as is afferted by Jerome in his Chronicle), that Juvenal has thefe lines in Hadrian’s
time :
Arma quid ultra
Littora Juverrue promovimus et modo capias
Orcades, et minima contentos nolle Bntannos. Sat. II. 160.
In vain, O Rome, thou doll this conqueft boaft
Beyond the Orcades’ Ihort-nighted coaft. Drydlx.
Tacitus informs us, that before the completion of the firft century, the Roman fleets failed round Scotland, and
landed in the Orcades to refrelh.
(b) It has been afferted, that the Orkneys, as well as the illes of Shetland, were originally peopled from
Norwray, in the ninth, tenth, or eleventh century. Others again imagine, with as much probability, that the
Piets were the original inhabitants, and call Orkney the ancient kingdom of the Piets. Certain Angular houfes,
now overgrown with earth, are called Pi&s houfes; and the Pentland frith (formerly Pight/and or Pi&land) is fup¬
pofed to retain their name. Claudian’s lines, cited by Mr Camden, prove, that the Pi&s, with fome other Ger¬
man colony, particularly the Saxons, wrere at that time in poffeffion of thefe ifles ; and fo Ninnius exprefsly fays.
Many of the prefent inhabitants ufe the Norfe language, which differs but little from the Teutonic or Piailh lan¬
guage, and wras in general ufe to the laft century j but except in Foula, where a few words are ftill known by the
aged people, it is quite loft. The Englifh tongue, wdth a Norwegian accent, is that of thefe iflandsbut the ap¬
pearance of the people, in their manners and genius, evidently fhows their northern origin. Ninnius. c. 5. puts
iheir arrival at Orkney not lefs than 900 years after the coming of Brutus into Britain, which he fays was in the
time of Eli the Jewifii high prieft. The ancient furnames are of German original. Some date the firft fettlement
of the Pifts here A. M. 4867 j when, emigrating from their native country, they planted a colony in Orkney,
and thence crofting Pidlland frith, and traverfing Caithnefs, Rofs, Murray, Marr, and Angus, fettled in Fife and
Lothian ; thence called by our w'fftters Pidllandia. Others think they did not fettle here till the time of Reuther
king of Scotland, when the Pi£ls joining wdth a party of the Scots, were repulfed, with the lofs of their king
Gethus, and many of the Pidls and Scottilh nobility, with great flaughter ; but the invafions of the Britons, at the
feme time, conftrained the Piets to fly to Orkney, where they chofe for king Gothus their deceafed fovereign’s
brother,
* The Romans, never that wre know, vifited thefe iflands again but once, which wras probably after Honorius had defeated the
Saxons in the leas of Orkney.
' O R K r 460 ] . O R K
probability the moft authentic) account that we have
of this early part of the hiflory of the Orkneys, feems
to be in Torfaeus. See Torfteus. His hiftory mult,
doubtlefs, have been compiled chiefly from tradition,
■which is far from being the fureft mode of information.
During the time of Gregory the Great, when by his
policy the Pifts were driven from other parts tof Spot-
land, they came to the Orcades as an afylum •, but it
does not appear, and is far from being probable, that
they received a favourable reception, for many of them
migrated to Shetland, and from thence to the oppofite
coafts of Norway. A particular hi dory of thefe idands
during thofe early ages would afford little entertain¬
ment, becaufe its authenticity is at lead doubtful.
Thefe iflands were at various times haraffed and plun¬
dered by adventurers from Scandinavia *, and the Nor¬
wegian princes frequently laid the inhabitants under tri¬
bute.
We have faid that the Chridian religion was tranf-
ported to the Orkneys from Norway, and that this
happened in the beginning of the nth century. A-
bout which time Sigurdis poffeffed the entire dominion
of thofe ides, and for many years exercifed all the
powers of a monarch in the north. At the fame time
Chridianity had dawned on Scandinavia, and had be¬
come the edablidied religion in the feat of government
in Norway. Its doctrines interwove themfelves with
the policy of the nation ; its principles, fo nearly in-
tereding to human happinefs, made their farther publi¬
cation an object of much moment to the adventurous
princes, and gave a new law to their enterprifes.
While the power xof thefe principles was aiding with
original force upon the minds of the people, and their
zeal rendered them ambitious of any exploit, whereby
they could diffufe their influence; Olaus prince of
Norway equipped a fquadron dedined to carry the
knowledge of the gofpel to other fhores. On this
pious adventure he was accompanied not only by num¬
bers of all ranks, whom, as ufual, a love of enterprife
invited 5 but by many perfons of didinguilhed know'-
ledge and abilities, men of fincere piety, who had be¬
come particularly ■well acquainted with the Chridian
dodrines, and entertained a deep fenfe of their infi¬
nite importance. Thefe entered into the fleet, joyful
in the profped of fpreading the truths which they re¬
vered through yet unenlightened countries 5 and the
.fquadron foon appeared off the Orc?.des. Olaus got
S gurdis on board of his fleet, with his fon, and but
a few attendants, and, as the heir of Harold, he claim¬
ed all the provinces over which Sigurdis reigned and
at the fame time he ordered him to renounce and abjure
the religion of. his fathers, and to embrace Chridianity.
Delay was not permitted-, Chridianity was forced upon Orkney-
him and his fubjects; and, on the departure of Olaus, he  
carried the Ion of Sigurdis as an hodage for what he had
engaged ; which was to give honourable protedlion to all
thofe holy men who might choofe to refide in thofe parts
for the purpofe of indrudling the people in the nature of
the Chridian doftrines 5 for many of the more intelli¬
gent and religious men who had come from Norway
with Olaus, remained in the Orcades and in the north
of Scotland, to fulfil their pious refolution of fpread¬
ing the light of the gofpel there. Olaus, with the red
of his followers, failed on another expedition towards
the frith of Moray. The death of Kindius his fou,
which happened foon after Olaus’s return to Norway,
releafed Sigurdxs from his engagements with him ,
and he entered into one with Malcolm II. one of whofe
daughters he had in marriage, and by whom he had a
fon, Torphinus. Torphinus’s bravery, ^magnificence,
generofity, and hofpitality, endeared him to the inha¬
bitants ) and he ruled without controul for many years,
till Ronald, a grandfon of Sigurdis, who had lived
in Norway, and who was edeemed the rightful heir ef
the earldom of Orkney, made a fuccefeful defcent up¬
on it. Torphinus wifhed to give him battle and in
a fea-fight, with the aflidance of feme fliips from Ar-
ninus, a man who had filled fome of the fird places ia
Norway, he totally defeated him. By courting the
friendlhip of that court, his dominions remained quiet
for the greater part of his life ; the latter part of which
was no lefs eminent for edablilhing falutary laws, and
encouraging the arts of indudry, than the former
had been diflinguilhed for military fame and fuccefs in
the exploits of war. He lived to an advanced age,
until after Malcom III. had afcended the throne of
Scotland. Torphinus had built a fumptuous church
in Byrfa, where the fird bifhops of Orkney refided.
In the decline of life he retired to that ifland, and,
finifjiing his days with exemplary piety, was with much
folemnity interred in the temple which he had raifed.
His country long lamented the lofs of fo celebrated a
ruler, who had eflablidied fecurity in it, through the
influence of his law's, and had taught it to enjoy the.
arts and bleffings of peace. He left twTo fons, Paul
and Erland, vdao through the whole of their lives
amicably {hared both in the honours and adminidra- .
tion of their father’s extenfive domain. During this
period, the northern counties are faid to have arrived
at a very fuperior degree of cultivation and improve¬
ment, which became equally confpicuous in the riclv
nefs of their lands, and in the mildnefs of their difpo-
fitions. Their fons, however, did not both inherit their
father’s virtues. Magnus, the fon of Erland, was pious
brother, till they w-ere able to return to Lothian, and drive out the Britons. After this tney flourilhed here, and.
■were governed by kings of their own. There dill remains a place called Cumnngfga, the dwelling place of the
minider of Sandwick, wliofe name and form befpeak it the refidence of fome of them. But no traces of their hi-
dory remain, except the name of Belus, in ancient characters, on a done in the churen of Birfa, where dill is to
be feen one of the principal palaces. This government probably fubfided till the fubverfion of the PiCtifli king¬
dom in Scotland, A. D. 839, by Kenneth II. king of Scotland. On the whole, however, the time of the difcovery
and population of the Orkneys is certainly unknown. Probably it wTas very early 5 for we are told that they owe
their name to the Greeks.
Orcadts /fas mepioront dlBas a nomine Greece. Claudian.
O R K [46
and peaceablea great promoter of religion, and an¬
xious in patronifmg the Romifh milTionaries, and in
protefling the eftabliihments of Chriftianity : but Ha-
con, the heir of Paul, was vehement, wild, and im¬
patient of reftraint. He faw how Magnus was revered,
and envy drove him to revenge j for, by the moft de¬
liberate and deceitful villany, he got Magnus into his
power, and murdered hun without mercy. J he latter
part of his life was fpent in penance, and in improving
his dominions.
Magnus’s Angular piety, and the manner of his un¬
fortunate death, were fo well reprefented at the court
of Rome, that he was canonized. Hacon left two
ions, Paul the Silent, and Harold the Orator. Caith-
nefs came to Harold, and the Orkneys were governed
by Paul.
Ronald, a defcendant of St Magnus, an elegant and
accomplilhed youth, appeared at the court of Norway,
and wras fupported in a claim upon the Orkneys, as the
heir of the canonized martyr. He fent meffengers to
Paul, and offered to {hare the government with him 5
but this propofal was refufed, and the ambafladors were
treated wnth great contempt. They, however, found
perfons of power difpofed to fecond their mailer’s view’s j
who foon after their return fet out, and vowed, if he
fucceeded, to build a magnificent church, and to de¬
dicate it to St Magnus. All feemed fatisfied with the
enterprife j and, full of hope, the fleet fet fail. Paul
in the mean time put himfelf in a ftate of defence. Ey
very artful manoeuvres, however, Ronald obtained his
purpofe, and willingly {hared his fovereignty with Ha¬
rold, the legal heir of Paul. They lived amicably to¬
gether 5 and on the aflaflination of Ronald, which was
accomplifhed by a proud chieftain, wdio thought himfelf
infulted, he was buried with great pomp. Harold now
fully poflefled the unrivalled fovereignty of the north,
and lived long to enjoy it. We find that in 1196 he
was able to bring 7000 men to the field, and a body of
cavalry, againft the army of William king of Scotland,
but was immediately defeated. In the next year, the
Caithnefians rebelled again, headed by oire Roderic,
and Torphinus, fon to Harold. The king met and
defeated them near Invernefs. Roderick was flain $
and William feizing on Harold in the extremity of
Caithnefs, detained him till Torphinus furrendered
himfelf as an hoftage; but on fome new treafons of the
father, the king, according to the barbarity of the times,
caufed the eyes of the unhappy youth to be put out j
and had him emafculated, of which he foon periflied
in prifon. Harold died in the 73d year of his age *,
and with him ended, in its earls, the independent^ fo¬
vereignty of the north of Scotland. The Norwegians
feem to have been in pofieflion of thefe ifles as late as
1266; for then Magnus IV. king of Norway, being
worfted in war with the Scots, yielded them to Alex¬
ander III. king of Scotland by treaty, and Haquin
king of Norway confirmed the pofleflion of them to
King Robert Bruce in the year 1312. Laftly, in 1464,
Chriftian I. king of Norway and Denmark, vrhen he
gave his daughter in marriage to James III. hh>g of
Scotland, transferred all his right to them to his fon-
in-law and his fucceffors; to make which more binding
the Pope’s cpnfirmation was obtained. We are told
by fome, that Magnus fold them to Alexander for the
I ] O R K
fum of 4000 nferks fterling, and a yearly acknowledge¬
ment of 100 merks.
They are about 30 in number; but many of them
are uninhabited, the greater part being imall, and pro1-
ducing only pafturage for cattle. The principal iflands
are denominated by the names of Mainland, South
Ronaldjha, Swinna, Fiona, Copinjha, Strupenjha, Stron-
fa, Sanda, fa'c. the terminations in a, or ha, being gene¬
rally given in the Teutonic to fuch places as are fur-
rounded by water. The currents and tides flowing be¬
tween the. iflands are extremely rapid and dangerous.
Near an ifland called Swinna are twro great whirlpools,
called the wells of Swinna, which are count ed dangerous
by mariners, efpecially in a calm. When failors find
themfelves fucked into the vortex, it is faid they throw-
out a barrel, or fome bulky fubflance, which fmooths
the water till it is fucked down and thrown up at a con -
fiderable diftance, during wddch time the {hip paffes over
in fafety. But when there is a breeze of wind, thefe
whirlpools may be croffed without any danger. Ihe
largeft of thefe iflands is called Pomona, in length 33,
and in breadth 9 miles, containing 9 parifh-churches,
acid 4 excellent harbours.
The air of thefe iflands is moift, on account of the
neighbourhood of the fea ; and froft and fnow do not
continue long. In fome places the foil is bare and,
mountainous, and in others fandy and barren *, howr-
ever, many of the iflands produce large crops of barley
and oats, but no wheat or other grain excepting what
is inclofed in gardens. Thefe, when duly cultivated,
produce all kinds of kitchen herbs and roots, bring¬
ing even fruit-trees to maturity} but out of them, in
the open country, there is fcarce a tree or fnrub to be
feen, except juniper, wfild myrtle, heath, and the cy-
ur-hodon : yet this deficiency cannot be imputed to
the poverty of the foil, or the nature of the climate :
for the trunks of large oaks are frequently dug up in
the marfhes. This is likewife the cafe in the mofl:
barren parts of the Highlands of Scotland, where not
a fhrub is to be feen above the furface of the earths
nay, the inhabitants frequently find, deep in the earth,
the roots of large trees, evidently exhibiting marks of
the axe by wdiich they w-ere felled } fo that thefe north¬
ern parts muft have undergone fome ftrange revolu¬
tions. The Orkneys produce great variety of herbs
and berries, grafs and corn, which laft: is exported as
far as Edinburgh. In fome of the iflands, the natives
have difcovered mines of tin, lead, and filver, though
none of them are wrought to any advantage ; in others,
we find abundance of marl, gray and red flate, quar¬
ries of freeftone, and even of marble and alabafter.
When the wind rages to any violence, the fea throws
in plenty of timber, torn from other countries } and,
not unfrequently, the people find large pieces of am-
bergreafe. The frefli water in theie iflands is very
pure and limpid •, and, though there are no large ri¬
vers in the Orkneys, the ground is wTell watered with
lakes and pleafant rivulets, that not only ferve to
turn their mills, but alio abound w7ith trout of the mok
delicate flavour.
Befides the abundance of little horfes, black cattle,
flieep, fwine, and rabbits, the inhabitants ot the Ork¬
neys rear all forts of domeftic animals and tame poul
try. Their heaths and commons yield plenty of red
deeFi
O R K [ 462 ] O R K
deer, and all forts of game; partridges, growfe,
heath-cocks, plover, duck, teal, and widgeon : the
Jca-coafts teem with feals and otters 5 and are vifited
by whales, cod, ling, tufk, herrings, and all manner
ot fiHr : on the fhore they find Ipermaceti, os fepiae,
and a great variety of Ihells and corallines, with a mul¬
titude of oyfters, remarkably large mufcles, crabs,
and cockles. The rocks are covered with fea-fowl,
wild geefe, folan geefe, barnacles, eagles, hawks, and
kites. With refpeft to the barnacles, or, as the natives
rail them, the deck geefe, they are (aid to be found in
fiiells flicking by the bills to trees, in feveral iflands.
Martin affirms he has feen them in this fituation, but
could not perceive them alive ; and indeed the whole
account of their generation and produdlion, exhibited
by the northern naturalift, is abfurd and unphilofophi-
ca'l. The Orkney eagles are fo ftrong, that according
to the reports of the country, they have been known to
carry away young children in their talons. Certain it
is, they make fuch havock among the lambs, that he
who kills an eagle is entitled by law to a hen from every
iroufe in the parifh where it was killed. The king’s
falconer vifits thefe ifiands every year, in order to fetch
away the young hawks and Talcons from their nefls
among the precipices: he enjoys a yearly falary of
20I. and may claim a hen or a dog front every houfe in
the country, except thofe that are exprefsly exempted
from this impofition.
The gentry of the Orkneys are civilized, polite,
and hofpitable 5 and live like thofe of Scotland, from
whom they are chiefly defcended. They live com¬
fortably, are remarkably courteous to ftraiigers, and
drink a great quantity of wine, with which their cel¬
lars are generally -well ftored. Indeed the inhabitants
of the Orkneys may be now juftly deemed a Scotch
colony. They fpeak the language, profefs the religion,
follow the fafliions, and are lubjecl to the laws, of that
people. They are frugal, fagacious, circumfpeft, reli¬
gious, and hofpitable. Their mariners are remarkably
bold, aclive, dexterous, and hardy. Many furprifing
inftances of longevity occur here, as well as in Shetland,
of perfons living to the age of 140. The Orkney wo¬
men are generally handfome, and well fliaped, and bring
forth children at a very advanced age. In the Orkneys,
fome particular lands are held by a tenure called TJdal
Right, from Ulcius, or Olaus, king of Norway, who
farmed the lands, on condition of receiving one-third of
the produce *, and this right devolved in fucceflicn, xvith-
out any charter granted by the fovereign. The inhabi¬
tants of Orkney, inftead of meafuring their corn, weigh
it in pifmores or pundlers. Their lead: denomination
is a mark, confiding of 18 ounces, and 24 marks make
a lifpound, wffiich is a Daniffi quantity. The poorer
fort of people in the Orkneys appear very meanly ha¬
bited, with a piece of feal-fkin, inftead of ftioes; and
living chiefly on fait fifh, are fubjeft to the fcurvy.
They are much addifled to luperftitious rites; in parti¬
cular, interpreting dreams and omens, and believing in
the force of idle charms. The iflands of Orkney, we
have already obferved, produce very bold, able, and
hardy mariners. The common people, in general, are
inured to fatigue, and remarkably adventurous, both in
fifhing during rough wTeather, and in climbing the rocks
for the fiefti, eggs, and down of fea-fowd. Formerly,
while they wrere expofed to the invafions of the Nor-
2
wegians, or weftern iflanders, every village was obliged Orkney,
to equip a large boat well manned ; and all the fenci-' v
We men appeared in arms, when the alarm was given
by the beacons lighted on the tops of the rocks and
highert mountains. Thefe beacons, known by the name
of ward-hills, are ftill to be feen in every ifland. Their
corn land they inclofe with mud or ftone walls, to pre*
ferve it from the ravages of their flieep, fwine, and cat¬
tle, which winder about at random, without being at¬
tended by herdfmen : their ordinary ihanure, efpecial-
ly near the fea-coaft, is fea-weed, which they care¬
fully gather and divide into equal portions. Their
ftteep are marked on the ears and nofe \ but fo wild,
that when they have occafion to fhear them in the
month of May, they are obliged to hunt every indi¬
vidual, with dogs trained for that purpofe. Their
manner of catching fea-fowl is curious and particular.
Under the rock where thefe fowls build they row
their boat, provided wdth a large net, to the upper
corners of which are faftened two ropes, lowered dow n
from the top of the mountain by men placed in that
ftation. Thefe hoifting up the net, until it be fpread
oppofite to the cliffs in w'hic.h the fowls are fitting, the
boatmen beknv make a noife with a rattle, by which
the fowls being frightened, fly forwards into the bo-
fom of the net, in which they are immediately en-
clofed and lowered down into the boat \ others prac-
tife the method ufed in Iceland and Nonvay, and are
lowered down by a Angle rope from the fummit of the
mountain } this is the conftant way of robbing the
hawk’s neft. See BlRD-Catching. In thefe iilands
fome ftrange effefts are produced by thunder and light¬
ning. In the year 1680, the lightning entered a cowr-
houfe, in which 12 cows flood in a row, and killed
every fecond beaft as ffie flood, and left the reft un¬
touched. The diftempers that prevail moftly in the
Orkneys are agues, confumptions, fcurvy, and itch.
The agues, which abound in the fpring, the natives
cure with a diet drink of bitters and antifcorbutics in-
fiifed in ale : for phthifical complaints they ufe the plant
arby, and the caryophyllus marinus boiled with fweet
milk.
The ifles of Orkney and Shetland compofe one ftewr-
artry, and fend one member to the imperial parliament.
The right of fuperiority to the Orkneys was difmember-
ed from the crown by the dnion parliament, and grant¬
ed for a certain yearly confideration to the earl of
Morton, by Queen Anne, who appointed him heredi¬
tary ftewnrd and jufticiary. This nobleman poffeffes
the powTer of creating certain judges, called bailiff's.
There is one of thefe eftablilbch in every ifland and pa-
rifir, wdth power to fuperintend the manners of the in¬
habitants, to hold courts, and determine civil caufes, ac¬
cording to the law’s of Scotland, to the value of ten
pounds Scots money, amounting to 16s. 8d.: but all
contefts of higher import are referred to the decifion of
the ftervard or his deputy, who refides at Kirkwall,
which is the feat of juftice. Subfervient to the bailiffs
are fix or feven of the moft reputable and intelligent
inhabitants, who overfee the conduct of their fellows,
adffng as conftables, a»d make report of all enormities
to the bailiff; who caufes the delinquent to be appre¬
hended and puniffied, if the crime be within the extent
of his judicial pow’er; otherwife he tranfmits him to
Kirkwall, where he is tried by the fteward. The Pro-
teftant
O R K
[ 463 1
O R K
Orkney, teftant religion prevails in the itles of Orkney, accord-
T——' ing to the rites and dilcipline of the kirk ; thefe, and
the illes of Shetland, conflituting one preftytery, which
aflembles at Kirkwall. The country is divided into
18 parilhes, containing 31 churches, and above 100
chapels.
The trade of the Orkneys is not very confiderable,
though it might be extended to great advantage. They
fupply with freih provinons, for ready money, the ftiips
and veflels that touch upon the coal! in the courfe of
northern voyages, or in their pafiage from the Eaft In¬
dies, when they go north about Ireland and Scotland,
in time of wrar, to avoid the privateers of the enemy.
They are alfo vilited by thofe engaged in the herring-
hlhery, though there is not fuch a refort on this account
to thefe iflands as to the ifles of Shetland. Neverthe-
lefs a good number of boats from the weftern parts of
Scotland, as well as from Londonderry, Belfaft, and
other parts of Ireland, fifh for herring as far north as
the Leuze, and fupply the Orkneys with tobacco, wine,
brandy, and other fpirituous liquors, cloths, and divers
manufactures. Thefe they exchange for fifh, and oil
extratled from porpoifes, feals, and other fea-animals.
The people of Orkney export annually great numbers
of black cattle, ’twine, and flieep ; together with large
quantities of corn, butter, tallow, fait, and fluffs made
in the country, over and above the Ikins of feals, ot¬
ters, lambs, and rabbits, • down, feathers, writing-quills,
hams, and wool yet all thefe articlesywould, in point
of profit, fall infinitely fhort of their herring-fifhery,
were it profecuted with induftry, economy, and vi¬
gour.
The moft valuable of their manufactures is kelp, and
indeed the ftaple commodity was firft introduced in
J722, by a Mr James Fea, of Whitehall, in Stronfay,
fince- which period it has been gradually on the increafe.
From 1763 to 1778, there were manufactured, on an
« average, 1800 tons annually at four guineas per ton-,
from 1778,10 1792, the annual average produce was
3000 at 61. per ton j from I792 *-° x794» above 4000
tons. Thus, from 1722 to 1794, a period of 72 years,
the produce of the kelp was 291,976!. fterling, or more
than the value of all the Orkney iflands, even at the
rate of 36 years purchafe j the annual rent, exclufive of
the kelp" and fiiheries, not exceeding 8000I. fterling.
As there are no merchants in the Orkneys at prefent
who export fifh on their own account, what herrings are
taken they fell to the Dutch or Scotch dealers in and
about Invernefs. They generally fifh for herring on
the weft fide of the Orkneys; and are therefore more
remote from markets than thofe who are employed in
the fame manner on the coaft of Shetland. In the Ork¬
ney ifiands they fee to read at midnight in June and Ju¬
ly -, and during four of the fummer months they have
frequent communications, both for bufinefs and curio-
fity, with each other, and with the continent : the reft
of the year, however, they are almoft inacceffible,
through fogs, darknefs, and florins. It is a certain iaCl,.
that a Scotch fifherman was imprifoned in May for pu-
bliflunu the account of'the prince and princefs. of O-
range being railed to the throne of England the prece¬
ding November; and he would probably have been
hanged, had not the news been confirmed by the arrival
of a {hip.
We may reckon among the curiofities of the Ork
neys, the Phqjeoh, commonly known by the name of Or.mev-
Molucca beans, and fometimes they are called Orkney
beans. They are a fort of fruit found on the fhcie of
the Orkney iflands, being thrown on them by ftorms of
westerly wind. They are of feveral dhtinCl Ipecies, and
are none of them the produce of thofe iilands, nor of
any places thereabout, but are probably of American
origin, many of them being plainly natives of Jamaica,
and other illands of the Indies.
They are found principally on thofe coafts which are
moft expofed to the waves of the great ocean, and are -
on thefe fo plentiful, that they might be gathered in
large quantities, if of any value 5 but the only ufe they
are put to is the making of inuft-boxes out of them.
Sir Robert Sibbald, and Mr Wallace, in their accounts
of Scotland, have both named them Molucca BEAN'S.
Many ftrange fifties and curious {hells are alfo frequent¬
ly caft up by the ocean ; of thele laft a vaft variety are
preferved for adorning the cabinets of modern natural-
ifts. Sometimes exotic fowls are driven upon the Ork¬
neys by tempeifuous weather : fiih, as large as whitings,,
have been thrown afliore to a confiderable diftance with¬
in the land. At Cantick-head, in the ifland Waes, and
fome other places, huge ftones are often heaved up by
the violence of the lea and wind, aud caft over high ,
rocks upon the land. A fingle Laplandar has been feen
more than once upon this coaft, in his (lender canoe, co¬
vered with {kins, being driven hither by adverfe winds
and ftorms. The Orkneys are not altogether deftitute
of ancient monuments and curiofities of art. In Jioy
■we find an entire ftone, 36 feet long, 18 in breadth, and
9 in thicknefs, lying between two hills, and known by
the name of dwarjie Jlone. It is hollowed within by
the tools of a mafon, the marks of which are ftill appa¬
rent. The entrance is a fquare hole about two feet
high, with a ftone, by way of door, {landing before it.
Within we find a bed with a pillow cut out of the ftone:
at the other end is a couch of the {ame kind; and in
the middle a hearth, above which there is a hole or
vent for the exit of the fmoke. This curiofity is found
in the midft of a defolate heath, and is fuppofed to have
been the refidence of a hermit : in the very neighbour¬
hood of this ftone there is a very high and fteep moun¬
tain, called the ward-hill of Hoy, near the fummit of
wdiich, in the months of May, June, and July, fome-
thing at noon-day is feen to fliine and fparkle with re¬
markable luftre, fuppofed by the common people to be
an inchanted carbuncle ; many perfons have clambered
up the hill in queft of it, but found nothing. Perhaps
this fplendour is produced by the refiedlion of the fun
on a fmall ftream of water Aiding over the face of a
fmopth rock. At Stennis, in Mainland, there is a
oauleway of ftones over a loch or lake, at the fouth end
of which we obferve a circle of ftones rifing about 20
feet above ground, each being fix feet in breadth, and
from one or two feet in thicknefs : between this circle
and the caufeway two ftones of the fame dimenfions
{land by themfelves, and one of them is perforated in
the middle. At the diftance of half a mile from the-
other end of the caufeway appears a larger circle of the
fame kind of ftones, the diameter of which may amount
to no paces -, fome of thefe ftones are fallen j and to
the eaft and weft of the larger circle are two artificial
green mounts. Both rounds are furrounded with a
ditch ; and one cannot view them without admiration,
Gonfidering
/
O R K
[ 464 ]
O R K
Orkney, confidering the art that muft have been ufed to bring
r, — unwieldy mafles together in this order. They
were probably temples and places of facrifice ufed in
times of pagan fuperftition *, and feem to bear a great
affinity with the celebrated monument called Stonehenge,
on Salifbury Plain in England. In one of the mounts,
at the north end of the caufeway, the natives found nine
JibuLe, or clafps of lilver, formed into a circle, and re-
fembling a horfe ffioe. In many different places of the
Orkneys we find xude obelifks or {ingle ftones of a great
height, fet up either as memorials of battles, treaties, or
the deceafe of remarkable perfonages. In Roufay, be¬
tween two high mountains, there is a place which the
natives diftinguifh by the appellation of the camp of Ju¬
piter Fring: but the meaning of this name, handed
down by tradition, is not known. At the weft end of
the Mainland, near Skeal, we find a furpriling caufe-
way, above a quarter of a mile in length, on the fummit
of high hills, compofed of reddifh ftones of different
magnitudes imprefled with various figures both on the
upper and under furface. Some gentlemen in the neigh¬
bourhood have carried off the moft beautiful of thefe
ftones, to be fet in their chimneys by way of ornament,
like the painted tiles of Holland. This country pro¬
duces many fepulchres of different nations. In the plains
or links of Skeal, the fand being blown away from the
furface of the ground, feveral Iquare catacombs appear
built of ftones well cemented together, containing fome
parcels of black earth, and each fecured by a large ftone
at the mouth. Sepulchres of the fame kind are found
at Roufum in Stronfa ; which is likewife remarkable for
a different kind of monument, confifting of one entire
ftone cylinder hollowed, with a bottom like that of a
barrel, and a round ftone to fill up the entrance •, above,
the ftone was fharpened into an edge ; within were found
fome burned bones and red clay ; and over it was placed
a large flat ftone for the prefervation of the whole.
Thefe, in all probability, were Roman catacombs. In
Weftra divers Danifh graves have been difcovered: in
one of thefe appeared the fkeleton of a man, with a
fword on one fide and a Danifh axe on the other.
Some have been found buried with dogs, combs, knives,
and other utenfils. In many places of the country we
find round hillocks or barrows, here known by the name
of brogh, fignifying, in the Teutonic language, burying
place, fuppofed to have been the cemeteries of the an¬
cient Saxons. In different parts of thefe iflands we fee
the remains of great buildings, believed to have been
fortreffes erefted by the Danes or Norwegians when
they poffeffed the country. One of thefe in the ifle of
Wyre, called the caftle of Coppi-row, fignifying -a town
of fecurity, is furrounded by a foffe, jand the firft floor
ftill remains above ground, a perfect fquare of ftone
wall, very thick, ftrongly built, and cemented with lime,
the area within not exceeding ten feet in length. Of
this Coppi-row the common people relate many idle fa¬
bles. In the chapel of Clet, in the ifle of Sanda, there
is a grave 19 feet long, in which was found part of a
man’s back bone, larger than that of a horfe. Human
bones, of nearly the fame fize, have been dug up in
Weftra j and indeed this country is remarkable for pro¬
ducing men of a gigantic ftature. Within the ancient
fabric of Lady Kirk in South Ranalfhaw, there is a
Hone four feet long and two feet broad, on which the
prints of two feet are engraven, fuppofed to be the place
4
where, in times of popery, penitents flood to do public Orkney,
penance. The cathedral of Kirkwall, the capital of the  
Orkneys, is a fine Gothic building, dedicated to St
Magnus, but now converted into a parifh church. Its
roof is fupported by 14 pillars on each fide ; and its
fteeple, in which is a good ring of bells, by four- large
pillars. The three gates of the church are chequered
with red and white polifhed ftones, emboffed and ele¬
gantly flowered.
Campbell, in his Political Survey, fuggefts two im¬
provements in the Orkneys : 1. The erefting an uni-
verfity 5 of which he recapitulates the probable advan¬
tages arifing from their centrical fituation : And, 2.
Allowing the Eaft India Company to eredl a fpacioufi
magazine in one of thefe iflands •, where alfo a colleft*
or, and a fufficient number of king’s officers, fhould re-
fide, to receive the duties of fuch Eaft India commodi¬
ties as might be taken off by Britilh fubjefts. Thefe
he propofes for the Orkneys in particular, and in addi¬
tion to improvements propofed for the whole iflands in
general.
The following table exhibits a view of the population
of the parifhes of Orkney and Shetland, at two period^.
Population in
I755-
10
Parifhes.
Orkney.
Crofs, Burnefs, &c. i 250
Dearnefs and St Andrew’s 1650
Evie and Rendall 1'19%
Firth and Stennefs 1108
Harray and Birfay 22co
Holm 118 5
Hoy and Graemfay 520
Kirkwall 1089
Lady kirk 750
Orphir _ 855
Roufay and Eglifhay 978
Shapinfhay 642
South Ronaldfhay, &c.
Slromnefs and Sandwick 2677
Stronfay and Eday I493
Walls and Flota 1000
Weftray and PapaWeftray 1290
Total, Orkney,
Population in
jyyo—1798..
1389
1335
*564
1186
2013
702
410
2550
803
826
1072
730
I954
3®12
*887
991
1629
Shetland.
Breffay and Burray
Delting
20 Dunroffnefs
Fitlar and North Yell
Lerwick
Nefting
Northmaving
25 Sandfting
South and Mid Yell
Tingwall
Unft
29 Walls and Sandnefs
Total, Shetland,
Orkney,
Total,
23>3Sl
1098
1221
2295
1098
II93
1169
1009
911
986
1412
1368
_iii0
15,210
23»381
38?59I
23?°53
122:
I5°4
3327
j346
1259
*53 5
1786
1285
1422
1786
1988
1723
20,186
23>°53
43>239
37.591
Increafe, 4648
But
O R L [ 465 j O R L
Orlc But in 1 Sox, according to the returns made to Par-
11 liament, the population of Orkney was 24,445, and that
Orieans- c£ £hetPailc} was 22,379. For a fuller account of Ork¬
ney, fee Barry’s Hiitory of the Orkney lilands, 4to.
tSoj.
ORLE, Orlet, or Orlo, in Architecture, a fillet un¬
der the ovolo, or quarter round of a capital. When
it is at the top or bottom of a fhaft, it is called cinBure.
Palladio ufes the word orlo for the plenith of the bafis
of the columns.
Orle, in Heraldry. See Heraldry.
ORLEANOIS, a province of France, now forming
the department of Loiret, and including the feveral di-
ftricts of Orleanois-Proper, Beauce-Proper or Char-
train, Eunois, Vendomois, Blaifois, the greateft part of
Gatinois, and Perche-Gouet. The principal rivers of
it are the Loire, the Loiret, the Cher, the Laconic, the
Aigle, the Hyere, tire Yonne, and the Eyre. There
are alfo fome remarkable canals, particularly thofe of
Briare and Orleans. The river Loire, and the canals
drawn from thence, greatly facilitate and promote the
inland trade of the kingdom, and particularly of this
department.
Orleanois, in Latin Aurelianenfis Ager, is bounded on
the fouth by Sologne, on the north by Upper-Beauce,
on the eaft by Gatinois, and on the weft by Eunois and
Vendemois. The Loire divides it into Upper and
Lower j the former lying to the north, and the latter
to the fouth of that river. It yields plenty of grain, wine,
■wood, and fruit, and abounds in cattle, game, and fifh.
ORLEANS, the capital of the government of Or¬
leanois, now the department of Loiret. It was ancient¬
ly called Genahum, or Cenahum ; and afterwards deno¬
minated Aurelia, Aurelue, and Aurelianum, by the em¬
peror Aurelian, who confiderably enlarged it. In Ju¬
lius Caefar’s time it was the capital of the Carnutes. It
Hands about 20 leagues fouth of Paris, on the northern
bank of the Loire •, acrofs which Mr Wraxall fays there
is an elegant bridge of nine arches, the entrance by
which is exceedingly noble and ftriking, the ftreet
which leads from it being compofed of moft elegant
modern buildings. In general, however, excepting this
ftreet, it is very meanly built 5 the ftreets are narrow,
and the inhabitants in general poor. It is furrounded
with walls, and fortified with 40 towers. The ftreets
almoft all terminate at the quay for the convenience of
trade. It is a place of confiderable magnitude 5 and
before the revolution had feveral inferior courts of
juftice, and an univerfity of no great repute. It was
alfo a bilhop’s fee •, and the cathedral is a moft fuperb
Gothic ftrufture, and had the fineft fteeple in France
till it was damaged in the time of the civil wars. There
were 22 parifties in it, and a great number of churches,
fome of which were collegiate, and religious houfes.
There is alfo a public walk, planted with feveral rows
of trees j and there ufed to be fome fugar bakers; a
manufa&ure of ftockings and Iheep fkins *, a feminary
in which divinity was taught •, a great trade in bran¬
dy, wine, fpices, and feveral manufactures, which,
with many other commodities, ufed to be conveyed to
Paris by means of the Loire, and the canal which takes
its name from the city. The canal begins about two
miles above the city ; is near 18 leagues in length ; and
terminates on the Loing, which falls into the Seine.
Vol. XV. Part II.
The environs of Orleans, more efpecially in the pro- Orleans,
vince of Sologne, to the louth of the Loire, are very
agreeable. It is in general a level country, covered
with corn and vines. To the north of the city is a
foreft, the largeft in the whole kingdom. Before the
revolution it belonged to the Duke of Orleans • to
whom the timber lelled In it, one year with another,
brought about 100,000 livres. Ever fince the year
1344 this city has been a dukedom and peerage, and
ufually an appendage of fome prince of the blood.
The late duke, who took the name of Egalite, and who
was afterwards guillotined, feems to have been one of
the moft deteftable monfters which ever difgraced hu¬
manity. Louis XIV. gave the dukedom to his owm
brother Philip, who began and finiftied the canal $
which, by the duties paid by veffels going up and down,
brought in, one year with another, 150,000 livres. The
biftiop wTas fuffragan to the archbifhop of Paris, and had
a revenue of 24,000 livres, cut of which his tax to Rome
was 2000 florins. A new7 bilhop, it is laid, on the firft
day of his entering, had the privilege of releafing all the
prifoners in it, except thofe committed lor trealon. In
the ftreet leading from the bridge frauds the celebrated
monument where Charles VII. and Joan of Arc the
Maid of Orleans, are reprefented on their knees before
the body of our Saviour, who lies extended on the lap
of the Virgin. It was erefted by order of that mo¬
narch in 1458, to perpetuate his viftories over the
Englifti, and their expulfion from his dominions. AH
the figures are in iron. The king appears bareheaded,
and by him lies his helmet furmounted with a crown.
Oppofite to him is the Maid herfelf, in the fame atti¬
tude of grateful devotion to Heaven. It is a moft
precious and invaluable hiftorical monument.
“ In the Hotel de Ville (fays Wraxall) is a portrait
of the fame immortal wmman, which I ftudied long and
attentively. Though it was not done till 1581, which
was near 130 years after her deceafe, it is yet the
oldeft and beft picture of her now7 exifting. The
painter feems undoubtedly to have drawn a flattering
refemblance of her, and to have given his heroine
imaginary charms. Tier face, though long, is of ex¬
ceeding beauty, heightened by an expreflion of intel¬
ligence and grandeur rarely united. Her hair falls
loofely dowm her back, and (lie wears on her head a
fort of bonnet enriched with pearls, and Ihaded with
white plumes, tied under her chin with a firing. About
her neck is a little collar, and lowTer down, upon her bo-
fom, a necklace compofed of final 1 links. Her drefs,
which is that of a woman, I find it difficult exaftly to
deferibe. It fits clofe to the body, and is cut or flathed
at the arms and elbows. Round her waift i$ an embroi¬
dered girdle, and in her right hand (lie holds the fword
wuth which the expelled the enemies of her fovereign
and her country. I am not furprifed at the animated
and enthufiaftic attachment which the French Hill che-
rifh for her memory. The critical and defperate emer¬
gency in which {he appeared 5 her fex, youth, and even
the ohfeurity of her birth 5 the unparalleled fuccefs
which crowned her enterprife ; the cruel and deteftable
fentence by which ftie w7as put to death ; the air of the
marvellous fpread over the whole narration, increafed
and {Lengthened by that veneration which time affixes!
to every great event—all thefe united caufes confpired
3 N to -
Orleans
Ormikirk,
0 R M [ 466 -I
to place lier above mortality. Rcmc and Athens would Merfey, Dee
undoubtedly have ranked her among their tutelary del*
_ ties, and have erefted temples to her honour j nor can I
help being amazed, that amidlt the ahnoft infinite num-
, ber of modern faints who' croud and difgrace their chur¬
ches, no altar has yet been dedicated to the Maid of
Orleans.” See France, N° ioi.
The bridge was new built in the 18th century, and
opened in 1760 ; and the French efteem it the fmelt in
the world. E. Long. X. 59. N. Lat. 47. 54.
Orleans, Peter JofejJi, a French Jefuit, and author
of Hi/loire des Revolutions d'Angleterre, was born at
Bourges in 1641. He taught belles lettres for feme
time in his fociety, but afterwards devoted himfelf to
the writing of hi dory. This purfuit he continued dll
bis death, which happened in 1698. He wrote alfo a
hiitory of the Revolutions of Spain ; A Hiftory of Two
conquering Tartars, Chunchi and Camhi •, The Life of
Father Coton, &c. His Hiftory of the Revolutions in
England, under the family of the Stuarts, from the
year 1603 to 1690, was tranflated into Englilh, apd
publilhcd at London, 171D in one vol. 8vo : to which
is prefixed an Introduction, by Laurence Echard, M. A.
who fays, that “ the great varieties and wonderful chan¬
ges in thefe reigns are here judicioully comprifed in a
moderate volume with no lets perfpicuity than ftrictnefsj
and with a beautiful mixture of Ihort charafters, nice
redeftions, and noble fentences, which render the whole
agreeable and inftruftive. But while the reader is en¬
tertained with fo much {kill and finenefs, we ought to
caution him with relation to the education and religion
of the author y for though he has great marks of a ge¬
nerous candour, and a laudable deference to all fupe-
riors •, yet he is to be conftdered, in all places, as one in
favour with the French king, and not only % true papift,
but a complete lefuit.”
ORLOPE, in the fea language, the uppermoft fpace
or deck in a great (hip, reaching from the main to the
mizen maft. In three-deck fhips, the fecond and loweft
decks are fometimes called orlopes.
ORMOND, the northern divifion of the county of
Tipperary, in the province of Munfter in Ireland. For
a long time it gave the title of earl, and afterwards of
marquis and duhe, to the noble family of Butler, de-
feended from a lifter of Thomas a Becket archbifhop
of Canterbury •, till, at the acceflion of George 1. the
laft duke was attainted of high treafon, and died abroad.
In that part of the country the family had great prero¬
gatives and privileges granted by Edward III.
ORMSIDE, a fmall town of England, near Apple¬
by, in Weftmoreland. A great number of veffels of
brafs, feme of which feemed to have been gilt, were
difeovered near the manor-houfe, by the water wafhing
away the foil.
ORMSKIRK, in Lancafliire, in England, is a hand-
fome town, with a good inland trade. By the late in¬
land navigation, it has communication with the rivers
O II N
Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Crcifkirk
Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, inclu- .
eluding its windings, extends above 500 miles, in the *
counties of Lincobi, Nottingham, York, Lancaiter, > y——a
Weftmoreland, St; .iord, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford,
Worcefter, &c. There is a bituminous earth about this
place, from which oil of amber is extracted, that pre-
ferves raw deih, and ferves the poor people inftead of
candles.
There is nothing remarkable at Ormflurk, but the
monuments of iome of the ancient family of the Stan¬
leys before they eve re ennobled. Not far from it is
Latham Houle, to which belongs a large eftate, and
a tine park. It is remarkable only becaule it was gal¬
lantly defended in the civil wars by Lady Charlotte
countefs of Derby, who held it to the laft extremity
againft the parliament forces, who could never oblige
her to capitulate. She held out glorioufly till die was
relieved by Prince Rupert. It was, however, ruined
in a fecond liege ; and fold by the family to Sir
Thomas Bootle, who built a very magnificent houle
upon it.
ORMUS, a fmall ifiand of Alia, at the bottom of
the gulf of the fame name, at the entrance of the
gulf of Perfia. It is about two leagues from the
main land^ and about fix leagues in circuit. They
catch excellent oyfters about the ifiand j audit yields
plenty of fine white fait; alfo a kind of fhining black
fand, ■which is ufed for dulling writings, and is tranf-
ported in confiderable quantity to Europe. There is •
neither fvveet water nor grals upon it, the foil being
of a fait fulphureous nature. It wras taken by the Por-
tuguefe in 1507, who fortified it; and it was after¬
wards frequented by a vail number of merchants, who
were extremely rich. In 1622 the Perfians, by the
affiftance of the Englilh, conquered this place, and
demolilhed the houfes, which were 4000 in number,
containing 40,000 inhabitants. Some time after, the
Perfians rebuilt the fort, and placed a garrifon in it ;
but they could never bring it to be a place of trade
as before : however, it is the key of the Perfian gulf,
as well on account of the importance of the place, as
the commodioufnefs of the harbour. It is now almoft
deferted, for it produces nothing but fait, which fome-
times is two inches deep upon the furface of the earth.
E. Long. 56. 25. N. Lat. 27. 20.
ORN1THI./E, a name given by the ancients to
certain winds, which ufually blew in the fpring, at the
time when the birds of pafiage came over to them.
Pliny fays, that thefe winds blew from the weft, and
that by force the Etefian winds were called by this
name. Others fuppofe that they blew from the north,
or north-weft.
ORNITFIOGALLUM, Star of Bethlehem; a
genus of plants belonging to the hexandria clafs ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 10th order, Co~
ronarice. See Botany Index,
ORNITHOLOGY.
[ 467 ]
o R N I T H O L O G Y.
INTRODUCTION.
« s \mn rT1HE tei-m Ornithology is derived' from the Greek
e ”l ' X a bird, and *97®?, difeourfe, and denotes that
part of Zoology which treats of birds.
Birds are two-footed animals, covered with feathers,
and furhilhed with wings. Like quadrupeds and the
cetaceous tribe, they have warm blood, a heart with two
ventricles and two auricles, and lungs for the purpoie
of refni ration j but they are dilfinguifhed from both by
their feet, feathers, wings, and horny bill, .as well as
by the circumitance of their females being ovipa¬
rous.
Ornitholo- The elegant and beautiful colouring of many of the
gical writ- feathered race, the graceful eafe of their flight, thsh
eis. various tnulic, their tender folicitude for their offspring,
their engaging imlincts, their fufeeptibility of domerti-
cation, and their fubfervience to the fuflenance of man,
have, in all ages, contributed to intereft the latter in
the ftudy of their hillory.
3 Of the naturalifts, however, whofe writings have de-
antl PHny. feended to us from antiquity, Ariftotle and Pliny are
the only two v,Tho appear to have entered into any de¬
tails on a fubjeft fo inviting and important. Though
the former cornpofed no particular treatife on birds, he
brings them under review in diflerent parts of his Hi-
flory of Animals. In the third chapter of the eighth
book, for example, he enumerates the different fort s of
nouriihment adapted to different fpecies, and their va¬
rious modes of feeding. The ninth book contains his
very imperfedl nomenclature, his remarks on the diveri¬
fied modes of nidi'ication, and feme valuable obferva-
tions on the family of eagles. His notion of the orga¬
nization and habitudes of birds are interfperfed in the
body of the work, and introduced in the way of com¬
parative reference to the ftrufture and manners of other
animals. Pliny’s enumeration of the feathered fpecies,
is extended over moft part of his tenth book, but is de-
flitute of precife defeription, and encumbered with ab-
furdity and fable.
Of the numerous ornithologifts of more modern date,
fome have chiefly direfted their labours to method and
claflification, others have been more folicitous to deferibe
and delineate •, fome have treated of the whole clafs,
others of particular portions of it •, while, lailly, lome
have been contented to define and deferibe, and others
have illuftrated and enhanced their text by more or lefs
accurate defigns from living or prepared fpecimens.
This combination of the pen and the pencil, which has
fo eminently contributed, in our day, to the acquifition
and diffufion of knowledge, feems to have been unknown
to the ancients.
Although the unavoidable limitation of our plan pre¬
cludes a minute and crif» 1 report of the works to
which we have jufl alluded, we fliall briefly advert to a
few of the moft confpicuous. Among the firft who ex¬
cited, on the continent, a tafte for the ftudy of ornitho¬
logy, and for a methodical diftribution of that portion
4
of fcience, we may mention Belon. Aware that nature Belon.
is moft fuccefsfully contemplated in her own works, he
travelled from the laudable defire of collecting informa¬
tion, and communicated to the world the refylts of his
enquiries. His Hiftory of Birds, a thin folio volume*
divided into feven books, or parts, and illuftrated by
wooden cuts, wTas publifhed at Paris, in 1555' Hi*
principle of claffification being chiefly founded on the
circumftances of habitation and food, and only occafion-
ally on external forms and characters, is obvioufly very
defective 5 his deferiptions, though tolerably accurate,
are, for the moft part too concife j and many of his
plates are very inadequate reprefentations ot their origi¬
nals. It muft, at the fame time, be allowed, that he
frequently fuggefts judicious views of his iubject } that
he notes with ingenuity, the points of refemblance be¬
tween the human ikeleton and that of birds j that he has
penned feveral paffages which may Hill be perufed with
intereft and inftruction ; that the naivete of his manner
is always pleafing, and that when we reflect on the pe¬
riod in which he flourifhed, he is entitled to no ordinary
praife. _ 5
The celebrated Conrad Gefner, phyfician and profef- Gefner.
for at Zurich, and contemporary with Belon, has devo¬
ted the third volume of his Hiftory of Animals to the
department of ornithology. It is an erudite, but pon¬
derous tome, exhibiting alphabetical tables of the names
of birds, in Hebrew-, Chaldee, Arabic, Greek, Latin,
and moft of the fpoken languages of Europe.. His de¬
feriptions are compiled abridgements 5 but his referen¬
ces, at the dole of each article, are very numerous v for
if any author of his acquaintance happen to mention a
bird, his name and the paffage are duly commemorated..
Gefner’s arrangement differs in no reipeft from that of
any common dictionary \ and few of his engravings are
executed wdth corre&nefs. The curious reader wall
probably be gratified with the perufal of his account of
the art of rearing birds for falconry, the difeafes to
which they are liable, and the remedies which the learned
doctor preferibes. 6
The fame topics are difeuffed by Aldrovandus, a pay- AlJrovan-
fician of Bologna, who availing himfelf of the writingsd1'3-
of the two preceding naturalifts, added to their indi-r
gelled itores, and compiled three folios, divided into 20
books, and illuftrated by wooden plates. His catalogue,
however, fcarcely comprifes any birds but fuch as are
natives of Europe, and by no means all even of thefe.
He too implicitly adopts the vague diftinftions of Belon 5
and on various occafions, not only copies Ariftotle with
fervility, but overlays his borrowed materials with a
mafs of dark commentary. The motley complexion of
the whole produdlion, in fa<ft, betrays the delire of ac¬
cumulation rather than the exercife of tafte and judge¬
ment. _ 7
Johnfton, who publilhed in 1657 a folio volume ofjohnfton.
160 pages, did little elfe than greatly condenfe the hea¬
vy compilements of Gefner and Aldrcvandus. He di¬
vides the whole clafs into land and w-ater birds, and de¬
duces his fubordinate divifions from the nature of their
3 N 2 aliments.
463
iotnxiuc-
WiJWh-
by.
Ray.
TO,
Barrere.
IX
Klein.
O R N I T H
aliments. His defcriptions are generally correft, but
__ fcanty ; and even his figures, though traced with more
charaSer than thofe of his predeceiTors, befpeak a parfi-
mony of engraving.
The next writer of eminence in this department, who
.merits particular quotation, is Francis Willoughby,
Efq. an Englifh gentleman, who laid the foundation of
a more accurate arrangement. His work, which ap¬
peared in 1676, was revifed and edited by Ins friend
the celebrated Ray. It is divided into three books, of
which the firll is allotted to general views of the fubjecf,
and an explanation of the author’s method. The fiiit
chapter treats of the form and external ftructure of
birds, the fecond of their organization and internal
itnicUue. The fixth includes 24 queries, the anfwers to
which, it founded on faft, would greatly contribute to
the advancement of ornithology. Mr Willoughby for¬
mally recognizes the grand divifion of terrejirial and
aquatic, comprifing under the former thofe which live
at a diftance from water, and under the fecond, thofe
which live on the margin or furface of that element.
He then inllitutes his leading dihinclions from the form
of the biil and feet, and would doubtlefs have acccm-
plithed a more complete arrangement, had he uniformly
adhered to the fame principle •, but in compliance with
the prejudices of his time, he affumes the dillhrent kinds
ot food, the varieties of fize, the nature of the fielh, and
even moral qualities, as the grounds of fubdivilions.
At all events, however, he has the credit of having op¬
ened a career, which others have fuccefsiully purfued.
His lecond and third books contain the defcriplion and
hiftory of the fpecies, diiiributed according to the rules
Hid down in the fir ft. To the expofition of each genus
are prefixed two chapters of general obfervations} the
find including the vague or fabulous accounts of the
ancients, and the fecond fuch common properties as ap¬
pertain to the genus. The author then proceeds to the
fpecific details, ftating the moft important particulars
with precifion and neatnefs, and concluding with an ac¬
count of peculiar habits.
Ray, in his Sunopjts Avium, follows, with a few ex*
ceptions, the method of his friend, referring at the fame
time to the tail feathers, and fome parts of the internal
conformation. The latter, we need fcarcely remark,
cannot with any propriety be adopted as generic or fpe¬
cific charafters.
The new method of claffing birds propofed by Mon-
fieur Barrere in 174 implies either a total ignorance
or blameable neglect of the writings of Willoughby and
Ray. As its only tendency was to confufe and perplex,
we forbear noticing its details. Suffice it to remark,
that it includes the peacock and man-of-war bird in
the fame family, and ranks the yellow-hammer between
the buftard and the oftrich. In his ElTay on the Natu¬
ral Hiftory of Guiana, the fame author enumerates the
birds in alphabetical order ; but his catalogue has been
more than doubled by fubfequent travellers.
Jacob Theodore Klein, member of feveral learned
academies, publiffied at Luheck in'1750 a quarto vo¬
lume, entitled, Hijlorue Avium Proc/romus, cum preefa-
tione de ordine animahum in genere. In this work he
divides birds into families, orders, and tribes. His
eight fam’lies are diftinguiihed by the conformation of
the feet, his orders by the form of the bill, and his
tribes, fometimes by the form and proportions of the
O L O G Y.
head, fometimes by accidental differences of the bill,
and fometimes by the author’s own fanciful ideas. From
too great an anxiety to fimplify, this naturalift is gene¬
rally too brief, and adds to his obicuricy by an affecta¬
tion of learned phrafeology.
• his laft mentioned quality likewife disfigures the M^hring.
fcientific catalogue of Mcehring, phyfician to the prince
of Anhalt, which appeared in 1752. His claffes, or¬
ders, and genera, are founded on the formation of the
feet and bill 5 mnd bis defcriptions of birds examined by
himfelf, are ufually accurate ; but he is often milled by
the errors of others, and the method which he propoies
is complex and incommodious.
In this fummary of celebrated fyftematic orhitholo-j
gifts, we may affign to Linnams the date of 1766,
when he publifhed the 1 2th edition of his Systema Na-
tinue. In fo far as that aftonifiling body of arrange¬
ment refpecls the featheied tribes, it certainly manifeifs
at once the extent and minutenefs of the author’s dif-
criminating powers. As the fame nomenclature and
divnions are (till the moft familiar to Britiffi naturalifts,
we purpofe to be chiefly regulated by them in the fe-
quel, and confequently fhall, for the prelent, wave any
explanation of the Linmean arrangement.
M. Salerne phyfician at Orleans, left behind him a Salt me.
MS. treatife on Ornithology, which was publiihed hy
his friends in 1767. His method is that of Ray. The
hiftorical part is from the pen of Salerne himfelf; but
the body of the text is a promifeuous and cluttify com¬
pilation. The typography is executed with neatnefs
and elegance, and the plates, which are 31 in number,
are engraved with uncommon fkill; though the
larger
moft part reprefented on too fmall a
birds are for the
feale.
M. Briffon of the Royal Academy of Sciences, pub-Biifion.
liihed, in 1760, A Syftem of Ornithology, in Latin and
French, in fix quarto volumes. He distributes birds in¬
to 26 orders, inftituted from the form of the feet, bill,
&c. 11 5 genera, which are determined by the peculia¬
rities of the bill or mandibles, and about 1300 fpecies.
Each article is preceded by a numerous and accurate
lift of references and figures many fpecies, till then
undeferibed, are particularized ; and the work is illuf-
trated by upwards of 220 excellent engravings. The
principal merit of Briffon’s plan confifts in the adoption
of external and permanent charaffers, which enable the
ftudent to affign the name and ftation of a bird which
he fees for the firft time. The defcriptions are equal¬
ly accurate with thofe of Willoughby, and more co¬
pious. 'I'hough not exempt from errors and defects, this
work ftill holds a refpedlable rank in the library of the
omithologift.
The Natural Hiftory of Birds, by the Comte de Buf- Buffon.
fon and his learned affociates, is too generally known to
require our analyfis or criticifm. Its great defect is want
of fcientific arrangement, a want which is fcarcely re¬
deemed even by the popular, luminous, and elegant ftyle
of the defcriptions, combined with the highly finilhed
execution of the coloured plates. With the exception,
however, to which we have juft alluded, we feel no he-
fitation in adopting the lan^ a- ge of the Engliffi tranfta-
tor. “ The hiftory of birds pofteffes every quality that
could recommend it to the public : it exhibits a clear and
comprehenfive view of the knowledge acquired in orni¬
thology, fcattered through a multiplicity of volumes, and
in
ORNITHOLOGY.
Int'-o-’uc- in various languages, it difcuffes and elucidates with cri-
tion. tical accuracy, the numerous controverted points j it re-
■ ^ ' duces the whole to fimplicity, order, and elegance j and,
by large additions of valuable matter, it greatly extends
the bounds of the fcience.”—“ TVl. de Buffon was not to
. be deterred by the difficulty and extent of the undertak¬
ing. The cofrefpundents of the king’s cabinet continued
to tranfmit numerous communications, and fpecimens
from all parts of the world. Above eighty artills were,
under the direction of the younger M. Daubenton, em¬
ployed five years in the drawing, engraving, and colour¬
ing, of upwards of a thoufand birds. But the com¬
mencement of the work which thele were intended to
illuftrate was delayed two years, by reafon oi a fevere
and tedious indilpoiition, which during that fpace afflict¬
ed the excellent naturaliit. And after he had recovered
his health, he reflected that at his advanced period of
life he could not reafonably expect to be able to accom-
plifh the hiitory of birds, and alfo that of minerals, in
which he had already made fome advances. He judged
it expedient therefore to have recourle to the affiftance
of his friends • and he was peculiarly fortunate in the
choice of the learned and eloquent M. Gueneau de
Montbeillard, who cheerfully undertook the laborious
talk, and comnofed the greateft part of the two firlt vo¬
lumes of the Hiitory of Birds, which appeared in I77G
under the name however of M. de Bufton. In his com¬
plexion of thought and mode of expreffion, M. de Mont¬
beillard followed fo clofely his illultrious affociate, that
the public could not perceive any change. It was now
proper to throw off the malk } and in the publication of
the four fubfequent volumes, each author prefixed his
name to his own articles. The third volume was nearly
printed when new affiltance was received from the com¬
munications of James Bruce, Efq. of Kinnaird. That
accomplilhed and adventurous traveller, in his return
from Abyffinia, paffed fome days with M. de Buffon at
Paris. The count was filled with admiration on feeing
the numerous and elegant drawings which Mr Bruce had
made of natural objeHs •, and on feveral occafions he
mentions the explorer of the fource of the Nile in terms
the mod flattering and refpeflful. After the publication
of the fixth volume in 1781, M. de Montbeilland was
defirous of devoting the whole of his leifure in compofing
the Hillory of Infects, which had become his favourite
Itudy. The three remaining volumes were therefore
written by M. de Buffon himfelf; though he acknow¬
ledges that the Abbe Bexon had collected the nomen¬
clature, formed moft of the defcriptions, and communi¬
cated feveral important hints. The work was completed
in 1783 ; and as only a few copies of the illumined
plates were on fale, and thefe extremely coftly, a fmall
let of engravings were made, to accommodate ordinary
purchafers.”
Sonnini’s recent edition of Buffon’s Natural Hiftory
contains many valuable additions’, and forms, perhaps,
one of the moft complete works of the kind that has yet
appeared. In the department of ornithology, it prefents
us with defcriptions and figures of every bird to which
the editors could have accefs, either in the living or
preferved ftate, or of which they could be favoured with
drawings.
T7 Mauduyt’s Die! ion ary of Ornithology, which makes
Mau uyt. p?rt 0p 'fcncyclopedie Mtthodique, de femes to be par¬
ticularly quoted, on account of the preliminary difepur-.
46y
fes, the accuracy of the defcriptions and references, and Introdut-
the correct execution of the plates. The whole forms tl°n' ,
an excellent colleftion of the molt important particulars v
which lay within the author’s reach \ and we have occa-
fkmally availed ourfelves of his labours in the compile-
ment of the prefent article. jg
A feries of fplendid plates was executed at Florence, Gcnui.
in illuftration of Gerini’s Ornithology ; but they betray,
in general, a difregard of nature, and are, in many in-
ftauces, merely copied from imperfeft drawings or in¬
accurate engravings. Gerini’s nomenclature is, like-
wife, very faulty, and too frequently confounds fpecies
and varieties. Xp
In 1773, the ingenious and indefatigable Mr Pennant pennant,
pubiilhed a fmall volume, entitled, Genera of Birds.
In his preface, he enters into a minute account of the
external parts of birds, their feathers, flight, nidifica-
tion, &c. In his feletlion of fyftematic arrangement,
he gives the preference to that of Ray, whofe plan ap¬
pears to him to be fo judicious, that it is fearcely pof-
fible to make any change in it for the better. At the
fame time, he admits, that later difeoveries had made a
few improvements on his labours. “ My candid friend,
Linnaeus,” adds Mr Pennant, “ will not take it amifs,
that I in part, negledl his example for I permit the
land-fowl to follow one another, undivided by the
waterfowl\dit)\ pinnated feet, placing them between
the waders cr cloven footed water-fowl, and the web¬
footed. The of rich, and land-birds with wings ufelefs
for flight, I place as a diftinft order. The trumpeter
(Pfophia Linnwi) and the bufards, I place at the end
of the gallinaceous tribe. All are land-birds, he firft
multiparous, like the generality of the gallinaceous
tribe 5 the laid granivorous, fwift runners, avoiders of
wet places } and both have bills fomewhat arched. It
muff be confeffed, that both have legs naked above the
knees, and the laft, like the waders, lay but few eggs.
They feem ambiguous birds, that have affinity with each ■
order-, and it is hoped, that each naturalift may be in¬
dulged the toleration of placing them as fuits his own
opinion.” Mr Pennant’s grand divifions, then, are
into land-birds, and waterfowl. The firft he diftributes
into the fix following orders. I. Rapacious, 2. Pies,
3. Gallinaceous, 4. Columbine, 5. Pqferine, and 6. Stru-
thious. The fecond comprehends, 7. Cloven footed, ox
Waders, 8. thofe with Pinnated feet, and 9. the Web-
footed. _ 20
In 1781, Dr-Latham commenced his General Synop-Latham.,.
fs of Birds, a work of much accurate detail, and ex¬
tending to three double quarto volumes, with two or fup-
plement. Admitting the primary divifion of Hay, he
adheres, with a few exceptions, to the Linnaean genera,
which as well as the fpecies, his opportunities of re-
fearch enabled him to multiply to a very confiderable
amount. Each genus is illuftrated by one coloured cop¬
perplate at leaft, ufually of feme rare fpecies. Of thefe
plates, however, the execution is fometimes coarfe or
meagre ; and candour will not permit us to compliment
the author on the purity or correctntls of his ftyle.
His volumes, neverthclefs, conftitute a precious repofi-
tory of defcriptions and fafts, and muft always hold a .
diftinguifhed place in the library of the omithologift.
Dr Latham is likewife the author of an Index Ornitholo-
gicus, which forms a convenient compend of his larger
work, being comprifed in two quarto volumes.
About
\
47°
Introd LiC-
tioa.
Gcrardin.
ORNITHOLOGY.
Hernandez
23
Nierem-
Lerg.
Marcgrave.
25
Sloane.
Catefby.
About two yeRre ago, Sebaftian Gcrardin de I\lire-
court publifhed an “ Elementary View of Ornithology,
or the Natural Hilfory of thofe Birds which ufually occur
m I ranee,” &-C. This gentleman appears to have been
born and bred in the department cf the Voges, in which he
difeharged the duties of profeffor of natural hi dory, and
which is known to contain a greater diverlity of the
feathered race than almod any province in Europe.
His preliminary difeourfe explains the general topics of
ornithology in language at once fuccinft and perlpicuous.
1 he five chapters of which it confifts were fubmitted to
the revifion of the edimable Daudin, whofe premature
death his friends and fcience will long deplore. The ar¬
rangement of the work, which is limited to two o£iavo
volumes, and a thin quarto volume of plates, has been
chietly regulated by that of Cuvier, in his Sketch of the
Natural Hiftory of Animals ; but M. Gerardin has ven¬
tured to introduce a few occafional alterations, which
were fuggelted in the courfe of his teaching in the cen¬
tral fchool, and which he conceived would facilitate the
progrefs of his pupils. His fynonymy is that of Linnaeus
and Briflon ; and his deferiptions are generally minute,
didinct, and accurate. On the whole, however, the
reader is entitled to expedt more copious information re¬
lative to the manners and habits of many of the fpecies,
than will be found in thefe refults of thirty years appli¬
cation to the fubjeft, combined with many favourable
opportunities. We have alfo remarked a want of uni¬
formity and precifion in fome of the author’s datements.
The engravings are chiefiy valuable on account of the
correfhrefs of their outlines.
Of the numerous writers who have treated of the birds
of particular countries, we may obferve, that Hernan¬
dez, a Spanidi phyfician, has deferibed thofe of Mexico.
His work confids of 229 chapters, -each of which,
generally, treats of a fingle fpecies. As they are, how¬
ever, defigned only by their Mexican names, and de¬
feribed with too much brevity, their precife dations in
the Linncean arrangement are with difficulty afeertained.
Similar objections apply to the work of Nieremberg,
who has deferibed the birds of the fame country. From
both we may infer, that the feathered tribes in Mexico
are numerous, and diverfified with the mod brilliant co¬
louring ; and that the natives had made confiderable
progrefs in the dudy of their hidory.
Brazil prefents a dill more rich and fplendid field to
the refearches of the ornithologid ^ but Marcgrave, who
profefies to delineate its natural hidory, and allots his
fifth book to the birds, is not lefs defective than the two
writers whom we have juit mentioned. His plates are
not only wretchedly executed: but frequently do not
correfpond with the deferiptions.
Sir Hans Sloane, in his Hidory of Jamaica, has re-
prefented 44 fpecies of birds, in 18 plates, annexed to
the fecond volume ; but it is feldom that the reader can
rely on the accuracy of his delineations.
To Mr Catediy of the Royal Society, we are indebt'
ed for an excellent account of the birds of Carolina,
Florida, and the Bahama iilands, in two volumes impe¬
rial folio, in French and Englith. The fird volume, and
part of the appendix in the fecond, are devoted to the
Ifirds. The deferiptions are concife and perfpicuous, and
accompanied with fome intereding notices relative to the
manners and habits of the fpecies deferibed. The plates,
which are numerous, are generally faithful reprefenta-
3
tions of the originals, and admirably well coloured. The Introduc.
method followed in thefe fplendid volumes, approaches tl011-
fomewhat to that of Willoughby. v
Schwenckfel a phyfician, who publilhed in 1603, aschwt7nck.
natural hidory of Siberia, in two quarto volumes, in-fel.
eludes the birds in his fourth book. His enumeration
and defeription of the pares which belong to birds in
common with other animals, and of the appropriate parts
of the organization of the former, are neat and accurate.
His differences, founded on habitation, food, &c. are
lefs valuable. The introduclion is followed by the enu¬
meration of birds, in alphabetical order, according to
their Latin names. The deferiptions, though accurate,
are for the mod part, too Ihort ; and though adequate
to recall a bird already known, are not fuificient to con¬
vey a precife notion ot thofe which are deferibed for the
fird time. The hidorical portion is too much con-
denfed; and with rafts w hich are calculated to excite in-
tered, the author often blends fuch as are fuperfiuoas, or
improbable. / 2g
M. Brunnich publifhed in 1 '764, an account of the Brunnich.
birds of Denmark, and the neighbouring iflanhs and
provinces. In mod indances he folknvs the Linnaean
nomenclature, and fometimes the fynonymy of Briffon.
He chiefiy dvrells on the rare and non-defeript fpecies, but
even then feldom enters futficiently into detail, to enable
the dudent to afeertain the fpecies in quedion. 29
M. Sonnerat, correfponding member of the Royal^onneia,:-
Academy of Sciences of Paris, publifiied, in 1776, an
account of his voyage to New Guinea, the Molucca and
Philippine iliands, the file of France, and fome other
iilands, in the Indian ocean ; and in 1783, he favoured
the world with a relation of his fecond voyage, to feveral
parts of the Ead Indies and China. Though this zeal¬
ous and learned naturalid wras prevented by want of
time, from forming very exteniive collections, his de¬
feriptions and defigns manifed both accuracy and lade.
Befides correcting the errors of former travellers and
voyagers, he has noticed a confiderable number of birds
for the fird time, and mod of them remarkable either
for their fingularily or beauty. His account of the wild
cock and hen, the origifi of our common domedic fowl,
will be perufed with peculiar intered. .0
The fplendid work of Frifch, a German naturalid, Frifch.
chiefly confids of coloured plates of the birds of Europe,
arranged in 1 2 claffes according to didinctions which are
iometimes vague and incommodious. The figures are,
for the mod part, accurate and lively reprefentations from
nature, though, in fome indances they are larger than
the file. The author has bellowed particular attention
on the different colourings of the two fexes of the fame
fpecies.
M. le Vaillant, author of a voyage to the Cape ofhe Vaillant.
Good Hope, and of the natural hidory of the birds of
Africa, is eminently didinguidied by the ardour and
acutenefs with which he has profecuted his ornithologi¬
cal refearches, and has availed himlelf with laudable di¬
ligence of bis rare opportunities of collecting accurate
details relative to every fpecies which lie undertakes to
illudrate. His natural hidory of the birds of paradife,
rollers, promeropes, toucans, and barbels, is perhaps
the melt highly finifhed and fumptuous publication that
has appeared in any of the departments iff ornithology.
The figures, about one hundred in number, are engraved
by Peree, from the drawings of Barraband, coloured by
Langloisr
O R N I T H
5otrn’v.'-
ri< >n
32
Defmareft.
Langlois, and retouched by the pencil of the original
designer : while the eider L>idot has executed the typo¬
graphy, 'hi his belt style, on vellum paper. Each figure
is as large as life, and is ufually drawn from a fpecimen
in the higheft ftate of prefervation ; and in many cafes,
an exaft reorelentation of the female oird has alio been
obtained. ^Though the pre-eminent merit of the work
con fids in the figures and deicriptions, it is in a tew
inlhances agreeably diverfified by traits of character,
which the amhor remarked in the living bird, and by
fume interefling hints of a more general complexion,
which his accurate and exteruive oblervation enaoled
him to collect. We cannot, however, refrain from ex-
•preillng a wiili, that he had been more liberal of his fy-
nonymsand references, and that iie had treated lyitematic
writers with a little more relpect. We (hould not for¬
get, that methodical nomenclature, though the refuit of
art, and liable to many errors, is entitled at lealt to iub-
ordmate regard, and an unfpeakable aid to the me¬
mory. Even if we fiiould concede to our innovating
author the propriety of thole more fanciful airange-
ments to which he manifefts a predilecdiou, it would
Hill admit of doubt, whether, on the whole, they would
more accord with gradations unequivocally indicated by
nature. -Axe we certain that, amid her countlefs produc¬
tions, nature recognizes a tingle line of demarcation ? or,
that the ftudy of ornithology would be effentially pro¬
moted by claffing the fifilet with the jays, or every indi¬
vidual furnhhed with parade feathers among birds of pa-
radife ?
The natural hiftory of tanagers, todies, and mana-
kins, by Anleline Gaetan Detmarefl, with coloured
engravings, from drawings by Paulina de Courcelles, pu¬
pil of Barraband, is another of thofe recent and fplendid
productions of the Parifian prefs, which reflect fo much
honour on the zeal, mduftry, and talle ot the French
naturalifts. The paper, type, and figures, all befpeak
the excellence of the refpedtive art ills who have produ¬
ced them, as well as the love of chafte and elegant _em-
bellifhment which has prefided over the undertaking.
The ornamental ftyle of the work, however, is not its
foie paffport to our favourable notice. The expofition
of the three genera mentioned in the title, is a fubject
which calls for much critical refearch and laborious in-
veftigation. M. Defmareft, without prefuming to ex¬
tricate the -whole nomenclature, lays down many import¬
ant diilinclions, and proceeds with circumfpeftion, !o
far as his opportunities have enabled him to advance.
“ Before we enter,” fays he, “ on the details of the
fpecies, it may be proper to mention, that we fiiall
limit our defcnptions to thofe which we have feen, and
of which we have been enabled to exhibit figures. We
ftiall, moreover, endeavour to analyfe, and if poffible,
to unravel the references of authors. Should iuccefs
thus far attend us, we conceive that we fuall have duiy
performed the part of zealous naturalifts.” Pefides de-
feriptions and plates of the male, the author has alio,
not unfrequently, reprefented the female, or young of
the fame fpecies, or an individual as it appears in the
moulting ftate. His pages will afford lead entertain¬
ment to thofe, who delight to obferve the inftin&s and
economy of the feathered race ; and who fhrink from
the minute adjuftment of claflification and fynonymy.
It ought, however, to be remembered that few authentic
fa&s have been colle&ed relative to the hiftory of thefe.
O L O G ¥. 471
foreign birds j and that though future travellers may Introduc-
increafe the fcanty ftcck of interefting notices, the exer-, t
tions of the prefent author may not a little contribute to v
fyftematize and facilitate their obfervations. ^
The Natural Hitlory of Birds, by George Edwards,Edwards,
in four quarto volumes, without auy reference to country
or method, contains many excellent coloured defigns,
and correct deferiptions ; and the fame remark applies to
his Gleanings of Natural Hiftory, the moll confklerabie
portion of which relates to birds. _
Several of his countrymen have expounded or deli- £rjtlfh or-
neated the birds of our own ifland with more or lets feli- nithologifts,
city of manner. The ornithological part of Pennant’s
Britiih Zoology, Hayes’s Natural Hiftory of Britiftr
Birds, -with their portraits accurately drawn, and beau-
tifully coloured from nature *, Lord’s Natural Hiftory oi
Britiih Birds, Lewin’s Birds of Great Britain, with
their eggs, in three volumes quarto, Walcott’s Synopfis -
of Britilii Birds, two volumes quarto, Bewick’s Hiftory
of Britiftr Birds, with figures engraved on wood, &c. &c;
are all entitled to critical notice ; but the limitation ol-
our plan forbids us to dwell on them. We fhall, there¬
fore, dole this portion of our introdudtion by pointing
to a work which feems not yet to have procured its due
(hare of the public favour 5 we mean the Ornithological Montagu.
Di&ionary, or Alphabetical Synopfis of Britiftr Birds,
by George Montagu, F. L. S. &c. in two fmall octavo
volumes. We are acquainted with few publications ot
the kind that contain a larger quantity of accurate and
important information within Inch a narrow compafs. -
As a book of reference and confultation, it is well cal¬
culated to fait the occalions of ordinary readers, and
even to convev inftruftion to the learned ftudetit. The
fynopfis and fpecific deferiptions evince much diligence
and accuracy ; and various articles are enriched by the
refuit of nerfonal obfervation and extenfive travel.
Sufficiently awars of the fallible indications of plumage,
the writer is more folicitous to reduce than to multiply
diftindions •, and in doubtful cHes, has fometimes had re-
courfe to the unequivocal tell of diffedion. A few of the
articles, however, are difmiffed with too much brevity,
and the ftyle is very deficient in poliffi and corredneis.
If any of our readers are defirous of procuring a more
complete catalogue of works publiffied on ornithology
prior to the year 1760, they will find it in Gronovins’s
Bibliotheca regni dnimalis atque la hidei, ac redenjio auc-
torum ei librorum qui de regno animah ct lapideo, metho-
dice, physjee, &c. trciBant. _ 36
The Itrudure of the feathered tribes, and their ha-General ob~
bits of life, are wonderfully adapted to the various^
fundions which they are deftined to perform. The
pointed beak, the long and pliant neck, the gently fuel- Su;t^e
ling {boulder, the expanfive wings, the tapering tail, cbnforma_
the light and bony feet, are all wifely calculated to-af-tion.
fift and accelerate their motion through the yielding air.
Every part of their frame is formed for lightnefs and
buoyancy •, their bodies are-covered with a foft and de¬
licate plumage, fo drfpofed as to proted them from the
intenfe cold of the atmofphere through which they pafs;
their wings are made of the lighteft materials, and yet
the force with which they ftrike the air is fo great, as
to impel their bodies forward with aftonilhing rapidity,
while the tail ferves the purpofe of a rudder to dired
them to the different oHjeds of their purfuit. The in- •
ternal ftrudure of birds is no lefs wifely adapted to^ the -
famm-v
472
Introduc¬
tion.
38
Nutrition.
ORNITHOLOGY.
fame purpofes ; all tlie bones are light and thin, and all
the mufcles, except thofe which are appropriated to the
movements of tire wings, are extremely light and deli¬
cate. The lungs are placed clofe to the back bone and
ribs. The air, entering into them by a communication
from the windpipe, paffes through, and is conveyed in¬
to a number of membranous cells which lie on the Tides
of the pericardium, and communicate with thofe of the
fternum. In fome birds, thefe cells are continued down
the wings, and extended even to the pinions, thigh
bones, and other parts of the body, which can be filled
and diftended with air at the pleafure of the animal.
The feathers, too, and particularly thofe of the wings,
contain a great quantity of air. The almoft univerfal
diffufon of this fluid in the bodies of birds is of infinite
ufe to them, not only in their long and laborious flights,
but likewife in preventing their refpiration from being
flopped or inlerrupted by the rapidity of their motion
through a refilling medium. Were it poflible for man
to move with the fwiftnefs of a fwallow, the adiual re¬
finance of the air, as he is not provided with internal
refervoirs fimilar to thofe of birds, would foon fuffocate
him.
Birds, like quadrupeds, may be divided into granivo-
rous and carnivorous. The former are furnifhed with
larger intefiines than thofe of the latter. Their food,
which confifis of grain of various forts, is conveyed en¬
tire into the firfi fiorrach, or craw, where it undergoes
a partial dilution by a liquor fecreted from the glands,
and fpread over its fuvface. It is then received into an¬
other fpecies of fiomach, where it is farther diluted, af¬
ter which it is tranfmitted into the gizzard, or true fio¬
mach, confifting of two very ftrong mufcles, externally
covered with a tendinous fubfiance, and lined with a
thick membrane of prodigious power and ftrength, in
which organ the food is completely triturated, and pre¬
pared for the operation of the gaftric juices. In order
to afcertain the firength of thefe ftomachs, Spallanzani
had recourfe to a great variety of ingenious experiments.
Tin tubes, full of grain, were forced into the ftomachs
of turkeys, and, after remaining 20 hours, -were found
to be broken, compreffed, and diftorted in the moft ir¬
regular manner. In the fpace of 24 hours, the ftomach
of a cock broke off the angles of a piece of rough jag¬
ged glafs, though, on examining the gizzard, no
wound or laceration appeared. In a ball of lead were
fixed 1 2 ftrong needles, with the points projecting about
a quarter of an inch from the furface. Thus armed,
the ball was covered with a cafe of paper, and forced
down the throat of a turkey. The bird retained it a
day and a half without manifefting any fymptoms of
uneafinefs, and the points of all the needles were bro¬
ken off clofe to the furface of the ball, except two or
three, of which the flumps projected a little. The
fame interefting obferver relates, that he fixed 12 fmall
and very {harp lancets, in a fimilar ball of lead, which
was given in the fame manner to a turkey cock, and
left eight hours in the ftomach, at the expiration of
which the organ was opened j but nothing appeared ex¬
cept the naked ball, the lancets having been broken to
pieces, and the ftomach remaining found and entire.
Hence we may infer, that the ftones fo often found in
the ftomachs of many of the feathered tribes, may
powerfully contribute to tire comminution of grain and
ftther hard fubftances which conftitute their food.
3
Granivorous birds partake much of the nature and Introduce
difpofiticn of herbivorous quadrupeds, agreeing with tion*
themfin the number of their ftomachs, the comparative -
length and capacity of their inteftines, the quality of
their food, and the gentlenefs of their manners. Con¬
tented with the feeds of plants, with fruits, infeCls, and
worms, their principal attention is direCled to procuring
food, hatching and rearing their offspring, and eluding
the fnares of men, and the attacks of predaceous ani¬
mals. As they are generally tractable and e a lily do-
mefticated, man has felected for his own advantage
thofe which are moft prolific and profitable. Of thele
the hen, goofe, turkey, and duck, are the moft confi-
derable, and form a valuable ftore of rich, wholefome,
and nutritious food.
Carnivorous birds are provided with wings of great
length, the mufcles which move them being proportion¬
ally large and ftrong, fo that they are enabled to keep
long on the wing, in fearch of their prey. They are,
befides, armed with ftrong hooked bills, and iharp and
formidable claws. They have large heads, ftrort necks,
ftrong and brawny thighs, and a fight fo acute and
piercing, as to enable them to view their prey from the
greateft heights in the air, and to dart down on it with
incredible iwiftnefs and undeviating aim. Their fto¬
machs are fmaller than thofe of the granivorous kinds,
and their inteftines are much (horter. The analogy
between carnivorous birds and quadrupeds, is too ob¬
vious to efcape the notice of even the fuperficial obfer¬
ver. Both of them are provided with weapons which
indicate deltruflicn and rapine, their manners are fierce
and unfocial, and they feldom congregate, like the in-
offenfive granivorous tribes ; but, when not on the '
wing, retire to the tops of fequeftered rocks, or to the
depths of extenfive forefts, where they conceal them-
felves in fullen and gloomy folilude. Such of them as
feed on carrion, have the fenfe of fmelling fo acute,
that they can fcent carcafes at aftonifliing diltances.
Without the means of conveying themfelves with pjj j|t9anj
great fwiftnefs from one place to another, birds could migration,
not eafily fubfift, the food which nature has provided
for them being fo irregularly diftributed, that they are
obliged to take long journeys to diftant parts in order
to procure the neceffary fupplies. Hence one caufe of
of thofe migrations which are fo peculiar to the feather¬
ed race. Befides the want of food, however, two other
caufes may be affigned, namely, the want of a proper
temperature of air, and of a convenient fituation for the
important work of breeding and rearing their young.
Such birds as migrate to great diftances, are alone de¬
nominated but moft fpecies are more
or lefs fo, although they do not move to places remote
from their former habitations. At particular periods of
the year, moft birds remove from one country to an¬
other, or from the more inland diftrifts towards the
{bores, or vice verfa. The feafons of thefe migrations
are obferved with the moft aftonifhing order and punc¬
tuality ; but the fecrecy with which immenfe flocks
take their departure, and the fuddennefs with which
they reappear, are not eafily explained. We are alfo
apt to luppofe, that, during long flights over immenfe
tra6ls of water, the means of fubfiftence would inevita¬
bly fail, without rcftecling on the fuperior velocity with,
which birds are carried forward in the air, and the eafe
with which they continue their exertions for a much
longer
O R N I T H
Introduc. longer time than can be done by the ftrongeft quadru-
tion. ped. Our fwifteft horfes are fuppofed to go at the rate
 0f a mile in fomewhat lefs than two minutes; and there
is one inltance on record of a horfe that 'went at the rate
of nearly a mile in one minute, but only for one fecond
of time. In fuch cafes an uncommon degree of exertion
has been attended with its ufual confequences, debility,
and a total want of power to continue that exertion j
but the motions of birds are not impeded by limilar
caufes, and they not only glide through the air with a
quicknefs fuperior to that of the fwiftell quadrupeds,
but can continue on the wing with equal fpeed lor a
eonfiderable length of time. Now, if we can fuppofe
a bird to go at the rate of only half a mile in a minute,
for the Ipace of 24 hours, it will, in that time, have
gone over an extent of more than 700 miles } which is
iufficient to account for almoft the longed migration j
and, if aided by a favourable current of air, there is
reafon to believe, that it will perform the fame journey
in a much thorter fpace of time.
The wings of birds are fo conftru&ed, that, in Unk¬
ing downwards, they expand very cofifiderably, and,
except that they are fomewhat hollow on the under liae,
they form, in this aft, almolf two planes. 1 he mufcles
that move the wings downwards are very large, and
have been eftimated, in fome inftances, at not lefs than
the fixth part of the weight of the whole body. When
a bird is on the ground, and intends to fly, it takes a
leap, ftretches its wings from the body, and ftrikes them
downwards with great force. By this ftroke, they are
put into an oblique direftion, partly upwards, and part¬
ly horizontally forwards. That part of the force which
tends upwards is deftroyed by the weight of the bird,
while the horizontal impulfe ferves to carry it forwards.
The ftroke being completed, it moves its wings ; and
they, being contrafted, and having their edges turned
upwards, meet with very little refiftance from the air.
When they are fufticiently elevated, it makes a fecond
ftroke downwards, and the impulfe of the air again
moves it forward. Thefe fucceflive ftrokes aft as fo
many leaps taken in the air. When the bird wants to
turn to the right or left, it ftrikes ftrongly with the op-
poftte wing, fo as to impel the body to the proper iide.
If it wants to rife, it raifes its tail, and if to fall, de-
prefles it. When in a horizontal polition, the tail
keeps the body fteady. A bird, by fpreading its
wings, can continue to move horizontally in the air for
fome time, without ftriking, becaufe it has acquired a
fufficient velocity ; and the wings, being parallel to.the
horizon, meet with but fmall reliftance. On alighting,
it expands its wings and tail full againft the air, that
they may meet with all poffible reflftance. i he centre
of gravity in birds is fomewirat behind the wings } and,
to counterbalance it, moft of them may be obferyed to
thruft out their head and neck in flying. I his is very
apparent in the flight of ducks, geefe, and feveral fpe-
cies of water-fowl, whole centre of gravity is farther
backwards than in the laird birds. In the heron, on the
contrary, whole long head and neck, although folded
up in flight, overbalance the reft of the body, the long
legs are extended, in order to give the proper counter-
poife, and to fupply what is wanting in the fhortnefs of
40 the tail.
lubrication The feathers of birds would conftantly imbibe the
of tiit tea- moifture of the atmofphere j and, during rain, abforb
theIS- VOL. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y. 473.
fo much wot, as would almoft, if not wholly, impede Introduc-
their flight, had not the wTife economy of nature obvi-, tlon- t
ated this by a moft effeftual expedient. I hey are fur-
niftred on the rump with two glands, in which a quan¬
tity of unftuous matter is conftantly fecreting. 1 his is
occafionally prelied out by means ol the bill, and ufed
for the lubrication of the feathers. The birds which
lhare, as it were, the habitations of man, and live prin¬
cipally under cover, do not require fo large a fupply of
this fluid, and, confequently, are not provided-with fuch
a large flock of it as thofe that rove abroad, and refide
in the open element. Hence poultry, when wet, af-
fume a ruffled and uncomfortable appearance. 4I
As birds are continually palling among hedges and Niftitatiug
thickets, their eyes are protefted from external injuries, membrane,
as well as from too much light, when flying in oppofltion
to the fun’s rays, by a niftitating or winking mem¬
brane, which can at plealure be drawn over the whole
eye like a curtain. This covering is neither opaque,
nor wholly pellucid, but fomewhat tranfparent. By
means of it the eagle is faid to gaze at the iun.
It appears from obfervations, founded on numerous cong
experiments, that the peculiar notes, or fong, of the
different fpecies of birds, are altogether acquired, and
are no more innate than language is in man. The at¬
tempt of a neftling to fmg, may be compared with the
imperfeft endeavour of a child to talk. The firft ellay
feems not to poffefs the iiighteft rudiments of the future
fong 5 but, as the bird growls older and ftronger, it is
not difficult to perceive its aim. While the fcholar is
thus endeavouring to form his fong, when he is once
fure of a paffage, he commonly raifes his tone, which
he drops again when he is not equal to what he is at¬
tempting. A common fparrow, taken from the neft
when very young, and placed near a linnet and gold¬
finch, though in a wild ftate it would only have chirp¬
ed, adopted a fong that w7as a mixture of thefe two.
Three neftling linnets were educated, one under a Iky-
lark, another under a wood-lark, and a third under a
tit-lark j and, inftead of the fong peculiar to their own
fpecies, they adhered entirely to that of their refpeftive
inftruftors. A linnet, taken from the neft, when but
two or three days old, and brought up in the houfe of
an apothecary at Kenfington, from want of other lounds
to imitate, almoft articulated the wmrds “ pretty boy,”
as well as fome other fhort fentences. Thefe and other
well-authenticated fafts feem to prove, that birds have
no innate notes, but that the language of thofe to whofe
care they are committed at birth, will be the language
wfflich they adopt in after life. It may, however, ap¬
pear fomewhat unaccountable why, in a wild ftate, they
adhere fo fteadily to the fong of their owm fpecies only,
when fo many others are to be heard around them.
This arifes from the attention paid by the neftling bird
to the inifruftions of its own parent only, generally dif-
regarding the notes of all the reft. Perfons, however,
wTho have an accurate ear, and have ftudied the notes of
different birds, can very often diftinguilh fome that have
a fong mixed writh thofe of another Ipecies ; but thefe
are in general fo trifling as fcarcely to be reckoned any
thing more than mere varieties of provincial dialefts.
All birds are oviparous, or produce eggs, fromE
which, after the procefs of incubation, the young are
extruded. Thefe eggs differ in different ipecies, in re-
fpeft of number, figure, and colour. They contain the
3 O ..v... rudiments.
44
Nefts.
45
474 O R N I T H
Introduc- rudiments of tlie future young, for the maturation of
i tl°n' which a bubble of air is always placed at the large end,
betwixt the {hell and the infide {kin. It is fuppofed,
th^t, from the warmth communicated by the fitting
bird to this confined air, its fpring is increafed beyond
its natural tenor, and at the fame time its parte are put
into motion by the gentle rarefaction. Hence prellure
and motion are communicated to the parts of the egg,
and feem, in fome unknown way, gradually to promote
the growth of the young till the appointed time of ex-
cluhon. -Houfewives, when they iufpect an egg is not
good, put their tongue to the great end, to feel if it be
warm. If that is not the cafe, it is conlidered a certain
proof, that the air, having, by degrees, effedted its
efcape, the egg is at length become putrid or ad¬
dled.
The nefts of birds are, in general, conflrudled with
aftonilhing art, and with a degree of {kill and neatnefs
that often defies the efforts of the human hands. Both
the male and female generally affift in this interefting
concern. They each bring materials to the place, as
flicks, mofs, flraws, &c. for the foundation and exte¬
rior ; and hair, wool, or the down of animals or plants,
to form a foft and commodious bed for their eggs, and
for the tender bodies of their young when hatched.
The outfide of the neft ufually bears fo great a refem-
blai ice in colour to the furrounding foliage or branches,
as not eafily to be difeovered even by perlbns who are in
fearch of them.
The term of life varies greatly in birds, and does not
feem to bear the fame proportion to the time of acquir¬
ing their growth as has been remarked with regard to
quadrupeds. Moll birds acquire their full dimenlions
in a few months, and are capable of propagation the
firft fummer after they are hatched. In proportion to
the fize of their bodies, they poffefs more vitality, and
live longer, than either man or quadrupeds. Notwith-
llanding the difficulties which arife in afeertaining the
ages of birds, there are inftances of great longevity in
many of them, particularly geefe, fwans, ravens, and
eagles, which have been known to attain to the age of
feventy, fourfeore, or even a century. Pigeons ufually
live more than 20 years, and even linnets and other
fmall birds have been kept in cages for nearly the fame
period.
The difeafes to which birds, in their natural ftate, are
incident, are probably neither numerous nor formidable ;
at leaf! we feldom meet with individuals of the feather¬
ed race which feem to labour under ficknefs or infirmi¬
ty. In our northern latitudes they are indeed frequent¬
ly fubjefted to the preflure of cold and hunger ; but
the debility and other fymptoms attendant on thefe ex¬
ternal accidents, hardly deferve to be noticed in a nofo-
logical point of view. Seclufion from the open air, and
a total change of habits, induced by confinement and
domeftication, are ufually accompanied by appropriate
diforders, fuch as the pip, or fwelling on the extremity
of the tongue, a foftening of the bill, a gradual decay
of the feet, convulfions, and general pining. The
moulting procefs, from which none of the fpecies are
exempted, may alfo be regarded, in fome meafure, as a
difeafed ftate of the animal. All birds moult, or call
their feathers once, and fome twice, in the courfe of a
year. This change takes place in autumn, or in the
feafon which conefponds to it in different climates, and
. 46
Difeales.
O L O G Y.
uniformly after the breeding feafon. Thofe which
moult twice a year, alfo change their feathers in fpring.
Moft of the young males, which bear originally the
plumage of the mother, affume, at their fin ft moulting,
the colouring which they afterwards retain 5 but fome
fpecies do not put on their chara&eriftic garb till the.
end of the fecond, or even of the third year. Among
thofe which moult twfice a year, both males and females
change their plumage ; but the latter retain the fame
markings, while the former exhibit a more gaudy co¬
vering in the feafon which precedes their pairing, and a
mere fober one, often fimilar to that of the female, af¬
ter the period of breeding. In moft cafes, the feathers
fall off in gradual fucceffion 3 but in fome fpecies nearly
the whole plumage comes off at once, and is fpeedily
replaced. This periodical affection is always attended
wdth more or lefs languor and depreffion.
For the anatomy of birds, we beg leave to refer to Anatomy,
the article Comparative ANATOMT; and {hall clofe this
introdudlion by a brief explanation of fome of the moft ,
important technical terms in ornithology, employed by Technical
Pennant and Linnseus. terms.
Fig. 1. Cere (Cera, Lin.),—the naked fkin wdrich 1'Iate
covers the bafe of the bill in the haw k kind. CCCXCII.
2. Capiftrum,—a word ufed by Linnaeus to exprefs ^ r“
the ffrort feathers on the forehead juft above the bill.
In fome birds, thele feathers fall forward over the no-
ftrils : they quite cover thofe of the crow.
3. Lore (Lorum, Lin.),—the fpace between the bill
and the eye, generally covered with feathers ; but, in
fome birds, as in the black and white grebe, naked.
4. Orbits (Orbita, Lin.),-—the Ikin that furrounds
the eye, which is generally bare, particularly in the he¬
ron and parrot.
5. Emarginated (Emargiaatum),—faid of a bill,
which has a fmall notch near the end, as that of the
butcher bird, thruffi, &c.
6. Vibrifjee pedhnatee,—ftiff hairs which grow on
each fide of the mouth, formed like a double comb, as
in the goatfucker, ffy-catcher, &c.
7. Alula fpuna, Spurious or bajlard wing,—a fmall
joint riling at the end of the middle part of the ufing,
or the cubitus, on which there are three or five fea¬
thers.
8. Te&rices primer, Lejfer wing-coverts,—the fmall
feathers which lie in feveral rows on the bones of the
wings. The under coverts are thofe that line the in¬
fide of the wings.
9. Te&rices fecundee. Greater coverts,—the feathers,
wdrich lie immediately over the quill-feathers and the,
fecondaries.
10. Primores, Quill-feathers ox Primaries,—the lar-
geft feathers of the wings, or thofe that rife from the
firft bone.
11. Secundarice, Secondary feathers or Secondaries,—
thofe that rife from the fecond bone.
12. Tail-coverts, {Vropygiuiri),—thofe which cover
the bafe of the tail on the upper fide.
13. Vent-feathers (Crifumf—thofe which lie from
the vent to the tail, underneath.
14. Re&rices, Tail-feathers.
15. Scapulars, or Scapular feathers,—thofe which
take their rife from the ftioulders, and cover the fides-
of the back.
16. Nucha,—the hind part of the head.
'I*
O R N I T FI
17. Stilu/alum, tubulated or aw/Jhaped,—applied to
a bill that is ftraight and flender, in the form of an awl.
18. Pes ambulator his,—all the toes divided to the
bottom.
19. Pes grejforius,—the outer toe more or lefs united
to the middle one, particularly confpicuous in the feet
of the king’s fifher.
20. Pes Jean for ins,—formed for climbing, like the
foot of the woodpecker.
21. Pes lobatus,—finned, or lobed, like thofe of the
grebes.
22. Pes pinnatus,—pinnated, or fcolloped. The webs
indented in the fides, as in coots and fandpipers.
23. Pes tridaclylus, or curforius,—wanting the back
toe.
24. Pes didaEhjlus,—compofed of only twro toes, as
in the oftrich.
25. Pes femi-palmatus, Semi-palmated,—when the
webs reach only half the length of the toes.
26. Ungue pq/Uco fejjili,—when the hind claw ad¬
heres to the leg wuthout any toe, as in the petrels.
27. Digitis qualuor omnibus palmatis,—all the four
toes connefled by webs, as in the corvorant.
Rojlrum cultratum,—w-hen the edges of the bill are
very iharp, as in that of the crown
28. Unguiculatum,—faid of a bill furnifhed with a
nail at the end, as thofe of ducks and goofanders.
O L O G Y. 475
29. Lingua ciliata,—a tongue edged with fine bridles, Introduc-
like that of the duck. , ,
30. Integra,—plain, or even. ——y—
31. Lu fabric iformis,—when the tongue is long,
round, and (lender, like a worm, as that of the wood¬
pecker.
Pedes coffipedes,—when the legs are placed fo far be¬
hind as to make the bird wralk with difficulty, or as if
in fetters, of which we have examples in the auks,
grebes, and divers.
32. Nares lineares,—wrhen the noftrils are very nar¬
row, as in fea gulls.
33. Emarginatce,—wath a rim round the noftrils, as
in the flare.
Iris, is that part which furrounds the pupil of the
eye.
Mandibles, denote the upper and under parts of the
bill.
Compreffed,—vertically flattened at the fides.
Deprejfed,—horizontally flattened.
Caruncula,—a fleffiy excrefcence on the head.
Hypochondria,—the hinder fides of the bread and ab¬
domen.
Ocellated,—wfith roundifh concentric fpots, of differ¬
ent colours.
Phalanges,—the articulations of the toes.
SYSTEMATIC EXPOSITION of the CLASS.
49 ACCORDING to the Linnaean method, the clafs of
C1S' Aves, or Birds, is didributed into fix Orders, denomi¬
nated Accipitres, Piece, Anjeres, Grallce, Galhnce, and
Pajferes.
Accm- Order I. ACCIPITRES.
TRES.
This natural order includes birds of prey, that have
the bill fomewffiat hooked dowmwards, the upper man¬
dible dilated near the point, or armed wath a tooth, the
noftrils wade, the feet (hort and ftrong, wath four toes,
three of which are placed forwards, and one behind 5
toes warty under the joints ; claws hooked and (harp-
pointed. They live on other animals alive or dead, and
are themfelves not eatable. They are monogamous, or
live in pairs. The females are larger and more beauti¬
ful than the males, and generally lay about four eggs.
This order includes vultur, falco, frix, and lanius.
Vultur. Gen. 1. Vultur, Vulture.
Character ftraight, hooked at the point 5 head bare of feathers.
Birds of this genus are diftinguiffied from eagles and
hawTks, by being gregarious, by the comparative heavi-
nefs of their flight, and by their living on carrion. The
females, too, are hardly larger than the males. Unlefs
preffed by hunger, they feldom attack living animals j
they fly flowly, unlefs when very high in the air, and
have an exquifite fenfe of fmell. The tongue is large
and fleffiy •, the legs and feet are ftrong, and moftly co¬
vered w ith feales j and the wings are lined, on the in-
(ide, with down.
Gryphus. Condor, condur, or cuntur.-—Very large, wath a ca¬
runcle on the crowoi of the head, the ■whole of its length 5
the throat naked. Quills of the wings two feet and a
half long, and an inch and a half thick •, body black,
back white j neck ruffed with long white feathers}
throat red •, head brown, and wToolly ; eyes black, irides
chefnut $ bill black, but tipt with wffiite ; feet black }
clawrs ftraightiffi } tail fmall.—The female differs from
the male, in having a tuft on the neck, in its browoi co¬
lour, and in having no ruff. Briffon, however, has pro¬
perly remarked, that the plumage of this fpecies varies
in colour, a circumftance which wall, in fome meafure,
account for the difeordant deferiptions of different au¬
thors. At the fame time, we muft regret, that the hi-
ftory of this enormous bird is fo imperfe£tly known. Its
extent of wdng is varioufly dated, from nine to eighteen
feet} and, wffiile Frefier aferibes to it fufficient ftrength
to carry off (heep, and boys of ten years old, Marco
Paolo fturdily affirms, that it can lift an elephant from
the ground high enough to kill it by the fall. Though
very rare, Buffon fufpefts that it is not confined to
South America, and that it does not effentially differ
from the roc of the eaftern nations, fo famous in the A-
rabian tales} nor from the laemmer geyer of the Ger¬
man Alps. A preferved fpecimen in the Leverian Mu-
feum mea fared ten feet, from the tip of one wing to that
of the other. It is deferibed and figured in the fecond
fupplement to Latham’s Synopfis. In Chili, the con¬
dors make their nefts among the moft inacceffible rocks,
and lay two wffiite eggs bigger than thofe of a turkey.
They feed on dead carcafes, and fometimes prey on (heep,
goats, or even young calves, wffien they ftray far from
their dams, falling on them in flocks, plucking out their
eyes, and tearing them in pieces. The country people
3 O 2 ufe
*0:
Papa.
55
476 O R N I T II
Accipitres. ufe every means lo deflrcy fuch formidable invaders of
* v  their property, and feem to have fucceeded in expelling
54 them from the populous diftrifts of both continents.
King vulture, or king of the vultures.—Caruncles on
the noitrils 5 crown of the head and neck bare of fea¬
thers. The extreme length of the body does not ex¬
ceed two feet three inches, and it is not thicker than
the hen turkey. Its wings are Ihort in proportion to
the other vultures. The bill is thick and Ihorf, and be¬
gins its curvature only at the point; in feme individuals
it is entirely red, in others only red at the extremity,
and black in the middle. In the cere, which is broad
and orange-coloured, are placed the noitrils; and be¬
tween them the {kin projects like a loofe jagged comb,
falling indifferently on either fide, according as the bird
moves its head. Under the naked part of the neck is a
collar, or ruff, compofed of pretty long foft feathers of
a deep afh colour, and fo broad, that when the bird
contracts itfelf, it can conceal the neck and part of the
head like a cowl, whence fome naturalifts have given it
the name of monk. The feathers on the breaft, belly,
thighs, legs, and the under furface of the tail, are
white, {lightly tinged with yellow •, thofe of the rump
and upper furface of the tail, are black in fome indivi¬
duals, and white in others. The other feathers of the
tail are always black, and fo are the great feathers of
the wings, which are commonly edged with grey. The
king of the vultures is a native of South America and
the Weft Indies, and lives on carrion, rats, lizards,
fnakes, and excrements of all kinds, from which circum-
ftance it has a moft offenfive odour.
•Aura. Carrion vulture, or turkey buzzard {carrion crow of
Jamaica).—Body gray brown j quill feathers black 5 bill
white } the fides of the head wurted ; legs flefii-coloured.
—Common in the W. Indies, and in N. and S. America.
Somewhat larger than the black eagle. Is protected in A-
merica for its ufe in devouring dead carcafes and ferpents,
which it does, along 'with dogs, in the greateft harmony.
It will feize meat from the Ihambles, breathes a moft fetid
odour, and, when taken, vomits up an intolerably {link¬
ing matter. Roofts by night, in flocks, on the higheft
branches of trees. They are generally very tame in
their wild ftate, probably owing to their being more ca-
56 refled than molefted by man.
Leucoce- White, ajh-coloured, or Angola vulture.—Body fnowry •,
■phalus. quill and tail feathers black } collar white 5 head and
lower part of the neck covered wTith white dowrn ; middle
toe covered with 11 diflinct feales 5 cknvs black. About
the fize of a female turkey. The female exceeds the
male in fize, and differs chiefly in being lefs tinged with
reddifli. The young have the whole of the naked parts
about the head covered with a grayifli down.—This fpe-
cies is ufually feen in pairs, and not in large flocks, like
many of the genus •, or, if 10 or 12 alight on one car-
cafe, they are accidentally allured by the fmell, which
a£ts on their delicate organs at inconceivable diftances.
They feed on all manner of carrion, and on lizards,
Jnakes, frogs, and even excrements. They build among
the rocks, and lay four eggs. In fome parts of Africa
they are very common, and in others more rare. The
natives tame and refpeft them, as they contribute to rid
their grounds of nuifances. They likewife occur in
Norway and Sardinia. Mr Latham fuppofes that this
fpecies is the vautour de Norvege of Buffon ; xha facre
dEgifte of the fome author^ perhaps the Angola vul-
o L o G Y.
ture of Pennant, and the rachamah of Bruce. “ When, Arcipitr«s.
however, (adds this celebrated omithologift), the divi-  v  
fion of the vulture genus into real Ipecies may take
place, is not for us to detennine \ the variety among in¬
dividuals, from different periods of life, as well as the
different appearances of thofe in a ftate of confinement,
to what the plumage lias, w hen at large, cannot fail to
create no {’mail difficulty j added to that, very few tra¬
vellers are naturalifts in a fufficient degree to diferimi-
nate one part of nature from another ; befides, the fub-
jefts in queftion being moftly extra European, we can¬
not w onder at being fo long in the dark.” 57
Aquiline or Alpine vulture.—The male of this fpecies Percuoptc-
is almoft wholly white 5 quill feathers black, with hoary'
edges, except the two outermoft, which are wholly CCCXCIII.
black. The female is all over browm, with the four pjg K
outer quills black. In both the bill is black ; cere yel-
low j noftrils conftantly dripping moifture 5 feet naked.
Inhabits Egypt, Paleftine, Syria, and Perfia. They
fly in large troops, and are extremely ufeful in deftroy-
ing mice, with which fome countries, of which they are
natives, are infefted, fuch as Paleftine. The fame fpe¬
cies, it is faid, inhabits the Swifs Alps, w7here they are
of an immenfe fize. Some have been meafured exceed¬
ing 12 feet from tip to tip of the wings.
5S
Gen. 2. Falco, Falcon. Falco.
Bill hooked, and furnilhed with a cere at the bafe j
head covered with clofe-fet feathers; tongue bifid.
59
Though the birds of this genus are all carnivorous’ Character,
they feldom feed on carrion, except when preffed by
hunger, which they can endure for a long time. They
have a very acute fight, and pounce down on their prey
with aftonilhing fwiftnefs and force. From their great
ftrength, they are capable of carrying birds nearly as
heayy as themfelves, to a great diftance, for provifion
to their young. Their middle toe is {lightly connected
with the outermoft.
A. Bill hooked only at the point, bearded at the bafe with
extended bri/lles. ^
Snake-eater, or fecretary vulture.—Body black; hhid- Scrpentari-
head crefted; tail feathers wdfite at the tips, the two ns‘
middle ones longeft ; legs very long. Bill black, cere
white ; orbits orange, and naked ; irides pale cinereous ;
tail rounded ; legs browmifti ; claws ftiort, black, hook¬
ed, not very {harp ; creft capable of being eredled or
depreffed.—In feizing its prey, this bird makes ufe of
its wings, with which it inflifts violent blows by means
of a bony protuberance at the bend of the wing. It is
alfo by its wings that it defends itfelf againft^the bites of
venomous fnakes, until the latter, tired with their ef¬
forts, or nearly bruifed to death, are eafily difpatched.
This fpecies likewdfe preys on turtles, lizards, and even
grafhoppers and other infedls. When in a domefticated
ftate fcarcely any kind of food comes amifs to it; and,
if young birds are prefented to it, it wall take them by
the bill foremoft, and fwallow them whole. One of
thofe which Le Vaillant killed, had 21 young turtles,
11 fmall lizards, and three fnakes, in his ftomach. Like
other birds of prey, it is obferved to bring up the undi-
gefted parts of its food, in the form of round pellets.
In pairing time, two males will often be found engaged
in a violent conteft for a female. The fecretary vulture
ORNITHOLOGY.
A.-cipitres. is three feet high, remarkable for the length of its legs,
' v and inhabits interior Africa and the Philippine ifiands.
Thefe birds make a Hat neft, like that of the eagle, full
three feet in diameter, lined with wool and feathers, in
fome high tuft of trees, and ufually concealed from ob-
61 fervation.
Harpeyia. Crefied or Oronooho eagle.—Head crefted with long
feathers j body beneath variegated 5 eyes with a ni£H-
tant membrane. Under the crop, wdrite feathers, which,
when the bird is irritated, fall to the ground. Erefts
the creft in the form of a coronet, is faid to be able to
cleave a man’s Ikull at a flroke. Inhabits Mexico, Bra¬
zil, and other parts of South America, and is as large
<52 as a flieep.
Albicilia. Cinereous or white-tailed eagle : erne of the Scots.—
Cere and feet yellow; tail feathers wdiite, the middle
ones tipt with black •, head and neck pale cinereous \
irides and bill pale yellow; noftrils, and the fpace be¬
tween the eyes, bluifh, with a few briftles ; body and
wings cinereous, mixed with brown 5 tail white 5 legs,
below the knees, downy, gloffy yellow •, clpws black.
—Size of a turkey, feeds on birds and filh. Inhabits Eu¬
rope, and frequently occurs in Scotland and the Orkney
illands.
B. Feet generally feathered, of a large f%e.
Black eagle.—Cere yellow ; feet yellow, and fome-
W’hat downy •, body rufty black, with yellow ftreaks }
bill horn colour, verging on blue •, irides chefnut •, exte¬
rior part of the tail wdiite, with blackhli fpots, tip whit-
i(h } legs dirty white 5 toes yellow, claws black. Two
feet ten inches long. Inhabits- Europe and America.
Ofprey, or fea eagle.—Cere and legs yellow 5 feet
half covered with down 5 body of a rufty colour •, inner
vanes of the tail feathers white.—It is diftinguiftred by
the colour and figure of its nails, which are of a ftiining
black, and form an entire femicircle j by its legs, which
are naked below, and covered with {mall yellow feales;
and by the beard of feathers which hangs from the chin,
and which has occafioned its receiving the name of the
bearded eagle. It meafures, from the end of the bill to the
point of the nails, three feet and a half, and its wings ex¬
pand to between fix and feven feet. It loves to haunt the
lea ftiore, and often frequents inland trails, near lakes,
marfties, or rivers that are flocked with fifti ■, but,
though it preys on the finny tribe, it alfo attacks game,
and, being large and ftrong, feizes and carries off geefe
and hares, and fometimes even lambs and kids. It
catches fifti even during the night, when the noife of its
plunging into the water is heard at a great diftance. In
attempting to lay hold of overgrown fifti, it is fometimes
dragged under water, being unable to difengage its ta¬
lons. It inhabits Europe and North America, and was
found by Captain Cook, in Botany iftand. It is not un¬
common in Scotland and Ireland. “ From the aftonifti-
ing height (fays Mr Montagu), thefe and fome other
birds fly, we are led to believe they are capable of liv¬
ing in a much lighter air than other animals. From the
top of fome of the higheft mountains in Scotland we
have feen feveral foaring together at fo great a diftance
as to appear fcarcely larger than a {wallow.”—The fe¬
male fea eagle feldom lays more than two eggs, and
65 fometimes produces only a Angle young one.
Cbryfcetos. Golden eagle.—Cere yellow ; fee* downy, and rufty-
coioured) body dark brown, irregularly barred} tail
63
Melanx-
tos.
Plate
cccxciii.
Fig. 2.
64
OJJifragus
All
black, and covered with afti-coloured bars. It greatly Accipitres.
refembles the preceding, but is diftinguiftred from it v'" '
chiefly by its legs, which are yellow, fhort, ftrong, and
covered with feathers to the feet. The general length
of this fpecies is about three feet and a half ; the breadth
eight feet*, and it ufually weighs about twelve pounds.
It breeds in the moft inacceflible rocks, and lays three
or four white eggs. It inhabits Europe and Siberia,
and is faid to be not unfrequent in the mountainous parts
of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, though it has been fre¬
quently confounded with the fea eagle It feeds on
lambs, kids, and all kinds of game, and has been known
to carry off infants to its neft. It is remarkable for its
longevity and abftinence from food 5 fome having been
kept in menageries for upwards of a century } and Pen¬
nant records an inftance of one which lived twenty-one
days without any fuftenance whatever. It flies high,
during ferene weather, and defeends nearer the earth in
ftorms., 66
Ring-tailed, white-tailed, black, or common eagle.— Fuh<nr.
Cere yellow *, feet downy, and of rufty a brown colour *,
back brown •, tail with a white tranfverie band. In the
bill, cere, irides, and legs, it refembles the preceding,
to which it is alfo nearly equal in fize } but the plu¬
mage is rather darker, and the tail is white for two
thirds of its length. It inhabits Europe, Afia, and A-
merica j and is trained by the Tartars to hunt hares, an¬
telopes, and foxes. In Scotland, it is very deftrubtive to
deer, wThich it will feize between the horns 5 and, by
inceffantly beating it wath its wangs, foon makes a prey •
of the haraffed animal. It likewife makes great havock
among the white hares and ptarmigans. It builds in
high precipices and cliffs j and the neft of a pair has
been obferved in the fame fpot, in the Orkney illands,
beyond the memory of man. Willoughby deferibes a
neft of this fpecies found in the Peak of Derbyfture, as
compofed of large fticks, lined with two layers of nifties,
between which was one of heath. It contained one
young, and an addle egg, and by them a lamb, a hare,
and three heath pouts.—There is a variety, with a white
tail, tipt with brown. c-j
White eagle.—Entirely white. Inhabits the Alps j of Alb us,
the fize of the golden eagle.
Fierce eagle.—Cere green; body brown above 5 back, Ferox.
belly, and tail coverts fnowy, variegated with chefnut
fpots; tail feathers equal, brown, with four paler bands j
bill leaden-black j eyelids blue 5 irides yellow ; head
and neck ferruginous, mixed wfith whitifti j quill-feathers
twenty-fix, black above, white beneath, tipt wfith grey;
tail feathers twelve, white beneath; claws {harp ; up¬
wards of two feet long; very rapacious ; inhabits Ruflia,
was found frequent near Aftrachan in the winter of 1769;
will not touch dead animals. 69
Kite.—Cere yellow ; tail forked ; body brown ; head Milvus.
wftiitilh or grey ; back and wing coverts dufky, edged
with ferruginous, the under parts more or lefs ferrugi¬
nous, ftreaked with dufky, and lighteft on the breaft;
quill feathers dufky black , with bars more or lefs obfeure;
tail bright ferruginous ; legs yellow*; claws black. But
there are feveral varieties. The female is fomewhat
larger than the male, meafuring in length two feet four
inches, and five feet fix inches of outftretched wTing.
It is readily diftinguiflied from its congeners by the re¬
markable forking of its tail, and by its fmooth and even
flight, which refembles a failing or gliding through the
7°
Halicetos.
478 O R N I T II
Accipitu s. air, without any apparent motion of its wings. It fre-
^ quently, however, foars very high, and, though beyond
the reach of human vifion, will diliinftly perceive its
prey, and dart down on it with irrefiltible force. Its
attacks are confined to fuch animals as are found on the
ground, fuch as young rabbits, hares, game of all kinds,
poultry, and young birds incapable of Hying. It will
alio deltroy young lambs, and feed greedily on carrion 5
but, in default of thefe, will readily devour mice, rats,
worms, and even fnakes.—The kite occurs as far north as
Greenland, and as far louth as Guinea and Senegal. It is
common in England, where it continues the whole year j
but from the more northerly latitudes, it retires to E-
gypt before winter, and is faid to breed there, and re¬
turns in April to Europe, where it breeds a fecond time,
contrary to the nature of rapacious birds in general,
ihe nell is compofed of flicks, and lined with wool, the
inner bark of a tree, hair, and other foft materials, and
is ufually made in the fork of fome large tree. The
eggs are generally three, rarely four, fomewhat larger
than thofe of a hen, of a dirty white, with a few nifty
fpots at the larger end.
Bald-buzzard, ofprey, jijhing hawk, &c.—Cere and
feet blue; body brownilh above, white below ; head
whitifh; a brown bar defcends from each eye by the
fides of the neck to the wings; legs naked, fhort,
Itrong; claws remarkable long, hooked, and black.
Inhabits Europe, Siberia, and America, frequenting
marfhy places, and the neighbourhood of large rivers
and lakes, pouncing on filh with great rapidity and dex¬
terity, and carrying them off in its talons to a fmall di-
ftance to feed on them. It builds its neft on the ground
among reeds, and lays three or four eggs of an elliptical
form, rather lefs than thofe of a hen. Mr Montagu
found the neft of this bird on the top of a chimney of a
ruin in one of the ifiands of Loch Lomond. The ufual
length of the bald buzzard is two feet, and its extent of
wing five. The fpecies is now rarely met with in Eng¬
land, but may be frequently feen near the lake of Kil-
larney in Ireland. There are feveral varieties, among
which may be included thofe of Carolina and Cayenne.
Some of the ancient writers, and even Linnseus, have
very erroneoufly alleged, that the left foot of the bald-
buzzard is fubpalmated.
C. Legs naked, of a fmailer fze.
Buzzard, or Buttock.—Cere and feet yellow 5 body
brown belly pale, with brown fpots. Scarcely any
two individuals of this well known fpecies are precifely
alike. The ordinary length of the body is twenty
inches, and the extent of wing four feet and a half. The
buzzard is one of our moft common fpecies of falcon.
It is remarkable for its fluggifti, ina&ive difpofition, fel-
dom remaining long on wing, except in the breeding fea-
fon, when it afcends fpirally to a great height. It makes
its neft in the fork of a tree, of large flicks, and lines
it with wool, hair, and other fubftances, and fometimes
takes pofleflion of a deferted crow’s neft, which it ac¬
commodates to its purpofes. The eggs are two or three,
rather larger than a hen’s,' of a dirty white, and, for the
moft part, with ruft-coloured fpots at the larger end.
It feeds and tends its young with great affiduity 5 and
Ray affirms, that, if the female be killed, the male takes
charge of them, and patiently rears them till they are
able to provide for themfelves. This bird will con-
2
1*
Buteo.
Q L O G Y.
tinue for many hours perched on a tree or eminence, Accipitres,
whence it darts on fuch birds, fmall quadrupeds, rep-
tiles, or infecls, as come within its reach. 72
Honey buzzard.—Cere black ; feet half naked, and dpivorus.
yellow j head afti-coloured ; tail with cinereous bands,
and tipt with white; of nearly the fame fize as the pre¬
ceding, and, like it, fubjecl to confiderabie varieties in
its markings. Its neft, in refpect of form and materials,
is fimilar to that of the buzzard, and it fometimes oc¬
cupies that of other birds. Its eggs are of an affi-co¬
lour, with fmall brown fpots. Mr White of Selborne
found only one egg in the neft, fmaller, and not fo
ronnd as that of the buzzard. The name feems to
have been given it from its feeding on the larvce of wafps j
but it is alfo fond of various other infecls, and of field
mice, frogs, and lizards. It occurs in all the northern
parts of Europe, and in the open trails of Ruffia and
Siberia, but is far from common in England. Buftbn
obferves, that it is frequently caught in the winter, when
it is fat and delicious eating. ^ ?
Moor buzzard, duck hawk, or white-headed harpy.— JEnrgino-
Cere green ; body brownifh j crown of the head, throat,A'-
axillae, and feet, yellow. The colouring, however, is
is fubjecl to confiderabie variety. Length twenty-one
inches j weight twenty ounces. Preys on rabbits, young
wild ducks, and other water fowl j and likewife feeds
on fifli, frogs, reptiles1, and even infeils 5 making its
haunts in hedges and bullies near pools, marflies, and
rivers. The neft is moft frequently made on the ground,
among fliort wood, furze, or fern, and fometimes, though
rarely, in the fork of a tree. It is compofed of flicks and
ruffies, or coarfe grafs. The moor buzzard is not a
bird of rapid flight, but pounces its prey on the ground,
and is generally feen Ikimming over the furface j but, in
the breeding feafon, the male will fometimes foar to a
confiderabie height, and remain fufpended on wing for a
great length of time. Inhabits Europe. ^
Gojhawk.—Cere black ; feet yellow; body brown • Palumba-
tail feathers barred with pale bands, a white line overriui'
the eye 5 bill blue, black at the tip; irides yellow;
head brown; body beneath white, waved with black j
tail long, cinereous, and white at the tip ; claws black.
The wing, when doled, does not reach near the end
of the tail j of an elegant flender fliape, twenty-two
inches long. Inhabits Europe, Tartary, and America j
is rarely found in England, but is not uncommon in the
more wooded diftridts of Scotland, where it breeds, and
is a great deftroyer of game. It feeds on fmall birds
and mice, and eagerly devours raw flefli. It tears birds
to pieces before it eats them, but fwallows the pieces en¬
tire, and frequently difgorges the hair and feathers, rolled
up in fmall pellets. This fpecies was formerly much
prized in the fports of falconry, being ufed not only for
partridge and pheafant, but alfo larger fowl, as geefe and
cranes, and fometimes for rabbits. „ „
Gentil falcon.—Cere and feet yellow ; body afli-co- Gent ini*
loured, with brown fpots •, tail with four blackiih bands •,
fomewhat larger than the preceding, though fome or-
nithologills reckon it only a variety. It inhabits the
Alps of Europe and North America. “ In the days
of falconry,” obferves the author of Elements of Natu¬
ral Hiftory, “ this Ipecies was in high efteem as a bold
and fpirited bird. It inhabits the north of Scotland.
The king’s falconer was anciently obliged to fupply the
court with hawks; and to this day the office is kept up
479
O R N I T H O L O G Y.
7«.
Ferezn-
77
Verficolor-
,78
C rife us.
79
Candicans.
Accipitres. in Scotland; a neft of young birds being annually pre-
fented by the falconer to the barons of exchequer, who
generally give them away in prefents.”
Peregrine falcon.—Cere and feet yellow } body afh-
coloured above with brownilh hands, reddilh white be¬
neath, with blackilh bands *, tail fpotted with white.
Weighs between two and three pounds, is a bold and
powerful bird, and inhabits Europe, and the north of
Afia and America. It is not uncommon on moft of our
rocky coats, ufually frequenting Rich high cliffs as the
guillemot and razorbill refort to for breeding. One
that eloped from its mailer in the county of Forfar, on
the 24th September 1772, with four heavy bells on its
feet, was killed on the morning of the 26th of the fame
month, at Moftyn in Flintihire.
Spotted falcon.—Cere yellow ; head and body above,
white, with pale reddifh fpots, white beneath j bread: a
little fpotted with ferruginous. Size of the buzzard.
Inhabits England ; but its hiffory is little known.
Gray falcon.—Cere and legs yellow ; body dufky
gray above, white, with oblong black fpots be¬
neath} tail feathers long, the two middle ones uniform,
the reft fpotted. Bill blueiih } irides red } head duiky
brown before, white behind •, hides and chin buff, quiil-
feathers fpotted with white. Inhabits England } but is
very rare, and by fame efteemed only a variety.
Jer falcon, gyr-falcon, Icelandfalcon, white jer falcon.
&c.—Cere and feet of a gveeniih afh-colour: body white,
fpotted with brown. Bill blueifh-afh, black at the tip *,
claws lead colour. Larger than the gofhawk, and fubject
to variety, from age, fex, and climate, fome in the nor¬
thern latitudes being found quite white, others browm
above, white beneath, fpotted wdth browm, and the tail
gray, with tranfverfe brown lines. Inhabits Iceland and
the north of Scotland, is a very bold bird, and in the
days of falconry, was ufed for the larger fpecies of game,
g0 as cranes and herons.
Cachinnans. Laughing falcon.—Cere and legs yellow', eyebrows
white} body varied with brown and whitilh} crown
white, with a black ring. Back, wings, and rump
brown } neck, chin, breaft, belly, and under parts
' of the wings white •, tail with yellow7 and black bands.
Inhabits South America, and is faid to laugh, when
looked at.
Lanner.—Cere dull yellow } bill and feet blue •, body
marked with black longitudinal fpots underneath. A
white ftripe over each eye } breaft yellowifh white, with
brown fpots 5 legs fhort} primary quill feathers and tail
duiky, wdth rufty oval fpots : but there are twro or three
varieties. Rather lefs than the buzzard, has its name
from tearing its prey into fmall pieces with its bill.
The lanner "is very bold, and was formerly ufed in fal¬
conry. It is found in many parts of Europe *, inhabits
Iceland and the Ferroe illes, Denmark, Sweden, and
the Tartarian defcrts. It is rare in England, but is faid
to breed in Ireland, and among the low7 trees and Ihrubs
in the defects about Ailracan.
Hen-harrier.—Cere wdiite } legs tawmy •, body hoary
blue ; edges of the eye-lids yellow, wdth an arched line
furrounding the throat} bill black} irides yellow7 •,
hind part of the head white, with pale brown fpots ;
breaft and belly white, the former ftreaked with dulky }
tw7o middle tail-feathers gray on both Tides, the reft gray
above, white beneath, and all ftreaked with dulky.
Thefe charafters, however, are far from conftant.
Sr
Lunar ius.
Sz
Cy aneus.
This fpecies, in its moft perfect ftate, weighs about
thirteen ounces, and is eighteen inches and a half in
length. It feeds on birds, lizards, and other reptiles,
and is particularly deftraddive to poultry. It flies low,
fkimming along the furface in queft of prey. The
female neftles on the ground, and lays four eggs of a
reddilh colour, wdth a few wdiite fpots. Inhabits Europe
and Africa. Wallis, in his Natural Hiftory of Northum¬
berland, remarks, that it breeds annually on the Cheviot
hills, and on the shady precipices under the Roman wall,
near Craglake. Dr Latham and other eminent ornitho-
logifts have fuppefed, that this and the following are
male and female } but the repeated inftances of hen-har¬
riers of both fexes having been feen, leave it beyond all
doubt that they conflitute two diftincl fpecies.
Ring-tail, ring-tail hawk, white-rumped lay falcon, Ptgargus
&c.—Cere and legs yellow} body cinereous} belly
pale, wdth oblong rufous fpots } orbits of the eyes white.
Bill pale} irides yellow} tail longilh, banded wdth
dufky, and dotted with white, the male marked wdth
tranfverfe, and the female with longitudinal, fpots
beneath. Length 18 or 20 inches. Inhabits Europe,
and the temperate parts of Siberia. Flies higher than
the preceding, and fometimes perches on trees. Its eggs
are white, much freckled with red.
Kejlril, kejlral, Jlonegall, &c.—Cere and legs yel- Tinnuncu-
low } back purplifh-red, with black fpots} breaft within
brow’n ftreaks 5 tail rounded. Crown of the head of a
fine cinereous gray } greater quill-feathers black, very
(lightly tipped with whitifli. Bill lead colour, irides
dufky and large. The male weighs about feven ounces,,
and meafures 13 inches in length.* The female is con-
fiderably larger, and diltinguifhed from the other fex by
the head and tail being of the fame colour as the back,
which is not fo bright a red browm as the male. Feeds
principally on mice, in fearch of which it is frequently
feen hovering in the air and ftationary for a great length *
of time. Preys alfo on fmall birds and infefts, and was
formerly ufed for catching game. Inhabits Europe,
Siberia, and the more temperate parts of North America.
One of our moft common birds of prey, efpecially among
the rocks and cliffs of the coaft, which favour its breed¬
ing. The neft is of flicks, and lined with wool and
other foft materials } but it fometimes builds on trees,- or
is contented with the deferted neft of a magpie or crow.
The eggs are ufually four or five, of a dirty white, blot¬
ched with ruft colour, of various (hades.—It is a hand-
fome bird, wdiofe fight is acute, and whofe flight is eafy
and graceful. It includes two or three varieties. 85
Fijhing falcon.—Legs brown } head ferruginous, .with Ptfcator.
long feathers} body cinereous above, pale yeilowulh
w7hite beneath •, tail pale browm above, blueifh-afh be¬
neath. Bill and irides yellow ; margin of the upper fea¬
thers rufty brown, the under fpotted in the middle with
brown. Inhabits Senegal, where it is called tanas,
preying chiefly on fifli, which it takes out of the w7ater,
and retires to a convenient place to eat them piecemeal. S(j
Sparrow-hawk.—Cere green •, feet yellow7} belly Nijus.
white, wrnved with gray •, tail wuth black bands. The
weight of the male of this fpecies is about five ounces,
that of the female nine : the former meafures in length
about 12 inches, the latter 15. The male is inclined <
to ruft colour on the breaft, the female to wFitifh. On
the back of the head, in both fexes, is an obfeure bro¬
ken patch of white, The quill feathers are dufky, bar¬
red.'
87
Svllnteo.
430
Accipitres. red with black on the outer webs, and fpotted with
white at the bafe of the inner. The legs are long, (len¬
der, and yellow. In fome the back is fpotted with
white, and others have the body entirely of that colour.
The fparrow-hawk is very common in our wooded and
incloled diftricts, but is lefs frequent in the more cham¬
paign parts. The female fometimes builds her neft in
hollow trees, high rocks, or lofty ruins, but more fre¬
quently takes poffeffion of that which has been deferted
) by a crow, laying four or five eggs, of a dirty white or
blueiih tinge, blotched at one of the ends with ruft co¬
lour. It is very widely diffufed over the world, from
Ruflia to the Cape of Good Hope. It is bold and fpi-
rited, making great deftrudtion among pigeons, young
poultry, and fmaU birds of all kinds, which it will at¬
tack and carry off in the moll daring manner; at the
fame time, that it is obedient and docile, and can be
«afily trained to hunt partridges, quails, larks, &c.
Hobby.—Cere and feet yellow ; back brown ; neck
white ; belly pale, with oblong brown fpots. Bill blue j
orbits yellow } irides generally chefnut; lateral tail-fea¬
thers with blackifh bars •, primary quill-feathers with
oval reddifh fpots j claws black. The male weighs
about feven ounces, and the female nine, or more. In¬
habits Europe and Siberia, breeds in Britain, but leaves
us the latter end of Odtober. It builds in trees, and
fometimes takes poffeflion of a deferted crow’s neft, lay¬
ing three or four eggs, which are faid to be white.
Though fmall, it is inferior to none of the falcon tribe
in courage, and will frequently pounce a partridge ; but
its favourite prey is the lark, which it terrifies to fuch a
degree, that it fometimes flies to man for proteftion, and
will allow a net to be thrown over it.
Merlin.—Cere and feet yellow 5 head rufty •, body
above, of a blueifh afh, with fpots and rufty ftreaks 5
beneath, yellowifti-white, with oblong fpots. Bill blue-
ifti; irides dulky; tail alternately ftreaked with dulky
and reddifh j claws black j eggs brown red. There are
feveral varieties. The merlin is a fmall fpecies of fal¬
con, being fcarcely larger than the black-bird, but is
very rapid on wing, and was efteemed for its courage in
hawking. It flies low, and is generally feen fkimming
along the fide of a hedge, or over the furface of the
ground, in purfuit of fmall birds. Inhabits Europe}
vifits the fouth of England in October, about the time
the hobby retires, but has never been obferved to breed
farther fouth than Cumberland, where it has been found
more than once, with four young ones, placed on the ground.
Minute falcon.—Cere brown 5 legs yellow \ body
white beneath j tail-feathers brown, banded with black.
About 11 inches long. Inhabits Malta ; and occurs,
though rarely, in England.
Tiny falcon.—Legs yellow; body brown-afh j beneath
whitifh, with blackifh bars*, crown whitifh. Hardly
fix inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.
Gen. 3. Strix, Owl.
Bill hooked; no cere •, noftrils oblong, covered with
briftly recumbent feathers 5 head, eyes, and ears large}
tongue bifid.
Thefe are nofturnal birds, with the organs of vifion
fo conftru&ed as to fee in the dark Their fenfe of
hearing is very acute, by means of a particular mem¬
brane at the opening of the external ear. They can
4
88
JFfalon.
89
Minutus.
90
Fimilus.
Strix.
92
Characters.
ORNITHOLOGY.
move the outermoft toe either backwards or forwards. Accipitres.
They feed on carrion, living fmall birds, hares, mice,'
field-mice, lizards, &c. When they venture abroad in
day light, they are chaced, and infulted by fmaller birds,
eipecially by the crow. In their manner of life, round
head, &c. they have fome affinity to cats. During the
winter, they live retired, falling, or fleeping in towers
and old walls.
A. Eared.
Great owl, great eared owl, great horned owl, &c.-— Bubo.^
Body of a reddilh, or tawny colour; irides yellow 5
head and body variegated with black, brown, afh, asd
rufty fpbts and lines; claws large, much hooked, and
dufky. Liable to confiderable varieties. Nearly the
fize of an eagle, and very ftrong, preying on hares, rab¬
bits, moles, rats, mice, and fometimes bats and reptiles.
It inhabits Europe, Calmuc Tartary, and South Ameri¬
ca, haunting mountainous rocks and caverns. Its neft
is nearly three feet in diameter, and compofod of flicks
bound together by fibrous reots, and lined with leaves.
It generally lays two eggs, femewhat larger than thofe
of a hen, and variegated, like the bird itfelf. The
young are very voracious, and are plentifully fupplied
with food by the parents. This bird fs by no means
common in Great Britain, though it has been occafion-
ally (hot both in England and Scotland. It endures
day light better than moft of the genus, flies low in
the day, but fometimes foars very high during the night. ^,
Virginian eagle owl.—Size of the common eagle owl ; Virginian*.
ear feathers large, rife above the bafe of the bill which Plate
is black ; irides golden yellow ; upper part of the body CCQXCIIL
brown, variegated with flender rufous and cinereous Eg. 4.
lines; under part pale-afh, tranfverfely ftripped with
brown 5 thioat white 5 lowTer part of the neck and fides
of the breaft orange brown, fpotted with darker brown j
quills and tail banded with brown •, legs and half the
toes covered with cinereous feathers 5 claws horn co¬
lour. Inhabits America, Kamtfchatka, and Aftracan.
Is a little fmaller than the great horned owl, and is fup-
pofed by fome to be only a variety. ^.
Ceylonefe eagle owl.—Bill horn colour •, irides yellow7; Zeylonen-
upper part of the body pal« reddifh brown, under partfu.
yellowifh white ; ears fhort, pointed ; firft quills and tail ^!ate.
barred wnth black, white, and pale red j legs naked to u
the knees. Length 23 inches ; weight two pounds and 3*
near 10 ounces. Native of Ceylon. ^
Long-eared or horn owl.—Ear's with fix feathers. Ears Otus.
black and yellow j irides yellowy back and wing coverts
.dufky brown, gray, and yellowifh-rufty j breaft and belly
pale yellow, with brown longitudinal lines j tail barred
with afti-colour, and dufky j legs and feet feathered to
the clawTs. About 14 inches long •, but there is a variety
that is much fmaller, and another which is diftinguifhed
by the greater darknefs of the body. Diffufed over the
four quarters of the globe, frequenting forefts and wooded
tradls, and manifefting a partiality to fir, box, or holly
plantations, where it more readily conceals itfelf by day
among the ever-green foliage. Its principal food is mrce,
and fometimes fmall birds taken at rooft. It remains
with us the whole year, and is frequently taken j yet
little is known of its habits. s ^
Short-eared owl, hawk owl, moufe hawk, &c.— Brachyotui.
Ears ftrort 3 body above brown, fpathers-edged with
yellow) beneath pale yellow, with longitudinal dufky
ftreaks.
93
Scops.
O R N I T H
Accinitrcs. Breaks; head (mail and hawk-like ; bill dufky ; irides
 y~—' yellow. Length 14 inches, ftretch of wing three teet.
Inhabits Lurope, Siberia, and America, chieliy in moun¬
tainous or wooded countries, and feeds principally on
field-mice. Vifits England in the latter part of the,
year, and difappears in fprmg. It flies by day, and is
fometimesobfervedin companies. It is fuppofed to breed
in the Orkneys, and probably m Norway, making its
neft of dry grafs, on the ground, and laying three or
four white eggs. „ . . , ^
Little horned owl.—Ears of one feather each. Oray,
rufous, brown or blackilh, according to age ; legs fpot-
ted with brown *, toes and claws brown. Between ieven
and eight inches long. Inhabits Europe, and preys on
field mice.
B. Earlefs.
KT n9 Snowy, or great white owl.—Body whitifh, with a
Nj few brown lunated fpots. Bill black, and almoft hid
in the feathers 5 irides yellow j legs covered with white
feathers to the toes j claws black. This fpecies is fome-
times quite white, and fometimes varies with very nu¬
merous fpots. About two feet long j flies abroad by day j
preys on herons, hares, mice, and fometimes carrion,
but is particularly fond of ptarmigans. Makes a howl¬
ing noife. Inhabits the northern parts of Europe and
America, particularly Sweden, Iceland, and Hudfon’s
Bay, and fometimes, though rarely, Pennfylvama.
KTfhnh fa Gray or barred owl.—Head, neck,. breaft, back,
and wing-coverts brown, fpotted with white j belly and
vent dirty white, ftreaked with brown j tail with brown
and whitifti bands, tipt with whitifli. Weighs about
three pounds, is two feet long, and four in extent of
wing. Feeds on hares, mice, and cranes. Inhabits
Hudfon’s Bay and New York, and rarely occurs m
rf, ^White or common owl.—Body pale yellow, with white
fpots ; beneath whitifli, with black fpots. Bill white ;
irides duiky; tail-feathers white within, with duiky
lines on the outfide ; 14 inches long, and weighs about
11 ounces. This fpecies is fo well known, that we need
not more minutely defcribe it. It inhabits Europe,
America, and Northern Alia, and is by far the moft
common of Britifti owls, being diftinguiflied by various
provincial appellations, as barn owl, gillihowlet, howlet,
madge-howlet, church owl, hifling owl, fcreech owl,
&.c. It is partial to the habitations of man, and is
rarely found in woods. Its ordinary haunts are barns,
churches, old houfes, and other uninhabited buildings,
in which it continues during the day, but which it leaves
in the evening, in queft of prey.. Its flight is accom¬
panied with loud and frightful cries, and its repofe with
a blowing noife, like the fnoring of a man; when a-
larmed, it fnaps its bill with great force. It makes
fcarcely any neft, but depofits five or fix whitifli eggs in
the holes of walls. It feeds on mice, and. finall birds,
which it fwallows whole, and afterwards difcharges the
bones, feathers, and other indigeftible parts, at its mouth,
in the form of fmall round cakes, which are called cq/t-
iugs, and fome buftiels of which are fometimes found in
the hollows of decayed trees, near farm-houfes or villages,
in barns, out-houfes, &c. When a pair have young
ones, they fally out alternately m queft of food for
them, and generally return every five minutes, with a
live moufe. Dr Latham mentions, that he received a
Vol. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y, 481
fpecimen from Jamaica, which differed in no fefpe£l Accipnres.
from our common owl.—The white owl is very iulcep- v
tible of domeftication, when taken young* _ 102
Tawny or brown owl, common brown or ivy owl, Striduln.
black owl, howlet, wood ovol, &c.—Body afti-coloured,
the third flag-feather the longeft ; plumage marked above
with dufky fpots and points } breaft and belly yellowifti,
mixed with white beneath with dufky ftreaks 3 irides
dufky j tail with pale brown and black fpots and lines.
Fourteen inches long 3 ftretch of wing two feet eight
inches 3 weight of the female 19 ounces. Inhabits Eu¬
rope and Tartary. This is another very common fpecies.
It refides chiefly in woods and plantations of fir 3 con¬
cealing itfelf in the thickeft receffes 3 fometimes it fettles
on the ground, but if molefted, takes fhelter in a neigh¬
bouring tree. It is rarely feen on wing by day, except
forced from its haunts, the light dazzling it to fuch a
degree that boys hunt it down with flicks, and ftones. It
breeds in the hollows of trees, and fometimes in barns,
where it is protected by the farmer, as it is an excellent
moufer. It lays two or three eggs of a roundifti form,
and dull white colour. It is the only fpecies known to
hoot, befides which, it makes a difagreeable fereaming
noife. It is a great enemy to young pigeons, leverets,
young rats, &c. but chiefly fubfifts on mice.—“ We
have taken this bird”, fays Mr Montagu, “ in its ma¬
ture ftate, as well as young, and found no difficulty in
either cafe of preferving them alive. They were never
obferved to drink 3 and indeed for many months together
had no water offered them1,.—The ulula of Linnaeus
is now efteemed only a fmaller variety of xdiejiridula. 103
Little owl.—With white fpots arranged in. five rows Pajcrma.
on the flag-feathers 3 bill whitifh ‘Brown 3 irides pale
yellow 3 head, back, and wing coverts pale brown, with
white fpots 3 breaft whitifh, . variegated with rufty.
Scarcely larger than a blackbird, but varies confider-
ably both in relpeft of fize and markings. Inhabits
Europe, North America, and the Weft Indies. Is very
rare in England, though it has fometimes been found
in Yorkfhire, Flintfhire, and the neighbourhood of
London. It is faid to frequent. ruined, edifices in
France, find to build in chimneys, in Carniola : but it
frequently neftles in the holes of rocks and walls, and
lays five or fix eggs, fpotted with yellowifh and white.
It can fly by day, and give chace to fwallows and other
fmall birds on wing, but mice are its principal food. 104
White-fronted owl. Body rufty brown, paler beneath 3 Albifrons.-
forehead white 3 quill feathers barred with black and
white. Only five inches long. Native of North Arne-
Gen. 4. Lanius, Shrike.
*°S
Lanius. ,
106
Bill nearly ftraight, with a dent on each mandible, near Charatf;en5
the end, naked at the bafe 3 tongue jagged at the
point.
The birds of this genus form a conne&ing link be¬
tween the falcons and pies, and have been differently
claffed by different omithologifts. Though compara¬
tively fmall, they are very courageous, will attack birds
much larger than themfelves, and are called butcher
birds, becaufe they frequently kill feveral, before they
begin to feed. They fix on their viclims with their
talons, fplit the fkull with their bill, and then feed on
them at leifure. ' ^ „
5 p Collared
*h
io8
ILxcubitor.
109
Colhirio.
Tyrannus.
O II N 1 T H
CollaredJhrike, canary biter mfifcal.—Tail wedged ;
body black, white beneath ; firit quill feathers white at
the bafe 5 bill and head blackith 5 tail feathers, except
the four middle ones, white at the tips. Very common
at the Cape of Good Hope, alfo found in Senegal, and
in the interior parts of Africa. Twelve inches long.
-Feeds on beetles, grafshoppers, and other infects, which
it not only catches with great dexterity; but when it
cannot confume them all, will Hick them on the pales of
farm yards, till it has occafion for them. It alfo feizes
on fparrows and canary birds, of which it devours only
the brains.
Cinereous Jhrike, great cinereous fhrike, greater but¬
cher ' bird, mattagefs, night jar, &c—Tail fomewhat
cuneiform, w'hite on the edges \ back gray j wings
black, with a white fpot \ bill black, wdth bridles at
the' bafe j upper parts of the plumage of a pale blue alh,
tl e under parts wdiite ; legs black. The female differs
chiefly in the under parts, wdrich are of a dirty white,
marked with numerous femicircular brown lines. There
is a variety, with the body white, legs yeilowilh, and
bid and claws blackrlh 5 and another with leffer wing
cor cits and reddiill fhoulders. Inhabits Europe and
b»ortn America. Is rather a fcarce bird in England,
but is faid to breed among fome of our mountainous fi-
tuations j coming in May, and departing in September.
It makes a neft of heath and mofs, lined with wmol and
goffamer, and lays fix eggs, of a dull olive green, fpot-
ted with black at the larger end. According to Buf-
fon, it is common in France, where it continues all the
year j it kills rats, mice, and fmall birds, affixing its
prey to a fharp thorn, and tearing it in nieces with its
bill; it is alfo faid to imitate the notes of fome other
birds, by wray of decoying them to their deftrudlion.
Mr Pennant obferves, that when kept in a cage, it flicks
its food againft the wires before it will eat it.
Red-backed Jhrike, lejjer butcher-bird, or jiujler.—
1 ail fomewhat wTedged; back hoary j four innermoft
tail-feathers of one colour j bill of a leaden hue. Irides
hazel ; head and lower part of the back of a light gray,
upper part of the back and wing-coverts of a bright
nifty red 5 breaft, belly, and Tides of a fine pale rofe, or
bloom colour \ a black ftreak paffes from the bill through
the eyes j legs black. Length about feven inches 5
weight eight drams. The female weighs two drams
more, and has all the upper parts of a ferruginous
brown. The manners of this fpecies are fimilar to thofe
of the laft. It kills fmall birds by piercing the fkull
with its bill, and infedts by transfixing them on the
thorn of the floe-bufli. It tears off the body of the
chaffer, and leaves the elytra, wings, and head behind.
It imitates the fong of many of the fparrow tribe, and
thus entices them within its reach. It chiefly haunts
inclofed moift fituations, makes its neft in fome thick
hedge, compofing it very fkillfully of mofs and fibrous
roots put together with wool and lined with hair, and
lays five or fix eggs of a bluiib-white colour, with a
circle of brown near the broad end. It inhabits Europe
and Africa, vifits Britain in May, and departs to fome
wmimer climate in September. Among its varieties
Gmelin includes lamus rtitilus of Latham, or woodchat,
which is very xare in this country.
Tyrant Shrike.—Body cinereous, wdrite beneath }
crown -of the head black, with a longitudinal tawny
ftreak. Eight inches long. There are feveral varie-
O L O G Y.
ties, all natives of America and the Weft Indies, and
all of a fierce and audacious difpofition, fixing on the
backs of other predacious birds, and making a conti¬
nual chattering noife, till they force them to retire.
Order II. PIC7E.
Pic33.
lit
Prc^E.
112
The diftinguilhing marks of this order are, a bill fome- Chaudters,
wflrat comprefled, more or lefs crooked, and always con¬
vex j toes divided, and adapted either lor ciimLnig
(fcanforial) or, for ftepping, (grejonal). Some feed
on infers, worms, and the fleflr and offal of other ani¬
mals, and fome on the feeds and juices of plants. Lu¬
ring the breeding feafon, they are monogamous, and
make their nefts on trees 5 and during incubation, the
female is often fed by the male. There are a few ge¬
nera, however, which do not exa&ly correfpond with
thele chara<fters.
Gen. 5. Psittacus, Parrot. „ ri3
xSlTTA-
Bill hooked 5 upper mandible moveable, and, for thecus’
moft part covered with a cafe ; noftrils rounded, and
placed in the bafe of the bill, tongue fiefliy, obtufe, ^ UW
entire 5 feet fcanforial.
This very numerous genus, which contains upwards
of 140 fpecies, is peculiar to the warmer regions of both
worlds. The birds which belong to it, refemble the
accipitres in the form of the bill, but in their manners
coincide with the other genera of this order. They feed
on the feeds and fruits of various plants ; are very do¬
cile, and by means of their obtufe tongue, may be
taught to imitate human fpeech. They climb eafily,
aflifting themfelves with their bill. They affociate m -
pairs, and . attain to a great age. Some fpecies. equal
the domeftic fowl in fize, while others are no larger
than a fparrow7. In Europe, they fometimes lay eggs, ~
but feldom fit on them. In their native climates, the
male and female fit on them alternately.
A. Tail long, and wedge-Jhaficd.
Red and blue Maccaw.—Oui 11-feathers blue above, Macao".
rufous beneath, fcapulars varied with blue and green ;
cheek naked, wninkled. Body fcarlet; upper mandible
white, low7er black temples white wing-coverts ge¬
nerally yellow7 ; tail long and red ; feathers blue at the
fides. . Tw;o feet feven inches in length, fize of a capon.
Inhabits Brafil, Guiana, and other regions of South A-
merica, affedting moift palm woods, and living on the
fruit of the trees. When driven by hunger to feed on
the manchineel apple, its flelh is poifonous, though the
bird itfelf receives no injury. Makes its neft in decayed
trees, _ enlarging the hole, if neceffary, with its bill,
and lining the infide with feathers. The female lays-
two eggs at a time, about the fize of thofe of a pigeon,
and fpotted like thofe of a partridge. Breeds twice a
year, the male and female fitting on the neft alternately,
and reciprocally nurfing and feeding the young birds.
The latter are tamed with great eafe, and may even be
taught to fpeak, but the old birds are clamorous and
unmanageable. Though the flelh is hard, black, and
unfavoury, it makes good foup, and furniflies a great
part of the food of the inhabitants of Cayenne, as w7eil
jis other parts of South America. Like other parrots
it is fubjedt to fits when kept tame. The ftrength of
its
Piece.
116
Aracatiga.
”7
Tabuenjis.
nS
Elega/is.
119
Pe/Hiantii-
120
Gloriafus.
121
Qrnatus.
122
Murinus.
113
Cor nut us.
124
Formofus.
its bill is fufficient to break a peacli-ftone with great
Red and yellow maccaw.— Pale fcarlet ; fcapulars
yellow, tipt with green ; quill feathers blue above, ru¬
fous beneath ; cheeks naked and wrinkled. Size of the
preceding. Inhabits Guiana, Brafil, and Jamaica.
Tabu an parrot. Head, neck, bread: and belly, pur¬
ple •, back and wing-coverts green 5 crown terminated
by a lunular blue mark ; firft quill-feathers and greater
part of the tail blue. Length, 19 inches. A beautiful
fpecics, found at Tonga Taboo, and the other Friendly
iiles in the South feas. The green variety, with the
head, neck, bread and belly, Icarlet j occurs in New
South Wales.
Beaut iful parrot.—Head, neck, and body, red be¬
neath, brown above •, interfcapulars pale blue, mixed
with red j tail greenidr-brown, tipt with white. \'aries,
with the wings, tail, and body green above. From 12
to't 5 inches long. Inhabits the Molucca iflands.
Pennantian parrot.— Scarlet ; fore part of the back
black, waved with fcarlet; Tides and throat blue j quill-
feathers each with a white Ipot. There is a variety
with a pale band in the middle of each wing. The fe¬
male has the upper parts of the neck and body greenifli,
top of the head red, and a patch of the fame colour un¬
der each eye *, chin and throat blue ; lower part of the
neck and bread, as alfo the rump and vent, red middle
of the belly dulky green ; tail dark blue, fringed with
chefnut; (boulders blue, and the red of the wing the
fame, but darker. Fifteen inches long. Inhabits New
South Wales.
Sphndtid parrot.—Bright blood-red •, back feathers
edg<$l with black ; chin, wings, and tail blue. Sixteen
inches long. Inhabits New Holland.
Grange-billed parrot, or long parraheet.—Of a yellow-
idi green colour ; the hind part of the head, the throat,
and bread red \ crown of the head and ears blue, with
adi-coloured orbits. Eight inches long. Inhabits In¬
dia. Like other fmall fpecies with long tails, is not
eafily taught to fpeak.
Gray-breajled parraheet.—Olive •, face, chin, and
bread moufe-colour, quill feathers green. Bill and legs
gray ; tail five inches long. About the fize of a thrudi.
Tame and gentle, and eafily taught to articulate. Com¬
mon at Monte Video.
Horned parrot.—Green •, head fcarlet, with two long
feathers danding out like horns \ collar and rump draw-
colour ; outer edge of the quill and tail feathers blue.
Bill and legs black blue •, temples orange”; irides gol¬
den ; wing-coverts at the tips and within dulky; tail
black beneath. Length 11 inches, fize of a fmall
dove. Inhabits New Caledonia. Figured in Latham’s
Synopfis.
Ground parrot, New Wales parrot, or blach-fpotted
parraheet of Van Diemen's Land. Green ; four middle
tail-feathers barred with green and black, the red with
black and yellow ; bill and legs black ; tail much
wedged. This is a mod elegant and beautiful fpecies,
about 12 inches long, inhabiting New South Wales,
and other parts of New Holland, where it is known by
the name of goolingnang. It is rarely feen, except on
the ground, particularly in moid places. It is not
known to perch on trees like other parrots, but rifes
from among the grafs, and immediately alights in it
O R N I T H O L O G Y.
again. The legs and toes are more (lender than ufual
in this genus, and the claws more draight.
Otaheite parraheet.—Blue ; feathers of the head long ; xaitianm.
chin and throat white ; bill and legs red. I ongue
fringed at the end ; only five inches long ; inhabits Ota¬
heite, and feeds on the fruit of the banana.
B. Tails fhort, and even at the ends. j
Banhjian cockatoo.—Splendid black; cred fmall; head Bankjh.
and wing-coverts dotted with bufi’; outer tail-feathers
fcarlet in the middle, barred and tipt with black. Near-
ly.three feet long, but varies both in fize and markings.
Inhabits New Holland, and was brought to England
by Sir Jofeph Banks. Figured in Latham’s find Sup¬
plement. I27
Great white cockatoo, or yellow-crefed cockatoo.— Crijlatus.
White ; cred folding, and yellow. Bill, cere, irides,
legs and claws, black ; orbits-naked and white; quill
and lateral tail feathers, from the bafe to the middle
fulphureous on the infide ; feathers of the neck loofely
(lowing ; cred five inches long, and ereciable. Length
18 inches; fize of a domedic ordinary fowl. This, and
feveral other fpecies frequently repeat the word cockatoo.
Inhabits the Molucca iflands. 128
Ajh-coloured or hoary parrot.—Blui(h-gray ; temples Erythacju.
naked and white ; tail fcarlet. Bill black; cere white;
irides yellowifli white; legs cinereous; claws black.
Subject to feveral varieties. About 20 inches long.
Loquacious, and eafily taught to fpeak. Inhabits Africa,
and is fometimes called jaco from the found w7hich it
commonly utters. I29
Ceram ox purple parrot, Ceram lory, &c.—Red; Qx-Gaimlus.
bits afli-coloured ; cheeks and wings green ; hinder parts
of the tail-feathers blue. There are three or four va¬
rieties. Size of a dove. Inhabits Ceram, and the other
Molucca iflands. 13®
Purple or blue-cap lory.—Red ; cap violet ; rvings Bomicella.
green ; (boulders and cheeks blue ; orbits brown. I here
is a variety with a blue cap, black orbits, and yellow
collar. According to fome writers, thefe are male and
female. They inhabit the Ead Indies, and are remark¬
able for fpeaking difiinctly, and quickly learning their
leflbn. They are in general fcarce, and fetch a high
price. 131
Violet cap, or black-capped lory.—Purple ; cap violet; Cory.
wings green ; bread, cheeks, and tail blue ; orbits pale
flefli-colour. Upwards of 10 inches long ; inhabits the
Philippine ides, particularly Yolo. It is fo familiar
and playful, that it is much to be regretted that its
duration of life proves fo (hort in thefe colder re¬
gions. J"32
Yellow winged parrot, or yellow-headed creatine.— Ochro-
Green ; front and orbits whitilh ; crown, cheeks, c\in\,Pterus-
throat, and remoter wing-coverts, yellow. Thirteen
inches long. Inhabits South America. A friend of
the Count de Buffon had one of this fpecies alive, which
feemed much attached to its mader, and yet of a very
capricious temper, expedting a return for every demon-
dration of civility. In its wantonnefs, it wmuld fome¬
times bite a little too hard, and laugh heartily, as if
pleafed with the aft ; but if chadifed for the offence, it
became the more refraftory, and could be reclaimed on-
ly by gentle treatment. It took great delight in tear¬
ing every thing to pieces, w7as dull and filent if confined
3 P 2 in
484
ORNITHOLOGY.
Picse.
133
TaJJerinus.
T34
Cyajioly-
feos.
135
IVlelanoce-
phalus.
r 135
Senegalus.
137
Pullarius,
in its cage j but when at large, chattered almoft incef-
fantiy, and repeated every thing that was faid to it. It
was alio, contrary to the difpofition of many parrots,
Very fond of children. During the moulting feafon, it
appeared dejefted and uneafy for nearly three fucceflive
months. It was for the moil part fed on hemp-feed,
nuts, fruits of all kinds, and bread foaked in wine, but
preferred meat, if it could get it. It was obferved, that
if it fed on this laft, it became dull and heavy, and foon
loft its feathers. It rvas alfo remarked, that it kept its
food for fome time in its cheeks, whence it was gradually
protruded by a fort of rumination.
Pofferine parrot, or blue ami green porraheet.—Yel-
lowiih-green, with a blue fpot on the wings, which are
blue below. Bill, cere, orbits, legs and clawTS, orange ,
primary wing-coverts blue. Inhabits Brafil and Gui¬
ana, and is the fmalleft of the genus, being only four
inches in length, and of the fize of the houfe fparrow.
Blue-collared parrot.—Yellowifh-green, collar blue,
rump red. Larger than a pigeon. Inhabits Chili,
where it is called thecau, and where it often does much
injury to the corn, flying in great flocks. When the
troop fettles, one of them afts as fentinel on a tree, and
gives the alarm if any perfon approaches, from which
circumftance it is difficult to fhoot them. This fpecies
breeds in the holes of rocks, laying two white eggs in
the moft inacceflible and craggy parts. From the tops
of the cliff, the inhabitants let themfelves down by
ropes to take the eggs and young birds, which are
reckoned delicate eating. If robbed of its young, this
parrot will lay a fecond, and even a third, but rarely
a fourth time. It is eaflly tamed, and learns to fpeak
well.
White-breajledparrot.—Green, yellow beneath, cap
black, breaft w'hite, orbits flefh-colour. Length nine
inches and a half. Inhabits Mexico, Guiana, and the
Caraccas in South America. Frequents woods, and
feldom approaches inhabited diftridts. Its call is a flirill
•whiffle, w'hich it often repeats in its flight, nor does it
learn to talk. “ Thefe birds, fays Dr Latham, fly in
linall numbers together, but are perpetually quarrelling
■with one another j and, if any one is taken, it refufes
all food, till at laft it is ftarved to death. Parrots of
the moft ftubborn nature a»e often fubdued by means of
the fmoke of tobacco 5 but this bird is only put into bad
humour by the attempt. Whoever, therefore, would
have thefe parrots, mull train them up young ; and this
•would fcarce be wrorth while were it not for the fake of
variety.” Buffon has obferved that it is thicker and
fhorter-necked than moft parrots, that its feathers are
more ftiffly fet on, and that it is of a more dull and flug-
gifli difpofltion.
Senegal parrot.—Green, yellow beneath, head cine¬
reous, orbits black and naked. Bill cinereous, cere
blackilh, irides yellow, legs reddilh-alh. Size of a
black-bird, length eight inches and a quarter. Plenti¬
ful in Senegal, where it flies in companies of five or
fix, and perches on the tops of the trees which are
fcattered in the fandy plains. Its cry is fliarp and dif-
fonant.
Ethiopian parrot, or red-headed Guinea parrahcet.—
Green, front red, tail tawny, -with a black band, orbits
cinereous. Size of a lark ; length five inches and a
half. Very common in Guinea, and alfo occurs in E-
thiopia, the Eaft Indies; and the ifland of Java,
Sapphire parrot, or fapphire-cro ivned parrckeet.— Pica?.
Green ; rump and breaft Icarlet, crown (of the male)  ■ 
blue. It fometimes occurs with the head yellowifli-blue, „ 138 ,
,a tranfverfe orange bar behind, and the front and under US"
part of the throat and tail-coverts red. Five inches
long. Inhabits the Philippine iflands. Sleeps fufpended
by one foot, and is very fond of the frefh juice of the
cocoa-nut tree. “ If this is put in a cage, fays Ofbeck,
it wdiiftles very feldom, and commonly grows quite ful-
len 5 it hangs itfelf with its feet fo, that the back is tur¬
ned towards the earth, and feldom changes this fitua-
tion : it is fed with boiled rice $ in which manner in the
year 1752, one was brought to Gottenburg. We
obferved that their nefts were remarkable for their ex¬
ceeding fine texture ; but we did not fee the birds. If
they had a different conftrudlion, the monkeys would be
very mifchievous to them , but now, before they can
get to the opening, the loweft part, as the weakeft,
breaks in pieces, and the vifitor falls to the ground
without any danger to the birds.”
Gen. 6. PiAMFHASTOS, Toucan.
139
Ramphas-
TOS.
Bill large, hollow, convex, and ferrated at the margins \ I4°
both mandibles incurvated at the tips ; noftrils be-('^a^a<^:erS,
hind the bafe of the bill, long and narrow 5 tongue
feathered at the edges ; feet moftly fcanforial.
The birds of this genus feem to be limited to the tro¬
pical regions of South America, and are very impatient
of cold. They feed on fruit, efpecially that of the
palm trees. They are generally met with in •fmall
flocks of eight or ten, moving from place to place in.
queft of food, and advancing northward or fouthward
as the fruits ripen, though they are not properly migra¬
tory. They make their nefts in the hollows of trees
abandoned by the woodpeckers, and not formed by
themielves, the ftrudlure of their bill not allowing of
the efforts neceffary to make, 01* even enlarge a hole in
the moft tender wood, as it yields to the leaft pref-
ftre of the finger. They lay two eggs, and probably
breed more than once in the year, as they are pretty
numerous. If brought up young they are ealily tamed,
and become very familiar. ^
Green toucan.—Green, belly yellow, rump red. Up- Viridir^
per mandible yellow, with red fides and a black line in
the middle, the lower black ; the bafe and Ipace round
the noftrils red, the teeth in both white, irides and orbits
yellow, legs lead colour, claws black, tail wedged and
inclining to afti beneath 5 head, chin, and throat in the
male, black, in the female, bay, terminated by a black,
narrow, tranfverfe band. Fourteen inches long. Inha¬
bits Cayenne. Its extraordinary large bill gives it a
very Angular appearance. 142
Pavonine toucan.—Green, feathers fprinkled with red Pa'joninui^
fpots. Bill variegated with yellow and black, legs and
claws black. Seventeen inches long. Inhabits the fea-
coafts of New Spain, and is faid to feed on fifti. This
laft circumftance, however, may admit of doubt. Moft
of the fpecies will eat fifh, and even flefh, in a ftate of
confinement 5 but their frequent proximity to the water
in their natural ftate, is probably occafioned by the fi-
tuation of their favourite fruit. 143
Brq/il toucan, or Brqfilian pie.— Blackilh, abdominal Pifdronit.
band and vent red, rump white. Twfenty-one inches
Picse.
144
Tucanus.
MS
Aibus.
. ORNITHOLOGY.
long. Inhabits South America. The propriety of its
iunnaean deiignation is fomewhat doubtful.
Yel/ow-breafled toucan.—Blackifti 5 abdominal band,
vent, and rump yellow. Nineteen inches long. Inha-
habits South America.
White toucan.—Entirely white. No other particu¬
lars are known of this fpecies.
Pica;.
Gen. 7. Momotus, Motmot.
14S
Momotus.
Characters. Bill ftrong, {lightly curved, ferrated at the edges; nof-
trils feathered, tongue feathered, tail wedged, feet
grefforial.
R - ^Rienlis Brajilian mot mot, or Brajihan Jaw-billed roller.
Plate-7 Green, front bluifh-green, hind part of the head violet,
CCCXCV. crown black. Variegated with green, tawny, blue and
J *£• 4* cinereous. Body olive-green above, rufty beneath j head
large, bill black, legs black, claws hooked. About a
foot and a half in length, and nearly equal to a magpie
m fize. Inhabits Brafil, Cayenne, hlexico, and othei
parts of South America. It is a folitary bird, frequen¬
ting thick forefts •, chiefly feen on the ground, or ori
fome low branch of a tree, taking ftiort flights when di-
fturbed, and pronouncing the word hontou. It makes a
neft of dry grafs and ftalks on the ground, frequently in
fome hole deferted by an armadillo or other quadruped,
and laying for the moft part two eggs. It feeds on in¬
fects and raw flefli, the fragments of which it macerates
in water. When taken, it ftrikes violently with its
bill. Its voice is extremely harfti, weak, and tremu¬
lous.
149 Gen. 8. SCYTHROPS, Channel-bill.
SCYTHROPS
I;° Bill large, convex, cultrated, furrowed or channel-
Charadters. le(j on tjie qqeS) with the tip bent $ noftrils round,
naked, placed at the bafe of the bill } tongue
cartilaginous and bifid at the end ; toes placed two
before and two behind} tail confitting of ten fea¬
thers.
M1 Yew Holland channel-bill, pjttaceous or anomalous
Pfittaceus. ']l0rn^M'—gin pale brown, tipt with yellowilh, convex,
keeled j noftrils furrounded with a red wrinkled {kin ;
orbits naked ; head, neck, and under parts of the body
pale bluifti-gray j back, wings, and tail cinereous, the
feathers moftly with dulky blackifti tips 5 tail long,
wedged, its feathers barred with black near the end,
and tipt with wftiite 5 legs ftiort, fcaly, and wfith the
hooked claws black. Size nearly that of a crow, and
the total length 27 inches. Inhabits New Holland,
though not plentifully, and is feldom feen unlefs in the
morning and evening, fometimes in fmall groups of eight
or ten, but frequently in pairs, appearing about Port
Jackfon in Oflober, and departing in January, but to
what country is not know-n. Both on the wing, and
W'hen perched, they make a ftrange, loud, fcreaming
noife, not unlike that of the common cock and hen
when they perceive a hawk or other bird of prey ho¬
vering over them. They are fuppofed to feed princi¬
pally on the feeds of the red gum and peppermint trees,
which they fwallow whole. The tail is fometimes dif-
played like a fan, which gives the bird a majeftic ap¬
pearance.
")
Gen. 9. Buceros, Horn-bill. I5*
Buceros.
Bill convex, curved, {harp-edged, large, ferrated at the 153
margins, with a horny protuberance on the upper Chaiacter'
mandible near the bafe} noftrils behind the bale of
the bill 3 tongue ftiort, ftiarp-pointed 3 feet greflb-
rial.
The birds of this genus are all inhabitants of the
warmer regions of Alia and Africa, and feem to corre-
fpond to the toucans of the New World. According
to Latham, the circumftance of their feeding on filh re¬
quires confirmation. ^
Philippine horn-bill.—Front bony, flat, and two- Bicornis,
horned at the fore part. Varies with a vermilion bill,
black belly, and the back and rump brown afti. Body
black above, white beneath ; quill-feathers with a white
{pot 3 tail longifh and black 5 legs greenifti. Size of a
common fowl 3 inhabits the Philippine iflands, and has
a cry like the grunting of a hog. It lives in the woods,
and feeds on fruits, fuch as the Indian fig, piftachio, &c.
which it fwTallowTs entire 3 and after digeiling the pulp,
brings up the {tones whole, and ftill fit for vegetation.-
The Gentoos rank it among their gods. 15^5
AbyJJinian horn-bill.—Black 3 bony protuberance femi- AbyJJmicutc'
circular on the fore part 3 orbits, chin, and part of the
throat naked, and irides brown. Greater quill feathers
white. Total length, three feet ten inches 3 extent of
w-ing, fix feet. On the neck are feveral protuberances,
as in the turkey cock, of a light blue colour, changing
to red on various occafions. Occurs in Abyflinia, ge¬
nerally among the fields of taff, feeding on green beetles,
which frequent that plant. It has a putrid fmell, which
has occafioned a fuppofition of its feeding on carrion.
It has been feen with eighteen young ones, and ufually,
runs on the ground 3 but when raiied, flies both ftrong
and far. It builds in large thick trees, and when it
can, near churches 3 has a covered neft, like that of a
magpie, but fouf times as large as an eagle’s, placed
firm on the trunk, at no great height from the ground,
and the entry alw7ays on the eaft fide.
Indian horn-bill.—Protuberance flattened forwards, Hydroco-
belly tawny, neck with a white collar. Tw o feet rax.
four inches long, rather bigger than acock. Inhabits
the Moluccas, and feeds chiefly on nutmegs, from which
circumftance its fleftr is very delicate, and has a fine
aromatic flavour. In its native places, it is frequently
tamed for the purpofes of deftroying rats and mice. 157
Rhinoceros horn-hill, rhinoceros-bird, or horned Indian Rhinoceros
raven.-JIhe horny procefs on the upper mandible re¬
curved. Inhabits India. Three feet long, and nearly
as big as a turkey. Feeds on fleih and carrion, and fol- -
lows the hunters for the purpofe of feeding on the en¬
trails of the beafts which they kill. It is alfo faid to
feed on rats and mice, and after prefling them flat with its
bill, to tofs them up in the air, and fwallow them W’hole,
immediately on their defcent. 158
Panayan hornbill.—Greenifli black 3 under part of Panayenfc.
the body dulky red 3 the prominence of the upper man- cc^xcV
dible acute above and plane at the fides ; bill very long, Fig< 2
arched, dufky, having the fides marked tranfverfely
with orange-coloured furrows,
tive of the ifle of Panay.
Size of the raven. Na-
Gen.
4&6
F icac.
ORNITHOLOGY.
Gen. 10. Euphaga, Beef-eater.
liurHAGA. Bill flraight, fquarilh j mandibles gibbous, entire, more
l5o
Charadters,
i6i
-Africuna.
162
Croto-
phaga.
Charadters.
164
grobous at the margins 5 feet grelTorial.
4//vbr7^ beefeater—Upper parts of the body gray-
brown under parts and rump yellowifli; bill hardly an
inch long, fometimes yellowifh, tipt with red, fame-
times black 5 tail rvedged j legs and claws black. Eight
rn1-6! aUrd Ahalf loi!g- Inhablts Senegal, and other
Giitndis of Africa. Refembles the ftarling, in its man-
ners appearing in fmall troops of a dozen or more.
Alights on the backs of oxen, antelopes, and other qua-
dupeds, and by preffing the elevated part of the animal’s
hide, which contains the larva of the oeftrus, forces it out
and regaies on it. Is alfo faid to feed on -various kinds
o imedfs. It lias a lharp kind of cry, in no refpedf ap¬
proaching to a long.
Gen. 11. Crotophaga, ^7/.
Eill compreffed, femi-oval, arched, carinated on the
back ; upper mandible angular at each edge ; noftrils
pervious, or going from one fide of the°bill to the
other.
16s
Glaugo-
pis.
Lefler am Black!(h-violet 5 feet fcanforial. Body
black 5 tail long, and wedged; upper mandible incurved
at the tip 5 noftnls oval; tongue fieihy, and entire : legs
b ack. Length thirteen inches and a half 5 fize of a
blackbird ; and fometimes known by the names of the
rat&or-billed blackbird, or great blackbird. Inhabits
. rAl?erica and feveral of the Weft India ifiands
1 his ipecies is gregarious to fuch a degree, that many
females lay their eggs in the fame neft, to make which
they all unite m concert, and after depofiting their eggs
fit on them clofe to each other, in order to hatch them’
each ftrmng to do the moft for the general good!
\\ hen the young are hatched, the parents exert them-
felves to feed the whole flock. It is ftill more remark¬
able, that as foon as the female has Lid her ep-gs the
covers them with leaves, and repeats this operation as
often as ftie is obliged to leave the neft for food. It
generally breeds twice a year j and the eggs are about
the fize of thofe of a pigeon, of a fea-green colour, and
fpotted at the ends. The leffer ani feeds on worms, in¬
jects, Fruits, and grain, according to the feafon. The
ether fpecies refemble this in appearance and manners,
but vary iomewhat in fize and colouring.
Gen. 12. Musophaga, Plantain-eater.
^5
Musopha-
GA.
166 Bill ftrong, triangular, the upper mandible at the bafe
Characters. elevated above the crown, both manibles dentated on
edges ; noftrils in the middle of the bill 5 tongue en
tne and ftout j toes placed three before and one be¬
hind.
VI o lace a. Vto!et plantain-eater.—Bill one inch and a half- the
upper mandible nearly triangular, lofing its attachment
at the back part, and hanging over the crown ; colour
of the bill yellow, and reddifti towards the end ; irides
brown j top of the head purple ; neck, breaft body
and wings violet ; legs dufky-black, and very ftrong!
I his beautiful and rare bird is found on plains near the
borders of rivers, in the province of Acra, in Guinea
and is faid to live principally on the fruit of the plantain!
It- total length is nineteen inches, of nine], the tail is IW
inches and one third. It is deferibed and figured '—P-
in Latham s fecond Supplement.
Gen. 13. Glaucopis, Wattle-bird.
Bill incurvated, arched, the lower mandible ihortell
mf, a,5aruncle,below at the bafe ; noftrils depreffed’chafS,-
and half covered with a membrane nearly carfilanin’
OUS, cut at the point, and fringed ; feet greiforial.
Cinereous wattle-bird.—Body, bill, and lews black ■ ^ I7®
W tafn blUe> tn ^
, g ’ tai1 l(fS and wedged ; legs long: hind claws
longer than the reft. Fifeen inches long ; about the
fize of a jay. Inhabits New Zealand, wlfere it is often
feen walking on the ground, and fometii^s, though
igoie rarely, perching on trees. It feeds on various
kinds of berries and infeds, and even, according to
mme, on fmall birds. Its note approaches to whiftfing
air ometimes to a fort of murmuring that is not un’
pleafent. ,ts fleflt is eatable, and bf feme iiWed'
Gen. 14. Corvus, Crow.
Crow.
Bill ftrong, upper mandible a little convex, edges cul-rr UX
rated, and m moft fpecies, flightly notched nfar the ""
tip ; noftnls covered with briftles refleaed over them •
tongue divided at the end ; toes, three forward che
backward^ tne middle one joined to the outer as far as
the firft joint.
1 The greater number of this tribe are found in every
enmate. They are _ prolific, focial, and clamorous3!
building on trees; laying fix eggs; and living on grain’
eco,, unects, Uc. borne of them are apparentlyliurt-
ful to agriculture; but their ufe in diminiftdng noxious
occnfio:™016 11311 Counterbaiances the wafte which they
Raven,—Black ; back of a blueifh black ; tail near I?3
ly rounded. Two feet two inches long. Varies with a
CW. bcatte^e.d wlllte feathers, or is black and white or
entirely wlute. A well-knowm bird, and native of Em
rope, Afia, and America. Is hardy, cunning, voraci-
ous, and yet patient of hunger. Preys on young ducks
and chickens and even deftroys young lambs and fick-
ly Fheep, by firft picking out their eyes. Smells carrion
at a great diftance; gluts itfelf when an opportunity
ofters retires to digeft, and returns again to feed
I hough eafily domefticated, and taught to fpeak, it has
a miichievous trick of purloining any thing glitterino-
and concealing it. “ We have been allured, g(favs Mr
Montagu) by a gentleman of veracity, that his butler
haying miffed a great many filver fnoons and other ar¬
ticles, without being able to deteft the thief for fome
time, at laft ooferved a tame raven with one in his
mouth, and watched him to his hiding-place, where he
found more than a dozen.” The raven ufually makes
choice of the forks of the largeft trees to build in ; but
many of them hkewife breed on rocky coafts, and neftle
m die moft macceflible parts of them. At this time
they are very bold, and will not allow even the falcon
to approach their neft with impunity. The male
and Female pair for life, and drive their young from
their haunt, as foon as they are able to provide for
themfeh es. 1 he female lays five or fix eggs, 0f a blue-
ifh-green
O R N I T H
_ ifii-green colour, blotched and fpotted with brown and
aili-colour, and fomewhat larger than thofe of a crow.
Carrion crow.—Elueifh-black j tail rounded j tail
feathers acute. Varied with fpottings of white, or en¬
tirely white ; bill black, irides dulky, legs black. Di-
Ifingukhed irom the rook by the bill, which is rather
more convex towards the end, and by the reflected
brirties at the bafe being always perfect. Thefe marks
however, are obvious only in adults, and in young birds’
the note is the only criterion, which in this is much
more hoarfe than that of the rock. This fpecies weighs
about nineteen ounces, and is eighteen inches lon<r.
It aCCus on tlefh, inletls, and grain, but is particularly
fond of carrion. It frequently attacks the eyes of dy¬
ing animals, deftroys weakly lambs, and when preffcd
with hunger, will even purfue birds on wing. It like-
wife makes havock among young game and poultry. It
will frequently hide its food till hunger hecomes'more
urgent. With the leiTer fpecies of hawks it wages con-
ftant war; nor will it buffer the kite, the buzzard, or
the raven, to approach its neft with impunity. Carrion
crows keep in pairs all the year, and feldom congregate
but to regale on fame carcafe, or to roolt in winter.
They build in woods, on the branches of trees, making
a neft of flicks, plaftered ivith earth, and lined with
feme loft materials, as wool and hair. The eggs are
four or five in number, of a greenilh colour, fpotted with
dulky and alii.
rr. Rook—Black ; fore-part of the head cinereous 5 tail
fomewhat rounded. Very like the preceding ; but dif¬
fers in its maimers, being content with feeding on the
infedf tribe and grain. It is particularly fond of what
is commonly called the grub-worm, which is the larva
ol the chaffer. The rook is gregarious at all feafons,
reforting every fpring to breed on the lame trees, where
their hefts may be feen crowded one over another, on
the upper branches. It lays four or five eggs, much
like thofe of the crow. After their young have taken
wing, they all forfake their neft-trees, but return to them
again in October, to rooft. On the approach of winter,
they ufually leek feme more Iheltered fituation at night’
but generally affemble firft in the ufual place, and then
fly off together. Rookeries are fometimes the feene of
violent contefts between the old and new inhabitants.
An unfortunate couple of ftrangers will fometimes have
tneir half-built nefts torn in pieces, and be compelled
to begin their work anew in fome more undifturbed fitu¬
ation. “.Of this (fays Mr Bewick) we had a re¬
markable inllance in Newcaftle. In the year 1783, a
pair of rooks, after an unfuccefsful attempt to eftabl’ilh
themfelves in a rookery at no great diftance from the
exchange, were compelled to abandon the attempt.
They took refuge on the fpire of that building, and al¬
though conftantly interrupted by other rooks, built their
neft on the top of the vane, and brought forth their
young, undifturbed by the noife of the populace below
them 5 the neft and its inhabitants turning about with
every change of the wind. They returned and built
their neft every year on the fame place till 1703, foon
after which the fpire was taken down.” In England,
rooks remain during the.whole year; but both in’
I ranee and Silelia, they migrate. It is a lingular cir-
cumftance, that the iiland of Jerley Ihould be entirely
without rooks; particularly when we know that they
frequently fly over from Britain to France. The young
O L O G Y.
birds, when Ikinned, and made into pyes, are much, in
requeft at iome tables, but are neverthelefs coarfe eat-
inS- ) 1*6
Hooded crow, or roy don crow.—Alh-coloured; head, Cornu.
tin oat, wings, and tail black. Length twenty-cne
inches. ^ lilts tne louth of England in October, and
retires north to breed, in the beginning of April. In
the Hebrides, and fome parts of Scotland and Ireland, it
is. refident throughout the year. In open champamn
diftriels, it feeds on grain, worms, and carrion; buAt
often retorts to the neighbourhood of the fea coaft
where the various animal matters thrown up by the tide
afford a conftant liipply ol food. It not only picks out
the eyes of lambs and difeafed flieep, but of horfes,
when entangled in bogs. The neft and eggs are fimilar
to thofe of the common crow. It is not uncommon in
many parts of Europe and Siberia.
Jackdaw.—Brownilh black ; hind part of the head Monedula,
hoary ; front, wings, and tail, black. Its Varieties are,
a.white collar round the neck ; white, with a yellowiih
bill; bright black, and eyes furrounded with white
dots ; black, with bill and legs red ; wings white, bill
fomewhat curved ; brownilh, with while Ihoulders, &c.
Weighs about nine ounces; length near thirteen inches. ,
This. very common bird frequents old towers, ruined
buildings, and high cliffs, where it builds, as well as in
holes ct trees. The neft is made of rticks, and lined
with wool and other foft materials ; the eggs are five or
fix, and blueifh, fpetted with black. The jackdaw is
gregarious, frequently flocks with rooks, and like the
latter, feeds on grain and infeeds, is fond of cherries, and
will devour carrion in fevere weather. It is frequentlv
feen to perch on the back of ftieep, not only to rob that
animal of its wool as a lining to its neft, but alfo to
pick out the ticks with which it is infefted. Though
eafily made tame, and taught to fpeak, it is milchievous,
and full of tricks. l ^ ^
Joy.'—Wing-coverts blue, with white and black tranf- Glandarius.
verfe lines; body variegated with purple and gray. This
beautiful bird is very common in Great Britain, and in
various parts cf Europe and Siberia ; frequenting wood¬
ed tracls, but not in flocks. It weighs feven ounces,'
and meafures nearly thirteen inches in length. The
neft, which is commonly built in high coppice wood, or
hedges, and fometimes againft the fide of a ferubby tree,
is formed of flicks, lined with fibrous roots, and contains
five or fix eggs, of a light brown colour, not very un¬
like thofe of the partridge, but fmaller, and obfeurely
marked with a darker fhade of brown. The j&y is a
great devourer. of fruit and grain, particularly acorns,
peas, and cherries ; will frequently plunder the nefts of
fmaller birds of their eggs and young, and fometimes
pounce on the old birds, on which it preys, as well as on
mice.. Its common notes are various, but harfti, and
manifeft a .Angular propenfity to imitation and mimicry,
counterfeiting the bleating of a lamb, themewing of a
cat, the cry of a kite or buzzard, the hooting of an owl,
the. neighing of a horfe, &c. It has even been known
to imitate very exaftly the found made by the adion of
a faw.
r79
Blue jay.—Blue ; collar black ; wing-coverts with Crijlatu:.
tranfverfe. black lines; creft blue ; cheeks, chin, and
belly, white; breaft pale red ; back pale purple; tail
long, wedged, with black and blue lines, and dpt
nfth white ; legs black. Eleven inches long ; inhabits
North
173
i8o
Caryocit*
■tables.
1S1
Pica.
iSi
JMkxicanits.
183
Pyrrho-
torax.
184
Graculus.
ORNITHOLOGY.
North America j is gregarious j builds in marfhy
places j has a pleafant note; feeds on worms, ferpents,
chefnuts, &c. and is particularly deflruftive to the maize
fields.
Nut-cracker.—Brown, dotted with white 5 wings and
tail black; tail feathers black at the tip, the middle ones
as if worn. Body with triangular white fpots j vent
white ; crown and tail-feathers without fpots j feathers
of the noftrils fometimes wanting j tongue bicufpidate.
Length thirteen inches; fize of a magpie. Inhabits
Europe and Siberia, but is very rare in England. Its
favourite food feems to be the kernels of nuts, which it
hacks or fplits with its bill.
Magpie.—Variegated black and white ; tail wedged.
Subjeft to confiderable varieties. About eighteen inches
.'long, and wreighs between eight and nine ounces. Too
well known to require particular defcription, being a
common inhabitant of many parts of Europe, Afia, and
America. Generally continues in pairs through the
year ; is mifchievous and clamorous, and has a very in-
difcriminate appetite, rejeAing hardly any fpecies of ani¬
mal food, or fruits, and deVouring grain, when nothing
elfe can be got. Is crafty and familiar 5 may be taught
to pronounce words, and even fhort fentences, and will
imitate any particular noife which it hears. Like other
birds of its kind, is addidled to pilfering, and will hoard
its provifions. The female builds her nefl with great
art, leaving a hole in the fide for her admittance, and
covering all the upper part with thorny branches, clofe-
ly entangled, fo as to fecure her retreat from tLe rude
attacks of other birds. The infide is furnifhed with a
fort of mattrefs, compofed of wool, and other foft mate¬
rials. She lays feven or eight eggs, of a pale green
colour, fpotted with black. During winter nights,
magpies aflemble in great numbers in fome coppice or
thicket, to rooft, but feparate again in the day.
Mexican crow.—Entirely bluifh black. Bill, legs,
and clawrs black. Size of the jackdaw. Inhabits New
Spain, frequenting the neighbourhood of towns, and
perpetually chattering writh a ftrong and founding voice.
A/pine crow.—Blackilh 5 bill pale yellow, legs black.
Size of the jackdaw; length fifteen inches. Inhabits
the Alps and Pyrenees has a fharp, difagreeable voice 5
lives on feeds and grain, and is injurious to corn fields.
Its flefh is reckoned good eating.
Red-legged crow or Cornijh chough.—Violet blackilh j
bill and legs red. Weighs about fourteen ounces}
length nearly feventeen inches. Inhabits the Alps,
Norway, England, Egypt, and Perfia. In this ifland,
it feems to be chiefly confined to Devonlhire, Cornwall,
and Wales. Mr Pennant obferves, that it is alfo found
in fome parts of Scotland and the Hebrides. It is fel-
dom feen at any great diftance from the fea coaft, where
it breeds in the rogks and caverns, and not unfrequently
in ruined towers. The nefl: is compofed of flicks, and
lined with a great quantity of wool and hair. The
eggs are generally five, of a dull white, fprinkled with
light-brown and alh-coloured fpots, moftly at the larger
end. The note of the Cornilh chough is fomewhat like
that of the jackdaw, but more Ihrill. Its food is grain
and infefts, though, in a ftate of confinement, it will
greedily feed on flelh. It is eafily tamed, but crafty,
and will hide not only part of its food, but things of
value. It is even alledged, that houfes have been fet on
fire by its carrying off lighted flicks in its bilk
4
Gen. 15. Coracias, Roller.
Pi car.
185
Bill lharp-edged, bent in at the point, bafe naked ofcoRAciAs.
feathers; tongue cartilaginous, and bifid ; legs fhort ; 1S6 .
feet greflbrial; toes three before, and one behind, Characters,
divided to their origin.
This genus is not confined to any particular region of
the globe, as one or other of the different fpecies may
be met with in each of the four quarters of the w orld. rSy
Common or garrulous roller.—Blue ; back red ; flag- Garrula,
feathers black.—The only fpecies that has ever been met
with in England, and that very rarely. Length twelve
inches and a half; fize of a jay. Vies with fome of the
parrots, in its fhades of blue and green, mixed with,
white, heightened by the contrail of graver colours. It
is wilder than the jay ; frequents the thickefi woods,
and builds its neft chiefly On birch trees. It is plenti¬
ful in Germany, Sicily, and Malta, where they are fold
in the markets and poulterers fhops. It feeds on frogs,
beetles, acorns, grain, and fruit, and in cafes of neceffity,
will even eat carrion. It is remarkable for making a
chattering kind of noife. Its flefh taftes like that of a
turtle. iss
Long-tailed roller.—Bill blackifh, one inch and a half Caudata.
long ; hind parts of the head green ; upper parts of the „ il)ate
back and fcapulars fulvous glofl’ed with green; lower CC.CXCIV'.
part of the back, rump, and wing coverts, fine blue ;
upper tail coverts blue green; two middle feathers of
the tail deep green, reft blue green ; outer ones on each
fide twice the length of the others, and the projefting
part deep blue; the fhafts of all black ; legs gray ;
clarvs blackifh. Inhabits Angola.
Docile or tame roller.—White, interfperfed with red- Dociiis.
difh, bay beneath ; legs yellow ; tail feathers black, tipt
with white ; bill yellow ; claw7s flefh-colour. Size of
a jackdaw. Inhabits Perfia; and has obtained its
name from imitating the words and afflions of thofe a-
round it. r^0
Noify roller.—Black ; patch on the wings ; vent, Strepera.
bafe,. and tip of the tail white. This fpecies is very
numerous at Norfolk ifland; and is very clamorous,
efpecially at night. It is a very foolifh bird ; running
after any perfon, and allowing itfelf to be knocked
down with a flick. It is about nineteen inches long,
and rather bigger than a jackdaw.
Gen. 16. Oriolus, Oriole.
Bill conical, convex, very acute and ftraight ; upper
manible fomewhat longer than the under, and flight-
ly emarginated; tongue bifid and acute ; feet greflb-
rial.
rpx
Oriolus.
192
Charadeps,
The birds of this genus are gregarious, noify, numer¬
ous, voracious, and great devourers of corn. They
chiefly inhabit America, and often build pendulous nefts.
The only European fpecies, which alfo inhabits Afia
and Africa, is the
Golden oriole, or golden thrufh.—Pale yellow; lores Galbula.
and limbs black ; outer tail feathers yellow on the hind
part; bill and irides yellow; legs plumbeous. Nine inches
and a half long. Inhabits Europe, Afia, and Africa; and
is incident to feveral varieties. It is by no means un¬
common in France, where it fummers and breeds. Its
nefl is in the fliape of a purfe, faflened to the extreme
divarications
Piese.
194
Ficus.
*95
Ifterus.
196
Fhcenic ecus
197
America.
nus.
198
Perficus.
199
Baltimorus,
0 R N I T H
divarications of the outmcft twigs of tall trees, and com-
pofed of fibres of hemp, or draw, mixed with fine dry
{talks of grafs, and lined within with mofs and lichens.
The female lays four or five eggs of a dirty rvhite,
marked with fmall brown fpots. She fits three weeks,
and will not unfrequently fiiffer herfelf to be taken with
the eggs and neft, and continue to fit on them in a cage,
till {he dies. The golden oriole is partial to grapes,
figs, cherries, berries, and infefts. It has a loud cry.
Its fiefii is reckoned good eating.
Climbing oriole.— I awny j head, neck, and bread
fpotted with white 5 tail rounded ; bill yellowiih gray ;
legs blackilh. Seven inches long. Inhabits Guiana,
among trees, which it climbs like a pic, and picks out
infexds from under the bark.
Icteric oriole.—Tawny j head, throat, back, quill and
tail feathers, black} wings with a white fpot} bill moit-
ly black, with a brown bafe; irides yellowidi j legs
fometimes black and fometimes lead coloured, or gray
white. Nine inches and a half long. Inhabits the
warmer parts of America and the Carnbee iflands.
Domedicated for the purpofe of killing infeeds. In its
wild date it is very agile and bold. It builds a large
cylindrical ned, fulpended to the end of a twig of a tree,
with a view to defend its young from the attacks of
fnakes and other animals. Of thefe neds feveral may
fometimes be feen near to one another, and not far from
houfes.
Red-winged oriole.—Black j wing coverts tawny. Size
of a darling 5 length frdm eight to nine inches. Occurs
in Mexico, the Carolinas, Virginia, and as far as New
York. Builds a thick penfile ned among reeds, or be¬
tween the forks of trees, three or four feet from the
ground, along with other birds, In the fwamps, which
are feldom accedible by man. In Louidana thefe birds
appear only in winter, and fometimes in fuch immenfe
docks, that three hundred or more are taken at one
draught of the net. 1 hefe nets are ipread on fome bare
fmooth path, at the fide of a wood, with rice drewed to
decoy the birds. JLo fecure the multitudes that are
caught, it is often neceffary to knock mod of them on
the head upon the fpot. Their common name in Ame¬
rica is maize-thief^ which they have acquired from the
circumdance of their peeking a hole in the plant when
green, and fo dedroying it.
Red-breqfted oriole, or mocking-bird of Guiana.—
Black j chin, throat, bread, and upper corner of the
wings red. Seven inches long, leis than a blackbird.
Inhabits Guiana and Cayenne j iings pleafantly, and
imitates the notes of many other biros. I he ned,'which
is built of hay, &c. is long, cylindrical, twelve or
fifteen inches in circumference,, and hangs from the
high branches of the tailed trees.
Black and yellow oriole,— Black \ hind part of the
back, fpot on the wing-coverts and bafe of the tail
feathers, yellow7, There are, however, feveral varieties.
Bigger than a blackbird. Inhabits South America j
forms a pendent ned, draped like an alembic : four
hundred of which may fometimes be feen together, hang¬
ing from the extreme branches of trees. 1 he eggs are
dirty vdiite, with fmall pale brown fpots.
Baltimore oriole, or Baltimore bird.—Blackifh j the
under parts of the body, and the band on the wings
tawny j bill lead colourgreater wing coverts black,
Vol. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y. 489
tipt with white 5 fird quill feathers dirty white, edged 7 ‘^'e' ;
with wdiite j two middle tail feathers black, the red •r~m‘
black on the lower part, and orange above. Thefe
birds are found in many parts of America, the. nbrthern
regions of which they occupy in fummer, advancing
even to Montreal in May, and returning louthward m
winter, which accounts lor their appearance in Mary¬
land and Virginia at that time. They make their ned
of a foft downy matter, in the lliape of a purfe, tying^it
with threads to the extreme forks of the twigs of the
tulip, plane, and hiccory trees. The country people
call them fire-birds ; and indeed when in high plumage,
their motions from branch to branch not unaptly re¬
ferable a flalh of fire. _ | 200
Weaver oriole.—Yellow j head brown, with a fhade Text or. ,
of golden j quill and tail feathers blackiih, edged with
orange. Inhabits near the Senegal •, fize of the golden
oriole. “ In the cage wdiere thefo birds were kept,
(fays Ur Latham), it was obferved, that they entwined
fome of the dalks of the pimpernel., with which they
wrere fed, in the wires j as this feemed to diew a difpo-
fition of making a ned, fome rufh-dalks were put into
the cage 5 on which they prefently made a ned large
enough to hide ©ne of them at lead j but it was as often
deranged as made, tlie work of one day being fpoiled
the next 5 ferving to fhew that the fabrication of the
ned in a date of nature was the work of both male and
female, and in all probability is finithed by the lad.
They had a {harp but lively note. .
“ A friend of mine deferibed a bird to me, which
he faw at the houfe of an acquaintance, winch feemed to
be this very bird. By accident having got a bit of
fewing filk, it wove it among the wires of the cage,
on which, more being put to it, it interlaced the whole
very confufedly, fo as to hinder mod part of that fide
of the cage from being feen through. It was found to
prefer <neen and yellow to any other coloured filk.” 20r
Banana orfo/^—Tawny j head and bread chefnut 5 Banana.
back, quill, and tail feathers, black. Seven inches long.
Inhabits South America and the Wed India i{lands..
Makes a ned of a curious condruftion, compofed ot
fibres and leaves, exactly in the ihape of the fourth part
of a globe, fewed with great art under a leaf of a bana¬
na tree, in fuch a manner that the leal forms one fide ot
the ned. • 7 ^
Hanq-nejt oriole, American hang-nejl, Spamfh night- Nidipen*
ingale, &c.— Frontlet and wreath black •, crown, neck/^"'- ^
back,’and tail, reddifti-brown *, bread and belly tawny
yellow. Inhabits the woods in Jamaica j lings fweetly *
and builds a pendulous ned of dalks or tnready mofe, on
the extreme branch of a high tree.
Gen. 17. Gracula, Grakle. ®°3
' Gracula.
Bill convex, fharp-edged, fomewnat naked at tne bale j 204
tongue entire, fome what fharp, deftly; feet formed Characters.
for walking.
All the fpecies are extra-European ; have a thick bill,
comp reded at the Tides,' with fmall nodrils at the bafe,
nnd {harp-hooked claw7s j the middle toe of the fore-feet ^
connected at the bafe to the outer. 2QI.
Minor, or religions grakle.—Violet black \ fpot on Reiigi0Ja,
the wings white j hind-head with a yellow naked band.
Size of a blackbird j length ten inches and a half. In-
o Q habits
207
Quifcula.
208
Paradi-
SEA.
209
Characters
210
■Ajxida,
habits various parts of the Eaft Indies j is very fond of
cherries and grapes j and cart be eafrly trained to whittle,
ling, or fpeak.
Boat-tailed grakle.—Grayith 5 thoulders blue 5 quill
feathers green on the OUtfide. Size of a cuckoo, nearly
thirteen inches long. The folding up of the tail feathers,
mltead of forming a plain furface at top, finks into a
hollow, like a deep gutter, which Angularity is manifeft
only when the bird is flying, or perched, for when on
the ground,, it always carries its tail expanded. It in¬
habits Jamaica and North America, keeping company
with the ijaaize-thief and red-winged oriole. It feeds
on maize, the fruit of the banana, Sec. as well as on
beetles and other infeefs.
Purple grakle.—Violet black 5 tail rounded. Up¬
wards of thirteen inches long, though the female mea-
fures only eleven and a half. Inhabits Mexico, the
warm parts of America, and Jamaica ; lings fweetly ;
feeds on ail kinds of grain, and makes great havock in
the maize plantations. It lays five or fix blueifii eggs,
with black firipes and fpots.
•Gen. 18. Paradisea, Bird of Paradife.
Bill covered with a belt of downy feathers at the bafe ;
feathers of the fides veiy long; two of the tail
feathers naked. Legs and feet very large arid firong ;
three toes forward, one backward, the middle con-
uedted to the outer one as far as the firlt joint.
The birds of this genus, till lately, were very imper-
fe&ly known, and had given rife to various idle tales,
fiich as their never alighting on the ground from their
birlh to their death,; their living entirely on dew ; their
being produced without legs, &c. The circumltance
w hich led to the lafi-mentioned error, was merely acci¬
dental ; the legs and coarfer parts of the wings having
been pulled oft in the courfe of preparing the birds for
an ornamental article of drefs. Though the birds of
paradife occur in Japan, China, Perfia, and various parts
of India, they are believed to be properly natives of
New Guinea, where they breed. The Dutch get them
chiefly from Banda, where the ftory of their want of
legs has been propagated, in order to enhance their va¬
lue.
Great bird of Paradife.—Feathers of the hypochondria
longer than the body ; the two intermediate tail feathers
longe and fetaceous; the fize of the body fcarcely ex¬
ceeds that of a thrufti, though the plumage would in¬
dicate a bird as large as a pigeon ; the length from the
end of the bill.to that of the tail is twelve inches and a
half; the bill is greenilh yellow, and an inch and a half
long ;. the eyes are very imall; the bead, which is alfo
final 1 in proportion to the bird, as w'ell as the throat and
neck are covered with very fliort, denfe, ftiff feathers,
of which thofe on the head and hind part of the neck
are of a pale gold colour; the bafe of the bill is fur-
rounded with black feathers, appearing like velvet, and
changing in different lights to green ; the fore part of
the neck is golden green ; the lower part of the neck
behind the back,wfings, and tail, are chefnut; the breaft
is.of a deep cbefnut, verging to purple; from under the
wings proceeds a great quantity of feathers, wfith the
webs fo loofe, as to appear like a herring-bone, fome
of them nearly eighteen inches long, fome chefnut and
jturphfh, others yellowrih, and a few almoft white ; ftom
O H N I T H O LOG Y.
the rump anfe two feathers without webs, except for Pic®
four inches next the bafe, and the fame at the tips;  v~—
the legs are flout and of a brown colour. Thefe birds
are found in the Molucca ifiands, and thofe fiirround-
ing New Guinea, particularly in Aroo, where they ar¬
rive with the wefterly or dry monfoon, and whence
they return to New Guinea, when the ealterly or wet
monfoon fets in. They are feen going and returning
in flights of thirty or forty, conducted by a leader)
w'hich flies higher than the reft. During this flight thev
cry. like ftarlings. By a hidden fhifting of the wind,
their long fcapular feathers are fometimes fo difhevelied,
as to preclude flying, when they fall to the ground, or
are loft. in. the water. In the former cafe they cannot
rife again into the air, without gaining an eminence,
and are fecured by the natives, and killed on the fpot)
as they cannot be prelerved alive by art. They are
likewiie caught with bird-lime, or fliot with blunt ar¬
rows, or intoxicated with the berries of menfpermum
cocculus put into the water which they are accuftomed
to drink. Their real iood is not known with certain¬
ty. According to Lome, they feed on the red berries of
the waringa tree (feus benjamin a), according to others,
they are particularly fond of nutmegs; fome aflert that
they live on large butterflies, and others, that they chafe
and devour finall birds. It is only for ornament that
they are coveted by fuch of the inhabitants of the eait
as are able to purchafe them, the chiefs of the country
wearing them conftantly in their turbans. The gran¬
dees of rierfia, Surat, and the Fall Indies, ufe them as
aigrettes, and even adorn their horfts with them. There
is a leffer variety of this fpecies, found in the Papua
lilands.
King's bird of Paradife, or king's W—Chefnut r™
purple, whitifh beneath ; two middle tail-feathers fill- &
form, feathered, and femilunar at the tips; breaft blu-
ifli; cirri of the tail very long; feathers under the
wings longer, than the reft ; tail fliort, truncate; from
five to feven inches long, and about the fize of a lark.
It is find not to afibciate with any other of the birds of
paradife, but drifts folitary from bulb to buffi in queft
of red berries, and never gets on tall trees. It occurs
in the ifiands of the Indian ocean, and returns to New
Guinea in the rainy feafon, but is much more fcarcethan
the preceding.
Magnificent bird of Paradife.—Chefnut brown above; M “L,
chin green, with golden lunules; crown with a tuft of J
yellow feathers; firft quill-feathers brown, fecondary
deep yellow ; middle tail-feathers very long, with a very
Ihort fringe; legs and bill yellow, and the latter black
at the tip and bafe. A Angular and beautifiil fpecies
figured in Latham’s Synopfis.
Gorget, bird of Prz/WyL—Black, flight green be- v-
neath ; hind head, nape, crown, and band on the mid-"
die of the belly fine green, a fplendid gold-coloured
crefeent under the chin; tail feathers 12, unequal, the
outer ones five inches long, and the two in the middle
22. Twenty-eight inches long. Figured in Latham’s
Synopfis.
Superb bird of Paradife. Crefted ; head, crown, and sJerb*,
belly green ; chin violet, filky ; wings black ; tail with
a fhade of green; bill black; legs brown, under the
wmgs a tuft of loofe, black, filky feathers, as long as
the wings when folded. Eight inches and eight lines
long. Native of the northern parts of New Guinea.
White-
ORNITHOLOGY.
4£>i
Pic*. While bird of Taradife.—Entirely white. Inhabits
the Papuan i Hands, and is very rare.
215
Albc^l6 Gen. 19. Trogon, Curucui. -
Trooon. (Sorter than the head, fharp-edged, hooked •, man-
Charadters. Hibles ferrated at the edge j feet fcanforial 5 body
long } noftrils covered with britUes j feet (hort, wool¬
ly j tail very long, confuting of 12 feathers.
The birds of this genus are all inhabitants of the tro¬
pical regions, and moftly inhabit South America. I hey
live folitary, in the thickeft receffes of moifl woods, fit¬
ting and building on the lower branches of trees. I hey
take but a fhort flight, and feed on infedts and fruit. As
they differ much in appearance, in different ftages of
life, a confiderable degree of confufion has prevailed in
the illuftration of the fpecies. They have the name of
2lg cuntcui from their note.
Curucui. Red-bellied curucui.—Of a greenlfh-gold colour, taw¬
ny beneath ; throat black ; lateral tail feathers, with
white and black bars, the middle ones tipt with black.
Somewhat lefs than a magpie \ length 10 inches and a
half. Inhabits Mexico, Brazil, and Peru. There are
two or three varieties. At pairing time, only two or
three are found together ; and the male has a kind of
melancholy note, by which their haunts are difeovered.
They begin to pair in April, and build in the hole of a
rotten tree, laying three or four white eggs, about as
big as thofe of a pigeon, on the bare rotten duff. Dur¬
ing the incubation of the female, the male takes care to
provide food for her, and to beguile the time by his
long. The parents feed the young with fmall worms,
caterpillars, and infefts ^ and, when their nurflings are
able to fhift for themfelves, they forfake them, and re¬
turn to their folitary haunts, till nature prompts them
to produce their fecond brood in Auguft or September.
Various attempts have been made, but without effeft,
to domefticate this fpecies, as it obilinately refufes food,
when in confinement.
219
Eucco.
220
Characters.
Gen. 20. Buc.co, Barbel.
Bill cultrated, compreffed laterally 5 apex emarginated
on both fides, and incurved, gape reaching below the
eyes •, noftrils covered with recumbent feathers ; feet
fcanforial •, bill ftrong, fomewhat ftraight, almoft co¬
vered with briftles; tail feathers ufually ten.
The birds of this genus are all inhabitants of Africa,
and the warmer parts of Afia and America, and are a
dull and ftupid race.
Tumatia Spotted-bellied barbel.—Tawny brown, tawny .white,
fpotted with black beneath ; chin tawny ; neck with a
tawny lunule varied with black, a black fpot behind the
eyes ; head very large} bill black j crown and front
tawnyifh •, legs black. This bird occurs both at Cayenne
andBrazil. Itisclumfy, folitary,filent,andpenfive,affedl-
ing only fuch places as are fartheft from habitations, ge¬
nerally in the woods, where it choofes fome low branch,
well covered with twigs and foliage, on which it perch¬
es, with its large head refting between its fhoukieTs for
a long time together, allowing itfelf to be fhot at feve-
ral times before it makes its elcape. It feeds on infe£ls,
particularly large beetles.
Elegant. Beautiful barbel.—Green ; head and chin red, edged
with blue) quill feathers brown, throat and breaft yel¬
low, the latter fpotted with red ) belly yellow, fpotted i
with green j bill, legs, and claws cinereous, the latter ' *
tipt with yellow *, a blue ftreak on each fide of the
mouth; tail wedged ) quill feathers edged with green.
Size of a fparrow, nearly fix inches long. Inhabits the
country of Mayuas, on the borders of the Amazons,
and is the moft beautiful and active of the tribe.
223
Gen. 21. CucULUS, Cuckoo. Cuculus.
Bill fmooth, weak, a little curved ) noftrils bounded by charadters.
a fmall rim j tongue arrowed, Ihort, and pointed j
feet fcanforial.
Of upwards of 50 fpecies belonging to this genus,
the firft mentioned only is a native of Great Britain j
and very few of the others are natives »f Europe. ^ 22_
Common cuckoo.—Cinereous, whitiih beneath, tranf- Ccmorm.
verfely ftreaked with brown) tail rounded, blackifti,
dotted with white ) edges of the eyelids, opening of the
mouth and palate faffron ) when young, the whole body
is brownilh, the feathers edged wfith white ) the upper
part of the body is fometimes varied with reddifh. It
like wife occurs with wavings of gray ) a double row of
white dots on the middle tail feathers, and the bill, or¬
bits, and legs of a fulphur colour. Size of the turtle
dove 14 inches long, and weighs about four ounces and
a half. The female is rather lefs, and, in general, dif¬
fers from the other fex, in the neck and breaft, being of
a tawnyiih brown, barred with dufky, and the wTing-
coverts’marked with light ferruginous fpots. Inhabits
Europe, Afia, and Africa.—This well-known bird
comes to us early in the fpring, and almoft invariably
leaves us by the firft of July, though the females may
fometimes remain a little later, till they have depofited
all their eggs. Such as are feen about the latter end of
September or beginning of October, are the young of
that year, or ftragglers which have been w’ounded.
T he lingular note of the male has given rife to the name
of this bird, in moft languages •, the female is either fi¬
lent, or makes only a chattering noife. Cuckoos build
no neft, and wdiat is more extraordinary, the female de-
polits her folitary egg in the neft of another bird, by
which it is hatched. The neft which fhe felefls for this
purpofe is ulually that of the hedge fparrow, though
fometimes alfo that of the water-wagtail, tit-lark, yel¬
low hammer, green linnet, &c. Dr Jenner, in his va¬
luable communication to the Royal Society, publiftied
in the fecond part of the ySth volume of their Tran fic¬
tions, obferves, that wdiile the hedge fparrow7 is laying
her eggs, which generally takes up four or five dayrs,
the cuckoo contrives to depofit her egg among the reft,
leaving the future care of it entirely to the^ hedge fpar¬
row7. This intrufion often occafions fome aiicompofure,
for the old hedge fparrow7 at intervals, while fhe is fit¬
ting, not only throws out fome of her own eggs, but
fometimes injures them in fuch a wray, that they become
addle j fo that it frequently happens that not more than
two or three of the parent bird’s eggs are hatched wfith
that of the cuckoo: and, what is very remarkable, it
has never been obferved, that the hedge fparrow7 has ei¬
ther thrown out or injured the egg 01 the cuckoo. \\ hen
the hedge Iparrow7 has fat her ufual time, and has difen-
gaged the young cuckoo and fome of her own offspring
from the fliell, her own yToung ones, and any of her
eggs that remain unhatched, are foon turned out 5 the
3 0,2 y°un£
O R N I T H O L O G Y.
ricte.
)
226
Vetulu.
young cuckoo then remains in full ['ofTefUon of the nett,
and is the foie object of the future care of its foller-pa-
rent. “ The mode of accompli tiling this, (fays the in¬
genious and interefting inquirer, in reporting his obfer-
vations on a particular cafe), was curious \ the little ani¬
mal, with the affiitance of its rulnp and wings, contrived
to get the bird upon its back, and making a lodgement
for its burden, by elevating its elboivs, clambered back¬
wards with it up the fide of th* nett till it reached the
lop, where, reftiug for a moment, it threw off its load
with a jerk, and quite disengaged it from the neff.
After remaining a fhort time in this fituation, and feel¬
ing about with the extremities of its wings, as if to be
convinced th^t the bufinels was properly executed, it
dropped into the nefi: again.” Dr Tenner made feveral
experiments in different neffs, by repeatedly putting in
an egg to the young cuckoo, which he always found to
be difpofed of in the fame manner. But we are reluct¬
antly compelled to withhold various other interefting
details relative to this fubject, and to refer c,v:- readers
to the original communication. The young birds are
cbferved to be helplefs and foolifh for a great length of
time, but are capable of being tamed, and, when in
confinement, will eat bread and milk, fruits, infers,
eggs, and fiefh, either cooked or raw •, but, in a ftate
of nature, they live chiefly on caterpillars and inftCh.
Long-billed rain cuckoo.—Tail wedged; body brewn-
ifh, tellaceous beneath j eyelids red. Rather bigger
th an a blackbird. Inhabits wToods and fnrubberies in
227
Phnialis.
228
JRidibun-
dus.
229
I'lelanoleu-
cos.
Plate
eccxciv.
Tig. 4.
230
Pifqjius.
231
Ir.dnator.
Jamaica, is eafily tamed, Hies fhort, fings before rain,
and feeds on grains, infeCls, worms, fmall ferpents, frogs,
lizaids, and fmall birds.
Rain cuckoo.—Olive afh, rufous beneath ; chin and
throat white j outer tail featlws edged with white.
From 16 to 17 inches long, like the preceding. Inha¬
bits Jamaica, and fings before rain. Both fpecies are
familiarly known by the names of old man, and rain
bird.
Laughing cuckoo.—Tawny ; chin, throat, and bread
cinereous ; belly, thighs, and lovrer tail coverts black ;
bill bluifh black ; irides white ; tail half as long as the
body. Sixteen inches long. Inhabits New Spain; has
a voice like a man laughing, on wdiich account it is
dreaded by the Indians as ominous.
Coromandel crejied cuckoo.— Upper parts of the body
black 5 under pait white j a white fpot on the edge of
the wing 5 tail wedge-fhaped and tipped with white 5
headcreftedj bill black; l«gs brown. Length eleven
inches. Inhabits the coaft of Coromandel.
Pi/an cuckoo*—Tail wedged; body above varied with
white and black, white beneath ; head black and creft-
ed; chin ".d bread rufous. Rather larger than the
common fpecies, and has its name from having been
once caught in Pifa.
Bae cuckoo, honey-guide, moroc, &c.—Rudy gray,
white beneath ; eyelids naked, black; fhoulders with a
yellow fpot; tail wedged, rudy ; bill browm at the bafe,
and furrounded with bridles, yellow at the tip ; feathers
of the thighs white, with a longitudinal black dreak ;
quill feathers brown above, gray brown beneath ; fird
tail feathers very narrow, rudy ; the next footy, the in¬
ner edge whitifti; the red brown at the tip on the inner
web. Somewhat larger than the common fparrew.
Native of the interior parts of Africa. 1'his bird is
Wy fond of honey and bee maggots ; but being unable,
by its own efforts, to procure them from the hollow of Pka?.
trees, it points out to man and to the animal called ra-  v—
tel, the neds of wild bees. The morning and the even¬
ing are its principal meal times ; at lead it is then that it
fliews the greated inclination to come forth, and with a
grating cry of cherr, chsrr, cherr, to excite the atten¬
tion of the ratel, as well as of the Hottentots and colo-
nids. Somebody then generally repairs to the place
whence the found proceeds, when the bird, continually
repeating its cry, flies on flowly and by degrees to the
quarter where the bees have taken up their abode. The
perlons thus invited, follow accordinglv, taking great
care, at the fame time, not to frighten their guide by
any unufual noife ; but rather to anfwcr it now and then
with a very foft and gentle whiffle, by way of letting
the bird know, that its call is attended to. When the
bee’s ned is at fome didance, the bird often makes long
dages, or flights, waiting for its {porting companions
between each flight, and calling to them again to come
on ; but it flies to fhorter alliances, and repeats its cry
more frequently, and with greater earnednefs, in pro¬
portion as they approach nearer the ned. When the
bird has fometimes, in confequence of its impatience,
got too far a-head of its companions, but particularly
when, on account of the unevennefs of the ground, they
have not been able to keep pace with it, it will fly
back to meet them, and, with redoubled cries, denoting
flill greater impatience, upbraid them, as it were, for
bring ib tardy. When it arrives at the ned, whether
the latter is built in the cleft of a rock, or in a hollow
tree, or in feme cavity of the earth, it hovers over the
fpot for a few feconds, then fits in filence, and for the
mod part concealed, in fome neighbouring tree or bufh,
in expeefation of the refult, and with a view of receiv¬
ing its fhare of the booty. Nor is it difappointed ; the
hunters, by way of acknowledgement, leaving it a con-
fiderable. portion of that part of the corpb in which the
bees are hatching. Mr Barrow corroborates thefe de¬
tails, and adds, that the moroc intimates to the inhabi¬
tants with equal certainty the dens of lions, tigers, hy-
cenas, and other beads of prey, and noxious animals.
Le Vaillant mentions that the Hottentots are very par¬
tial to this bird on account of its fervlces, and that once
■when he was on the point of fl.ooting one, they intreat-
ed. him to fpare its life. Mr Bruce, by confounding
this fpecies with another .peculiar to Abyffinia, has in¬
dulged in fame very mifplaced llrklures on the accounts
of Sp arrman and Lobo.
Gen. 22. Yunx.
232
Y unx.
Bill Fmoothifh, cylindrical, pointed, a little curved, 233
weak ; noftrils concave, naked ; tongue very long, 053
fmooth, worm-fhaped, armed at the point; tall fea¬
thers 10, flexible; feet fcanforlal.
This genus confifts of only one fpecies, and has, by
moft authors, been held diftinft ; for, though allied to
fome other genera, it perfectly coincides with none.
The tongue and difpofition of the toes ccrrefpond to
thofe of the woodpecker ; but the weaknefs of the bill
diftinguifhes it from that family. It feeir.s alfo to be
nearly related to the cuckoo, did not its length of
tongue form a marked diftin&ion.
Wryneck.—Gray, varied with brown, and blackifh ; To/gutlf.
belly redjjilh, with blackifh fpots; tail feathers waved
whip-
ORNITHOLOGY.
493
pira*. with black fpcts, ft leaks, and bars. Dcfcription, how-
ever, is very inadequate to convey an accurate idea, oi
the elegant markings of this little bird. Its name feems
to have been given it from the lingular manner ox turn¬
ing its head over its fhoulder and perpetually looking
about, when the black lift on the back of the neck gives
it a twilled appearance. The weight cl this beautiful
bird is about ten drams, and its length feven inches. It
inhabits Europe, Alia, and Africa, appearing in yhi-
tain about the lame time with the cuckoo, and chmliy
frequenting woods, or thickly inclofed countries, where
tvees or orchards abound. Its food principally conftfts
of ants and other infefts, of which it ^finds great abun¬
dance lodged in the bark and crevices of trees, and
which it fecures by a horny fubftance at the end ol its
long tongue. It likewife frequents ant hills, into which
it darts its tongue, and draws out its prey. It is never
feen with any other lociety than that of its female, _and,
as foon as the domeftic union is diffolved, w uch is Li
September, they retire and migrate by themfelves. It
makes an artlefs neft of dry grais, on dully rotten wood,
in holes of trees, and lays nine or ten eggs,, which are
white and tranfparent. If furprifed in its neft, it
ftretches itfelf at full length •, and erecting the feathers
on the crown of its head, fuddenly rites, making, at^the
fame time, a ftiort hiding noife, like , that of a turkey
cock. In the beginning of fpring, it very frequently
repeats a noife like that of the fmaller fpecies of hawks.
„ 2-15 Gen. 29. Picus, Woodpecker.
Picus. 0
Bill angular, ftraight, wedged at the tip ; noftrils co-
Characters. vere(j wItq recumbent fetaceous feathers-, tongue
round, worm-fhaped, very long, bony, miffile, dag¬
gered, befet at the point with reflexed briftles.; tail
feathers ten, hard, rigid, pointed feet fcanforial.
237
Martins.
238
Erythroce-
phalus.
The birds of this genus climb trees, particularly thofe
that are decaying or dead, in fearch of in fells and their
larvte. The bone of their tongue terminates in two
long flender cartilages, which proceed from below up-
v/ards, and from behind forwards, over the whole Ikull,
under the (kin, and are attached to the forehead near
the bafe of the bill. By means of tbofe elaftic cartila¬
ges, the woodpeckers thruft out their filiform tongue to
catch infells. The feet are formed for climbing, their
tail is fitted for refiftance and fupport, and their ftiarp-
pointed and barbed tongue enables them to extract in¬
felts from their lurking places in trees. They are there¬
fore unjuftly perfecuted and driven from plantations.
They make their nefts in hollows of trees. I'hey have
a membranous ftomach and want the caecum.
Great black ivoodpecker.—Black, cap vermilion. In
the female the hind head only is red 5 length 17 inches
and a half. Size of a jackdaw ; bill nearly two inches
and a half long, of a dark aflx. colour, and whitifh on the
fides 5 irides pale yellow. Has all the habits of the
green woodpecker, and is a great deftroyer of bees.
Makes its neft deep in iome tree, which it has excavat¬
ed for the purpofe, and lays two or three white eggs} a
circumftance which teems peculiar to moft of the genus.
Occurs in Europe, Siberia, and Chili j but rarely vifits
England.
Red-headed woodpecker.—Head wholly red ; wings
and tail black ; belly white. Eight inches and three
quarters-long, and weighs two or three ounces, This
fpecies inhabits Virginia, Carolina, Canada, 8cc. } but, ,
on the approach of winter, migrates more 01 lets to the vr~'
fouthward, according to the feverity of the feafon, from
which circumftance the North Americans fore wl the ri¬
gour or clemency of the enfuing winter, i he red¬
headed woodpeckers are very deftru£live to maize fields
and orchards, and are tond of acorns. During the win¬
ter they are very tame, and fometimes come into houfes,
as the redbreaft with us. They are found cnieiiy in Oid
trees ; and the noife that they make with their bills may
fometimes be heard at a mile's diftance. _ 239
Gold-winged woodpecker.—Striated tranfverfely with Aurntus.
black and gray} chin and breaft blacis.} nape red 3
rump white. Chin of the female cinereous 3 length 11
inches 3 weight five ounces. Inhabits North America 3
is almoit continually on the ground 3 reeds on.worms
and infefts 3 and, in default of tnefe, on berries and
grafs. When fat, is efteemed good eating. . . 240
Green woodpecker.—Green 3 crown of the head enm- Vindu.
fon 3 bill dufky, two inches long 3 inner circle of the
irides reddifh 3 outer white 3 temples blackifli.3 quill
feathers duiky, with whitifti fpots 3 tail blackifh, ob-
fcurely barred with green, and tipt with white 3 legs
greenifh aih. Weighs about fix ounces, and is fhirteen.-
inebes long. Inhabits Europe, and is by no means un¬
common in the wooded parts of England. It feeds onin-
fefls, and is particularly fond of bees. It is frequently
feen climbing up a tree, or on the ground, in the neigh¬
bourhood of an ant hill. The hole which they make is
as perfect a circle as if it had been deferibed by a pair of
compaffes. It is curious to obferve them try every part
of a dead limb of a tree, till they have difeovered the
moft fonorous, and then the ftrokes are reiterated with
fuch velocity, that the head is fcarcely perceived to
move. The fofter woods, fuch as the elm, afh, and
afp, are, for the moft part, attacked, for the purpole
of nidification, and are perforated only where they ex¬
hibit fymptoms of decay. The excavations are often
deep, to give fecurity to the eggs, which are. generally
four or five, and placed on the rotten wood, without any
neft.
Downy woodpecker.—Back longitudinally downy 3 Pubefcens.
outer tail feathers white, with four black fpots. W eighs
an ounce and a half, and meafiires only five inches a. ,d
a half in length. Inhabits Carolina, Virginia, New Jcr-
fey, &c. and is a daring bird, and dangerous to orch¬
ards. As foon as it has pecked one hole in a tree, it
makes another eftofe to the firft, in a horizontal direc¬
tion, proceeding till it has made a circle ot holes
quite round the trunk, fo that the tree frequently dries
up and decays. . 243
Hairy woodpecker.—Back fomewhat downy, in a IUlofus,
longitudinal direction 3 outer tail feathers entirely white.
From nine to twelve inches long. Like the former, is
the peft of orchards. Inhabits North America, from
Hudfon’s Bay to Carolina 3 and likewife occurs in the
north of England. _ 243
Greater/potted woodpecker.—Variegated with black Major-
and white 3 hind head and vent red. female, without
red on the hind head. The weight of this foecies is
about two ounces and three quarters, and the length
nine inches. The bill is duiky, and an inch and quar¬
ter long 3 the irides are reddiih brgvvn. Inhabits Eu¬
rope, North iVmerica, and Siberia. Is lefs frequent in
England than the green fpecies, to which it is neatly
244
JMedius.
245
Minor.
245
Mbiutus.
„ 547
Cardinalis.
Plate
GCCXGTV.
FiS- 3-
O ft N I T H
allieal in manners and habits, except that it rarely def-
ceuds to the ground in fearch of food. Lays four or five
white and gloffy eggs on the decayed wood, without
any formal preparation of a neft.
Middle-fpotted woodpecker.—Variegated with white
and black ; vent and cap red ; cheeks white j three la¬
teral tail feathers, tipt with white. Suppofed by fome
to be only the young of the preceding fpecies.
Lejfer-fpotted woodpecker.—Variegated with white
and black ; crown red 5 vent teilaceous or brick-colour¬
ed. There are two or three varieties. The weight of
this fmall fpecies is not quite five drams j and the length
is about five inches and a half. Inhabits Europe and
Afia, and has the habits of the major ; but is of more
rare occurrence.
. Minute woodpecker.—Chefnut gray ; whit ill), waved
with brown beneath; crown redhind head black,
Ipotted with white. Only three inches and a half long,
the lealt of its tribe# Inhabits Cayenne#
, Cardinal woodpecker.—Black; under part of the bo¬
dy white, fpotted with black; crown and back part of
the head red ; wings fpotted with white ; legs and bill
blackifh. Inhabits the ille of Luzonia.
o L o G Y.
ken nut fhells, the work of this bird, which repeatedly Pic®.
returns to the fame fpot for this purpofe. When it has'   
fixed the nut firm m a chink, it turns on all fides, to
ftrike it with moll advantage. This, with the common
hazel-nut, is a work of fome labour ; but it breaks a fil-
bert with eafe. In default of nuts, this bird fearches
for irifecls and their larvae among the mofs on trees and
old thatched buildings. . It is commonly met with among
orchards, and is fometimes feen, in the cyder feafon
picking the feeds from the refufe of the preffed apples!
In ipring it has a remarkably loud, Ihrill whiftle, which
cedes at ter incubation, and gives place, in autumn, to
a double reiterated cry. It deferves to be remarked,
that the fingular jarring noife produced by fome fpecies
of woodpeckers, by repeated ftrokes of the bill again!!
the decayed limb of a tree, has been erroneoully aferibed
to the nuthatch.
Surinam nuthatch.—Reddilh ehefnut, dirty wdiite be-
neath ; middle of the back white ; wings and tail black;//. mmen~
wing and tail coverts tipt, and fecondary quill feathers
edged with white. Only three inches and a half long.
Inhabits Surinam. 6
SlTTA- Gen. 24. Sitta, Nuthatch.
Characters. fubulated, roundilh, unbent, projecting llraight for¬
wards, and entire ; the upper mandible fomewhat
longer than the under, compreffed at the point ;
tongue notched, Ihort, and horny at the apex ; no-
flrils fmall, covered with briltles ; feet grefforial,
The general manners of the whole of this genus are
fuppoied to correfpond with th * e of the enfumg Ipecies,
250 which is the only one that is found in Britain.
Eurcpcea. European nuthatch.—Cinereous, reddiih beneath; tail
feathers black, the four lateral ones beneath tipt with
white. A black line through the eyes and ears ; rump
white, varied with rally; the firll tail feather with a
white bar, two with a white fpot, three or four tipt
with white, five colour of the back. Inhabits Europe
and Afia. Remains in England the whole year; but is
local, and chiefly affefts wrooded and inclofed fituations,
felefting the deferted habitation of a woodpecker for its
neit. 1 he hole is firll contracted by a plalter of clay,
leaving only fufficient room for the bird to pafs in and5
out. The nell is made of dead leaves, efpecially of
thofe of the oak, which are heaped together without
much order. The number of eggs is fix or feven, and
they are fcarcely to be dillinguiihed from thofe of the
great titmoufe, in fize and markings. If the plaller at
the entrance be deltroyed when there are eggs in the
nelt, it is Ipeedily replaced, to prevent the intrufion of
the woodpecker and other birds of fuperior fize which
buiM in the fame, filiation. No perfecution will force
this little bird from its habitation when fitting. It de¬
fends its nelt to the lalt extremity, Itrikes the invader
with its bill and wings, makes a hiding noife ; and, af¬
ter every effort of defence has been praetifed in vain,
will fuffer itfelf to be taken in the hand rather than de!
fert its charge. The nuthatch is more expert in climb¬
ing than the woodpecker; for it runs in all diredions
up and down a tree. When employed in breaking a
nutT its favourite pofition is with the head dowmwards.
In the autumn it is no uncommon thing to find, in the
cnences ol the baik. of an old tree, a great many bro-
3
Gen. 25. Todus, Tody. _ 252
, 7 J . Todus.
Bill fubulate, fomewhat depreffed, obtufe, llraight co- 353
yered at the bafe with briltles; noltrils fmall, oval • Charai5lers-
feet grefforial. ’ ,
Thefe moltly inhabit the warmer regions of America
and are nearly related to the family of fly-catchers; but
are diltinguilhed from them by having the middle and
outer toe much conneded, which, in the fly-catchers
are divided to the bafe.
Green tody—Green, yellowilh rofy beneath; bread
red ; upper mandible browm, lower orange ; irides chef-
nut ; cheeks with a red fpot; legs and claws gray. The
male, according to Buffon, has the upper part of the
body of a pale blue, the belly white, the bread and
fides rofe colour. This pretty fpecies, which is about
the fize of a wren, and four inches long, occurs not on¬
ly in the warmer parts of the American continent, but
alfo m St Domingo, Jamaica, and other idands of the
Wed Indies. The females are not uncommon in Ja¬
maica.. It is. fuppofed to feed on foft infeds, and is of a
diy folitary difppfition, frequenting the lonely parts of
mold trads of country, where it is obferved to fit all of
a heap, its head drawn in between its flioulders, and fo
dupid as almod to allow itfelf to be taken by the
hand. .J
. hite-headed tody.—Elack ; fubereded head and chin Lencoce’
wffite ; bill blackilh ; the lower mandible white, tipt^^'*
wuth blackidi ; wings diort ; tail even. Lefs than the
redllart. Inhabits America. Figured in Latham’s Sy-
nopfis. . 5
Obfcure tody. Olive brown, yellowilh-white beneath; Obfcurut.
crown, quill, and tail feathers blackilh. Size of the
hedge fparrown Inhabits North America, where it feeds
on infeds. Frequents the decayed parts of trees, and
has all the adions of the fly-catcher. It has an agree¬
able note, two or three times repeated, but not what can
be called a fong.
King tody.—Blackilh brown, reddilh beneath; ere A Regivt-
chefnut, fpotted with white at the tip ; chin and eyelids
white ; bill dulky brown ; bread with tranfverfe black¬
ilh lines ; legs flelh colour. This fingular and beautiful
- fpecies
Picfe.
259
Crijiatus.
Plate
cccxcv.
Fig- 3-
160
Alcedo.
261
Characters.
O It N I T H
fpecies meaTares fevcii Inches in length. Inhabits Cay¬
enne, and is very rare.
Broad-billed todij.—Yellowifh-brown, yellow be¬
neath 5 chin and fpot on the crown white 3 wings and
tail brown 3 bill very large and broad. Size of the
nightingale. Figured by Latham.
Crejled tody.—Creil fcarlet 3 body brown, fpotted
with white 3 wing coverts fpotted with white 3 feathers
of the crell tipped with black. Native of Guinea. ,
Gen. 26. Alcedo, King's-f.Jhcr.
Bill triangular, thick, ftraight, long, and acuminated 3
the tongue flelhy, very ihort, flat, and acute 3 feet,
for the moil part, grefforial.
The birds of this genus are difperfed over the whole
globe 3 though it is luppofed that' only one fpecies inha¬
bits Europe. Moll of them frequent rivers and the vi¬
cinity of waters, and live on filh, which they' catch with
Angular art and dexterity. Sometimes they hover over
the water, where a Ihoal of fmall fllhes is feen playing
near the furface 3 at other times, they wait with atten¬
tion on fome low branch, hanging over the water, for
the approach of a Angle one, which is fo unlucky as to
fwim that way. In either cafe they drop like a ftone,
or rather dart with rapidity on their prey. They feize
the latter crofs-ways in their bill, retire to a refting
place to feed on it, devour it piecemeal, bones and all ;
and afterwards bring up the indigeftible parts in pellets.
The wings of moll of this genus are very fhort 3 yet the
birds fly rapidly, and with great ftrength. In their co¬
lours, blue of different fhades predominates. Their
^ noltrils are fmall, and generally covered.
Crijlata. Crejled Vmg's-JiJher.—Bill black 3 an inch and a half
Plate lorig 5 crown feathers long, forming a creft, of a green-
CCCXCV. ifh colour, and barred with black 3 a fine blue ftripe on
F'g- 5- each fide of the neck 3 upper part of the body bright
blue 3 upper wing coverts violet, and each feather tip¬
ped with a bright blue fpot; legs and claw^s reddifn 3
length nearly five inches. Inhabits Amboyna and the
Philippine iflands.
Formofa. Splendid hing's-jijher.—Tail 111 or t 3 body yellowiih-
green 3 {boulders, throat, and rump yellow 3 wings and
crown of the head blue 3 bill yellow!fli-hom colour 3
head with a bright yellow ftripe on each fide 3 fmaller
wing coverts edged with yellow7 3 legs reddifh-brown.
, A beautiful fpecies, which inhabits South America.
Ifpida. Common kingts-jijher.—Tail fliort 3 body blue above,
orange-coloured beneath 3 lores red 3 bill black 3 crown
and wing coverts green, with blue fpots 3 tail of a beau¬
tiful blue 3 irides and legs red. In the female the
bill is not fo long as in the other fex. Frequents run¬
ning ftreams and rivers, in the banks- of which it gene¬
rally takes poffeffion of a rat’s hole to depofit its eggs-.
This hole is afeending, and generally two or three feet
in the bank 3 at the end is fcooped a hollow7, at the bot¬
tom of wdiich is a quantity of fmall filh-bones, nearly
half an inch thick, mixed with the earth, and wdiich
are probably the callings of the parent birds, as they
are found even before they have eggs. On this difgor-
ged matter the female lays to the number of feven eggs,
which are perfectly white and tranfparent, and of a Ihort
oval form. Before the young are able to fly, the hole
becomes extremely fetid by the, faeces of the brood,
2 <5=
O L O G Y.
which cannot be carried away by the parent birds, as is
common wnth moft of the fmaller fpecies. As the old
birds have nothing in their bill, w'hen they go in to
feed their young, it has been inferred, that they ejeft
from the itomach for that purpofe. When the young
are nearly full feathered, they are extremely voracious,
and may be difeovered by their conftant chirping. This
fpecies is reckoned the moft beautiful of all the Britilh
birds, weighs one ounce and a quarter, and meafures
feven inches in length. It inhabits Europe, Afia, and
Africa. It was formerly believed that if the body of
this bird was fufpended by a thread, fome magnetic in¬
fluence always turned its breaft to the north. This,,
however, is as fabulous as the tradition, that its fluffed
1km will preferve woollen cloth from the depredations
of moths. There is a variety found in Senegal, about
fix inches and a half long, blue green varied with brown
above, tawny beneath, and chin yellowifh.
Belted king1 s~fijhcr.—Tail long, crefted, blueifti 3 belly Alcyora
wdiite 3 breaft ferruginous 3 a white fpot before and be¬
hind the eyes 3 bill black 3 chin white 3 breaft with a
ferruginous band on the fore part 3 thighs rufty 3 {hanks
very Ihort 3 legs brown 3 outer toe connected with the
middle toe. Eleven inches long. Inhabits Carolina,
and feeds on lizards and fifla. It is fubjefl to feveral
permanent varieties, which occur in different parts of
America. ^
Amazonian king'sjijher.—GlolTy green 3, under parts Ama-zonti,-
of the body and lunule on the neck white 3 fides varie¬
gated with green 5 tail fpotted with white 3 bill and legs
black. Thirteen inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.
RefpcBed ling's JlJhcr.—Tail long 3 body olive above, Tuta.
white beneath 3 eyebrow-s white 3 collar greenifh black.
Bill black 3 lowrer mandible white. Legs black. Eight
inches and a half long. Native of the. Society iflands,
where it is held facred by the inhabitants, as are the
fpecies denominated venerata and facra. 2<jg
Great brown king's-jijher.—Crefted, olive above, whit- Fufca.
ifh and obfeurely ftriated beneath 3 temples and hind
head dirty white 3 tail rounded with rufty and fteel-blue
lines, and tipt with wdiite. The female has no creft.
Eighteen inches long. Inhabits New Guinea; 2(j?
Crab-eating king's-Jijher.—Tail long 3 body blue-green, Cancro-
yellowifh-tawny beneath 3 band through the eyes 3 wmgphaga.
coverts and tips of the quill feathers black. Twelve
inches long. Inhabits Senegal, and feeds on crabs. 2yQ
Egyptian king'1 s-jijher.— Brown, with rufty (pots 3 Egyptia,
whitifti, with cinereous fpots beneath. Size of the Roy-
fton crow7. Inhabits Lower Egypt, about Cairo 3 builds
in fycamore and date trees, and feeds on frogs, infedts,
and fmall fifti, wdiich laft it meets wdth- in the field,
when they are flooded. Its cry approaches to that of
the common crow.
Gen. 27. Galbula, Jacamar. ■ Galeula.
Bill ftraight, very long, quadrangular, pointed 3 ‘ noftrils characters
oval, at the bafe of the bill 3 tongue ftiort, ftiarp-
pointed 3 thighs downy on the fore part 3 feet fcan-
forial.
This is much allied to the preceding 5 but the toes are
differently placed, namely, two before and two behind.
The food of the jacamar is likewife different, as it feeds
on infects alone 3 and, for that purpofe, frequents moift
woods.
406
Pkse.
5 73
Gra.nd.is.
274
Paradifea.
275
Merops.
276
O R N I T H
woods. Only four fpecies have been defcribed, and
fcarcely any information has hitherto been obtained re¬
lative to their economy and manners. v
Great jacamar.—Copper gold above, ferruginous be¬
neath } head and limbs green gold j tail wedged, and
longer than the body. Size of the green woodpecker.
Native country unknown.
Paradife jacamar.—Two middle tail feathers very
long ; body golden green 5 throat and wings white be¬
neath } bill and legs black 5 head violet brown ; tail
much wedged. Inhabits Cayenne and Surinam j is 11
inches and a half long •, dies in pairs j is lefs foiltary than
its congeners, and feeds on infefts.
Gen. 28. Merops, Bee-ester.
Characters. Bill curved, quadrangular, comprefled, carinated, point¬
ed } noftrils unall, at the bafe of the bill 5 tongue
{lender, the tip generally jagged j feet grellbrial.
The birds of this genus, with a few exceptions, inha¬
bit the old continent. Their general food is infe&s,
and they are particularly fond of bees and wafps. They
have no mate beyond a whittle, and that far from agree¬
able. Like the. king’s-fither, they breed in holes in the
277 banks of rivers.
Apiajler. Common bee-eater.—Back ferruginous j belly and tail
bluifn-green 5 two of the tail feathers longer than the
others } chin pale yellow ; bill black j irides red \ front
blue green; crown, hind head, and neck, bay •, a black
ilreak from the bill to the hind head 5 tail wedged, the
feathers edged inwardly with cinereous \ legs chefnut •,
claws reddiih-black. A variety fometimes occurs with
the bill convex and uncarinated, and the toes uncon-
neefed at the lad joint. The common bee-eater mea-
fures 10 inches from bill to tail. It inhabits various
parts of Europe, Aha, and Africa 5 and is very plenti¬
ful in the fouthern parts of Ruflia, particularly about tire
rivers Don and Wolga. In the third volume of the
Linnaean Tranfaftions an account is given of one of this
fpecies having been (liot, for the hril ’time, in Britain,
near Mattifhall, in Norfolk, in July 1794. A flight of
about 20 was feen in June ; and the lame flight, as was
i’uppofed, much diminithed in number, was obferved
palling over the fame fpot in October following. They
feed, on the wing, upon bees, gnats, flies, and other
infedts •, or, in defedt of thefe, upon feeds. Their neft
is compofed of mofe, and the eggs, from five to feven,
are perfectly white, and about the fize of thofe of a
flare. They are gregarious and migratory, quitting the
colder latitudes, in great flocks, in autumn. When the
fun fliines on them, in their flight, they are a pleafing
objedt, as they appear gilded. Kolben remarks, that
they guide the Hottentots to the honey, which the bees
378 Jay up in the clefts of the rocks.
Viridis.\ Indian bee-eater.—Green •, band on the bread: black 5
chin and tail blue } two of the tail feathers longer than
the others •, bill and band acrofs the eyes black; legs
brown. There are feveral varieties. Eight inches and
27^ a half long. Inhabits India.
Superb as. Superb bee-eater.—Red •, front, throat, and rump,
blue } two middle tail feathers longer than the others.
Nine inches long.
Carvncula- Wattled, or blew Holland bee-eater.—Brown •, belly
tvs. yellow ; wattles carunculated ; tail wedged, tipt with
white j bill black; noftrils pervious, and half covered
3
O L O G Y.
with a membrane ; crown blackifli; a filvery ftripe at Piece.
the angle of the mouth 5 a long, orange, pendent ca- r-—>
runcle behind the bafe of the lower mandible ; legs
brownifli, the outer toe connedted at the bafe to the
middle one. Fourteen inches and a half long. Inha¬
bits New Holland } is pretty numerous on the fea fliores
of that country ; chatters inceflantly ; is very bold ;
feeds on infedts, and fucks the honey from the different
forts of Banfkia. zgi
Horned, or knob- fronted bee-eater.—Brown ; head Cornicula-
fomewhat naked ; under parts of the body and tips oitvs.
the tail feathers whitifti ; a blunt ftiort eminence, like the
rudiment of a horn, on the fore head. Size of a miffel
thrufti. This Angular fpecies alfo inhabits New' Hol-
xmd, and is well figured in White’s Journal. 2g2
Red-winged bee-eater.— Under part of the body of an Erytkro-
olive or dirty-white colour ^ throat yellow 5 wings m&pteri/s.
tail red, tipt with black ; bill one inch long, black j Plate
legs black. Six inches long. Inhabits Senegal.
Gen. 29. Ufufa, Hoop, or Hoopoe.
cccxcv.
Fig. 1.
283
Upupa.
Bill arched, long, {lender, convex, a little compreffed, (;jiara^:ers
fomewhat obtufe j noftrils fmall, at the bafe of the
bill 5 tongue obtufe, entire, triangular, very fhort
feet grefforial.
Of the fpecies included under this genus, the firft on¬
ly is found in Britain.- They feed on infedts, haunt
dunghills, and are, in general, uncleanly in their man-
ners. _ , 28?
Common hoop.—Variegated with blackifti and rufous Epops.
white, beneath 5 crelt pale orange, tipt with black ) tail
black, with a white band 5 bill and legs black ; irides
hazel} back and wings with black and white lines ;
neck reddith-brown ; creft of a double row of feathers ;
tail feathers 10. The weight of this beautiful bird is
about three ounces, and the length 12 inches. Inhabits
Europe, Alia, and Africa 5 but only vifits this country,
cccafionnlly, in autumn, and is very feldom knowm to
breed with us. The female is faid to have two or three
broods in the year. _ Seldom makes a neft ; but lays her
eggs, which are generally four or five, blueifti-white,
and marked with pale brown fpots, in the hollow of a
tree, and fometimes in a hole of a wall, or even on the
ground. Its food confifts chiefly of infedts of the beetle
tribe. It is a folitary bird, two of them being feldom
feen together. In Egypt, where they abound, they are
feen only in fmall flocks. Its creft ufually falls behind
on its neck, except when it is furprifed or irritated, and
then it Hands eredt ; the tail, too, being, in that cafe,
ufually eredled, and fpread like a fan.
Grand hoop, or grandpromcrops.—Black; head, neck, 1
and breaft, gloffy green ; fcapular and lateral tail fea-"J
thers falcated ; tail very long. “ This moft extraordi¬
nary and beautiful bird (obferves Dr Latham), is near
four feet in length, from the tip of the bill to the end
of the tail; the body is the fize onlyr of a middling pi¬
geon, though much elongated in {hape. The bill is
three inches long, pretty much curved, and black : the
head, hind part of the neck, and upper part of the bel¬
ly, are of a finning green ; the fore part of the neck,
and lower part of the belly, without glofs ; the fcapu¬
lar feathers are of a lingular conftruction ; the webs on
one fide of the ihaf: being exceeding ftiort, and on the
other of a great length ; the {hape of them falciform :
they
Pica?.
287
Erytkro-
rhynchos.
O R N I T II
tiiey are of a purplUh black colour, with the ends, toi
three quarters of an inch, ox a xnoft brilliant gilded glof-
jy green, though fome of them, in a different light, re-
flecd a blue glofs j beneath each wing arifes a thick tuft
of feathers, eight inches and a half in length, and o
a texture refembling the herring-bone ones in- the £7 eat¬
er bird of Paradife ; and, befides thefe, on each fide of
the tail are five or fix falciform feathers, with unequal
webs, as the fcapulars, though not half fo much curved j
the colour half dufky, half-greenifh brown j the laft di¬
vided from the other colour, on each feather, m an ob¬
lique manner ; the tail confifts of 12 feathers, and is of
an enormous length, the middle ones meafuring no lets
than 2'8 inches j but each of the others fhortens as it
proceeds outwards, to the outer one of all, which is on¬
ly five inches in length ; the colour of all of them is
blue black, with a polifhed ft eel glofs in fome lights 5
the legs are black.” Dr Latham has annexed a colour¬
ed figure. Little elfe is known of this remarkable fpe-
cies,°except that it inhabits New Guinea.
Red-billed hoop.—Black green 5 belly black } tail
wedged ; fix firft quill and lateral tail feathers fpotted
with white j bill and legs red •, feathers of the head and
neck filky, and fomewhat downy. Fifteen inches long.
Inhabits Alia and Africa. Figured by Latham.
Gen. 30. Certhia, Creeper,
aSS
Certhia.
23% Bill arched, flender, fomewhat triangular, pointed
Character,. vaHouS5 though generally pointed j feet form¬
ed for walking.
293
The birds of this genus are fpread over the globe.
They live chiefly on infefts; their noftrils are fmall 5
their tail is compofed of 12 feathers } their feet are laige,
with a large back toe 5 their claws are long and Looked.
Moft of them have an acute tongue ^ though in lome it
is flattened at the point, in others ciliated, in a few tu¬
bular. There are a confiderable number of fpecies, of
which only one is a native of Britain.
Familiaris. Common creeper—Gray, white beneath 5 quill fea¬
thers brown, ten of them with a white fpot j head and
neck brown, with black ftreaks j rump tawny j wing
coverts varied brown and black •, quill feathers dufky,
tipt with white, edged and barred with tawny j bread;
and belly filvery ; tail long, tawny, the feathers Hoping
off to a point. Weighs about two drams length five
inches. Inhabits Europe, Afia, and America. Runs
with great facility on all fides of fmall branches of trees,
in fearch of infefts and their eggs, which conftilute its
food. Except the crefted wren, it is the ftnalleft of
Britifti birds ; and, though pretty common, is not feen
without difficulty, from the eafe with which, on the ap¬
pearance of any one, it efcapes to the oppofite fide of
the tree. Its neft is compofed of dry grafs and the in¬
ner bark of wood, loofeiy put together, and lined with
fmall feathers •, and it is ufually conftru&ed in fome
hole, or behind the bark of a decayed tree. 1 he eggs
are from fix to eight, white, and minutely fpeckled with
bright ruft colour. During incubation, the female is
fed"by the other fex. The note of the common creeper
is weak, monotonous, and deliberately uttered, but rare¬
ly heard in winter.—In North America, is found a va-
29t riety of a confiderably larger fize.
Coccinea. Ipol-billed red creeper.—Scarlet •, wings and tailblack •,
bill longer than the head, bent like a fcimitar, whitifn }
* VOL. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y.
legs and long claws blackifh ‘, tail leathers inou, p--.uK
ed 1 edges of the wings, and roots of the throat feathers
white. This beautiful fpecies inhabits the Sandwich
iflands, and is much ufed by the natives in their leather¬
ed drefles. ... • ,
Mocking creeper.—Olive 5 crown inclining to violet; Sanmo.
fpot on the cheeks white j wings and iubforked tail
brown. Seven inches long. Inhabits New Zealand ;
has a very imitative voice, and fips the fweet moilture
from the neftaries of flowers. 29.3
Cardinal creeper.—Black \ head, neck, breaft, am. Cardinahs.
line down the middle of the back, red \ tail even. ^ S.ze
of the common fpecies. Inhabits the illand of 1 anna,
and fucks the nectaries of flowers. _ 294
Wall creeper, or fpider catcher.—Cinereous ; wings Muraria.
with a tawny fpot} bill fubulate, ftiarp edged, longer
than the head; neck whitiffi beneath; quill teat xeis
black; wings with a rofy fpot; tail feathers whitiih;
claws ftrong, particularly the hind one. The chm and
throat of the female are white. Size of a fparrow;
length fix inches eight lines. Inhabits fouthern Europe
and Afia. Is folitary ; feeds on infects, and has the
fame manners as the common creeper, except that it
haunts ruined edifices, old walls, arches, &c. and is par¬
ticularly fond of fpiders. According to Scopoh, it
migrates fingly towards the end of autumn. Its flight
is vague and uncertain, and it climbs by leaps. Builds
frequently in holes of walls. _ 295
Little brown and white creeper.—Brown ; white be- PuJiUa.
neath ; eyebrows white ; tail leathers brown, the cuter
ones white at the tip ; a black ftreak from the bill to
the eyes ; quill feathers edged with a brafly hue. Xhree
inches and a half long. Inhabits India, leeds on
flies, and is fond of honey. 296
Blue creeper, or certhia of Guiana.—Blue ; band Ccerulea.
acrofs the eyes, chin, wings, and tail, black. Four
inches long, and fomewhat bigger than the common
creeper. Makes its neft of dried ftalks or grafs, in the
form of a retort, and open beneath, fufpending it from
the flender and extreme branches of trees, and thus
fecuring it againft the attacks of the monkey, {hake,
and lizard.—Varies, in having the bill and legs fome-
times red. n 297
Collared creeper.—Glofly green ; breaft red, with & Cbalybea.
ftcel-blue bar on the fore-part. Four inches and a half
long. Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; feeds on m-
fects and the neclar of floxvers, and fings Iweetly. 29S
Black and yellow creeper, yellow-bellied cfeeper, &c. Fiaveola.
 Black ; pale yellow beneath ; eyebrows whitiih ;
outer tail feathers tipt with white. I he mai kings,
however, vary confiderably. From four to five inches
lonm Inhabits the Weft Indies, and feeds piincipally
on the juice of the fugar cane, which it draws out by
infinuating its bill into any crevice or crack of the
ftalk. . . r ij j 299
Braceletted creeper.— Green; wings, when toldecl,t\rmMata.
black above ; beneath yellow ; {houlders, bracelets on p!ate
the thighs, and fpots on the rump, fapphire blue ; billCccXCIV.
black ; legs yellowifh ; body beneath whitiffi-green; Fig. 1.
vent yellowilh ; quill feathers black, inner edge yel¬
low. " Length five inches. Native of Surinam. 300
Orange-backed creeper.—Bluiffi-gray ; fpot on the Cantillans.
back, and under parts of the body yellow; bill and legs
black ; irides red. Three inches long. _ Inhabits China,
and is remarkable for the fweetnefs of its long.
]> Beautiful
30i
Pulchella.
302
Tamofa.
303
Lctenia.
rr. ^
Trochi-
tus.
305 '
Characters.
_ O R N I T H
i eaU(‘JA CTter Tw0 mj:ddle tail feathers very
long; body gloffy green ; bread; red 3 bill, legs, and
whitia!thCI-’ b'ack!fll’ the latter edged with gold 3 belly
, fh > ^ngs and greater coverts brown. Seven inch¬
es long. Inhabits Senegal.
Famous creeper. Two middle tail feathers very
long : body glofly green 3 armpits yellow; lores blaclJ
'he bfe ^ a Wack’line between
n4rh H 1 d 7^' bema,e £reen brown 5 yellowilh be-
than ’ T ’ tW° midd!e tail feathers Ihorter
ciUUtd^pe.^ ^ ^
Loten's creeper.—Blue 3 bar on the bread; gold-red •
lores black ; bill Tubulate, black, twice as long as the
head ; tongue comprefled at the tip 3 head, neck, back
ump, and upper tail coverts fometimes blue, fometimes
gold-green 3 bread, belly, and vent glofly black ; in
the female dirty white, fpotted with black ; wings
back; lefler coverts violet; middle green 3 greatfr
habb ’m ^ ^7‘ Upwards of five inches long. In¬
habits Madagafcar and Ceylon. Makes a cupdhaped
The’f ^l^1 0fu chaffinch’ of the down of plants.
I he female generally lays five or fix eggs. This fpe-
aes .sfometunes chafed by a very voracius fpiderfa,
fucks ?L'w fdWf1Clh re'ZeS °n tl>e "'hole brood> a!ld
lucks the blood of the young birds.
o L O G Y.
Gen. 31. Trochilus, Humming bird.
Bill Tubulate, filiform tubular at the tip, longer than the
head; upper mandible iheathing the lower ; tongue
greflbria/ ^ ^t lreads coalefci”g, and tubular 3 feet
The birds of this fpecies are very fmall, and, with a
very few exceptions, inhabit South America. Their
bm and feet arc weak, their noftrils minute, and their
gue capable of being darted far out. They fly
\ ery ra.pi y, take their food on the wing, fucking the
noney juice of flowers, and fometimes all fwalloling
nfeas the fragments ot which have been found in their
Aomachs. T hey are bold, pugnacious, and gregarious
and make a louder noife by the motion of their wing
d an by their voice. They condrud an elegant hemi
phencal ned of the down of a fpecies of thapfas, and
mfpend lt from the branches of trees, where it is hid
by the leaves the female laying too white eggs of the
fize of peas, which are hatched by the alternfte incu-
taklnlv rC ^ " I1' W!6- Thefe birds are
taken by afperfing them with water from a fyphon as
r nC! fhot woula blow them to pieces. They’are
teat v hybeTalf* Ihe brilliancy of their colouring
Thf t ? 116 JP?WerS °f Panting and deferiptiom
is likllT'1/ rC ’ 1a,nd b.3ue of thUr diminutive plumage
“or in fXf a'’J refleaS t,,e m011 b™liM fP1--
306 -A. Bi// curved.
^arad,feus. Paradife humming bird.—Redwings blue 3 head
blacit ’ middle 1311 tb116"8 VCry lono ^ bid and legs
^307 llg^lXbittEco Uight inches and a half
Little humming bird. Greenifh-brown, with a fcarlet
giofs; wmgsand tai! black 3 exed green at the bafe
Inhabit'Guiana.'1 ^ ^ ^ arid 3 lo^
]opa% humming bird.—Red 3 middle tail feathers Pk
bdZln”? ’ hlZ? ’iChm Sold-green 3 rump green 3   
bn!, head, and neck black 3 bread rofy ; back and wing p 3
cmerts orange red 3 quill and middle tail feathers pur^
pie 3 the red orange. Female aimed entirely green
gold. Six inches long. Inhabits Surinam.
Mango humming bird.—Gloffy green 3 tail nearly., 5'
equal, and ferruginous ; belly black 3 bill and legs black • M *
a biue line dividing the colours of the back and belly •
vent white 3 two middle tail feathers black. Four inches
ong. Inhabits Mexico, Brazil, and St Domingo. Ac¬
cor mg to Albums, it is abo found in Jamaica, build¬
ing its ned of cotton in the phyfic-nut-tree, and laying
two white eggs as big as peas. There are feveral varie
.tles*. Under this fpecies, Dr Latham relates the follow ¬
ing mteredmg particulars.
‘‘ W e have before related a circumdance of the pefli-
bihty of keeping humming birds alive for feme time,
by means of fugar and water ; but this was in their own
country and climate In addition to this, we have been
imormed, on undoubted veracity, of the following faft •
A young gentleman, a few days before he fet fail from
' YaaiC.a 1,° England, was fortunate enough to meet with
a female humming bird, fitting on the ned and eggs *
He bl°Ught a11 together on
ard thy feip 3 the female became fufficiently tame, fo
naF fu?er f / t0 be fed Wlth hone7’ and during the
p Page hatched two young ones 3 however, the mother
did not furvive long, but the young were brought to
England, and continued alive for feme time in the pof-
feffion of Lady Hammond. Sir H. Englefield, Baronet,
and Colonel Sloane both witnedes of the circumdance,
oimed me that thefe little creatures readily took ho¬
ney rom the lips of Lady Hammond, with their bills •
one of them did not live long, but the other furvived at
lead two months from the time of its arrival.”
B. Bi// Jlr(tight.
^Ret!/U\0ate? humming bird.—Green-gold 3 tail fea-ry; Y°
thers black, the three lateral ones ferruginous tipt with
white 3 chin flame colour 3 bill black 3 fhin icarfet, wdh
a beautnul gold glofs. The female brown above, whit-
1 ! ’ tad fubequal, rudy at the bafe, and tint
with white. _ I hree inches and one fourth long. In.
habits America, as far north as Canada. This beauti-
7 I:ttfe creature flies fo fwifty, that the eye is incapable
of purging it, and the motion of its wings is fo rapid
as to be imperceptible to the niced obferver. It never ■
reeds but on the wing, flifpended over the flower from
wnich it extracts its nourifliment. Like the bee, having
exhaufted the honeyed juice of one flower, it wandere
to the next, m fearch of new fweets. It is mod partial
to thole flowers which have the deeped nedaries ■ and
in the countries which thefe birds inhabit, whoever fets
plants ot this defcnption before his window, may depend
on being vifited by multitudes of them. It is very en¬
tertaining to fee them fwarming around the flowers" and
trying every tube by thruding in their bills. If they
find that their companions have anticipated them, and
robbed the flower of its honey, they will frequently, in
a fit of rage, plude it off, and throw it on the ground
or even tear it in pieces. Numbers will fometimes con¬
tend very fiercely for the pofTcffion of the feme flower.
During the conflid, they frequently purfue the fugitive
mto the apartments of thofe houfes whofe windows are
left
Picse.
left open, take a turn round tlie room as flies do with
us, and then fuddenly regain the open air. When feed¬
ing, they will allow perfons to come within two yards of
them ; but, on a nearer approach, they dart off with
wonderful fwiftnefs. The red-throated humming bird
moil frequently builds on the middle of a branch of a
tree, and the neft is fo fmall, that it cannot be feen by
a perfon who Hands on the ground. It is quite round,
the outfide, for the molt part, compofed of the green
mofs common on old pales and trees, and the infide of
the fofteft vegetable down which the birds can colieft.
Sometimes, however, they vary the texture, ufmg flax,
hemp, hairs, and other fimilar materials. They are
fometimes, likewife, known to fix it on fome low bulk,
on a ftalk of the tobacco plant, or even on the fide of a
pod of ocra (Hibifcus ej'culentus, Lin.). The female lays
two eggs, which are white, and equal in thicknefs at
both ends. When thefe birds obferve any one climbing
the tree in which they have their nefts, they attack him
in the face, attempting to ftrike him in the eyes, and
coming, going, and returning, with fuch fwiftnefs, that
one would fcarcely credit it who had not feen it him-
felf. This fpecies, like the others of its genus, is feldom
caught alive. A friend of Monfieur du Pratz had,
however, this pleafure. He had ebferved one of them
enter into the bell of a convolvulus 5 and, as it had quite
buried itfelf to get at the bottom, he ran immediately
to the fpot, fhut the flower, cut it from the llalk, and
r" ed ofi the bird a prifoner. He could not, however,
P-1 : to ““at 5 and it died in the courfe of two or
ri < j-.irlevoix informs us, that he had one of
w .1, for about, twenty-four hours. It fuffer-
ed Pelt co be handled, and even Counterfeited death,
that it might efcape j but it fell a real facrifice to a
flight froft during the night. “ My friend Captain
Davies informs me, (fays Dr Latham), that he kept
thefe birds alive for four months by the following me¬
thod :—He made an exa£l reprefentation of fome of the
tubular flowers, with paper faftened round a tobacco
pipe, and painted them of a proper colour. Thefe were
placed in the order of nature, in the cage in which the
little creatures were confined : the bottoms of the tubes
were filled with a mixture of brown fugar and water as
often as emptied \ and he had the pleafure of feeing them
perform every aftion 5 for they foon grew familiar, and
took their nourifliment in the fame manner as when
ranging at large, though clofe under the eye.”
Ruby-necked humming bird.—Green-gold 5 tail even
Ot.i US. anc] ferruginous, the two outer feathers tiptwith brown;
wings black ; bill and legs blackilh ; crown, hind head,
and neck ruby j body brown beneath. Female whitifh-
gray beneath, with a gold fpot on the breafl: and throat.
Upwards of three inches long. Inhabits Guiana, Bra¬
zil, and Surinam. Reputed the moft beautiful of the
tribe.
White-belhed humming bird.—Tail feathers black, the
lateral ones white; head blue ; back green 5 belly white.
Above four inches long. Inhabits Surinam. Edwards
remarks, that the whole of the plumage, in the fun,
feems as if mixed with threads of gold.
Leajl hutnming bird.—-Green; whitifh beneath 5 lateral
tail feathers white on the outer edge 5 bill and legs
blackifh ; wings violet brown 5 tail feathers bluifli-black,
the prim ary totally gray 5 fecondary gray from the mid¬
dle to the tip. Female dirty greenifh-brown, whitifh
ORNITHOLOGY.
beneath. Inhabits South America* and fortic of the Wefi
India iflands. The leaf! of all known birds ; beino- hard-
ly an inch and a quarter m length, and weighing fVom
twenty to forty-five grains) thus being furpaffed in
weight and dimenflons by more than one fpecies of bee.
The female is even lefs than the male.
499
Picae.
3”
312
Ivlellivo-
'ths.
313
Minimus.
Order III. ANSERES. 3H
■> _ Anseres.
Bill fomewhat obtufe, covered with a fkin, gibbous at , t ^
the bafe 5 mouth toothed * tongue flefliy 5 feet pal- characters,
mated, and formed for fwimming.
Moll of the birds belonging to this order dwell much
in the water. Their feet and legs are fhort, concealed
under the feathers, and placed more behind than in other
birds. Their toes are ihort, and generally comprefled,
fo that they eafily cleave the water, and by means of
their membranes or webs, form, as it were, broad oars.
Their plumage is thicker, clofer, and better furniflied
with down than that of other birds. The gland which
all birds have at the rump, and from which they exprefs
an oily matter to preferve their feathers mcilt, is moll
conflderable in the anferes, and contributes to make
their plumage impermeable to water. They feed on
fifh, aquatic animals, and plants. In general they are
polygamous, and make their nefts among reeds, or in
moift places. The young are foon able to feek their
own food j yet the mother leads and protects them for
fome time, and the male frequently kills them. For the
moft part they lay many eggs * and the fleih of many
is eatable, though it frequently favours of oil, or of
filh.
Gen. 3 2* Anas. .
0 Anas.
Bill convex, obtufe, the edges divided into lamellated 317
teeth ; tongue fringed and obtufe 5 the three fore toes • "laradters,
connecled, the hind one folitary.
This is a very numerous genus, and includes fwans,
geefe, and ducks.
A. Bill gibbous at the bafe.
Wild fwan, hooper, elk, wlufling fjuan, &c.—Bill Cygims.
femicylindrical, and black * cere yellow ; body white 5
eyelids naked, yellow * legs black ; ribs eleven. This
is obvioufly a diftindf fpecies from the common or mute
fwan, being of a fmaller fize, and having the windpipe
differently conftrufted. It weighs from fifteen to twen¬
ty-five pounds, and meafures nearly five feet in length.
It inhabits Europe, Afia, and America, affedfing chiefly
the northern regions of the globe, and feldom appearing
in England, except in hard winters. On the approach
of fpring, they quit their fouthern ftations, and again
retire northward to breed. A few indeed drop fhort,
and perform that office bythe way, halting in fome of
the Hebrides, Orkneys, Shetland, or fome folitary ifland.
But the great bodies of this fpecies occur on the large
rivers and lakes near Hudfon’s bay, and thofe of Kam-
tfehatka, Lapland, and Iceland. They are faid to re¬
turn to the latter place in flocks of about a hundred at
a time, in fpring; and alfo to pouf in on that illand
from the north, in nearly the fame manner, on their way
fouthward, toward the clofe of autumn, flying very high
in the air, and in fuch a compaft body, that the bill of
one touches the tail of another. The young, which
3 ^ 2 stfe
3i3
ORNITHOLOGY.
500
Ariferes. are bred there, remain thrcugbout the firft year ■, and
' in Auguft, when they iole their feathers, and are unable
to fly, the natives kill them with clubs, fhoot, and hunt
them dovyi with dogs, by which they are eafily caught.
The flefh is highly efteemed, as are the eggs, which are
gathered in the fpring. 'j'he Icelanders, Kamtfchatka-
dales, and other inhabitants of the northern world, drefs
their Ikins with the down on them, few them together,
and convert them into various Ibrts of garments. The
northern American Indians have recourfe to the fame
expedient for clothing themfelves, and fometimes weave
the down as barbers do the cawls for wigs, and then
manufacture it into ornamental dr ekes for the women of
rank, while the larger feathers are formed into caps and
plumes, to decorate the heads of their chieftains and war¬
riors. They likewife gather the feathers and down in large
quantities, and barter or fell them to the inhabitants of
more civilized nations. Notwithtlanding the fabulous
accounts and poetical defcriptions of the fong of the
dying fwan, its voice is fhrill, harlh, and piercing, not
unlike the found of a clarionet, when blowm by a novice
in mufic. It is aflerted, however, by thofe who have
heard the united and varied voices of a numerous affem-
blage of them, that they produce a more harmonious
effeCI, particularly when foftened by the murmur of the
waters. At the fetting in of frofty wTeather, wild fwans
are faid to akbciate in prodigious multitudes, and, thus
united, to ufe every effort to prevent the wrater from
freezing; which they are enabled to accomplilh for a
confiderable length of time, by conftantly ftirring and
dalhing it with their extended wings. The wild fwan
has been ftyled “ the peaceful monarch of'the lake,”
becaufe, confcious of his fuperior ftrength, he fears no
enemy, nor fuffers any bird, however powerful, to mo-
left him, at the fame time that he preys on none of the
feathered tribe. His vigorous wTing fhields him againft
the attacks even of the eagle, and his blows from it are
fo powerful, as to ftun or kill the fierceft of his foes.
His food confifts of the graffes and wTeeds, and the feeds
and roots of plants which grow on the margins of the
wrater, and of the myriad infefls which Ikim over or
float on its furface ; occafionally, too, of the flimy inha¬
bitants within its bofem. The female makes her neft
of the withered leaves and (talks of reeds and rufties,
and commonly lays fix or feven thick (helled, white
eggs. The incubation is faid to laft fix wTeeks. Both male
and female are very attentive to their young, and will
fuffer no enemy to approach them.
Tame fwan.—Bill femicylindrical, black 5 cere black •,
body white. The plumage of this fpecies is of the fame
fnowy w’hitenefs as that of the preceding, and the bird is
covered next the body with the fame kind of fine foft down 5
but it is of a larger fize, and is furnilhed with a projecting,
callous, black tubercle, or knob, at the bafe of the upper
mandible. But the mod remarkable diftinCtion confifts
in the conformation of the windpipe, which, in the pre-
fent fpecies, enters at once into the lungs, fo that the ut-
moft noife the bird can utter, is a mere hifs : whereas, in
the wild fpecies, the windpipe firft enters the cheft a
little way, is then reflefted in the form of a trumpet j
after which it enters a fecond time, when, dividing into
two branches, it goes on to join the lungs. The man¬
ners and habits of both fpecies in the wild date are very
iimilar. The beauty, graceful motion, and majefty of
this bird, when it is wafted along a piece of water, at-
traCl the admiration of every beholder: but, out of the Anfercs.
liquid element, the elegance of its form in a great mea-
fure difappears. While the male and female are em¬
ployed with the cares of the young brood, it is not fate
to approach them; for they will (ly on a llranger, and
fometimes beat him to the ground by repeated blows. Not-
withftanding, however, their great ftrength of wing, a
flight blow' on the head will difpatch them. Multitudes
of this fpecies are found in Ruflia and Siberia, as well
as farther fbuthward, in a wild date. They occur, with¬
out an owner, on the Trent, on the inlet of the (ea, near
Abbotlbury in Dorfetihire, and on fome ether rivers
and lakes, in different parts of the Britilh illes. Thole
on the Thames have, for ages, been protedled as royal
property ; and it is ftill reckoned felony to fteal their
eggs. In former times great numbers were reared for
the table 5 but they are now reckoned by molt a coarfe
kind of food. A fattened cygnet, however, is ftill ac¬
counted a great delicacy, and ulually fetches upwards of
a guinea in the poultry market. It is generally belie¬
ved that the fwan lives to a great age, though the term
of three centuries, afligned to it by iome authors, is cer¬
tainly much exaggerated. The female neftles among
the rough herbage near the water’s edge, lays from fix
to eight large white eggs, and fits on them about as ma¬
ny w'eeks before they aie hatched. The young do not
acquire their full plumage till the fecond year. If kept
out of the water, and confined to a court-yard, the fwan
foon becomes dirty, dull, and fpiritlefs. Its ufual food
confifts of fifli and water plants.
Black fwan.—Black j wings edged with white j bill Atrata.
red ; upper mandible blackilh at the tip, a yellow fpot
near the lip ; legs black \ feet paler. Extent of wing
four feet eight inches. Inhabits various parts of New
Holland; but little is known refpe&ing its man¬
ners.
Snow goofe.—Body fnow-wbite 5 front yellowifti; ten Eybereo-
firft quill feathers black; bill and legs red. Size of
goofe; length two feet eight inches; extent of wing three
feet and a half; weight between five and fix pounds.
Great numbers of this fpecies occur about Hudfon’s bay ;
vifit Severn liver in May, and ftay a fortnight, but go
farther north to breed. They return to Severn Fort
about the beginning of September, and ftay till the mid¬
dle of O&ober, when they depart for the fouih, and
are obferved in immenfe flocks attended by their young.
At this time many thoufands are killed by the inhabi¬
tants, wTho pluck and evifeerate them, and put them in¬
to holes in the earth, wBere they are preferved quite
fweet by froft, throughout the fevere Icafon. Thefe
birds feem alfo to occupy the weft fide of America and
Kamtfchatka. In the fummer months they are plenti¬
ful on the ar£lic coaft of Siberia ; but never migrate be¬
yond 130° of longitude. They are fuppofed to pafstbe
wunter in more moderate climes, as they have been feen
flying over Silefia ; probably on their paffage to fome
other country, as it does not appear that they continue
there. Thofe of America, in like manner, winter in
Carolina. The Siberians decoy them by a perfon cover¬
ed with a white (kin, and crawling on all fours, whom
they are ftupid enough to miftake for their leader,
and whom they follow, -when driven by men in their
rear, till he entangles them in nets, or leads them into
a fort of pond prepared for the purpofe.
Antavtlic goofe.— Snowy; bill black; legs yellow.Antarctica
The ^
or’nitholog y.
324
Cinerea-
Anferps The female has the tall Hefh coloured, and the body
brotvn, with tianfverfeAyhiLe lines. F;ora twenty-four to
twenty-fix inches long. Inhabits^Falkland iflands.
Bufiard S'oqfe.—White j two middle tail feathers, pri¬
mary quill feathers, and greater wing coverts, black j
nape, and upper part of the back, with numerous black
lines: wings with a blunt fpme at the flexure, and a
dufky green fpot •, greater wing coverts Upt with white,
fecondary quill feathers half black, half white i legs
black. This is fea-goofe of Clayton, and the vhue-
winged antardlic goofe of Brown. It ^afures from
thirty-two to forty inches m length, frauds pretty g
on its legs, walks and flies with great eafe, and has not
that difagreeable cackling cry peculiar tp the reft of
kind. It generally lays fix eggs-, and its flefh is rec¬
koned wholefome, nourilhing, and palatable. Inhabit
the Falkland iilands. „ , t ,
Logger head goofe, or racehorfe ^.—Cinereous -, da-
Iky beneath j vent white, wings and tad ftrort and
black bill, irides, and tubercle on the wings and legs
vellow. Length thirty-two inches , weighs from U\en-
iy to thirty pounds. Obferved on Falkland iflands,
Staaten Land, &c., moftly m pairs, though fiometimes m
large flocks. From the fliortnefs of their wings they
were.unable to fly, but they ufed them m the water as
oars, and fwam fo rapidly, that it was very difficult to
(hoot them when on that element. In order to catch
them, the failors would furround a flock with boats and
drive them on ffiore, where, unable to raife themfelves
from the ground, they ran very fall , but foon growing
tired, and fquatting down to reft, were eaflly overtaken
and knocked on the head. Their fleffi, however, was
not much reliffied, being rank and fifliy. _
Sheldrake, or burrow duck.—BaW turning up at t
point, forehead compreffed , head greemffi-black , body
white and variegated -, bill and legs red , head and neck
violet, collar white, back white ,breaft brown y belly
white, with a black line , firft quill feathers black, the
next violet, inner ones ferruginous, the laft white , ta
white, tipt with black. The female has lefs vivid colours
This elegant fpecies of duck weighs about two pounds and
a half, and meafures about two feet three inches. It m
habits Europe and Afia, and is not uncommon on many
parts of our cpafts, remaining all the year. The fern
makes choice of a rabbit-burrow, wherein to depofit her
eggs, which are numerous, amounting fometimes to fix-
teen, and which Ihe covers with down from her own bo¬
dy. The neft is generally near the water, vhither t e
female leads her young foon after they are ^hate e .
This fpecies is rarely met with remote from fait water ,
but if the eggs are taken, and hatched under a hen he
young become tame, and may be kept in ponds. y
very Seldom breed when in a ftate of confinemen .
1'heir principal food confifts of fea-weeds, ima
flffi, and marine infeas. The fleffi is rancid.
Velvet duck.—Rlackiffi , lower eyelid, and fpot on the
’ wings, white , bill yellow, black m the middle giobous
at the bafe , legs red. ■ Female without the gibbofity on
the bill, and body blackiffi. From 20 t0> 22 inches
long. Inhabits Europe and South America. _ It. is
fometimes, though not often, feen on our coa s m \
ter. Frequents Hudfon’s bay, where it breeds in u -
mer, and is not uncommon in Ruffia and Siberia. ives
on fuci and ffieM-fiffi. The female makes its neit oi
orafs, and lays from four to 10 white eggs. I he catch-
ing of this fpecies is a favourite diverfion of the Tun-
gufi, who dwell on the river Ochota, and who chafe
great numbers of thefe birds, during the moulting lea-
fon, into (hallow water, and then knock them down
with clubs. They take many of them alive, and, thiuft-
ing a needle through their eyes, carry fifty or more on
a ft ring. It is alleged that the birds, thus treated, will
live for two or even three days. >T.
Scoter, or black diver.—Body quite blackbill gib- Nigra.
bous at the bale ; head and neck fprinkled with purple-,
tail fomewhat wedged. Female of a browner hue, and
without the protuberance at the bafe of the bill. Length
2 2 inches-, feeds on grafs and ffiell-fiffi, and takes-
rancid. Thefe birds inhabit Europe and North Ame¬
rica, and moftly refide at fea, diftant from the foore.
With us they are feen only in the winter fealon, when
they are plentiful on fome parts of the coaft of France.
They are great divers, and abound in moft of the north¬
ern regions of the world. They want the horny mu
at the end of the bill, which is common to the reft ot
Vhe genus. As they tafte ftrongly of fiffi, they are al¬
lowed by the Romilh church to be eaten m Lent. 3
White fronted, or laughing yoo/E—Brownwhite, Aibljrons.
fpotted with black beneath -, front and rump white -, bnfi
and levs ftame colour. Breaft cinereous -, tail duiky,
edged with white. Two feet four inches long. Inha¬
bits Europe, Afia, and America, and vifits the fenny
parts of England, in fmall flocks, in winter. During
fevere weather it is killed on the coaft as well as on ri¬
vers, and not uncommonly brought to market and jo
for the common wild goofe. It leaves us m the earlier,
fpring, none being feen after the middle ot March.
3*5
Tadorna.
r»
3
B. Bill equal at the bafe. ^
Scaup duck.—Black -, ffioulders waved with afh co- Marita.
lour : belly and fpot on the wings white ; bill broad,
bluifh-affi; irides yellow j head and neck greemffi-black ,
back and wing coverts waved with black and cinereous j
kgs and primary quill-feathers duiky, fecondary white,
tint with black ; tail coverts, and vent, black. Female
brown ; bill black, furrounded with a circle oi white
feathers \ neck rufty-, belly, and bar on the wmgs,
white ; legs black. From 18 to 20 inches long;, feeds
on ffiell-fiffi, and inhabits Europe, northern Afia, and
America. It is found in Iceland, Lapland, Sweden,
Norwav, Ruffia, and Siberia, and as high as Hudion s
bay in America. In England, it appears m the winter
feafon, in fmall flocks, and is frequently obferved m freffi
waters. In Oaober it begins to emigrate fouthward m
flocks. It alfo frequently lives in holes under ground. 330
Gray lag goofe, or wild goofe.—BiiW femicylindncak, Anfer.
body cinereous above, paler beneath -, neck finated -,
bill fleffi-coloured and tipt with white -, rump- and vent
white -, kgs fleffi-coloured -, claws black, wants the
wing foot. Weighs eight or nine pounds, and is about
inches long. Varies much in colour by demeftica-
tion, in which ftate it is our common tame gooie. In¬
habits in flecks the northern parts of Europe, Afia, and
America ; refides the whole year m the Lincolnihire
fens, where it breeds, laying eight or nine eggs which
are hatched in 28 or 30 days. Frequents lakes and ri¬
vers, and lives to a great age. The domeftic goofe is
well known. It is bred in great multitudes m the fens
of Lincolnffiire, both on account of its fleih and lea¬
thers. The geefe are there attended by a pericn called
331
Rujicollis.
' 332
'Segcturn.'
333
Borealis.
334
Erythro-
pus.
335
Bernicla.
O Pi N I T H
a gosmard, who driv'es them io feed and water. They
are plucked five times a year, once for quills and fea¬
thers, and four times for feathers only. If the fealbn
prove cold, many of them die by this cruel operation.
Tame geefe have been known to live for 80 j’ears.
They generally retain the white rump and vent feathers
of their original Hock. They feed on water infefts,
worms, and plants ; and by means of two rows of ftrong
fharp teeth within their bills, they crop the herbage
in meadows, and do much injury to young corn.
Red-breajled goofe.—Black ; white beneath •, bill
fmall, conical , neck rufous; fpot between the bill and
eyes white. Length 21 inches j weight about three
pounds. Inhabits Ruflia and the northern parts of Si¬
beria, but is very rarely found in England. In winter
it migrates towards Perfia. It is a beautiful fpecies,
and its flefh is in high requeft.
Bean goofe.—Cinereous; dirty wdiite beneath ; bill
compreffed at the bafe 5 tail-coverts white ; legs faffron 5
bill reddifh in the middle, black at the bafe and tip 5
head and neck inclining to ferruginous; quill-feathers
edged with black j tail with white j claws white. Mea-
fures from two feet and a half to three feet in length,
and weighs from five to feven pounds. Inhabits Hud-
fon’s bay and the Hebrides, particularly the ifle of
Lewis, where it remains all fummer and breeds. Thefe
birds migrate to England in autumn, and leave it again
in May, lighting, on their paffage, on corn fields, and
feeding on the green wheat. In their migration they
fly at a great height, fometimes in a Itraight line, and
fometimes in the form of a wedge, cackling as they ad¬
vance. This fpecies is often killed, and fold for the
common wdld goofe, with which it has been long con¬
founded.
Garland duck.—Bill narrow; head green $ breaft and
belly w'hite. Inhabits the fens of Iceland, but is very
rare.
Bernacle goofe.—Afh-coloured $ front wdiite ; body
waved with black and white above j neck black j belly
white ; bill fhort, black, with a flefh-coloured fpot on
each fide, a black fpot between the bill and eye 5 tail
wdiite beneath; legs blackifh. Twenty-five inches
long. Inhabits the north of Europe and Hudfon’s bay,
and appears in large flocks on the north-weft coafts of
Britain during winter. They are then very wild and
thy; but, on being taken, become quite familiar in a
few days. In February they quit our fhores, and retire
as far as Lapland, Greenland, and even Spitzbergen to
breed. In the darker ages this fpecies was ferioufly be¬
lieved to be produced from the lepas anatifera, a ftiell
which is often found adhering by a pedicle to logs of
wood that have lain long in the fea, from which cir-
cumftance it obtained the name of tree-goofe and
clakis.
, Brent, or brand-goofe.—Brown •, head, neck, and
breaft, black ; collar white ; bill, wings, tail and legs,
black} broad fpot on each fide of the neck j tail-coverts
and vent white ; belly and fhoulders cinereous •, flanks
ftreaked with white •, confiderably fmaller than the pre¬
ceding. Inhabits Europe, Afia, and North America.
Thefe birds appear on our coafts, particularly in the
weft of England, during winter, and in Shetland are
called horra geefe. But they are moft plentiful in Ire¬
land, where they are taken in nets placed acrofs the ri¬
vers, efpecially in thofe which empty themfelves into
4
O L O G Y.
the northern parts of the Irifli channel. Sometime? Ar.feru-.
they appear in vaft flocks on the coaft of Picardy, de- V'*'J
ftrojring all the corn near the fea. They migrate north¬
ward in iummer, and return iouth in autumn, flying
high in wedge-ihaped flocks. They feed on pohjganum
vivipfirum, empetrum nigrum, and other plants, but
chiefly on aquatic plants and marine vermes. They are
eafily tamed, and reckoned good for the table. 336
Eider, edder, or Cuthbert duck.—Bill cylindrical } Mollijj.ma.
cere wrinkled, and bifid on the hind part j bill, legs, j.;ate
front, ocular band, breaft, lower part of the back and' CCXCVI,
belly black j middle of the head, upper part of the Fig- 1.
back, fhoulders and wing-coverts white •, a green blotch
beneath the hind head. The female almolt wholly ob-
fcurely ferruginous, with black lines •, tail and primary
quill-feathers dufky. The young are not mature in
plumage till the third, or perhaps the fourth year. This
fpecies is nearly double the fize of the common duck,
and about 22 inches long. It inhabits the high lati¬
tudes of Europe, Afia, and America, and feeds chiefly
on teftaceous animals. It is rarely, if ever, feen in the
fouth of England, but breeds in the north of Scotland,
particularly on the weftern ifies, as alfo on the Earn
iflands, on the coart of Northumberland, in June and Ju¬
ly. The neft is made on the ground, compofed of ma¬
rine plants, and lined with down of exquifite finenefe
which the female plucks from her own body. The eggs
are ufually five, and of a greenifh colour. In Iceland
the eider ducks generally build their nefts on fmall
iflands not far from the fhore, and fometimes even near
the dwellings of the natives, who treat them with fo
much attention and kindnefs as to render them nearly
tame. Two females will fometimes lay their eggs in
the fame neft, in which cafe they always agree remar¬
kably wTell. As long as the female is fitting, the male
continues on watch near the fliore, but as foon as the
young are hatched, he leaves them. The mother, howr-
ever, remains with them a confiderable time afterwards j
and it is curious to obferve her attention in leading them
out of the neft almoft as foon as they creep from the
eggs. Having conduced them to the water’s edge, fhe
takes them on her back and fwims a few yards with
them, when ftie dives, and leaves them on the furface
to take care of themfelves. They are feldom after-
•wards feen on land. When the natives come to the
neft, they carefully remove the female, a»d take aw7ay
the fuperfluous down and eggs. They then replace the
mother, and ftie begins to lay afrelh, covering the eggs
with new down 5 and when fhe can afford no more, the
male comes to her afliftance, and covers the eggs with
his down, which is white. When the young ones leave
the neft, which is about an hour after they are hatched,
it is once more plundered. The bed: down and moft *
eggs are got during the firft three weeks of their layingj
and it has generally been obferved that they lay the
greateft number of eggs in rainy weather. One female,
during the time of laying, ufually yields half a pound
of down, which, however, is reduced one half after it
is cleaned. When pure, it is fold in Lapland at the
rate of two rixdollars a pound. It is extremely foft
and warm, and fo light and elaftic, that a couple of
handfuls, fqueezed together, are fufficient to fill a Co¬
vering like a feather bed, which is ufed in thofe cold
countries inftead of a common quilt or blanket. The
Iceland company at Copenhagen, generally export every
year
An feres
337
Mofcatci.
338
Clypeata.
339
Rubens.
34°
Merja.
O R N I T H
year from 1500 to 2000 pounds weight of down, clean-
" ed arid uncleaned, excluuve of what is privately expor¬
ted by foreigners. The Greenlanders kill thefe birds
with darts, purfuing them in their little boats, Watching
their courfe by the air-bubbles w'hen they dive, and al¬
ways ftriking at them when they rife wearied to the fur-
face. Their Hefh is valued as food, and their Ikins are
made into wTarm and comfortable under garments.
Mufcovy duck.—Face naked, with red caruncles ; legs
and orbits naked, and with the bill red 5 tip of the bill
and fpace round the noftrils black ; crowm black ; tem¬
ples, chin, and throat w'hite, varied with black ; bread;
and lower part of the belly brown, mixed with white j
back and rump browm, with a, green gold glofs 5 upper
part of the belly white •, three fir ft quill-feathers white,
the reft browm j tail feathers twrnnty, the outer white,
the reft green gold. Two feet long •, native of Brazil,
and is domefticated in tlurope. Has its name, not as
vulgarly alleged, from the country of Mufcovy, but
from the circumftances of its fmelling of mufk, which
arifes from the liquor fecreted in the gland of the rump.
Like other domefticated fowls they are fubject to great
varieties. They are a thriving and prolific fpecies, and
not only affociate, but fometimes breed with the com¬
mon duck. Their fielh is much efteemed. Mr Pen¬
nant fays they are met with wild about Lake Baikal in
Afia; Ray, that they are natives of Louifiana, Marc-
grave, that they refide in Brazil, and Buffon, that they
occur in the overflowed favannas of Guiana, w'here they
feed in the day time on the wild rice, and return in the
evening to the fea. He adds, that they neftle on the
trunks of rotten trees, and that after the young are
hatched, the mother takes them, one after another, by
the bill, and throw’s them into the wnter. Great num¬
bers of the young brood are faid to be deftroyed by the
alligators.
S/iove/er.—Extremity of the bill dilated, rounded,
with an incurved nail 5 bill black ; irides yellow ; head
and neck violet green 5 breaft white, and Emulated;
back, wings, and wedged-tail brown 5 belly chefnut 5
vent white $ firft and fecond wing coverts pale blue,
greater browm, tipt with white, the reft edged rvith
white ; legs tawmy. The female has a confiderable re-
femblance to the common duck, but both fexes are very
apt to vary in their colourings. This fpecies inhabits
Europe, Afia, and North America, but is by no means
common in Britain. A few remain in France during
the breeding feafon, making a neft of nifties in which
they lay 10 or 12 rufous-coloured eggs.
Red-breqftedJhoveler.—Browm ; chin and breaft chef-
nut 5 wings tipt with gray, wing-fpot purple, edged
wuth white ; tail ftiort, white 5 bill broad, browmifti yel¬
low \ head large ; eyes fmall; irides yellowr : legs final],
fender, and bay. Size of a tame duck. Sometimes
iound in the fens of Lincolnftiire, but is rare, and little
knowm.
Ural duck—Waved with cinereous and yellowilh, and
fpotted with browm ; browm, fpeckled with gray be¬
neath ; throat brown-yellow, waved w ith black 5 tail
long, black, wedged. Rather bigger than the common
teal. Is not unfrequent in the greater lakes of the
Ural mountains, and the rivers Ob and Irtifch. Is not
feen on the ground, being, from the fituation of its legs,
unable to walk; but it fwims wmll and quickly, with the
tail immerfed in the water as far as the rump, and fer-
O L O G Y.
503
ving as a rudder, contrary to the common method of a Anferes,
duck’s fwimming. The neft is formed of reeds. ^
Gadwa/l, or Wing-fpot rufous, black, and 341
white y bill flat, black 5 legs tawny; rump black 5 back6‘r^f,rt"
broWn, wraved with paler 3 breaft and belly gray, varied
with white. • Nineteen inches long. Inhabits Europe
and Northern Afia, Vilits Britain in winter, but not
in great numbers. Suppofed to breed in Sweden, and
probably in Ruflia and Siberia. It is faid to be a great
diver, and to feed chiefly by night, concealing itfelf
among the reeds and rulhes during the day. It makes
a noile not unlike that of the mallard, but louder. Its
flefti is favoury.
Golden eye—Black and white 3 head turned 3 violet 3 cianltlr,
a large white fpot at each corner of the mouth 3 bill 6
black 3 irides golden 3 lower part of the neck, breaft,
and belly, white 3 back and rump black 3 legs red. The
markings of the female are, head red brown 3 neck gray3
breaft and belly white 3 wing coverts varied with dufky
and cinereous 3 middle quill-feathers white 3 the reft
and tail black 3 legs dulky. About 19 inches in length.
Inhabits Europe, Afia, and North America.
Birds of this fpecies do not affemble in large flocks,
nor are they numerous on the Britiih fhores or on the
lakes in the interior. They are late in taking their de¬
parture northward in the fpring, and in their flight they
make the air whiftle with the vigorous quick ftrokes of
their wings. They are excellent divers, and feldorn fet
foot on fliore 3 on which, it is laid, they walk with great
apparent difficulty, and, except in the breeding feafon,
only repair to it for the purpofe of taking their repofe.
They build in the hollows of trees, and prey on ftiell-
fiffi, mice, fiffi, and frogs. ’
1 he anas glaucion, or mofillon, feems to be only a
variety of the golden eye in one ftage of its plumage,
before it arrives at maturity.
Bimaculated, or clucking duck.—Subcrefted 3 browm,
waved with black 3 head green 3 a ferruginous fpot be¬
fore and behind the eyes 3 breaft With black fpots 3 wing-
fpot green, edged with wfliite. Length 20 inches 3 oc¬
curs along the Lena, and about Lake Baikal, and has
been taken in a decoy in England. Has a Angular
note, fomewhat like clucking.
Wigeon, whewer, or whim—Tail pointed 3 vent fea-
thers black 3 head bay 3 front wffiite 3 back waved with
black and white 3 bill plumbeous, with a black nail 5
head and upper part of the neck red, with blackifti fpots3
breaft claret ; body above waved with cinereous and
blackifli 3 wing-fpot blue-green 3 black before and be¬
hind 3 wing- coverts varied browm and white 3 belly
white 5 legs lead-colour. Female waved with brown 3
breaft paler. Twenty inches long. Inhabits Europe,
.Afia, and Africa. Vifits England in autumn, when
great numbers are taken in decoys, being efteemed an
excellent food. It likewile frequents our rivers and
falt-water inlets in fmall flocks. It is remarkable for
uttering a wffiiftling or piping noife, which is frequently
heard as it flies during the night. It lives en frogs,
worms, infefts, and water plants, and is fometimes do¬
mefticated. There is a variety with a filvery wing-fpot,
and the throat waved with afh-colour.
Fin-tail duck.—Tail pointed, long, black beneath 3 hind Acuta.
head with a -white line on each fide 3 back waved with
cinereous 3 bill black, bluifti at the fides 3 head ferrugi¬
nous 3 throat white, a little fpotted 3 body white be¬
neath 3.
341
’ Glocitans.
TS'
»
504
Anferes.
346.
Ferrugi-
347 .
Glacialis.
34s
F'erinu.
GPtNITHOLOG Y.
neatli j wings brown-j wing fpot violet, ferruginous on
the fore-part, black and white on the hind-part ; tail
brown, edged with white, two middle feathers longer.
Female Ids ; wing-fpot draw-coloured, and edged with
white. Inhabits Europe, Afia, mid America. Thefe
birds are feldom numerous in England, but flocks of
them are fometimes abundantly fpread along the illes
and Ihores of Scotland and Ireland, and on the interior
lakes of both thefe countries. This fpecies meafures
twenty-eight inches in length, and is efteemed excellent
eating.
Ferruginous duck.—Reddilh-brown ; bill dilated and
rounded at the bafe 5 feet pale blue. Weight 20 ounces.
Inhabits Denmark and Sweden, but very rarely occurs
in this country.
Long-tailed duck.—Tail pointed, long ; body black,
white beneath } bill black, orange in the middle ; head
on the fore-part and fides reddilh-gray \ hind-part, breaft,
and belly, white ; fcapulars long and white } fides of the
neck with a black fpot; lower part of the bread, back,
wings, and tail, chocolate 5 four middle tail-feathers
black, twro middle ones longer, the reft white; legs
dufky-red, or blackifh. The female has the tail fhorter
and wedged ; the body varied with blackifh, rufous,
and gray ; the back black 5 collar and lower part of the
belly white. Of the fize of a wigeon. Inhabits Eu¬
rope, Afia, and America, frequenting both the interior
lakes and the fea Ihores of thefe quarters of the world.
The birds of this fpecies, do not, in the winter, like
many of the other tribes, entirely quit their northern
haunts, but confiderable numbers remain there, endu¬
ring the rigours of the feafon, and enjoying, in fummer,
the perpetual day of an unfetting fun. Numerous
flocks, however, fpread them Elves fouthward in the
winter, from Greenland and Hud Ion’s bay, as far as
New York in America, and from Iceland and Spitz-
bergen over Lapland, the Ruffian dominions, Sweden,
Norway, and the northern parts of the Britifti ifles in
Europe. The flocks which vifit the Orkney ifles ap¬
pear in October, and continue there till April. About
funfet they are feen in large companies going to and re¬
turning from the bays, in which they frequently pafs
the night, making fuch a noife, as in frofty weather
may be heard fome miles. They are rather fcarce in
England, to which they refort only in very hard win¬
ters, and even .then in fmall ftraggling parties. They
ily fwiftly, but feldom to a great diftance, making a
loud and Angular cry. They are expert divers, and
fuppofed to live chiefly on ftiell-fiftt. The female makes
her neft among the grafs near the water, and, like the
eider duck, lines it with the fine down of her orvn body.
According to Latham, fire lays five eggs, which are of
a bluith white colour, and about the fize of thofe of a
pullet.
Pochard,. or red-headed wigeon.—Waved with afh-
colour j head brown j pectoral band; vent and rump
black ; bill broad, blue, tipt with black 5 irides tawny ;
head and neck bay ; breaft and upper part of the back
black ; fcapulars and inner wing-coverts undulated with
black and white •, belly whititb, with dulky lines at the
fides ; legs plumbeous. Female darker j head pale red-
difti-brown •, wing-coverts and belly cinereous. Nine¬
teen inches long ; weight 28 ounces. Inhabits Europe,
Afia, and America. This fpecies is frequently caught
in the decoys in England, though it is not known to
2
breed there. In fome counties it is called poker, dunlird, Anfere*.
or great-headed wigeon. It is of a plump round ftiape,
walks with a waddling and ungraceful ftep, but flies ra¬
pidly, and in flocks of from 20 to 40, commonly in a
compatl body. It is much in requeft for the table, but
is not eafily domefticated. The male has a labyrinth,
or enlargement of the trachea, near the junclion with
the lungs, a Angular conformation peculiar to the male
of feveral fpecies of the duck tribe, but the ule of
which is ftill unknown. In winter the pochard migrates
fouthward, as far, it is faid, as Egypt.
Garganeij.—Wing-fpot green j a white line above
the eyes j bill lead-colour 5 crown dulky with oblong dula.
ftreaks 5 cheeks and neck purple, with wdrite ftreaks 5
breaft light brown, with iemicircular black bars 5 belly
white, low7er part and vent fpeckled ; firft quill-feathers
cinereous, outer webs of the middle ones green ; fcapu¬
lars long, narrow7, ftriped with white, alh-colour and
black ", tails dulky j legs lead-colour. Female, with an
obfeure white mark over the eye; plumage brownilh-
aftr ; wings without the green fpot, Length 17 inches.
Inhabits Europe and Afia. By lome called pied wi¬
geon, or fummer teal. Frequents only the frelh waters,
feeding on feeds and aquatic plants. Is not common in
Britain, and is faid to be impatient of cold.
Teal.—Wing-fpot green •, a white line above and crecca.
beneath the eyes; bill black ; irides hazel 5 head and
neck bright bay •, a broad green band behind the eyes
to the nape, and terminating beneath in a w hite line j
body whitilh, with tranfverfe blackilh lines above} fore¬
part of the neck and breart with round black fpots ;
wing-fpot green, edged beneath wdth wThite, obliquely
black above 5 vent black in the middle. The female
is diftinguilhed by the head and neck varied w?ith whit-
ilh and brown, and the vent totally wdnte. There are
two permanent varieties, of w7hich the firft has the wing-
fpot varying in colour ; the body brown-afh above, ru¬
fous-white beneath, and black fpots on the belly. The
fecond has the cheek, chin, and under parts of the body
white-rufous, and the w7ing-fpot without black. Weight
about 12 ounces*, length 14 inches and a half. The
fmalleft of the duck tribe, and in high requeft at the
table. Inhabits Europe and Afia ", vifits us in wunter,
and frequents our frelh W'aters in fmall flocks. Many
are caught in the decoys, and a few breed in Woimer
Foreft, in the morafles about Carlifle, &c. The female
makes a large neft compofed of foft dried grafles lined
w7ith feathers, and cunningly concealed in a hole among
tire roots of reeds and bulrulhes, near the edge of the
wrater. The eggs are of the fize of ihofe of a pigeon,
from fix to ten in number, and of a dull white colour
marked with fmall brownilh fpots. The male has a
bony labyrinth in the lower part of the windpipe. „ ^
Mallard, ox wild duck.—Cinereous; middle tail-fea- Bofclas*
thers (of the male) recurved; bill ftraight ; collar
wdute; bill greenilh-yellow; head and neck gloffy-green;
fcapulars white, with w7aved browm lines ; back brown ;
vent black-green ; breaft chefnut; belly gray ; w7?ng-
fpot violet-green, edged above wnth a black and white
line ; two middle tail leathers dark green, and recurved.
Female reddifh-brown, fpotted with black. Very fub-
jeft to vary, efpecially by domeftication, when it is our
comrnon tame duck. About 23 inches long. Weight
about two pounds and a half. Inhabits Europe, Afia,
and America ; is very common in marihy places in ma-
1
ny
ORNITHOLOGY. 50j
ny parts of tins kingdom, but no where occurs in great¬
er plenty than in Lincolnihire, where prodigious num¬
bers are annually taken in the decoys. In only ten de¬
coys in the neighbourhood of Wainfleet, as many as
31,200 have been taken in one feafon. 'I here is a pro¬
hibition, by a£l of parliament, againft taking them be¬
tween the firlt of J une and the firft of Ckdober. i hey
do not always build their neft clofe to the water, but of¬
ten at a good diftance from it, in which cale the female
will take the young in her beak, or betvreen her legs to
the water. They have fometimes been known to lay
their eggs in a high tree, in the deferted neft of a mag¬
pie or crow j and an inftance has likewife been recorded
of one found at Etchingham in Suflex, lilting on nine
eggs in an oak, at the height of 25 feet from the ground,
the eggs being fupported by fome fmall twigs laid crofs-
ways. Like many of the tribe, the mallards, in vaft
numbers quit the north at the end of autumn, and mi¬
grating fouthward, arrive in the beginning of winter in
large flocks, and fpread themfelves over the lakes and
marlhy waftes of the Britilh iiles. They pair in the
fpring, wThen the greater number of them again retire
northward to breed, but many draggling pairs ftay with
us 5 and they, as well as preceding colonifts, remain to
rear their young, which become natives, and remain
■with us throughout the year. The common domeftic
variety of this fpecies affumes very different markings •,
but the male, even in its tame ftate, retains the curling
of the feathers at the tail. Habits of. domeftication,
however, have deprived the tame duck of that fprightly
look and lhape which diftinguilh the mallard, and have
fubftituted a more dull and lefs elegant form and ap¬
pearance in their Head. It is alfo deferving of remark,
that ducks pair, and are monogamous in the wild ftate,
but become polygamous when tame. The Chinefe
make great ufe of ducks, but prefer the tame to the
wild. We are told that moft of them in that country
are hatched by artificial heat. The eggs being laid in
boxes of fand, are placed on a brick hearth, to which is
communicated a proper degree of heat during the time
required for hatching. The ducklings are fed with
cray-filh and crabs, boiled and cut fmall, and afterwards
mixed with boiled rice •, and in about a fortnight they
are able to Ihift for themfelves. The proprietors then
provide them with an old Jlep-iTiotlier, who leads them
where they are to find provender j being firft put on
board a boat, which is deftined for their habitation, and
from which the whole flock, amounting often to 300
or 400, go out to feed, and return at command. This
method is commonly practifed during the nine warmeft
months of the year, and efpecially during rice harveft,
when the matters of the duck boats row up and dowrn
according to the opportunity of procuring food, wftiich
is found in plenty at the tide of ebb, as the rice planta¬
tions are overflowed at high water. It is curious to ob¬
serve how thefe birds obey their matters *, for fome
thoufands belonging to different boats will feed at large
on the fame fpot, and on a lignal given will follow their
leader to their refpeftive boats without a Angle ftranger
being found among them. No fewer than 40,000 fuch
boats are fuppofed to ply on the Tigris. When confined
to dry fituations, ducks degenerate in ftrength, beauty,
and flavour. They feed on various animal and vegeta¬
ble fubftances, for which they unceafingly fearch with
their curiouflv con ft m Ted bills, lifting and feparating
Vql. NY.' Part II.
every alimentary particle irom the mud. When oldei, Ai.lews. t
they alfo devour worms, fpawn, vater-infecls, and iome-
times frogs and fmall fifties, together with the various
feeds of bog and wrater plants. 3S2
Black-billed whijlling aWL—Brown j head fome what Arborea.
(fretted 5 belly fpotted with wdiite and black. Smaller
than the preceding. Inhabits Guiana and Jamaica ;
winters in Carolina, and builds and fits on trees. 353
Red-crejled duck.—Black j head and upper part of uJina’
the neck teftaceous 5 crown reddifti, that of the male
crefted •, wings beneath, and at the edges white 5 tail
brown. Female brown, and wTants the creft. Inhabits
the Cafpian fea, and the lakes of the Tartarian de-
ferts j is fometimes alfo found in Italy and Barbary. 354
Tufted duck.—Creft pendent j body black j belly and Fuligula.
wing-fpot wftiite 5 bill broad, livid, tipt with black j ni-
des golden ■, head greemfti j (houlders blackifh-brow n,
with pale ftrawT-coloured dots j legs dulky-blue. Fe¬
male brownifti, wants the creft. Sixteen inches long.
Inhabits Europe and Northern Afia. 1 here are feveral
varieties. It is not uncommon with us in winter, and is
frequently feen in our frefti wraters as late as near the end
of March. It is often brought to market, and fold for
wigeon. It lives not only in frefti water, but in the fea y
dives wTell, and fefeds on fmall fifties, crabs and ftiellnlh,
and likewife on the feeds of aquatic plants, particularly
thofe of the common rufti.
* 355
Gen. 33. MERGUS. Mergus.
• SB**
Bill toothed, {lender, cylindrical, hooked at the point} chara(qer?,
noftrils fmall, oval in the middle of the bill j feet
four-toed, outer toe longeft.
The birds of this genus live on fifti, and are very de-
ftruftive in ponds. _ 357
Crejled nierganfer.—Creft globular, white on each Cucullatia.
fide j body browm above, wdiite beneath j bill and legs
black ; irides golden •, creft larger than the head, edged
with black. Female browm 5 creft lefs and ferruginous.
Length feventeen inches and a half •, weight nearly 23
ounces. An elegant fpecies, wdiich inhabits North A-
merica, appearing at Hudfon's bay about the end of
May, and building, clofe to the lakes, a neft compofed
of grafs, lined with feathers from its own breaft.
Goof under.—A longitudinal creft, fomewhat ere£l 5 Merganfer.
the breaft white, without fpots j the tail feathers afti-co-
loured j ftiaft black j bill, legs, anji irides red ; greater
quill-feathers black ; leffer white. Weight about four
pounds j length two feet four inches. Inhabits Europe,
Afia, and America. Sometimes vifits our rivers and
lakes in fevere winters, but retires to the more northern
latitudes to breed. It has been known to build on trees,
but more frequently among rocks or ftones, and lays 14
eggs, wdiich, with the bird itfeli, are eageny dei oured
by the weafel. It fwims with only the head above the
fiirface of the water j dives deep j remains a long time
below, and rifes at a confiderable diftance. Its flefli is
rancid and fcarcely eatable. In queft of fifti, it dives
with great celerity, and holds its flippery prey, with
great fecurity by means of its toothed bill, fo admirably
adapted to the purpofe. . 359
Dun diver, or fparkling fowl.—Crefted j cinereous ; Cajlor.
head and upper parts of the neck bay j chin, middle
quill feathers, and belly white 5 bill and irides red ;
belly fometimes flefii-colour. Weighs about 38 ounces;
q 3 meamres
5 CD
ORNITHOLOGY.
An ft-1
360
Senator.
Plate
Cccxcvi.
Fig. a.
3<?r
Aibellus.
362
Mimitus.
3^3
Alca.
364
Ghgradkers.
m2afares 2$ inches in length. Inhabits the fame coun¬
tries with the preceding, and by fome naturalifts is rec¬
koned the female •, but the labyrinth, or enlargement at
the bottom of the windpipe, feems to prove it to be a
male, and confequently a diltindt fpecies.
_ Recl-breq/ied tnerganfer.—Creft pendent; bread red-
dilh and variegated j collar white 5 tail-feathers brown,
varied with cinereous; under part of the bill and legs
red ; teathers of the lides of the breafl large, white, ed¬
ged with black, covering the fore part of the folded
wings. Female with fcarcely any creft 5 head and be¬
ginning of the neck rufous. Twenty-one inches long.
Inhabits the northern parts of Europe, Alia, and Ame¬
rica. Breeds in Greenland, Hudfon’s bay, Newfound¬
land, Siberia, the north of Scotland, &c. Makes its
ncft of withered grafs, and down torn from its own
breaft, on dry land, and lays from eight to 13 white
eggs, equal in fize to thole of a duck.
Smew, or w/iite nern.—Creft pendent ; hind head
brack; body white ; back and temples black ; wings
variegated ; bill and legs black •, wing-fpot white 5 nape;
oval fpot from the bill furrounding the eyes, back, and
two arcned lines on each lide, near the beginning of
the wings, black, b emale has the head fmooth and
gray ; band across the eyes black, and under the eyes a
white fpot; body blackilh-brown above ; white beneath;
upper part of the head bay ; chin while. From 15 to
17 inches long. Inhabits Europe and America. Breeds
m the Ar&ic regions, and is driven to the fouth only by
fevere weather.
Minute fmew, or lough diver.—Brmvn-afu ; under
parts ox the body and chin white; head and upper part
of the neck ferruginous; wing-fpot white before and behind.
Very much refembles the female of the preceding, but
wants the black oval eye-fpot. About iq. inches and a
half long. Is rarely met with in the fouth of England,
and only in winter when the weather is fevere. It dives
with great eafe in purfmt of fifli, and remains long under
water.
Gen. 34. Alca, Auh.
Bill toothlefs, ftiort, compreffed, convex, often tranf-
verfely furrowed ; lower mandible gibbous near the
bafe; noftrils linear ; legs (in moft cafes) three-toed.
The birds of this genus are moftly inhabitants of the
Ardfic feas; are accounted ftupid, breed in holes, which
they themfelves often dig, and in the caverns and fif-
fures of rock, where they reft; during the night. In re-
fpett of colour, they are generally uniform, being black
above, and white beneath. They are fhaped like a
duck, with their feet placed behind the centre of gra¬
vity ; their bills are large, having the furfaces croffed
with furrows, and ending in an acute point. They lay
but one egg, which is very large, confidering the fize
355 tlle bird-
Arnica. Ru.ffin—Uhl comprefted, two-edged with two grooves;
orbits and temples white ; upper eye lid daggered or fur-
nifhed with a pointed callus; body black; cheeks,
breaft, and belly white ; bill red, with a black bafe ;
legs red. Weighs between 12 and 13 ounces; length
upwards of 12 inches. Inhabits the northern feas of
Europe, Afia, and America, in vaft flocks. Appears
on many parts of our rocky coaft about the middle of
April, and begins to breed about the middle of May.
On tne Dover cliffs, and other fuch places, they depoftt An feres.
tiieir imgle egg m the holes and crevices : in other places  v—
tney burfow like rabbits, if the foil is light, but more
frequently take poffeffion of rabbit burrows, and lay
their egg lome feet under ground. On St Margaret’s
nland, off St David’s, the fiihermen put their hands into
the holes, and the puffins feize them fo obftinately, that
they allow themfelves to be drawn out. In other places
they are caught with ferrets, and the young are taken
and pickled. About the latter end of Auguft they re¬
tire from our coafts, and have all migrated by the be¬
ginning of September. Their principal food is fmall
inn, particularly fprats, with which they feed their
young.
Great auh or penguin—Bill compreffed, edged; an tJ™ ■
oval fpot on each fide before the eyes. Bill black, with ^nni:'
tight or ten grooves ; wings Ihort and imperfed ; 1'econ-
dary quill feathers tipt with white ; legs black. Three
Eet long. Inhabits Europe and America ; occurs in
the moil northern parts of Britain, and breeds in the
ilie of St Kilda, appearing about the beginning of Mav
and retiring about the middle of June. The ffiortnefs
of its wings renders them ufelefs for flight, but of Angu¬
lar iervice m diving under water, where they ad as fins,
and thus enable it to purfue its prey with great velocity!
It lays an egg fix inches long, white and marked with
purple fpots, ciofe to the fea mark, being incapable of
a51(i almoft of walking.
Razorbill.—Bill with four grooves, and a white line r
on each fide as far as the eyes. Bill black ; the laradl °rda'
groo ,e white; body black above, the under parts,
from the middle of the throat white ; fecondary quill
feathers tipt with white ; legs black. In the young bird
the bill has but one groove, and, in the ftill younger,
there is no line from • the bill to the eyes. Eighteen
inches long. Inhabits Europe and North America,
l he birds of this fpecies affociate with the guillemots
and alto breed in the fame places. About the begin¬
ning of May they take poffeffion of the higheft impend-
ing rocks, for the purpofe of incubatioiq and on the
ledges of theie rocks they affemble in great numbers,
fitting clofely together, and often in a feries of notes one
above another. There they depofit their Angle laro-e
oaie rock, and notwithstanding the mul-
titudes of them which are thus mixed together, yet
no confuiion takes place; for each bird knows her own
egg,, and hatches it in that fituation. The razorbill is
provincially called auk, murre, falk, marrot, rdx\dfcout.
(tuk. Size of the mifiel thrufli; the lenoth 11 y
inches. Upper mandible of the bill bent at the point ;
colour yellow brown ; the ridge white; irides white and
furrounded with a black circle ; forehead covered with
downy feathers, wffiich are refiexed, half one way, and
half the other : behind the eyes a ftripe of wffiite ; ^xead
and neck black ; upper parts of the body black ; legs
livid ; webs black. Inhabits Japan and Kamtfchatka.
Is fometimes feen at a great diftance from land, when it
is folitary, but on land is gregariousfi
. Pen 0t}tiet auk.—Bill compreffed, with a fingle groove Pfatcuiila,
in each mandible; a white fpot on the upper eyelid, be¬
tween and under the eyes. Inhabits the fea between
Japan and Kamtfchatka, and often intimates approach¬
ing land to mariners.
Tufted auk.—Entirely black ; bill with three tranf-Cz’Tflto
verfe grooves, if inch in length, fcarlet 3 Aides of the;
hsadj Fig. i.
CCCXCVH,
Fig. a.
371
Alee.
O R N I T H
Anferes. head, fpace round the eyes, and the angle of the throat
 v ' white j a yellow tuft of feathers riles from the upper
eyebrow and ftretches to the neck } leg's brownilh
orange ; clawTs black j length 19 inches 5 female lels }
the tufts fmaller, and the bill crofled only with two
grooves. Inhabits Kamtfchatka and the neighbouring
illands.
Little auk, little black and white diver, Greenland
dove, fea turtle, &c.—Bill without furrows and coni¬
cal •, the whole abdomen and tips of the flag feathers
white-, feet black. There is a variety that_is totally
white, and another with a rufous breaft. Nine inches
long. Inhabits Europe and America, particularly Spitz-
bergen, Greenland, and Newfoundland, where they are
called ice birds; but they are rare vifitants of the Britifh
ifles.
Pigmy auk.—Bill carinated, depreffed at the bafe j
body black above, cinereous beneath. Seven inches
long. Inhabits the iilands between Alia and America.
372
Pygmtea
Gen. 35. AptenodytES, Penguin.
373
Apteno-
jJYTES.
Characters. Bill ftraight, a little compreffed and .lharp-edged; upper
mandible longitudinally and obliquely grooved, the
lower truncated at the tip j tongue with refleaed
prickles} wings fin-lhaped, without quill feathers }
feet placed behind, four-toed, and palmated.
The birds of this genus refemble thofe of the preced¬
ing in colour, food, habit, and apparent ftupidity, as alfo
in the fituation of their feet, in their erea walk, in their
nefts, and in their eggs. They differ from them, however,
in this, that they are all inhabitants of the South feas, from
the equator to the Antaralc circle. They are quite in¬
capable of flying, the feathers on their wings being fo ihort
as to refemble feales. They are fortified againll cold by an
abundance of fat; they fwim very fwiftly j on land they
fit erea, in a Angular manner, and in vaft multitudes,
and they cackle like geefe, only in a hoarfer tone.
Their noftrils are linear, and hidden in a furrow of the
billtheir wings covered with a lirong dilated membrane,
and their tail feathers very rigid.
Cbryfo- Crejled penguin.—Bill reddith brown ; legs reddiih }
come. frontal creft black, erea, auricular, fulphur colour, and
fhed on each fide ; body blueifh black, white beneath ;
wings white beneath. Female with a yellowifh ftiipe
on the eyebrow-. Twenty three inches long. Inhabits
the Falkland iflands, and the fouthern parts of New
Holland. Called hopping penguin and jumping jack,
from its aaion of leaping quite out of the w ater, for
three or four feet, at lead, on meeting with the Eaft
obftacle. Though more lively than its congeners, it is
fo foolifh as to allow itfelf to be knocked on the head
with a flick, or even to be taken by the hand. When
irritated, it eredts its creff in a beautiful manner. Thefe
birds make their nefts among thofe of the pelican tribe,
with w’hich they live in tolerable harmony, and feldom
lay more than one egg, which is white, and larger than
c that of a duck.
Patachon- Patagonian penguin.—Bill and legs black ; ears with
ica. a golden fpotlower mandible tawny at the bafe j indes
hazel-, head and hind part of the neck brown-, back
dark blue-, breaft, belly, and vent white. Four feet
three inches long. Inhabits Falkland iflands and New
Guinea. M. Bougainville caught one, which foon be¬
came fo tame as to follow and know- the perfon who had
O L O G Y. 507
the care of it 5 at firft it fed on flefh, fifn and bread, Anferes.
but alter fome time, grew- lean, pmed and died. T his v"""
fpecies is not only the largeft, but the fatteft of its
genus ; and its flefli, though not very unpalatable, is
black. 377
Cape penguin.—Bill and legs black 5 eyebrows and Demerfa.
pedloral band white. Size of a large duck j length 21
inches. Inhabits the Atlantic and Antarctic feas, chiefly
round the Cape of Good Hope. Lays twro white eggs,
which are reckoned delicious eating. Like all of ths
genus, fwims and dives well, but hops and flutters in a
ftrange awkward manner on land, and if hunied Humbles
perpetually, or makes ufe of its wings inflead of legs,
till it can recover its upright pofture, crying at the fame
time like a goole, but with a hoarfer voice. There are
two or three varieties. 37S
Little penguin.—Bill black 5 legs white, fifteen Minor.
inches long. Inhabits New Zealand. Digs deep holes
in the earth, in which it lays its eggs. ^
Gen. 36. Procell aria, Petrel. ^>CEI'LA”
Bill toothlefs, a little compreffed, hooked at the point; chJ:^ers
mandibles equal; noftrils cylindrical, tubular, trun¬
cated, lying on the bale of the bill } feet palmated,
hind claw feflile, and without a toe.
The birds of this genus all frequent the deep, where
they endure the greateft ftorms, being hardly ever feen
on Ihore, except at breeding time. They are, however,
Capable of walking, and their legs are bare of feathers
a little above the knee. They feed on the fat of dead
whales and fifh, and have the faculty of fpouting oil
from their noftrils. .gr
Pacific petrel.—Black j dufky beneath j legs fpotted pacifica.
with black ; bill plumbeous and much hooked ; noftrils
elevated, oval, diftimft, obliquely placed 5 legs pale.
Twenty two inches long. Inhabits, in vaft flocks, the
iflands of the Pacific ocean. ! hefe flocics difappear at
once, dipping under water altogether, and then rife as
fuddenly. _ 381
Diving petrel.—Blackifti brown \ white beneath -, bill Urinatrix.
and chin black; legs blue green, without the fpur be¬
hind. Eight inches and a half long. Inhabits New
Zealand in numerous flocks, and, dives remarkably well,
often riling at conliderable diftances, with furprifing
agility. They croak like frogs, and fometimes make a
noife like the cackling of a hen.
  —  _ 383
Stormy petrel, Jlormfnch, Mother Cary's chicken, &c. Pelagka.
—Black, with a white rump. This fpecies is about the Date
fize of a fwallow, and in its general appearance and ccxxcvn.
flight, not unlike that bird. Length of about fix inches. lg'
The ftormy petrel is rarely feen on our fhores, except in
fome of the northern iflands, where it breeds in the holes
of rocks, or under loofe Hones, in the months of June
and July. At all other feafons it keeps far out at fea.
Multitudes of them are feen all over the vaft Atlantic
ocean, efpecially before ftormy weather. They often
Ikim with incredible velocity along the hollows of the
waves, and fometimes on the fummits, braving the ut-
moft fury of the tempeft. As they appear to run on
the furface of the fea, they have their name from an
allufion to Peter's walking on the water. The inhabi¬
tants of the Faroe ifles draw a wick through the body
of this bird, which is fo fat as to burn when lighted, and
ferve the purpofe of a candle.—There is a variety with
3 S 2 the
ORNITHOLOGY.
_ 3S4
Nivea.
33s .
Qlacialis.
3S6
Gigantea,
387
Gelida.
388
Capenfis.
the body black ; bead and fides bluilh j fcrag green,
and wing coverts and rump fpotted with green. Both
forts are excellent divers, feed on fmall tithes, are mute
during the day, and clamorous in the night.
Snowy petrel.—Snow white ; fhafts of the feathers
and bill black ; legs dutky blue. One foot long. In¬
habits the colder parts of the Southern fea, efpecially in
the neighbourhood of ice, the maffes of which they often
haunt in contiderable docks.
Fulmar petrel or fulmar.—Whitifh } back hoary }
bill and legs yellowilh j noitriis compofed of two tubes,
lodged in one (heath. About the tize of the common
gull, and 17 inches long. Inhabits the Northern and
Southern feas j breeds in Greenland, Spitzbergen, St
Kilda, &c. laying one large white egg. It is a bold
and ftupid bird, and very fat, living on fifh, dead whales,
and other carcafes and filth, in queft of which it often
follows fhips for a great way. Its deih, though rancid,
is eaten raw, dried or boiled by the Kurile illanders, the
Greenlanders and St Kildians, and the oil when expref-
fed is ufed both for food and lamps. The young are in
fealon about the beginning of Auguft, when the inha¬
bitants of St Kilda endeavour to furprife them in their
nefts, to prevent them from fpouting out their oil, which
they do by way of defence. This oil is there valued as
a catholicon \ and every young bird yields nearly an
Englith pint of it, which is carefully preferved. When
the thermometer is above 52 degrees, it is very pure,
but at a lower temperature becomes turbid.
Giant petrel, ofprey petrel, or break bones.—Brownifh,
fpotted with white ; white beneath j fhouiders, wings
and tail brown ; bill and legs yellow 5 a naked, wrink¬
led, yellow membrane at the angles of the mouth.
Bigger than a goofe j length 40 inches j expanfion of
the wings feven feet. Common in the high fouthem la¬
titudes, and fometimes found, though more rare, in
the Northern feas. Is often feen failing with the wings
expanded, clofe to the furface of the water, but without
appearing to move them. At Chriilmas harbour, Ker¬
guelen’s land, &c. they were fo tame, that they fuftered
themfelves to be knocked on the head .with a flick, by
our failors, on the beach. Though their chief food is
fiih, they alfo feed on the carcafes of feals and birds.
Many of the failors confound them with the albatrofs,
though fuch of them as are better informed, call them
Mother Cary's geefe. They are reckoned to be very
good food. An individual of this fpecies is figured in
Latham’s Synopfis.
Glacial petrel.—Bluiih-ath ; back blackifh ; chin,
throat and bread white } bill yellow ; legs blue. Nine¬
teen inches long. Inhabits the icy feas.
Pintado, or pintado petrel.—Variegated with white
and brown, and fometimes with yellowith and brown 5
bill and legs black } temples white and black. Size of
the kittiwake ; length 14 inches. This is the pintado
bird of Dampier, the white and black fpotted peteril of
Edwards, and the Cape pigeon of our failors. It is fel-
dom feen much to the north of 30 degrees, and is molt
frequent about the Cape of Good Hope, and the neigh¬
bouring regions. It flies in very numerous flocks, which
almoft fweep the furface of the water. Our voyagers
have traced them to New Zealand, Falkland iflands, and
various regions of the fouthern hemifphere. The failors
often catch them with fome tarred ftring, or a bit of
!grd on a fifhing rod. Sometimes they appear in fuch
Gen. 37. Diomedea, J/Z-fl/ro/j.
Plate
CCC«CVI.
fig- S-
immenfe numbers, that 700 have been taken in one night. Anferes
T hey feed on fiih, but more frequently on the carcafes
of whales, bcc. ^
Shearwater petrel or Jbearwater.—Black above 5 F/<j):.nus.
white beneath j legs rufous; bill yellow, tipt with
black ; hind head whkith-afh; fpurious wings fpotted
with black j firit quill and tail feathers brown without
and white within. Weight 17 ounces j is 15 inches
long, and nearly the fize of a pigeon. Inhabits the
Southern and Arctic feas. Breeds in the ifle of Man,
and in the Orkneys, in the former of which it is called
manks puffin, and in the latter lyre. It takes poffeflion
of a rabbit burrow or other hole, and lays one white
egg 5 blunt at each end, which is hatched in Auguff.
Though the flefh is rank and fifhy, it is much relithed
by fome. Great numbers are killed and barrelled with
fait. Thefe the inhabitants boil, and eat with potatoes.
There is a variety that is cinereous above 5 white beneath,
and with a clear white tail.
39o
. _ Diomedea*
Bill ftraight, upper mandible hooked at the point, lower characters,
truncated; noftrils oval, wide, prominent, lateral;
tongue very fmall j toes three, all placed forwards.
Only four fpecies are known to belong to this genus.
Wandering albatrofs, or man of war bird.—White ; Exidans
back and wings with white lines ■, bill pale yellow' 5
legs flelh-colour 5 quill feathers black j tail rounded,
and lead coloured •, bill grooved, dirty yellow7; noftrils
remote from the bafe, and riling out of the furrow } tail
feathers fourteen ; thighs naked. From three feet and
a half to four feet, long ; bigger than a fwan ; weighs
from tw'elve to tw'enty-eight pounds ; and extends its
wings from ten to thirteen feet. Inhabits molt feas,
but chiefly occurs within the tropics. It is frequent
about the Cape of Good Hope, and towards the end of
July appears in great numbers in Kamtfchatka,. and the
feas w'hich feparate that part of Afia from America.
It is very voracious, feeding on the falmon, which are
found in fhoals, in the mouths of rivers, on the flying-
fifh, w'hen forced out of the water by the coryphcena,
and on other fifhes, w'hich it devours whole, and in fuch
quantities, as to be prevented by their weight from
rifing, though in general it foars very high. It likewife
preys on mollufea, and is itfelf attacked by the fea-
eagle, and the larus cataracfes. On the Ihore of South
America, it builds about the end of September, a neft
of earth on the ground, from one to three feet high, and
lays a number of eggs, which are four inches and a half
long, and eatable, though the white of them does not
coagulate with heat. Its voice refembles the braying of
an afs, and its flefh is dry and hard.
Chocolate albatrofs.—Bill w'hitifh j body deep chef- spndicca.
nut-browm 5 belly pale ; face and wings whitifh beneath;
Three feet long. Inhabits the Pacific ocean.
'Tellow-tiofed albatrofs.—White; bill black; keel oi chlot-ochyK-
the upper mandible and bafe of the lowrer yellow'; body ches.
above black-blue, white beneath. T hree feet long.
Occurs in the Southern hemifphere, from 30° to 6o°
all round the pole. Flies five or fix feet above the wa¬
ter. 1
Sooty albatrofs.—Brown; head, bill, tail, quill feathers
and claws footy-brown ; area of the eyes white. Three
feet long. Inhabits the Southern ocean within the on-
tar£Hc
O R N I T H
Ai,feres, tarftic circle. Called quaher by the fa.lois, on
'  ' count of its brown plumage.
Peleca- Gen. 28. Pelecanus, Pelican.
N 397 Bill ftraight, bent at the point, and fumiHied with a
Characters. ^ ^ noftrils form an almoft obliterated flit , face
fomewhat naked 5 legs balancing the body equally ,
the four toes connefled by a membrane.
The pelicans are gregarious, fond of fifli, and ^ gene¬
ral remarkable for their extreme voracity. For the
moft part they keep out at fea, but fome o ‘
likewife found in the interior parts of continents. T y
have all a long bill, in a lateral furrow of wl\ich lie t^
noftrils. Several of the tribe are rendered ufeful to
mankind by being taught to fifh.
A. Bill ’Without teeth.
Oulrota- White, or common White , gullet P“c ’
to. bill from fifteen to fixteen inches long, red , upper man
dible depreffed and broad, the lower forked i bag at the
throat flaccid, membranaceous, capable of great diften-
fion; hides hazel-, gape of the mouth v.de, head
naked at the fides, covered with a flefli-coloured fkm ,
Hndtad fomewhat crefted; body faintly tinged with
flefh colour > fpurious wings and firft quill feathers
black •, legs lead colour. Larger than a fwan and
about five feet long. Inhabits Afia, Africa, and South
America. In fifldng, this bird does not immediately
fwallow its prey, but fills its bag, and .returns to the
fhore to devour at leifure the fruits of its mduftry.
it quickly digefts its food, it has generally to fifh more
than once in the courfe of the day. _ At_ night it retires
a little way on the fhore to reft, with its head reftmg
againft its bread. In this attitude it remains almoft
motionlefs, till hunger calls it to break off its repofe
It then flies from its reftmg place, and railing itfe f
thirty or forty feet above the furface of the fea, turns its
head, with one eye downwards, and continues to fly m
that pofture till it fees a fifti fufficiently near the furface
when it darts down with aftomfhmg fwiftnefs, feizesit
with unerring certainty, and ftores it up m its pouc .
It then rifes again, and continues the fame manoeuvres,
till it has procured a competent flock. Clavigero in¬
forms us, that fome of the Americans, to procure a
fupply of fifli without any trouble, cruelly break the
wing of a live pelican, and after tying the bird to a tree,
conceal themfelves near the place, ihe fcreams of t e
wounded and confined bird attraft others of its kmd,
which ejeft for it a portion of provifions from their
pouches. As foon as the men obferve this, they rufti to
the fpot, and after leaving a fmall quantity for the bud,
carry off the remainder. The female feeds her young
with fifh macerated for fome time m her bag. Ihe pe¬
lican is fufceptible of domeftication, and may even be
trained to fifti for its mafter. Faber mentions an indi¬
vidual of this fpecies which was kept m the court of the
duke of Bavaria above forty years and which feemed
to be fond of the company of mankind, and of vocal
and inftrumental mufic. When a number of pelicans
and corvorants are together, they are faid to prafhce a
Angular method of taking fifh. They ipread into a
large circle, at fome diftance from land j the pelicans
flapping on the furface of the water with their extenfive
wings, and the corvorants diving beneath, tnl the .dh
o L O G Y.
contained within the circle, are driven before them to¬
wards the land *, and as the circle contrafts by the birds
drawing clofer together, the fifh at laft are brcmgh into
a fmall compafs, when their purfuers find no difficulty m
filling their bellies. In this exercife they are often at¬
tended by various fpecies of gulls, which hkewife ob¬
tain a ffiare of the fpoil. The pelican generally builds
in marffiy and uncultivated places, particularly in iftands
and lakes, making its neft, which is deep, and a foot
and a half in diameter, of cances, and lining it with
grafs of a fofter texture. It lays two or more white
ecras, which, when perfecuted, it fometimes hides m the
water. When it builds in dry and defert places, it
brings water to its young in its bag. It walks flowdy,
flies in flocks, and lives in fociety with other birds. 399
Rofe-coloured pelican.—Rofy •, gullet pouched ? bill Rofeui.
and legs black ; area of the eyes naked ; pouch yellow.
Size of a goofe. Inhabits Manilla. , , 4°°.
Frigate pelican, or frigate bird.—TxA forked j body Aqudus.
and orbits black-, bill red-, belly of the female white.
Three feet long 5 extent of the wings fourteen feet. In¬
habits wfithin the tropics. This is the frigate bird o
Dampier and other navigators. From its great expanle
of wing, it is capable of flying very fmoothly, and io
high as to be fcarcely vifible, remaining much m the
air, and remote from land. It feeds on fifties, particu¬
larly flying fiffi, on which it darts with the greateft ve¬
locity. It not unfrequently likewife preys on other pii-
civorous animals. It builds in trees or on rocks, arid
lays one or two eggs of a fleffi colour, and fpotted with
red * . 4°*
Le/Ter frigate pelican.-TiA forked 5 body ferrugi-
nous- bill and orbits red. Refembles the laft, but lefs. 4oz
Corvorant.—Tail rounded 5 body black; head fome-Car^
what crefted ; bill blackiffi ; thebafe of the lower man¬
dible covered with a yellowilh ikm, extending under the
chin, and forming a pouch; irides green.; chin white,
furrounded with a yellowiffi arch; tail long and lax,
confifting of fourteen feathers ; thighs with a white Ipot,
dotted with black ; legs black. Three feet long ; fize
of a goofe, but more flender, and weighs about leven
pounds. Inhabits Europe, £fta, and America Com¬
mon on many of our fea-coafts, building its neft on the
higheft parts of cliffs that hang over the fea and lay¬
ing three or more pale green eggs, about the fize of
thofe of a goofe. In winter thefe birds difperle along
the ffiores, and vifit the freffi waters, where they com¬
mit great depredations among the fifti. /hey ar/re¬
markably voracious, and have a very quick digeftion.
Though naturally extremely fhy and wary, they are ftupm
and eafily taken when glutted with food. I heir fmell,
when alive, is more rank and offenfive than that of any
other bird, and their fleffi is ft> difgufting, that even the
Greenlanders will hardly tafte it. It is not uncommon to
fee twenty of thefe birds together, on the rocks of the
fea coaft, with extended wings, drying themfelves in the
wind In this attitude they fometimes remain for near¬
ly an hour, without once ciofing their wings; and as
foon as the latter are fufficiently dry to enable the-
feathers to imbibe the oil, they prefs this liquor from
the receptacle on their rumps, and drefs the feathers-
with it 1 It is only in one particular ftate that the oily
mafter can be fpread on them, namely, when they are
fomewhat damp; and the inftinft of the birds teaches*
them the proper moment.. Corvorants were formerly
iometimes
ORNITHOLOGY.
404
Pygmaus.
405
Crijlutus.
406
Thagus.
407 ,
Baffhnus.
fometimes trained in this country, as they ftill are in
China, for the purpofe of catching fifh for the table.
With this view they were kept with great care in the
houfe, and when taken out for fifhing, they had a
leathern thong tied round their neck, to prevent them
from fwallowing their prey.
Shag.—Tail rounded ) body black, brown beneath j
tail feathers twelve *, head and neck black, with a green
glofs; back and wing-coverts purple black, glofly at the
edges j middle of the belly dufky 5 legs black. Weighs
about four pounds. Length twenty-nine inches. The
female weighs about three pounds and a quarter j and
is only twenty-feven inches long. Inhabits the northern
feas of Europe. Swims with its head ere£V and the
body under water. On perceiving the flafh of a gun,
dives inftantaneoufly, and rifes at a confiderable diftance.
Has the manners and habit of the preceding, and devours
a prodigious quantity of filh. Near the Cape of Good
Hope, a variety occurs with a yellow chin, and wedged
tail. Another, which frequents the coafts of Cayenne
and the Carribbee iflands, is blackifh above, brown be¬
neath j and has the feathers above edged with black.
Dwarf Jkag.—Tail wedged } feathers twelve j body
black, with a few fcattered white fpots, Female brown,
without fpots. Size of the garganey. Inhabits the
Cafpian fea.
Crejted fhag.—Shining green, dufky beneath •, bill
and legs dufky ; head crefbed. From two to three feet
long. Inhabits the northern feas of Europe, occurs on
our own coafts, and both in appearance and manners,
refembles the graculus.
B. Billferrated.
Saw-hilled pelican.—Brown •, tail rounded ; gullet
pouched, and covered with fhort cinereous feathers j bill
one foot long 5 each mandible hooked •, pouch very
large ; legs black. Size of a turkey ; extent of wings
nine feet. Inhabits Chili.
Gannet, or folandgoofe.—Tail wedged 5 body white j
bill and quill feathers black; face blue 5 irides yellow-
ifh ; tail feathers twelve 5 eyes furrounded with a naked
fkin of fine blue 5 legs black, and greenifh on the fore
part. Three feet long. Weighs feven pounds 5 and
inhabits Europe and America. This fpecies of pelican
haunts the Bafs ifland in the frith of Edinburgh, Ailfa,
on the coaft of Ayrfhire, the ifland of St Kilda, and
hardly any where elfe in Europe. It arrives a,t thefe
fpots in March, and continues till September. As it
muft let itfelf fall before it takes wing, it requires a
fteep and precipitous breeding ftation. It makes a rude
neft of flicks, grafs, fea-plants, &c. and lays one egg.
While the female is occupied with incubation, the male
brings her food, which confifts almoft entirely of her-
uings and fprats. In the bag under their bill they are
able to fetch four or five herrings at a time, and a great
number of fprats, which the young bird extradls from
the mouth of the old one, with its bill, as with pincers.
The young begin to be taken in Auguft, and by fome
are relifhed as an exquifite morfel} but the old ones are
tough and rancid. The fowler who feizes the young,
is let down by a rope from the top of a cliff, and is
fometimes ftationed on the flippery projection of a rock,
with the perpendicular precipice of four hundred feet or
more beneath him. The young are of a dark-gray
colour, and continue ro for a year or more, when they
3
gradually become white, except the tips of their wings, Anferes.
which are always black. In September and October   
the old birds leave their breeding places, and migrate
fouthward, following, as is alleged, the fhoals of her-
rings. In December they are often feen dff Lifhon
plunging for fardinae ; but after that period, it is not
well known what becomes of them till March. They
are common on the coafts of Norway and Iceland, and
are faid to be met with in great numbers about New
Holland and NewT Zealand. They alfo breed on the
coaft of Newfoundland, and migrate fouthward along
the American ftiores as far as South Carolina. Of this
fpecies there are two varieties. The firft is brown,
fpotted with white, and white beneath, with naked and
blackifh. The fecond is brown, with triangular white
fpots, whitifh, and fpotted rvith brown beneath } the
bill, wings, tail, and legs brown. 408
Laffer gannet.—Tail wedged ; body whitifh ; all the PtfcaUr.
quill feathers black ; face red. Two feet and a half
long. Inhabits the Chinefe, Indian, and American
feas. _ ... 4°9
Booby.—Tail wedged j body whitifh j primary quill Sula.
feathers tipt with blackifh •, face red j bill gray, brown-
ifh at the bafe ; irides pale afh j chin bald, yellowifh ;
body ^hite beneath } tail brownifh at the tip j legs
yellowifh. Has its name from being fo foolifh as to
alight on one’s hand, if held out to it, when tired.
Builds in places bare of trees, making its neft on the
ground. Its flefh is black and rancid. 410
Fijhing corvorant—Tail rounded j body brown, Sinenfis.
whitifh, and fpotted with brown beneath •, throat white j
bill yellowT} irides blue. Inhabits China, where it is
tamed for the purpofe of catching fifh. 4II
Leffer booby.—Black, white beneath •, face downy. Parvus.
Eighteen inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.
413
Gen. 39. Plotus, Darter. Plotus.
413
Bill ftraight, pointed, toothed 5 noftrils an oblong flit Charadters.
near the bafe j face and chin naked; legs fhort j all
the toes connected.
The birds of this genus have a fmall head, and long
flender neck. They inhabit the fouthem and warmer
latitudes, and live chiefly on fifh, which they take by
darting the head forwards, while the neck is contracted
like the body of a ferpent. 414
White-bellied darter.—Head fmooth belly white. Anhinga.
Inhabits Brazil. Two feet ten inches long. Builds
on trees, and is fcarcely ever feen on the ground.
When at,reft, it fits with the neck drawn in between
the fhoulders. The fiefh is oily and rancid. 4X5
Black-bellied darter.—Head fmooth ; belly black. ^1™°'
About three feet long. Inhabits Ceylon, Java, &c. piate
There are feveral varieties. cccxcvi.
Surinam darter.—Head crefted; belly white. Thir- Pig- 4-
teen inches long. Inhabits Surinam. Is domefticated, _ 416
and feeds on fifh and infects, efpecially flies, which it J^tHamen
catches with great dexterity.
Gen. 40. Phaeton, Tropic Bird.
418
Bill fharp-edged, ftraight, pointed, the gape extending characters,
beyond the bill: noftrils oblong 5 hind-toe turned
forwards.
The
Anferes.
4T9
JEthereus.
Plate
CCCXCVI.
f‘g- 3-
410
Mdanor-
hyncbos.
421
Pheenicu-
rus.
O n N I T H
The fpecies of this genus inhabit the South ica, efpe-
cially between the tropics. Their bill is coiupreft'ed,
and bent a little downwards j the lower mandibie angu-
lated. The feet have four toes, which are palmated.
The tail is cuneiform, and diftinguilhed by tue great
length of the two intermediate feathers.
Common trojnc bird.—White } back, rump, and lefier
winy-coverts itreaked with white; twro middle tail
feathers black at the bafe j bill red. Two feet ten inches
long ; fize of a wigeon. Flies very high, and at a great
distance from land j feeds on young (harks, dolphins,
and albicores. On land, where it is rarely feen except
in the breeding feafon, it fits on trees, and builds on die
ground, in woods. It is well known to navigarors, lo
whom it generally announces their approach to the tro¬
pic, though this indication is by no means infallible, as
the bird fometimes wanders to the latitude or 47 2 •
is fubject to varieties. Its (lefh is indifferent.
Black-bi/'ed tropic bird.—Streaked black and white,
white beneath j bill black } quill feathers tipt witn
white \ tail feathers with black. Nineteen inches and
a half long. Inhabits Palmefton and Turtle iflands.
Red-tailed tropic bird.—Rofy tie fir colour •, bill and
two middle tail feathers red. Two feet ten inches long,
of which the two middle tail feathers meafure one foot
nine inches. Builds in hollows in the ground, under
trees, and lays two yellowdh-white eggs, with rufous
fpots. Inhabits the Mauritius.
422
CoLYMBUS
Gen. 41. Colymbus.
Characters. Bill toothlefs, Tabulate, ftraigbt, and pointed j throat
toothed ; noftrils linear, at the bale of the bill \ feet
placed far behind.
The birds of this family walk on land witn awkward-
nefs and difficulty, but fwim and dive with great dexte¬
rity. The guillemots chiefly inhabit the fea} have a
{lender tongue, of the fize of the bill. X he latter is
compreffed, and covered with fliort feathers at the bafe 5
the upper mandible a little bent j fleffi tough, and like
the eggs, naufeous. The divers frequent alfo the
northern lakes, have a ftrong bill, lefs pointed, cylindri¬
cal, the edge of the mandible turned in, and the upper
longer than the under •, the noltrils divided in the mid¬
dle by a membrane \ the tongue long, {harp, lerrated at
the bafe on each fide } legs {lender, a black band be¬
tween the thighs tail feathers twenty. Thefe birds are
monogamous, fly with difficulty, and frequent frelh
water in the breeding feafon. I he grebes have no Lad,
a ftrong bill, lores naked, tongue a little cleft at the tip,
body depreffed, thickly covered with fhort (liining
plumages, wings fhort, and legs comprefied. Ihey are
frequently found about the frefii waters of fouthern Eu¬
rope.
„ , A. Teet three-toed. Guillemot.
Guillemot.
435 White guillemot.—Snowy } bill and legs brown;{h
lleo.us. ancj figfh-coloured. Size of the garganey. Inhabits the
, Netherlands.
Grylle. Black guillemot, /potted guillemot, Greenland dove, fea
turtle, in'c.—Body black wing-coverts white. But
thefe general markings are incident to great variety.
The more fpecial charafteriftics are j bill black, infide
of the mouth and legs red j upper wing-coverts in the
middle, and lower part of the belly white. Weighs
o L o G Y. 511
fourteen ounces, and meafures nearly the fame number An teres.
of inches in length. Inhabits Europe and America. Fre^
quents the Faroe iilands, the Bafs, St Kilda, &c. viliting
thefe places in March, making its r.eft far under ground,
and laying one egg of a dirty white, blotched with pale
ruft-colour. Except at breeding time, it keeps always
at fea, lives on fiih, tiles low, and generally, in pairs.
It cannot without much difficulty, rile from the ground.
In the Orkney iilands, it is called ty/e. The Green¬
landers eat its rlelh, and uie its {kin lor cloathing, and
its legs as a bait to their fiffiing lines. 427
Le/jer guillemot.—Black, with a narrow 11 ripe acrofs Minor.
the wings, cheeks and under parts white. Weight
eighteen or nineteen ounces j length about fixteen inches.
Inhabits the northern leas of Europe, and in winter fre¬
quents the frith of Forth in vail flocks} where it feeds
on fprats, and is called marrot, or tnorrot. Many doubts
have been entertained with regard to this bird, Dr
Latham and other ornithologiils having confidered it as
the young of the fucceeding fpecies. It is to be ob-
ferved, however, that befides the difference in fize and
plumage, this bird is rarely met with in the fouth till
the month of November, whence it has been called the
winter guillemot, whereas the other fpecies always leaves
us before September, and does not again appear till the
enfuing fpring ; and that its young, when they depart,
are exactly like the old ones.
Foolifh guillemot or fcout.—Body black j breaft and Troile. -
belly fnowy •, fecondary quill feathers tipt with white 5
bill black ; infide of the mouth yellow 5 legs and tail
blackilh. Seventeen inches long. Inhabits the northern
feas of Europe, Afia, and America. This fpecies is
likewife called marrot in Scotland, and lavie in St Kil¬
da. In that ifland it appears about the beginning of
February, and is hailed by the inhabitants as the har¬
binger of plenty. A St Kilda man defcends .in the
night, by the help of a rope, to the ledge of a precipice,
where he fixes himfelf, and tying round him a piece of
white linen, awaits the arrival of the bird, which, mii-
taking the cloth for a piece of the rock, alights on it,
and is immediately dilpatched. In this way 400 are
fometimes taken in one night, and at daivn the fowler
is drawn up. The foolifii guillemot lays but one egg,
which is very large, unprotecied by any neft, and lias
fuch a {lender hold of the rock, that when the birds are
furprifed, and fly off fuddealy, many of them tumble down
into the fea, Thefe birds feldom quit their eggs unlefs
dilturbed, but are fed with fprats and other final! fiffi by
the male. In places where they are feldom molefted, it .
is with difficulty they are put to flight, and may fome¬
times be taker! with the hand ; others flutter into the
water, appearing not to have much ufe of their wings.
429
B. Four-toed, and palmated. ■ Diver. Diver.
43°
Red-throated diver or loon.—A ferruginous fhield-Kke Septentrio-
foot beneath the neck } body brown, with minute white natu
fpets above, white beneath ; bill black 5 head and chin
cinereous, {potted with brown ; neck with finall white
and brown lines above 5 legs duiky. Weighs about
three pounds. • Length near two feet and a half. In¬
habits the north of Europe, Afia, and America, and is
feldom feen far fouthward, except in very fevere winters.
In the breeding feafon it frequents the lakes, making a
neft among the reeds and flags, and lays two eggs of an
afli colour, marked with a few black fpots. In Iceland
it y
SI2
O R N I T II
An feres.
431
Arfticus.
432
Stellatus.
433 .
Clacialis.
434
Immer.
, 435
Grebe.
43 4
Crift at us.
it is faid to make its rudt of mofs and grafs, lined with
down, among the grafs of the fliores contiguous to the
waters. It breeds in the north of Scotland, but is fel-
dom obferved in the fouth of England. It lives on
marine vermes, crabs, and the fmaller fillies, with which
it is fometimes taken in nets. It fwims and flies fwiftly 5
and when it fcreams in jts flight is faid to prefage a
ftorm.
Black-throated diver.— Head hoary ; neck violet
black beneath, with an interrupted white band; bill
black ; body black above, white beneath ; fides of the
neck white, Ipotted with black; Ihoulders and wing-
coverts with white fpots, the former fquare, the latter
round ; quill feathers dufky. Two feet long. Inhabits
the northern parts of Europe, Afia, and America, fre¬
quenting both the fea and lakes. Before rain, it is relt-
lefs and clamorous; occurs in Scotland, but is not com¬
mon in England.
Speckled diver or loon.—White beneath ; hind-head
and quill feathers dulky ; throat pale-alh ; back, flanks,
rump, and tail fpotted with white ; bill horn colour;
legs brown. The wTeight of this fpecies is about four
pounds, and the length 27 inches. It inhabits the
north of Europe and America, and is among the moll
common of the diver tribe found in this country, being
frequently feen in winter, in our bays and inlets, and
fometimes in frelh water rivers and lakes. From its at¬
tending the fprats in the Thames, it is called fprat-loon
by the fifhermen. In the northern regions it lays two
eSgs) tta fize of thofe of a goofe, dulky, and with a few
black fpots, in the grafs, on the borders of lakes.
Northern diver or greatejl fpecklcd diver.—Head and
neck purplilh-black; chin and upper part of the neck
with a white interrupted band ; upper part of the body,
bill, legs, and tail black ; back with fquare white fpots
diipefed in rows ; wing-coverts with white dots. The
largelt of the genus fometimes weighing fifteen or fix-
teen pounds; and meafuring nearly three feet and a half
in length. Inhabits the north feas, and breeds in the
frelh waters, in Iceland, Greenland, &c. Frequents
the feas about the Orkneys, all the year round, without
breeding there. The Ikin, which is tough, and well
covered with foft down, is dreffed in fome parts of Ruf-
fia, &c. and ufed as cloathing.
Immer, tmber, or ember goofe, or diver.—Body
blaekilh and waved with white above, white beneath ;
feathers of the back, wings, and tail edged with white.
Two feet long. Inhabits the Arftic ocean, and alfo, it
is faid, the lake of Conftance, where it is called finder.
Unlefs in fevere winters, it is rare in England, but is
more common on the Scottilh and Orkney coafts. It
makes its nell on the water, among reeds and flags. It
feeds on filh, after which it dives with great celerity,
and is fometimes taken under water, by a baited hook.
C. Teet four-toed, lobed. Grebe.
Crefiedgrebe, gray, or afh-colourcd loen, rb'c.—Head
rufous; collar black ; fecondary quill feathers white ;
bill flefli-coloured, brown at the tip ; lores and irides
red ; body brown above, white beneath ; head tumid,
and varies in colour by age. During the firlt year,
this bird has a fmooth head, and a white fpot on the
wings; and during the fecond, a long downy tuft on
each fide of the throat. This is the largeft of the
grebes, weighing about two pounds and a half, and mea-
4
O L O G Y.
hiring twenty-one inches in; length. It occurs in al- Anferes.
moft every lake in the northern parts of Europe, as far w—
as Iceland, and fouth ward to the Mediterranean, and is
alfo found in various parts of America and Siberia. It
is common in the fens and lakes in various parts of Eng¬
land, wfliere it breeds. The female makes her neft of
various kinds of dried fibres, ftalks and leaves of water
plants, as of the nymphaea, potamogeton, hottonia, &c.
and the roots of menyanthes trifoliata, and conceals it
among the flags and reeds wdiich grow in the water, and
where it is erroneoufly faid to float. The young are fed
on fmall eels. In fome.countries, ladies muff's and other
ornamental articles of drefs are made of the Ikin of the
belly of this fpecies, which has a fine down of a dazzling
whitenefs. It requires five Ikins to make a muff' which
fells at four or five guineas. The tippet grebe is the
female or young of this fpecies.
Eared grebe or dobchick.—Blackilh-brown above, Aurftus.
■white beneath; head black ; ears crefted, and ferrugi- Date
nous; bill and legs black ; irides and lores red; pri- CCC.XCV1$
mary quill feathers dulky, fecondary white. There is F,g' 4‘
a fmaller variety, with a double creft, and the neck
fpotted with chefnut. This fpecies is about twelve
inches long, and inhabits the northern lakes of Europe
and Siberia. It is alfo met with in fouthern climates,
but is not numerous in England. According to Pen¬
nant, it breeds in the fens near Spalding in Lincoln-
Ihire, and the female makes a neft not unlike that of
the preceding, laying four or five fmall white eggs. 433
Horned grebe*—Head gloffy-green ; a yellow tufted Cornutus.
baud through the eyes; neck and breaft tawny. Size
of the preceding. Inhabits North America.
Little grebe or fmall dipper.—Of a reddifh-brown
above, white, with fpots beneath ; head fmooth ;
feathers of the body edged with reddilh ; lower part of
the belly gray; upper wing-coverts, and firft and laft quill
feathers blackilh, reft of the quill feathers white ; bill
blackiih ; bafe of the lower mandible reddilh ; legs
blackilh-green. Inhabits Europe, North America, the
Philippine ifles, and the Delta in Egypt. The leaft of
the grebe tribe, weighing only between fix and feven
ounces, and meafuring from the tip of the bill to the
rump, ten inches. It feldom quits the water, and is a
remarkable diver, feeding on filh, infedls, and aquatic
plants; conftru6Iing a large neft, a foot thick, of grafs
and the ftalks of aquatic plants, in the midft of the wa¬
ters which pervade it, and laying five or fix wdntifh eggs,
which it covers when it leaves the neft. In feveral parts
of this country it is called didapper.
Red-necked grebe.—Subcrefted, brown ; chin, cheeks, R2ihricol-
and region of the fears cinereous ; under part of the Us.
neck and breaft rufty-red ; belly, and fecondary quill
feathers white; bill black, the fides tawny at the bale ;
irides tawny ; legs dulky. Seventeen inches long ; and
weighs nearly nineteen ounces. Inhabits Europe, but
is very rare in Britain. 441
Dufky grebe or black and white dobchick.—Head Olfcurus<
fmooth ; body dark brown above ; front, under parts of
the body, and tips of the fecondary quill feathers, white.
Eleven inches long. Inhabits Europe and America.
Breeds in the fens of Lincolnfhire, and is found, in the
winter, in our inlets on the coaft, particularly in De-
vonfhire, where it is by no means uncommon.
Black-chin grebe.—Head fmooth; body biackifh ; Hebridicut.
chin black ; throat ferruginous; belly -cinereous, mixed
with
Ar,feres.
443
Larus.
444
Charadlers.
O Pt N I T H
with filvery. Somewhat larger than the little grebe.
Inhabits Tiree, one of the Hebrides.
Gen. 42. Larus, Gull.
Eill ftraight, {harp-edged, a little hooked at the tip, and
without teeth ; lower mandible gibbous below the
point ", noltrils linear, broadeft on the fore part, and
placed in the middle of the bill.
The birds of this genus have a light fmooth body
long wings •, a ftrong bill; the tongue fomewhat cleft 5 the
feet (hort} bare of feathers above the knee j with a imali
back toe. They inhabit the north j feed chiefly on fifties,
and even on thofe that are dead. W hen haraffed, they
throw up or difcharge their food. As the young are
fometimes fpotted to their third year, tlm extrication of
the fpecies is attended with doubt and difficulty.
A. No/2ri/s without a cere.
Tridahy- Tarrock or kittiwake.—Whitifti ; the back grayilh >
lus. tips of the tail feathers, except the outermoft, black 3
three toes. In maturer age, the chara&ers are 3 back
whitifti-hoary 3 quill feathers white 3 hind toe unarmed.
Ornithologifts, in fa£l, feem now to be agreed, that
Z. tridaBylus and L. riffa, are only varieties of the fame
fpecies. A third variety occurs, diilinguiftied by an
oblique black bland on the wings, and white chin.
About the fize of a pigeon 3 about fourteen inches long.
Inhabits Eairope, Alia, and America. Breeds on the
cliffs about Flamboroughhead, the Bafs, ifle of M*y,
the rocks near Slains Caftle, &c. 3 lays two eggs 3 feeds
on fifties, and feeks its food in company of feals and
whales. It fwims and flies rapidly, and is often clamor¬
ous. Its flefti is much reliftied by the Greenlanders,
who alfo make clothing of its {kin. One that was
kept and tamed, knew its mailer’s voice at a diftance,
and anfwered him with its hoarfe piping note. It had
a voracious appetite, and though plentifully fed on
. ,6 bread, would rob the poultry of their {hare.
Minutus. Little gull.—Snowy 3 head and beginning of the neck
black 3 back and wings ruffet 3 bill brown-red 3 legs
fcarlet. Size of a thrufti. Inhabits Ruflia and Siberia.
Canitf! Common gull. —W/kite 3 back hoary 3 primary quill
feathers black at the ends, the fourth and fifth with, a
black fpot at the tip, the outer one black without 3 bill
yellow 3 irides hazel 3 legs greenith white. A variety
is met with that has the head fpotted with brown 3 neck
brown above, and tail feathers white, with a black band.
This is generally fuppofed to be the younger bird. In¬
habits Europe and America. Seventeen inches long 3
of the fize of a pigeon; and is feen in numerous flocks,
continually fcreaming. Lives on fifties, vermes, and the
larvae of infefts 3 builds among rocks and flones, and is
a foolilh bird. The molt common and numerous 03 all
the Britifti gulls, breeding on rocky cliffs, and laying two
eggs, nearly the fize of thofe of a common hen, of an
olive brown colour, marked with dark-reddifti blotches.
At the mouths of the larger rivers they are feen in num¬
bers, picking up the animal fubftances which are call on
ftiore, or come floating down with the ebbing tide, h or
this kind of food they watch with a quick eye, and it
is curious to obferve how fuch as are near the breakers
will mount up the furface of the water, and run fplaftiing
towards the fummit of the wave to catch the objecl of
their purfuit. At particular feafons, this fpecies alfo re-
ibrts to the inland parts of the country, to feed on
VOL, XV. Part II.
O L O G Y. 513
worms, &c. Some perfons who live near the fea, com- Ar^res- ,
monly eat this, as well as various other kinds of gulls,
which they defcribe as being good food, when they have
undergone a certain fweetening proceis beiore cooking 3
fuch as burying them in frefti mould for a day, or waih-
inw them in vinegar, ihis ipecies breeds on the ledges
ofrocks, clofe to the fea-ftiore, fometimes not far above
the water. This bird is frequently leen in winter, at a
confiderable ddlance from the coail. It flocks with
rooks in fevere weather, and will follow tne plough for
the fake of the larvae of the chaffer. ? 44s
Black-backed gull or great black end white gull.— Marinas.
White 3 back black 3 bill yellow. 3 lower mandible with a
red fpot near the tip and black 111 the middle 3 irides yel¬
low 3 lower part of the back white 3 quid feathers brack,
tipt with white 3 legs flefti-coloured. The markings, how¬
ever, vary confiderably with the age of the biid. Ihe
weight of this fpecies is four pounds and three quarters 3
and the length near thirty inches. It inhabits Europe
and America. Though not very plentiful on our coafts,
it is occafionally feen in fmall flocks, of e.ignt or ten,
fometimes in pairs, but never affociating with the otner
gulls. It cackles like a goofe, lives chiefly on fhn, but
alfo infefts the eider duck, and even lambs. It has been
known to tear and devour the largell fifti on the hooks,
when left dry by the ebbing tide. It breeds on the
fteep holmes, and Lundy illand, in the Briftor channel,*,
makes a neft in the clefts of the higheft. rocks, and lays
three eggs of a blackifh-gray colour, with dark purple
fpots 3 and eatable. Its {kin is ufed for clothing by
the Elkimaux and Greenlanders 3 and the young not
only affords a fine down, but an article of rood.
Herring gull.—White 3 back brown 3 legs yellow^ 3 Yufcvs.
bill yellow 3 irides ftraw-coloured 3 five firft qudl feathers
black above. Weight about thirty-three ounces 3
length twenty-three inches. Inhabits Europe, Alia,
and°North America, proceeding fouthward in winter as
far as the Black and Cafpian feas, Jamaica, and the
i{lands on the {bore of South Carolina. It lives on fift;,
efpecially herrings, which it feizes with great boldnefs,
and the Ihoals of which it accompanies in hocks. It is
fometimes obferved to trample the foft fand, by moving
its feet alternately in the fame place, for tne. purpofe, it
is fuppofed, of forcing up fand-eels, or fome hidden prey.
This fpecies is very common on the Bntifli ffiores 3
makes its neft of dry grafs on the projeaing ledges of
the rocks, and lays three eggs of a dull whitifti colour,
fpotted with black. Fiftiermen defcribe it as the con-
ftant, bold, and intruding attendant on their nets, fioni
which they find it difficult to drive it away. 450
Black-headed gull.—Whitifti 3 head blackifti.5 bill Atricilla.
red 3 legs black. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits Eu¬
rope and America. Flies about the. ftiorcs in flocks,
with a continual clamour 3 and builds in. pine-trees. ^
Laughing or black-headed gull.—hitiftij head black-
ifti 3 bill and legs pale red. Eyelids red 3 irides hazel \dus.
head and chin dulky-brown 3 and in the full-grown
bird, black 3 firft ten quill. feathers white-edged, and
tipt with black, the reft cinereous, tipt with w'hite 3
claws black. This fpecies has its name from its Angular
cry, which refemblfis a hoarfe laugh. It is fifteen inches
long; inhabits Europe, America, and the Bahama
i(lands ; and breeds in the pools and fens of England,
tnakim its neft on the ground, with ruflies, di >ed grais,
&c. and laving three greenifli-brown eggs, fpotted with
3 T tawny.
5’4 O R N I T H
Anferes. tawny. “ In former times, (fays Mr Bewick.), thefe
‘■i.r—-v wefe lGOkeJ Upcn as valuable property by the
owners of fome of the fens and maifhes in this kingdom,
who every autumn caufed the little iflets or hafts in thole
waftes, to be cleared of the reeds and rulhes, in order
properly to prepare the fpots for the reception of the old
birds in the fpring, to which places at that feafon they
regularly returned in great flocks to breed. The young
ones were then highly efteemed as excellent eating; and
on that account were caught in great numbers before
they were able to fly. Six or feven men, equipped for
this bufinefs, waded through the pools, and wilh long
leaves drove them to the land, againft nets placed upon
the (bores of thefe hafts, where they were eafily caught
by the hand, and put into pens ready prepared for their
reception. The gentry affembled from all parts to fee
the (port.” “ Thefe were the fee-guiles of -which we
read as being fo plentifully provided at the great feafls
of the ancient nobility and bifhops of this realm. Al¬
though the flefli of there birds is not now efteemfed a
dainty, and they are feldom fought after as an .article
of food, yet in the breeding feafon, where accommoda¬
tion and pro'ecHon are afforded them, they ilill regular¬
ly refort to the fame old haunts, which have been occu
pied by their kind for a long time paft.”
B. Nojlrils covered with a cere.
452
Parafiticus. Arctic gull-,—Two middle-tail feathers very long;
bill and legs dulky •, body black above ; temples, front,
and under parts of the body white 5 bread: with a dulky
band. Female brown beneath j twenty-one inches long.
Inhabits Europe, Afla, and America. Breeds in the
Hebrides arid Orkneys, among the heath, making its
nefl: of grafs and mofs, in fome marfliy place, and laying
tw’o eggs, the fize of thofe of a hen, alh-coloured and
fpotted with black. It is very rapacious, and purfues
the leffer gulls, not for their dung, as fome have afferted,
but to make them difgorge what they have lately eaten,
which it dexteroufly catches and devours before it reaches
the -water. It is to be remarked, that all this -tribe are
voracious, and if chafed by a hawk, or other bird that
creates alarm, readily difgorge, in order to lighten them-
felves, and thus efcape by flight. It is no uncommon
thing to fee them bring up a large quantity of half di-
gefted food, when (lightly wounded by fhot ■, and tam¬
ed gulls will do the fame, if driven by a dog. It may
alfo be obferved, that gulls float highly on the furface
of the water by reafon of the quantity of feathers in pro¬
portion to their weight, and feem to be incapable of
diving. If they fhould be wounded ever fo (lightly, and
fall into the water, they never attempt to dive like other
^ aquatic birds.
Crepidatus. Blach-toedgull.—Varied with dirty white and brown,
paler beneath ; two middle tail feathers a little longer ;
hill black; breaft and belly white, with numerous
dulky and yellowifh lines 5 flanks and vent tranfverfely
black and white 5 wing-coverts and tail black edged
with white or brownifh ; legs bluifh •, toes and connect¬
ing membrane black. Weight about eleven ounces j
length fifteen or fixteen inches. Inhabits Europe and
America, but is not common on the Britilh (bores. Its
habits nearly coincide with thofe of the preceding fpecies.
Its excrement is faid to be red, from the circumftance of
4^4 its feeding on the helix janthina.
Catarrac- Skua quill.—Grayifh ; quill and tail feathers white
tes.
O L O Cx Y.
at the bafe ; tail nearly equal; bill duiky, much hook- Arfercs
ed, upper mandible covered halfway with a black cere ,
body brown above, rufty-alh beneath; legs blackifiq
rough, warty j claws hooked, black j hind-toe fiicrt’
nitn a (harp-hooked claw j two feet long. Inhabits
Europe and America. Thefe fierce birds are met with
by navigators in the high latitudes of both hemifphercs,
where they are much more common than in the warm
or temperate parts of the globe. They are of en men¬
tioned in Captain Cooke’s Voyages, and, from their being
numerous about Falkland iflands, the feamen call them
Port Egmont hens. rl hey are al(o common in Norway,
Iceland, the Shetland arid Faroe ifles, &c. They prey
not only on fiflr, but alfo on the leffer forts of water fowl,
and are fo courageous in defence of thp'r own younm,
that they attack either man or beaft, that dares to dis¬
turb their reft. They make their nefls among the dry
grafs, and, rvhen the young are reared, they difperie
themfelves commonly in pairs oyer the ocean. In the
bland of Fpula, in Shetland, the fkua gull is called
bonxle, and is a privileged bird, there being a fine of
10I. Scotch for deftroying its eggs, becaufe it keeps off
the eagle during the whole breeding feafon.
Gen. 42. Sterna, Tern. 4'5
’ Sterxva.
Bill fubulate, fomewhat ftraiglit, pointed, a little com- 456
prefled, without teeth 5 noftrils linear j tongue point-^iaia^ers‘
ed ; wings very long ; tall generally loiked.
The birds of this genus.are moftly inhabitants of the
ocean, and feed on fifties. They are feldom afraid of
man.
Sooty tern.—Black above ; upper parts of the body, _ .
cheeks, front and fliafts of the quill and tail feathers1 v“‘n‘°-a‘
white ; fixteen inches long. Inhabits the Atlantic and
Antarctic feas
Teddy.—Body black j front whitifh 5 eye-brows black 5
bill and legs blacks 5 hind-head cinereous; fifteen inches
long; found chiefly within the tropics; is clamorous,
foldom goes far from (bore, and always refis there du¬
ring the night. It builds on the rocks, and its eggs are
reckoned excellent food.
Sandwich tern.'—White; back and wings hoary; 459
cap black ; front with white fpots ; quill feathers black-
ifh, with a white ftiaft; bill black, yellowifli at the tip;
legs black; wings longer than the. tail; egg olive-
brown, with purplifli and crowded fpots; eighteen
inches long. Inhabits the Kentiftr corft, generally ap¬
pearing about Romney, in the middle of April, and de¬
parting in the beginning of September. It is not un¬
common about Sandwich, where it was firft particularly
noticed by Mr Boys. The circumftance of its breed¬
ing in England has not been perfectly afeertained. The
havia of fome authors, or the Kamtfchatkan tern of
Pennant, appears to be only a variety, which is black,
with paler colours above; white beneath ; and bill and
legs black.
Common, or greater tern.—Two outer tail feathers . 4^°
half black, and half white ; bill and legs crimfon ; the unao'
former tipt with black ; crown and area of the eyes
black ; reft of the head, neck, tail, and bodv, white be¬
neath ; back and wings cinereous; outer tail feathers
black on the outer edge. There is a variety with black
legs, and tbe outer tail feathers entirely white. The
weight of this fpecies is about feur ounces and a quarter ;
and
ORNITHOLOGY.
Ar.feres, -nd its lengtli fourteen inches. Inhabits Europe, Afia,
 y and America. It frequents our flat, fandy, or llnngly
(bores, and lays three or four eggs, of the fize of a pi-
peon’s, of an olivaclous brown, and fpotted and blotch¬
ed with duikv, among (tones, without making any neft.
It is noify and reftlefs, conflaniry on v>mg, in fearch of
infects and fmall fiflr in purfuit of which it darts into
the water with great force, feizes its prey, and inftantly
returns} for, though web-footed, it is not obferved to
fwim or dive. It is commonly known by the name of
the feci pivclllow, and, in Come parts, by that of the gull
teafcr, from its perfecuting the fmaller gulls, and obli¬
ging them to difgorge. In iSew England it is called
macharel gull, and at Hudfon’s bay it is known by
the name of black-head. Ihe young birds are mottled
with brown and white, and are, mod probably, the brown
tern defcribed by Ray and other ornithologifts.
VPliite tern.— White j bill and legs black ■ length
between two and three inches. Inhabits tne Cape of
Good Hope.
Black-headed tern.—Body hoary •, head and bill black •,
legs red •, fize of the preceding. Inhabits Europe.
Lefer tern.—Body white •, back hoary ; front and
461
Alba.
462
Nigra.
Minuta.
Plate eye-brows white •, bill yellow, tipt with black •, hides
CCCXCVIl , •  n Wr,,-!- Lan/t iVit-nncrh the eves :
F‘g- 5-
464
Fijiprs.
■I^S
Rynchops.
466
Characters.
T. 4*7
Nigra.
brown •, cap black) a black band- through the eyes •,
legs yellow •, eight inches and a half long. Inhabits
Europe and America. It has the habits of tne com¬
mon fpecies, but is far lefs numerous. It lays two eggs,
of a very pale brown, fpotted all over 'with cinereous
and dufky, and placed in a fmall depreflion among the
(hingle, without any neft.
Black tern.—Body black •, back a(h-coloured ; belly
white 5 feet red; bill black ; male with a white fpot
on the chin wings and tail cinereous 5 vent and lower
tail coverts white j length ten inches. Inhabits Europe
and America, and has all the adlions and manners of
the ether fpecies, but feems to prefer frelh-water infedts
and fifn to marine. It feeds on the verge of pools, in
fwampy places, and often remote from the fea. In the
fenny parts of Lincolnftiire and Cambridgefhirc it is call¬
ed car-fwallow. Though very plentiful about L:e
reedy pools of the Romney marfhes, it keeps to the
edges of the ftagnant water, and is rarely feen on the ad-
ioining fea (hore, till after the breeding feafon, and even
then not very commonly. It lays three or four eggs
about the fize of thofe of a magpie, of an olive brown
colour, blotched and fpotted with brown and black.
Gen. 44. RyxchoPS, Skimmer.
Bill (Iraight} upper mandible fhorter than the under,
the latter truncated at the apex tail forked and
(hoiter than the wings \ noftrils linear, and the back
toe fmall.
Black fkimmer, or cut-water.—Blackifli; ■white be¬
neath •, bill red at the bafe •, the lower mandible groov¬
ed •, front and chin white 5 wings with a tranfverfe
white band 5 two middle tail feathers black, the next
edged with white ; legs red 5 twenty inches long. In¬
habits Afia and America. This bird is ever on the
wing, fweeplng the furface of the water, dipping in its
bill, or at leafi the under mandible, to feebp out the
fmaller fiflies on which it feeds. In ftormy weather
it frequents the (Lores, and is contented with oyfters and
other fnell-fifii.
Order IV. GRALL/L. 4(.g
(jR ALLaE»
Bill fubcylindrical, and fomewhat obtufe j tongue 469
entire and fleftiy.; legs naked above the knees the uac us.
feet are commonly furniflied with four toes, o' w ic
three (land forwards, and one backwards, fomelimes
wholly unconnefted, and at other times half connec¬
ted by a web. Some fpecies, too, have only three
toes-, their legs are long, that they may feek their
food in marfhy and fwampy places, for which reaion
they have alio a long neck, and, for the moii part,
a long bill. Their bodies are oval, and fomewhat
compreffed, and their tail is generally fliort. They
build chiefly on the ground and in marihy places, and
feed principally on fifties and water infects. They are
all more or lefs migratory, and fuch as inhabit the more
northern countries of Europe, univerfally leave them at
the approach of winter.
... 47°
Gen. 4C. PHyEXicOPTERGS, Flamingo. Phieni-
‘tJ . COPTEROS.
Bill bare *, toothed and bent as if broken j rnmnls li- 47I
near-, the feet four-toed and palmated, the mem-Characters,
branes femicircular on the fore part} hind toe not
connected.
The birds of this genus combine the aViferes with the
m-allse. They have the neck and legs long -, the bill
ftrong and thick, the upper mandible cannated aoove,
and denticulated at the margin, the under one compreiled
and tranfverfely fulcated-, the noftrils above covered
with a thin membrane, and communicating with each
other -, the back-toe very fmall, and the web which con-
nefts the fore-toes, reaching to the nails. 472
Red flamingo.—Elag feather black. This (ingular^r.
bird is fcarcely fo big as a goofe, but has the neck and
Vp-s in a greater difproportion to the body than any ^
other bird j the length from the end of the bill to that
of the tall being four feet, and two or three inches j but,
to the end of the claws, fometimes more tnan fix feet -,
the bill is four inches and a quarter long, and of anruc-
ture different from that of any other bird, the upper
mandible being very thin and fiat, and fomewhat move-
able, the under thick and both bending downwards
from the middle-, the end, as far as the curvature, is
black, and the reft reddifti-yellow j a flefii-coloured cere
extends round the bafe of the bill to the eye j tne neck
is (lender and of an immoderate lengthj the tongue,
which is large and fleihy, fills the cavity of the bid, has
a (harp cartilaginous tip, and is furniftied with twelve
or more hooked papillae on each fide, which bend back¬
wards. The bird, when in full plumage, which it does
not acquire till the third year, is of a mod beautinu deep
fcarlet, except the quills, which are black, ihe fla¬
mingo affects the warmer latitudes } and, in the oid con¬
tinent, is not often met with beyond the 40th uegree
north or fouth. It is met with every where on the A-
frican coaft and adjacent ifles to the Gape of Good
Hope and fometimes on the coafts of Spam and Italy,
and even on thofe of France that lie on the Mediterra¬
nean, having been found at Marfeilles and for fome way
up the Rhone. It is feen alfo on the Perfian fide of the
Cafpian fea, and from thence along the wefiern coait
as far as the Wolga. They breed m the Gape de
Verd ides, particularly in that of Sal, conftruamg a neft
a T 2 of
5io
Grail?
473
Cbilenjis
474
PiATALEA
_ r^ud m the Uiape of a hillock, with a cavity at top,
in which the female generally lays two while egg.s, of
the fize of thofe of a goofe, but more elongated. The
hillock is of a fuIFicient height to admit the bird’s fitting
on it conveniently, or rather Handing, as the legs are
placed one on each fide at full length. Sometimes the
female will depofit her eggs on the projecting part of
a low rock, if otherwife adapted to the above-mentioned
attitude. The young are not able to fly till they are
grown, but they can previoufly run with amazing
iwiitncfs. In this immature ftate, they are fometimes
caught and eafily tamed. In five or fix days, they be¬
come familiar, and even eat out of the hand, and drink
a great quantity of fea water. It is, however, difficult
to rear them, as they are very liable to pint from want
of their natural fubfiitence, which chiefly confills of fmall
fiffi and water infects. Thefe they take by plunging
the bill and part of the head into the wTater, and from
time to time trampling the bottom with their feet, to
diflurb the mud, and raile up their prey. In feeding
they are faid to twill the neck in fuch a manner, that
the upper part of their bill is applied to the ground.
Except in the breeding feafon, flamingos are generally
obferved in great flocks, and at a diflance appear like a
regiment of loldiers, being often ranged alongfide of one
another on the borders of rivers. When the Europeans
firlt vifited America, they found thefe birds on the ffiores
tame and gentle, and no wTay diftruftful of mankind.
We learn from Catefby, that when the fowler had kill¬
ed one, the reft of the flock, inftead of attempting to
fly, only regarded the fall of their companion in a kind
o; fixed aftoniffiment j fo that the whole flock were fome¬
times killed in detail, without one of them attempting
to make its efcape. They are now, however, extreme¬
ly fliy, and one of their number afts as fentinel, while
the reft are feeding. The moment that this guard per¬
ceives the leaft danger, he gives a loud fcream, like
the found of a trumpet, and inftantly all are on the wing,
and fill the air with their fcreams. The flamingo,
wnen at reft, Hands on one leg, the other being drawn
up to the body, with the head placed under the wing
on that fide of the body on which it Hands. Its flefli
is efteemed tolerable eating, and that of the young has
been compared to partridge. Pliny, Martial, and other
w riters of antiquity, have celebrated the tongue as amor-
fel of exquifite relifti.
_ Chih flamingo.—.Quill feathers white •, bill covered
with a reddiffi Ikin; head fubcrefted $ meafures five
, feet from the bill to the claws. Inhabits Chili; fre¬
quents only frefti waters, and is extremely ftiy.
O Pt N I T H O I, O G Y.
Ci ala
477
Vaja.
475
Cha
47*
J^eucoro-
dia.
Gen. 46. Platalea, Spoonbill.
Bill long and thin, the tip dilated, orbicular and flat;
noftrils fmall at the bafe of the bill; tongue fliort and
pointed ; feet four-toed and lemipalmated.
White fpoonbill.—Body white 5 chin black ; hind head
fomewhat crefted. Bill black, brown or fpolted \ tongue
heart-fhaped ; irides gray ; lores, orbits, and naked dilat¬
able chin black} quill feathers fometimes tipt with
black ; legs black. This fpecies admits of two varieties,
of which the firft has the wings varied with black and
white, and the legs yellowiffi, and the fecond has the
body all white, and the legs fleffi coloured. The white
or common fpocnbill weighs about three pounds and a
half, and meafures tv/o feet eight inches in len-rffi. It
inhabits from the Eeros iiles to the Cape of Good Hope 3
oul larely occurs in England. It lives on grafs, carices,
the roots of reeds, ferpents, frogs, mufcles, and other
ffiell-fifh, but efpecially on fifties, which it often feizes
from other birds. It makes its neft in high trees, near
to the fea, and lays three or four white eggs, fprinkled
wuch a few pale red fpots. The ilslh, efpecially of the
young bird, taftes like that of goofe.
Rofeate fpoonbill.—Body rote-coloured ; tail coverts a
Earlet ; bill cinereous white, with a furrow parallel “
wnth the edge 5 face and chin naked and whitifli; legs
gray. This fpecies alfo frequently appears of a blood
red hue ; the neck white ; collar black ; and tail feathers
fcarlet. Two feet three inches long. Inhabits South
America and Jamaica. Figured in Latham’s Syncplis.
Dwarf fpoonbill.—Body brown above j white be- Pygrn&a.
neath. Size of a fparrow. Inhabits Guiana and Suri¬
nam.
Gen. 47. Palamedea, Screamer. PalIme-
Bill conical, the upper mandible hooked, noftrils oval5DEA'So
feet four-toed, cleft, a very fmall membrane connec- Characters,
ting the toes at the root.
Hornedfcrearner.—Wings with two fpines at the cur- Cornuta
vature, front horned ; bill and legs black ; irides golden5
body blackifti above, white beneath ; wdngs reddilh be¬
neath ; fpines ftrong, ftiarp, horny, triangular, yellow;
horn on the front recurved, round, whitifh ; three inches
long j hind toe ftraight. Three feet four inches long.
Inhabits the fenny parts of South America ; making a
large neft of r » d, in the fliape of an oven, on the
ground, and laying tw^o eggs the fize of thofe of a goofe.
It is remarked, that they are always met with in pairs,
and if one dies, the other mourns to death for the lofs.
On hearing the leaft noife, or feeing any one, even at a
diftance, they rife from the ground and make a loud
fcreaming noife. They feed principally on herbs, feeds,
and reptiles. The flefli of the old biid is tough and ill
tailed ; but that of the young, though very dark, is fre¬
quently eaten by the natives.
Crefled fcr earner.—Wings unarmed ; front crefted. r^nlL
Size of a heron. Inhabits Brazil. ^
453
Mycteria.
454
Gen. 48. Mycteria, Jabiru.
Bill a little bending upwards and ffiarp-pointed 5 upper characters,
mandible triangular •, front bald ; noftrils linear j
tongue fmall or wanting; feet four-toed and cleft.
485
American jabiru.—White ; quill and tail feathers Americana.
purplilli-black; bill long, flout and black ; head and
neck bald, two thirds of the neck blackifli, the reft red j
hind head cinereous j legs long, flout and blackiffi.
Nearly fix feet long. Inhabits the favannas of South
America ; is migratory and gregarious, makes its neft
in large trees, lays two eggs, and tends the young till
they can defcend to the ground. The colour <jf the
young birds is gray ; the fecond year it changes to rofe
colour, and the third to pure white. They are very wild
and voracious, and deftroy great quantities of fifh. The
fleffi of the young birds is faid to be good eating, but
that of the old is hard and oily. c..
Indian jabiru.—White •, band over the eyes, lower A'iatiea
part of the back, quill and tail feathers black j bill
blackiffi j
O R N I
Grullaj. blackifti j upper mandible gibbous at the bafe ^
T
lower
Inhabits India, and
H o L O G
crane.—A tuft o
Y.
lor.
4W
Ncnjte Hol¬
lar. dice.
tumid beneath ; legs flelh-coToured
feeds on fhell-fifli.
New Holland Body purplifn-green above,
under parts, neck and fhoulders white •, head purplith,
fpotted with white 5 neck feathered •, irides yellow ■, fir ft
quill feathers white j tail black and white, hull rx
feet long •, is fuppofed to live chiefly on fifti. Inhabits
New Holland. Figured in Latham’s Supplement.
Gen. 49. Cancroma, Boatlill.
Bill gibbous, and ihaped like an inverted boat; noftnls
fmall, and placed in a furrow j tongue fmall 5 toes
divided.
Crejled boatbill.—Crefted 5 cinereous 5 belly rufous j
crown and lemule on the neck black 5 bill brown; lores
naked and blackifh j creft long, pendulous and pointed;
legs yellowilh-brown j toes connected at the bafe. 1 he
body is fometimes fpotted with brown. Twenty-two
inches long. Inhabits South America ; perches on trees
which overhang the water, and darts down on the hth
as they fwim underneath. It likewife feeds on crabs.
Gen. 50. Scopus, Umbre.
Bill thick, comprefied, long and ftraight; noftnls linear
and oblique } feet with four unconnected toes.
Tufted umbre.—With a creft bill brown, with a
riaic longitudinal furrow on each fide, in which are placed
cccxcviii noftnls; lower mandible narrower towards the en^>
TTinr a - .1 . * L a A 1aY * nOflV
Cancro¬
ma.
489
Characters.
490
Cocb/ean'a
491
Scopus.
491
Characters.
493
Umbretta
Plate
Fig. 4.
494
Ardea.
495
Characters.
496
Pavonia.
497
Virgo.
and a little truncated ; creft thick, tufted and lax ; body
brown : tail obfcurely barred ; legs longifli and brown.
Female not crefted. Twenty inches long. Inhabits Africa.
Gen. 51. Ardea.
Bill ftraight, pointed, long, fomewhat compreffed, with
a furrow from the noftrils towards the tip ; noftnls
linear j tongue fharp j feet four-toed, cleft } toes con¬
nected at the bafe.
The birds of this numerous genus have long feet and
necks, and live on amphibious animals and fifties.
A. Crejled, and bill'fcarcely longer than the head.
Crowned heron or crown W.—Creft bnftly and
eret ; temples with two naked wattles j bill browmfli 5
irides gray ; crown covered with fliort filky feathers j
creft circular, yellowifti, tipt with black 5 temples and
wattles red-, body bluifli a(h 5 w^g coverts white, the
greater ones reddift, thofe next the body blacRifti tad
and greater quill feathers black, the fecondaiy ^ ay egs
dufky. The female is black, where the male is blmfti-
afti, has no wattels on the throat, and the long feathers
on the breaft lefs confpicuous. This beautiful fpecies,
the balearic crane of Ray, and the crowned African
crane of Edwards, is two feet nine inches long j and
inhabits Africa, particularly the coaft of Guinea, as far
as the cape de Verd iilands. At the latter it is laid to be
very tame, and fo familiar as to come into the court-yards
to feed with the poultry. It is fuppofed to feed chiefly on
worms and vegetables, often deeps on one leg, runs very
faft and not only flies well, but continues on wing for a
long time together. T1 e flefh is faid to be very tough.
Demoifelle heron, dernoifelle of Numidia, or humidian
crane.—^ cu.c ^ white, pendant feathers behind
each eye 5 bill yellowifti j the bafe greemih, tip red ;
irides red j head and tips of the primary quill feathers
black j feathers of the breaft long and pendulous j creft
over the eyes turned back, and pendulous *, body bluifh-
a(h crown cinereous •, head, neck, throat, ^breaft and
leus black. The wind-pipe does not, as in the genera¬
lity of birds, go ftraight forwards into the lungs, but
firft enters a cavity in the keel of the breaft. bone, for
about three inches, when it returns, after making a bend
forwards, and then paffes into the cheft. This elegant
fpecies is about the fize of the common crane j and three
feet three inches long. It is found in many parts of
Africa and Afia, but moft plentifully about Bildulgema,
the ancient Numidia, and Tripoli. It alfo occurs at
Aleppo, and in the fouthern plain, about the Black and
Cafpian feas, and not unfrequently beyond Lake Baikal,
about the rivers Selenga and Argun, but never ventures
to the northward. It aftefts marfhes and rivers, fubfil
ing chiefly on fifh. In the Crimea it builds its neft m
open plains, generally in the vicinity of the fait lakes.
The young birds are brought to market by the lartars;
and are fo fufceptible of domeftication, that they even
afterwards breed in the farm yards. From the gentle-
nefs of its manners and the elegance of its form, it is
often kept in menageries. In confinement, it often ai-
fumes ftrange and uncouth attitudes, and feems occafion-
ally to imitate dancing j and Keyfler mentions one in
the gallery at Florence, which had been taught to dance
to a certain tune, when played or lung to it.
B. Cranes ; head bald.
49S
Cranes*
Common crane.—HimA head naked and papiUous j cap Grus.
and quill feathers black j body cinereous 5 innermoit tail
feathers jagged j bill greenifti-black j front covered with
black down ; hind head red, with a few fcattered hairs,
and a cinereous area beneath temples and upper neck
white 5 legs black. There is a variety with the body
white and the lower part of the neck and quill feathers
black j bill greeniftt black j front covered with black
down $ hind head red, with a few icattered hairs, and a
cinereous area beneath temples and upper neck white j
legs black. Weighs near 10 pounds j length five feet.
Inhabits Europe and Afia, and annually migrates m flocks
to the fouthem parts of Afia and Africa, m autumn.
The courfe of their flight is difcovered by the loud none
which they make j for they foar to fuch a height as to
be fcarcely vifible to the naked eye. Like the wild
geefe, they form themfelves into different ligu’. e-, de-
fcribing a wedge, a triangle, or a circle. It is faid that
formerly they vifited the fens and marftes m England,
in great numbers but they feem now, in a great mea>
fure, to have forfaken our ifland. They are feen in
France in the fpring and autumn } but generally only as
paffengers. They make their nefts in marftes,. and lay
two biuifh eggs. They feed on reptiles of all kinds, and
on feveral forts of vegetables, particularly green corn j
among which, if a flock alights, it makes great havock.
Like other large birds, the crane has much difficulty in
commencing its flight. 500
Siberian c-razze.—White j temples and front naked, Gigantea,
red, wrinkled ten firft quill feathers fhining black j
bill’and legs red. Stands four feet and a half high. In¬
habits the marfhy flats of Siberia, and feeds on reptiles,
worms, and linall fifli.
5i 8
Grail®.
401
Storks.
502
Ciconia.
.S°3
"Nigra.
5°4
Herons.
55>5
Hubia.
ORNITHOLOGY.
—' C. Slot hs ; orbits nahed.
_ White Jiorh.—While j orbits and quill feathers black j
bill, legs and Ikin red ; greater wing coverts black. In¬
habits Europe, Afia, and Africa. Is about the fize of
a turkey j and meafures three feet three inches in length.
Feeds on fi(h_ and reptiles, and in feveral countries is
protefted for its ufe in deftroying ferpents. Vail; num¬
bers annually refort to fome parts of Holland, and even
aagar north as Kufha, to breed, but rarely vilit England.
They obferve great exaclnefs in the time of their autum¬
nal departure from Europe to more favoured climes.
They pais a fecond fummer in Egypt, and the marfhes
of Earbary ; pairing in the former country, and rearing
a fecond brood. Eefore each of their migrations, they
rendezvous in amazing numbers, and are for a while
much in motion among themfelves, till, after making
feveral Ihort excurfions, as if to try their wings, they
all on a fudden take flight with great filence, and with
fuch Ipeed as in a moment to be out of fight. At Bag¬
dad, hundreds of their nefts are to be feen about the
houfes, w7alls and trees j and at Perfepolis, the remains of
the pillars ferve them to build on, every pillar having a
neft on it. Shaw mentions flights of them leaving
Egypt, and pafling over Mount Carmel, each half a
mile in breadth. The good-natured Hollanders provide
boxes for them to build their nefts in, on the tops of
their houfes, and refent any injury done to the birds as an
offence committed againft themfelves. The flork is of
a mild and affectionate difpofition ; and though it has a
grave air, yet, when rcufed by example, is not averfe
from gaiety. “ I law”, fays Dr Hermann, “ in a garden
where children were playing at hide and feek, a tame
ftork join the party, run its turn when touched, and di-
ftmguifh the child whofe turn it was to purfue the reft,
fo well, as, along with the others, to be on its guard”.-—’
To this bird-the ancients afcribed many of the moral
virtues, as temperance, vigilance, conjugal fidelity, and
filial and parental piety.
Black Jlorh.—Brown ; breaft and belly white. Two
feet nine inches long. Inhabits Europe and Afia. Feeds
oil fifh cmti icpliles j is timid, and retires into thick woods
and inacceffible fens.
D. Herons ; middle claw inwardly ferrated.
Gigantic heron.—Glaucous above ; dirty white be¬
neath j bill a little triangular. Fins is a large fpecies,
xneafuring from tip to tip of the wrings, nearly 15 feet!
1 he oid is of an enormous fize, and 16 inches round at
tm bafe. I he head and neck are naked, except a fewr
draggling curled hairs. The feathers of the back and
wings are of a bluifh-afh colour, and very flout; thofe
of the breaft long. I he craw hangs down the fore part
Oi toe neck, like a pouch, thinly covered with down.
The belly is covered with a dirty white down, and the
upper part cf the back and fhoulders furrounded with
the Line. I he legs and aoout half of the thighs are
naked, and the naked parts are full three feet in length.
^ gigantic heron inhabits Bengal, and is fometimes
found on the coaft of Guinea. It arrives in the interior
pans of Bengal before the period of the rains, and retires
as foon a/ the dry feafon commences. Though its afpeft
is far from inviting, it is one of the moft ufeful birds of
th-'-e countries, in clearing them of fnakes and noxious
reptiles and infects. They fometlmes feed on fifh 5 and
2
one of them will generally devour as much as would Gr.dke.
lerve four men. On opening the body of an individual   v~—
of this fpecies, a land iortoife, 10 inches long, and a
large black cat, were found entire within if, the former
in the pouch, and the latter in its llcmach. Being un¬
daunted at the fight of mankind, they are foon renutred
familiar 3 and wdien fifli or other food is thrown to them
they catch it very nimbly, and immediately fwallow it
entire. A young bird of this kind, about five feet in
height, was brought up tame, and prefented to the
chief ol the Bananas, where Mr Smeathman lived. It
regularly attended tlie hall at dinner time, placing itfeif
behind its mailer’s chair, frequently before any of the
guefts entered. The fervants were obliged to watch it
carefully, and to defend the provifions by beating it off
with flicks: yet notwithftanding every precaution it
would frequently fnatch off fomething from the table,
and one day purloined a whole boiled fow l, which it
fwallowed in an inftant. It ufed to fly about the ifiand,
and rooft very high among the filk cotton trees 3 from
this ftation, at the diftance of two or three miles, it
could fee when the dinner was carried acrofs the court 3
when darting down, it w7ould arrive early enough to
enter with lome of thofe who earned in the dilhes.
When fitting, it w7as obferved alw ays to reft itfeif on
the wdiole length of the hind part of the leg. Some¬
times it vcould Hand in the room for half an hour after
dinner, turning its head alternately as if liftening to the
converfation. Thefe birds are found in companies, and,
W7hen feen at a diftance, near the mouths of rivers, ad¬
vancing towards an oblerver, it is faid that they may be
eafily miftaken for canoes on the furface of a fmceth
fea, and when on the fand banks, for men and women
picking up ftiell-fith on the beach.—From their immenfe
gape, they have obtained the name of large throats, and
from their fwallowing bones, that of lone eaters or lone
takers.
- Night heron.—Creft on the hind head white, horizon- N k°6
tal, of three feathers 3 back black; belly yellowifti. j U°raV'
The female has the head fmooth and brown 3 belly
brownifh and white beneath 3 and the firft quill feathers
witl^a white fpot at the tip. About 20 inches long.
Inhabits Eu'rope, Afia, and America. Only one inftance
occurs of its having been met with in England. It is
pretty common in Ruflia, particularly on the Don, w here
it builds in trees, and is alfo met with at Aftracan
during fummer. It is faid to lay three or four w7hite
eggs, and fometimes to build among the rocks. It has
a very uncouth and rough voice, like that of a perfon
ftraining to vomit.
Crejledpurple heron.—Hind head black 3 creft pen-D 5°7
dent, and compofed of two long feathers 3 body olive ■*urea'
above, purplifh beneath. Two feet 10 inches long.
Inhabits Afia.
African heron.—Crefted 3 body cinereous 3 neck breaft Cafpi™,
and belly ferruginous 3 chin w hite; neck with three black
lines; bill and legs yellow 3 creft of three long feathers;
feathers of the breaft and rump mixed with ferruginous;
a broad black line from the nape to the back, and ano¬
ther on each of the fides. About three feet long 3 and
fmaller than the common heron. Inhabits Afia and
Africa, and has been twice found in England.
Common heron.—Hind head with a pendent creft 3 Major.
body afli-coloured 3 line on the neck beneath and pec¬
toral bar black. The female has the hind head linooth
and
Giallse.
510
Gc%etta-
5”
Egretta
Plate
jrccxcvm
Kg- 3-
S12
Herodias.
0 R N I T H
and black 5 back blulili and whitifli beneath 5 and the
breatt with oblong black fpots. Bill dulky j bafe yel-
lowilh beneath j area ox the eyes naked and greenilh ;
irides yelloxv j temples black; front, brown and neck
white above j fpvtrious wdngs and greater quill feathers
black } fcapulars and feathers of the throat long, lax,
and narrow ; body white beneath ; legs dirty green.
The weight of this fpecies is about three pounds and a
half} and the length about three feet four inches. In¬
habits a 1 mail every where in fenny places, and is com¬
mon in England. It is a great deltroyer both of fea
and frefh-water full, being enabled, by the great length
of its legs, to wade into fome depth of water, where
it Hands motionlefs, till fome of the finny tribe approach,
when it darts ils bill into them in an inftant. Its cbgefiion
being as quick as its appetite is voracious, it commits
great devailation in ponds and {hallow waters. It will
likev/ife cat. frogs and vegetables. They are frequently
obferved to feed by moon light, when the fifh come into
the (hoaler waters. In the breeding feafon, herons are
gregarious, and make their.nefts very near one another.
Pennant mentions having feen eighty nefts on one tree,
and Mr Montagu once law a heronry on a fmall bland
in a lake, in the north ol Scotland, on which there w7as
but a lingle fcrubby oak, which not being fufficient to
contain all the nelis, many were placed on the ground.
The neu is large and fiat, made of flicks lined with
wtgo1 and other i'oft materials. The eggs are/ four or
five in number, of a greenilh-blue, and about the fize of
thofe of a duck. Heronries were much prized in the
days pf falconry, and fome are yet to be feen in feveral
parts of the kingdom. In flying, this fpecies hides its
head between its {boulders, and its legs hang down. When
it flies very high, it prefages a ftorm. If taken young,
thefe birds may be tamed : but wflien the old birds
are captured, they foon pine away, refufing every kind
of nourilhment. The body is very fmail and always
lean, and the {kin is fcarcely thicker than membrane
ufed by the gold beaters. Linnaeus had made the two
fexes difiindt fpecies, and others w7ere long of the fame
opinion: but later obfervations havecorredled the miftake.
Egret or little egret.—Hind head crefted ; body white;
bill black ; lores and legs greenilh ; irides yellowiih •,
crert confifting of fome ftiort, and twTo long feathers ;
face naked and green-, claws black. Nearly a foot
long, and weighs one pound. Inhabits ma*.fny places,
in temperate regions, in the four quarters of the world.
If we may judge from the bill of fare of the famous feaft
given by the archbhhop Nevil, thefe birds were formerly
plentiful in England } for no fewer than 1000 were in
that lift. It is, however, now7 become a very rare bird
in this kingdom. Its plumes were formerly ufed to de¬
corate the helmets of warriors, but are now7 applied to
ornament the head drfefles of European ladies, and the
turbans of- the Perfians and Turks. Its habits are ana¬
logous to thofe of the common heron.
Great egret.—Someudiat crefted, wdxitelegs black,}
feathers of the back and breaft lax, narrow and very
long, About two feet long. Inhabits South America.
Is ftry and folitary, lying hid among the tall reeds, and
feeding by night.
Great heron.—Hind head crefted; body brown; thighs
rufous } breaft with oblong black fpots. Above five feet
long. Inhabits the lakes and rivers of Virginia, and
feeds on lizards, frogs, and £ih,,
O L O G Y.
Blue heron.—Hind head- crefted} body bide
and lores blue } legs green. In the female, _ _ ^
and neck are dulky purple } tke chin and middle ot the £cei-uitCU
throat white, and the back lead colour. There is a
fuberefted variety blue green, with the chin and throat
white. Another is varied with brown, yellow and cine¬
reous } fteel black above } white beneath } and wings
and tail greeniih. From 16 to 18 inches long. Inhabits
America. Found in Carolina in fpring, and in Jamaica,
and other iflands of the Weft Indies, in winter. It has
alio been met with at Otaheite, and other iflands of the
South feas, where it is much xefpefted. -14,,,
Squacco heron.—Ferruginous 5 w7hite beneath } hind Comata.
head with a long while pendent creft, edged with black.
About 1 1} inches long. Inhabits Europe and Afia. A
white variety, with a fmooth head, the upper part,
crown, breaft and back reddith, and which inhabits
Coromandel, has been once ihot in England 515
Bittern } in provincial Englilh, bittour, bumpy cofs, Stella) ir.
butter bump and miredram.—Head fmoothilh} body
teftaceous above, with tranfverfe fpots } paler beneath,
with oblong brown fpots. About two feet and a halt
long. Inhabits Europe, Afia, and America, affeclir.g
the more temperate regions in winter, and migrating
northwards in lummer. Though not a plentiful Ipecies
in Britain, it is occafionally found in the breeding feafen,
in the lefs frequented reedy marlhes, and fvvampy moots,
well clothed with nifties, wiiere it forms a neft on fome
flump, by collefting fedges or other coarfe plants toge¬
ther. It lays four or five eggs of a light olive green
colour, inclining to cinereous. At this ieafon the male
makes a fingular bellowing nolle, vulgarly fuppofed to
be produced by the bird putting his bill into a reed. It
is with difficulty roufed from its lurking place, flies
heavily, and frequently lights again at a fmall diftance,
fo that it becomes an eafy prey to the fportfman. About
funfet, it fometimes foars to a great height in the air,
with a fpiral afeent, making at the fame time, a loud and
lingular noife. Its flefli is accounted a delicacy. 515
Greater bittern.—Head fmoothilh, black ; body ci ne- 1;iotaur‘:u
reous brown above } rufous beneath } lores and naked
orbits yellow } throat white, {freaked with black and
reddiih. Three feet nine inches long. Inhabits Italy.
Great white heron.—Head fmooth 5 body white } bill Alia.
tawny } legs black } bill fix inches long -, hides yelloxv-
ilh } lores green. Three feet fix inches long. Inhabits
Europe, Afia, and America. Is rare in England. 5,s
Wattled heron.—Back, wings, legs and crown black- Garuncula-
blue } fmooth head and neck white } body black be-ta'
neath; bill and chin carunculated. Five feet long.
Inhabits Africa. -rp;
Minute bittern.—Smooth head and upper part of the Exilis.
body reddifli-bay } w7hite beneath fides of the neck ru¬
fous } wings and tail black. Twelve inches and a half
long. Inhabits Jamaica.
Little bittern.—(Male). Head fmooth } body brown } Minuta.
reddiih beneath } tail feathers greenhh-black } lores yel¬
lowiih. (Female). Body browrn } edges of the feathers
reddifh } reddifti beneath} crown, back-, wings and tail
black} bill yellow-green} naked part of the face yel¬
low ; irides faffron } legs green brown. This beautiful
fpecies is fcarcely larger than a fieldfare, and about
1 c inches long, from the tip of the bill to the end of the
tail. The female lays four or five white eggs, of the
fize of thofe of the blackbird, and which are placed on
520
Gra'lse.
a few dried dags ou tlie ground.
Afla, but is rare in England.
o it N l T H
Inhabits Europe and
521
Pondiceri
ana
522
Coromande
liana.
5*3
Scolopacea.
5*4
Tantalus,
5*5
Characters.
E. Bi/l go ping in the middle.
Pondicherry heron.—Gray-afh 5 quill feathers long
ana oiacL j middle claw not lerrated j bill yellow, thick
at the bafe, pointed at the tip, and a little bent in, gap¬
ing in the middle; fpace between the bill and eyes'fea-
thered; legs yellow. Fourteen inches and a half long.
Inhabits India. ^
Coromandel heron.—White ; back, wings and tail
black ; upper mandible ferrated from the middle to the
tip ; bill yellow, thick at the bafe, and pointed at the
tip ; legs reddifh-yellow ; upper part of the head with
black lines; lores and chin naked and black; irides red;
toes connefted at the bafe. Inhabits Coromandel, and
feeds on filh and reptiles. *
Sco/opaceous heron.—Brown ; throat and bread llreak-
ed with wdrite ; chin and legs white ; wnngs and tail
copper-colour. Twenty five inches long. Inhabits
Cayenne.
Gen. 52. Tantalus, Ibis.
Bill long, fubulated, roundiih, fomewhat arched ; face
naked; tongue Ihort and broad; jugular pouch naked;
noltrils oval ; feet four-toed and palmated at the
bafe.
Loculator. IVood ibis.—Face bluifli ; bill reddifli ; legs, quill
and tail feathers black ; body white ; bill nine inches
long, yellowifli-browm ; irides reddiih. The male has
the head and neck naked, wrinkled and black-blue ; and
tne female has the neck giny and downy. Three feet
long. Inhabits ^ew Holland and the warmer parts of
America. Is ftupid and flow in flight, fitting on trees
and feeding on herbs, feeds, fruits, fifli, and reptiles’
I he flelh is good. Of this Ipecies there are two varieties,
the firft having the head and neck wdiite, blended with
yellow; the body black, and belly cinereous, and the
fecond diftinguifhed by white wing coverts, with a black
^ blotch in the middle.
Igneus. Glojfy ibis.—Head and neck black; legs green; body
varied with glofly-blue, blackifli, green and claret; dark
rufous beneath ; quill and tail feathers green-gold ; bill
green. Thirteen inches and a half long. Inhabits Ruf-
,2S fla, and wras once fhot in Cornwall.
Niger. Black ibis.—Face, bill and legs red ; body black.
S29 From 3°.to 4° inches long. Inhabits Egypt.
K>is. Egyptian ibis.—Face red ; bill pale yellow ; quill fea¬
thers black ; body reddifh-white. This is a large bird
fomewhat exceeding the ftorN, and mealures from 30 to
, 40 inches in length. The bill is feven inches long, the
colour yellow, growing reddifli towards the tip, flightly
curved, and ending in a blunt point. The fore part of
the head, all round as far as the eyes, is naked and red¬
difli. The fldn under the throat, is alfo bare and dila¬
table ; the plumage reddifli white, moft inclining to red
on the back and wings; quills and tail black ; the legs
long ; and the thighs bare for three parts of their
length. Haflelquift adds, that the irides are whitifli,
and the end of the bill and the legs black ; and that it
is found in Lower Egypt, in great plenty, in places jufl
freed .rom the inundations of the Nile. It lives on frogs
and infedfs, and is feen in gardens morning and evening,
..nd fometimes fo abundantly, that whole palm trees are
4
o L O G Y.
covered with them. When at reft they fit quite creel, C.-
tneir tail touching their legs. T he fame author believes
it to be the ibis of the ancients; firft, becaufe it is common
in, and peculiar to Egypt ; fecondly, as it eats ferpents ;
and, thirdly, becaufe the urns, which contain the remains
of embalmed birds, found in the fepulchres along with
the mummies, feern to contain birds of this fize. Its
figure reprefented Egypt, in the hieroglyphic writing of
its inhabitants. In that country it is ftill called Pharaoh's
bird, and builds in the palm trees. 55&
Scarlet ibis.—face, bill and legs red ; body fcarlet ; Ruber.
wings tipt with black. Twenty-one inches long. In¬
habits South America. Sits on trees, but lays its
greenifti eggs on the ground.- The young are at firft
black, then gray, whitifli juft before they fly, and after¬
wards grow gradually red.
White ibis.—This fpecies is 2 2 inches long, and about A/Zw/
the fize of the whimbrel; the face, bill and teet reddifli; Plate
body white ; tips of the wings green ; the male and fe_tccxcvIII«
male nearly alike. Native of Brazil, but towards the *•
end of fummer migrates to the north, and is found in
great numbers in the marfliy lands of Carolina, feeding
on fifli and aquatic infefts. Here they remain for about
fix weeks : the fat and flefli of the white ibis are faid to
be of a faffron colour, but though not much efteemed, is
fometimes eaten.
53*
CORRIRA.
53.3
Gen. 53. Corrira, Courier.
Bill fhort, ftraight, toothlefs; thighs longer than the Charafters.
body ; feet four-toed, palmaied; hind toe uncon-
necled.
Italian courier.—Ferruginous above ; wdiite beneath Mtatica.
two middle tail feathers white, tipt with black; bill
pale yellow, black at the end, with a large gap ; irides
a double circle of bay and white. Lefs than the cur¬
lew. Inhabits Italy, and runs fwiftly.
535
SCOLOPAE,
Gen. 54. Scolopax.
Bill roundifli, obtufe, and longer than the head; no-r,
ftrils linear; face covered with feathers ; feet four- &Td er'
toed ; hind toe confifting of many joints.
I he birds of this and of the fucceeding genus are with
difficulty afeertained, being fubjedl to differ in appearance
from fex ami age, and their colours lhading into one an¬
other. The markings of their feet, however, are pret¬
ty conftant, and therefore afford one of the beft cri¬
teria. , r
Pigmy curlew.—Arched bill, and legs black; body p, 537 .
varied with ferruginous, brown, and white ; white be- ysmxa‘
neath ; rump white ; quill and outer tail feathers edged
with white. Size of a lark. Inhabits Europe, and is
very rare in England.
Common curlew.—Bill arched, blackifti ; legs bluifli; Arquatz.
wings blackifli, with fnowy fpots ; lowrer mandible red¬
difli at the bafe ; body above, and breaft ftreaked wdth
dulky brown; chin, rump, belly, and vent, white ;
quill feathers black, fpotted with white within; kgs
bluiffi ; toes flat and broad. This fpecies is fubje<ft to
vary confiderably in fize, weighing from 20 to upwards
of 30 ounces ; the length of the largeft being about 25
inches. Inhabits the moift and fenny places of Europe,
Afia, and Africa. A rufous and black variety, with a
imaller body, and longer bill, occurs in America. The
curlew
Giv.llic.
539
PbieopiLS’
54°
Nigra.
541
Nutans.
54*
Rujlicda.
O R N I T H
curlew is com mo'A on moft of ourcoafts, in winter, when
it is oregarious, and feeds on fmall crabs, and other ma¬
rine infedfs and worms. In the Ipring it retires inland,
and commonly to the more northern parts of the king¬
dom, to breed, reforting to the moil retired fituations
on tne heath-covered mountains, or in extenhve ana un¬
frequented marfhes. It makes no neft •, but deposits
among the heath, ruihes, or long grafs, _four eggs, of a
pale olive colour, marked with brownifh ipots. 1 he
young make ufe of their legs as foon as they are hatch¬
ed, but cannot fly for a confiderable time. The flefh
of’this fpecies is eatable, but is belt in fummer, when
the bird feeds on frogs, worms, and water inlects. In
winter it is rank and fiihy.
Whimbrel.—&M arched, and black •, legs bluiflr j
back with rhomboid brown fpots •, rump white ; lower
mandible reddifti at the bafe j body above, and bread;
brownifh, with duiky brown dreaks j chin, rump, bel¬
ly, and vent, white ; tail brown, with dufky bar's;
quill feathers black, fpotted with white on the infide.
About half the fize of the preceding but agreeing with
it in appearance and habits. It is alfo more fcarce m
this country.
Black fnipe.—RiW and legs red •, body black. _ Inha¬
bits the illands between Northern Ada and America. .
Nodding fnipe.—Bill black ; legs greenifli •, body ci-
nereous ^ crown and upper part of the back dulky re ,
and dreaked ; the lower white, fpotted with black. Size
of the common fnipe. Inhabits Labrador, and is con-
ftantly nodding the head.
Woodcock.—m\ ftraight, reddi.h at the bafe legs
cinereous ; thighs covered j head, with a black band on
each fide ; upper mandible longer, reddifh at the baie ;
front cinereous j lower eyelid white} crown, neck above,
back, and wing coverts, ferruginous, mixed with black
and gray ; chin pale alh •, throat yellowilh, ivith fmall
dulky fpots •, body whitilh beneath, with dulky lines j
quill feathers dulky, with triangular rufous fpots ; tail
rounded, cinereous at the tip j legs brownilh. Length
15 inches •, weight from I 2 to 15 pounds. This well-
known fpecies ‘is fubjedt to great variety, and inhabits
the northern countries of Europe, Ana, and Africa,
migrating in winter to the more temperate regions. In
Bntain it feldom appears in numbers till about the mid¬
dle of November j but fome occafionally appear as
early as the latter end of September, or beginning of
Odlober. They generally come to us with northerly or
eafterly winds, when the more northern countries be¬
come frozen-, and if the froft in thofe parts where
they breed is fuddenly fevere, large flights are fometimes
met with on our coafts, where they remain for a day, to
recruit their ftrength, and then difperfe. In England
they are not fo plentiful as formerly, when the art of
{hooting flying was lefs praftifed. A great many, how¬
ever, are yet to be found in the more uncultivated paits
of Devonliiire, Cornwall, and Wales, as well as in the
north of Scotland } but they are nowhere io abundant
as in the large tradls of woods in Ireland. In fevere
weather, they accumulate, from the moors and inland
counties, to the woods in the weft of England. It. is
one of the few winter birds that occafionally breed with
us. It builds a neft of a few fibres, or dry leaves, on
the ground, generally at the root of a tree, and lays
four eggs, fomewhat larger than thofe of a pigeon, of
a yellowilh-white, fpotted and blotched with rufous
Vol. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y. 521
brown and alh colour. Its ufual food is infeefts and ,
worms, for which it bores with its bill intomoift places,
feeding principally at night, when its call relemble# taat
of the fnipe. In fome countries the woodcock remains
the whole year, only moving, in the bleeding fealon,
from the plains to the mountains. In this country, it
ufually prepares for its departure about the middle ot
March, when flocks come down to the lea coaft, an(^
if the wind is favourable, are foon out of light} but it
it be contrary, they linger till it change. _ 543
Little woodcock.—m\ ftraight ; legs browniftij front Minor.
cinereous } hind head black, with lour tranfveife yel¬
lowilh lines 5 chin white j body above black, waved
with flight, tawny -, yellow beneath. Eleven inches and
a half long. Inhabits America. Its flelh is reckoned
exquifite. . , 544
Great fnipe.—Legs and crown black, the latter with Major.
a pale divided line down the middle, a pale ftreak above
and beneath the eyes ; body varied above, white be¬
neath 5 bill like that of the woodcock j lower feathers
of the body, except the middle of the belly, edged with
black j quill feathers dulky j tail feathers redding and,
except the two middle ones, with black lines. V eighs
about eight ounces 5 length 16 inches. Inhabits Sibe¬
ria, and very rarely England. 545
Common »e.—Bill ftraight, tuberculated j. legs Galhnago
brown body varied with blackilh and tawny, white be¬
neath ; front with four brown lines ) crown, bill, ocu¬
lar band, and wings black j chin pale nifty } tail fea¬
thers black at the bafe rump variegated. The weight
of this fpecies is about four ounces, and the length near¬
ly 12 inches. It is met with, in marflfy fituations, in
almoft every part of the world, and is very plentiful in
our own ifland. In very wet times it reforts to the
kills • but more generally frequents the marflies of the
plains, where it can penetrate the earth with its bill, in
queft of worms. Some few remain with us the whole
year, and breed in the more extenfive marfties and
mountainous bogs. The neft is made of the mateiials
around it, as coarfe grafs, or heath, and placed on a
dry fpot, near a fplafh or fwampy place, the eggs,, like
that of the lapwing, being much pointed, and invariably
placed with their fmaller ends inwmrds. In the breeding
feafon the fnipe changes its note entirely. 1 he male
will keep on the wing for an hour together, mounting
like a lark, uttering a ftirill piping noife, and then de-
feend with great velocity, making a bleating found,
like that of an old goat, which is alternately repeated
round the fpot poffefled by the female, efpecially while
flie is fitting on her neft. The young ones run off foon
after they are freed from the fliell ; but they are attend¬
ed by the parent birds, until their bills have acquiied a
fufficient firmnefs to enable them to provide for them-
felves. When undifturbed in its retreats, the fnipe
wralks leifurely, with its head ereft, and keeps moving
the tail at ftiort intervals. But it is rarely obferved in
this ftate of tranquillity, being extremely watchful, and
perceiving the fportfman, or his dog, at a great di-
ftance, and either concealing itfelf among the variegat¬
ed withered herbage, lo fimilar in appearance to its
own plumage, that it is almoft impoflible to dneover. ii,
or, as happens more frequently, fpringing and ta ring
flight beyond the reach of the gun. When firft difturb-
ecf it utters a kind of feeble whittle, and generally flies
againft the wind, turning nimbly in a zig-zag direchcn,
° 3 y ' anc*
O KNIT H
54^
Gahmula.
547
Glottis.
543
Cahdris.
_ 549
Totanus.
and fomfctimes foaiing almoft out of fight. From its vi¬
gilance and manner of flying, it is very difficult to ihooi j
but fome fportfmen can draw it within range of their
fowling-piece, by imitating its cries, and others are con¬
tented to catch it in the night by fprings. The fnipe is
much efteemed as a delicious and well-flavoured difh •
and though it is very fat it rarely difagrees even with
the weakefl ftomach.
Jack-fnipe, judcoch, or gid.—Bill ftraight, tubereula-
ted ; body variegated j legs greenifn 5 lores brown ;
rump varied with violet j bill black j body variegated
with tedaceous, black, violet, and glciTy green 5 head
with pale yellow' and black lines, reaching from the bill
to the hind head 5 bread {potted j belly and vent white.
Eight inches and a half long. Inhabits Europe, Afia,
ami America. Is found in the fame places with the pre¬
ceding, but is more folitary and rare. It will lie among
ruflies, or other thick covert, till in danger of being
trampled on, and, when roufed, feldom flies far. It
comes to us later than the common fnipe, and is never
known to remain in this country during the breeding fea-
ion. It is as much efteemed as the fnipe, and is cook¬
ed in the lame manner.
Greenjhtmk.—WxW itraight, the lower bafe red 5 body
beneath fnowy ; legs greenifli j bill black 5 the lower
mandible bending a little upwards 5 eyebrow s and lower
part ot the back white : head, neck, and back, pale ci¬
nereous fhaEs of the feathers fpotted with brown ; quill
feathers dulky, fpotted with white on the infide ; tail
white, with dufky lines ; legs very long. Weight about
fix ounces 5 length 14 inches. Inhabits Europe, Afia,
and America. Is fometimes feen, in fmall flocks, on
our coafts, in winter j as alfo in the marflies and fens
contiguous to the fea. Some few' are fuppofed to remain
with us all the fummer, and to breed in our fens. The
greater part, however, retire northward to breed, and
are found in Sweden, Ruiffia, and Siberia. Their flefii •
like all the reft of this genus, is well-flavoured, and
reckoned good eadng.
Red/hanh, or pool fnipe.—Bill ftraight, red 5 legs fear-
let ; fecondary quill feathers white j bill black towards
tlm tip j Tides reddifh-hazel j head and neck cinereous
above •, back and fhoulders greenifn-brown j wflng co¬
verts cinereous, mixed with dufky and brown, and fpot¬
ted with whitiih ) fecondary quill feathers, except the
two inner ones, white towards the tip ; primary du{ky,
the four or five inner ones tipt wuth white 5 line over the
eyes white ; a dufky foot between the bill and eyes j
ihort dulky ftreaks on the chin and thioatj under part
of the body and rump white, with fmall dufky fpols j
each of the tail feathers wuth 12 or 1 ^ tranfverfe black
lines. . Weighs about five ounces, and is 1 2 inches long.
Inhabits Europe and America. Is not uncommon in
fome parts of England, refiding the greater part of the
year m the fen countries, where it breeds and rears its
young. It lays four eggs, which are whitifti, tinged
wiffi olive, and marked with irregular fpots of black,
chiefly on the thicker end. When difturbed it flies
round its neft, making a noife like a lapwing. It is not
fo common on the fea fhores as feveral of its congeners,
and is of a folitary difpofition, being moftly feen alone
or only in pairs.
Spotted fnipe, red-legged godwit, or fpotted redfhanh. 
Blackifh, with white fpots j white beneath j lines on
lateral tail feathers black-
greenihank. Inhabits Eu-
of rivers, and feeding on
beldom vifits
GraHae.
O L O G Y.
the breaft and bands on the
ifa ; legs red. Size of the
rope, frequenting the banks „  
the {'mailer fliell-liih and other vermes.
Britain.
Lefer god wit, jadreha fnipe, or f one plover Bill in- Limofa
chmng a little upwards at the point, red at the bafe ; ^
body gray brown, varied with rufous; white beneath 5
quid featners white at the bafe, the four firit without
{pots 5 tail white at the bafe ; irides whitiih } cheeks
reddiih 5 back brown 3 quill feathers blackiih 3 feathers
lonnd the bill reddifh-white. Seventeen inches lono-,
and weighs nine ounces. Inhabits the north of Europe
and is gregarious ; but feldom occurs in Britain.
Red god wit, or red breajled godwit.—Bill a little re-jrJ^V*
curved, yellowiih 3 legs black 3 body reddiih-rufty be- ^
neadn 5 bid biackiih at the tip, head, neck, breaft and
bony, ferruginous above, and, except the neck, {freak¬
ed with black 3 lower part of the back and rump rufous
white; greater quill feathers black without, the bafe
white within 3 fecondary and tail feathers half black and
hah white. Weight about 12 ounces; length x 8 inches,
x here is a variety with the head and neck cinereous,
and the chin and belly white. Inhabits Europe and
America, and is gregarious, but rarely feen with us.
Common or gray godwit.ftraight, reddiffi-yel- ^ Y
low ; legs greemfh 3 head and neck reddilh 4 three ofP
the quill feathers black, with a white Lafe ; a broad
white {freak from the bill to the eye 3 body redddh-
brown above 3 feathers with a dufky fpet in the middle.
Subject to very ccnfiderable variety both in fize and
plumage. In general, it weighs from feven to twelve
ounces, and meafures from 15 to 16.inches. It inhabits
Europe, Afia, and Africa ■; continues with us the whole
year, and reforts to the fens in fpring for breeding. In
the winter it is found on our {bores, particularly at the
mouths of large rivers and inlets, where the mud and
land become bare at low water, and where it feeds on
inlefts. It is much efteemed by epicures as a great de¬
licacy, and fells very high. It is caught in nets, to
v. uich it is allured by a fate, or fluffed bird, in the
fame manner, and at the fame feafon as the ruffs and
reeves.
Godwit—Brown, edged with whitifti 3 neck whitifti,
with {mail brown fpots 3 chin and belly white 3 quill
feathers with biack bands 3 bill a little turned up, brown,
with a purple bafe 3 tail feathers white ; the two middle
ones wholly, the reft barred with brown on the outer
fide. Sixteen inches long. Inhabits Europe. Regard¬
ed by fome ornithologifts as only a variety of the cego-
cephala.
Cinereous godwit. -—Legs long, cinereous; head, neck, Canefan:
and back varied with cinereous and white; chin and J
breaft white, fpotted with afti; bill thicker than in the
greenfiiank 3 tail with cinereous lines. Size of the
greenlhank. Inhabits Lincolnftxire 3 but is very rare,
and feems to be imperfe&ly known.
Cambridge godivit..—Legs orange 3 bill red 3 body Can/abrigi-
brown afti above, white beneath 3 wing coverts and tail enjis.
feathers barred with black 3 leffer wing coverts brown,
edged with white and barred with black 3 quill feathers
blackifti, white within 3 the fecondary barred with
white. ’ Larger than the redthank. Was (hot near Cam¬
bridge, and firft deferibed by Pennant.
GeQ. 55-
GraL'se.
556
Tringa.
557
Charaders.
553
Pugtiax.
559
VaneUtis-
Gen. 55. Tringa, Sandpiper.
Bill roundifh, as long as the head ; noftrils fmall, li¬
near; tongue (lender j feet four-toed j hind toe of
one joint, and raifed from the ground.
The birds of this genus frequent tire piains and (hores,
and hardly touch the ground with their back toe.
Ruff and reeve.—Bill and legs rufous 5 three lateral
tail feathers without fpots } face with tipth-coloured gia-
nulations 5 bill fometimes black or yellowith ; irides ha¬
zel ; back of the neck with a large tuft ot feathers,
which fall off in moulting feafon. Female pale brown j
back fpotted with black ; tail brown j the middle fea¬
thers fpotted with black •, bread and belly_white. I he
ruffs, or males, are fo very variable in their markings,
that two are feldom found alike. Bullon mentions that
Klein compared above 100 ruffs together, and found on¬
ly' two that were iimilar. About one foot long. Inha¬
bits Europe and Siberia. The male does not acquire
the ornament of his neck till the fecond ieafon, and, be¬
fore that time, is not ealily ditlinguiflred from the fe¬
male, except by being larger. After moulting, at the
end of June, he lofes his ruk and the red tuoeicles of
his face •, and from that time, till the fpring of the year,
he again, in plumage, looks like his mate. J hele birds
leave our illand in the winter, and are then luppofed to
affociate with other congenerous fpecies. In tne fpring,
as foon as they arrive again in England, and take up^
their abode in the fens where they were bred, each of
the males (of which there appears to be a much greater
number than of females) immediately fixes on a particu¬
lar dry or graiTy fpot in the marfh, about which he runs
round and round, until it is trodden bare, wilhing, appa¬
rently, to invite the female to take joint poffefiiou, and be¬
come an inmate. As foon as a fingle female arrives, and
is heard or obferved by the males, her feeole cry feems
to roufe them all to war j for they inftantly begin to
fight j and their combats are defcribed as being both
defperate and of long continuance, the female, ai-jhe
end of the battle, remaining the prize of the vidor. It
is at the time of thefe battles, that they are caught in
the greateil number s in the nets of the fowlers. I hey
are alfo at other times caught by day nets, and are
drawn together by means of a fluffed reeve, which is
placed in fome fuitable fpot for that purpofe. I he ruft
is much prized as a delicious diflr, and is fought after
with great eagerneis by the fowlers who live by catch¬
ing them and other fen birds, for ,the markets of the me¬
tropolis, &c. Before they are, offered for file, they are
commonly put up to feed, for about a fortnight, on boil¬
ed wheat, and bread and milk, mixed with hemp-feed, to
which fugar is fometimes added \ in confequence of
which mode of treatment they foon get very fat. In the
beginning of May the female makes ner neft in a dry
tuft of grafs, in the fens, and lays four white eggs,
marked with rufty fpots.
Lapwing, pewit, bajiard plover, &c.—Legs red ,
creft pendent j bread black ; bill black ; irides hazel j
crown fhining black •, creft on the hind head four inches
long j cheeks and fides of the neck white m, a black line
beneath each eye j throat black •, hind part of the neck
mixed with white, afh colour, and red ; back and fca-
pulars gloffy green ; fome of the feathers with ferrugi¬
nous tips j leffer wing coverts (Inning black, blue and
ORNITHOLOGY.
green greater quill feathers blacs., the four iirft with
a white (pot at the end j lefier black on the upper haif,
white on the lower •, belly white 5 vent* and tail coverts
orange j outer tail feathers white j the reft on the lower
half black, tipt with dirty white j upper white. W eighs
between feven and eight ounces. Is found in molt parts \
of Europe, as far north as Iceland j and in the winter is
met with in Perfia and Egypt. The chief food of the
lapwings is worms ; and fometimes they may be feen in
Hocks nearly covering the lowr marfny grounds in iearch
of thefe, which they draw with great dexterity from
their holes. When the bird meets with one of thofe
rolls of earth that are thrown out by the perforations of
the worm, it firft gently removes the mould from the
mouth of the hole, then ftrikes the ground at the fide
with its foot, and fteadily and attentively waits the ' rf-
fue ; while the reptile, alarmed by the (hock, emerges
from its retreat, and is inftantly feized. In the evening,
the lapwings purfue a different plan, running along the
grafs, and feeling under their feet the worms, which
now come forth, invited by the coolnefs of the air.
Thus they obtain a plentiful meal, and afterwards wa(h
their bill and feet in the fmall pools or rivulets. TLhey
remain in this country the whole year. The female lays
four olive-coloured eggs, fpotted with black, on the dry
ground, near fome marlh, on a little bed of dry grais
which (he prepares. She fits about three weeks, and
the young are able to run within two or three days after
they are hatched. The parent exhibits the greateft at¬
tachment to them, and has recourfe to very amufing ar¬
tifices to allure boys and dogs from approaching them.
In place of waiting the arrival of the enemies at the
neft, (he boldly pulhes out to meet them. When as
near as (lie dare venture, (lie rifes from the ground with
a loud (creaming voice, as if juft ilufhed from hatching,
though, probably, at the fame time, not within 100
yards of her neft. She then (lies with great clamour
and apparent anxiety, whining and (creaming round the
invaders, ftriking at them with her wings, and fome¬
times fluttering as if (lie was wounded. To complete
the deception, (lie becomes ftill more clamorous as (he
retires from the neft. If very near, (he appears altoge¬
ther unconcerned j and her cries ceafe in proportion as
her fears are iritreafed. When approached by dogs, (lie
Hies heavily, at a little diftance before them as if maim¬
ed, ftill clamorous and bold, but never offering to move
towards the quarter where her young are ftationed. The
dogs purfue, in expedlalion every moment of feizing the
parent, and by this means actually lofe the young ; for
the young cunning bird, having thus drawn them oft to
a proper diftance, exerts her powers, and- leaves her
aftonilhed purfuers to gaze at the rapidity ot her flight.
Thefe birds, when tamed, clear gardens of worms and
fnails. Their flefti and eggs are both reckoned delica¬
cies for the table. In winter they join in large flocks,
but are then very (hy.
Gatnbet, gambet fandpiper, or red-legged horfeman.—
Bill and legs red •, body variegated with pale yellow,
and cinereous ; white beneath *, bill tipt with black ;
irides yellowifh- green j wing-coverts and fcapulars cine¬
reous, and edged with yellow 5 firft quill and tail fea¬
thers dufky, the latter edged with yellow. About the
fize of the green (hank. Inhabits the northern parts of
Europe and America, but feldom occurs in France or
England.
^ U 2 Weljh
560
Gambetta.
/
524
Crallae.
. 561
Nigriraus
562
Jate/pn.!.
563
Striata.
.564
iMacularia
. s65
£inerca.
$66
Tufca.
Lmcolori-
eiifis.
S6S
Lobata.
j , Wetjh fandp/tr.—Blaoldih-ala •, chin and middle of
' the belly white j bafe of the bill and legs red. Eight
muics and a halt long. Inhabits Glamorganiliire and
Caermarthenfhire.
Turn done, Hebrulal fanripiper, or feu-dotterel. Leas
.’ed • body black, varied with white, and ferruginous j
.bread and belly white 5 bill black, a little turned up at
the tip ; cheeks and neck black above ; tail black in
the middle, and wnite at the ends. Female more bulky ;
liead varied with brown and whitifli • neck blackilh
above- _ Though thefe are the ufual cliaracleridics, the
fpecies is very fubjeft to varieties. About the fize of a
throttle ; length nine inches and a half, and weight ra¬
ther more than four ounces. Inhabits.the fea coafls of
Europe and America. I hough not known to breed
with us, it vihts fome of our thores in Auguft, and'de-
parts in Ipring. I ne name lias been given it from its
manner of turning up the ttones in fearch of worms and
.marine iinecls. It makes a (light nefl on the dry ground
or (and, and lays four olive-coloured eggs, (potted with
black. This ipecies is not uncommon in the north of
(Scotland.
Striated fiindpiper.—Bale of the bill and legs yellow ;
tad feathers white, barred with brown; molt of the
quill feathers white. Nearly 1 x inches long. Inhabits
Euiope and Nortu America, feeds on fhell-fifh and
mollufca, which it fearches for at the ebb of the tides,
and on infects which it catches, hanging over the wa¬
ter like a fwallow.
Spottedfandpiper.—Bafe of the bill and legs flefh co¬
lour 5 all the body fpotted ; eyebrows and double band
on the wings white 5 bill dukey 5 body above greenifh-
brown, white, with dulky fpots beneath j two middle
tfil feathers greeniih-brown, the reft white, with duiky
lines. Female without fpots beneath. About the lize
of a thrulh, and eighty inches long. Inhabits Europe
and North America \ is migratory, and is fometimes,
though rarely, found in Britain.
Ajh-colouredfandpiper.—Cinereous above, white be¬
neath legs dulky green; head fpotted with black;
neck with dulky (freaks ; back and wing-coverts with
concentric black femicircles, varied with cinereous and
nline ; tail coverts black and white ; tail cinereous,
edged with white ; bread fpotted with black ; membrane
furrounding the toes narrow and toothed. Length about
JO inches; weight from four ounces and a quarter to
five and three quarters. This fpecies, like mod of the
tribe, is fubjeft to conliderable variety. It inhabits Eu¬
rope and America ; vifits (ome parts of our coatts, in
large Hocks, in winter, and departs about the latter end
of March or beginning of April.
Brown fandpiper.—Pale brown, fpotted with black
above, white beneath; fore part of the neck (freaked
with black ; tail cinereous; wing-coverts edged with
whitilh ; bill and legs black. Size of a jack-fnipe. In¬
habits England, but is very fcarce.
Black fandpiper.—White, varied with gray and brown
fpots above, with oblong brown and black fpots be¬
neath ; two middle tail feathers all black Size of a
thrulh. Inhabits England, chiefly in Lincolnfhire.
Gray pha/arope, or great coot-footed tringa—Bill Tu¬
bulate, and bent in at the tip ; feet pinnate ; breaft wa¬
ved with white; bill black ; front white; crown dulky;
neck pale alh above; back, rump, and (boulders dove-
colour, with dulky fpots; wing-coverts and quill fea.
O R N I T H O L O G Y.
thm-s brown ; breaft and belly white ; tail dulky, edged Grail*.
wu:i cinereous ; legs black ; membrane round the toes  <r—
indented. ^ Size of the common purre; weight one
ounce. Inhabits Europe, Aha, and America. Con-
gregates about the borders of the Calpian fea, and is not
common in Britain. In llorroy weather, it fwims in
numbers 011 lakes ; but in fine weather, is (olitary among-
the fens. J 6
Redphdlarope, or cock coot footed tringa.—Bill fubu- Hyperbo-
lated, bent in at the tip; feet pinnace ; breaft cinere-,^<1-
ous ; (ides of the neck ferruginous; bill black ; band
through the eyes Jttackiih ; bar on the wings while;
rump with biacki'h bands. I he female is gray above,
rurous beneath, with the eyebrows and bafe of the tail
reddiih, and the rump white ; bill yellowiih ; band a-
bove the eyes reddn'h ;, bar yn the wings white, and the
rump fpocted with blackilh. Eight inches long. Inha¬
bits northern Europe and America ; but is rarely met
nidi in our own country. i hefe birds go in pairs, and
catch infeeds in the water with their bill. They do not
dive, and are but bad fwimmers. The female makes
her neft on dry ground, and lays lour eggs.
Alpine fandpiper, ox dunlin.—Brown tellaceous; breaft Alpina.
blackilh ; tail leathers whitilh-alh ; legs browniih; bel¬
ly white ; two middle tail feathers a little longer.
Weighs, from nine to eleven drams ; length of the lar-
geft eight inches. Inhabits Europe, Alia, and Ame¬
rica, and is not uncommon on our own coafts durino-
great part of the year. The female lays four eggs, of a
dirty white, blotched with brown round the thicker end,
and marked with a few fmall fpots of the fame colour on
the linaller end.
Green, ox wood fandpiper.—WA dotted at the tip; Ochrotm.
legs greenifh ; oack brown green; belly and outer tail
feathers white; bill greeniih; crown and hind head
dulky afh ; rump variegated ; eyebrows white. Inha¬
bits Europe, North America, and Siberia. This ele¬
gant fpecies weighs about three ounces and a quarter ;
length full 10 inches.. It is by no means - plentiful in
Britain, and, except m pairing time, lives folitary. It
is never feen near the fea ; but frequents rivers, lakes
and other frelh waters. It runs on the (bores, or (kims
the (unace of the water. I* utters a cry as it rifes, and
fometimes dives when purfued by the buzzard. It feeds
on the fry of fmail fifties and worms. Though its ftefti
taftes fomewhat of mulk, it is confidered as a great deli¬
cacy. It comes to us about the middle of September,
and leaves us as late as the end of April, when it de¬
parts northward to breed.
Snore fandpiper.—Smooth bill, and legs cinereous ; Litiorea.
quill feathers brown, the (haft of the firft fnowy. Near
1 1 inches long. Inhabits Europe ; and is ranked by
fome ornithologifts among Britilh birds.
Greenwich fandpiper.—Body varied above ; neck ci- GreHli
nereous beneath ; belly, vent, and fides of the rump^x.
white ; bill black ; legs greenifh; crow n brown, (freak¬
ed with black; neck afii-coloured beneath ; back and
wing-coverts brown ferruginous, edged with whitifti;
hind part of the back, rump, and lefler wing-coverts ci¬
nereous ; tail cinereous, the feathers waved towards the
tip, which is pale nifty. Size of the preceding, but
very rare. The circumftance of one having been {hot
near Greenwich, has given rile to the trivial name.
Sea, ox felninger fandpiper.—Varied above with gray Ma^rkima*
and blagk, wliite beneath 3 legs yellow 3 middle of the ~
back
Crnl'se.
57.5
JJypoleucos
S76
Ganutus.
577
6 inil us.
O R N I T H
back violet j tbroat and tail dulky *, four outer tail fea¬
thers very fhort, and edged with white. Size of a flare.
Inhabits Norway and Iceland. A fmall hock ci this
fpecies, confiding of io or 12, was Once ooferved, feme
years ago, near Bexhill, on the Sth of Decern er.
. Common fandpiper.—Bill Imooth j logs livid j body
cinereous, with black flripes, white beneath j bill brown j
irides hazel j head brown, with black idreaks j eyebiows
white j neck cinereous above *, back and wings gieenifh-
brovvn, with numerous, narrow, dulky lines *, quill fea¬
thers brown, and, except tile firft, with a white fpot
within j tail rounded, and glofly-green brown. Weight
about two ounce? \ length feven inches and a half. In¬
habits Europe and America. Vilits this country in the
fpring, chiefly frequenting our lakes and rivers, on the
borders of which it makes a neft compofed or mofs and
dried leaves, and moil commonly placed in a hole in the
bank. It lays four or five eggs of a dirty white, mark¬
ed with dulky and cinereous foots, rnollly at the larger
end. When diflurbed, it makes a piping noife as it
flies; and, when running on the ground, the tail is con-
ftantly in motion. In autumn it is liaoie to be much in-
felled with the hippobofcci hirundims.
Knot.—Bill fin both *, legs alh-coloured *, primary quill
feathers ferrated *, outermoft tail feather white, witnout
fpots bill dulky afli 5 irides hazel *, lores dulky \ eye¬
brows and band on the wings white j body cinereous
above, white beneath 5 lower wing-coverts tipt with
wrhite j chin and bread with minute fpots } belly and
vent with dulky lines j rump with brown femicircles.
Nine inches long, and weighs four ounces and a half.
Inhabits Europe and America. In Lincolnlhire, and
the other fenny diifricls of England, it is caught, in
great numbers, by nets, into which it is decoyed by
carved wooden figures to reprefent itfelf. It is alfo fat¬
tened for fale, and efteemed by many equal to the ruff
in the delicacy of its flavour. The feafon for taking it
is from Auguit to November, after which the fro ft com¬
pels it to difappear. This bird is faid to have been a fa¬
vourite diih with Canute king of England 5 and Camb-
den remarks that its namfe is derived from his.
Stint, purrCy or fanderling.—Bill and legs black *,
lores white j body and rump gray and brown *, head and
neck pale cinereous above, with brown vtreaks j back
and wing-coverts brownilh-afh, the greater tipt with
white 5 throat white, mixed with brown j breafb and
belly white 5 two middle tail feathers more dulky, the
re 11 edged with white : the legs are fometimes brown.
The country people frequently call it ox-bird, ox-eye,
leqjl fnipe,fea lark, or wagtail. It is nearly eight inches
in length, and weighs about an ounce and three quar¬
ters. Inhabits Europe, Alia, and America. During
winter it is found on all our coalls, appearing in vail
flocks, and efpecially affecling the flat fandy fhores and
inlets. They leave us in April, though it is fufpefted
that fome remain with us all the year. Thefe birds run
nimbly near the edges of the flowing and retiring waves’,
and are almolt perpetually wagging their tails, while
they are, at the fame time, bufily employed in picking
up their food, which confiils chiefly of fmall worms and
infedls. On taking flight, they give a kind of feream,
and Ikim along the furface of the water with great rapi¬
dity, as well as -with great regularity, not flying directly
forward, but performing their evolutions in large femi¬
circles, alternately approaching the fnore and the fea in
CLOG Y.
their fweep, the curvature of their courfe being indi-
cated by the flocks appearing fuddenly and alternately in
a dark or in a fnowy-white colour, as their backs 01
their bellies are turned to or from the fpeflator. _ 578
Little fandpiper.—Bill and legs brown ; body reddifh vupu.
beneath *, outer tail feathers with a white {halt \ rump
variegated *, bill tipt with black j greater wing-coverts
and quill feajiters brown, tipt with white j tail dufky j
bread and belly white. About the fize of a hedge-fpar-
row, and between five and fix inches long. Inhabits
Northern Europe and Nootka Sound \ and has been
once or twice killed in England. _ 579
Gray fandpiper.—Bill black j legs greenifli; body Squatarola.
gray, white beneath *, head, back, and wing-covcrts,
edged with greenifh- afh j cheeks and chin with oblong
dufky fpots, and with the belly and rump white j tail
barred with black and vvhl . Weight about 7 ounces *,
length 12 inches. Inhabits Europe and America. Is
not plentiful on our fhores, feldom more than fix or fe-
ven being feen in a flock, and all of them retiring north¬
ward to breed. In Siberia and Carolina, it is laid to be
found in large flocks
58°
Led, or Aberdeeti fandpiper.—Bill and legs brown j Ifandica-
body ferruginous beneath *, lecondary quill feathers, edged
with white body thickly fprinkled with black anu fer¬
ruginous above j wing-coverts white on the outer edge j
rump and vent whitifh, the former waved with black,
the latter with a few black ifreaks j quill feathers black,
with white fhafts j tail feathers cinereous, with white
fhafts. From eight to ten inches long. Inhabits the
north of Europe and America. Sometimes appears in
great flocks on the coafts of Effex and the north of Scot¬
land. In fjmmer it frequents the neighbourhood of the
Cafpian fea, and alfo the river Don. It is perpetually
running up and down on the fandy banks, picking up
infecls and fmall worms, on which it feeds.
SS'r
Gen. c6. Charabrius, Plover. Charadrx*
0 us.
Bill roundish, obtufe, flraiglit j noflrils linear 7 feet 5s 2
formed for running, three toed. Charadleis.
The birds of this genus frequent the mouths of ri¬
vers, and the neighbourhood of torrents, and feem to
enjoy rainy weather, hrom this laid circumftance is
derived their French name pluvier, and the Engliili
plover.
Ring plover, ring dotterel, or fca lark.—Bread black 5
front blackiih, with a white band ; crown brown ; legs
yellow’j upper half of the bill orange, low’er black 5 iri¬
des hazel ; body gray-brown above, white beneath ;
eggs blulfh-white, with fmall round purpliih fpots. Of
this fpecies there is alfo a gray variety, with the collar
and belly white j and another gray-afh, with the front
and collar white, at id the lower half of the tail black,
tipt with rufty *, the former inhabiting Spain, and the
latter America. The more common fort is a native of
both Europe and America, and is a •well known vifitant
of our fhores in fummeB; ufually arriving in fpring, and
migrating in autumn, or at leaif retiring to the more in¬
land parts of the country, it weighs about'two ounces;
and is between feven and eight inches long. It pairs
early in May, and makes no neft, but lays four eggs in
a final] cavity in the fand, juft above high-water mark.
They are of a cinereous brown, marked all over with
fmall black aud alh-coloured fpots. It is to be remark¬
ed.-.
5^3
Hiaticula<
526
Grallae.
SH
Vociferus.
S5S
JVIorincl-
iut.
5S6
HiiKanto-
pus.
5S7
Pileatus.
Plate
CCGXGIX
Fig. 2.
O R N I T H
cd, tliat thefe and other birds which lay invariably only
four eggs on the ground, place them fo as to occupy the
lead pollible fpace, that is, with their fmall ends touch¬
ing each other as a centre. The ringed plover is great¬
ly attached to its young, and will pradife various de¬
ceptions to fave them from men and dogs ; fometimes
fluttering along the ground as if crippled, and fome-
hmes ;eeming to tumble head over heels repeatedly, till
it has enticed its enemy to a diftance from its young,
and then it flies off.
Noijy plover.—Bands on the bread;, neck, front, and
cheetwS wnite ^ tail pale yellow, with a black bar j legs
yellow. Between nine and ten inches long. Inhabits
America. Is very redlefs and clamorous.
Dotterel.—Bread ferruginous 5 band over the eyes,
and line on the bread white ; legs black j bill black,
depreffed in the middle 5 front mixed with dulky and
gray ; hind head black, temples and chin white ; upper
part of the neck, back and wings, gray-brown j line
acrofs the bread white •, middle of the belly black, red-
difli-white below ; greater quill feathers brown, and
lome ci them edged with white } tail olive brown, with
a dulky band near the end, and tipt with white. The
lemale is didinguidied by a dulky band over the eyes,
and brown crown. The crown of this fpecies is fome¬
times varied with white, gray-brown, and yellowidi;
the body beneath yellowiih, mixed with white j the two
middle tail feathers brown, and the lateral ones white.
Weight between four and five ounces ; length nearly 10
inches. Inhabits Europe, and makes this idand a reding
daticn in its migratory flights to and from its breeding
place. It is feen on fome of our dowrns, heaths, and
moors, from April to the beginning of June; returns
again in September, and remains till November. On
the Wiltfliire downs, it reforts to the new7 fown corn or
fallow-ground, for the fake of worms and beetles, its
principal food, In the autumn it flies in flocks of five,
fix, or more. It is a dupid bird, and ealily fhot, but
much edeemed for the delicacy of its flefli.
Long-legged plover, or long Jhanks.—White ; back
and wings black ; bill black, longer than the head ; legs
red, and very long} bill black, llender, tapering to a
fliarp point, the upper mandible a little longer than, and
bent over, the lower; irides red •, neck dufky fpots
above. There is a variety with white and black wings,
and the tail feathers white. This extraordinary fpecies
is certainly the longed legged bird, in proportion to its
bulk, hitherto known } the length from the apex of the
bill to the end of the tail being thirteen inches, and
from that to the end of the toes, five inches more. It
is rare in Britain, and in many parts of Europe, fo that
its manners are very irnperfeftly known. According
to Latham, it is common in Egypt, being found there
in the marflies in Oflober. Its food is laid to confifl
principally of flies. It is likewife plentiful about the
fait lakes, and often feen on the fhores of the Cafpian fea,
as well as by the rivers w'hich empty themfelves into it,
and in the fouthern deferts of Independent Tartary. It
is alio ofte 1 met with in the warmer parts of America,
and fometimes in Jamaica.
Hooded plover.—Bill and feet red ; face naked, ha¬
ving a yellowifh carunculated membrane ; head and
part of the neck black j hind head furnifhed with a few
fhort pointed feathers hanging like a crefl 5 beneath
O L O G Y.
white 5 body above rufous gray; under part white. Grail*.
Ten and a half inches long. Native of Senegal.  v——
Gen. 57. Recurvirostra, Avocet. „ 583
Bill depreffed, Tubulated, recurved, pointed, flexible at1*08™-4,
the tip j feet palmated, four toed, hind toe not con-cj,a^ers
nefled, very fliort, and placed high up 5 noflrils nar¬
row, pervious 5 tongue fhort.
Of this lingular genus there are only three fpecies, of
which the firlt inhabits Europe.
Scooping avocet.—In provincial Englifti, butter-jlip^ Avocetta.
/cooper, ijelper, picarini, crooked bill, cobleds awl, &c.
\ ariegated with white and black } bill three inches and
a halt long; irides hazel ; crown black, a white fpot
behind and beneath the eyes; red of the head, neck,
back, exterior part of the wings, leffer quill feathers,
tail, and under part of the body white ; inner fcapulars
and greater quill feathers without and at the tips black ;
legs bluifh, and very long membrane connecting the toes
indented. Refides in the temperate parts of Europe ;
weighing thirteen ounces, and meafuring, from the tip
of the bill to the end of the tail, eighteen inches. It
breeds in the fens of Lincolnfliire, and on Romney
Marfh, in Kent. The female lays two white eggs,
tinged with green, and marked with large black fpots.
In winter thele birds affemble in fmall flocks of fix or
feven, and frequent the fliores, particulary the mouths
of large rivers, in fearch of worms and marine infeds,
which they fcoop out of the mud or fand. They feem
to be particularly fond of the cancer pulex, or locujla.
By means of their long legs, they run over fliores that
are covered five or fix inches with water. In their
movements they are lively, alert, volatile, and difficult
to catch. When the female is frightened off her ned,
die counterfeits lamenefs ; and, when a flock is diflurb-
ed, they fly with their necks dretched out, and their
legs extended behind, over the head of the fpedator,
making a fluill noife, and uttering a yelping cry of twit,
twit, all the time. ^
American avocet.—Head and neck reddifli; back Americana.
black, white beneath. Fourteen inches long. Inhabits Plate
North America and New Holland. CCCXCIX.
White avocet.—White ; lower wing coverts brownifh;
bill orange ; legs brown. Fourteen inches and a half Atba.
long. Inhabits Hudfon’s bay.
593
H a: m a To¬
rus.
Gen. j8. H^ematopus.
Bill compreffed, the tip an equal wedge ; nodrils linear;
tongue a third part as long as the bill ; feet formed Characters,
for running, three toed, cleft.
Sea pie, or pied oyster catcher.— Bill, eyelids, and legs OJlralegus.
red, the former fometimes tipt with black; irides fear- Plate
let ; body fometimes totally black ; frequently the head,CCCXCIX.
neck, and body abo%’c, black ; white benea th ; a fmall
white fpot under the eyes ; bread with a white femicir-
cular band ; middle wing coverts at the tips, and great¬
er, entirely white ; quill feathers fpotted with white on
the infide ; tail from the middle to the bafe white, low¬
er half black ; claws black. Weight feventeen ounces,
length fixteen inches. Inhabits alrnoff every fea flicre,
but feerns never to quit the coad. Congregates in
fmall flocks in winter, and chiefly fubfifls on marine in¬
fers
3
0 R N I T H
Grails, feels and lliell-nfh, efpecially on cyders, which it feizes
<r-~— great adroitnefs. It makes no neft, but depodts
its eggs on the bare ground, above high-water mark.
The eggs are generally four, of an olivaceous browm,
blotched ryith black, and fomewhat larger than thofe
of the lapwing. The male is very watchful at the time
of incubation, and on the lead alarm, flies off with a
• loud (cream, and the female indantly runs from her
eo-vs to fome didance, and then takes wing. It is a
fhy bird, but becomes bolder when the young are hatch¬
ed. The latter are capable of running as loon as they
quit the egg, and are led by their parents to their proper
food. The young are eafily tamed.
Gen. 59. Glareola, Pratincole.
Bill drong, drort, draight, and hooked at the tip; np-
ftrils at the bafe of tne bill, linear and oblique; gap
of the mouth large ; feet four toed, toes long, fen¬
der, conne&ed at the bafe by a membrane ; tail fork¬
ed, confiding of twelve feathers.
Aujlrian pratincole.—Gray-brown above ; collar
black ; chin and throat white, bread and belly reddifh-
gray. Very fubjeft to vary in its plumage. Inhabits
the heaths of fouthem Europe. About nine inches
long. Feeds on worms and aquatic infects ; is very
redlefs and clamorous, and lays about feven eggs.
Senegal pratincole.—Bill, legs, and whole body brown.
Nine inches and a half long. Inhabits near the Sene¬
gal, and alfo Siberia.
Spotted pratincole.—Brown, fpotted with white; lower
part of the belly and vent reddifh-white, with black
{’pots ; bill and legs black. Size of the aujlriaca. In¬
habits Germany.
Gen. 60. Fulica.
Bill convex ; upper mandible arched over the lower at
the edge ; lower gibbous near the tip; nodrils ob¬
long ; front bald ; feet four-toed and fub-pinnated.
Birds of this tribe frequent waters and feed on worms,
infedls, and fmall fifh. They have a compreffed body;
the bill thick, and bent in towards the tip ; the upper
mandible reaching far up the forehead, and the wings
and tail ftiort. They are divided into gallinu/es or wa¬
ter hens, and coots. The former have the feet cleft;
the upper mandible membranaceous ,nt the bafe, and the
wings concave ; while the latter have the toes furround-
ed by a fcalloped membrane ; the mandibles equal; no-
llrils oval, narrow and fhort.
A. Feet cleft. Gallinule.
Common ga/linule, os moor hen.—Front tawny; brace¬
lets red; body blackifh ; bill red, with a greenilh tip ;
irides red ; body footy above, mixed with olive ; cine¬
reous beneath ; outer edge of the wings and lower tail-
coverts white ; legs greenilh; toes flat and Lroadilh.
Weighs from 14 to 16 ounces ; length 14 inches. In¬
habits Europe and America, and is a very common fpe-
cies, being found in moll fedgy and flow rivers, or
ffreams of water, and frequently in ponds abounding in
weeds, wThere it can lie concealed. It feeds principally-
on infedls, feeds, and vegetable produdlions of various’
forts, in quell of which it frequently quits the water. It
runs fall, and is equally expert in fwimming and diving,
527
Gralke.
$96
Glareola.
S97
Characters.
59*
Aujlriaca
599
Senegal-
enjis.
600
No via.
601
Fulica.
602
Characters.
603
Gallinule.
604
Cbloropus.
60.
O L O G Y.
but flies heavily, and with its legs hanging down. _ As
it runs or fvvims, it is continually flirting up the tail,
when the white underneath is very conipicuous. The
neft is made of flags or rulhes, and placed near the fur-
face of the water, on fome branch of a tree or bufli, and
fometimes on the Hump of an old willow. The eggs are
commonly live or fix, but fometimes nine or ten, of a
light yellowiih brown, marked with rull-ccloured Ipois.
The young are hatched in about three weeks, and in-
llantly take the water. This fpecies breeds twice or
thrice in tire courfe of a leafon. Its flefn is reckoned
delicious.
Purple galiinule.—Front red ; bracelets many ; body Porplfyrio.
green ; violet beneath. Fifteen inches long. Common
in molt temperaie and warm countries. Is docile and
eaflly tamed. Stands on one leg, and lifts -the food to
its mouth with the other. Feeds on fiflr, roots, fruits,
and feeds.
606
B. Feet pinnated. Coot. Qoot.
Common, black, or bald coot.-—Front flefn-colcured ;
bracelets greeniih-yellow; body blackilh; bill yeilowillr- Plate
white; front, except in pairing time, white; legs yei-CCCXClX,
lowifh-green ; cuter edge of the wings white. There 4*
are feveral varieties. Length 18 inches; weight from
20 to 30 ounces. Inhabits Europe, Alia, and Ameri¬
ca. It occurs in .Great Britain at all feafons of the
year, and is not fuppofed to migrate to other countries,
but changes its llations, and to remove from the pools,
where the young have been reared to the larger lakes,
where flocks affemble in the winter. The female com¬
monly builds her neil of a great quantity of coarfe dried
weeds, well matted together, and lined within with fof-
ter and finer grafies, in a bulb of rulhes furrounded by
the water. She lays from 1 2 to 15 eggs at a time, and
commonly hatches twice in a feafon. Fler eggs are
about the lize of thofe of a pullet, and of a pale brownilh-
white colour, fprinkled with numerous Imall dark fpots,
which, at the thicker end, feern as if they had run into
each other, and formed bigger blotches. As foon as
the young quit the fhell, they plunge into the water,
dive, and fwim about with great eafe, but-they Hill ga¬
ther about the mother, and take Ihelter under her
wings, and do not entirely leave her for feme time.
They are flrlt covered with a footy-coloured down, and
are of a lhapelefs appearance; and, while in this Hate,
beiore they have learned by experience to fnun their
enemies, they are often facrificed to the rapacity of the
pike, the kite, moor-buzzard, &c. A female, of this
fpecies built her neft in Sir William Middleton’s lake
at Beltay, in Northumberland, among the rulhes, which
were afterwards loofened by the wind, fo that the neft
was driven about, and floated on the furface of the wa¬
ter ; notwithftanding which, fhe continued to fit as
ufual, and brought out her young on her moveable
habitation. The common coot fwims and dives with
great eafe, but is a bad traveller, and may be faid not
to walk, but to fplalh and waddle between one pool
and another, with a laboured, ill balanced, and awk¬
ward gait. During the day it ufually Ikulks among the
rullies or other water plants, rarely venturing abroad,
except in the dufk, or at night, in quell of herbage,
feeds, infefls, and fillies. The fpprtfman and his dog
can feldom force it to fpring from its retreat, as it
will rather bury itfelf in the mud than take wing, or,
if
528
Gra'lje.
6c3
Aten ima.
6cp
Crijiata.
.610
Vagina¬
lis.
611
-Characters.
612
Albq..
(JtJ
Parra.
614
Characters.
€l5
Chilenjis.
€16
yaeatia.
617
Chavaria.
ORNITHOLOGY.
if it be very clofely puifned, and compelled to rife, it
gets up with much Huflering and apparent difficulty.
Greater coot.—Front white j bracelets red 5 body
blackiffi. Has much the appearance and manners of
the laft, but is larger and blacker. It is found both in
England and Scotland. The French eat it on meagre
days.
Crcyied coot.—Blue black 5 naked front and crown
red j caruncle red ; bifid ; erect $ bracelets red, green,
and yellow •, bill whitiffi, with a red bafe ; legs duf-
ky. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits China and Mada¬
gascar.
poultry, and defend them againft birds of prey, which
it does by means of the fpurs on its wings. It never
deferts the charge committed to its care, and brings
them home at night. It will readily fuffer itfelf to
be handled by grown up perfons, but not by chil¬
dren. \
GraUse.
Gen. 63. Rallus, Rail.
<JiS
Rallus.
619
Bill thickiffi at the bale •, attenuated on the back to- Characters,
wards the tip ^ comprefled; a little incurved and
pointed ; tongue rough at the tip 5 body compreffed j
tail fficrt; feet lour-toed and cleft.
Gen. 61. Vaginalis, Sheath-bill.
Bill ftrong, thick, conical, convex, and compreffed;
upper mandible covered above with a moveable horny
ffieath ; noftrils {mall, placed before the iheath \
tongue round above, flattened beneath, and pointed
at the tip } face naked and papillous} wings with an
obtufe excrefcence under the flexure 5 legs ftrong ;
lour toed \ naked a little above the knees; toes rough
beneath } claw's grooved.
IT kite /heath-bill.—Bill black at the bafe •, ffieath a
horny-yellow or black plate, nearly covering the no¬
ftrils p face naked; and in the adult bud, befet with
white, or pale orange warts; a brown or blackilh w7art
above the eyes, larger than the reft; feathers wffiite ;
excrefcence on the wings blackiffi ; legs two inches
long, and generally reddith. The only fpecies of the
genus; about the fize of a pigeon. From 15 to 18
inches long ; inhabits New7 Zealand and the South feas,
and feeds on ffiell-fifii and carcafes.
Gem 62. Parra, Jacana.
Bill tapering, fomewhat obtufe ; noftrils oval, in the
middle of the bill; front covered with lobated ca¬
runcles ; wings fpinous.
Chilefe jacana.—Claws moderate ; legs brown ; hind-
head fuberefted. Inhabits Chili. Size of a jay, but
has longer legs ; feeds on worms and infedts ; is noify,
and defends itfelf by the fpurs on the w ings. Builds in
the grafs, and lays four tawny eggs, fpeckled with
black.
Chef nut jacana.—Hindclaws very long; legs greeniffi.
Ten inches long ; inhabits watery places in South Ame¬
rica, and utters aimoft unceaflngly, a ffirill difagreeable
cry.
Faithfuljacana.—Toes long ; legs tawny ; hind head
crefted; bill dirty white ; upper mandible like that of
the dunghill cock ; a red membrane on both fides at
the bafe of the bill extending to the temples, in the
middle of wffiich' are the eyes ; brides brown ; hind head
with about 12 blackiffi feathers; three inches long,
forming a pendent creft ; reft of the neck covered with
thick black down ; body brown ; wdngs and tail
blackifti ; ving-fpurs two or three, and half an inch
long; belly light black; thighs half bare; toes fo
long as to entangle each other in walking. About the
ftze of a cock, and ftands a foot and a half from the
ground. Inhabits the rivers and inundated places near
Carthagena in America ; feeds on herbs ; has a clear
and loud voice, a flow7 gait, and eafy flight. The na¬
tives keep one of thefe birds tame to wander with the
3
The birds of this genus have the bill a little in¬
flected ; fmall noftrils ; tongue rough ; and the tail very
fhort. 62a
Land rail, crahe, corn crahe, dakcr hen, &c.—Wings Crex.
reddiih-rutty ; bill and legs brown-affi ; irides hazel;
feathers of the body reddiffi-brown; the upper ones
black in the middle ; chin very .pale ; belly whitiffi-
yellow7. About nine inches and a half long. Inhabits
the iedgy parts of Europe and Afia. From its appearing
at the fame time wdth the quail, and frequenting the
fame places, it is fomdtimes called king of the quails. Its
wed known cry is firft heard as foon as the grafs be¬
comes long enough to ffielter it, and continues till the
grafs is cut; but the bird is feldom feen, as it fkulks in
the thickeft parts of the herbage, and runs fo nimbly
through it, winding and doubling in every diredtion,
that it is difficult to come near it. When hard puffied
by the dog, it fometimes flops ffiort and fquats dowrn,
by which means its too eager purfuer overffioots the
fpot, and lofes the trace. It feldom fprings but when
driven to extremity, and generally flies v.’ith its legs
hanging down, but never to a great diftance. As foon
as it alights, it runs off, and before the fowler has
reached the fpot, the bird is at a confiderable diftance.
It is a migrative fpecies, appearing writh us about the
latter end of April, and departing in Obtober. On its
firft appearance, and till the female begins to fit, the
male is frequently heard to make a Angular kind of
noife, much refembling that of a comb when the Anger
is drawn along the teeth of it, and which has been ufed
as a decoy. When they Aift.arrive, they are very lean,
but before their departure, become exceffively fat, and
are much fought after for the delicacy of their fleffi.
Water rail. Brook ouzel, bilcock, velvet runner, &ic.— Aquaticus.
Wings gray, fpotted with brown ; flanks fpotted with
white ; bill orange beneath ; bill black, reddiffi at the
bafe ; irides red ; feathers of the upper part of the body
olive-browm, and black in the middle ; the low'er ones
cinereous ; thofe of the low'er part of the belly and vent
edged w ith rufous ; quill feathers dufky ; lower tail-co¬
verts white ; tail feathers fhort, black ; the tw o middle
ones at the tip, the reft edged with ferruginous ; legs
dufky-red. Length about 12 inches ; weight four
ounces. Inhabits watery places in Europe and Afla.
Though not very plentiful, it is fometimes found in va¬
rious parts of Great Britain, in low Atuations, about
water courfes and rivulets, where it feeks ffielter among
fedge-ruffies and reeds, and is feldom put to flight, de¬
pending chiefly on its legs for fafety. When roufed, it
flies only a fmall diftance, and that in a heavy7 and
awkward manner, with its legs hanging down. It runs
nimbly, and frequently flirts up its tail. rIhe neft is
made
ORNITHOLOGY.
Gralise.
6aa
PotKcina.
623
624
PllflllllS,
625
PSOPHIA.
626
Characters.
^27
Crepitans.
628
Vndu lata.
629
Galun^;.
630
CharaCtery.
made of fedge and coarfe grafs among the thickell aqua¬
tic plants, or in willow beds. The female lays fix or
more eggs, rather larger than thofe of a blackbird, very
fmooth, and of a pure white. This bird continues with
us all the year, and by many is erroneoufiy believed to
be the land rail metamorphofed in the autumn, without
knowing perhaps that the latter leaves this country at
that feafon, and that the difference of the bills alone
conflitutes an elfential diftinclion.
Spottedgallinu/e, or fpotted ,walet'-Jien.—Trvo middle
tail feathers edged with white; bill and legs pale olive $
bill greenifn-yellow ; irides hazel ; head biown, fpot¬
ted with black •, line over the eyes pale gray 5 neck
above, and Hanks brown-afh, with fmall wdiite fpots *,
back and wing-coverts olive wi black ftripes, and
near the edges of the feathers with white fpots \ the
greater with white ftripes and lines; cheeks, chin, and
throat pale gray, with brown fpots; breaft brown, with
white fpots; belly varied with cinereous and white j
vent ochre-yellow. The weight of this elegant fpecies
is a /out four ounces j length nine inches. Inhabits Eu¬
rope and North America 5 is migrative and fcarce in
England, and feems to have the manners and habits of
the preceding.
B/ack rati.—Black ; bill red at the bafe, brown at
the tip •, legs brown, or red. Nioe inches long. Inha¬
bits Africa.
Dwarf rail.—Striped with ferruginous and black 5
body black beneath, with narrow white bands •, throat
and breaft bluifh. Size of a lark. Inhabits near the
fait lakes of Dunria.
Gen. 64. Psophia, Trumpeter.
Bill cylindrical, conical, convex, fomewhat pointed 5
the upper mandible longeft; noftrils oval and per¬
vious 5 tongue cartilaginous, flat, and fringed at the
tip 5 feet four-toed and cleft.
Gold-bfeajied trumpeter. Black 5 back gray ; breaft
glofly-green; orbits naked, red j bill yellowifh-green 5
legs ftrong, tall, brownifh afh or green; the back toe
a round protuberance beneath, at a little diftance from
the ground j tail very fhort; feathers of the head downy j
of the lower part of the neck fquamiform ; of the fhoul-
ders ferruginous, lax, pendulous, and filky •, fcapulars
long and hanging. The agami of voyagers and others.
Nearly 22 inches long, and about the fize of the com¬
mon domeftic fowl. Inhabits South America, particu¬
larly the interior of Guiana in confiderable troops. In
jtsjiative haunts is not diftruftful of man, and is fufcep-
tible of domeftication in an eminent degree, acquiring
many of the focial habitudes of the dog. It emits from
the lungs a harfti and uncommon noife, not unlike that
of a child’s trumpet. It Hands, on one leg, and fleeps
with its neck drawn in between the Ihoulders.
Undulated ox African trumpeter.—Creft of the hind
head ftiort, whitifti; that of the breaft long, black,
and pendent. Size of a goofe. Inhabits Africa.
Order V. GALLINiE.
Biel convex j the upper mandible arched and di¬
lated at the edge over the lower; noftrils half co¬
vered with a convex cartilaginous membrane ; tail fea¬
thers more than 12; feet cleft, but conneaed at the
'Vol. XV. Part II.
innermoft joint 5 claws broad ; toes fcabrous below,
and formed for fcratching up the ground. In moft
fpecies the males have fpurs on the legs. They live
chiefly on the feeds of plants, but like wife eat infefts,
grubs, and worms, which are macerated in their crop.
Ihey are polygamous, and build rude nefts, for the
moft part on the bare ground, the female laying many
eggs at a time. They colled! their young about them
by a particular cry when they feed them, and lead
and protedt them till they moult. They are eafily tam¬
ed, and are ufeful on account of their flefh, their eggs,
and their feathers.
529
Gallinte.
Gen. 65. Otis, Bufard.
Bill fomewhat convex j noftrils oval and pervious *,
tongue bifid, pointed ; feet formed for running j three-
toed ; tall j naked above the thighs.
631
Otis.
632
Characters
633
Great bufard.-—Wave fpotted, with black and ru- Tarda
fous j whitifti beneath 5 head, (of the male) and each
fide of the throat erefted ; head and neck cinereous j
quill feathers black ; tail with rufous and black lines,
and from 18 to 20 feathers; pouch beginning under
the tongue, and reaching to the breaft; long, capa¬
cious, and fit to hold near feven quarts of water ; legs
dulky. The male weighs from 20 to 30 pounds, and
the female about 10 or 12; length about four feet.
Inhabits the open plains of Europe, Afia, and Africa.
It is the largeft of Britifh birds, and is now almoft ex¬
tinct in our ifiand. It makes no neft, but the female
lays her eggs in fome hole in the ground, in a dry com
field. The eggs are two in number as big as thofe of a
goofe, and of a pale olive-brown marked with fpots of a
deeper colour. If during her abfence from the neft,
any one handles, or even breathes on the eggs, (he im¬
mediately abandons them. Buftards feed on green
corn, the tops of turnips, and various other vegetables,
as well as on worms; and they have alfo been known to
eat frogs, mice, and young birds of the fmaller kind,
which they fw'allow whole. They are remarkably Ihy
and timid, carefully avoiding mankind, and being ea¬
fily driven away in whole herds by the fmalleft dog.
1 hey are flow in taking wing, but run with great ra¬
pidity ; and the young are even fometimes courfed and
taken by greyhounds. Though not properly migratory,
they leave their ufual haunts in very fevere winters,
when the downs are covered for any length of time
with fnow, and repair to the more inclofed and ftieltered
fituations, in fmall flocks, and even ftray to a great di¬
ftance. In the Crimea they are feen in large flights,
efpecially during winter, when the wings and crop fea¬
thers are fometimes fo encumbered with ice, that the
bird is unable, in the fnow, to take the run previous to
flying, in confequence of which many are caught by the
hand, or by means of dogs, and brought to market
alive. The flefti, particularly of the young, when kept
a little time, is excellent. 534
Arabian bufard.—Ears with eredt crefts. Size of Arabs.
the preceding. Inhabits Afia and Africa. 635
Little bufard, or feld duck—Head and throat fmooth; Tetr^x-
bill gray-brown ; crown black, with rufous bands;
temples and elfin reddifh-white, with fmall dark fpots;
neck (of the male) black, with a white collar; body
above varied with black, rufous, and white; beneath
3 X and
53°
O R N I T H
Galling.
636
Afra.
Plate
cccc.
rig. 1.
*31
Houbara.
638
Oedicnernus
and outer edge of the wings white. About the fize of
a pheafant; length 1 7 inches. Inhabits Southern Eu¬
rope and Afia. A few intlances are on record of its
having been found in England. In France, it is fre¬
quently ferved at table as a delicacy, though the fleih
be blackifh. In June it lays from three to live eggs,
of a gloffy green, and the young are able to fly in Au-
guft.
White-eared hijlard.—Black ; back cinereous •, ears
white 5 in the male the bill and legs are yellow; the
crown is cinereous, and the wings are marked tfith a
large white blotch j the neck behind, and thighs above
the knees, have a white collar ; the tail feathers
145 the female is cinereous, and the thighs and belly
black. Length 22 inches. Native of the Cape of Good
Hope.
Ruffed hujiard.—Yellowilh, fpotted with brown ;
feathers of the neck long, whitilh, with black {hafts •,
quill feathers black, with a white fpot in the middle.
Size of a capon. In''kbits Afric a and Arabia. __
Thick-kneed bujlard, Jlone curlew, or Torfolk plo¬
ver.—Gray j two firft quill feathers black, white in the
middle 5 bill lharp pointed j legs cinereous ; bill black 5
legs greenilh-yellow \ lower eyehd naked, pale yellow 5
a yellow line above and beneath the eyes \ a brown line
from the bill, under the eyes to the ears •, knees thick,
as if fwollen \ belly and thighs white. Weighs about
17 ounces; length 18 inches. Inhabits Europe, Afia,
and Africa. With us it is a migrative fpecies, making
its firft appearance the latter end of April, or beginning
of May, when the male is heard to make a very loud
fhrill noife, particularly in the dulk of the evening. It
chiefly frequents large corn fields, heaths, or warrens,
in open hilly fituations j makes no neft, but lays two
light-brown coloured eggs, blotched and llreaked with
dulky, on the ground. Its food chiefly confifts of in¬
fects and worms, and fometimes alfo of mice, frogs, and
tqads. In the autumn, thefe birds aiTemble in fmall
flocks preparatory to their departure, and are feldom
feen after the beginning of October. When flying,
they ftretch out their feet Itraight behind, like the
heron. The young are hardly to be diftinguifhed from
the ftones in which they generally harbour.
*39
Struthio. Gen. 66. Struthio.
Characters. Bill fubconical j noftrils oval } wings Ihort, unfit for
^ flight 5 feet formed for running.
Camelus. Black ojlrich.—Feet with two toes } head fmall; bill
Plate horn-colour} irides hazel; eyelids fringed, head and
«jGCC. greater part of the neck bald, flelh-coloured, with a few
fcattered hairs •, feathers of the body lax, black, and de-
compofite; the webs on each fide equal; quill and tail
leathers fnowy, waved, and long, with a fprinkling of
black on the edge or tip ; cheft callous ; wing fpurs
two, one at the end of the wing, and one on the fpuri-
ous wfing j thighs and flanks naked ; feet ftrong, gray-
browm ; toes connefted at the bafe, the outer very Ihort,
and unarmed. The oftrich flands fo very high as to
meafure from feven to nine feet, from the top of the
head to the ground •, from the back, how7ever, it is
feldom more than three or four feet, the reft of its
height being made up by its extremely long neck. In the
fandy and burning deferts of Africa and Afia, the black
oftriches are feen in fuch large flocks, as fometimes to
O L O G Y.
have been miftaken for diftant cavalry. Their flron£ Gallinae.
jointed legs, and cloven hoofs, if w-e may ufe the ex-  v 
preflion, are vrell adapted both for fpeed and defence.
Their wings and all their feathers are infufticient to raile
them from the ground. Their voice is a kind of holjow
mournful lowing $ and they graze on the plain with the
quacha and the zebra. In the interior parts of lout hern
Africa they frequently make great havock in the corn
fields, deltroying the ears of wheat lb effectually, that
in a large traci of land, it often happens that nothing
but the bare ftraw is left behind. In running, they
have a proud and haughty look, and even when cloiely
puriued, never appear to be in great hafte, efpecially
when the wind is w ith them, and they can eafily acce¬
lerate their progrefs by flapping their wings, fo as toout-
ftrip the fwifted horie. But if the weather be hot and
calm, or if the birds have by any accident loft awing, the
difficulty of outrunning them is not fo great. The oftrich
is one of the fewr polygamous birds found in a flute of
nature, one male being generally feen with two cr three,
and frequently with five females. It has been common¬
ly believed that the female, after depoliting her eggs in
the land, and covering them up, allows them to be
hatched by the heat of the climate, and leaves the young
to fliift for themfelvfs. Recent travellers have, how¬
ever, allured us, that no bird whatever has a itronger
affedfion for her offspring, and that none watches her
eggs with greater afliduity. It is true, that during the
intenfe heat of the day, when incubation is lefs necef-
fary, fne fometimes forlakes them, but flic always care¬
fully broods over them by night. Kolben affirms that
this fpecies fit on their eggs like other birds, and that
the males and females take this office by turns, as he had
frequent opportunities of obfervmg. Nor is it more
true, that they foriake their young as foon as excluded
from the Ihell. On the contrary, the old ones are very
afliduous in {applying them with grafs and water, are
careful to defend them from harm, and will even them-
felves encounter every danger in their defence. All
the females which are attached to one male, depofit their
eggs in the fame place, to the number of ten or twelve
each, about the fize of a child’s head. Thefe they
hatch all together, the male alfo taking his turn of fit¬
ting on them. Thus from fixty to feventy eggs have
ometimes been found in one neft, and Linnaeus errone-
oufly afligned them ' to one female. 1 he term of in¬
cubation is fix weeks. The neft appears to be merely
a hole in the ground, formed by the birds trampling the
earth for fome time with their feet. If the eggs are
touched by any perfon in the abfence of the parents,
they immediately difeover it by the feent, at their return,
and not only defift from laying any more in the fame
place, but trample to pieces w ith their feet all thofe that
have been left. On this account the Africans are very
careful in taking part of the eggs aw7ay not to touch
any of them with their hands, but always fetch them
out of the neft with a long flick. Within the eggs are
frequently difeovered a number of fmall oval-lhaped
pebbles, of the fize of a marrow'-fat pea, of a pale yellow
colour, and exceedingly hard. Thefe eggs are reckon¬
ed a great delicacy, and are prepared in various ways.
From their large fize, one of them is fufficient to ferve
twm or three perfons at a meal. The oftrich itfelf is
chiefly valuable for its plumage ; and the Arabs have
reduced the chafe of it to a kind of fcience. They hunt
O R N I T H O L O G Y.
Gallinae. It, we are told, on Irorfebnck, and begin their purfuit at
v  a gentle gallop •, for fiiould they, at the outfet, ufe the
leaft rafhnefs, the matchlefs fpeed of the game would
immediately carry it out of their fight, and in a very
fhort time, beyond their reach. But when they pro¬
ceed gradually, it makes no particular effort to efcape.
As it does not go in a direft line, but runs firil on one
fide, and then on the other, its purfuers fave much
ground by ruining diredly onward. In a few days at
mold, the ftrength of the animal is exhaufted,. and it
then’ either turns on the hunters, and fights with the
fury of defpair, or hides its head, and tamely receives its
fate. Frequently, alfo, the natives conceal themfelves
in off rich ikins, and thus are enabled to approach near
enough to furprife them. Some perfons breed up thefe
birds in flocks, for they are tamed with very little
trouble, and may be rendered very ufeful in a domeftic
fate. Befides the valuable feathers which they caff,
the eggs which they lay, their flans, which are ufed by
the Arabians as a fubffitute for leatner, and their llefn,
which many efteem excellent food, they are fometimes
made to ferve in place of horfes. It is pleafant to ob-
ferve with what dexterity they play and frifk about in
a tame ftate, particularly in the heat of the day, when
they will ftrut along the funny fide of a houfe, with
great majefty, perpetually fanning themfelves with their
expanded wings, and ieeming, at every turn, to admire
and be enamoured of their own fhadows. They are
very tradable and familiar towards perfons who are ac¬
quainted with them, hut are oiten fierce towards
flrangers, whom they frequently attempt to pufh down
by running funoufly on them, and when they mccecd
thus far, they not only peck at their fallen foe wjth their
bill, but ftrike at him violently with their feet. While
thus engaged, they fometimes make a fierce luffing node,
and have their throat inflated, and mouth open; and
at other times, make a kind of cackling noife. During
the night they often utter a doleful or hideous cry,
fomewhat refembling the diftant roaring of a lion, or the
hoarfe tone of a bear or an ox, as if they were in great
agony. They will fwallow with the utmoft voracity
rags, leather, wood, iron, or flone, indiferimately. “ I
fan one at Oran (fays Dr Shaw), that fwallowed, with¬
out any feeming uneafinefs or inconvenience, feveral
leaden bullets, as they were thrown upon the floor,
fcorching hot from the mould.” Mr Adanfon mentions
two oftriches which afforded him a fight of a very ex¬
traordinary nature. They were fo tame, that two little
blacks mounted both together on the back of the largeft.
No fooner did he feel their weight, than he began to
run as faft as pofiible, and carried them feveral times
round the village, as it was impoffible to flop him other-
wife than by °obffruaing the paffage. To try their
ftrength, he directed a full-grown negro to mount the
fmalleff, and two others the largeft.' This burthen did
not feem at all difproportioned to their Itrength. At
fir ft they went at a pretty fharp trot, but when they be¬
came heated a little, they expanded their wings, as if to
catch the wind, and moved with fuch fleetnefs that they
fcarcely feemed to touch the ground. “ Moft people
(obferves M. Adanfon) have, one time or other, feen a
partridge run, and confequently muft know that there
is no man whatever able to keep up with it: and it is
eafy to imagine, that if this bird had a longer ftep, its
fpeed would be confiderably augmented. The oftrich
moves like the1 partridge, with this advantage ; and I
am fatisfied that thofe I am fpeaking of would have di-
ftanced the fleeteft race-horfes that were ever bred in
England. It is true, they would not hold out fo long
as a horfe, but they would undoubtedly be able to go
over the fpace in lefs time. I have frequently beheld
this fight, which is capable of giving one an idea of the
prodigious ftrength of an oftrich, and of {hewing what
ufe it might be of, had we but the method of breaking
and managing it as we do a horfe.” 642
Emeu or cqfowary.—Feet three-toed; helmet and CaJJ'uarius.
dewlaps naked ; bill and legs black ; gape very large ;
irides topaz ; eyelids fringed ; noftrils nearly at the tip
of the bill; eyes large; helmet horny, reaching from
the bafe of the” bill to the middle of the crown, three
inches high, the fore part blackifti, the hind part yellow;
temples and neck bald, wrinkled, and reddifh, with a
blue or purple tinge, and covered with a few fcattered
hairs ; two pendent caruncles, partly red and . partly
blue one each fide of the neck ; cheft on which it refts
callous ; feathers brownifh-black, lax, generally two
from one {haft; no tail; wings confiding of about five
naked dufliy drafts; claws ftraight. Five feet and a
half long. Inhabits within the torrid zone in Alia ; is
a fierce and bold bird ; kicks with its feet like a horfe,
grunts like a hog, feeds on vegetables, which it fwallows
whole ; lays greeniftr eggs, more oblong than thofe of
the black oftrich ; runs very fwiftl'y, and is incapable of
flying. ^45
New Holland cajjbwary.—Feet three-toed ; crown Hol-
flat; thanks ferrated behind. Seven feet two inchesla>2ii!ce-
long. Inhabits New Holland. 644 .
American qftrich.—Feet three-toed, and a round cal- Rhea.
lus behind. Nearly the height of a man. Inhabits
South America; feeds on fruits, tlefti, and flies, defends
itfelf with its feet, and calls its young by a kind of hifs. 64s
Gen. 67. Didus, Dodo. Dl^'
Bill narrowed in the middle, with two tranfvei fe Characters,
wrinkles ; each mandible bent in at the tip ; noftrils
oblique, near the edge of the middle of the bill ; face
naked beyond-the eyes ; legs fliort and thick ; feet
cleft; wings unfit for flight; no tail. <j47
Hooded dodo.—Black, waved with whitiflr ; head InePtuu
hooded ; feet four-toed ; bill ftrong, large, bluiflr, with
a red fpot ; the upper mandible yellowifli at the tip, the
lower bulging near the tip; gape very large; irides
whitifh ; plumage foft ; Belly whitiflr; head large, black,
as if covered with a cap ; feathers of the rump curled,
inclining to yellow; legs yellowifli; claws wanting.
This uncouth fpecies is rather bigger than a ft van, and
nearly three feet in length. It inhabits the iflands of
Mauritius and Bourbon in the Indian ocean. Accord¬
ing to Herbert, it feldom weighs lefs than 50 pounds ;
has a flow pace ; the body round and fat; and the
ftomach fo ftrong as to digeft ftones. It is, however, fo
feldom met with that its true hiftory is little known. ^48
Solitarij dodo.—Varied with gray and brown.; feet sohtanus.
four-toed ; eyes black ; fpurious wings, terminating in a
roiiiul protuberance. The female with a white protu¬
berance, refembling a teat on each fide of the breaft.
Size of a turkey. Inhabits the ifland of Rodrigue,
where it is not uncommon, though feldom more than
3X2 two
53^ ORNITHOLOGY
^Gallu re. two are found together. It makes its neft in by-places,
’-^v~ of leaves of the palm, a foot and a half in thicknefs, and
lays, one egg, bigger than that of a goofe. The male
fits in his turn, and does not fuller any bird to approach
within two hundred yards of the fpot when the hen is
fitting. The incubation lafts feven weeks. Some months
elapfe before the young can Ihift for itfelf. The old
ones in the mean time treat it with affeftion and tender-
nefs, and are faithful to each other afterwards, though
they may occafionally mix with others of their kind.
The young bird, though timid, is ftupid enough to
allow a perfon to approach it j but when grown up, it is
more Ihy, and will not be tamed. They are chafed in
the winter feafon, viz. from March to September, being
then fat, and the young birds are much elteemed for the
table.
®49
Pavo. Gen. 68. Pavo, Peacock.
Characters. Bill convex and ftrong 5 head with a creft of feathers
turning forwards 5 noitrils large ; rump feathers long,
broad, expanfile, and covered with eye-like fpots.
Crijlatus. Crejiedpeacock.—Head with a comprefied crefl: j fpurs
folitary. It is impoflible to defcribe the beauties of this
well-known fpecies in adequate terms. Its matchlefs
plumage, as Buffon obferves, feems to combine all that
delights the eye in the foft and delicate tints of the
fineft flowers, all that dazzles it in the fparkling luftre
of the gems, and all that attonilhes it in the grand dif-
play of the rainbow. Its head is adorned with a tuft,
confifting of 24 feathers, whofe flender lhafts are furnilh-
ed with webs only at the ends, painted with the molt ex-
quifite green, mixed with gold. The head, throat,
neckband breaft, are of a deep blue, glofied with green
and gold 5 the back of the fame, tinged with bronze ;
the fcapulars and leffer wing-coverts are of a reddith
cream-colour, variegated with black; the middle coverts
deep blue, glofled with green and gold ; the greater
coverts and fpurious wing are of a reddifh-brown, as are
alfo the quills, fome of which are variegated with
black and green ; the belly and vent are black, with a
greenifh line. But the diftinguiftiing character of this
Bird is its train, which rifes juft above the tail, and
when erefted, forms a fan of the moft refplendent hues.
The two middle feathers are fometimes four feet and a
half long, the others gradually diminiftiing on each fide.
The fhafts, which are white, are furniftied from their
origin nearly to the end with parted filaments of vary¬
ing colours, ending in a flat valve, which is decorated
with what is called the eye. This is a brilliant fpot, en-
-amelled with the moft enchanting colours, yellow, gild¬
ed with various ftiades, green, running into blue and
bright violet, varying according to its different pofitions,
the whole receiving additional luftre from the centre,
which is a fine velvet black. When pleafed or de¬
lighted, and in fight of his females, the peacock erects
his tail, and difplays all the majefty of his beauty, and
he frequently turns flowly round, as if to catch the fun-
beams in every direction, accompanied with a hollow
murmuring voice. His cry at other times is very dif-
agreeable, and often repeated. The peahen is fome-
what lefs than the cock, and though furnilhed both
with a train and creft, is deftitute of thofe dazzling
beauties which diftinguifh the male. She lays five or
fix eggs of a whi.Uib colour, in fome fecret fpot, where
(he can conceal them from the male, who is apt to Galiinje.
bic.uv them } and Ihe iits from 25 to 30 days, according ~—v"*"" im
to the temperature of the climate and the warmth of the
feafon. Peacocks were originally brought from the
diftant provinces of India, and thence have been diffufed
over every part of the world. They are fometimes
found in a wild ftate in many parts of Afta and Africa.
The largeft and fineft are faid to be met with in the
neighbourhood of the Ganges, and on the fertile plains
of India, where they grow to a great fize. In colder
climates, they require care in rearing} and do not ac¬
quire their full plumage till their third year. In former
times they were confidered as a delicacy, and made a
part.of the luxurious entertainment of the Roman volup¬
tuaries. 1 he females of this fpecies, like the pheafant,
have been known to aflume the appearance of the male,
by a total change of colour, which is faid to take place
after they have done laying. A white variety of pea¬
cock occurs not unfrequently, in which the eyes of the
train are barely vifible, and may be traced by a differ¬
ent undulation of ftiade on the pure white of the tail,
. //A peacock.—Brown j head fubcrefted •, fpurs two j Bicalcard*
bill blackilh ; the upper mandible, from the noftrils to
the tip, red j irides yellow } crown black ; face naked ;
temples white 5 neck ftiining-brown, with black lines y
upper part of the back, (boulders, and wing-coverts
brown, with yellowifti ftripes; the feathers near the tip
with a large purple gold fpot j lower part of the back
and rump fpotted with white j body fwown beneath,
with tranfverfe black ftreaks *, quill feathers dufky; legs
brown. Larger than a pheafant. Inhabits China.
Gen. 69. Meleagris, Turkey.
Bill conical, and incurved } head covered with fpongy GRIS*
caruncles 5 chin with a longitudinal membranaceous
caruncle } tail broad, and expanfile j legs (purred.
American, ox common Front and chin car- GcMpaW*
unculated ; breaft of the male tufted. Female without
a.fpur. Upwards of three feet and half long. Inha¬
bits. America. ; and is very generally domefticated. In
a wild ftate it lives in woods, and feeds on nuts, acorns,
and infefts. It roods on the higheft trees ; is very iraf-
cible, and impatient of any thing red. The cock ftruts
■with an inflated breaft, expanded tail, red face, and re¬
laxed frontal caruncle, making a Angular inward noife
which, when it is uttered, (hakes the whole body. The
eggs are numerous and white, with reddiflr or yellow
fpots. The females lay them in fpring, generally in
fome retired and obfeure place j for the cock, enraged
at the lofs of his mate while (lie is employed in hatching,
is otherwife apt to break them. They fit on their eggs
with fo much perfeverance, that if not taken away, they
will almoft perilh with hunger before they will entirely
leave the neft. In a wild ftate, turkeys are gregarious^
andaffociate in flocks, fojnetimes of about five hundred.
They are very fwift runners, but fly awkwardly ; and
about the month of March, they ’become fo fat, that
they cannot fly beyond three or four hundred yards, and
are then eafily run down by a horfeman. The hunting
of thefe birds forms one of the principal diverfions of
the Canadians. When the latter have difeovered the
retreats of the turkeys, which in general are near fields
of nettles, or where there is plenty of any kind of grain,
they fend a well-trained dog into the midft of the flock!
The
/
O R N I T H
«allin*. Tlie birds no fooner perceive their enemy than they run
■"’—v off at full fpeed, and with fuch fwiftnefs that they leave
the dog far behind ; he, however, follows, and as they
cannot go at this rate for any length of time, at laft
forces them to take Ihelter in a tree, where they fit,
fpent and fatigued, till the hunters come up, and with
long poles, knock them down one alter another. 1 urKey
cocks, among themfeLves, are very fierce and pugna¬
cious, and yet, againft other animals, are ufualfy weak
and cowardly. The difpofition of the female is in ge¬
neral much more mild and gentle than that of the male. •,
and when leading out her young family to colie ft their
food, though fo large and apparently fo powerful a bird,
Ihe gives them very little protection againft any rapaci¬
ous animal that comes in her way, but rather warns
them to Ihift for themfelves. It deferyes to be remark¬
ed, that though this fpecies is reared with fome difficul¬
ty, yet in its wild ftate it is found in great plenty in the
forefts of Canada, that are covered with fnow for more
than three-fourths of the year. It is eafily hurt by
hunger or rain. They are bred in great numbers in
Norfolk, Suffolk, and fome other counties, from whence
they are driven to the London markets in flocks of fe-
veral hundreds. The drivers manage them with great
facility, by means of a bit of red rag tied to the end of
a long ftick, which, from the antipathy that thefe birds
bear to that colour, effeftually anfwers the purpofes of a
fcourge. We need fcarcely notice, that the fleffi of the
turkey is reckoned a delicate food. The Indians make
an elegant clothing of the feathers, by twilling the in¬
ner webs into a ftrong double firing with hemp, or the
inner bark of the mulberry-tree, and working it like
matting, fo that the whole appears rich and gloffy, and
as fine as filk lhag. The natives of Louifiana make
fans of the tail; and of four tails joined together the
French ufed formerly to form a parafol.
Horned turkey.—Head with two horns *, body red,
with eye-like fpots ; bill brown j noftrils, front, and area
of the eyes covered with black hair-like feathers j
crown red \ horns callous, blue, bent back •, caruncle
of the chin dilatable, blue, varied with rufous 5 legs
whitiffi 5 fpurred •, tail feathers twenty. The female has
the head covered with feathers, without horns or gular
caruncle •, feathers of the head and upper part of the
neck black-blue, long, and decumbent 5 reft of the body,
as in the male, red with eye-like fpots; fpurs more ob-
tufe. Rather lefs than the preceding. Inhabits India.
^ 655
Shtyra-
656
Penelope.
657
Characters.
658
Crijlata-
<>59
Cunianen-
fiS.
669
Alar ail.
Gen. 70. Penelope.
Bill naked at the bafe; head covered with feathers;
chin naked j tail with twelve feathers} legs without
fpurs.
Guan.—Head with an erect creft *, temples violet.
Two feet fix inches long. Inhabits Brazil and Guiana,
where it is frequently tamed, its fleih being reckoned
very delicate. It frequently utters a found like the word
jacu.
Jacu or yacou.—Blackiffi 5 creft and firft quill feathers
white. Size of a hen turkey. Inhabits Cayenne and
Guiana. It ere£ts its crert, expands its tail, and cries
in a mournful tone, like a young turkey. It builds on
the ground, is eafily tamed, and is often domefticated.
Marail -Greenifh-black } naked orbits } and
legs red } throat fojnewhat naked, fpeckled with whits.
O L O G Y. 533
Size of a common fowl, and not diffimUar in ffiape. ,ga!1^
Though not much known to naturalifts, it is common in
the woods of Guiana, at a diftance from the fea. It is
generally feen in fmall flocks, excepting at breeding-
time, when it is only met with in pairs, and then fre¬
quently on the ground, or on lowT ftirubs, at other times
on high trees, on which it roofts during the night. 1 he
female makes her neft on fome low buffiy tree, as near
the trunk as poffible, and lays three or four eggs. When
the young have been hatched for ten or twelve days,
they defcend with the mother, which fcratches on the
ground like a hen, and broods them, till they can fhift
for themfelves. They breed twice a-year. 1 he young
birds are eafily tamed, and feldom forfake the places
where they have been brought up. Their cry is not
unharmoniaus, unlefs they be irritated or wounded,
when it is harfti and loud. T heir fleih is much efteem-
ed.
661
Gen. 71. Crax, Curajfow* Crax.
.... 662
Bill ftrong and thick j the bafe of each manaiDle cover- charadtei't.
ed with a cere ; noftrils in the middle of the ceie }
feathers covering the head turned fpirally forward j
tail large, ftraight, and expanfile.
663
Crejled curafow.—(Male). Cere yellow j body Aleclor.
black •, belly white ; bill black or horny ; cere reaching P]ate
from the middle of the bill behind the eyes j creft ereif, CCCG*
black, and three inches long j tail black and roundiffi, Fig. 4,-
eleven inches long, feathers fourteen j fpurs none, (he-
maie.) Red ; head bluiffi ; creft white, tipt with black j
bill cinereous} irides red; legs brown. Subject to
much variety. Three feet long. Inhabits the moun¬
tainous woods ot South America. Lives on fruits, roots
or trees, and is often domefticated on account of its
white and delicate flefli. They are frequently kept
tame in our menageries, and readily mix with other
poultry, feeding on bread and grain, but they are unable
to bear the dampnefs of the grafs of our meadows, which
renders their toes fubjeft to rot off. Dr Latham men¬
tions an inftance in which the whole of one foot was
gone, and but part of one toe left on the other, before
the creature died. 664
Globofecurajfow,or curqffbw W.—Yellow; gibbofity Globicem
of the noftrils globular 5 body blackiffi-blue, lower part
of the belly white ; bill yellow, tipt with cinereous •,
gibbofity yellow, and very hard j irides red j orbits ^
white } creft black, tipt with white 5 legs pale rufty.
(Female.) Bill and legs cinereous; head and crown
black ; creft black, with a white band ; fome of the „
feathers of the neck tipt with white ; throat, breaft,
back, and wings brown ; upper part of the belly white,
and fome of the feathers tipt with black ; vent yellow-
iffi-brown ; tail black, with four tranfverfe white bands.
Size of the preceding. Inhabits Gmiana.
Gen. 72. Phasianus, Vheafant.
Phasia-
Bill ffiort and ftrong ; cheeks covered with a fmooth NU^6
naked Ikin : legs generally with Ipurs. Charadlen.
The females produce many young ones at. a brood,
and take care of them for fome time, leading them
abroad, and pointing out food for them. The young
are at firft clad with a thick foft down. The nefts of
the whole tribe are formed on the ground.
Common
534 O R N I T I-
^OaU.naf. ‘Common cock, or w'ildcoch.—Comb on the crown, and
66-j two wattles on the chin conipreffed; ears naked ; tail
Callus. comprefled and erected j feathers of the neck linear, long,
and membranaceous at the tips •, body, when wild, lefs
than the common cock ; comb large, indented, thining-
red 5 temples and line from the creit to the eyes naked
and ileih-coloured, a clay-coloured Ipot of the drape of
a man’s nail, and covered with (hort feathers behind
the eyes; feathers of the red of the head and neck long,
narrow, gray at the bafe, black in the middle, and tipt
with white ; feathers of the upper part of the body
grayifh, with a white and a black dreak ; bread red-
j diih ; greater wing-coverts reddhh-chefnut, with tranf-
verfe black and white dreaks ; tail coverts gloffy-violet;
middle tad feathers long and falcated ; fpurs large and
curved. The female without comb and wattles ; head
and neck gray; cheeks and chin whitidr; body more
dulky, and varied with brown, gray, and rufous; and
wants the fpurs. Inhabits India in a wild date, is every
where domedicated, and fubjeft to innumerable varieties
in fize and colour. His beautiful plumage and undaunt¬
ed fpirit, as well as his great utility, have rendered him
a favourite in all countries into which he has been in¬
troduced. The cock is very attentive to his females,
hardly ever lofing fight of them. He leads, defends,
and cherilhes them, collefts them together when they
draggle, and feems to eat unwillingly till he fees them
feeding around him. Whenever a drange cock ap¬
pears within, his domain, he immediately attacks the in¬
truder, and if podible, drives him away. The patience
and perfeverance of the hen in the hatching, are truly
extraordinary, but are too familiar to mod of our readers
to require to be detailed. Though by nature timid, and
apt to fly from the meaned affailant, yet, when march¬
ing at.the head of her brood, die is fearlefs of danger,
and will fly in the face of the fierced animal that offers
to annoy her. As the chickens reared by the hen bear
no proportion to the number of eggs which die produces,
many artificial fchemes of rearing have been attempted.
Chickens have long been hatched in Egypt by means of
artificial heat. This is now chiefly pradiife j by the in¬
habitants of a village called Berme, and by thofe who
live at a little didance from it. Towards the beginning
of autumn, thefe perfons fpread themfelves all over the
country, and each of them is ready to undertake the
management of an oven. Thefe ovens are of different
fizes, each capable of containing from forty to eighty
thoufand eggs ; and the number of ovens in different
parts is about three hundred and eighty-fix. They are
ufually kept in exercife for about fix months; and as
each brood takes up twenty-one days in hatching, it is
eafy in every one of them to produce eight different
broods of chickens in the year. The ovens confid only
of a low arched apartment of clay. Two rows of dielves
are formed ; and the eggs are placed on them in fuch a
manner as not to touch each oth^r. They are fiightly
moved five or fix times in the courfe of twenty-four
hours. All poffible care is taken to diffufe the heat
equally throughout, and there is but one aperture, jud
large enough to admit a man dooping. During the
fird eight days, the heat is rendered great, but during
the lad eight it is gradually diminilhed, till at length,
"when the young brood are ready to come forth, it is re¬
duced almod to the date of the natural atmofphere.
Every keeper of an oven obliges himfeif to deliver to
2
[ O L O G Y.
his employer only two thirds of as many chickens as Gall in*.
there have been eggs entruded to him ; and he is a' 
gainer by this bargain, as it always happens, except
from feme unlucky accident, that many more than that
proportion of the eggs are productive. In this way it
has been calculated that the Egyptian ovens give life
annually to near a hundred millions of chickens. This
uleiul and advantageous mode of hatching eggs was in¬
troduced into i ranee by the ingenious and indefatigable
Monfieur de Reaumur, who, by a number of expeii-
ments, reduced the art to certain principles, and applied
it to the predudion of all kinds of dcmedic fou ls. The
young brood are generally hatched a whole day before
they tafte food, and then a lew crumbs of bread are
given for a day or two, after which time they begin to
pick up grain and in feds for themfelves. In order to
fave the trouble ot attending them, capons are taught
to watch them in the fame manner as hens. Pd.de
Reaumur informs us, that he has feen above two hundred
chickens at once, all led about and defended by only
three or four capons. It is afierted that even cocks
may.be taught to perform this office, which they will
continue to do all their lives afterwards. Among the
endlefs varieties of this fpecies, the Enghfii game cock
hands unrivalled by thofe of any other nation for its in-
vincible courage, and on that account is made v.fe of as
the hiftrument of the inhuman fport of cock-fighting.
I he Athenians allotted one day in the year to this bar¬
barous paftime ; and the Romans are laid to have learn¬
ed it from them, and to have introduced it into this
iiland. Henry V III. was fo fond of the fport, that he
cauied a .commodious houfe to be ereded for that pur-
pofe, which, though now applied to a very different
ufe, ftill retains the name of the cock-pit. The Chinefe,
the Sumatrians, and others in the eaftern parts of the’
u orld, are fo addided to this favage diverfion, that, in
tne paroxyfms of their phrenly, they will fometimes rifk
not only the whole of their property, but their wives
and children on the iffue of a battle. The cock, it is
veil known, is a watchful bird, and crows clapjiing his
wings. I he hen will lay eggs the whole year, provid¬
ed the has plenty of food and cold water, gravel, and a
warm place. After laying the has a peculiar note of
triumph and exultation. Her heat is increafed while
hatching, but if put into cold water, ffie ceafes to fit.
. Courierpheafant.—Tawny white ; tail long, and Ihin- Mexkanus.
mg green ; a few white fpots at the bafe of the tail.
Eighteen inches long. Inhabits New Spain p is flow in
flight, but fo fwift on foot as to outrun the fleeted; herfes.
Commonpheafant.—Rufous, head blue ; tail wedged;
cheeks papillous; bill pale, horn colour; irides yellow;r f'’9
cheeks red, fpeckled with black ; in the old birds wrink- ''
led and pendulous; a greenilh-black feathered line from
the noftrils to beneath the eyes; reft of the head and neck
green-gold, with a glofs of violet and blue ; lower part
of the neck, breaft, back, and rump, Ihining tawny ; quill
feathers brown, with ochreous fpots ; belly and vent
white; tail feathers eighteen, with tranfverfe black bars;
legs dufky, armed with fpurs. Female lefs, varied with
brown, gray, rufous, and blackiih; cheeks feathered;
and, after fhe has done breeding, puts on the appearance
of the male. There are feveral varieties. This beauti¬
ful oird is about nineteen inches long, and weighs from
two pounds twelve ounces to three pounds four ounces.
It is faid to have been brought from the ifland of Col-
chis
O R N I T H
Gallinae. chis by tlie Argonauts; is a native of Africa, and very
 ^ common in almoft all tbe foutbern parts of the old con¬
tinent, whence it was originally imported into Great
Britain. Pheafants are much attached to the flielter ot
thickets and woods, where the grais is very long j but
they alfo often breed in clover fie ds. I hey form their
nefts on the ground, and the females lay from twelve to
fifteen ege*, which are fmaller than thofe ot the dome-
fPc hm The noil is ufually compofed of a few dry ve¬
getables put carelefsly together, and the your g follow
tbe mother like chickens, as foon as they break ne ihelh
The parents and their brood remain m the _ nubble and
hedae rows, if undifturbed, for lome time after the corn
is ripe. If difturbed, they feek the woous, and only
come forth in the mornings and evenings to feed m the
Hubble. Though very fond of corn, they are often obli-
cr d to content themfelves with wild berries and acorns.
In confinement, the female neither lays fo many eggs
nor hatches and rears her brood with io much care and
vigilance as in the fields. In a mew ihe will very rare¬
ly difpofe her eggs in a nefic, or fit on them at all; and
the domeftic hen is,ufually entrufted with the charge of
incubation and rearing the young. ihe wmgs ot he
pheafant are very fhort, and ill adapted for confidetable
flights As the cold weather approaches, thefe birds be¬
e-in to flv at funfet among tbe branches of oak trees
for roofting during the night •, and .this they do more
frequently as the winter advances, and the trees lofe
their foliaVe. The male birds at thefe times make a
noife, which they repeat three or four times,^ and which
the fportfmen call coketing. The hens on hynrg up ut¬
ter one fhrill whiffle, and then are filenl . Poachers avail
themfelves of thefe notes, and, unlefs the woods aie lint -
ly watched, fecure the birds with the greateft certainty
the crowing of the males, which begins m the firtt
week of March, may be heard at a confiderable diihmce.
During the breeding feafon, the cocks will fometimes
intermix with the common hen, and produce a hybud
breed. The pheafant does not appear to pair, tor the
female carefully bides her neft from the male j and where
they are in plenty, and food provided for them, the two
fexes are faid in general not to feed together. _ In a do-
mefflc Hate, they are fometimes more or Ims mixed with
white, and fometimes wholly fo. A variety with a white
ring round the neck, and whence called the nngpheafant,
is not uncommon in fome parts of England. 1 his ipecies
. rarely occurs in Scotland.
, 67° Artrus pheafant.—Pale yellow, fpotted with black-,
gUS' face red; hind head crefted, blue bill yellowiOi; orbits
and whifkers black j front, chin, and throat red -, hind-
head and nape blue •, wings gray, with eye-like fpots j
tail wedged, tbe colour of the wings 5 two rrndde
feathers three feet long, with large eye-fpots at the
fliaft •, feet armed fize of a turkey. Inhabits Chmele
Tartary and Sumatra. This is a moft beautiful bird,
though its colours are not brilliant. It is with great
difficulty kept alive-for any time after it has been caug t
in the Woods. It feems to have an antipathy to the
light, being quite inanimate in tbe open day j but when
kept in a dark place, it appears to be _perfectly at cafe,
and fometimes makes its call, which is rather plaintive,
and not harffi like that of tbe peacock. Ihe fieffi re-
fembles that of the common pheafant.
(',il Impeljan pheafant-.—Crefted, purp e, guo ly green,
hnteyanus.^^ _ feathers of the neck with a changeable
O L O G "i • 535
luftre of gold, copper, and green ; tail entire, rufous; Ga
larger than a common fowl. Inhabits India, but not
plentifully, being brought from the hills in the northern
parts of Hindoftan to Calcutta, as curiofities. Lady
Impey attempted, with great probability of lucceis, to
bring over with her fome of them to England ; but af¬
ter living in health on board the {hip for two months,
they caught a diforder from the reft ot the poultry,
fimilar to the fmallpox, and died in confequence. They
bear cold, but are impatient of heat. The cock was (
never obferved to crow, but had a ftrong hoarfe cackle,
not unlike that of a pheafant.—Defcribed and figured
by Latham. fo2
Crejled pheafant.—Brown above ; beneath reddiih- Criflatus.
white; vent rufous; head crefted; orbits red, naked; piate
tail wedge-ffiaped, and tipt with yellow ; bill and un- CCCC.
armed legs black ; feathers of the creft whitiffi-brown ; Fig. 3-
beneath black ; feathers from the hind head to the lower
part of the neck have a white ftreak down the middle ;
coverts of the wings at the tip and edge white; quill
feathers rufous ; tail ten inches long ; length of the bo¬
dy 22 inches. Native of New Spain. Frequents trees
in the neghbourhood of water, and feeds on worms, in¬
fects, and lerpents. 7’>
Vaulted pheafant.—Creft yellow; breaft fcailet; us.
condary quill leathers blue; tail wedged; bill, irides,
and armed legs, yellow ; feathers of the creft filky, and
hanging backwards; cheeks naked _and fleftr coloured ;
feathers of the hind head tawny, with black lines, and
beneath thefe green ones ; back and rump yellow ; up¬
per tail coverts long, narrow, and fcarlet; wing coverts
varied with bay and brown; fcapulars blue ; quill fea¬
thers brown, with yellow!th fpots ; tail feathers varied
bay and black, and 23 inches long. Female reddifli
brown; yellowiih brown beneath; legs unarmed. ; leiS •
than tbe common pheafants ; length two feet nine inches
and a half. The native country of this beautiful fpecies
is China, where it is called Kin-ki.. It bears confine¬
ment well, and will breed readily in that ftate. 1 he
eggs are redder than thofe of the common pheafant, and
fomewhat refemble thofe of the Guinea fowl. An m-
ftance of their breeding with the common pheafant is
mentioned by Buffon. Edwards informs us, that fome
females of this fpecies, kept by Lady Eflex, in tbe fpace
of fix years gradually gained tbe male feathers; ana
we are told, that it is not unufual for the hen birds,
when about four or five years old, to be negleded by
tbe cocks, and gradually to gain the plumage of the
males. . , 674
Superb pheafant.—Unarmed ; rufous, varied with Superbus,
green and blue; caruncles of the front rounded ; wat¬
tles awl-lhaped ; bill and body red; each fide of the neck
with long feathers turned back; crown green; the
hind part with a folding blue creft; fhouiders green,
fpotted with white; primary quill feathers blue; tail
long, wedged, the feathers varied with blue and red ;
coverts declined, and of various mixed colours; legs yel¬
low. Inhabits China.
<775
Numidia.
Gen. 73. Numidia, Pintado, ox Guinea Fowl.
Bill ftrong and ffiort; the bafe covered with a carun- cha6r7a^ers<
culated cere, receiving the noftrils; head horned,
with a compreffed coloured callus ; tail ffiort, bending
down; body fpeckkd.
Common
536
Gailinse-
677
’Meleagris
67^
Tetrao.
679
Gharaiters.
O R N I T H
Common Guinea hen.—Caruncles at the gape double,
and no gular fold ; bill of a reddifh horn colour ; head
blue; the crown with a conical, compreffed, bluilh red
protuberance 5 upper part of the neck bluifli a(h, almoft
naked ; lower feathered, verging to violet j body black,
with round white fpots j legs gray brown j guiar car¬
uncle^ of the male bluifh j of the femaile red. Xhere is
a variety with the bread: white, and another with the
body entirely white; fomewhat larger than the com¬
mon hen. Inhabits Africa, and is domefticated in moll
parts of Europe, the Weft Indies, and America. It
wormed a part of the Roman banquets, and is now
much eftemed as a delicacy, efpecially when young.
I he female lays a great number of eggs, which fhe
frequently fecretes till fhe has produced her young
brood. ^ The eggs are fmaller than thofe of a common
hen, ana of a rounder (hape, and are delicious eating. The
Guinea hen is a reftlefs and very clamorous bird, and
has a harlh creaking note, which is peculiarly grating
and unpleafant. Like the common domeftic fowl it
fcrapes the ground, and rolls in the duft to free itfelf
.rom infedls. Luring the night it perches on high
places, and, if difturbed, alarms the neighbourhood by
Us unceafing cry. In its natural ftate of freedom it is
lard to prefer marfhy places. It is eafily tamed, but of¬
ten abandons its young.
O L O G Y.
Gailii
683
680
■tJroufe,
681
Urogallus.
Gen. 74. Tetrad.
IS/ear the eyes, a fpot which is either naked, or papillous
or rarely covered with feathers.
The birds of this genus have a ftrong convex bill;
groule, partridges, and quails, agree in having a fhort
convex bill. The groufe chiefly inhabits the colder re¬
gions, and is diftinguifhed by fmall noftrils, hid under
the feathers ; an acute tongue ; ftrong feet; and a pret¬
ty long tail. Partridges and quails are lefs in fize; have
a Ihort tail; and their noftrils covered above with a cal¬
lous prominent margin. They inhabit the temperate
and even the warmer climates. The tinamous are a
tribe peculiar to Guiana, and approach the pheafant in
manners. Their bill is longer and obtufe at the apex ;
the noftrils are placed in the middle ; their gape is very
wide ; the throat thinly covered w ith feathers ; the tail
very fhort; the back-toe fliort, and ufelefs for running.
The female is larger than the male.
A. Spot over the eyes naked; legs downy. Groufe.
Wood groufe, cock of the wood, or capercaihie.—Tail
rounded ; arm-pits white ; bill horn colour ; fpot above
the eyes fcarlet; irides hazel; noftrils covered with
fhort feathers ; feathers of the chin black, longer; head
and neck cinereous,with fine tranfverfe black lines; body
bay, with blackifh lines above ; breaft blackifh green ;
belly and vent black, varied with white ; tail feathers
18, each fide fpotted with white; legs robuft and
brown; toes pe&inated at the edge. Of the female
the bill is dufky; chin red ; body with alternate red
and black tranfverfe lines above ; breaft with a few
white fpots, the lower part orange ; belly fpotted with
pale orange and black, the feathers tipt with white;
fhoulders black, the feathers edged wuth black and pale
4awmy, and fcipt wnth white; tail nifty, barred writh
black, and tipt wTith white. In fize, this fpecies is little
.inferior ^to a turkey, and fometimes weighs 12 or 13,
4
but more frequently feven or eight pounds. The male
is two feet nine inches, and the female two feet two
mches long. Inhabits the mountainous and wmody parts
of Europe and northern Alia. It is not uncommon in
the pme-forefts of Normandy, in Ruflia and Siberia, in
Italy, and feveral parts of the Alps. In Scotland ’and
Ireland_ it is nearly extinfl. It feeds on the berries of
the juniper and vaccinium, and on the feeds of the pine
tribe and other trees. It is a folitary bird, except in the
feafbn of love, when, in the beginning of February,
perched on the top of a tree, it calls the females about
it with a loud voice, its tail expanded, its wings hanw.
mg down to its feet, its neck ftretched out, and the fea¬
thers of its head erecfted. The female builds on the
ground among mofles, and lays from eight to fixteen
fggs- The flefh of this fpecies is much efteemed, and
its eggs are accounted preferable to thofe of every other
bird. They are wTite, fpotted wuth yellow, and larger
than thofe of the common hen. The young follow the
hen as foon as they are hatched, and fometimes with part
of the ftiell attached to them.
Black game, black groufe, or black cocL—Violet Tetrix.
black; tail forked ; fecondary quill feathers white to¬
wards the bate ; bill black; body Ihining glaucous-
black ; wing coverts black-browfc ; four firft quill fea¬
thers blade, the reft wdiite at the bafe ; tail feathers
mom 16 to x 8, black ; legs black-browm ; toes pectina¬
ted. Female lefs ; the weight of an old cock is nearly
four pounds, but that of the female is not often more
than two. Length about 23 inches: there are feveral
varieties. Inhabits mountainous and woody parts of
Europe. In Britain it is chiefly confined to the north¬
ern parts of the kingdom, and efpecially to the High¬
lands of Scotland ; population and culture having driven
them from the fouth, except in a few of the more wild
uncultivated parts, as in the New Foreft in Hampfhire,
Dartmoor and Sedgemoor in Devonlhire, and the heathy
hills in Somerfetlhire contiguous to the latter. It alfo
occurs in Staffordfliire, North Wales, and the north of
England. It feeds principally on the tops of heath and
birch, except when the mountain berries are ripe, at
wdiich time it devours billberries and craneberries with
the greateft voracity. In the month of April the male
places himfelf on an eminence, at morning dawn, and
invites the females by crowing and clapping his wings.
The males are polygamous, and fight defperately for the
females. They afterwards aflbeiate peaceably in fmall
packs, are fond of wmody, heathy, and mountainous fitu-
ations ; but occafionally vifit the corn fields in autumn,
retiring wEolly to woods in the winter, and perching on
trees. . It is fomewdiat remarkable that they are killed
by eating cherries or pears. The female forms an art-
lefs neft on the ground, and lays fix or eight eggs, of a
dull yellowifli white colour, marked with numerous very
fmall ferruginous fpecks, and with blotches of the fame
towards the fmaller end. The young are hatched very
late in fummer. The young males quit their parent in
the beginning of winter, and keep together in flocks of
feven or eight till the fpring. They do not acquire
their male garb till towards the end of autumn, when
the plumage gradually changes to a deeper colour, and
aflumes that of a bluifh-black, which it afterwTards
retains. ' ^
Ptarmigan, white groufe, or white game.—Cinereous ; Lagopus.
toes downy ; quill feathers white ; tail feathers black,
tipt
537
Craliinse.
<584
Alb us-
6S5
Cupido-
686
Bonafia.
687
Attagen
Froticus.
txpt with white, the middle ones white body, in fum-
mer cinereous, varied with white and brown, in winter
nearly all white j but in all feafons the lateral tail fea¬
thers are black, tipt with ivhite ; legs and toes covered
with a thick wrool like a hare’s. From 14 to 15 inch¬
es long. Inhabits the Alpine parts of Europe and Sh
beria. In this country it is met with only on the fum-
mits of our higheft hills, chiefly in the Highlands of
Scotland, and fometimes, but rarely, on the lofty hills of
Cumberland and Wales. As the fnow melts on the Tides
of the mountains, it conftafitly afcend-s till it gains the
fummit, where it forms holes and burroivs in the fnow.
Thefe birds pair at the fame time with the red groufe j
the female lays eight or ten white eggs, fpotted with
brown, not in any regular neft but on the ground. In
winter they fly in flocks, and are fo little accuftomed to
the fight of man, that they are eafily (hot, or taken in
■a fnare. They feed on the wild produ&ions of the hills,
as the buds of trees, the young flroots of pines, the heath,
crow-berry, rhododendron, &c. They run fwiftly, fly
heavily, are impatient of the fun and wind, and are un-
fufceptible of domeftication. The flefli of the young
is accounted a great delicacy. that of the full-growm
birds has foinelimes a bitter, but not unpalatable tafte :
it is alfo dark coloured, and, according to Buftbn, ap¬
proaches in flavour to that of the hare.
White groufe.—-Orange, varied with black bands and
white blotches •, toes downy •, tail feathers black, tipt
with white, the middle ones entirely white 5 bill black ;
belly and legs white } claws broad and flat. Upwards
.of 16 inches long. Inhabits the woods of Europe and
Alia, and, like the preceding, grows white in winter.
Pinnated groufe.—Back of the neck with fupplemen-
tal wings, which are wanting in the female. The male
is fmaller than a partridge. Inhabits North America }
feeds chiefly on acorns ; and at funrife erefts his neck
wings, and lings for the fpace of half an hour.
Ha'zel groufe.—Tail feathers cinereous, with black
fpots and a black band, except the two middle ones.
Fourteen inches long. Inhabits the hazel woods of
Europe-, feeds on catkins 5 when terrified, eredls the
feathers of the crown.
or Red groufe, or moorcock.—Tranfverfely ftreaked with
rufous and blackilh fix outer tail-feathers blackilh on
each fide ; caruncle on the eyebrow-s lunated and fear-
let j greater quill-feathers brown; tail feathers fixteen,
the four middle ones the colour of the back, the reft
blackilh. Length fifteen inches 5 weight about nine¬
teen ounces. This fpecies is only to be met with in the
extenfive uncultivated wraftes that are covered with
heath, particularly the moft mountainous fituations, ha¬
ving been driven from the- fouth by cultivation. It
ft ill occurs in the mountains of Wales, and in the moor¬
lands of Yorkfliire and the north of England, but is
no where fo plentiful as in the Highlands of Scotland,
and in the wafte moors of North Britain, in general.
It is alfo found in the Weftcrn iflands, and In the moun-
t ains and bogs of Ireland but feems to be unknown on
the continent of Europe, thofe mentioned by Buftbn as
natives of France, Spain, Italy, &c. either forming a
diftindft fpecies, or at lealt a variety. Linnaeus did not
Teem to be acquainted with it, and Gmelin gave it as a
variety of the ptarmigan. The red groufe never re-
fort to woods, but confine themfelves wholly to the open
moors, feeding on the mountain and bog berries; and,
Vol. XV. Part II.
ORNITHOLOGY.
in defedl of thefe, on the tops of the heath. They pair Gallmse.
in the fpring ; and the female lays from 8 to 14 eggs,
much like thofe of the black groufe, but fmaller, on
the ground. The young keep with the parent birds till
towards winter, and are called a pack, or brood. In
November they flock together in greater numbers, forne-
times to the amount of thirty or forty, and are then ex¬
tremely {by and difficult to be flrot.
B. Orbits granulated; legs naked.
688
a. Legs of the male armed with a fpur. Partridge. Partridge.
6S9
Greek, or red partridge.—Bill and legs blood-red ; Rufus.
chin white, furrounded with a black band, and fpotted
with white 5 feathers of the fides with a double black
ftripe j tail feathers fourteen, cinereous, the five outer ru¬
fous for the laft half. Rather larger than the next fpe¬
cies. Inhabits various parts of fouthern Europe, Alia,
Africa, and the Greek iflands. A variety called the
Guernfey, or red-legged partridge, has fometimes been
found on the Suffolk or Norfolk coafts. It is diftin-
guiftied by a Angle black ftripe on the feathers of the
Tides, and fixteen tail feathers, of which the five outer
are rufous on each fide. The red partridge frequently
perches on a tree, and will breed in confinement, which
the common one is never known to do. -
Common partridge.—A naked fcarlet fpot under the fe, fitx,
eyes \ tail ferruginous breaft brown 5 legs white ; face
yellowiih 5 cap and neck waved afh ; quill feathers
browm, with ferruginous bands j tail feathers eighteen,
lower part of the breaft wdth two chefnut fpots. Seve¬
ral varieties of this fpecies are enumerated by ornitholo-
gifts, but moft of them appear to be accidental. Length
about x 3 inches weight 15 ounces. Inhabits Europe
and Afia, though chiefly in temperate regions, the ex¬
tremes of heat and cold being equally unfavourable to
it. They are nowhere in greater plenty than in this
ifland, where, in their feafon, they contribute to our moft
elegant entertainments. They haunt corn fields, and
are never found at any diftance from arable land. They
pair early in the fpring and the female is very proli¬
fic, laying from 12 to 20 eggs. It makes no neft, but
ferapes a final! hole in the ground, and throws into it a
fmv contiguous fibres, on which to depofit the eggs. The
old birds fit very dole on the latter when near hatching.
The incubation lafts three weeks, and the young birds
learn to run as foon as hatched, frequently wdth part of
the fhell flicking to them. It is no uncommon thing
to introduce partridges eggs under the common hen,
who hatches and rears them as her own : but, in this
cafe, the' young birds require to be fed with the larvae
of ants, which are their favourite food, and without
which it is almoft impoffible to rear them. They like-
wife eat infecls, and, when full grown, feed on all kinds
of grain and young plants. “ The affeftion of the par¬
tridge for her young (fays Mr Bewick), is peculiarly
ftrong and lively ; ftie is greatly alfifted in the care of
rearing them by her mate : they lead them out in com¬
mon, call them together, point out to them their proper
food, and alfift them in finding it by fcratching the
ground with their feet; they frequently fit clofe by each
other, covering the chickens with their wings like the
hen. In this fituation they are not eafily flulhed j the
fportfman, who is attentive to the prefervation of his
game, will carefully avoid giving any difturbance to a
3 Y feene
538
O UNIT H O L O G Y.
Gallinss.
6c)i
Quail.
692
Viridis.
693
Californi-
*94
Sufcilator.
. *9S
Sinenjis.
C96
Coturnix.
fcene fo truly interefting ; but fliould the pointer come
too near, or unfortunately run in upon them, there are
few who are ignorant of tire confufion that follows : the
male firfi gives the fignal of alarm by a peculiar cry of
diftrefs, throwing himfelf at the fame moment more im¬
mediately into the way of danger, in order to deceive
or millead the enemy j he tiles, or rather runs, along the
ground, hanging his wings, and exhibiting every fymp-
tom of debility, whereby the dog is decoyed, in the too
eager expeftation of an eafy prey, to a diftance from the
covey; the female flies off in a contrary direction, and
to a greater dillance, but returning foon after by fecret
ways, the finds her icattered brood clofely f juatted a-
mong the grafs, and, collecting them with hatte, the
leads them from the danger, before the dog has had
time to return from his purfuit.”
b. Legs without a fpur. Quail.
Green quail.— Green ; bill and legs reddith 5 wings
chefnut, fpeckled with black \ bill a little bent at the
tip ; hind toe unarmed \ tail and vent black. Between
11 and 12 inches long.
Californian quail.—Lead colour ; crown with an up¬
right ere ft ; throat black, edged with white j belly yel-
lowifn brown, with black crefcents. The female wants
the black throat and whitifh margin. Larger than the
common quail. Inhabits California.
Noify quail.—Varied vith yellowifh, rufous, black,
and gray ; bill longer than in others of the genus.
A very clamorous bird, which inhabits the woods in
Java.
Chinefe quail.—Body fpotted with gray; throat
black, with a white arch. From four to fix inches long.
Inhabits China and the Philippine ifles, and is carried
alive by the Chinefe, in the winter, between their hands,
for the purpofe of warming them.
Common quail.—Body fpotted with gray; eyebrows
white 5 tail feathers with a ferruginous edge and cre-
feent j bill black •, head black, varied wuth rufous •, a
yellowifh ftreak down the middle of the crown and
neck ; feathers of the neck rufty brown, varied with
gray •, the (hafts with a longitudinal yellowdfli ftreak \
body beneath dirty ochreous; throat and breaft reddifh }
quill feathers gray-brown, with rufous bars on the out-
fide ; tail feathers twelve, with reddifh and black lines }
legs brownifh. Seven inches and a half long. Inha¬
bits Europe, Afia, and Africa. When thefe birds mi¬
grate to and from the north, they are found in prodi¬
gious quantities in all the iflands of the Archipelago.
One hundred thoufand, it is faid, have been taken in one
day on the wTeft coaft of the kingdom of Naples. A
fmall portion only extend their flight to this country.
With us they appear about the beginning of May, in
our cultivated champaign dill riffs, though not in fuch
numbers as formerly. On their fir ft arrival, the males
are conftantly uttering a whiffling note, thrice fucceffive-
ly repeated, which being imitated by a whiffle or quail-
call, they are eafily enticed into a net. Before the re¬
volution, great quantities ufed tOy> be fent alive from
France to the London market. In confinement they
fatten, and feem to lofe much of their fierce and pug¬
nacious difpofition. The female depofits eight or ten
yellowifh eggs, blotched, or fpotted with dufky, on the
bare ground, and ufually with us among green wheat.
The young birdsffollow the mother as foon as hatched,
but do not continue long together; for they are fcarce- Gallinse.
ly grown up when they feparate, or, if kept together,'   ‘
they fight obflinateiy, and frequently deftroy one ano¬
ther. From this quarrelfome difpofition it was, that the
Greeks and Romans ufed them as game cocks 5 and
that the Chinefe, and fome of the Italians are, at this
day, addiffed to the diverfion of quail-lighting. After
feeding twu quails very highly, they place them oppofite
to each other, and throw in a few grains of feed be¬
tween them, when the birds rufh on each other with the
utmoft fury, finking with efieir bills and heels till one
of them yields.
C. Orbits with a few feathers ; legs naked, four-toed, 697
atid unarmed. Tinamous. Tinamvus.
• . 69S
Cayenne tinamous.—Bill and legs brow n ; b,ack afhy- Gtdanenfu.
brown, varied with blackifh ftripes 5 chin cinereous ■ bel¬
ly pale orange. Eleven inches long. Inhabits Cayenne
and Guiana. ,
Great tinamous.—Legs yellowifli-brown ; bill black 5 Major.
crown rufous 5 body olive : back and tail with black
fpots. Eighteen inches long. Inhabits the woods of
South America \ roofts on the lower branches of trees 5
feeds on worms, infeffs, feeds and fruits ; builds twice a
year, at the root ol a large tree, and lays from twelve
to fifteen ereen epres.
^ OO # in QQ
Little tinamous.—Bill and legs yelkuv j head and So-si.
neck black 5 body browu above, rufous beneath ; chin
mixed with white j quill feathers brown. Nine inches
long. Inhabits Guiana. Builds an hemifpherical neit
in the branches of trees.
Order VI. PASSERES.
7ci
Passer es.
Bill conical, pointed ; noftrils oval, pervious, and na- Churadlers
ked.
The birds of this order have the feet formed for-walk¬
ing or hopping. They live, fome at the time of breed¬
ing, and others conftantly, in monogamy. Some which
feed on the feeds of plants have a fhort bill, others that
live on infeffs and worms are generally furnifhed with
a longer bill. They neftle on trees, in bufhes, in houfes,
and on the ground. They often build very artificial
nefts, and feed their young with their hill. This order
includes all the finging birds ; the males are the fong-
fters. They are for the moil part eatable.
Gen. 7 j. Co lump.a, Pigeon.
7°3
COLUMBA.
Bill ftraight, defeending towards the tip ; noftrils ob- Charaders
long, and half covered with a foft tumid membrane.
The birds of this genus have a weak and (lender bill,
fhort feet, and many of them red toes, divided to their
origin. They extend their refidence even to the arffic
regions. They drink much, and not at intervals like
other birds, but by continuous draughts like quadrupeds.
Their note is plaintive or mournful. They form the
connefting link between this and the preceding order;
but are more nearly related to the pafferine tribes, in
being monogamous, in carefung each oilier by their bills,
in the male and female alternately hatching, in both
joining to feed the young, in laying but few eggs, and
in their nidificaticn. Of upwards of feventy fpecies
which belong to this genus, only five or fix are natives
of
0 R N I T H
pafferes. of Great Britain. The eggs, of all the fpecies are
- v white.
A. Tail even and moderate.
7°5
Oencii.
Common, or Jloch pigeon, or jlock dove.—Bluifh; neck
above glufly green , double band on the wings, and tip
of the tail blackifh j throat and bread claret colour ■,
claws black. Length 13 or 14 inches j weight 11
ounces. Inhabits Europe and Siberia •> is wild in ma¬
ny places, but is kept in pigeon-houfes every where, and
is the parent ilock whence ail the varlyties of the do-
medic pigeon are derived, and is on that account called
the /loch-dove. It builds in towers, in caverns of rocks,
and in cliffs in unfrequented iilands. On the approach
of winter, it migrates fouthward. It is gregarious ; lays
tw> eggs, and breeds feveral times in the year.
r. Dornejiic /Ww//.—Cinereous j rump white j band on
Lomejica. t|le wingS) and tip of the tail blacki'Jh. The varieties
are, however, very numerous, and not eafily reducible to
diftindl defcriptions. Some of the more remarkable are,
the rod, Roman, Barbary, jacobine, Jhaker, tumbler,
carrier, horfeman, and turner pigeons. From 14 to 15
inches long. Inhabits and is domefficated in almoft
every part of Europe and Afia, and lays from nine to
11 times a year. Though only two eggs are laid at a
time, at tide expiration of four years, the produce and
defcendants of a fmgle pair may amount to nearly
1 i;,ooo. A compofition of loam, old rubbilh and fait,
will not only entice birds of this fpecies to remain in a
required foot, but will even decoy thofe belonging to
other places, and is therefore prohibited by law. The
carrier pigeon is eafily diftinguifhed from the other va¬
rieties, by a broad circle of naked white {kin round the
eyes, and by its dark blue or blackifn colour. The bird
is conveyed from its home to the place whence the in¬
formation is intended to be fent •, the letter is tied under
its wing, and it is let loofe. From the inflant of its
liberation, its flight is direfted through the clouds, at
an amazing height, to its home, and it darts onward in
a ftraight line to the very fpot from which it was taken,
by virtue of fome faculty or infllncl which it is very dif¬
ficult to explain. To meafure their fpeed with forne
degree of exa&nefs, a gentleman fome years ago, on a
trifling wager, fent a carrier-pigeon from London, by
the coach, to a friend at St Edmund’s-bury, and along
with it a note, requefting that the pigeon, two days after
its arrival there, might be thrown up precifely when the
town-clock ftruck nine in the morning. This was ac¬
cordingly done, and the pigeon arrived in London, and
flew into the Bull Inn in Blihop’s-Gatc Street, at half
an hour part eleven o’clock of the fame morning, hav¬
ing flown 7 2 miles in two hours and a half.
Coruuuta. Great crowned Indian pigeon.—Bluiih •, cinereous
above : orbits black ; creft; Ihoulders ferruginous.
Size of a turkey. Inhabits New Guinea.
Cr-jlata Lejjcr crowned pigeon.—Eyelids white j hind head
with a red gold creid } breaft and belly violet •, back,
rump, and tail green •, legs yellow ; hind toe unarmed.
Size of the common pigeon. Inhabits Malacca.
I'aL mbt - Ring dove.—Cinereous •, tail feathers black on the hind
part ; primary quill feathers whitifh on the outer edge •,
neck white on each fide ; bill yellowifh •, cere red and
feurfy j irides yellowifh •, head, back, aiid wing coverts
bfuilli rump and throat pale afh } breaft claret colour j
btllv and vdnt whitifh , neck above and at the fides
O L O G 1. 539
green gold, with a tvhite crefcent on each fide j feet Fufleres.
rough as far as the toes. Weighs about 20 ounces 5 -v- '
length eight inches. Inhabits Europe, and rarely Sibe¬
ria. From its living in woods, and building in trees, it
is not uncommonly called wood pigeon. It leans to be
originally a native of this ifland, and probably migrates
no farther than from the northern to the fouthern parts
of it. Early in fpring it begins to pair, at which time
the male is obferved to fly in a lingular manner, alter¬
nately riling and falling in the air. It forms a neft of
a few fmail flicks loolely put together. Its common
food is grain and feeds of all kinds, acorns and beech¬
nuts, and in default of thefe, turnip-greens, and young
clover, or even green corn, and ivy berries. Various at¬
tempts to domeflicate this fpecies have proved unfuc-
cefsful.
Green turtle.—Brafs-green above, purple-violet be-pr.^.?
neath. Near eight inches long. Inhabits Amboina. 7n
Turtle dove.—Tail feathers tipt with white ; back Turtur.
gray } breaft flelh coloured } a fpot oi black feathers,
tipt with white, on each lide of the neck ; bill brown }
irides yellow •, crown olive-afti •, front and chin nearly
white 5 fcapulars and coverts reddifh-brown, fpotted with
black ; throat and breaft claret coloured y belly and vent
white ; two middle tail feathers dulky brown, the end
and exterior fide of the outermoft feathers white. Sub-
jeft to feveral varieties. About 12 inches long. Inha¬
bits Europe, China, and India. Viiits the ‘juthern
parts of England in the fpring, and leaves them in the
beginning of September. Is very fliy and retired,
breeding in t\nck woods, and nettling on high trees.
Is very deftrucfive to fields of peas.
714
Migrate*
B. Tail long and wedged.
Paffcnger pigeon.—Orbits- naked and fanguine } breaft
rufous. From 15 to 16 inches long. Inhabits North
America, migrating fouthward in December in quell of
food. The multitudes which pafs in hard winters are
truly aftoniftiing, as they fly by millions in a flock, and
literally intercept the light of the fun. As foon as one
flock has paffed, another fucceeds •, and thefe movements
fometimes continue for three days without intermiflion.
Their favourite food is acorns ; but they not only eat the
fruit of various kinds of trees, but alfo corn and rice,
of which they are very unfparing in the courfe of their
paffage.
Black-winged pigeon.—Body livid; wings black. In¬
habits Chili.
Marginated turtle.—Breaft red 5 tail feathers tipt
with black, and edged with white; bill horny 5 irides
rufous •, front and chin reddilh brown } lores white \
hind head bluilh-alh colour ; a black fpot under the ears ;
body above brown ; ihoulders fpotted with black \ rump
cinereous ■, throat and breaft roly ; two middle tail fea¬
thers blackilh ; the reft afn colour. Ten inches long.
Native of America.
Bantam pigeon.—Orbits naked and flefh coloured j
neck, breaft, and flanks, waved with black and white.
Size of the wry-neck. Inhabits Java.
Gen. 76. Alauda, Lark.
Bill cylindrical, Tubulated, ftraight; the mandibles
equal, and a little gaping at the bafe •, tongue bifid
hind claw ftraight, and longer than the toe.
7*3
Melanop-
tcra.
714
Lfargiua-
la.
Plate
CCCL.I.
Fig. 1.
7I5
Rant amc li¬
fts.
716
Alauda.
y '
54P O R N I T H
PaffLres. Field, or Jky larh Outer webs of the two middle
’ —' tail feathers white, middle ones ferruginous on the inner
A ^lr-s 5 body above varied with blackilh, reddilh-gray,
■' J’ and whitilh ; reddifli-white beneath j bill and legs black }
throat fpotted with black. A variety fometimes occurs
that is wholly white, another which is black-brown, and
a third, which is found pn Ruffia, and diflinguilhed by
its very long legs. This well-known fpecies is about
/even inches long, and inhabits Europe, Alia, and Afri¬
ca. It is moil common in the open and upland cultiva¬
ted diidrifts in which corn abounds, and is rarely feen
on extended moors at a diftance from arable land. The
neft is placed on the ground, among grafs or corn, and
is formed of dry grafs and other vegetable Ifalks, and
lined with fine dry grafs. The eggs are generally four,
rather larger than thofe of a tit-lark, and of a dirty
wdiite, blotched and fpotted with brown. The Iky lark
begins to breed in May, and will lay as late as Septem¬
ber, if its firft nefts are deftroyed. The incubation lafts
a fortnight, and two broods are ufually produced in the
courfe of the year. When hatched, the mother watches
over them with the moil tender folicitude and affeftion.
They are firfi: fed with worms and in feels j but after
they are grown up, they live chietiy on feeds, herbage,
and moll other vegetable fubfiances. They are eafily
tamed, and become fo familiar as to eat off the table,
and even alight on the hand. The lark becomes tune¬
ful early in fpring, and continues fo during the fummer.
His fong is chiefly heard in the morning and evening *,
and he is one of thofe few birds that chaunt their mel¬
low notes on the wing. We need fcarcely remark, that
he mounts almolf perpendicularly, and by fucceflive
fprings into.the air, where he hovers at a great height,
and whence he defeends in an oblique direftion, unlefs
threatened by feme ravenous bird of prey, or attradled
by his mate, when he drops down to the ground like a
llone. When he firft leaves the earth, his notes are
feeble and interrupted, but, as he rifes, they gradually
fwell to their full tone. Thefe birds ceafe their ftrains
in winter, when they aflemble in flocks, grow fat, and
are taken in multitudes by the bird-catchers. Four
thoufand dozen have been taken in the neighbourhood
of Dunftable, between September and February j and
Kepler informs us, that the excife on larks alone pro¬
duces about 900I. a year to the city of Leipfic, whofe
neighbourhood is celebrated for larks of a peculiarly de¬
licate flavour.
I19 Td /'ark.—Greenifh-brown, outer webs of the two
Tratevp. cutermoq taq feathers white ; eyebrows with a white
line j bill black j body white beneath \ breaft ochreous
yellow, with oblong black fpots j legs yellowifh.
Length nearly five inches and three quarters. Inhabits
Europe, and is very common in moft parts of this
ifland, though it feems partial to barren fituations, and
occurs both in mountainous and low fwampy places. In
Scotland, it is almoft the only bird which frequents the
extenfive heath tradls on which it breeds. It has a
fine note, and fings either fitting in trees, or on the
720 ground.
Minor. Leffer field lark.—Reddiftr-brown, fpotted beneath-,
chin and belly white ; throat and breaft obfeure yellow 5
legs brownilh wing coverts edged with white j quill
feathers dufky, the outer web of the firft edged with
white, the others with yellowifti-green ; hind claw Ihort,
and fometimes hooked. Somewhat larger than the pre-
o l o G Y.
ceding, with which it has been often confounded. It Pafleres.
vifits this country in fpring, but is rarely feen till the be- " »"
ginning of May j is not plentiful, and chiefly aftefls en-
clofed fituations. From the beginning of May till Ju¬
ly, it may be feen mounting in the air in a fluttering
manner, at the fame time uttering a twittering note, and
then defeending to fome neighbouring tree with motion-
lefs wing and the tail thrown up. It then fings fweetly,
but never when rifing. It generally nefties in the high
grafs or green wheat, and lays four eggs of a dirty blu-
ilh white, thickly blotched, and fpotted with purplilh
brown. _ ?21
Wood larh.—Head furrounded by a white annular Arlorea.
fillet j body varied like the arvenfis ; legs ftefh colour¬
ed. Weighs about eight drams 5 length fix inches.
Inhabits Europe and Siberia, and is met with, though
fparingly, in various parts of Britain. It fings delight¬
fully on wing, but rarely when fitting on the ground,
though fometimes when perched on a tree. Its long is
much more melodious than that of the Iky lark, but
does not confift of fo great a variety of notes ; but then
it frequently fings in the night, and through moft of
the year, except in the months of June and July. It
does not afeend in the air perpendicularly, and continue
hovering and finging in the fame fpot, like the Iky lark,
but will fometimes foar to a great height, and keep fly¬
ing in large irregular circles, finging with little inter-
miflion and will thus continue in the air for an hour
together. It is an early breeder, the eggs being fome¬
times found in the neft in the beginning of April.
Red lari.—Brown orbits blackilh 5 two outermoft Rut,ra,
tail feathers white. About the fize of the Iky lark.
Inhabits North America, and is fometimes found near
London.
Malabar lark.—Wings and tail dirty brown colour,
with reddilh edges •, bill black; creft long, brown and ca.
tipt with white chin and belly reddilh white 5 feathers Plate
of the back, and coverts of the wings, brown ; the edge CCCCL
reddilh towards the tip, and marked with a white fpot ; Fl§- 3-
legs reddilh. Five inches and a half long. Native of
Malabar.
Grafishopper lark, or grafishopper warbler.—Tail fea-
thers brown, the outer one half white, the fecond with
a white wedged tip j wings with two whitilh lines 5 bill
dulky 5 legs whitifh lores white ; body greenilh-browi),
above, feathers dulky in the middle, yellowifh-white
beneath; breaft dirty white 5 tail longilh, and fomewhat
wedged. Length five inches and a half; weight about
three drams and a quarter. Inhabits Europe. Though
not plentiful in Britain, it perhaps appears to be much
lefs fo from its extreme Ihynefs, and its habit of conceal¬
ing itfelf among furze and thick hedges. Its Angular
note refembles the chirping of the larger fpecies of
crickets.
Rock lark Olive brown, varied with blackilh ; yel- Qbjnira.
lowilh beneath fides of the neck and breaft with brown-
ilh fpots 5 outermoft tail feathers obliquely half whitilh,
fecond whitilh at the tip. Upwards of feven inches
long. In its fong, manner of flying, and general habits,
is much allied to the tit-lark. Inhabits fome of the
rocky fhores of England, and feems to fubfift chiefly on
marine infefts. . ,
Lejfier crefiedlark.—Tail feathers black, the two outer- NfimoroL
moft white on the outer edge 5 head crefted •, legs red 5
body pale broT,vn. inhabits Europe and Siberia, and
is
O R N I T H
> Fafleres. is common in Yorkflnre. It is a folitary bird, and
'—builds in woods and thickets.
„ ,72//- Calandre lari.—Outermoft tail feathers totally white
aam ’a' without, fecond and third tipt with white ) pettoral band
brown. Seven inches and a quarter l°ng*_ Inhabits
Italy and Ruffia. Builds on the ground. Sings lueet-
ly, and imitates the notes of other birds.
Sturnus. Gen. 77. Sturnus, Stare, or Starling.
Characters. Bill fubulate, angular, depreffed, fomewhat blunt •, the
upper mandible entire, and fomewhat open at the
edges j noftrils furrounded with a prominent rim 5
tongue notched and pointed.
yXaris. Common Jlare, or Jlarling.—R\W yellowith 5 body
black, with white dots ; quill feathers and tail dulky ;
the former edged with yellow on the outer fide, the lat¬
ter with dirty green •, leffer coverts edged with yellow,
and tlightly gloffed with green ; legs reddith-brown.
Male {Inning with purple, green, and gold. I here aie
feveral varieties. Weight about three ounces j lengin
eight inches and three quarters. Found in almoft every
part of the old continent. It breeds in the hollows of
trees or rocks, among rubbifh, or in old towers, and
fometimes appropriates the neft of another bird. My¬
riads of this fpecies breed among the rocks in the Ork¬
ney iflands, and in winter feed on the cancer pulex.
Their general food is mfefts, earth-worms,feeds, beilies,
&c. They migrate in flocks, and are very noify. In
confinement it may be taught to mimic various founds,
and even to fpeak. So attached are they to fociety,
that they not only join thofe of their own fpecies, but
alfo birds of a different kind ; and are frequently feen
in company with redwings, fieldfares, and even with
pigeons, jackdaws, and owls, ihey chatter much in
the evening and mojming, both when they affembie and
731 difperfe.
(Hindus. Water-owzel, or crahe.—Black } bread white j chin
white; tail black ; belly ferruginous -, legs pale blue
before, black behind. Length feven inches and a half.
Inhabits Europe and northern Perfia. Is fhy and foli¬
tary, and rarely to be feen, except on the banKs of li¬
vers and dreams of water. It is not unfrequent in the
mountainous parts of Scotland and Wales, and in fome
didrifts in Devondure. In thefe places it breeds, and
continues the whole year. The ned is very large, formed
externally of mofs and water plants, and jined with dry oak
leaves, refembling that of the wren, with a dome or co¬
vering. It is ufually placed in fome mofly bank, im¬
pending on the water, and contains five or fix eggs of
a tranfparent white. “ A pair of thefe. birds, fays Mr
Montagu, which had for many years built under a fmall
wooden bridge in Caermarthenfhire, we found had made
a ned early in May. It was taken, but had no eggs,
although the bird flew out of it at the time In a fort¬
night after they had completed another ned in the fame
place, containing five eggs, which was taken ; and in a
month after we took a third ned under the fame bridge
with four eggs •, undoubtedly the work of the fame
birds, as no others were feen about that part. At the
time the lad was taken, the female was fitting, and the
indant die quitted her ned, plunged into the water, and
difappeared for a confiderable time ; at lad die emerged
at a great didance down the dream. At another time
54*
Pafleres-
O L O G Y.
we found a ned of this bird in a deep projefting bank
over a rivulet clothed with mofs. The ned was fo well'
adapted to the furrounding materials, that nothing but
the old bird flying in with a fifli in its bill would have
led to a difeovery. The young were nearly full fea¬
thered, but incapable of flight, and the moment the ned
was didurbed, they fluttered out and dropt into the wa¬
ter, and to our adoniihment, indantly vanifhed j but in
a little time made their appearance at fome didance,
down the dream ; arid it was with difficulty two out of
five were taken, as they dived on being approached.—
The aquatic habits of this bird have not efcaped the no¬
tice of ornithologids, fome of whom fpeak of their
flying under water. If, indeed, the wings being in
motion can be called flying, it certainly does 5 but
this is no more than is common to all diving birds,
which, in purfuit of fifli, or to efcape danger, always
ufe their wings to accelerate their motion. In this cafe,
howerjer, the wings are not extended, for that would
retard their progrefs; but it is affefted by fliort jerks
from the flioulder joint. Whether thefe birds can run
at the bottom of the water, as fome have afferted, is
much to be doubted, as it is requifite all birds fliould
ufe a confiderable exertion to keep them under water,
by reafon of their fpecific gravity being fo much lefs.
It is certainly a mod curious and lingular circumflance,
that a bird, not apparently in the lead formed for di¬
ving, ffiould purfue its prey under water, living chiefly
on fmall fiffi and aquatic infefts. It cannot, however,
fwim on the furface.”
Green ftare.—Green above ; bluifli beneath 5 a tuft Vii 'idiu
of black and white feathers on the front and chin. In¬
habits China.
Wattled Jlare.—Bill and legs black ;
orange wattle at each angle of the mouth. Male black, tus,
with the back and wing-coverts ferruginous. Female
rufly-brown, with very fmall wattles. Ten inches long.
Inhabits New Zealand.
CollaredJlare.—Blackifh-brown, fpotted with brown; Coitar'u,
flanks rufous 5 chin white, fpotted with brown. Size
of the field fare. Inhabits Switzerland and Italy. Is
folitary, wags its tail, feeds on feeds, fings with a very
weak voice, and builds in the ground, or in clefts of
rocks.
735
Turdus.*
73 i
733
pendent Canmculm
734
Gen. 78. Turdus, Thrujh.
Bill fomewhat draight ; upper mandible a little bending charafter*.
and notched near the point ; noflrils naked or half
covered with a fmall membrane; mouth ciliated
with a few bridles at the corners j tongue jagged.
Mod of the numerous fpecies of this genus feed on
berries, efpecially thofe of the juniper; and many of
them are excellent fongders. ^
MiJJel thrujh.—Back brown ; neck fpotted with Vifcivvruf.
white ; bill yellowidr ; body whitilh-yellow beneath,
with fpots brown on the chin and white beneath ; quill
and tail feathers brown, with paler edges ; the three
outermod tipt with white; legs yellow ; claws black.
Weight near five ounces ; length 11 inches. Inhabits
the woods of Europe. It is by no means plentiful in
Britain, and appears to beliefs fo in winter. It begins
to fing in January if the weather is mild, but ceafes as
foon as the thermometer finks below 40 degrees. A~
bout
542
O R N I T H CLOG Y.
Pi.{feres, bout the middle of March it makes a neft in the fork
of fome tree, efpecially if covered with lichen, and
feems partial to the apple tree, frequenting orchards
more than other fituations in fpring, and never building
in a bu h. The neft is made of moffes, lichens, and
dry leaves, lined with withered grafs, and forti¬
fied on the outnde with fmall flicks. The eggs are
four or five, rarely fix; of a flefti colour, and marked
with deep and light ruft-coloured fpots. The fong of'
this bird is louder than that of the throftle, and fuperior
to it. Perching on the uppermeft branch of a tall tree,
the miiTel thrufh fings when its mate is making the
neft, and during incubation •, but becomes filent as foon
as the young are hatched, and is no more heard till the
beginning of the new year. If the young are taken, its
fong continues as before, and if the female is deftroyed,
it continues in fong the whole fummer. The miffel is
very bold during the breeding feafon, driving other
birds from the neighbourhood of its neft, and even at¬
tacking the magpie and jay. Its food is infeefs and ber¬
ries, particularly tho'e of the mhletoe, which are fre¬
quently propagated after pafiing through the digeftive
„,8 organs of this bird.
Pilaris. Field fare.—Tail feathers black, the outermoft at
the inner edge tipt with white •, head and rump hoary •,
bill yellowilh, tipt with black *, crown and neck olive-afh
above; body bay above 5 quill feathers cinereous •, throat
and breaft yellowifti-rufous ; belly and vent whitifh ; legs
blackifh. Subject to three or four varieties. Length 10
inches $ weight four ounces. Inhabits Europe, Syria, and
Siberia. Arrives in Britain, in large flocks, about Michael¬
mas, and leaves us in March. It feeds on the berries of
the holly, thorn, juniper, empetrum nigrum, arbutus al-
plna, &c. as well as on worms and infects. In very fe-
vere weather they migrate farther fouth, if not prevented
by a hidden fall of fnow. In 1798, when a very heavy
fnow fell on the northern and eaftern parts of England,
prodigious flocks of field fares appeared in the weft; but
as that part of the ifland alfo was foon covered with
[now, which lay on the ground for a confiderable time,
they became too w^eak to advance farther fouth, and
thoufands were picked up, ftarved to death. Though it
builds in trees, and fits on them in the day time, it al¬
ways roofts on the ground. When a perfon approaches a
tree that is covered with them, they continue fearlefs,
till one at the extremity of the bufti, rifing on its wings,
utters a loud and peculiar note of alarm, when they all
immediately fly, except one other, which remains till
the perfon approaches ftill nearer, and then it alfo flies
off, repeating the note of alarm. Field fares vrere high¬
ly efteemed by the Roman epicures, who kept them in
their aviaries, and fattened them with crumbs of bread,
mixed with minced figs. According to Varro and
739 Plutarch, the flefli was fometimes bitter.
iliacus. AW wing, or wind thrufh.—Wings ferruginous un¬
derneath \ eyebrows whitifh ; bill blackifh \ legs pale
gray •, body gray-brown, whitifh beneath, with brown
fpots •, fides and inner coverts ferruginous •, vent white.
Weight nearly two ounces and a half; length eight
inches and a half. Inhabits Europe, and is a winter
gueft with us, appearing a few' days before the prece¬
ding, migrating in vaft flocks. It breeds in Sweden,
Norway, &c. where it Inhabits the maple woods, and
flags delightfully from their higheft tops. It builds in
hedges or thickets, and lays fix bluifh-green eggs, fpot-
z
ted with black. In the fouthern countries cf ^Europe, it P.-Ares.
does great injury to the vineyards. '   
Thrqftle or fong thrufh ; mavis of the Scotch. Quill _
feathers ferruginous at the inner bale. Refembles the 'A>jU
miffel in colour, but the inner wing-coverts are yellow,
irides hazel, bill brown, and the mouth yellow within.
Inhabits the woods in Europe. Weight about three
ounces j length nine inches. This well-known fpecies
is generally admired for its fong. Every wood and
grove re-echoes with its notes, which fomefimes vie
with thofe of the miffel. The throftle frequently fings
as early as February, if the weather is mild, and in
March the female makes its neft, compofed of dried
grafs and green mofs externally, and plaftered within
with rotten wood, mixed with cow dung or clay, and
fo compacfly as to hold water, a circumftance which,
in a rainy feafon, fometimes proves fatal to the eggs.
The latter are four or five, of a blue colour, and [pot¬
ted with black at the larger end. The neft is fome¬
times placed on the flump of a tree, very near the
ground, or againft the fide of a tree, and frequently in a
hedge, or folitary bufh. Though the thfoftle feeds on
berries and infedls in general, it is particularly fond -of
[helled fnails, efpecialiy of the helix nemoralis, whole
Iheli it breaks by repeated Jtrokes againft a ftone. It is
not uncommon to find a great many fragments of [hells
together, as if a number had been conveyed to one par¬
ticular ftone for the purpofe. This [pecies breeds tv ice,
and fometimes thrice in the year, and coniequently con¬
tinues long in fong. Like the preceding, it is very hurt¬
ful to vinevards.
Mocking bird, or mimic thrufh.—Dufky-afh above l p0lyvlot~
pale afti beneath ; primary quill feathers white Oft the tus'. °
outer half; bill black •, irides yellow; tail four inches
long ; legs cinereous. Nine inches and a half long. In¬
habits the moift woods of Virginia, Carolina, Jamaica,
&c. In the fummer is feen much more to the north¬
ward than in winter. This Angular fpecies not only
poffeffes mufical and folemn notes of its own, but can at
pleafure affume the tone of every other animal in the
foreft, from the humming bird to the eagle, and de¬
fending even to the wolf or the raven. One of them,
confined in a cage, has been heard to mimic the mew¬
ing of a cat, the chattering of a magpie, and the ere ik¬
ing of the hinges of a fign-poft in high winds. It is
faid to take a pleafure in archly deceiving other birds,
alluring the fmailer kinds, for example, with the call
of their mates, and then terrifying them with the feream
of an eagle. In the warmer parts of America, it
fings inceffantly fi'om March to Auguft, both day and
•night, beginning with its own compofitions, and fre¬
quently finifhing by borrowing from the whole feather¬
ed quire, repeating its tunes with fuch artful fweetnefs
as' to excite both pleafure and furprife. The female
frequently builds her neft in the buflies or fruit trees
about houfes, but is fo very fhy, that if a perfon only
looks at the neft, the immediately forfakes it. It feeds
on graftroppers, different kinds of berries, &c. and is it-
felf eaten by the Americans, who account it very deli¬
cate food. 742
Mocking thrufh.—Back brown', breaft and lateral Orpheus.
tail feathers whitifti \ eyebrows white. Eight inches
and a half long •, inhabits South America, and re-
fcmbles the laft in its fine fong and imitative notes. 743
Pa?oda thrufh.—Black ; back and rump gray; \'cr\lPaSoda-
' white fum-
\
PafTrres.
744
Curcfus.
745
Rofeus.
746
Cant.rus.
7417
Tintinna
iulalus.
748
Tinmens.
749
Rex.
753
Meruit.
. 751
Torquatus.
white 5 head crefied. Size of a finch. Inhabits Mala¬
bar and Coromandel, chiefly about the temples and pa¬
godas.
C/ii/i thrujh.—G’ofly black j bill fomewhat ftriated 5
tail wedged 5 bill, eyes, legs, and fleih black •, tail five
inches long. About the fize of the miffel \ is common
in Chili, where it fings fweetly j imitates the notes of
other birds, and, when tamed, the voice of man. Feeds
on worms, feeds, and even on fmaller birds, which it
1 • Is by perforating the fkuil with its bill. Congregates
wuh flailings, and makes a neft of twigs and fibres,
mixed with mud, and lined with hair. Lays three
bluilh-white eggs.
R^ofe-co/oured thrujh.—Pale rofy ; head, wings, and
, 75C
06- Anmdina—
tail black \ hind head ctefted. About eight inches
long. Inhabits Europe and Afia, and has been found,
though very rarely, in England. As it feeds chiefly on
locufts, it is held facred by the Turks.
Mujlcianthrujk.— Heddifh-brown, varied with tranfverfe
dark Creaks; whitilh beneath ; chin, cheeks, and throat
reddilh-orange ; a black blotch fpotted with white on
each fide of the neck. Four inches long. Inhabits
the woods of Cayenne. Is folk ary •, feeds on ants and
other infedls, and is Celebrated for its fweet and variable
note.
Chiming thrujh:.—Brown above •, under parts and
rump reddifh-tawny •, chin white \ cap and cheeks
white, fpotted v/ith black ; eyebrows and break behind
the eyes black. Four inches long. Inhabits the woods
of Cayenne and Guiana. Its note refembles the chiming
of bells.
Alarum thrujh.—Brown above; white beneath ; bread:
fpotted with black ; tail even'; bill black above, white
beneath ; legs pale plumbeous. Six inches and a half
long. Inhabits Cayenne. Every morning and evening,
for the fpace of an hour, cries with a harfli loud voice,
like an alarum bell.
King thrujh.—beddifh-brown above, paler beneath ;
hind head lead-coloured; front varied with white and
brown. Seven inches and a half long. Inhabits South
America, near the hillocks railed by the white arris on
which it feeds. \
Blackbird.—Black ; bill and eyelids yellow. Female,
and the young male nifty black, and bill dark. There
is a variety with the head white, another with the body
white and black, and a third entirely white. Inhabits
Europe and Afia. A well-known fpecies, admired for
its fong, which is a fliriil kind of whiffle of various notes,
enlivening the early days of fpring. The neft: is exter¬
nally compofed of green mofs, fibrous roots, £cc. having
ike infide plaftered with earth, and then lined with fine
dry grafts. The female lays four or five blue eggs, thickly
t oyered with pale ferruginous brown fpots. The blackbird
feeds principally on worms and fhelled fnails, but is alfto
fond of inftecls and fruit in general. It breaks the fliell of
the fnail with great dexterity on a ftone. In confine¬
ment it readily eats crumbs of bread, and flefh either
raw or prepared for the table. With us it is never ob-
lerved to migrate or to congregate, but lives folitary in
woods and inclofted fituations. It is eafily tamed, and
imitates other founds, even that of the human voice.
Ring qu%cI.—Blackilh ; bill yellowifh ; collar white.
Bather larger than the blackbird. Inhabits Europe,
Afia, and Africa. Is migratory in feme countries, but
is known to remain and breed in the mountains of
ORNITHOLOGY. 543
Scotland and Wales. When fattened, its flelli is much PaiTeres.
efteemed. In its habits it is nearly allied to the black-
bird.
Reed thrujh:—Rufty brown; white teftaceous
neath ; quill feathers brown, tipt writh reddifh. Ere- ceus.
quently varies in its markings. Inhabits the reedy
marfhes of Europe, builds a hanging neft amonjt the
reeds, and lays from five to fix yellowifh-white eggs
fpotted wfith brown. I he male fings while the female
is fitting.
Songjler tlrujh.—Greeniflr-black, fhining with blue Canton
or violet ; wings and tail black. Inhabits the Philip¬
pine ifies in numerous flocks ; fings very fweetly, and
often lays in pigeon houfes.
Gen. 79. Amrelis, Chatterer.
754
Ampelxs.
755
Bill ftraight, convex, fomewhat incurved ; each mandi-Chai'aft:er3*
ble notched ; noftrils covered with brinies ; tongue
faarp, cartilaginous, and bifid ; middle toe connected
at the bafe to the outermoft.
Waxen, or Bohemian chatterer.—blind head crefted ; Gajrulus.
fecondary quill feathers tipt with red horny appendages;
bill and legs black ; irides bright ruby ; cheeks tawny ;
throat black, with a fmall briftly tuft in the middle ;
head and body reddifh- alb above ; ocular line and chin
black; breaft and belly pale purplifh-bay ; lefier wing-
coverts brown ; greater remoteft from the body black,
tipt with white; quill feathers black, three firft tipt
with white ; fix next with half an inch of the exterior
edge yellow ; inner white; tail black, tipt with yel¬
low. Length about eight inches; fize nearly that of
a ftarling. Inhabits Europe, Northern Afia, and A-
merica. Occafionally vifits this country, migrating in
flocks. In the month of February, it frequents the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh, where it feeds on the
berries of the mountain afh. It is fuppofed to breed
farther north, and to build in the holes of rocks. Its
flefh is excellent.
The other fpecies of this genus are all inhabitants of
the warmer parts of America.
Gen. 80. CoLIUS* Coly.
Bill fhort, thick, convex above
757
Conus.
an.dflatben^th; uppercha’raLrs,
mandible bent down at the tip ; noftnls fmall at
the bafe of the bill, and fiearly covered with fea¬
thers; tongue jagged at the tip ; tail long and wed¬
ged.
Ca/>e coly.—-Outermoft tail feathers white on the out-Caperfs
fide ; body cinereous; whitiftr beneath. Ten inches
and a quarter long. Inhabits the Cape of Good
Hope.
'160
aj-:1 ‘P*
CCCCII.
Fig. 2.
Pa nay an coly.—Above yellowifti-afli colour ; beneath
rufous; breaft ftreaked with black ; head crefted ; bill
black ; legs pale flefh colour ; tail very long, the fea¬
thers of which are of different lengths. Native of Pa-
nay, one of the Philippine iftands.
Green co/fy.—Shining green ; hind head and eyelids Vl,
filky black ; wings and tail blackifh. Twelve inchc.
long. Inhabits New Holland. -0'2
Indian coly.—Cinereous above ; rufous beneath; hmdInd‘cu^
head and chin yellow; lores and naked orbits yellow.
Fourteen inches long. Inhabits India.
Gen.
544
Pafferes.
763
Loxia.
764
Characters.
765
Curviro-
Jtra.
O R N I T H
766
Cocco-
thraujles.
Gen. 81. Loxia, Grofsbeah.
Bill ilrong, thick, convex, and rounded at the bafe}
lower mandible bent in at the edge ; noftrils fmall,
round at the bafe of the bill ; tongue truncated.
Crofsbill, or Jheld apple.—Mandibles eroding each
other; body varying in colour j wings and forked tail
brown 5 varies, with a reddilh head and fcarlet body.
Male red, varied with brown and green. Female olive
green, mixed with brown. Weighs about an ounce
and a half \ length near fix inches and a half. Inhabits
.Europe, Alia, and America. Is not known to breed
with us, but is more or lefs found among fir plantations
from June to the latter end of the year, feeding on the
feed by dexteroufly dividing the feales of the cones, for
which purpofe the bill is admirably adapted. It is
fometimes found in orchards in autumn, and will readily
divide an apple to get at the kernels. Many are taken
with a bird-call and birdlime ; and others by a horfe-
hair noofe fixed to a long filhing rod \ for fo intent are
thefe birds on picking out the feeds of the cone, that
they will fuffer themfelves to be taken by the noofe be¬
ing put over their head. The crofsbill breeds in the
northern countries early in the month of March, on the
tops of the pine trees, making its hemifphetical neft of
twigs, and of the fphagnum arboreutn, two inches and
a half thick, lining it with the lichen Jloridus, and flop¬
ping up the chinks with rofm. It is capable of being
tamed, and in confinement climbs up the wires of a cage
by the claws and beak.
Grofsbeak, or hawfinch.—Chefnut alh wings with a
white line ; middle quill feathers rhombic at the tips •,
tail feathers black at the bafe of the thinner wreb *, or¬
bits and chin black 5 tail fpotted with white within.
The length of this fpecies is fix inches ; weight about
two ounces. The plumage is fubject to great variety.
It inhabits Europe, and ufually appears in Britain in
the autumn, continuing till April, and appearing in
fmall flocks of four or five, but not commonly. It is
more plentiful in France, and breeds in Burgundy in
April. The neft is compofed of dried fibres intermixed
with liver wort, and lined with finer materials. The
eggs are of a bluifh green fpotfed with olive brown,
■with a few irregular black markings. This bird lives
on the kernel of the almond, walnut, and cherry, break¬
ing with the greateft eafe their hard ftones with its
biH.
Pine grofsbeah.—Wings with a double white line •,
tail feathers all black 5 head, neck, breaft, and rump in
the young bird, red *, in the old yellow ; female olive.
Nine inches long. Inhabits Em ope, Afia, and Ameri¬
ca, but is limited to the northern regions of thefe quar¬
ters of the globe, and efpecially to the pine forefts. In
this ifland it is only found in the north of Scotland,
where it is alfo fuppofed to breed. It lings excellently,
and during the night, but foon ceafes. It builds in
trees pretty near the ground a neft of fmall fticks, and
lines it with feathers, laying four eggs. Its food is the
768 feed of the pine.
Pyrrhula\ Bullfinch.—Cinereous; head, wings, and tail black j
coverts of the tail, and hindermoft quill feathers white ;
crown black ; breaft cinereous \ belly of the male red, of
the female chefnut. Scarcely fix inches long, and liable
to vary in its markings. Inhabits Europe and Siberia*
4
767
Enuclea-
tor.
O L O G Y.
In fummer it frequents woods, and in winter haunts or- Pafferes.
chards and gardens, where it preys on the young buds ""“"v
of the trees. It is not gregarious, but is ulually obler-
ved in pairs, or in broods, and remains with us all the
year, making a neft of fmall dry twigs, lined with fi¬
brous roots in fome thick bulb, either in woods or
hedges about the latter end of April or beginning of
May, and laying four or five eggs of a bluith-white,
fpeckled and ftreaked with purple, and rather larger
than thofe of a linnet. The native notes of the bull¬
finch are few, but remarkably loft, and uttered in fo
low a tone as to efcape a cofnmon obferver j the call
notes are fimple, but more audible. In confinement it
becomes very docile, and may he taught a great varie¬
ty of tunes, and even to imitate human fpeech. But it
alfo acquires harlh ftrains with equal facility. A friend
of the Comte de Buffon faw one of this fpecies that had
never heard any perfon whiftle but carters 5 and it
whiftled with their ftrength and coarfenefs. Thefe
birds are alfo fufceptible of ftrong and durable altach-
ments. Some have been known, after efcaping and
living a whole year in the woods, to recognife the voice
of their miftrefs, and return to forfake her no more,
and others have died of melancholy on being removed
from the firft objeft <jf their attachment. ,
Cardinal grofsbeah.—Crefted •, red •, frontlet black } Cardindfi!.
bill and legs blo6d red •, creft, when eretl, pointed.
Nearly eight inches long. Inhabits North America.
From the melody of its fong, fome of the Americans
call it nightingale. In fpring, and during great part of
fummer, it fits on the tops of the higheft trees, and
makes the forefts echo with its fong. During fummer,
it lays up its winter provifion of maize and buck-wheat.
Nearly a bufliel of the former grain has been found in
the retreat of one 6f thefe birds, artfully covered with
leaves and fmall branches of trees, and only a fmall hole
left at which the bird enters In cages it will fing with
a very ftiort interval of filence, through the whole
year. _
Molucca grofsbeah.—Colour brownilh *, the head,
throat, and tail feathers are black •, beneath wavedjts,
white and black ; bill black-, hindhead, wings and legs Plate
brown j rump waved white and black. Four inches
long. Inhabits the Molucca iflands. 2*
Hamburgh grofsbeah.—Flead and neck chefnut above 5 Hambur-
chin, band in the middle of the white throat and round-^'*.
ed tail brown } back, breaft, and rump yellowifli-brown,
fpotted with black; belly, vent, and two bands on the
wing-coverts white. Nearly fix inches long. Inhabits
the neighbourhood of Hamburg. Feeds on infe&s, and
climbs trees like the creeper. _ .
Greenfinch, or green grejsbeah; provincially green Ch/0fit_
linnet.—Yellowilh-green -, primary quill feathers edged
with yellow j four lateral tail feathers pale yellow at
the bafe bill brownifh ; legs flefh coloured ; female
browner. Rather larger than the houfe fparrow } weight
nearly eight drams ; length fix inches and a half. In¬
habits Europe and Kamtfchatka; is very common in
moft parts of this country in fummer -, becomes gregari¬
ous in winter, and affociates with chaffinches and yel¬
low hammers ; but in fevere weather migrates from par¬
ticular diftrifts. It is rather a late breeder. The neft
is compofed of fmall dry twigs, bents, and mofs, inter¬
woven with wool, and lined with hair and feathers. It
is commonly placed among ivy fur rounding a tree, ojr in
fome
Pafleres.
/
773
Sulphurata.
Bengalen-
Jit-
775
Canora.
77<t
Philippine!.
777
AbyJJinica.
ORNITHOLOGY. 545
{otne tliick blifk. The eggs are four or five; white,
fpeckled with nifty red at the larger end, and much
like thofe of the linnet, but larger. The principal food
of this bird is feed and grain. It is eaftly tamed if held
on one’s fingers in the dark, and heated gently. Though
its native fong is trifling, in confinement it will catch
the notes of other birds.
Brimjlone grofsbeak.—Olive brown ; throat and belly
pale yellow ; eyebrows yellow. Nearly fix inches long.
Inhabits in flocks near the Cape of Good Hope, fre¬
quents the banks of rivers, and builds a pendulous neft,
with a long neck beneath, in trees and fhrubs.
Bengal grofsbeak.—Gray ; crown yellow j temples
whitiftw, belly whitifh, fpotted with brown. u This bird
(fays Sir William Jones) is exceedingly common in Hin-
doftan : he is aftonifhingly fenfible, faithful and docile j
never voluntarily deferting the place where his young are
hatched, but hot averfe, like Ihoft other birds, to the
fociety of mankind, and eafily taught to perch on the
hand of his mailer. In a Hate of nature he generally
builds his neft on the higheft tree that he can find, es¬
pecially on the palmyra, or on the Indian fig tree, and
he prefers that which happens to overhang a well or a
rivulet; he makes it of grafs, which he weaves like
cloth, and fhapes like a large bottle, fufpending it firm¬
ly on the branches ; but fo as to rock with the wind,
and placing it with its entrance downward to Secure it
from birds of prey. Its neft ufually confifts of two or
three chambers; and it is popularly believed that he
lights them with fire flies, which he is faid to catch alive
at night, and confine with moift clay or with cow-dung.
‘That fuch flies are often found in his neft, where pieces
of cow dung are alfo ftruck, is indubitable ; but as
their light could be of little ufe to him, it feems pro¬
bable that he only feeds on them. He may be taught
with eafe to fetch a piece of paper, or any fmall thing
that his mafter points out to him. It is an attefted fa£t,
that if a ring be dropped into a deep well, and a fignal
given to him, he will fly down with amazing celerity,
catch the ring before it touches the water, and bring it
up to his mafter with apparent exultation j and it is
confidently aflerted, that if a houfe or any other place
be ftioWn to him once or twice, he will carry a note
thither immediately on a proper fignal being made. One
inftance of his docility I can myfelf mention with con¬
fidence, having often been an eye witnefs of it. The
young Hindoo women at Benares, and in other places,
wear very thin plates of gold called ticas, {lightly fixed,
by way of ornament, between their eyebrows } arid
when they pafs through the Streets, it is not uncommon
for the youthful libertines who amufe themfelves with
training thefe birds, to give them a fignal which they
underftand, and fend them to pluck the pieces of gold
from the foreheads of their miftreffes, which they bring
in triumph to their lovers.”
Brown cheeked grofsbeak.—Dirty greenifh ; cine¬
reous beneath ; cheeks brown, furrounded with a yel¬
low fringe. Inhabits Mexico, and lings delightfully.
Philippine grofsbeak.—Brown •, y el low! fh-white be¬
neath ; crown and breaft pale yellow 5 chin brown. In¬
habits the Philippine iflands. A variety found in Abyf-
finia, has the tail and quill feathers greenilh brown, and
edged with yellow. Conftru£ts a neft like the benga-
lenjis.
AbyJJinian grofsbeak.—Yellowifh ; crown, temples,
Vol, XV. Part II.
throat and breaft black } Shoulders blackilh ) quill and Pafieres..
tail feathers brown, and edged with yellow ; irides red ■,
wing-coverts brown, edged with gray } legs reddifh-
gray. Size of the hawfinch. Inhabits Abyfhnia. This
bird forms a curious neft of a pyramidal fhape, which is
fufpended from the ends of branches like the nefts of
feme others of this tribe. The opening is on one fide,
facing the eaft ; the cavity is feparated in the middle by
a partition of half its height ; up this the bird afeends
perpendicularly, and then defeending on the other fide,
forms its neft in the further chamber. By this means
the brood is defended from fnakes, fquirrels, monkeys,
and other mifehievous animals, befides being fecured
from the rains, which in that country laft fometimes for
five or fix months together. 77#
Benfile grofsbeak.—Green ; head and throat yellow j Penfiltt.
ooular band green ; belly gray j vent rufous red; bill,
legs, tail and quill feathers black j the laft edged with
green. Size of a houfe fparrow. Inhabits Madagaf-
car. Conftrufts a hanging neft of ftraw and reeds, ftia-
ped like a bag with an opening beneath, on one fide of
which is the true neft. The bird does not choofe a new
fituation every year, but faftens a new neft to the end
of the laft, fo that five may fometimes be feen hanging
from one another. Builds in large focieties, and pro¬
duces three at each incubation.
Sociable grofsbeak.—Rufous brown j yellowifh be- Soda.
neath 5 frontlet black } tail ftiort 5 bill black ; region
of the ears yellowifli ; legs brown. Inhabits the inte¬
rior parts of the Cape of Good Hope, w'here they were
firft difeovered by Mr Paterfon. They build their nefts
in a fpecies of mimofa, which grows to an uncommon
fize j and which, from its ample head and ftrong wide
fpreading branches, is well calculated to admit and fup-
port their dwellings, The tallnefs and fmoothnefs of
jts trunk are alfo a perfect defence againft the invafions
of the ferpent and monkey tribes. In one tree deferibed
by Mr Paterfon, there could not be fewer than from
eight hundred to a thoufand nefts under one general
roof. Mr Paterfon calls it a roof becaufe it refembles
that of a thatched houfe, and projedts over the entrance
of the neft below in a very lingular manner. “ The in-
duftry of thefe birds (fays this traveller) feems almoft
equal to that of the bee. Throughout the day they
feem to be bufily employed in carrying a fine fpecies of
grafs, wdiich is the principal material they ufe for the
purpofe of eredting this extraordinary work, as wTel!
as for additions and repairs. Though my fhort ftay in
the country wrasnot fufficient to fatisfy me by ocular proof,
that they added to their neft as they annually increaf-
ed in numbers ; ftill, from the many trees which I have
feen borne down by the wreight, and others which I
have obferved with their boughs completely covered
over, it wrould appear that this is really the cafe. When
the tree, which is the fupport of this aerial city, is obliged
to give way to the increafe of wreight, it is obvious that
they are no longer protedled, and are under the neceflity
of building in other trees. One of thefe deferted nefts
I had the curiofity to break down, to inform myfelf of
the internal ftrudlure of it, and found it equally inge¬
nious wflth that of the external. There are many en¬
trances, each of which forms a regular ftreet with nefts
on both fides, at about two inches diftance from each
other. The grafs with which they build is called the
Bofhmari's grafs 5 and I believe the feed of it to be
3 Z their
546
Pafleres.
Orix.
780
7S1
Emberiza.
782
Chaiaclers.
7S3
Nivalis.
7S4
Alujlelina.
n 78S
Montana-
786
Miliaria.
O R N I T H
their principal food 5 though, on examining their nefts,
I found the wings and legs of different infedls. From
every appearance, the neit which 1 differed had been
inhabited for many years 3 and fome parts of it were much
more complete than others. This, therefore, I conceive
to amount nearly to a proof, that the animals added to
it at different times, as they found neceffary from the
increafe of the family, or rather of the nation or com¬
munity.”
Grenadier grofsbeah.—Gray 5 bill, front and belly
black 5 neck and rump tawny \ fometimes the wings
are white, and the tail is brown. Size of a fparrow j
inhabits Africa, and is found chiefly in marfhy and
reedy grounds. The neft is formed among the reeds
with fmall twigs, fo clofely interwoven with cotton, as
not to be penetrated by any weather. It is aho divided
into .two compartments, of which the upper is for the
male, and the lower for the female and the young.
Among various other fpecies which we have not room
to defcribe, there are two or three of a very fmall fize,
which inhabit Surinam.
Gen. 82. Emberiza, Bunting.
Eill conical; mandibles receding from each other from
the bafe downwards, the lower with the fides con-
traded, the upper with a hard knob within.
Snow bunting, /now bird, or/now fiabe.—-Quill fea¬
thers white, the primaries black on the outer edge ; tail
feathers black, the three lateral ones white \ bill and
legs brown. Befides the varieties induced by age, fex,
and climate, there are others which feem to be more
permanent. In winter, the whole body, except the back
and middle coverts, often becomes nearly white. Some¬
what larger than the chaffinch. In furnmer, inhabits in
vaff flocks, the north of Europe, Afla, and America.
In winter, migrates to fome warmer climate. Breeds in
fome of the mountains of Scotland, where it is fometimes
miflaken for the ortolan. It builds in the fifliires of
rocks, conftruding a neft of grafs and feathers, lined
with the hair and wool of the ardic fox or other qua¬
druped, and lays five eggs. It fings. well, fitting on the
ground, feeds on grain, and is wakeful during the night.
It is taken in great numbers in winter, when it is fat,
and its fleffi efteemed delicate.
Tawny bunting.—Quill feathers dulky, white at the
bafe, the laft wholly black; tail feathers black, the
middle ones at the edge, and three lateral ones white on
each fide, with a dulky fpot without. Nearly feven
inches long. Inhabits with the laid j but is more rare.
In fome places it is called /ea-Zori and hr ambling.
Mountain bunting, lejfer mountain finch or brandling.
 Five firft quill feathers blackifli-brown, the reft wffiite,
fpotted with browm at the tips; tail feathers brown,
three lateral ones .all white on each fide 5 bill yellow,
tipt with black •, head chefnut; chin white •, upper part
of the neck and back cinereous ) breaft and belly with
longitudinal flame coloured fpots. Found in Yorkihire,
Lincolnlhire, and Northamptonlhire, but is not common.
Common hunting.—Brown \ footled v ith black be¬
neath ; orbits rufous ; bill and legs browniffi ; quill fea¬
thers dufky ; outer edges pale yellowT j tail a little fork¬
ed, edged with white •, legs yellowilh. W eight nearly
two ounces } length feven inches and a half. Inhabits
Euroce in large flocks during the autumn and winter.
o L o g Y.
Seems partial to champaign countries, abounding with PaflereSiS
corn, and is rarely found in uncultivated parts, or in v 1
grafs fields remote from arable land. While the female
is employed in incubation, the male fits on the branch
of a neighbouring- tree, and cheers her with his rude
fong. The neft is placed on the ground, formed exter¬
nally of Itraw, lined with fibrous roots or dry grafs, and
fometimes finiihed with long hairs. The eggs are from
four to.fix, of a. dirty white, fpotted and veined with
reddith-brown and aih-colour. Thefe birds are fome¬
times brought to market, and fold for larks, to which
they are little or nothing inferior, but are eafily diftin-
guithed by the form of the bill, and the tooth-like
knob in the roof of the mouth, by the raoft common
obferver. _ ^
Ortolan.—Quill feathers brow-n, the firft three wMitiOxHortulana.
at the edges tail feathers browm, the two lateral ones
black on the outer fide ; bill, naked eyelids and legs
ycllow-ith; head and neck olive-alb 5 chin yellowilh,
lurrounded with a cinereous line •, feathers of the back
and fcapulars brownilh-bay, black in the middle , body
reddiffi beneath. The female is diftinguilhed by the
head and neck being cinereous, and each feather with
a narrow blackilh line. Somewhat lefs than the yellow-
hammer 3 length fix inches and a quarter. Inhabits
feveral parts of Europe, but is not found in Britain. Orto¬
lans are common in France, Italy, fome parts of Germany,
Sweden, &c. migrating in fpring and autumn, when
they are caught in great quantities, and fattened for the
table. For this purpofe, they are confined in a dark
room, and fed plentifully w-ith oats and millet. They
are then killed for lale, and reckoned the molt delicate
of food. The ortolan w-ill fometimes fing very prettily,
its note being not unlike that of the yellow- hammer, but
finer and fweeter. In fome parts, it mai.es its neft on a
low/ hedge, in others on the ground, and conftruefs it
carelefsly, like that of the lark. The female lays four
or five grayiffi eggs, and in general has two broods in
the year.—There are five or fix varieties. ^sg
Yellow hammer ox yellowbunting.—T ail feathers black- Gtrinella.
ifn, the two outer ones on the inner edge, with a point¬
ed white fpot 5^ bill black p crowm, cheeks and body be¬
neath yellow- ; eyebrows brownilh \ nape greenifli ; fea¬
thers of the neck and back blackilh dow-n the middle,
rufous at the fides, and edged with gray ; rump pale
tawmy •, wings chefirut, olive or black, moftly edged
with gray ; lateral ones olive without ■, the tip edged
w-ith white *, legs yellowifti-browm. The weight of this
fpecies is about feven drams; length fix inches. Inhabits
Europe, and is one of the moft common indigenous
birds of this country. Its fong is as little attradlive as
that of the common bunting, poffeffing only a repetition
of the fame note, five or fix times fucceffively, and ter¬
minating in one more lengthened and ftirill. It congre¬
gates in winter, approaching houfes, and picking up
fcattered grains. It does not breed till late in the fpring.
The neft is generally placed near the ground, in fome
low buffi or hedge, and is cempofed of ftraw and various
dried ftalks, lined with fine dry grafs, and finifhed with
long hair. The eggs differ fomewhat in colour and
fize, fome being nearly white, and others having a purp-
lifli hue, but all more or lefs marked with hair-like
ftreaks. The number is ufually three, four, or five. 75^
Foolifh bunting or foolijh fibarrow.—Pieddifti ; head C/a,
w-ith a few- blackiffi lines j eyebrow-s white. Size of the
yellow
ORNITHOLOGY.
790
Ch iu S'
Tafieres. yellow hammer. Inhabits Europe and Siberia. Is fo
 v  tame as to be caught in any {hare. Has a tritiing note,
' like that of the yellow hammer.
Cirt bunting.—Brown 5 bread fpotted ; eyebrows pale
yellow \ two outmoft tail feathers, with a white wedged
fpot ; bill brown-aih; head olive j temples yellow j a
black {pot between the bill and eyes j throat black,
with a yellow band j body yellow beneath 5 tail {lightly
forked, the featheis edged with gray. Female {freaked
with brown beneath; chin and vent white. Length fix
inches and a half 5 weight about feven drams. Inhabits
France and Italy. “ We firft difcovered this fpecies,”
fays Mr Montague, “ near Kingfbridge in the winter ot
1800, not uncommon amongft riocks ot yellow buntings
and chaffinches, and procured feveral fpecimens of both
fexes, killed in different places fix or feven miles from
that place. They are indigenous to Devonfhire, but
feem to be confined to the fouthern parts of that county
contiguous to the coalf, having found them extending as
far as Teignmouth, at both of which places w-e found
their nefts; but have never obferved them far inland.
It generally builds in furze or fome low buffi 5 the neffi
is compofed of dry {talks, roots, and a little mofs, and
lined with long hair and fibrous roots.* The eggs are
four or five in number, cinereous white, with irregular
long and Ihort curved lines, terminating frequently with
a fpot at one end *, fize rather inferior to thofe of the
yellow bunting, to which it bears great refemblance.
Thefe birds pair in April, and begin laying early in
May.—The female might readily be miftaken for that
fex of the yellow bunting at a little diftance, but is ma¬
terially different when compared, efpecially in the chef-
nut colour of the upper parts of this bird. The note is
alio fimilar to that of the yellow bunting, but fliorter,
not fo ftirill, and the latter part not drawn out to fuch ”
length.—It is remarkable, that fo common a bird as the
cirl bunting feems to be in the weft of England, fliould
have fo long efcaped the notice of Britiih naturalifts ;
but in all probability this has been occafioned by their
locality. It is faid to be only found on the continent
in the warmer parts of France and Italy 5 fo with us it
feems confined to the mildeft part of England ; but the
winter of 1800, which was fevere in Devonlhire, dkl
not force them to feek a warmer climate, but, on the
contrary, they continued gregarious with other fmall
birds, fearching their food among the ploughed lands”.
Familiar bunting.—Cinereous, fpotted with brown *,
tail feathers tipt with white ; hind part of the back yel¬
low. Size of a fifkin. Was found at Java by Olbeck,
and was fo familiar, that if the cage door was opened,
it would leap on the firft perfon’s hand that was offered 5
if any one whiffled to it, it fang very fweetiy in return,
and if it faw a diffi of water, it went immediately and
bathed in it. It was fed with rice.
Rice bunting or rice L/y/.—Black j crown reddifti;
belly black \ tail feathers daggered. Six inches and
three quarters long. Inhabits Cuba. ri hefe birds feed
on the early crops of rice in the illand of Cuba ; but
when the rice in Carolina begins to ripen, they quit
the ifland, and proceed to Carolina, in amazing and
deffruclive multitudes. They arrive there in September,
wdiile the rice is yet milky ■, and when it grows hard
they retum. The birds which thus migrate are all fe¬
males ; but both fexes make a tranfient vifit to Carolina
in the fpring.
791
familiar is.
792
’Oryxi-vora
5+7
Reed bunting or reedfparrow.—Plead black j body Pafl'eres. ^
gray and black •, outmoft tail feathers with a white '
wedged fpot j bill brown j throat and breaft black; Sc^nklUi.
belly white, ftreaked with black at the fides; wing
coverts and quill feathers browniih-red, black down the
middle \ tail feathers pointed, the eight middle ones
black, two middle ones rufous on each edge, the reft on
the outer only j legs brownith. Weight near five drams
and a half j length fix inches. Inhabits the marffiy and
reedy diftridts of Europe and fouthern Siberia. A brown
variety occur at the Cape of Good Hope, and a white
one about Aftracan. “ It is fomewhat extraordinary,”
obferves the intelligent ornitholcgift quoted above, “ that
the manners and habits of fo common a bird ihould re¬
main fo long in obfcurity ; even modern authors tell us
it is a fong bird, that it fings after funfet; and defcribe
its neft to be fufpended over the wuter faftened between
three or four reeds. There can be no doubt, however,
that the neft, as well as the fong of the fedge warbler,
have been ta* en and confounded for thofe of this bird •,
for as they both frequent the fame places in the breeding
feafon, that elegant little warbler is pouring forth its
varied notes concealed in the thickeft part of a bufii ;
while this is confpicuoufly perched above, wffiofe tune is
not deferving the name of fong, confifting only of two
notes, the firft repeated three or four times, the laft fingle
and more {harp. This inharmonious tune it continues
to deliver with fmall intervals from the fame fpray, for
a great while together when the female is fitting. The
neft is moft commonly placed on the ground near water;
fometimes it builds in a buffi fome diftance from the
ground ; at other times in high grafs, feeds, fedge, or the
like, and even in furze at a confiderable diftance from
any water j in all thefe fituations we have met with it,
but never faftened or fufpended as authors have related.
The neft: is compofed of ftalks of grafs, or other
dry vegetable fubftances, fometimes partly mofs, and
lined with fine grafs j frequently finifiied with long hair.
The eggs, which are four or five in number, weigh about
36 grains, and are of a dirty bluifti-white or purplifti-
browm, with numerous dark-coloured fpots and veins,
much refembling thofe of the chaffinch. 794
W/ndaw bunting.—Black ; breaft red ; four middle Paradifea.
tail feathers long and pointed, two very long ; bill
black. The two middle tail feathers are four inches in
length, very broad, and ending in a long thread ; the
twTo next are 13 inches or more in length, very broad
in the middle, narrower at the end, and rather pointed ;
from the middle of the fhaft of this laft arifes another
long thread 5 the reft of the tail feathers are only two
inches and a quarter long •, the two middle long ones
are placed fomewhat vertically, appear undulated acrofs,
and are more gloffy than the others ; the legs are flefti-
coloured. The female is wholly of a deep brown, ap¬
proaching to black, but does not acquire its full plumage
till the third year. This fpecies inhabits Africa, parti¬
cularly Angola. It moults in November, and alfo late
in fpring. 755
Shaft-tailed bunting.—Four middle tail feathers black, Regia.
from nine to ten inches long, equal and feathered only Mate
at the tip 5 bill and legs red; body above, and vent ^CCCn.
black j body beneath and throat, temples, and orbits, ru-
fous ; neck above fpotted with black. Native of Africa.
Lefs than the linnet. 796
Green-headed bunting.—Brown; head and wtck oYive fhloroce-
3 Z 2 back^^**
54$
Pa fibres.
ORNITHOLOGY.
797
Tanagra.
798
Characters.
799
ycicapu.
Soo
T-pj'copus.
Set
ya carina.
Sot
Sib eric a,
Plate
ccccir.
f *g- 5-
: S°.1
Fringil-
LA.
804
Characters.
805 _
lapponica,
8c5
Ccelebs.
back and wing coverts varied with brown and black 5
tail forked. Only two inltances are recorded of this
fpecies having been found in England.
Gen. 83. Tanagra, Tanager.
Bill conical, pointed, notched, almoft triangular at the
bafe, and a little inclining at the tip.
Red-breajledtanager.—Black •, front, throat and bread
fcarlet; bill black ; lowrer mandible lilvery, and convex
on the hind part \ front fometimes black ; legs brown.
Female purplilh-brown ; reddifh beneath ; wings and
tail brown. Six inches and a half long. Inhabits
South America, frequenting inhabited places, building
a pendulous cylindrical nelt, and feeding on fruits.
Rijhogt tanager.—Cinereous ; wings and tail blue
without. Six inches and a half long. Inhabits Cayenne,
efpecially about the Ikirts of the forefts, and feeds on
the lefler kinds of fruits. During night it roods on the
palm leaves.
Jacanari tanager.—Black violet j wings whitifh be¬
neath j tail divaricated and forked 5 bill and legs cine¬
reous. Inhabits Brazil and Guiana. Is fond of newly
cultivated land j haunts fmall trees, particularly coffee
trees. The male frequently hops upwards from a branch,
alighting again, fird on one foot, and then on the other,
accompanying each leap by a note, and fpreading out
the tail at the fame time. The ned is hemifpherical,
about two inches in diameter, and compofed of dried
herbs of a gray colour. The eggs are two in number,
of a greenifh-white, marked with fmall numerous red
fpots, deeped and mod in number at the large end.
Siberian tanager.—Black \ tips of the interfcapular
and rump feathers fringed, with white 5 bill fhort, pale,
tipt with brown ; tail notched at the tip j legs black.
Native of Siberia } 11 ze of a thrulh.
The other fpecies, which are numerous, and not very
didindtly afeertained by authors, feem to differ from one
another more in their markings than their habits.
Gen. 84. Fringilla, Finch.
Bill conical, draight, and pointed.
This is a numerous and active tribe of birds, very ge¬
nerally difperfed over the world, and feeding principally
on infects and grain.
Laplandfinch.—Head black } body gray and black j
eyebrows white; outmod tail feathers with a white
wedged fpot. Six inches and a half long. Inhabits Eu¬
rope, Ada, and America. Runs along the ground like
a lark, and lings on the wdng.
Chaffinch ; provincially, beech fnch, horfe finch, pinh,
and txvinh.—Limbs black ; quill feathers white on both
fides, the three fird without fpots 5 twTo of the tail fea¬
thers obliquely white •, bill white, but in fpring and
fummer biuidr, tipt with black ; crown, nape, and fides
of the neck hoary j temples and throat reddidr; belly
and vent reddidi-white \ wing coverts with a white
blotch, the greater wdth a white band befides 5 quill fea¬
thers yellowidi at the edge, and white at the bafe ; tail
a little forked ; legs brown. The female wants the red
on the bread and other parts. Rather lefs than the
fparrow. Inhabits Europe and Africa. Continues with
us the whole year j but the females migrate from Sweden
to Holland in the autumn, leaving their mates behind,
and return in the fpring. This bird makes a mod ele¬
gant ned of green mofs, curiouily dudded with lichen, Pafferes.
interwoven with wool, and lined with feathers and hair.    
It builds againd the fide of a tree, particularly in ivy
or in fome forked branch of a buih j but particularly in
apple trees overgrown with mofs and lichen, and, like
many other birds, adapts the materials of its ned to the
furrounding colour. The eggs are four or five, larger
than thofe of the goldfinch, of a dirty white, tinged
with purple, marked wdth Breaks and fpots of dark
pui’ple. Its notes are few, and fcarcely deferve the
name of fong. Both lexes have a monotonous call-note,
which feems to exprefs the word twink. This fpecies is
fubject to feveral varieties.x g07
Mountain finch, brambling, or bramble.—Bafe of the Pontiffrim.
wings fine yellow beneath j bill yellowidi, tipt with<§7//a*
black) head, neck, and back black) in the female
brown ) the feathers edged with reddidi-brown ) rump,
lower part of the bread and belly white ) throat and
upper part of the bread reddidi-tawmy) in the female
reddifh-gray ) leffer wing coverts reddidi) middle ones
reddidi-white ; greater black, tipt with white) thofe
next the body reddidi at the tip ) quill feathers bkckr
edged with yellowidi) tail a little forked 5 legs gray.
Rather larger than the preceding j length about fix
inches. Inhabits Europe and Alia, breeding in the
northern regions. Is frequently feen in large flocks in
the winter, on the coads of Kent and Sufiex, when the
weather is fevere, when it is fometimes fo exhauded as
to differ itfelf to be taken up. They are alfo found in
the interior parts of the kingdom at that feafon, flying-
in company with chaffinches and yellow hammers. In
hard winters, they are alfo frequently feen in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh. They are partial to the pine
foteds in the Highlands, and live on beech mad and the
feeds of other trees. They build in trees a ned formed
of hypnums without, and of wool and feathers within,
the female laying four or five yellowidi fpotted eggs.
Their fleffi is eatable, though fometimes bitter. r „
Goldfinch or thifilefinch.—Quill feathers black ) and CarAuclir*
except the outmod marked with fine yellow in the mid¬
dle ) two outmod tail feathers in the middle, and the
red at the tips white ) bill white, tipt with black ) front-
let fcarlet, in the female brown) cheeks, hind head,
and belly white ) top of the head black ) wing coverts
black, in the female brown) back, rump, and bread
chefnut-brown. This beautiful fpecies, which is fubjecl
to great variety, is rather lefs than the chaffinch, and
inhabits Europe, Afia, and Africa. Itjs gregarious in
winter, lives to a great age, fubfifls chiefly on the feeds
of the thiflle, hemp, and capitated plants ) is docile and
eafily tamed, and fings delightfully, even in confine¬
ment. It fometimes builds in hedges, but mod com¬
monly in trees, efpecially thofe that are evergreen. The
ned is neatly confiru&ed of bents, mofs, and lichen,
woven together with wool, and fometimes lined with
wrool, or hair covered with thidle down, or the pap¬
pus of the willow. The eggs are four or five, of a
bluifli white, with a few fmall fpots, chiefly at the larger
end. The goldfinch readily breeds with the canary and
other congenerous birds.
Lepidyf/zc/L—Greenifii-browni ) band above and be- Lepida.
neath the eyes and chin orange ) bread black. Only
half the fize of the canary bird. Inhabits the woods of
Cuba, and fings with a weak, but very fwreet note. gjQ
Ethiopian finch.—Deep black 5 hides
rufous. Inr JEthiopf,
habits
fafTeres.
Cafpa.
812
£legans.
8*3
Canaria.
S14
Spin us.
O R N I T H
habits the woods of America, feeds on fruits and feeds,
is eafily tamed, and fmgs with the feathers of the head
erefted.
Cafpa jinch.—Reddifli-gray •, front and chin white j
wings and tail black. Inhabits Earbary and Abyffinia,
frequents granaries in large docks, and excels the canary
bird in its fong.
Beautiful finch Green above; neck cinereous j bread;
yellow , frontlet, chin, rump, and tail red j belly with
curved white fpots} bill and legs red j rump and tail
chefnut red. Five inches long. Inhabits Africa.
Canary bird, or canary finch.—Bill and body ftraw
colour; quill and tail feathers greenilh. Is now well
known over Europe, into which it was brought from
the Canary iflands, about the beginning of the i6i.h
century. It is fomewhat longer than the filkin, and
about five inches and a half in length. With us they
are kept in a date of captivity, and partake of all the
differences and varieties incident to that condition.
Buffon enumerates 29 varieties, and more might proba¬
bly be added to his lift. “ The breeding and rearing of
thefe charming birds”, fays Mr Bewick, “ form, an
amufement of the moft pleafing kind, and afford a variety
of fcenes highly interefting and gratifying to innocent
minds. In the places fitted up and accommodated to
the ufe of the little captives, wc are delighted to fee the
workings of nature exemplified in the choice of their
mates, building their nefts, hatching and rearing their
young, and in the impaffionate ardour exhibited by the
male, whether he is engaged in affifting his faithful mate
in collecting materials for her neft, in arranging them
for her accommodation, in providing food for her off-
fpring, or in chaunting his lively and amorous fongs
during every part of the important bufinefs. The canary
will breed freely with the filkin and goldfinch, particu¬
larly the former; it likewife proves prolific with the linnet,
but not fo readily, and admits alfo the chaffinch, yel¬
low bunting, and even the fparrow, though with ftill
more difficulty. In all thefe inftances, excepting the
firft, the pairing fucceeds beft when the female canary is
introduced to the male of the oppofite fpecies. Accord¬
ing to Buffon, the filkin is the only bird of which the
male and female propagate equally with thofe of the
male or female canaries.” Great numbers of thefe birds
are reared in the Tyrol. Four Tyrolefe ufually brought
over to England about 1600 of them annually; and
though they carried them on their backs 1000 miles,
and paid 20I. for fuch a number, they were enabled to
fell them at five (hillings a-piece. It is not generally
known, that the fong of the canary bird is ufually com-
pofed of the notes of the tit-lark or of the nightingale.
Mr Barrington faw two of the fpecies which were im¬
ported from the Canary iflands, neither of which had
any fong ; and he rvas afterwards informed, that a (hip
brought over a great many of them with the fame de-
feCl. Moft of thofe from the Tyrol have been edu¬
cated under parents whofe progenitors were inftrudled
by a nightingale. Our Engliffi canary birds, howrever,
have more of the tit-lark’s than of the nightingale’s notes.
The canary bird lives chiefly on the feeds ofphalaris
canarienfis, canabis, myogram, brafijica napus, avena,
&c.
Sifhin or aberdevine.—Quill feathers yellow in the
middle ; the firft four without fpots ; tail feathers yel¬
low at the bafe, and tipt with black; crown black 3
O L O G Y. 549
body yellowiffi 3 greeniffi above, breaft greeniffi ; wings Palieres. .
green 3 throat brown, of the female white 3 head and "" ^ r,V
back, in the female, greenilh-afh, Ipotted with brown.
Four inches and three-fourths long. Inhabits Europe,
and is liable to feveral varieties. 1 hough migratory in
moft places, it does not fcsm to obferve any regular
periods, as it is fometimes feen in large, and at other
times in very fmall numbers. Buffon remarks, that the
great flights happen only once in the courfe of three or
four years. It conceals its neft wdth fo much art, that
it is extremely difficult to difcover it. Kramer informs
us, that in the forefts bordering on the Danube, thoufands
of young filkins are frequently found, which have not
dropt their firft feathers, and yet it is rare to meet wflth
a neft. It is not known to breed in thisilland 3 nor is
it known whence they come over to us. In fome parts
it is called the barley bird, from its appearing when
that grain is fown. Its fong, though not lo loud as that
of the canary, is pleafing and various. It is docile and
familiar in captivity, and will imitate the notes of other
birds, even to the chirping of a fparrow. Like the-
goldfinch, it may eafily be taught to draw up its little
bucket wflth water and food. It drinks frequently, and
feems fond of throwing w’ater over its feathers. The male
breeds freely with the hen canary, and is affiduous in
his attention to her, carrying materials for the neft, and
arranging them, and, during the time of incubation, re¬
gularly fupplying her with food. 815
Bearded finch.—Pale yellow 3 wings green, fpotted Barbala,
with black and red 3 chin bearded. Size of the canary
bird. Inhabits the mountains of Chili, except in w inter,
when it defeewds into the plains. It is eafily tamed,
fings charmingly, and imitates the notes of other birds. S16
Greater redpole or red-headed linnet.—Chefnut brown 3 Canabinas-
reddilh-white beneath 3 wings with a longitudinal white
band 3 tail feathers edged with white on each fide 3 bill
black 3 head and neck cinereous 3 fides yellowT 3 middle
of the belly white 3 tail forked, dulky, both fides edged
wdth white. Head of the female alh-colour, fpotted with
black 3 crown and breaft without the red 3 breaft dirty
yellow with black lines. Subjedft to confiderable variety
in the markings. Five inches and a half long. Inhabits
Europe and America. Thefe birds fly in flocks during
winter, at which time the males have little or none of
the red markings, which in the return of fpring they
put forth. In many parts they haunt the fea fficre,
and, in the breeding feafon, often refort to furzy com¬
mons. The neft is compofed of mofs and bents interwoven
wdth wool, and lined with wool and hair. The eggs are
four or five, of a bluillr-whitc, with purpliih fpecks and
Ihort lines. The redpole fings nearly the wffiole year, is
very familiar, and fo eafily tamed, as to be cheerful in
five minutes after it is taken. S17
Common or brown linnet.—Chefnut brown 3 whitiffi Linotas
beneath 3 wdngs with a longitudinal white band 3 tail
feathers edged wdth wffiite on each fide. Though this is
ufually deferibed as a diftinft fpecies, it feems to be only
a variety of the preceding. 8t8:
Leffier redpole ox lefifer red-headed linnet.—Brown, varied Linar i**-
with gray 3 reddilh-white beneath ; wings with a double
white band 3 crown and breaft red 3 bill and legs brown j
back black, the feathers edged with chefnut; fides
with narrow dulky lines 3 quill feathers dulky, edged-
with dirty white 3 legs dulky. Femafe with a faffron
fpot on the frontr Weight about two drams and a half 3
length
55°
Pa (Teres.
S19
■Rlontium.
820
Coccinea.
821
Domejlica
length five inches. Inhabits Europe, Alia, and Ame¬
rica. It is gregarious in winter, when many are taken
by the bird-catchers hear London, &c. under the name
otjlone rcdpolc. It breeds in Scotland and the north of
England 5 building in the trunk of tire alder a neft of
dry flicks and wool, lined with hair and feathers, or wil¬
low down. Lays four eggs of a light bluiih-green,
thickly fprinkled with reddifh fpots, efpecially at the
larger end.
_ Mountain linnet or twite.—Black, varied with red-
difh ; whitifh beneath ; feathers of the lower part of the
neck black in the middle ; wings with a w'hite band j
rump red} feathers of the throat and breaft black, edged
with white 5 middle quill feathers edged ; lecondary tipt
with white. Rather larger than the greater redpole ;
length about fix inches and a half. Inhabits Europe.
Is gregarious, and has much the habits of the other
linnets, with which it aflbciates.
Scarlet finch.—Bright orange ; wings and even tail
black ; quill feathers orange at tl*e outer edge ; the pri¬
maries tipt with black; bill brownilh ; legs black.
Four inches and a half long. Inhabits the Sandwich
iflands.
Houfe fparrow.—Ouill and tail feathers brown ; body
gray and black} wings with a fingle white band ; bill
black ", crowm gray 5 a black fpot under each eye j a
broad bay mark furrounding the hind part of the head 5
cheeks white ; chin and under fide of the neck black,
the latter edged with xvhite 5 lefler wing coverts bright
bay •, the lail row black, tipt with white. The lower
mandible of the female white, and a white line beyond
each eye. The mofl remarkable varieties are, 1. white.,
2. yellow, clouded with chefnut above, and 3. blackilh.
Weighs nearly feven drams 5 length about fix inches.
Inhabits Europe, Afia, and Africa. This well-known
fpecies inhabits the dwellings of the rich and the poor,
and is rarely feen far from the habitation of man. It
lives on feeds and fruits, and often cunningly avoids the
inares that are laid for it. In autumn it is often gre¬
garious, but more frequently fo in winter. It does not
ling, except when tamed, and then the male will imitate
the fong of a linnet, or other bird within hearing. It
makes a neft conformable to the place which it choofes
for incubation, whether in a hole of a wall, in thatch,
under the tiles of a houfe, or in the neft of a martin, or
other bird ", but when it builds in a tree, the neft is of
a large fize, and covered at the top, compofed of hay
and ftraw, lined warmly with feathers and fragments of
thread or worfted, bits of cloth, or any refufe material
of that fort found about houfes. The female lays fix
eggs of a whitifh colour, fpotted with dulky and^cine-
l-eous, and ufually breeds thrice in the year. Mr Smellie
relates a pleafing anecdote of the affedlion of thefe birds
towards their young. “ When I was a boy,” fays he,
“ I carried off a neft of young fparrows, about a mile
from my place of refidence. After the neft was com¬
pletely removed, and while I was marching home with
them in triumph, I perceived, with fome degree of afto-
niftiment, both parents following me at fome diftance,
and obferving my motions in perfedl filence. A thought
then ftruck me, that they might follow me home, and
feed their young according to their ufual manner. When
juft entering the door, I held up the neft, and made the
young utter the cry which is expreflive of the defire of
food. I immediately put the neft and the young in the
ORNITHOLOG Y.
comer of a wire cage, and placed it on the outfide of a Paffr
window. I chole a fituation in the room where I could v
perceive all that (hould happen, without being myfelf
ieen. The young animals foon cried for food, ’in a
ftiort time both parents, having their bills filled with
finall caterpillars, came to the cage ; and after chatting
a little, as we would do with a friend through the lat¬
tice of a prifon, gave a fmall vrorm to each. This
parental intercourle continued regularly for feme time,
till the young wrere completely fledged, and had acquired
a confiderable degree of ftrength. I then took one of
the ftrongeft of them, and placed him on the outfide of
the cage, in order to obferve the conduift of the parents
after one ol their oftspring was emancipated. In a few
minutes both parents arrived, loaded as ulual with food.
They no fooner perceived that one of their children had
eicaped from prifon, than they fluttered about, and made
a thoufand noify demenftrations of joy both with their
wings and their voices. 'Ihefe tumultuous exprefiions
ol unexpected happinefs at lalt gave place to a more
cairn and foothing converfation. By their voices and
their movements it was evident that they earneftly en¬
treated him to follow them, and to fly from his prefent
dangerous ftate. He feemed to be impatient to obey
their mandates 5 but, by his geftures, and the feeble
founds he uttered, he plainly expreffed that he w as afraid
to try an exertion he had never before attempted. They,
however, inceffantly repeated their folicitations } by fly¬
ing alternately from the cage to a neighbouring chimney
top, they endeavoured to fhow him how eafily the journey
wras to be accompliftred. He at laft committed himfelf
to the air, and alighted in fafety. Upon his arrival,
another feene of clamorous and aCtive joy wras exhibited.
Next day I repeated the fame experiment, by expofing
another of the young on the top of the cage. I obferved
the fame conduct with the remainder of the brood, w'hich
confirted of four. I need hardly add, that not one either
of the parents or children ever afterwards revifited the
execrated cage”.—Few birds are more perfecuted by
the farmers, and, perhaps, more unjuftly fo, than fpar¬
rows •, as it has been proved, that they are more ufeful
than noxious. Mr Bradley, in his Treatife on Hufbandry
and Gardening, lhow*s, that a pair of fparrows, during
the time that they have their young to feed, deftroy, on
an average, every rVeek 3360 caterpillars. He difeovered
that the two parents carried to the neft 40 caterpillars
in an hour. Lie fuppofed the fparrows to enter the ueft
only during 12 hours each day, which would caufe a
daily confumption of 480 caterpillars. This fum gives
3360 caterpillars extirpated weekly from a garden. But
the utility of thefe birds is not limited to this circum-
ftance alone •, for they likewife feed their young with
butterflies and other winged infeCls, each of which, if
not deftroyed in this manner, would be the parent of
hundreds of caterpillars. g
Tree or mountain fparrow, Hamburgh grofbeak dMontan*.,
Latham, &c.—Quill and tail feathers browm ; body
gray and black; wings with a double white band ; bill,
chin, and fpot on the ears black •, head and nape bay •,
body above reddilh-brown, fpotted wuth black ; whitith
beneath ; wing coverts black, edged with rufous 5 tail
feathers blackifti, edged with rufous ; legs yellowilh.
female without the black fpots. Five inches and a half
long, and rather fmaller than the preceding. Inhabits
Europe and North America, and is faid to be very plen¬
tiful
O Pv N 1 T H
PaiTci-cs. tiful in Lincolniliirc, Yorkfhire, and Lancailiire. It is
local, and very gregarious.
Ultramarine Jinch.—Blue j bill white ; legs red. Size
of a canary bird. Inhabits Abyflinia, and lings well.
Gen. 85. Phytotoma.
Bill conical, ftraight, ferrated ; nodrils oval j tongue
Ihort, and obtufe j feet four-toed.
Rara phytotoma, or four-toed plant cutter.—Bill thick,
half an inch long, and toothed on each fide like a faw ;
irides brown ; body alb above j paler beneath ; quill
and tail feathers fpotted with black j tail rounded 5
hind toe Ihorter than the fore ones. Inhabits Chili,
where it is not uncommon. IPas a rough voice, and
utters at intervals, the fyllable ra, ru, very diltincfly.
Feeds on vegetables, digging and cutting about their
roots, with its bill as with a faw, and thus making great
havock in gardens. Builds in lofty trees, in retired fi-
tuations.
S27
Muscica-
Gen. 86. Muscicapa, Fly-catcher.
pa.
828 Bill nearly triangular, notched on each fide, bent in at
Gharafters. the tip, and befet with biiftles at the root} toes in
moil cafes divided to their oripin.
829
ParacUJj.
8.20
Tyrannus.
831
Malachu-
832
Pygmeca.
Plate
G'CCCI.
Fig. 4.
83.3
Rubricollis
834
Ati icapilla.
The birds of this genus live on infeeds, particularly
flies. Of 92 fpecies, two only inhabit Britain.
Raradifefly-catcher, or pied bird of Paradife.—Crefied j
head black; body white *, tail wTedged j two middle
feathers very long j head, neck, and chin greeniih-
black 3 back, rump, throat, and body white beneath 3
wing coverts and quill feathers black, edged with
white j two middle tail feathers 15 inches long 5 legs
lead-coloured. Eight inches and a quarter long. Of
this fpecies there are feveral varieties. Inhabits Afia and
Africa.
Fork-tailedfly-catcher.—Tail very long and forked 3
body black j white beneath. Fourteen inches long. In¬
habits Canada and Surinam.
Soft-tailed fly-catcher.—Brown 5 ferruginous beneath ;
throat of the male blue •, tail long, wedged, with loofe
webbed.feathers. Inhabits New Holland, being found
about Sidney and Botany Bay, in marlhy places, abound¬
ing with long grafs and rulhes, which afford it a hiding
place, and where, like the bearded titmoufe, it is fup».
pofed to make its neft. When difturbed, its flight is
very fliort; but it runs on the ground with great fwift-
nefs. This Angular bird, which is but three inches long,
is well reprefented in the fourth volume of the Linnsean
Tranfactions.
Dwarf fly-catcher.—Straw-coloured beneath 3 head
and neck rufous, fpotted 'with black ; feathers of the
back and wing coverts cinereous, edged with greenifh j
quill feathers black, edged with gray; tail black and.
firort. Hardly three inches long. Inhabits Cayenne.
Purpie-throatedfly-catcher.—Black j chin and throat
with a large purple red fpot. Twelve inches long.
Inhabits woods in South America, is gregarious, feeds
on fruits and infeffs, and often aflbeiates with the tou¬
can.
Pled fly-catcher.—Black above; under parts, fpot
on the front and fiiield on the wings, white; lateral tail
feathers white without j bill and legs black; tail coverts
83S
Nigra.
83?
O L O G Y. 551
fpotted with white. Female brown; white beneath, and Pafferes.
wants the frontal fpot. About the fize of a linnet, and """ ”v
nearly five inches long. There are three or four varie¬
ties, and the young birds at firlt refemble the female.
It is local, and by no means plentiful in this ifland,
affedling wild and uncultivated tracts of furze. Accord¬
ing to Hr Latham, it builds in fome hole of a tree, not
very near the ground, making a neft of a fewT fibres,
mixed with mofs, and laying fix eggs. 835
Chattering fly-catcher.—Green; yellow7 beneath; belly Fridis.
and vent whitifh ; eyebrow's and fpot under the eyes-
wdiitifli; tail brown. Seven inches and three quarters
long. Haunts unfrequented places in Carolina ; is very
Illy, and flies with its legs extended. s3<5
Atzurefly-catcher.—Blue ; hind bead and breaft with !'Le'lUca-
a black fpot; belly and vent bluifli-white-; quill and
tail feathers dulky-blue. Five inches long. Inhabits
the Philippine ifiands. /- 837
Fan-tailed fly-catcher.—Olive above, ferruginous Fiabellife-
beneath ; eyebrow's, chin, throat, fides of the neck, and ul'
lateral tail feathers w’hite ; middle tail feathers, head,
and collar black. Six inches and a half long. Inhabits
New' Zealand. Flies with its tail expanded like a fan ;
and is eafily tamed.
Black fly-catcher.—Totally black ; bill, head, and'
legs dulky black. Inhabits Society iflands.
Adilve fly-catcher.—Olive-brown ; whitilh beneath ; Agilis.
quill and tail feathers black, and edged with olive-
brown. Four inches and a half long. Inhabits Ca¬
yenne. Is continually hunting after infedls, which it
picks out from under the bark of trees. 840
Spotted fly-catcher.—Brown ilh, whitilh beneath ; neck Grifola.
longitudinally fpotted; vent pale-rufous; bill black,
whitilh at the bafe ; infide of the mouth yellow; head
large, browmilh, and fpotted with black ; back moufe-
coloured ; wings and tail black; the former edged with
white ; chin fpotted with red; legs black. About the
fize of the tit-lark ; length five inches and a half. In¬
habits Europe. This bird vifits us in fpring, and de¬
parts in September. It frequents orchards and groves,
and will make its neft on the limb of fome fruit-tree
nailed againft the wall, or in a hole, fometimes in out¬
buildings, on the end of a beam or rafter, and at other
times againft the body of a large tree, on the flump of
a decayed branch. The neft is formed of bents, mofs,
and inch materials, interwoven with fpiders wrebs, and
lined with feathers. The-female lays four or five eggs,:
not much unlike thofe of the redbreaft, but rather lefs,
and the ruft-coloured fpots more diftincl, and not fo
much confined to the larger end. Its food feems to be
entirely wdnged infedls, though it is faid to be particu¬
larly fond of cherries, probably from the circumftance
of its frequenting the cherry tree for the fake of flies
that are attracted by the fruit. As foon as the young
birds leave the neft, they are led by the old ones to
fome neighbouring wood or grove where infedfs abound,
and wdrere they may be feen darting in every diredtion
in purfuit of flies, and frequently returning to the fame
ftation. The note of this fpecies is a Ample wTeak
chirp, not frequently ufed till after the young are fled,
fo that the bird, though not uncommon, is not readily
difeovered. .
Defert fly-catcher.—Body ferruginous and foo' v ; Beje 'ti.
w'ings and tail blackilh ; bill yellowilh. Inhabits the
deferts of Arabia,
Gen,
552
rafTeres.
842
Motacil-
1A.
S43
Charadlers.
ORNITHOLOGY.
844
Lufcinia.
Gen. 87. Motacilla.
Bill fubulated, flraight ; the mandibles nearly equal 3
noftrils obovate 3 tongue lacerated at the end.
Moft of this genus feed on infefts 3 a few are gre¬
garious 3 and on the approach of winter, migrate to
warmer climates.
Nightingale.—Rufous-afh, white-alb beneath 3 tail
feathers rufous-brown 3 bracelets cinereous; bill brown 3
head and back pale moufe-colour, with olive fpots 3 tail
red-moufe colour 3 legs and quill feathers brown-alh, the
latter chefnut on the outer edge. About the fize of the
jky-lark, but of a more flender and elegant form.
Weighs fix drams 3 and meafures between fix and feven
inches in length. There is a variety with the body
fomewhat larger, and another that is entirely white.
Inhabits Europe, Alia, and Africa. Appears in Eng¬
land fometimes in April, but moll: commonly not till
the beginning of May. The females do not arrive till a
week or ten days after the males 3 fo that on the firlf
arrival of thefe birds none but males are caught, a cir-
cumltance which has given rife to the fuppofition, that
the proportion of males exceeds that of females. The
nightingale is faid to be found as far north as Yorklhire,
and certainly not farther well than the ealfern borders
-of Devonlhire 3 it is plentiful both in Somerfetlhire and
Dorfetlhire. This bird refides wholly in woods and
thickets, and is feldom feen. About the latter end of
May it prepares a nell of dry leaves, generally of the
oak, and lined with dry grafs, ufually placed on the
ground, among the fame materials of which it is compo¬
sed, fo that it is not readily difcovered. The eggs are
four or five, of an uniform brown colour, and rather
larger than thofe of the hedge-fparrow. As foon as the
young are hatched, the fong of the nightingale ceafes 3
and it is a millaken notion that this, or any of the later
breeding birds, have a fecond brood in the fame feafon,
except when fome accident has befallen the firll. The
young are not eafily reared in confinement. At firll
they are fed with meal-worms, and afterwards with
boiled Iheep’s heart. The winter refidence of this bird
is faid to be in Alia. The fweetnefs and variety of its
notes have been univerfally admired, and the more fo
perhaps, becaufe they are uttered in the filence of night.
In a wild Hate, it does not ling above ten wTeeks in the
year, while thofe confined in a cage continue their fong
for nine or ten months. The honourable Daines Bar¬
rington once kept a very fine nightingale for three
years, during which time he paid particular attention to
its fong. Its tone was infinitely more mellow than that
of any other bird, though at the fame time, by a proper
exertion, it could be very brilliant. When it fang its
fong round, in its whole compafs, he obferved fixteen dif¬
ferent beginnings and clofes 3 at the feme time that the
intermediate notes were commonly varied in their fuc-
cefiion with fo much judgement as to produce the moll
pleafing variety. Sometimes it would continue its fong
twenty feconds without a paufe 3 whenever refpiration,
however, became neceffary, it was taken as Ikilfully as
by an opera finger. Nightingales will alfo adopt the
notes of other birds, may be inilrudled to ling by turns,
with a chorus, and even to articulate words. The
London bird-catchers take them by net-traps, bahed
with meal-worms from the bakers fin ops. It is with
4
great difficulty that the old birds are induced to fmg Pafleres-
after being taken j for a confiderable time they refufe to L,'n' v
eat 3 but by great attention to their treatment, and
avoiding every thing that might agitate them, they at
length refume their fong, and continue it during the
greater part of the year. g4
Hang-nef ’warbler.—Greenilh-brown above, tawny Calidrif.
beneath, ocular line, and one beneath black. Size of
a robin-red-breall. Inhabits Jamaica, and builds a hang-
ingneft- . ^ 846
Hedge-jf arrow, or hedge-'Warbler. — G ray- brown Modularih
above 3 wing-coverts tipt with white 3 brealt bluilh-alh 5
bill blackilh 3 cheeks Itriped with white 3 feathers of
the back and wing-coverts edged with chefnut 3 wings
and tail dulky ; rump greenilh-brown 3 chin and breail
cinereous 3 belly whitifli 3 vent yellowilh 3 legs flelh-
coloured. Length five inches and three quarters 3
weight nearly fix drams. Inhabits Europe 3 and is one
of the few of the warbler tribe that remains with us the
whole year. It has a pleafing plaintive fong, which it
begins with the new year, if the weather is mild, breeds
early, making, in March, a nell compofed of green-mofs
and wool, and lined with hair, which is placed in fome low
ever-green Ihrub, thick bulb, or cut hedge, and fome-
times in faggot piles. The female lays four or five blue
eggs. In default of infers and worms, the hedge-fpar-
row will pick up crumbs of bread, and feems to prefer
fituations near the habitation of man. The cuckoo fre¬
quently makes choice of this bird’s nelt for the purpofe
of depofiting its egg. _ ,847
Leffer petty-chaps.—Greenilh-alh above, yellowilh he-Hippolctir
neath 3 belly whitifh 3 limbs brown 3 eyebrows whitilh 3
upper mandible black, lower bluilh ; infide of the mouth
red 3 a yellowilh line above and beneath the eyes 3 quill
and tail feathers moufe-coloured, and edged with green-
ilh 3 the {hafts black 3 lower wing-coverts yellow 3 belly
filvery. Weight about two drams j length rather more
than four inches and a half 3 fize inferior to that of the
yellow wTren, which it much refembles in plumage, and
with which, and the wood-wTren, it has been often con¬
founded. It is the firll of the warblers that vifits us in
the fpring, being generally heard on or before the firlt
of April, repeating its fong, if fo it may be called 3 for
it confills only of two notes, which feem to exprefs the
tvords chip, chop, four or five times fucceffively. It is a
bufy, relllefs bird, alwrays aflive among the trees and
bullies, in fearch of infefls. The nell is oval, with a
fmall hole near the top, compofed externally of dry
leaves and coarfe dry grafs, and lined with feathers.
For the moll part, it is placed on, or near the ground,
frequently on a ditch-bank, or in a tuft of grafs or low
bulb. The eggs are five or fix, white, fpeckled with
purplilh-red at the larger end only, with here and there
a fingle fpeck on the fides. This fpecies is found in al-
molt every part of {the country where wood or hedges
can Ihelter it. Its note is heard long after the yellow
wrren is filent 3 and it remains with us, not unfrequently,
till the latter end of Oftober. ^ (
Wood-wren.—Olive-green above 3 throat and cheeks jy/oiar/Va.
yellow 3 belly and vent fine filvery 3 tail feathers brown,
and, except the firll, green on the outer webs, and
white on the inner 3 bill horn-colour 3 hides hazel 3
breail pale-yellow 3 a yellow line through the eye 3 tail
fomewhat forked, and brown 3 under part of the Ihoulder
bright yellow 3 legs horn-colour. Weight about two
drams
ORNITHOLOGY.
$53
Pa (feres.
849
Hortenjis-
850
Salicaria.
drams and forty grains; length five inches and a quar¬
ter. The female is rather larger. This is a migrative
fpecieS, appearing about the end of April, and depart¬
ing in September. The females arrive ten days or a
fortnight after the males. From its great fimilitude to
the yellow wren, it has been little noticed as a diftindl
fpecies, but is far from uncommon in fome parts of Eng¬
land. It feems partial to oak and beech woods, where
it may be found by its lingular note, expredive of the
word twee, drawn out to fome length, and repeated five
or fix times in fuccelhon, terminating with the fame
notes, delivered in a hurried manner, and accompanied
by a lhaking of the wings. The nelt, which is oval,
with a fmall hole near the top, is confirucled of dry
grafs, a few dead leaves, and a little mofs, and is invari¬
ably lined with finer grafs and a few long hairs. It is
placed on the ground, and contains fix white eggs,
fprinkled all over with purplilh fpots.
Petty-chaps, or greater petty-chaps.—Gray-brown
above, wirite beneath ; eyebrows whitilh ; quill feathers
brown-alh, edged with gray, the outmoft on the outer
web, and near the tip on the inner, whitilh j bill black-
ilhj lateral tail feathers edged with gray-browm ; legs
brown. Length fix inches 5 weight about five drams.
Inhabits Europe; and occurs during fummer in Lan-
calhire, and in fome of the fouthern counties of Eng¬
land. It chiefly frequents thick hedges, where it makes
a neft compofed of goofe-grafs, and other fibrous plants,
flimfily put together, with fometimes an addition of a
little green mofs externally. It ufually contains four
eggs, about the fize of the hedge-fparrowr,s, of a dirty
white, blotched all over with light browm, efpecially at
the larger end, where fpots of afii-colour alfo appear.
The fong of this fpecies is little inferior to that of the
nightingale. Some of the notes are fweetly and foftly
drawn, others quick, lively, loud, and piercing, reaching
the diftant ear with pleafing harmony, not unlike the
blackbird’s whiffle, but in a more hurried cadence. It
frequently fings after funfet.
Sedge warbler.—Cinereous above, white beneath ; eye¬
brows white; bill black; head brown, with dulky
Itreaks •, hind part of the neck and back reddiih-browm j
back fpotted with black; tail coverts tawny \ wing-
coverts dulky, edged with pale browm ■, tail brown and
wedged 5 legs dulky. Weight about three drams j
length five inches and a half. Inhabits fedgy fituations
in Europe. It comes to us about the middle of April,
and leaves us again in September. It has a variety of
notes, which it utters in a hurried manner, and which
partake of thofe of the fky-lark and fwallow, as well as
of the chatter of the houfe-fparrow. It is frequent by
the fides of rivers and watery places, vdrere fedges and
reeds grow, among which it makes a neft, compofed of
a little mofs, intermixed with dried llalks, and lined with
dried grafs, and occafionally a few hairs, fometimes
faflened betw een two or three reeds, fometimes placed
on a tuft of rulhes, and faftened round the bottom of
them, and at other times, in a low bufh, or on the trunk
of a willow. The eggs are five or fix, of a light-brown
colour, mottled with darker lhades of the fame. Vari¬
ous authors have erroneoufly afcribed the fong of this
warbler to the reed-bunting, wdiich has no notes that
deferve the name of fong, a miftake w’hich has originat¬
ed from both fpecies breeding in the fame places, and
the reed-bunting being confpicuous on the upper
VOL. XV. Part II.
branches of a tree, while the little warbler, concealed Pafferes.
in the thickeft part, is heard aloud. It has been re-' v *
marked, that if it be filent, a Hone thrower into the bufh,
will make it begin finging inflantly, and that it will alfo
fing during a moon-light night. 851
White-tliroat.—Cinereous above, wflrite beneath ; firfl: Sylvia.
tail feathers longitudinally half-white, the fecond tipt
with white ; bill black, white at the bafe 3 head browm-
ifh-afh 3 back reddilh. Female, with the bread; and
belly fnow’y. There is a variety that is reddifh-afh
above, and reddifh-white beneath, with the throat
wdrite 3 the outmoft tail feathers on the upper part of
the inner fide, and whole of the outer fide white.
Weight about four drams 3 length five inches and three
quarters. Inhabits Europe, and is very common in our
inclofed countries. It arrives about the middle of April,
and enlivens our hedges with its fong, when it eredb the
feathers on the crown of the head. The neft is made of
goofe-grafs, lined with fibres, and fometimes a few long
hairs, but is of fo fiimfy a texture that it can afford little
warmth to the eggs of young. It is generally placed in
fome lowT bufh, among nettles or other luxuriant plants.
The eggs are four or five, of a greenifli-white, and
fpeckled all over wfith light browm or afh-colour. 1'he
white-throat feeds on infedts and berries, and frequents
our gardens in the fummer, for the fake of cherries and
currants.
Lejfer white-throat.—Browm-afh, dirty-white beneath 3 Sylviella.
twm middle tail feathers fhorter and fubulated 3 bill
dufky, the bafe beneath yellowifh 3 irides dufky 3 crown
deeper than the body 3 legs browm. Scarcely five
inches long. Though not fo common as the preceding,
it occurs in many of the hedges of Gloucefterfhire and
Wiltfhire 3 builds in low fhrubs, and has a flirill whiff¬
ling note. 853
Epicurean warbler.—Brownifh, white beneath 3 breaft Ficedula.
fpotted with cinereous. About five inches long. In¬
habits Europe. Its fieih is reckoned delicious. 854
Dartford warbler.—Chefnut above, ferruginous be- Provinna-
neath 3 middle of the belly, edge of the quill feathers,llf'
fpurious wings, and outfide of the outmoft tail feathers
white ; eyebrow s red 3 bill black, the bafe beneath
white; hides fcarlet .3 tail black, and as long as the
body 3 legs yellow7. Inhabits Provence, and rarely
England. A pair wrere (hot on a common near Dart-
ford in 177 3, and others have fince been obferved about
Falmouth, Wandfworlh, &c. As yet the neft and eggs
are unknowm. It is rather larger than the common
wTren, and five inches and a half in length. It is a fliy
bird, concealing itfelf among the thickeft furze, on the
leaft alarm, and creeping from bufh to bufh. The fhort-
nefs of the wing and length of tail give it a lingular
manner of flying, which is in fhort jerks, wflth the tail
thrown up. Its note is a wrnak but fhrill piping noife,
feveral times repeated. 855
Penjile warbler.—Gray, yellow7 beneath 3 belly and Penfilis.
eyebrows wfliite 3 lores fpotted with yellow 3 wing-co¬
verts wflth alternate mfliite and black bands. Nearly
five inches long. Inhabits St Domingo, and fome of
the Weft India iilands, wfliere it feeds chiefly on infects
and fruits 3 and has a very delicate fong, which is con¬
tinued throughout the year. “ The fagacity difplayed
by this bird (fays Mr Bingley), in building and placing
its neft is truly remarkable. She does not fix it at the
forking of the branches, as is ufual with moft other
4 A birds,
554
FafTei
O R N I T II O L O G Y.
8s«
Alba.
857
Flaw.
birds, but fufj-eiids it to binders hanging from the net¬
ting, which fhe forms from tree to tree, efpecially thofe
which fall from branches that hang over the-rivers and
deep ravines. The neft confifls ot dry blades of grafs,
the ribs of leaves, and exceedingly fmall roots, inter¬
woven with the greatelt art j it is faftened on, or rather
it is worked into, the pendent firings. It is in fadl a
fmall bed rolled into a ball, fo thick and compadled as
to exclude the rain ; and it rocks in the wind without
receiving any harm. But the elements are not the only
enemies againll which this bird has to ftruggle j with
wonderful fagacity it provides for the protedlion of its
neft from other accidents. The opening is not made on
the top nor fide of the neft, but at the bottom. Nor is
the entrance diredl. After the bird has made its way
into the veftibule, it muft pals over a kind of partition,
and through another aperture before it defcends into the
abode of its family. This lodgment is round and loft, be¬
ing lined with a fpecies of lichen, which grows on the
trees, or with the filky down of plants.”
White, or water-wag-tail; provincially, difhwafher, or
wafherwoman.—Breaft black ; two lateral tail feathers
obliquely half white ; bill, hind head, nape, throat, and
legs black; front, orbits, fides of the neck, and belly
white; body cinereous above} greater quill feathers
blackilh; fecondary, and wing-coverts dufky, and edged
with gray j middle tail feathers black, and edged with
gray. Female with the crown brown. Weight nearly
fix drams; length feven inches and a half. This fpecies in¬
habits almoft every where •, is a very aftive bird, and con¬
tinually in motion, running after flies. In this country,
as the weather becomes fevere, it is apt to haunt marfhes
that are fubje<ft to the flow of the tide. Early in fpring
they return to their ufual fummer fituation •, and from
the number which are fometimes feen together at this
time attending flieepfolds and newly ploughed fields, wre
may prefume that they are gregarious in their flights.
In the breeding feafon they feem to prefer pleafure
grounds that are conftantly mowed, on which they run
unincumbered, and wdiere the infefts have not fufhcient
cover to evade their fight. The neft is found in various
places, fometimes on the ground, in a heap of ftpnes,
the hole of a wTall, or on the top of a pollard tree. It
is corapofed of mofs, dried grafs, and fibres, put toge¬
ther with wrool, and lined with feathers or hair. The
eggs are four or five, white, and fpotted all over with
light brown and afh-colour j weighing about forty grains,
and much refembling that of the cuckoo, wftiich bird
frequently makes choice of the wagtail’s neft, in wdiich
to depofither egg. It fings very prettily early in fpring,
and frequently gives the alarm on the appearance of a
hawk, which it purfues in company with the fwallows.
The young birds have no black on the throat till the
returning fpring, and the old ones loofe it in winter.
In this ftate they have been erroneoufly defcribed as a
variety.
Yellow wagtail.—Breaft and belly yellow 5 two la¬
teral tail feathers obliquely half wrhite j bill and legs
black; hind claw very long •, body olive above; band
through, and one beneath the eyes, black •, throat with
a few black fpots 3 middle and greater wung-coverts
black, edged with yellowiih ; tail black. Female with
whitifti eyebrows. Length fix inches and a half. In¬
habits Europe and Afia. Vifits this country in April,
and departs in September, It frequents arable land,
efpecially in tke more champaign parts, and fomeiimcs Fafllres.
uncultivated ground, interfperfed with furze. It is alfo v——
partial to bean fields; and breeds in all fuch fitualions,
being more negligent of water than the white or gray
wagtail. The ntft is alwrayS placed on the ground,
compofed of dried ftalks and fibies, and lined with hair.
The eggs are four or five j not very unlike thofe of the
fedge w arbler. Its note is more ftirill than that of the
white, and lefs fo than that of the gray wragtail.
Wheatear.—Back hoary ; front, line above the eyes,Oenanthe.
rump, and bafe of the tail white ; a black band through
the eyes j crown, neck, and back reddifh-gray j eye¬
brows, rump, upper tail coverts, and upper half of the
tail white j lower half, legs, and quill feathers black, the
latter edged with reddifh-brown j body yellowiflr-white
beneath. The female wants the line over the eyes.
There are, however, feveral varieties. Weighs about
fix drams and a half; length near fix inches and a half.
Inhabits Europe, Aiia, and Africa. This bird vifits
England annually in the middle of March, and leaves
it again in September. In fome parts they are found
in great plenty, and are much efteemed. About Eafl-
boume in Suflex, they are taken in fnares made of horfe-
hair, placed beneath a long turf. Being naturally very
timid, the motion even of a cloud, or the appearance of
a hawk, will immediately drive them into the traps.
Thefe laft are firft fet, every year on St James’s day,
the 25th of July j foon after which they are caught in
aftoniftiing numbers, confidering that they are not gre¬
garious, and that more than two or three are fcarcely
ever feen flying together. The number annually en-
fnared in the diftrift of Eaftbourne alone, is faid to
amount to nearly two thoufand dozen. The birds
caught are chiefly young ones j and they are invariably
found in the greateft number when an eafterly wind pre¬
vails. They are very fat in autumn, and efteemed a
great delicacy, little inferior to the ortolan. They live
chiefly on infe£ls and earth-worms, frequent open ftony
places, warrens, downs, &c. and breed in ftone walls,
old rabbit holes, or under ftones, making a large neft
of dry grafs, rabbit’s down, feathers, and horfe-hair.
The female lays five or fix eggs, of a uniform pale-blue
colour. The wheatear fings prettily, and not unfre-
quently on wing, hovering over the female. , r
Whinchat.—Blackilh j eyebrows white j wings with Rubetra.
two white fpots •, chin and breaft yellowiih ; bill and
legs black ; chin white, tail white j the lower third
part blackilh j two middle feathers all blackith. Weighs
about four drams and a half 3 length full five inches.
Inhabits Europe, and appears in this illand about the
middle of April, frequenting the fame places with the
ftonechat, and correfponding with it in moft of its ha-
bits. S6o
Stonechat or moor titling—Gray, pale rufous beneath 3 Rubictla
throat with a white band 3 lores black 3 bill and legs
blackilh 3 head and neck nearly black 3 body above
blackilh, varied with pale rufous 5 breaft and belly red-
dilh-yellow 3 vent and rump white 3 tail feathers black,
the two outmoft, on the outer edge and tip, pale ferru¬
ginous 3 quill feathers black, edged with ferruginous 3
thofe next the body at the bafe, and wing-coverts, with
a white fpot. Female varied with blackilh and reddilh.
Weight about five drams 3 length five inches and a
quarter. Inhabits hedges and dry moors in Europe
and Siberia. Feeds on infeefs and worms, and frequent¬
ly
0 R N r T H O L
Pafferes
8^1
Atrica ■
f Ma¬
ly fits on die Uppermofl fprays, darling at every fly that
paflcs. The next is placed on, or very near the ground,
at the bottom of a furze bufh, or fome flmilar lituation,
is compofed of mofs and bents, lined v.ith hair, and
fometimes mixed with fmall feathers. The eggs are
five, of a blue colour, with fmall rufous fpots at the
larger end. When the young leave the nefl, the old
birds are extremely bold and clamorous, and are as art¬
ful in enticing any one from their young as they are in
concealing their neft. In the early part of the fpring,
the ftonechat lings very prettily, fpringing into the air,
and fufpending itfelf for fome time on wing. But as
it breeds lo early, its fong is of (hort duration.
Blackcap.—Brick-colour above, cinereous beneath j
cap dufky-black $ bill brown $ crown black, in the fe¬
male chefnut •, body greenilh-afli above, gray beneath,
gradually growing white 5 temples gray j quill and tail
feathers brown-afli, edged with greenilh-afh, the middle
ones very Ihort *, legs lead-colour. Of this fpecies there
are at leafl: three or four varieties. Length full fix
inches. Inhabits Europe. It is a migrative bird, vifit-
ing us early in the fpring and retiring in September. It
frequents woods and thick hedges, and feems very par¬
tial to orchards and gardens, where it delights us with
its charming melodious fong, which is very little infe¬
rior to that of the nightingale, except in variety of notes.
It makes a neft in fome low bufti or fhrub, compofed of
dried ftalks, generally of goofe-grafs, put together with
a little wool, and fometimes a little green mofs on the
outfide, and lined with fibrous roots, on which are fre¬
quently placed a few long hairs. The eggs are four or
five, of a pale reddifti-broww, mottled with a deeper
colour, and fometimes fprinkled with a few alh-coloured
fpots. On the firft arrival of this bird it feeds greedily
on ivy berries, but forfakes that food as foon as the ver-
nal fun has roufed the infedl tribe.
tyinicauda. Thorn-tailed ’warbler.—Chefnut, white beneath ;
crown fpotted with yellow ; face and eyebrows yellow ;
wing-coverts rufous, varied with brown j the greater
and quill feathers brown} tail wedged, the feathers
daggered. Four inches and a half long. Inhabits Terra
del Fuego.
Leajl warbler.—Pale brown, whitifti beneath ; bill
and very {hort tail yellowiih. Three inches long. In-
habits New Holland.
Redjlart.—Throat black j belly and tail rufous j
head and back hoary j front white; bill, cheeks, and legs,
black; belly white; rump, breaft, and lateral tail
feathers rufous ; the middle ones brown ; wings brown.
Female with the crown and back gray-afti; and chin
white. Five inches and a quarter long. Inhabits Eu¬
rope. It is feen in this country only in fpring and fum-
mer. It builds in holes of walls, or even of houles, or
m hollow trees; and lays four or five eggs. It fings
prettily, and imitates the notes of other birds. It is lefs
than the redbreaft, and moves its tail horizontallyi
Blue-thfoated warbler.—Breaft ferruginous, with a
blue band ; tail feathers brown, ferruginous towards the
tip. Size of the redbreaft. Inhabits Europe and Sibe¬
ria. Sings fweetly, attd does not migrate.
Superb Warbler.—Black-blue above, white beneath ;
feathers of the head long, lax, and turgid ; front, cheeks,
atid lunule on the neck fine blue. Five inches and a
half long. Inhabits New Holland.
Reed Wren.—Olive-brown above, whitifh beneath;
555
Pafferes.
.853
Minima.
S64
Phcenica-
rus.
865
Succica
855
Cyanea.
O G Y.
lores and orbits whitifh-brotvn ; band in the middle of
the wings tawny-yellow beneath ; tail brown, {lightly —y*—
wedged ; under part of the toes greenifh-yellovv. Up¬
per mandible horn-colour, lower flelh-colour; mouth
orange; irides brown; chin white; legs pale-olive.
Length fcarcely five inches and a half; weight nearly
three drams. Has often been confounded with the
fedge warbler, to which it is nearly allied in form, fize,
and habits ; but it may at once be diftinguifhed by the
greater broadnefs of the bafe of the bill, by the want of
a light ftroke over the eye, and having the upper parts
of one plain colour. The neft and eggs are alfo differ¬
ent. The former is compofed of long grafs, and the
feed-branches of reeds, and lined with the finer parts of
the latter. It is very deep, and is generally faftened by
long grafs- to feteral reeds, which are drawn together
for that purpofe. The eggs are four or five, rather
larger than thofe of the fedge-warbler, of a greeniflr-
white, blotched all over with dulky brown. This fpecies
inhabits near Uxbridge, in the fens of Lincolnfhire, and
in many parts of the fouth of England and Wales ; ar¬
riving about the end of April, or beginning of May, and
departing again in September. g(jg
Redbreajl, or robin redbreajl.— Gray ; throat and Rubecold.
breaft ferruginous; bill and legs dulky ; tail feathers
terminating in an acute angle ; belly white; edges of
the quill feathers inclining to yellow. There is a varie¬
ty with a white chin ; wing-coverts varied with white,
black, and rufous; quill and tail feathers black, and
edged tvith rufous : and another that is entirely white.
This well-known fpecies is a conftant inhabitant of
moft parts of the European continent, and appears about
our dwellings in winter1, when the woods and fields are
deftitute of infefts. “ When the cold grows more fe-
vere (fays Buffori), and thick fnow covers the ground,
it approaches our houfes, and taps on the window with
its bill, as if to entreat an afylum, which is cheerfully
granted ; and it repays the favour by the moft amiable
familiarity, gathering the crumbs from the table, di-
ftinguilhing affe&ionately the people of the houfe, and
affirming a warble, not indeed fo rich as that of the
fpring, but more delicate. This it retains through all
the rigours of the feafon ; to hail each day the kindnefs
of its hoft, and the fweetnefs of its retreat. There it
remains tranquil till the returning fpring awakens new
defires, and invites to other pleafures : it now becomes
uneafy, and impatient to recover its liberty.” The red¬
breaft generally builds its neft by the roots of trees, in
fome concealed fpot near the ground, compofing it of
dried leaves mixed with hair and mofs, and lined with
feathers. The female lays from five to feven eggs,
which are whitifti, and fpotted with ruft-colour, and
cinereous. In order the more fuccefsfully to conceal its
neft, we are told, that it covers it with leaves, fuffering
only a narrow winding entrance under the heap to be
left. This bird feeds principally on infefls and worms :
and its delicacy in preparing the latter is fomewhat re¬
markable. It takes a worm by one extremity, in its
beak, and beats it on the ground, till the inner part
comes away; then taking it in the fame manner by the
other end, it cleanfes the outer part, which alone it eats.
Befides infedfts, it is fond of the feeds of the fpindle tree.
It is a folitary and quarrelfome fpecies, infomuch that
857
Arundi-
nacea.
two are never feen on the fame tree.
85p
Wren.—Gray ; eyebrows white ; wings waved with Trogiody*
4 A 2 blacks.
556
falTeres.
870
Regulus.
O K N I T H O L O G Y.
black asid cinereous j bill dark brown •> bead and body
deep reddiflr-brown abovequill feathers alternately
barred with black and red j throat yellowilh-white j
belly and fides crolled with narrow, dufky, and pale
reddilli-brown lines ; tail with dulky bars j legs brown-
ifh. Length nearly four inches and a quarter j weight
about two drams and three quarters. Inhabits Europe
and Afia. Its neft is curioufiy conftrucled, and not be¬
gun at the bottom, as is the cafe in moil inftances, but
flrft traced, as it were, in oval frame-work, and equally
ftftened in all its parts to a tree, or other fupport, and
afterwards inclofcd on the lides and top, a fmall hole
pnly being left near the latter, for entrance. If the neft
is placed under a bank, the top is firft begun, and well
fecured in fome fmall cavity by which the fabric is
fufpended. The materials are generally adapted to the
place ", if built againfl the fide of a hay-rick, for ex¬
ample, the neit is compofed of hay, if againft the fide of
a tree covered with lichen, it is made of that fpecies of
mofs, &c. The lining is invariably feathers. The eggs
are feven or eight, and fome times more, white, and
fparingly marked with fmall reddifh fpots. The fong of
the wren is much admired, being, though fhort, a very
pleafing warble, and louder than could be expected
from the fize of the bird. This it continues throughout
the year 5 and it has been heard to fing, with apparent
unconcern, even during a fall of fnow. It alfo fings
very late in the evening, though not like the nightin¬
gale, after dark. The wren feeds on infects, which it
finds in fufficient abundance to fupport life, even in the
fevereft winters.
Golden-crejled wren. — Greenifh •, fecondary quill
feathers yellow on the outer edge, and white in the mid¬
dle 5 crown orange j bill black •, creib orange (of the
female yellow), each fide edged with black; body
yellowifh-green above, reddiih-white beneath j wing-
coverts dark-brown, with two tranfverfe white bars 5 legs
yellow. Inhabits every quarter of the globe. This
is the fmalleft Britifh bird j its weight feldom ex¬
ceeding eighty grains, and its length three inches
and three quarters. It migrates from the Shetland
iflands in winter, but continues in the Orkneys the
whole year. Its fong is like that of the common wren,
but its voice is weaker. It builds a neft nearly of a
round form, with a hole in the fide •, and lays from fix
to eight eggs. It erefts or deprefles the creft at pleafure.
Though not uncommon, it often efcapes obfervation,
from the fmallnefs of its fize. It has alfo been remark¬
ed, that the female, from fome caufe which has not yet
been difeovered, is frequently deftroyed during the time
of incubation ; and the neft, with the eggs, left to de¬
cay. Mr Montagu communicates the following intcr-
efting details relative to a young family of this beautiful
fpecies. When firft I difeovered the neft I thought it
a favourable opportunity to become acquainted with
fome of the manners of this minute fpecies, and to en¬
deavour to difeover whether the male ever fung by way
of inftruflxng the young ones. Accordingly I took the
neft when the young were about fix days old, placed it
in a fmall bafket, and by degrees enticed the old ones
to my ftudy window; and after they became familiar
with that fituation, the bafket was placed within the
window j then at the oppofite fide of the room. It is
remarkable, that although the female feemed regardlefs
of danger from her affedtion to her young, yet the male
never once ventured withm the room ; and yet would Pafferes.
conftantly feed them while they remained at the outfide *~~v 
of the window j on the contrary, the female would feed
them at the table at which I fat, and even when I held
the neft in my hand, provided I remained motionlefs.
But on moving my head one day, while ihe was on the
edge of the neft, which I held in my hand, {he made a
precipitate retreat, mittook the open part of the window,
knocked herfelf againft the glafs, and laid breathlefs on
the door for fome time. However, recovering a little,
fhe made her elcape, and in about an hour after I was
agreeably furprifed by her return, and would afterwards
frequently feed the young while I held the neft in my
hand. The male bird conftantly attended the female
in her flight to and fro, hut never ventured beyond the
window-frame •, nor did he latterly ever appear with
food in his bill. He never uttered any note but when
the female was out of fight, and then only a fmafl chirp.
At firft there were ten young in the neft, but probably
for want of the male’s afliftance in providing food two
died. The vifits of the female were generally repeated
in the fpace of a minute and a half or two minutes, or
upon an average, thirty-fix times in an hour 5 and this
continued full fixteen hours in a day, which, if equally
divided between the eight young ones, each would re¬
ceive 72 feeds in the day ; the whole amounting to 5,76.
From examination of the food, which by accident now
and then dropt into the neft, I judged fromthefe weigh¬
ed that each feed was a quarter of a grain upon a me¬
dium 5 fo that each young one was fupplied with 18
grains weight in a day •, and as the young birds weighed
about 77 grains at the time they began to perch, they
confumed nearly their weight of food in four days at
that time. I could always perceive by the animation
of the young brood when the old one was corning •, pro¬
bably fome low note indicated her near approach, 'and
in an inftant every mouth was open to receive the infect
morfel. But there appeared no regularity in the fupply
given bv the parent bird fometimes the fame was fed
two or three times fucceflively j and I generally ob-
ferved that the ftrongeft got moft, being able to reach
fartheft, the old one delivering it to the mouth neareft
to her, and after each feed {he waited a while to fee if
any muted?'1
Yellow wren.—Dulky green above, yellowifti-white Trochilus.
beneath •, wings and tail brown, and edged with green*,
eyebrows yellow. Four inches and a half long. Inha¬
bits Europe and America. Frequents wooded and in-
clofed fituations, efpecially where willows abound. Vj-
fits us early in April, and loon begins its ufual fong,
which is ftiort, with little variety. Makes an oval neft,
with a fmall opening near the top, ccmpofed of mofs
and dried grafs, and lined with feathers, either in the
hollow of a ditch, or in a low bulb, clofe to the ground.
The eggs are fix or feven, white, and fpotted with light
ruft colour. Flas often been confounded with the lelfer
pettychaps, and the wood wren. -
Tailor warbler, or tailor bird.— Entirely yellow, and Sutoria.
very fmall, fcarcely exceeding three inches in length.
Inhabits India. Its neft is compofed of two leaves, the
one generally dead, which it fixes, at the end of fome
branch, to the fide of a living one, by fewing both to¬
gether with little filaments (its bill ferving as a needle),
in the manner of a pouch or purfe, and open at the tep.
Sometimes, inftcad of a dead and a living leaf, two liv-
PafTere'.
Boarula.
874
PlPRA.
875
O R N I T H
ing ones are fe'.ved together, and, when thus connected,
feem rather the work of human art than of an uninftruff¬
ed animal. After the operation of fewxng is f.nilhed,
the cavity is lined with feathers and fofi vegetable down.
The neft and birds are together fo very light, that the
leaves of the exterior and more {lender twigs of the trees
are chofen for the purpofe ; and, thus fiiuated, the brood
is completely fecured from the depredations of every in¬
vader.
Gray wagtail.—Cinereous above, yellow beneath ;
f.rft tail feathers entirely ^ fecond, on the inner fide,
white 5 bill and legs brown ; chin and throat black ;
wing-coverts brown, and edged with aih ; quill feathers
brown, the fecondavies white at the bafe •, middle tail
feathers black, and edged with greenifh. Weighs about
five drams ; and meafures -even inches and three quar¬
ters in length. This elegant foecies inhabits Europe ;
vifits us about the latter end of September, and departs
in April. It- is much in motion, condantly flirts the
tail, feulom perches, frequents waters, makes its neft on
th.e ground, and fometimes on the banks of rivulets, and
lays from fix to eight eggs, of a dirty white, marked
with yellow fpots.
Gen. 88. Pipra, Manakin.
CharaAers. Bill fhorter than the head, hard, nearly triangular at
the bafe, and {lightly incurved at the tip ; noftrils na¬
ked *, feet grefiorirl) tail fiiort.
Crejled or ro:h manakin.—Creft ere A, edged with
purple: body faffron tail coverts truncated.—Size of a
fin all pigeon •, from 10 to 12 inches long; is ftiy, but
may be tamed, if taken young; feeds on frnall wild
fruits, and builds in the clefts of the moft remote rocks,
laying two white eggs. Inhabits the rocky parts of
South America.
Black-capped manakin.—Black above, white beneath ;
fpot on the neck above, and on the wings, white ; bill
black ; legs yellow. Inhabits the -woods of Guiana. Is
reft left and gregarious.
Little manahin.—Gray; head black, fpeckled with
white. Size of a fmall wren. Inhabits India.
Tuneful manakin.—Black above, orange beneath ;
front and rump yellow; crown and nape blue; chin and
throat black. Four inches long. Inhabits St Domingo.
Is very ftiy, and cafily eludes the vigilance of fiu h as
attempt to take it. Its note is mufical, and forms a com¬
plete octave, one note fucceeding another.
Gen. 89. Parus, Titmoufe.
875
Rupicota.
Plate
CCCCII.
Fig. 4.
877
Manacus.
878
Minuta.
. 879
Mufua.
880
Parus.
8St
Characters. Bill very entire, narrow, fomewhat comprefied, ftrong,
hard, pointed, and covered at the bafe with bnftles ;
tongue truncated, and briftly at the end ; toes divid¬
ed to the origin, the hind one large and ftrong.
This is a numerous and prolific tribe, fijme of the
fpecies laying from 1 8 to 20 eggs at a time. Moft of
them feed on feeds, fruits, and infects, and fome on flefh.
They are particularly fond of the brains of other birds,
which they get at by cleaving the fkulls of fnch as they
find dead. They are reftlefs, bold, cruel to birds left
than themfelves, and will attack fuch as are three times
„ y,'2 their own fize. Their note is generally unpleafant.
Plate' Crejled titmoufe.—Head crefted ; collar black; belly
CCCCI.
Fi?. e.
O L O G Y.
white. Nearly five inches long. Inhabits. Europe,
chiefly in fir woods. Is folitary, and not eafily tamed. g.
Great tilmotife, or ox-eye.—Head black ; temples MajJ_
white; nape yellow ; bill, chin, and tail black; back
and wings olive; rump blue gray ; belly greenifti-yel-
low, divided in the middle by a band oi black, extend¬
ing to the vent ; quill feathers dulky, edged partly with
blue, partly with white; exterior fides of the outmoil
tail feathers white, of the others bluifti ; inner fides
dufky ; legs lead coloured. This fpecies weighs about
10 drams; length five inches and three quarters. It in¬
habits Europe, Afia, and Africa ; and is common in
many parts of Britain, frequenting gardens and orchards,
where it does much mifehief by picking off the tender
buds of trees. The neft is made of mofs, lined with
hair, and placed in the hole of a wall, or of a tree,
ft'he female fometimes lays eight or ten eggs, but more
commonly fix, which are white, fpotted with ruft-co¬
lour, and fo exactly like thofe of the nuthatch, as not
to be diftingi’llhed from them. The common note of
the great titmoufe is a fort of chatter ; but in the fpring
it affixmes a greater variety, a thrill whittle, and a very
lingular noife, fomething like the whetting of a faw :
but thefe ceafe with incubation. A variety was once
killed near Feverftiam in Kent, that had the bill croffed,
as in loxia curviroftra. Its characters were olive brown
above, dirty yellowifh beneath4, head black ; temples
cinereous, and bill forked. gg^.
Creeping titmoufe.—Bluirh ; temples, breaft, and back America-
yellowith ; flanks purpliih. Four inches and three quar-nus-
ters long. Inhabits Carolina and Canada. Is conftant-
ly running up and down trees in fearch of inieCrs. gg-
Blue titmoufe, or tomtit.—Quill feathers bluifti, the Cteruleut
primaries white on the outer edge ; front white ; crown
blue ; bill blackfill ; line from the bill to the eyes, and
one furrountling the temples black; back yellowifh-
green; wing-coverts blue ; quill feathers black, with
dufky edges ; tail blue, the middle feathers longer;
body whitifh-yellow beneath ; legs and claws black.
Length about four inches and a half; weight three
drams. Inhabits Europe. This fpecies would proba¬
bly be more admired for its beauty, if it was lefs com¬
mon. In winter it frequents houfes for the fake ot plun¬
der, and will devour fleth greedily, whether frefh or pu¬
trid. It is alfo a conftant attendant where horfe-flefh is
kept for hounds, and in the farm-yard, being partial to
oats, which it plucks out, and retiring to a neighbour¬
ing bufli fixes the grain between its claws, and hammers
it with the bill, to break the hulk. In fummer, it feeds
chiefly on infects, in fearch of which it plucks off a num-,
ber of young buds from the trees. The neft is always
made in fome hole, either of a tree or wall, compofed.
of moft, and lined with feathers and hair. The eggs
are white, and fpeckled with ruft-colour at the larger
end. The female is fo tenacious of her neft, that the
will often fuffer herfelf to be taken rather than quit.it,
and will frequently return again after being taken out.
It menaces every intruder in a lingular manner, luffing
like a fnake, erecting all its feathers, and uttering a
noife like the fpitting of a cat, biting, at the fame time,
feverely, if handled. It has no fong, but utters a ftiriil
note quickly repeated.
Colemoufe, or cole titmoufe.—Head black ; back cine- ^r.
reous ; hind head and breaft white; bill and chin black;
' a a
55®
ORNITHOLOGY.
Pafferes.
887
Palujlris.
SS8
■Caudatus.
889
Capenfis.
■890
Biarmicus.
891
Penduli-
nus.
a broad black ftrtpe beneath the eyes, from the bill to
" the neck j. belly and vent reddifh white \ wing coverts
gray, tipt with white ; quill and tail feathers brownifh-
afh, edged with gray \ legs and claws lead-coloured.
Weight about two drams and a quarter j length four
inches and a quarter. Has frequently been confounded
with the palujlris; but it is not fo plentiful a fpecies ;
keeps more to woods; feems to live entirely on infe&s,
and has alfo a different note.
Marfh tit-moufe.—Head black j back cinereous )
temples white. The markings are, however, very fub-
je£t to vary $ the length is about four inches and a
half 5 and the weight two drams and a half. Inhabits
Europe. With the blue fpecies it partakes of flefh, and
haunts the oat-ricks. ■ It feems to be partial to low wet
ground, where old willow trees abound, in the holes of
which it frequently neftles.
Long-tailed tit-moufe.—Crown •white 5 tail longer than
the body j weighs only two drams, and meafures five
inches and a quarter in length. This very elegant and
lingular fpecies is confined chiefly to the woods and
thickets of Europe and Siberia, where it makes a curious
oval neft of lichens, firmly woven together with wool;
and having only a fmall hole on the fide, placed in the
fork of fome bufh or branch . a tree. The female lays
from nine to feventeen eggs, which are white, and fpa-
ringly marked with fmall ruft coloured fpots towards
the larger end.
Cape tit-moufe.—Gray afh } quill feathers black, edged
with white j tail black above 5 bill and legs black. In¬
habits the Cape of Good Hope. Conftrucls a luxurious
nefi: of the down of a fpecies of afclepias j near the upper
end projefts a fmall tube, about an inch in length, with
an orifice about three-fourths of an inch in diameter.
Immediately under the tube is a fmall hole in the fide,
that has no communication with the interior of the neft.
In this hole the male fits at night; and thus both male
and female are fereened from the weather.
Bearded tit-moufe—Rufous *, crown hoary; tail longer
than the body $ head bearded j vent black 5 bill pale
orange j irides yellow $ legs black \ tail wedged $
vvhilkers compofed of long black feathers \ three outer
tail feathers black at the bafe, and whitifh at the tips j
middle of the breaft flefli coloured ; fides and thighs pale
orange j fix inches and a quarter long. Inhabits mar-
Ihy fituations in Europe. Though it breeds with us,
and continues the whole year, its hiftory is little known j
and authors differ not only with refpeft to the fhape and
compofition of the neft, but even with refpeft to the place
of nidification.
Penduline tit-moufe or remix.—Head ferruginous j
ocular band black *, quill and tail feathers brown, and
edged on each fide with ferruginous; four inches and a
half long. Inhabits Europe and Siberia, frequenting
watery places for the fake of aquatic infers, on which
it feeds. The moft curious faff in the hiftory of thefe
birds is the exquifite art difplayed in the conftruftion of
their neft. They employ the light down found on the
buds of the willow, the poplar, and the afper, on
thiftles, dandelion, &c. With their bill they entwine
this filamentous fubftance, and form a thick clofe web, al-
moft like cloth. This they fortify externally with fi¬
bres and fmall roots, which penetrate into the texture,
and, in fome meafure, compofe the bafis of the neft.
They line the infide with the fame down, but not wo-
4
ven, that their young may lie foft j they ftiut it above PaiTere?. _
to confine the warmth, and they lufpend it with hemp, -—nr——'
nettles, &c. from the cleft of a fmall pliant branch over
fome ftream, that it may rock more gently, aflifted by
the fpring of the branch. In this fituation, the brood
are well 1'upplied with infects, which conftitute their
chief food, and are at the lame time protected from
their enemies. The neft fometimes refembles a bag,
and fometimes a ftiort purfe. The aperture is made in
the fide, and is almoft always turned towards the water.
It is nearly round, and only an inch and a half in dia¬
meter, or even lefs, and is often, though not always,
furrounded by a brim. Thefe nefts are found in the
fens of Bologna, Tufcany, Lithuania, Poland, and Ger¬
many. The peafants regard them with fuperfiitious ve¬
neration, one of them being ufually fufpended near the
door of each cottage, as a charm againft lightning.
Languedoc tit-moufe.—Yenloos gray ; crown hoary ; Norton eft*
wings and tail blackilh, edged with rufous; primary^,
quill feathers edged with white; four inches long. In¬
habits France. Builds a ftrong pendulous neft on the
forked branch of a tree.
Amorous tit-moufe.—Blackilh blue; longitudinal fpot Jmatoriui>
on the middle of the wings, half yellow and ru¬
fous ; five inches and a half long. Inhabits Northern
Alia, and is remarkable for the mutual affedlion of the
fexes.
Gen. go. Hirundo, Swallow.
894
. .. ,   Hirundo.
Bill fmall, weak, curved, fubulated, deprefled at theCjiay^er
bafe ; gape larger than the head ; tongue Ihort, broad,
cleft; wings long ; tail moftly forked.
The birds of this genus are readily diftinguilhed, not
only by their ftru&ure, but by their twittering voice, and
their manner of life. They fly with great rapidity, fel-
dom walk, and perform all their functions either on the
wing or fitting. By means of their wide mouth they-
eafily catch infefts (their principal food) in the air, or
on the furface of the water. Naturalifts have been
much divided in their opinions refpefling the migration
of the fwTallow tribe. The Hon. Daines Barrington and
others have fuppofed that they do not leave this country,
but that they lie concealed and torpid, during winter,
under water, in crevices of rocks, holes in fand banks,
&c. In confirmation of this opinion they quote in-
ftances which appear to be fufficiently well authentica¬
ted. But a migration of the greater part of the birds
is not to be contradifted, by what feems to be rather the
effeft of chance than defign. Thofe that have been
hatched late, and have not acquired fufficient ftrength to
accompany their companions in their journey, may alone
have fupplied the above-mentioned inftances. Were all
to remain, we ftiould undoubtedly be furniftied with more
numerous and more generally known examples than
have hitherto been recorded. The ingenious Mr John
Hunter, on differing feveral fwallows, obferved in them
nothing different from other birds in the organs of re-
fpiration, and hence inferred, perhaps tod haftily, that
none of them can remain, for any length of time, under
W'ater. That the migration of fwallows does, however,
really take place, appears to have been fully proved by
a variety of well attefted fa£fs, moft of which have been
obferved by navigators, who were eye-witnefi'es of the
flights of thefe birds, and whofe Ihips have fometimes af¬
forded
O R xNf 1 T H O L O G Y.
PafTeres.
folded to tliem refting
toilfome progrefs.
places
in the coune of their
896
Rujlica.
897
Efculenta.
A. Three toes before, and one behmd.
Chimney or commonfwallow.—Front and chin chefnut j
tail feathers, except the two middle ones, with a white
fpot; bill black j body blackilli blue above, whitifh be¬
neath j tail very much forked ; legs Oiort and black-
iih ; weight between five and fix drams j length fix
inches and a half. Inhabits all the quarters of the world j
vifits us early in April, if the weather be mild, and re¬
tires about the end of September or beginning of Oc¬
tober. It is fuppofed to winter in Senegal, and other
warm countries. It has got the name of chimney /wal¬
low, from the circumftance of breeding in chimneys. It
alfo neftles on the beams or rafters of out-houfes, and
fometimes on rocks. The neft is made of mud, pla-
ftered together, and lined with feathers, and is open at
top. The eggs are four or five, white, and fpeckled
with rufty red. Its velocity of w ing and quicknefs of
fight are truly altonilhing, and enable it to purfue its prey
with precifion and effect. When a fly is taken, a fmart
fnap from the bill is to be heard, not unlike the noife of
the Ihutting of a watch cafe j but the motion of the man¬
dibles is too quick for the eye. Wonderful is the ad-
drefs with wdiich this bird afeends and defeends through
the paffages of a chimney. When hovering over the
roof of the funnel, the vibration of its wings adling on
the confined air, occafion a rumbling like dillant thun¬
der. It is not improbable that the female fubmits to the
inconvenience of having her nefl: low down in the ftraft,
in order to fecure her offspring from the birds of prey,
particularly from owds, which are frequently found to
fall dowur chimneys, probably in their attempts to get at
the neftlings. The progreflive method by which the
young are introduced to their proper habits, deferves to
be noted. They firft, though not without difficulty,
emerge from the fhaft, and, for a day or two, are fed on
the chimney top; thence they are conduced to the
dead leaflefs bough of fome neighbouring tree, where,
fitting in a row, they are attended by the parents wdth
great affiduity. In a day or twTo after this they are
llrong enough to fly, but continue flill unable to take
their own food \ they therefore play about near the
place where the females are watching for flies; and,
when a mouthful is collected, on a certain fignal, the
dam and the neflling advance, riling towards each other,
and meeting at an angle, the young all the while, utter¬
ing a fhort quick note of gratitude and complacency.
As foon as the mother has difengaged herfelf from the
firlt brood, fhe immediatly commences her operations for
a fecond, which is produced about the middle or latter
end of Auguft.
Efculent/wallow.—Blackifh, whi Jfh beneath; all the
tail feathers with a white fpot; bill black ; tail lipt with
white; legs browm. Two inches and a quarter in
length ; in fize rather kfs than the wren. Inhabits China
and the iflands of the Indian ocean. Many of our read¬
ers mull have heard of the curious eatable nefts of this
fpecies. The following is the account given of them by
Sir George Staunton. “ In the Cafs, a finall ifland
near Sumatra, w^ere found two caverns, running hori¬
zontally into the fide of the rock; and in thefe were a
number of ihofe bird's-nefts fo much prized by the Chi-
nefe epicures. They feen* to be compofed of fine fila¬
ments, cemented together by a tranfparent vifeous mat¬
ter, not unlike what is left by the foam of the fea upon
Hones alternately covered by the tide, or thofe gelati¬
nous animal fubftances found floating on every coaft.
The nefts adhere to each other, and to the fides of the
cavern ; moftly in rows, without any break or interrup¬
tion. The birds that build thefe nefts are fmall gray
fuTallows, with bellies of a dirty white. They were fly¬
ing about in confiderable numbers; but were fo fmall,
and their flight wTas fo quick, that they efcaped the Ihot
fired at them. The fame forts of nefts are faid to be al¬
fo found in deep caverns at the foot of the higheft moun¬
tains in the middle of Java, at a diftance from the fea:
from which fource it is thought that the birds derive no
materials, either for their food, or the conftruction of
their nefts ; as it does not appear probable they Ihould
fly in fearch of either, over the intermediate mountains,
which are very high, or againft the boifterous winds pre¬
vailing thereabout. They feed on infedls, which they
find hovering over ftagnated pools between the moun¬
tains, and for the catching of which their wide-opening
beaks are particularly adapted. They prepare their nefts
from the beft remnants of their food. Their greateft.
enemy is the kite, who often intercepts them in their
palfage to and from the caverns, which are generally
furrounded with rocks of gray limeftone, or white mar¬
ble. The nefts are placed in horizontal rows, at differ¬
ent depths, from 50 to 500 feet. The colour and va¬
lue of the nefts depend on the quantity and quality of
the infefts caught, and perhaps alfo on the fituation
where they are built. Their value is chiefly afeertain-
ed by the uniform firaenefs and delicacy of their texture;-
thofe that are white and tranfparent being moft efteem-'
ed, and fetching often in China their weight in filver.—■
Thefe nefts are a confiderable object of traffic among
the Javanefe, many of whom are employed in it from
their infancy. The birds, after having fpent nearly twro
months in preparing their nefts, lay each two eggs,
which are hatched in about 15 days. When the young
birds become fledged, it is thought the proper time to
feize upon their nefts; which is done regularly three
times a-year, and is effected by means of ladders of bam¬
boo and reeds, by which the people defeend into the ca¬
verns : but when thefe are very deep, rope ladders are-
preferred. This operation is attended with much dan¬
ger, and feveral perifh in the attempt. The inhabitants
of the mountains, generally employed in this bufinefs,
begin always by facrificing a buffalo; which cuftom is
obferved by the Javanefe, on the eve of every extraordi¬
nary enterprife. They alfo pronounce fome prayers,
anoint themfelves with fweet-feented oil, and fmoke the
entrance of the cavern with gum-benjamin. Near fome
of the caverns a tutelar goddefs is worfhipped, wbofe
prielt bums incenfe, and lays his prote&ing hands on
every perfon preparing to defeend. A flambeau is care¬
fully prepared at the fame time, wdth a gum which ex¬
udes from a tree growing in the vicinity, and'which is
not eafily extinguiftied by fixed air or fubterraneous va¬
pours.”—The neft of this fpecies generally weighs about
half an ounce ; and is in ftiape fomething like a half le¬
mon. The confiftency of the feveral layers of compo¬
nent matter approaches to that of ifinglafs, or of fine
gum-dragon. Such of thefe nefts as are perfectly free
from dirt, are diffolved in broth, to thicken it, and are ‘
faid to give it an exquifite flavour; or they are foaked
559
Pa Acres.
m
560
ORNITHOLOGY.
PaiTeres.
89S
Utbica.
89*
Rip aria.
900
Purpurea.
901
Sub is.
Plate
CCCCII.
Fig- 3*
90 a
Ambroji-
aca.
9°3
Erythroce-
phala.
904
Nigra.
9°S
Apus.
in water to foften them, then pulled in pieces, and, af¬
ter being mixed with ginfeng, are put into the body cfi
a fowl. The whole is then itewed in a pot, with a fuf-
ficient quantity of wrater, and left on the coals all night.
On the following morning it is ready to be eaten.
Martin, martlet, martinet, or houfe martin.—Bluifh-
black. above, white beneath ; tail feathers without fpotsj
bill black •, mouth yellow j rump white ; legs covered
with a ihort wdiite down. There is a variety that has
the quill and tail feathers tipt with white. About five
inches and a half, and rather inferior in fize to the chim¬
ney {wallow'. Inhabks Europe, Alia, and North Ame¬
rica. Vifits Britain in fpring, rather later than the
common fwallow, making its firft appearance in low,
warm filuations, and if the weather is fine, beginning
to build early in May. It builds a clofe neft, made of
ftraw and clay, and lined with feathers, with a hole at
top for admillion, in windows, under the eaves of houfes,
the projecting ornaments of Iteeples and churches, &c.
and fometimes againit rocks or cliffs, contiguous to the
lea. The eggs are four or five, and pure white. The
manners and habits of this well known fpeciea nearly re¬
ferable thofe of the common fwallow.
Sand martin, bank martin, or jhore bird.—Cine¬
reous : chin and belly white 3 bill blackilh 3 throat en¬
circled with a moufe-coloured ring 3 legs black, and
downy behind. Four inches and three quarters long.
Inhabits Europe and America, in which laft country it
is called ground/wallow. In this country it is not fo
plentiful as the preceding, wuth which it affociates, and
which in its manners it much refembles, except that it
nettles in the banks of rivers or fand pits, and makes a
neft of ftraw and dried fibres, lined with feathers.
Purple fwallow.—Entirely violet 3 tail forked 3 bill
black 3 legs blackilh. Female browm. Seven inches'
and three quarters long. Inhabits Carolina and "Vir¬
ginia, during fummer. Is much valued by the inhabi¬
tants for its ufe in alarming poultry on the approach of
birds of prey, winch it does not only by ftuieking, but
attacking them with the greateft fury.
Canada fwallow.—Bluilh black 3 beneath and mouth
whitilh-alh 3 belly white, clouded with brown 3 quill and
tail feathers blackilh, edged with brown 3 legs and claws
dulky. Eight or nine inches long. Native of Hudfon's
bay.
Ambergrife fwallow.—Grayilh-brown 3 bill blackilh 5
legs browm. Five inches and a half long. Inhabits
Senegal. Smells ftrongly of arabergrife.
Red-headedyAW/om.-—Dulky-black, the feathers ed¬
ged wdth white 3 under part of the body wdrite 3 head
red. Size of the leaft humming bird. Inhabits India.
Black fwalow.— Entirely black. Six inches long.
Inhabits the interior parts of South America, and builds
in a deep hole in the ground, with a long entrance.
Swift, black martin, &c.—Blackilh 3 chin w'hite.
Weight nearly an ounce 3 length about eight inches.
Inhabits almoft every W'here. The fwift makes its ap¬
pearance with us later than any of the other fpecies,
being feidom feen till May. It frequents fteeplcs, towers,
and other lofty buildings, in the holes of which, or under
the tiles of houies and barns, it makes a neft of dried grafs,
lined with feathers, which it collects on wing, fweeping
them off the ground in a dexterous manner. Like the
fwallow, it ftps the water, and at the fame time, picks
up flies as it Ikims over the furface. The female lays
3
only tw'o w'hite eggs of an oblong ftiape, larger than Panties,
that of the fwallow 3 and while lire is fitting, the male v——
is continually flying to and from the fpot, making a
fcreeching noife, which is its only note. At night, both
fit on the neft, or at leaft rooft in the fame hole. In
very w'arm weather, thefe birds foar to a great height 3
but in cold or moift w'eather, fty low in fearch cl fties
and other winged infebts, which at that time cannot
afcend. This fpecies difappears about the middle of
Auguft, remaining here no longer than is neceflary for t
its breeding. It is remarkable that it dilappears fooneft
in the belt and warmeft w'eather 3 and that in the very
inclement feafon of 1782, numbers of them were feen in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, fo late as the 25th of
Auguit, flying about with their ufual I’pirit and vivacity,
w hen the thermometer flood at 36°. It is neither cold,
therefore, nor the want of food, which difpofes them to
quit us fo early. They have the pi' "efs of moulting to
undergo, which cannot be performe a ftate of torpor.
Their place of.retirement, however, lias not been afcer-
taiued. ... 906
While-collaredfwift.—Blackilh-violet 3 head black ; Cayennen-
collar bifid 3 ocular band and thighs white. Five inchesAfi-
and one quarter long. Inhabits Cayenne. Builds a long
conical neft, with a divifion in the middle.
Gen. 91. Caprimulgus, Goatfucker. Caprimul-
Bill {lightly curved, very fmall, fubulated and depreffed GLSp0s
at the bafe 3 mouth extremely wide, and furnilhed at Characters,
the fides with a feries of briftles 3 ears very large 3
tongue pointed and entire 3 tail unforked, with 10
feathers; leps ftiort, middle claw with a broad fer-
rated edge.
The birds of this family feidom appear in the day
time, except they are difturbed, or in dark cloudy wea¬
ther, but w ander about in the evening, in fearch of in-
febls. They lay two eggs on the naked ground. The
lateral toes are connebled to the middle one by a fmall
membrane.
European or nodiurnalgoatfucker ; provincially, night pUropauj,
or dorrhawk, churn or goatowl, wheelbird, nightjarr,
&.c.—Black, varied with cinereous, browm, ferruginous
and white 3 beneath reddiftr-white, with brown bands 3
iiides hazel 3 legs ftiort, fcaly, and feathered below the
knees. The male is diftinguiflred from the female by a
large oval white fpot near the end of the three firft quill
feathers, and another on the outmoft tail feathers. In¬
habits Europe, Afia, and America. With us this bird
is only a fummer vifttant, appearing about the middle of
May, and departing again the latter end of September,
or beginning of Odlober. It makes no neft, but lays
twro eggs on the bare ground, among fern, heath, or
long grafs, fometirnes in woods or furze, but at all times
contiguous to wmcds, in which it chiefly conceals itfelf
by day. The eggs are larger than thofe of a blackbird,
oblong oval, whitilh, and elegantly marbled with light
browm and alb-colour. It generally fits on the ground,
but if molefted, frequently perches on the limb of a tree,
moft commonly lengthwife, and not acrofs, as is com¬
mon with moft birds. In the dulk of the evening, it
begins its flight in purfuit of the larger infedls, particu¬
larly fcarabceus melolontha, and folfitialis, which rife
from their earthy abode about that time. It is alfo
fond of the large-bodied moths, and indeed allow's few
winged
pio
Grandu-
911
No-vce Hol-
laniix.
0 K N I T H
t*aSeres, winged infers to efcape its wide extended gape. ^ It
 v  makes a fingular noife, like the found of a large fpinnmg
wheel, and which it is obferved to utter perched, with
the head lowermoft ; betides which, it utters a fharp
fqueak, as it flies. It has its name from the ancient, but
erroneous belief, that it fucked the teats of goats.
Great voatfucker.—Blackith, with fmall brown fpois
and ftreaks; area of the eyes yellowifh j legs white j
middle claw not ferrated. Nearly two feet long. In¬
habits Cayenne. The gape of its mouth can readily ad¬
mit a man’s fill.
Crejledgoatfucier.—Vfzvtdi with browm, black, and
whitiih j whitifli beneath •, neck and bread with dulky
bands ^ creft on the front erect, and fetaceous. Nine inches
and a half long. Inhabits New Holland. No account
has hitherto been procured of its manners, except that it
appears about our fettlement at Port Jackfon in March.
Leone goatfucker.—Variegated gray ; wings fpotted
with rufous and black ; a very long naked-fhafted fea¬
ther on each fhoulder. “ This fingular fpecies,” fays
Dr Latham, “ is about the fize of the European one,
and not far different from it in the general markings :
the length from the bill to the end of the tail is eight
inches and a quarter ; but the remarkable circumftance
belonging to it, is the having a Angle feather fpringing
Out of the middle part of the coverts of each wing, full
29 inches in length : this continues as a pl&in unwebbed
lhaft for 14 inches and three quarters, having a few fo-
litary hairs, on the infide only ; from thence it expands
into- a broad web for the remaining five inches and a
quarter of its length. This part is mottled, not unlike
the darker part of the refl: of the plumage, and croffed
with five dulky bars j the web or blade has almoll: the
whole of its breadth on the inner fide, being there more
than one inch broad, but very narrow on the outer part
of the fhaft; the legs are fmall. Inhabits Sierra Leona
in Africa; feveral of them have been brought into Eng¬
land,” See.—The fame bird is deferibed by Dr Shaw in
his Naturali/Is Mifcellany.
91a
Longipen
nit.
913
Menura.
We have purpofely referved for an Appendix, the fol¬
lowing defeription of menitra fuperba, a bird of New
South Wales, by Major-general Thomas Davies, F. R.
and L. S.
“ Menura.
Char. gen. Rojlrum validiufculum, convexo-conicum.
Nares ovatae in medio roftri.
Reprices elongatse, pinnulis decompofitis ;
intermedia} dum longiores anguuae, ex-
teriores ad apicem patulm, revolutae.
Pedes valid! ambulatorii.
Menura Superba.
The total length of this fingular bird, from the point
of the bill to the end of the broad tail feathers, is 43 in¬
ches ; 2 5 of which are in the tail alone. The bill rather
exceeds an inch in length, is ftrong, formed much like
that of a peacock, and black, with the nollrils, which
are long open flits, rather large, placed near the mid¬
dle of its length ; the head, wdlieh is fomewdiat crefted
the hind part, neck, fhoulders, back, upper tail co¬
verts, and upper furface of the tail feathers, of a dark
ferownifti-black j throat rufous, reaching fome way down
Vol. XV. Part II.
O L O G Y. 561
the middle of the neck ; breafl, belly, and vent gray ; Appendix,
the feathers of the latter are long, very foft, and of a
filky texture 5 thighs nearly of the fame colour, rather
long, and feathered dowm to the knee; icapulars of d
brownifli tinge j upper tail coverts and prime quill feathers,
which are fomewhat curved at the ends, brown black }
edges of the quills gray ; the legs long and very ftrong,
covered with large feales, efpecially in front } the feet,
which are likewite large, and the nails, are black ; the
laft fomewhat crooked, convex above and flat beneath $
the hind nail near three quarters of an inch long.
“ The tail confifts in the whole of 16 feathers ; all of
which, except the twro upper or middle ones, and the
two exterior on each fide, ^ave long flender fhafts fur-
niihed on each fide wdth delicate long filaments, four
inches or more in length, placed pretty dole towards
the rump, but more diftant from each other as they ap¬
proach the extremity, and referable much thofe of the
greater Paradife bird. The two middle or upper ones
are longer than the reft, flender, narrow at the bafe,
growing wider as they approach the ends, which are
pointed } webbed on the inner edge all the way, and
furnilhed with fome diftant hair-like threads near the
end on the outer fide, of a pale gray colour beneath,
and brown black above, as is the reft of the tail. The
twro exterior feathers on each fide are of an extraordinary
conftruflion, rather more than an inch wide at the bafe,
and growing wider as they proceed to the ends, where
they are full two inches broad and curve outwardly ; the
curved part is black with a narrow white border ; the
quills of thefe feathers are double for two-thirds down
from the rump. The general colour of the under fides
of thefe two feathers is of a pearly hue, elegantly marked
on the inner web wdth bright rufous coloured crefcent-
ftiaped fpots, which, from the extraordinary conftruftion
of the parts, appear wonderfully tranfparent, although
at fir ft fight feemingly the darkeft ; they are alfo elon¬
gated into flender filaments of an inch or more, efpe¬
cially towards the extremities.
“ The figure of the male, which accompanies this de¬
feription, wras taken from a fpecimen fent from New-
South Wales as a prefent to Lady Mary How-e. I have
alfo feen two other fpecimens in the poffeflion of the
Right. Hon. Sir Jofeph Banks, which I believe have
lince been depofited in the Britifli. Mufeum.
“ Since I had the honour of communicating to the*
Linnsean Society the foregoing defeription of the mejiura,
I have been favoured w ith both male and female of that
extraordinary bird from my friend Governor King, by
the Buffalo ftore ftiip \ and I am thereby enabled to lay
before the fociety a deferiptien of the different fexes. I
find, indeed, that, wdth a little deviation, the fame cha-
ratters and colours will ferve for both of them. The
female, however, is fomewhat fmaller, being in length,
from the crown of the head to the end of the tail, only
31 inches. The general plumage of the whole bird is
of a dull blackiftr colour, a little rufous under the chin
and throat, and of a brownifh caft on the fcapulars, as
in the male. The plumage of the wdiole body, from
the breaft to the vent, and from the flioulders to the
rump, is compofed of long, flender, thread-like, filky
'feathers, refembling fringe, of a dull grayilh-black ^
lighter on the breaft, belly, and vent. The bill and
legs, which are ftrong and fumilhed wdth large feales,
as in the cock, are black. From the head to the rump
4 B 14
562
ORNITHOLOGY.
Appendix, j ^ inches ; the tail 18 inches, alfo of a dull brown black
v 1 colour above and gray beneath j the two upper tail fea¬
thers are fharp-pointed at the ends ; the reft are rounded
and darker in colour, and fhorter by degrees, as they ap¬
proach the rump, fo as to appear cuneated ; the two
outer feathers are ftiorter than the reft, but in form like
thofe of the malr, brown black above, of a pearly gray
beneath ; and the crefcents, which are of a deeper rufous
colour, are not fo vifible nor fo large, but more tran-
fparent if poflible, than thofe of the cock. They are
about an inch and a half broad, and not black or longer. Appendix,
at the ends as in the other fex. ' *
“ From thefe birds being found in the hilly parts of
the country, they are called by the inhabitants the
mountain pheafant. With refpeft to their food or man¬
ners I have not as yet obtained any particular account.
In my fpecimens, there is a nakednefs round the eyes,
but whether this is from the feathers having fallen off I
know not. I rather think otherwife, and that it may be
brightly coloured as in many other birds.”
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCXCIII. Accipitres.
9x4
Expiana- pig, j, Vultur Percnopterus, Aquiline Vulture,
platesf 2* Fa/co Melancetos, Black Eagle.
3. Strix Zeylonenjis, Ceylon Owl.
4.  Virginiana, Virginian Owl.
Plate CCCXCIV. Pick.
Fig. I. Certhia Armillata, Braceletted Creeper.
2. Coracias Caudata, Long-tailed Roller.
3. Picus Cardinalis, Cardinal Woodpecker.
4. Cuculus Me/anoleucos, Coromandel Crefted
Cuckoo.
Plate CCCXCV. Picje.
Fig. I. Merops Erythropterus, Red-winged Bee-eater.
2. Buceros Panayenjis, Panay Hornbill
3. Todus Cri/latus, Crefted Tody.
4. Momotus Brajilienjis, Braftlian Motmot.
5. Alcedo Criflata, Crefted King’s-filher.
Plate CCCXCVI. Anseres.
Fig. 1. Anas MolliJJima, Eider Duck.
2. Mergus Serrator, Red-breafted Merganfer.
3. Phaeton JEthereus, Common Tropic Bird.
4. Plotus Melanogajler, Black-bellied Darter.
5. Diomede a Exu/ans, Wandering Albatrofs, or
Man of War Bird.
Plate CCCXCVIII. Orally.
Fig. I. Pheenicopteros Ruber, Red Flamingo.
2. Tantalus Albus, White Ibis.
3. Ardea Egretta, Great Egret.
4. Scopus XJmbretta, Tufted Umbre.
Plate CCCXCIX. Grall^e.
Fig. 1. RecurviroJIra Americana, American Avccet.
2. Charadrius Pileatus, Hooded Plover.
3. Hcematopus OJIralegus, Sea-pie, or Pied Oyfter
Catcher.
4. Fulica Atra, Common Coot.
Plate CCCC. Galling.
Fig. 1. Otis Afra, White-eared Bullard.
2. Strulhio Came/us, Black Oftrich.
3. Phajbanus Crijlatus, Crefted Pheafant.
4. Crax AleBor, Female Crefted Curaffow, Var.
from Peru, Lath. Synop. 693.
Plate CCCCI. Passeres.
Fig. 1. Columba Marginata, Marginated Turtle.
2. Loxia Moluccenjis, Molucca Grofbeak.
3. Alauda Malabarica, Malabar Lark.
4. Mufcicapa Pygmcea, Dwarf Fly-catcher.
5. Parus Crijiatus, Crefted Titmoufe.
Plate CCCXCVII. Anseres.
Fig. 1. Aka Cirrata, Tufted Auk.
2. —— Tetracula, Dulky Auk.
. 5. Procellaria Pelagiea, Stormy Petrel.
4. Co/ymbus Auritus, Eared Grebe.
3, Sterna Minuta, Leffer Tern,
Plate CCCCII. Passeres.
Fig. I. Emberi%a Regia, Shaft-tailed Bunting,
2. Colius Panayenjis, Panayan Coly.
3. Hirundo Subis, Canada Swallow.
4. Pipra Rupicola, Rock Manakin.
5. Tanagra Sib erica, Siberian Tanager.
INDEX.
Aberdevine, ' n° 814
Accipitres, 50
Age of birds, _ 45
Alauda, characters and fpecies of,7i6—727
Albatrofs, _ 39°—393
Aka, characters and fpecies of, 363—372
Alcedo, characters and fpecies of, 260—270
Ampelis, characters and fpecies of, 754
Anas, characters and fpecies of, N° 316
—354
Am', characters and fpecies of, 162—164
Anferes, order of, 314
characters, 315
Ardea, characters and fpecies of, 494—323
Atth, characters and fpecies of, ^363
—372
Avocet, 588—592
B.
Barbel, characters and fpecies of, 219—222
Bee-eater, 275—282
Beef-eater, characters and fpecies of, 159
—161
Birds, general obfertations on, 36
Birds,
O R X LT irO L OGl .Explanation ol' Terms . Plate CC (" \C [I
Plate
> • ::
; -
O HXf TH O L O (r Y Fic a\
Plate C C C X CIY
v^.
O K NIT Fi OLOGY. Pic se. Plat e C C C XC V.
ORJSTITHOL () GY Ans e re «
Plate CCCXCVII
ORNITHOXi O (rY Gi’allnc
■''/ tt-Sfij/ ■. fi i/////, ^r/sri/;
/
O liNIT H OL O GrY Galfime Bate CCC (
/3s// . //ft/■ >/'cti//t tot • frrtf
Ornithology Pafs.
Plate CCCCi
Index.
Birds, nutrition of, N° 38
flight and migration, 39
lubrication of the feathers, 40
niftitating membrane, 41
fong, 42
eggs, 43
nefts, 44
age, 45
difeafes, 46
Bittern, 515—520
Blackbird, 75°
Blackcap, 861
Boatbill, 488—490
Booby, 409
Bucco, chara£!ers and fpecies of, 219— 222
Buceros, 152
charaflers, 153
fpecies, 154—158
B anting, 7 ^1
Buphagn, chara&ers and fpecies of, 159
—161
Bujlard, 631—638
Butcher bird, 105—JI o
Buzzard, 7°-*”73
C.
Canary bird, _ 813
Cancroma, characters and fpecies of, 488
—490
Capercailzie, 681
Capritnulgus, , 907
Carrion crow, 174
of Jamaica, 55
CaJ/bwary, 642, 643
Certhia, characters and fpecies of, 288
—3^3
Chaffinch, 806
Channelbill, 149““15 *
Charadrius, characters and fpecies of, 581
-“587
Chatterer, 754
Cockatoo, 126, 127
Colemoufe, 886
Colius, 757.
Columba, characters and fpecies of, 703
—7I5
Cola, . 757
Colymbus, characters and fpecies of, 422
—454
Condor, S3
Coot, 606—609
Coracias, characters and fpecies of, 185
—190
Corrira, characters and fpecies of, 532
—534
Corvorant, 402
Corvus, characters and fpecies of, 171
—184
Courier, S32—534
Cranes, 498—500
Crax, characters and fpecies of, 661—664
Creeper, characters and fpecies of, 288
—3°3
Crofsbill, 765
drolophaga, characters and fpecies of, 162
, , —164
ORNITHOLOGY.
Crow, characters and fpecies of, N° 171
—184
Crown bird, 496
Cuckoo, characters and fpecies of, 223—231
Cuculus, characters and fpecies of, ib.—ib.
Curaffiow, 661—664
Curlew, _ 53 7> 538
Curucui, characters and fpecies of, 216
—218
D.
Darter, characters and fpecies of, 412-^416
Didus, characters and fpecies of, 645—648
Diomedea, characters and fpecies of, 390
—395
Difeafes of birds, 46
Diver, 430—434
Dodo, 645—648
Dotterel, 585
Duck, velvet, 326
fcaup, 3 29
eider, 336
Mufcovy, 337
wild, 351
red-crefted, 353
tufted, . 354
E.
Eagle, different fpecies of, 61—68
Eggs of birds, 43
Egret, 5I0> 511
Ember goofe, 434
Emberiza, characters and fpecies of, 781
F. ~796
Ealco, 58
characters of, 59
fpecies of, 60—90
Falcon, 75—80
Finch, 803
Flamingo, characters and fpecies of, 470
—473
Flight of birds, remarkable, 39
Fly-catcher 827
Frigate pelican, 400
Fringilla, 803
Fulica, characters and fpecies of, 601—609
Fulmar, 385
G.
Galbula, characters and fpecies of, 271
, —274
Gallmce, order and characters of, 629, 630
Galhnule, ■ 603—605
Gannet, 407
Garganey, _ 349
Glareola, characters and fpecies of, 596
—600
Glaucopis, characters and fpecies of, 168
—170
Godwit, caq— c ? c
Goldfnch, 808
Goofe, fnow, 321
antarCtic, 322
buftard, 323
loggerhead, 3 24
gray or wild, 330
* ^domeliic, ib.
Goofe, bean,
bernacle,
brent, or brand,
Goatfucher,
Gofhawi,
563
N° 332
334
335
907
74
Gracula, characters and fpecies of, 203
—207
Grakle, characters and fpecies of, 203
—207
Grallce, order and characters of, 468, 469
Grebe, 435—442
Groufe, 680—687
Grojbeak, 763
lingular nelts of, 779
Guillemot, characters and fpecies of, 4 24
—428
Guinea fowl, 675—677
Gull, characters and fpecies of, 443—454
H.
FLcematopus, characters and fpecies of, 593*
—595
Hedge fparrow, 846
Hen-harrier, 82,
Herons, 504—523
Hirundo, 894
Hobby r 87
Honey-guide, 231
Hoopoe, characters and fpecies of, 283
—287
Hornbill, 15 2—158
Humming bird, characters and fpecies of,
3°4—3J3
I.
Jabiru, 483—487
Jacamar, characters and fpecies of, 27 f
r ' —274
Jacana, 613—617
Jackdaw, 177
Jay, 178
blue, 179.
Ibis, 524—531
K.
Keflril, ^ ' 84
King's-fjher, characters and fpecies of, 260
—270
Kite, 69
Kittiwake, 445
Knot, 576
L.
Lanius, iog
characters of, 106
fpecies of, 10 7— 11 a
Banner, 81
Lapwing, 559
Lark, 716—727
Larus, characters and fpecies 0^443—454
Linnet, 816—819
Lory, 129—131
Loxia, 763
M.
Macao 115, 116
Magpie, 18l
Mallard, 351
Manakin, -■ * 874
4 B 2 Man
5 <54
Man of war bird, N° 392
Martin, or houfe martin, 898
Mavis,
Meleagris, characters and fpccies of,
653—655
Menura, 913
Merganfer, 358
xed-breaited, 360
Mergus, charafters and fpeciesof, 356—362
Merops, characters and fpecies of,
276—282
Migration of birds, 39
Momotus, 146
characters, 147
fpecies, 148
Motacilla, 842
Mat mot, 146—148
Mufcicapa, 827
Mufophaga, characters and fpecies of,
165—167
My Berio, characters and. fpecies of,
483—487
N..
Nejis of birds,
Nightingale,
Noddy,
Numidia, characters and fpecies of,
Nuthatch, characters and fpecies of,
Nutrition of birds,
o.
Orders of birds,
Oriole, characters and fpeqies of, 191—
Oriolus, characters and fpecies of, ib.
Ornithology, definition of,
writers on, 2
Ortolan,
OJlrich, black,
American,
Otis, characters and fpecies of, 631—
Owl,
eared, 93
earlefs, , 99—
Qx-eye,
P.
Valamedea, characters and fpecies of,
44
844
458
675
■677
248
■251
38
49
20 i
ib.
I
“35
787
641
644
.638
91
-98
X04
883
Paradife, birds of, 208—
Paradifea, characters and fpecies of,
Parra, characters and fpecies of, 613—
Parrot, 113-I
Partridge,
Parus, .
Pajferes, order and charaCte&s of,
Pavo, 649—
Peacock,
Pelican, 396—
P elec anus, characters and fpecies of,
Penelope, characters and fpecies of,
Penguin, characters and fpecies of,
or great auk,
479
-482
-215
208
-215
-6x7
-X3i8
688
880
70X
-652
ib.
-411
ib.
656
-660
373
-378
366
O R N 1 T H Q h O G Y,
Petrel, characters and fpecies of, N° 379
> —3 ”9
foowj, 384
flormy, 383
Pettij-chaps, 847—849
Phecnicopteros, characters and fpecies
°h 470—473
Phaeton, characters and fpecies of, 417
—421
Phalarope, 368, 569
Phajianus, characters and fpecies of, 665
—674
Phcpfant, 665—674
Phytotoma, 824
Pica;, j ! !
characters of, H2
Picas, characters and fpecies of, 235 247
Pied oyIter-catcher, 393
Pigeon, / 703—70^
Pipi a, . 874
Plantain-eater, characters and fpecies
°f> 165—167
Platalea, characters and fpecies of, 474
—478
Plates, explanation of, 914
Plot us, characters and fpecies of, 412—416
Plover, 381—387
Pratincole, 396—600
Procellaria, characters and fpecies of, 379
—389
PJittacus, 113
characters of, 114
fpecies, 113—138
Pfophia, characters and fpecies of, 625
—628
Ptarmigan, 683
Phfi", 365
, :
^uail, 691
R.
Pail, 5x8—524
Rallus, characters and fpecies of, ib.—ib.
Ramphajlos, 139
characters of, 140
fpecies, 141—143
Raven, 173
Ra%or-bill, 367
Recurvirojlra, characters and fpecies of, 588
—59'2
Redbreajl, 868
Red-legged crow, 184
Reed wren, 867
k Reeve,' 338
Rice bird, 792
Robin red-breaft, 868
Roller, characters and fpecies of, 185—190
Rook, 173
fingular hiftory of, ib.
Royston, or hooded crow, 176
Ruff, . 558
Rynchops, characters and fpecies of, 465
—467
S.
hiper, 336—380
Index.
Scolopax, Aara&ers and fpecies of, N° 333
—555
Screamer, characters and fpecies of, 479
—482
Scopus, characters and fpecies of, 491—493
Scythrops,
characters of,
fpecies of,
Sea fwallow,
lark,
Shag,
Sheath-bill,
Sheldrake,
Shoveller,
Shrike,
M9
150
'S'-
460
583
403—405
6x0—612
325
338, 339
10 r—110
. , 814
Suta, characters and fpecies of, 248—251
Skimmer, characters and fpecies of, 465
—467
Smew, 36!} 362
Snipe, 340—340
Soland goofe, 407
method of taking, ib.
Song of birds, 42
Sparrow, houfe, 821
curious anecdote of, ib.
mountain, 822
^ hawk, 86
Spoonbill, characters and fpecies of, 474
' —478
Starling, 728
Sterna, characters and fpecies of, 455—464
Stonechat, -■ 860
Storks, CQI—roa
Stormfinch, 083
Strix, 91
characters of, 92
fpecies of, 93—104
Struthio, characters and fpecies of, 639
—644
characters and fpecies of, 728—734
Swallow,
Swan, wild,
tame,
black,
migration of,
common,
efculent,
nelts, ufes of,
fwift,
894
895
896
897
ib.
9°5
3*8
319
320
T,
Tailor bird, 872
Tanager, 797
Tanagra, {R
1 antalus, characters and fpecies of, 524
—531
Tarrock, 44 r
leal, 330
lerms, technical, explanation of, 48
Pern, characters and fpecies of, 455—464
./etrao, characters and fpecies of, 678—697
TJtrufl; 735
1 hrojtle, 740
Tinamous, 697
Titmoufe,
*259
ib.
Index.
Titoioufc, .. N° 83o
Todus, characlers and ipecies of,. 252'
characters and fpecies of,
Tomtit, ^^5
Toucan, 139
charafters of, 14°
fpecies of, I4I J45
Trinqa, characters and fyecks of, 556—580
Trdchilus, characters and fpecies of, 304
—
Trogon, characters and fpecies of,_2i6—218
Tropic bird, characters and fpecies of, 417
—421
Trumpeter, 625 028
Turdus, 735
Turkeu, 653 655
u.
Umbre, characters and fpecies of, 491—493
ORNITHOLOGY.
Upupa, characters and fpecies of, N3 '283
—287
V.
Vaemahs, characters and fpecies of, 610
—61 2
Vulture, fee Vultur,
king,
carrion,
51
54
55
W.
8 ?
^-355
731
856
857
Warbler,
Water oufel,
wagtail,
yellow,
Wattle bird, characters and Ipecies of, 108
*-170
Wheat-ear, 858
Whimbrel, 539
Whine hat,
Waite groufe,
throat,
Wigeon
red-headed,
Wings of birds, aCtion of,
Woodcock,
Wood groufe,
Woodpecker, characters and ipei
Wood wren,
Wren,
golden crefted,
yellow,
Y.
Yellow hammer, N ?88
Yunx, characters and fpecies of, 232 234
5^5
N° 8^9
683
851
344
348
39
542> 543
681
:ies of, 235
— 247
848
869
870
87!
Ornitho-
mf.ncy
H.
Orobio.
O R o
ORNITHOMANCY, a fpecies of divination per¬
formed by means of birds ; being the fame with augury.
See Divination and Augury.
, OTtNITHOPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadelphia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 3?d order, Papilionaceee. See Botany Index.
ORNITHOllYNCHUS paradoxus, one ot the
molt extraordinary animals of the mammalia clafs yet
known, particularly for the lingular conformation 01
its head, which is the perfeCt refemblance of the beak ot
a duck ingrafted on the ^head of a quadruped, oee
Mammalia Index.
ORNUS FRAXINUS, is that fpecies of the alh .tree, m
the Linnaean fyftem, which, according to Dr Ciriilo of
Naples, produces the manna. See Materia Medica
Index. .
OROBANCHE, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs; and in the natural metnod ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonatx. See Botany Index.^
OROBIO, Don Balthasar, a celebrated Jew or
Spain. He was carefully educated in Judaifm by his
parents, who were Jews, though they outwardly profef-
fed themfelves Roman Catholics 5 abftaining from the
praCfice of their religion in every thing, except only the
obfervation of the fall of expiation, in the month .4 if s
or September. Orobio iludied the fcholafhc philofophy
ufual in Spain, and became fo {killed in.it, that he was
made profeiTor of metaphyfics in the univerfity ot Sala¬
manca. Afterwards, however, applying himfelftothe
ftndy of phyfic, he pra&ifed that art at Seville with mc-
cefs, till, accufed of Judaifm, he was thrown into the
innuifition, and fuffered the moll, dreadful cruelties, in
order to force a confeffion. He himfelf tells us, that he
was put into a dark dungeon, fo flrait that he could
fcarce turn himfelf in it •, and fuffered io many hardfhips,
that his brain began to be difturbed. Ble tslked to him¬
felf often in this way : “Ami indeed that Bon Raltha-
far Orobio, who walked freely about in Seville, who was
entirely at eafe, and had the bleffings of a wife and child¬
ren ?” Sometimes, fuppofmg that his pail life was but
a dream, and that the dungeon where he then lay was
his true birth-place, and which to all appearance would
alfo prove the place of his death. At other times, as he
O R O
had a very metaphyixal head, he firfl formed arguments Orobl0*
of that kind, and then refolved them*, performing thus
the three different parts of opponent, refpondent, and
moderator, at the fame time. In this whimfical way he
amufed himfelf from time to time, and conilantly denied .
that he was a Jew. After having appeared twice o*
thrice before the mquifitors, he was uled as follows . At
the bottom of a fubterraneois vault, lighted by two ■ or
three fmall torches, he appeared before two perfons, one
of whom was judge of the inquifition, and the otner fe~
ere* ary j who, a iking him whether he would confeis the
truth r protefted, ..that in cafe of a criminal’s denial, the
holy office would not be deemed the caufe of his death .
if he fhould expire under the torments,. but that it
mdil be imputed entirely to his own obflinacy. I hen
the executioner flnpt off his clothes, tied his. feet and .
hands with a ftrongcord, and fet him upon a little ilool,
while he paffed the cord through fome iron buckles
which were fixed in the wall} then drawing away the
flool, he remained hanging by the cord, which the exe¬
cutioner ft ill drew harder and harder, to make him con-
fefs, till a furgeon affured the court of examinants, that
he could not poffibly bear more without expiring.. I hele
cords put him to exquifite tortures, by cutting into the
ftefn, and making the blood burft from under his nails.
As there was certainly danger that the cords would tear
off his fleth, to prevent the worft, care was taken to gird
him with fome bands about the bread, which however
were drawn fo very tight, that he would have run the
riik of not being able to breathe, if he had not held his '
breath m while the executioner put the bands lounu
him 5 by which device his lungs had room enough to
perform their fumflions. Xn tne levered extremity of his
ftifferlngs, he was told that this was but the beginning
of his torments, and that he would better confffs before
they proceeded to extremities. Orobio added further,
that the executioner, being on a fmall ladder, in order
to frighten him, frequently let it fall againft the ftiin-
bones of his legs 5 to that the ftaves being {harp, crea¬
ted exquifite pain. At lad, after three years confine¬
ment, finding themfelves battled by his peiieveiance in
denying his religion, they ordered his wounds to be
cured, and difeharged him. As foon as he had got
liberty,3 ,
Oro bio
Orpheus.
O R P [566
liberty, he refolved to quit the Spanilh dominions •, and,
going te France, was made profefibr of phyfic at Thou-
, loufe. The thefes which he made as candidate for this
place wTere upon putrefa&ion j and he maintained them
with fo much metaphyfical fubtlety, as embarraffed all
his competitors. He continued in this city for fome
time, flill outwardly profeffing popery j but at lall,
weary of diffembling, he repaired to Amfterdam, where?
he was circumcifed, took the name of Ifaac, and profef-
fed Judaifm 5 ftill continuing, however, to pradlife phyfic,
in which he was much efteemed. Upon the publication
of Spinoza’s book, he defpifed a fyflem the falfenefs of
which he quickly difcovered j and when Bredenbourg’s
anfwer to it came to his hands, Orobio, being perfuaaed
that the writer in refuting Spinoza, had alio admitted
fome principles which tended to Atheifm, took up his
pen againft them both, and publifhed a piece to that pur-
pofe, intitled, Certamen philofophicum adverfus J. B.
Principia. But the difpute which he held with the ce¬
lebrated Philip Limborch againft the Chriftian religion
made the greateft tioife. Here he exerted the utmoft
force of his metaphyfical genius, and carried himfelf
uuth great temper. The three papers which he wrote
on the occafion were afterwards printed by his antagonift,
in an account which he publilhed of the controverfy,
under the title of Arnica Collatio cum Judcco. Orobio
died in 1687,
OROBUS, bitter vetch, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the diadelphia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacecc. See Botany
Index.
ORODES, a prince of Parthia, who murdered his
brother Mithridates, and afcended his throne. He de¬
feated Craffus the Roman triumvir, and poured melted
gold down the throat of his fallen enemy, to reproach
him for his avarice and ambition. He followed the in-
tereft of Caflius and Brutus at Philippi. It is faid, that
when Orodes became old and infirm, his 30 children ap¬
plied to him, and difputed in his prefence the right to
the fucceflion. Phraates, the eldeft of them, obtained
the crown from his father \ and, to haften him out of
the world, he attempted to poifon him. The poifon
had no effeft j and Phraates, ftill determined on his
father’s death, ftrangled him with his own hands, about
36 years before the Chriftian era. Orodes had then
reigned about 50 years.
ORONOKO, a large river of South America,
•which rifes in Popayan, and enters the Atlantic ocean
after a courfe of 755 leagues, in N. Lat. 90. So great
is its impetuofity that it ftems the moft powerful tides,
and preferves the frefhnefs of its wraters to the diftance
of 36 miles out at fea.
ORONSA, a fmall fertile ifiand of Scotland, one of
the Hebrides, feven miles weft of Jura. Here are the
ruins of an abbey, with many fepulchral ftatues, and fome
-curious ancient fculpture.
ORONTIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs *, and in the natural method ranking
under the fecond order, Piperitce. See Botany Index.
ORPHAN, a fatherlefs child or minor ; or one that
is deprived both of father and mother.
ORPHEUS, a celebrated poet and mufician of anti¬
quity. His reputation was eftabliftied as early as the
time of the Argonautic expedition, in w’hich he was
hinjfelf an adventurer j and is faid by Apollonius Rho-
4
] O R P
dius not only to have excited the Argonauts to row by Orj.h
the found of his lyre, but to have vanquifhed and put to —v
filence the firens by the fuperiority of his ftrains. Yet,
notwithftanding the great celebrity he had fo long en¬
joyed, there is a paffage in Cicero, which lays, that Arf-
ftotle, in the third book of his Poetics, which is now
loft, doubted if fuck a perfon as Orpheus ever exijted.
But as the wrork of Cicero, in which this paffage occurs,,
is in dialogue, it is not eafy to difcover what was his own
opinion upon the fubjeft, the words cited being put into
the mouth of Caius Cotta. And Cicero, in other parts
of his writings, mentions Orpheus as a perfon of whole
exiftence he had no doubts. There are feverr1 ancient
authors, among whom is Suidas, who enumerate five
perfons of the name of Orpheus, and relate fome par¬
ticulars of each. And it is very probable that it has
fared with Orpheus as with Hercules, and that writers
have attributed to one the adlions of many. But, how¬
ever that may have been, we lhall not attempt to col¬
led! all the fables that poets and mythologifts have in¬
vented concerning him \ they are too well known to
need infertion here. We lhall, therefore, in fpeaking
of him, make ufe only of fuch materials as the beft an¬
cient hiftorians, and the moft refpedlable writers among
the moderns, have fumilhed towards his hiftory.
Dr Cudworth, in his Intelleelual Syjlem*, after exa- * Book
mining and confuting the objections that have beenfedl. 17
made to the being of an Orpheus, and with his ufual
learning and abilities clearly eftablilhing his exiftence,
proceeds, in a very ample manner, to fpeak of the opi¬
nions and writings of our bard, whom he regards not
only as the firft mufician and poet of antiquity, but as
a great mythologift, from whom the Greeks derived the
Thracian religious rites and myfteries.
“ It is the opinion (fays he) of fome eminent philo-
logers of later times, that there never wras any fuch per¬
fon as Orpheus, except in Fairy land j and that his
whole hiftory was nothing but a mere romantic allego¬
ry, utterly devoid of truth and reality. But there is
nothing alleged for this opinion from antiquity, except
the one paffage of Cicero concerning Ariftotle j who
feems to have meant no more than this, that there was
no fuch poet as Orpheus anterior to Homer, or that the
verfes vulgarly called Orphical, W'ere not written by Or¬
pheus. However, if it Ihould be granted that Ariftotle
had denied the exiftence of fuch a man, there feems to
be no reafon why his fingle teftimony Ihould preponde¬
rate againft the univtrfal confent of all antiquity j which
agrees that Orpheus was the fon of Oegar, by birth a
Thracian, the father or chief founder of the mythologi¬
cal and allegorical theology amongll the Greeks, and of
all their moft facred religious rites and myfterieS •, who
is commonly fuppofed to have lived before the Trojan
WTar, that is, in the time of the Ifraelitifti judges, or at
leal! to have been fenior both to Hefiod and Homer ;
and to have died a violent death, moft affirming that he
was torn in pieces by wTomen, becaufe their hufbands de¬
fected them in order to follow him. For w'hich reafon,
in the vifion of Herus Pamphilius, in Plato, Orpheus’s
foul paffing into another body, is faid to have chofen
that of a fwan, a reputed mufical animal, on account of
the great hatred he had conceived for all women, fiom
the death which they had inflicted on him. And the
hiftoric truth of Orpheus was not only acknowiedged
by Plato, but alfo by Ifocrates, who lived before Ari¬
ftotle,
O R P [• 567 ] O R P
* Warbur-
ton.
Burney's
Hijl. of
Mufic.
’ ftotle, in his oraticn in praife of Eufiris ) and confirmed
by the grave hiftorian Diodorus Siculus, who fays, that
Orpheus diligently applied himfelf to literature, and
when he had learned pv&oXcyxpi'ix, or the mythologi¬
cal part of theology, he travelled into Egypt, where he
foon became the greateft proficient among the Greeks
in the myfteries of religion, theology, and poetry. Nei¬
ther was his hiftory of Orpheus contradifted by Origen,
when fo juftly provoked by Celfus, who had preferred
him to our Saviour : and, according to Suidas, Or¬
pheus the Thracian was the firft inventor of the reli¬
gious myfteries of the Greeks, and that religion was
thence called Threjkeia, as if a Thracian in¬
vention. On account of the great antiquity of Or¬
pheus, there have been numberlefs fables intermingled
with his hiftory j yet there appears no reafon that we
Ihould difbelieve the exiftence of fuch a man.”
Cudworth is alfo of opinion, that the poems afcribed
to Orpheus were either written by him, or that they
were very ancient, and contained his doftrines. He
farther argues, that though Orpheus -was a polytheift,
and afferted a multiplicity of gods, he neverthelefs ac¬
knowledged one fupreme unmade deity, as the original
of all things; and that the Py thagoreans and Platonifts
not only had Orpheus in great efteem, being commonly
called by them the Theologer, but were alfo thought in
great meafure to have owed their theology and philofo-
phy to him, deriving it from his principles and tradi¬
tions.
The bifliop of Gloucefter* fpeaks no more doubtful¬
ly of the exiftence of Orpheus than of Homer and He-
fiod, with whom he ranks him, not only as a poet, but
alfo as a theologian, and founder of religion.
The family of Orpheus is traced by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton for feveral generations : “ Sefac palling over the
Hellefpont, conquers Thrace ; kills Lycurgus king of
that country; and gives his kingdom and one of his
linging women to Oeagrus, the fon of Tharops, and fa¬
ther of Orpheus ; hence Orpheus is faid to have had
the mufe Calliope for his mother.
He is allowed by moft ancient authors to have ex¬
celled in poetry and mufic, particularly the latter ; and
that to fuch a degree, that he is reprefented as taming
the moft ferocious animals, changing the courfe of the
winds by his melody, and as caufing the trees of the fo-
reft to dance in concert with his lyre. This account,
though we muft luppofe it fabulous, yet proves his ex¬
cellence to have been great before he could have given
rife to fuch ficiions. He is faid to have early cultiva¬
ted the lyre, in preference to every other inftrument
fo that all thofe who came after him were contented to
be his imitators ; whereas, according to Plutarch, he
adopted no model ; for before his time no other mufic
was known, except a few airs for the flute. Mufic was
fo clofely connefted in ancient times with the moft fu-
blime fciences, that Orpheus united it not only with
philofophy, but with theology and legillation. He ab-
ftained from eating animal food and held eggs in ab¬
horrence as aliment, being perfuaded that the egg fub-
fifted before the chicken, and was the principal of all
exiftence : both his knowdedge and prejudices, it is pro¬
bable, were acquired in Egypt, as well as thofe of Py¬
thagoras many ages after.
With refpeft to his abftaining from the flefti of oxen,
Gefner fuppofes it may have proceeded from the venera¬
tion flimvn to that animal fo ufeful in tillage, in the Orpheus;
Eleufinian myfteries inftituted in honour of Ceres, the —
goddefs of agriculture. He might have added, that, as
thofe myfteries were inftituted in imitation of thofe efta-
bliftied in Egypt in honour of Ofiris and Ifis, this abfti-
nence from animal food was of the like origin, and a
particular compliment to Apis. But Abbe Eragnir, in
an ingenious diifertation upon the Orphic Life, gives ftill
more importance to the prohibition ; for as Orpheus was
the legiflator and humanizer of the wild and favage
Thracians, who were cannibals, a total abolition of eat¬
ing human flefti could only be eftablifhed by obliging
his countrymen to abftain frem every thing that had
life.
With refpeft to theology, Diodorus Siculus tells us, Biod. Si-
that his father Oeagrus gave him his firft inftruftions in cuius, lib.
religion, imparting to him the myfteries of Bacchus, as*^ caP' 25-
they were then pradlifed in Thrace. He became after¬
wards a dileiple of the Idsei Daclyli in Crete, and there
acquired new ideas concerning religious ceremonies.
But nothing contributed fo much to his Ikill in theolo¬
gical matters, as his journey into Egypt 5 where being-
initiated into the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris, or of Ce¬
res and Bacchus, he acquired * knowdedge concerning «
initiations, expiations, funeral rites, and other points of
religious worftiip, far fuperior to any one of his age and
country. And being much connedled with the defeen-
dants of Cadmus, the founder of Thebes in Eoeotia,
he refolved, in order to honour their origin, to tranfport
into Greece the whole fable of Ofiris, and apply it to
the family of Cadmus. The credulous people eafily re¬
ceived this tale, and were much flattered by the inftitu-
tion of the ceremonies in honour of Ofiris. Thus Or¬
pheus, who was held in great veneration at the Grecian
Thebes, of which he wras become a citizen, admirably
adapted this fable, and rendered it refpedtable, not only
by his beautiful verfes and manner of finging them, but
by the reputation he had acquired of being profoundly
fkilled in all religious concerns. Diodorus Siculus alfo
fays that he was a moft attentive ftudent in all kinds of
literature, whether facred or profane.
At his return into Greece, according to Paufanias,
he w’as held in the higheft veneration by the people, as
they imagined he had difeovered the fecret of expia¬
ting crimes, purifying criminals, curing difeafes, and
appeafing the angry gods. He formed and promul¬
gated an idea of a hell, from the funeral ceremonies
of the Egyptians, which was received throughout
all Greece. He inftituted the myfteries and worfliip
of Hecate among the Eginetes, and that of Ceres at
Sparta.
Juftin Martyr fiiys, that he introduced among the
Greeks near 360 gods 5 Hefiod and Homer purfued
his labours, and followed the fame clue, agreeing in
the like doflrines, having all drank at the fame Egyp¬
tian fountain.
Prophane authors look upon Orpheus as the inventor
of that fpecies of magic called evocation of the manes,
or raifing ghofts : and indeed the hymns which are at¬
tributed to him are moftly pieces of incantation, and
real conjuration. By all accounts he was an admirable
mufician : he is faid to have received a lyre from Apol¬
lo, or according to feme from Mercury, upon which he
played with fuch a mafterly hand, that even the moft
rapid rivers ceafed to flow, the favage beafts of the fo-
reft:
O 11 P
[ 568 ]
O R P
Orpheus, red; forgot their valcinefs, and the mcuntams carne to li-
v {ten to his fong. All nature feerned charmed and ani¬
mated, and the nymphs were his conft.mt companions.
Eurydice was the" only one who made a deep impredion
on the melodious mufician, and their nuptials were cele¬
brated. Their happinefs, however, was but Ihort; for
Arillteus became enamoured of her j and as fne fled
from her purfuer, a ferpent that was lurking in the grai's
bit her foot, and (he died of the poifoned wound. Her
lofs was feverely felt by Orpheus, and he reiolved to re¬
cover her or perirti in the attempt, With his lyre in his
hand, he entered the infernal regions, and gained an ea-
fy ad million to the palace ot Pluto, ihe king of hell
was charmed with the# melody of his drains j and ac¬
cording to the beautiful exprefhons oi the poets, the
wheel of Ixion flopped; the done of Sifyphus Hood dill;
Tantalus forgot his perpetual third, and even the furies
relented. Pluto and Proferpine were moved with his
forrow, and confented to redore him Eurydice, provid¬
ed he forbore looking behind him till he had come to
the extremed borders of hell. The conditions were
gladly accepted, and Orpheus %vas already in fight of
the upper regions of the air, when he forgot his
promil’e, and turned back to look at his long lod Eu¬
rydice.
All dangers pad, at length the lovely bride
In fafety goes, with her melodious guide ;
Longing the common light again to (hare,
And draw the vital breath of Upper air :
He fird, and clofe behind him followed die ;
For fuch was Proferpine’s fevere decree. ^
When drong defires th’ impatient youth invade ;
By little caution, and much love betrayed :
A fault which eafy pardon might receive.
Were lovers judges, or could hell forgive.
For near the confines of elherial light,
And longing for the glimm’ring of a light,
Th’ unwary lover cad a look behind,
Forgetful of the law7, nor mader of his mind.
Straight all his hopes exhal’d in empty fnipke ;
And his long toils w ere forfeit for a look.
Dry den’s Virgil.
He faw her, but {he indantly vanilhed from his eyes :
He attempted to follow her, but he wTas remied admif-
fion ; and the only comfort he could find wras to focih
his grief at the found of his mufical indrument in grot-
toes^or on the mountains. He totally feparated himfelf
from the fociety of mankind ; and the d hracian women,
whom he had offended by his coldnefs to their amorous
paflion, or, according to others, by his unnatural gratifi¬
cations and impure indulgences, attacked him while
they celebrated the orgies of Bacchus ; and aftei they
had torn his bodv to pieces, they threw his head into the
Hebrus, which dill articulated the wmrds Eurydice .
Eurydice ! as it was carried down the dream into the
^Egean fea. Others think, that, as he attempted to con¬
jure his wife from the dead, which they underdand by
the dory of his going down to hell, he thought he faw
her ; and when afterwards, on looking^ back, he miffed
her, he died of grief. There is certainly feme reafon
for fuppofing this to be the cafe : for there were perfons
and temples publicly appointed for the purpofe ; and
Paufanias really fpeaks of that temple w7hich w7as in
Thefprotia, and where Orpheus went to call up the ghoft
3
of Eurydice. Poets often mention this fubjeft ; and in- Oi'pfeav
dances of it occur in hidory both facred and profane. ^
The witch of Endor is well known to thole who res\d
the hidorical part of the Bible. But to particularife
indances, whether facred or profane, w'ould be endlei^.
Some maintain that he was killed by a thunder-bolt.
He wras buried at Pieria in Macedonia, according to
Apollodorus. The inhabitants of Dion beaded that
his tomb was in their city, and the people oi Mount
Libethrus in Thrace claimed the fame honour ; and lai-
ther ohferved that the nightingales which built then
neds near his tomb, fang with greater melody than all
other birds. Orpheus, as fome report, after death recei¬
ved divine honours ; the mufes gave an honourable bu¬
rial to his remains, and his lyre became one of the con-
deflations in the heavens. _ ..
Tzetzes explains the fable of his drawing his wife
Eurydice from hell, by his great {kill in medicine, with
which he prolonged her life, or, in. other words,
fnatched her from the grave. FEfculapius, and other
phyficians, have been laid to have raifed from the
dead thole whom they had recovered from dangerous
difeafes.
The buliop of Glouceder, in his learned, ample, and.
admirable account of the Eleufinian myiteries, fays,
“ While thefe mylteries were confined to Egypt their
native country, and wliile the Grecian lawgivers went
thither to be initiated, as a kind of defignation to their
office, the ceremony wrould be naturally deferibed in
terms highly allegorical. T his w’ay of fpeaking w7as
ufed by Orpheus, Bacchus, and others : and continued
even after the myfteries were introduced into Greece, as
appears by the fables of Hercules, Caftor, Pollux, and
Thefeus’s defeent into hell; but the allegory1 was fo cir-
cumflanced, as to difeover the truth concealed undei it.
So Orpheus is faid to get to hell by the power of his
harp :
Threicia fretus cithara, Jidibufque canoris.
O/irg. iEn. vi# ver. 119.
That is, in quality of lawgiver ; the harp being the
knowm fymbol of his laws, by which he humanized a
rude and barbarous people.—Had an old poem, under
the name of Orpheus, intitled A defeent into Hell, been
now extant, it would perhaps have ftiown us, that no
more was meant than Orpheus’s initiation:'' See My¬
steries. _ .
Manv ancient waiters, in fpeaking of his death, re¬
late, that the Thracian women, as hinted at above, en¬
raged at being abandoned by their hufbands, who were
diiciples of Orpheus, concealed themfelves in the woods,
in order tofatiate their vengeance ; and, notwithftanding
thev poftponed the perpetration of their defign mme
time through fear, at length, by drinking to a degree of
intoxication, they fo far fortified their courage as ho *mt
him to death. And Plutarch affures us, that the Thra¬
cians ftigmatized their women, even in his time, for the
barbarity of this aftion. .
Our venerable bard is defended by the author * ot * Wavbur-
the Divine Legation, from fome infinuations to his diiad-ton.
vantage in Diogenes Laertius. “ It is true (lays he),
if uncertain report was to be believed, the myfteiics
w7ere corrupted very early ; for Orpheus himfelf is faid
to have abufed them. But this was an art the debauch¬
ed myftce of later tiir«iS employed to vamilh their enor¬
mities
O R P [ 569 1 O R P
pheus. mities j as the detefted paederafts of after ages fcandali-
-v zed the blamelefs Socrates. Beddes, the ftory is fo ill
laid, that it is detected by the fureft records of antiqui¬
ty •, for in confequence of what they fabled of Orpheus
in the myfleries, they pretended he was torn in pieces by
tire women j whereas it appeared from the infcription
on his monument at Dium, in Macedonia, that he was
{truck dead with lightning, the envied death of the re¬
puted favourites of the gods.”
This monument at Dium, confiding of a marble urn
on a pillar, was ftill to be feen in the time of Pauiani-
as. It is laid, however, that ms fepulchre was removed
from Libethra, upon Mount Olympus, where Orpheus
was born, and from whence it was transferred to Diam
by the Macedonians, after the ruin of Libethra by a
fudden inundation which a dreadful ftorm had occa-
fioned. This event is very minutely related by Pau-
fanias.
Virgil bellows the firft place in his Elyfmm upon the
legiflators, and thofe who brought mankind from a fate
of nature into fociety :
Magnanimi heroes, nati meliortbus annis.
At the head of thefe is Orpheus, the mod renowned of
the European lawgivers, but better known under the
character of a poet : for the fird laws being written in
meafure, to allure men to learn them, and, when learnt,
to retain them, the fable would have it, that by the
force of harmony Orpheus loftened the favage inhabi¬
tants of Thrace :
 Thre'icius longa cum vefe facerdos
Obloquitur numeris feptem fifcnmina vocum :
Jamque eadem digitis, jam pecline pulfat eburno.
AlN. lib. vi. ver. 645.
The feven drings given by the poet in this paffage to
the lyre of Orpheus, is a circumdance fomewhat hido-
rical. The fird Mercurean lyre had, at moll, but four
llrings. Others were afterwards added to it by the fe-
cond Mercury, or Amphion : but, according to feveral
traditions preferved by Greek hidorians, it was Orpheus
who completed the fecond tetrachord, which extended
the fcale to a heptachord, or feven founds implied by
the feptem difcrimina vocum. For the affertion of ma¬
ny writers, that Orpheus added two new drings to the
lyre, which before had leven, clalhes with the claims of
Pythagoras to the invention of the oftachord, or addi¬
tion of the found profambanomenos to the heptachord,
of which almod all antiquity allows him to have been
the inventor. And it is not eafy to fuppofe, that the
lyre Ihould have been reprefented in ancient fculpture
with four or five firings only, if it had nad nine fo
early as the time of Orpheus, who flouridied long be¬
fore fculpture was known in Greece. See the article
Lyre.
With refpefl to the writings of Orpheus, he is men¬
tioned by Pindar as author of the Argonautics, and
Herodotus fpeaks of his Orphics. His hymns, fays
Paufanias, were very Ihort, and but few in number :
the Lycomides, an Athenian family, knew them by
heart, and had an exclufive privilege of finging them,
and thofe of their old poets, Mufseus, Onomacritps,
Pamphus, and Olen, at the celebration of the Eleufi-
nian myderies j that is, the priedhood was hereditary in
this family.
Vol. XV. Part II.
Jamblicus tells us, that the poems under the name of Oip
Orpheus were written in the Doric dialed:, but have oJ
fince been tranfdialedcd, or modernifed. It was the jf
common opinion in antiquity that they were genuine ;
but even thofe who doubted of it, gave them to the ear-
lied Pythagoreans, and feme ol them to Pythagoras
himfelf, who has frequently been called the follower oj
Orpheus, and has been fuppoled to have adopted many ol
his opinions.
Of the poems that are dill fubfiding under the name
of Orpheus, which were collefted and publilhed at Nu¬
remberg 1702, by Andr. Quid. Efchenbach, and which
have been reprinted at Leipfic 1764, under the title of
OPOE12S AITANTA, feveral have been attributed to
Onomacritus, an Athenian, who flourilhed under the
Pyddratidae, about 500 years before Chrid. Then-
titles are, 1. The Argonautics, an epic poem. 2. Eigh¬
ty-fix hymns ; which' are fo full of incantations and ma¬
gical evocation, that Daniel Heinfius has called them
ver am Satance liturgiam, “ the true liturgy of the de¬
vil.” Paufanias, who made no doubt that the hymns
fubfiding in his time were compofed by Orpheus, tells
us, that though lefs elegant, they had been preferred for
religious purpofes to thofe of Homer. 3. De lapidibus,
a poem on precious dones. 4. Fragments, colle&ed by
Henry Stevens. Orpheus has been called the inventor,
or at lead the propagator, of many arts and dochines
among the Greeks. I. The combination of letters, or
the art of writing. 2. Mufc, the lyre, or cithara, of
feven firings, adding three to that of Mercury. 3.
Hexameter verfe. 4. Myjlerics and theology. 5. Me¬
dicine. 6. Magic and divination. 7. Afro logy. Servius
upon the fixth Atneid, p. 450. fays, Orpheus fird indi-
tuted the harmony of the fpheres. 8. He is faid likewife
to have been the fird who imagined a plurality of
worlds, or that the moon and planets were inhabited.
Orpheus, in Ichthyology, the name of a fiih caught in
the Archipelago. It is of a broad and fiat figure, and
of a fine purple colour j its eyes are large and promi¬
nent, and its teeth ferrated; it has only one fin on the
back, and the anterior rays of that are prickly, the o-
thers foft to the touch ; its anus js fmall, and is faid to
have no paffage for the femen.
This was the fifh called orpheus by the ancients, but
the modern Greeks call another filh by that name.
It is a fpeexes of the fparus, of a flat figure, but very
thick, has a fmall mouth, and is covered with fmall
but very rough feales, -which adhere very firmly to
the flefh the tail is not forked ; it has dediy lips, and
very fmall teeth ; its back and fides are black 5 its
belly white : it has a large black foot at the root of
the tail 5 its head is reddifh, and its fins are very
elegantly diverfified with various colours ; it has only
one back-fin, and that has the anterior ray prickly,
the hinder ones not at all fo. It grows fometimes to 20
pounds weight, and is much edeemed among the modern
Greeks.
ORPIMENT, auripigmentum, in Natural Hifo-
ry, a mineral which is compofed of fulphur and arfe-
nic, found native in the earth, and confiituting one of
the ores of arfenic, but fometimes artificially prepared.
It is of two kinds, red and yellow. See Arsenic, Mi-
neraeogy Index, and Arsenic under Ores, Reduc¬
tion of.
ORPINE. See Sebum, Botany Index.
4 C ORRERY,
° R T [ 5-
ORRERY, a curious machine for reprefenting the
Orthogra- mo^ons or phafes of tlie heavenly bodies. See Astro-
phyt NOMy, p. i^x.
' '/—^ ^ ^ he reafon of its being called an Orrery was this :
Mr Rowley, a mathematical inftrument maker, having
got one from Mr George Graham, the original inventor,
to be lent abroad with fome of his own inilruments he
copied it, and made the firlf for the earl of Orrery. ’ Sir
fiichaid Steele, who knew nothing of JYIr Graham's
machines, thinking to do juftice to the firfl encourager,
as well as to the inventor of fuch a curious inftrument,
i i.hed it an Orrery, and gave Mr Rowley the praife due
to Mr Graham.
Orrery, Karls of. See Boyle.
ORRICE. See Iris, Botany Index.
OR J EGAL, cape, the moft northern promontory
of Spam, where there is alfo a caftle of the lame name,
w. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 44. o.
01 if ELI US, Abraham, a celebrated geographer,
Lorn at Antwerp, in 1527, was well /killed in the lan¬
guages and the mathematics, and acquired fuch reputa¬
tion by his fkill in geography, that he was furnamed the
Ptolemy of Ins time. Julius Liplius, and moft of the
great men of the 16th century, were Ortelius’s friends.
He refided at Oxford in the reign of Edward VI. and
came a fecond time into England in 1577. His Thea-
trum Orbis was the complete!! work of the kind that
had ever been publilhed, and gained him a reputation
equal to his immenfe labour in compiling it. He alfo
wrote feveral other excellent geographical works j the
principal^ of which are his 2 lief aunts, and his Synonytna
Geographica. The world is likewife obliged to' him for
the Britannia, which heperfuaded Camden to undertake.
Lie died at Antwerp in 1598.
OR1HEZ, a city in the province of Bearn, and
before the Revolution, a bilhop’s fee. The cathedral is
a wretched edifice, very ancient, built m a barbarous
ftyle, and almoft in ruins. The remains of the caftle
of Orthez are very noble, and its fituation is fine, on
a hill wdiich commands the town and a great extent of
country. The people call it Le Chateau de la Reitie
Jeanne,' becaufe that queen refided in it during many
years, in preference to the caftle of Pau. Some of the
apartments, though in ruins, may yet be entered. The
princefs Blanche, daughter to John king of Arragon
and Navarre, wras flmt up, and died here, in I4'64.
Her brother being dead, ftie became heirefs to the
crown of Navarre ; but her father having delivered her
into the hands of her younger filler Leonora countefs
of Foix, Hie confined the unhappy Blanche in the caftle
of Orthez, and, after an imprifonment of two years, cau-
fed her to be poifoned.
_ ORTHODOX, in church hiftory, an appellation
given to thofe who are found in all the articles of the
Chriftian faith.
ORTHOGRAPHIC projection of the Sphere,
that wEerein the eye is fuppofed to be at an infinite
diftance ; fo called, becaufe the perpendiculars, from any
point of the fphere, will all fall in the common interlec¬
tion of the fphere with the plane of the projection. See
Geography and Projection.
OR IHOGR APHY, that part of grammar which
teaches the nature and affedlions of letters, and the
juft method of fpelling or writing words, with all the
proper and neceffary letters, making one of the four
70 ] O R V
gieatell div.aons cr branches of grammar. Sec Gr r*.i- Oitl.sc
MAR. , 1 .
Orthography, in Geometry, the art of drawing cr II
delineating the.fore-right plan of any object, and of ex - _
preftlng the heights or elevations of each part. It is cal- ~
led Orthography, for its determining things by perpendi- *
cular lines falling on the geometrical plane.
Orthography, m Architecture, the elevation of a
building.
Orthography, in PerfpeBivc, is the fore-right fide
of any plane, i. e. the fide or plane that lies parallel to
a 11 might line, that may be imagined to pals throu''li¬
the outward convex points of the eyes, continued tc°*
convenient length.
ORTHOPNOEA, a fpecies or degree of afthma
vyhere.there.is fuch a difticulty of refpiration that the pa*
tient is obliged to fit or Hand uptight in order to be
able to breathe. See Medicine Index. '
ORTIVE, in Aftronomy, the fame with eaftern. The
ortive or eaftern amplitude, is an arch of the horizon in¬
tercepted between the place where a ftar riles, and the
eaft point of the horizon, or point where the horizon and
equator interfedl.
ORTOLAN. See Emberiza, Ornithology Z7-
dex.
ORTNAU, a county of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, lying along the Rhine, and fepanfting it from
Alface. It is bounded on the fouih by Breftau, oa
the north by the margravate of Baden, and on the eaft
by the duchy of Wirtemberg. It contains three im¬
perial towns j namely, Oflenburg, Gegenbach, and
Zell. It belongs partly to the houfe of Auftria, partly
to the bilhopric of Spire, and partly to the county of.
Hannau.
ORTYGIA, the birthplace of I) iana, was a beauti¬
ful grove of trees of various kinds, chiefly cyprefies,
near Ephefus ; on the coaft, a little up from the Tea.
This place was filled with Ihrines and images. The
pi lefts of the goddefs were eunuchs, and exceedingly
refpecled by the people. A general aftembly was held
there yearly, and fplendid entertainments were provi¬
ded, and myftic facrifices folemnized. The Cenchnus,
probably a crocked river, ran through it ; and above
it was the mountain Solmiftus, on which, it was fa¬
bled, the Curetes flood, and rattled on their Ihields, to
divert the attention of Juno. The improved lace of a
country is perilhable like human beauty. Not only the
birthplace of Diana and its fanctily are forgotten, but
the grove and buildings wdiich adorned it appear no
more ; and perhaps, fays Dr Chandler, the land has
encroached on the fea, and the valley, in which Ar-
vifia is, was once Ortygia. See Ephesus, and Diana,
&c.
ORVIETO, a town of Italy, in the patrimony of
St Peter, with a bilhop’s fee, and a magnificent palace.
It is the capital of the province of Orvietano, in the ec-
clefiaftic ftate, in E. Long. 13. Lat. 43. It is a large
ftrong town, fituated at the conflux of the Tiber and
the Chiane, on a fteep hill, furrounded on every fide
with rocks and precipices. To this fituation it is owing
that it has no fprings j but there is a very furprifing well
cut into the rock, to fupply it with frefti water. The
mules, wdiich bring up the w ater on their backs, go
down by a ftaircafe of 150 fteps, and 60 windows, and
come up by another, without meeting. The arc hit eft
of
O R Y
Or. ieto, of tliis fingular building was the famous Antonio de San
Oi jza. Gallo, employed by Clement VII. At the entrance is
this inlcription, Qiiod natur/i mummento inviderat, in-
dujiria adjecit. This city, called Herbarium by Pliny,
and Urbevetanum by Procopius, is the fee of a bifhop
fuffragan of Rome. The cathedral, which is of Gothic
archileilure, is a handfome building, which was begun
in i 260 by Nicolo Pifano. The front is adorned with
- fine ilatues, among the reft the Virgin Mary and the
four Evangeliits, with a baflb-relievo of the laft judge¬
ment, by the fnki Nicolo Pifano, and others reprefenting
fome hlftories of the Old Teftament. The other half
of the front is a furpriftng work, in Mofaic, by Scalzi,
exprefling the hiftory of the New Teftament. In the
church there is a very fine organ, and a baflb-relievo of
Raphael da Monte Lupo. Ilere is alfo a chapel, which
was begun to be painted by T. Angelo, a dominican,
and finiflied by Luke Signorelli, where you fee a very
beautiful reprefentation of the laft judgement. Orvieto
was once a potent and populous city, but is now much
. upon the decline.
ORYZA, p, ice, a genus of plants belonging to the
Ttexandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
There is but one fpecies, namely the fativa, or com¬
mon rice. This plant is greatly cultivated in moft of
the eaftcrn countries, where it is the chief fupport of the
inhabitants 5 and great quantities of it are brought into
England and other European countries every year,
where it is much efteemed for puddings, &c. it being
tiao tender to be produced in thefe northern countries
without the afliftance of artificial heat but from fome
feeds which were formerly fent to Carolina ther'e have
been great quantities produced, and it is found to fucceed
as well there as in the eaft.
This plant grows upon moift foils, where the ground
can be flowed over with water after it is come up. So
that whoever would cultivate it in this country fliould
low the feeds upon a hot-bed; and when the plants
are come up, they fliould be removed into pots filled
with li^ht rich earth, and placed in pans of water, which
fhouid be plunged into a hot-bed •, and, as the water
waftes, it muft from time to time be renewed again. In
-July thefe plants may be fet abroad in a warm fituation,
ftill preferving the water in the pans, otherwife they
will not thrive ; and, toward the latter end of Auguft,
they will produce their grain, which will ripen tolerably
well, provided the autumn proves favourable. The
leaves of rice are long, like the reed, and flefliy j the
flowers blow on the top like barley ; but the feed which
follows is difpofed in clufters, each of which is inclofed
in a yellow hulk, ending in a fpiral thread. The feed
is oblcmg, or rather oval, and white.
Rice is the chief commodity and riches of Damietta
in Egypt. Dr Haflelquift gives the following defcrip-
tion of the manner in which they drefs and lepaiate it
from the hulks. “ It is pounded by hollow iron peftles
ot a cylindrical form, lifted up by a wheel worked by
oxen. A perfon fitting between the two peftles, pulhes
forward the rice when the peftles are riling ; another
lifts, winnows, and lays it under the peftles. In this
manner they continue working it until it is entirely free
from chaff and hulks. When clean, they add a 3Cth
part of fait, and pound them together ; by which the
rice, formerly gray, becomes white. After this purifi-
o s c
cation, it is paiTed through a fine fieve to part the fait Oryzhtna
from the rice ; and then it is ready for fale.” Damlet- V, ^
ta fells eveiy year 60,800 facks of rice> the greateft ~, j
part of which goes to Turkey, fome to Leghorn, Mar-
feilles, and Venice.
ORYZIVORA, called the rice-bird of Catelhy, a
fpecies of emberiza, which fee, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
OSCHOPHORIA, a feftival celebrated by the A-
thenians, which receives its name v.Teo rev ras o<r^u?,
“ from carrying boughs hung up with grapes,” called
oFftca. The original inftitution is thus mentioned by
P/ut. in Thejf. Thefeus, on returning from Crete, for¬
got to hang out the white fail, by which his father was
to be apprized of his fuccefs. This negleft proved fatal
to Algeus, for he threw himfelf into the fea, and pe-
riflied. Thefeus no fooner reached the land, than he
fent a herald to inform his father of his fafe return, and
in the mean time he began to make the facrifices which
he had vowed to make when he firft fet fail from Crete.
The herald, on his entrance into the city, found the
people in great agitation. Some lamented the king’s
death, while others, elated at the hidden news of the
victory of Thefeus, crowned the herald with garlands
in token of their joy. The herald carried back the
garlands on his ftaff to the fea fhore ; and, after waiting
till Thefeus had finiflied his facrifice, he related the
melancholy account of the king’s death. Upon this the
people ran in crowds to the city, fhowing their grief by
cries and lamentations.—From this circumftance, there¬
fore, at the feaft of Ofchophoria, not the herald but his
ftaff is crowned with garlands, and all the people that
are prefent always exclaim sAsAsu, the firft of which
expreffes hafte, and the others a confternation or depref-
fion of fpirits. The hiftorian further mentions, that
Thefeus, when he went to Crete, did not take with hint
the ufual number of virgins, but that in the place of
two of them, he took two youths of his acquaintance,
whom he caufed to pals for women, by difguiftng their
drefs, and by accuftoming them to the ointments and
perfumes of women, as well as by a long and fuccefs-
ful imitation of their voice. The impofition fucceeded •,
their fex was not difeovered in Crete j and when The¬
feus had triumphed over the Minotaur, he with thefe
two young men led a proceflion, with branches in their
hands, in the fame habit, which is ftill ufed at the cele¬
bration of the feftival. The branches which were car¬
ried were in honour of Bacchus or Ariadne, or becaufe
they returned in autumn, when the grapes were ripe.
Betides this proceflion, there was alfo a race, in which
young men only whofe parents were both alive were
permitted to engage. It was cuftomary for them to
run from the temple of Bacchus to that of Minerva,
which was on the fea fliore. The place where they
flopped was called or^oipo^iov, becaufe the boughs which
they carried in their hands were depofited there. The
rewards of the conqueror was a cup called TrivrxTrhox,
u live-fold,” becaufe it contained a mixture of five dif¬
ferent things, wine, honey, cheefe, meal, and oil.
OSCILLA, fmall images of wax or clay made in
the ftiape of men or women, and confecrated to Saturn,
to render him propitious. The word is fometimes ufed
to fignify a kind of malks fcooped from the bark of
trees, and worn by the performers ®f comedy in the
ruder ages xif Rome. In this fenfe we find it in Virg.
Geo. ii. 386. It alfo fignifies little heads or images of
4 C 2 Bacchus,
[ 571 1
.. 0 s I r 57
I'l110/ -Rrcc^us; 'vvhjcli the country men of old hung upon trees,
oitis’ ^ie ^ace in’g‘lt turn every way, cut of a notion
 . that the countenance of this god gave felicity to them-
felves, and fertility to their vineyards. An allufion to
this opinion and cuftom is alfo found in Virgil Geo ii
388.
. OSENEY-island, in England, is formed by the ri¬
ver Ifis, in the meadows near Oxford, where "a mag.
nificent abbey was erefted, at the mitigation of a con¬
cubine of King Henry I. to atone for her fins; and
the faid king built a palace there, wherein King Ri¬
chard I. was born, which Edward II. converted into a
monastery.
OSIRIS, in Mythology, one of the gods of ancient
Egypt, and very generally believed to have been the
fun, or at leal! the mind actuating that luminary.
1 he Egyptians derived all things from two principles,
an achvc and a pqflive. Their active principle, accor-
* 7‘nvth. ding to the learned Jablonfki *, was an infinite and eter-
■K-gypt- r&l fpirit; and their paffive principle was night. This
fpirit they confidered fometimes as a male, fometimes as
a female, divinity, and occafionally they attributed it to
both fixes; but it does not appear to have been the oh
jeft of their worlhip. It fhall be fhown elfewhere (fee
Polytheism), that the earheft objects of pagan adora¬
tion were the fun, moon, and planets; and that the phi-
lofophers and priefts of ancient Egypt worlhipped the
fun by the name of 0fir is, may be proved by number-
lefs teilimonies from the molt authentic records of anti¬
quity. Diogenes Laertius affirms, that they held the
fun and moon for divinities, and that they called the
latter Ifis ; and Macrobius fays exprefsly, “ Nec in oc-
culto ell, neque aliud effe Ofirin quam folem, nec Ifni
aliud effe quam terra ml'' The fame writer informs us,
that in the hieroglyphic writings of ancient Egypt,
“ Ofiris was reprefented by a feeptre and an eye,” to de¬
note that this god was the fan looking down from hea¬
ven on all things upon earth.
It mult not, however, be concealed, that fome of the
ancients, and few of the molt learned moderns, have
contended, that by Ofiris the Egyptians underltcod the
Nile or fpirit of the Nile, whilft others have confounded
them with the Grecian Bacchus. Scaliger and Selden
have adopted the former of thefe opinions, and Servius
cn Virgil has given his countenance to the latter. But
that they are all millaken, has been evinced by Jablon-
Iki in fuch a manner as to enforce the fulleft conviction:
“ When the Egyptians, in their facred books, fometimes
gave the name of Ofiris to the Nile and its wonderful
increafe during the heat of fummer, they mean nothing
more (fays he) hut to attribute to their god Ofiris the
gift which fertilizes their country.” This they would
the more readily do that they believed the Nile to have
f Prepar. its fource in heiven. Hence Eufebius tells us f,
Evangel. (~}lv ^ Nsi/.as, oy cvgxvov xxTxpegecrllaii oiovlai, Ofris is
the Nile, hecaufe they think it is fent down from heaven.
In one fenfe Ofiris might be Bacchus, becaufe the origi¬
nal Bacchus was himfelf the fun (fee Mysteries, N°
12.) \ but that the Egyptian god could not be worlhip-
2 ] O S I
ped as the inventor of wine is indeed undeniable, if, cs
jablonlki labours to prove, the primitive religion of that
country inculcated upon its votaries, that wine was the
gift, not of a benevolent good, but of an evil genius,
the enemy of the human race. In fupport of this opi¬
nion our learned author quotes a paffage from Plutarch,
from which it appears, that, before the sera of Pfamme-
tichus, the Egyptians neither drank wine themfelves nor
offered it in libations to the gods, becaufe they believed
that the firft vine fprung from the earth was impregnated
by the blood of thofe giants who perilhed in the war
with the gods. It is indeed true, that the-Greeks, who
borrowed their religion as well as the firft principles of
fcience from Egypt, attributed to their Bacchus many
of the aftions of Ofiris; but it is likewife true, that
they gave him other attributes, which the Egyptian god
could not poffefs confiftently with the known tuperftitions
of that country. Salmafius, however, attempts to prove,
from the import of the name, that the Ofris of Egypt-
muft have been the Bacchus of Greece. or
he fays, fignifies a fin in the Egyptian language; and
hence he concludes, that the god was by that people
called Ofiris, for the fame reafon that by the Greeks he
was called Kov^og, and by the Romans Liber. Tut this
feems ail to be a miftake. Sir is makes a part of many
Egyptian proper names, as Bu-fris, Tcrmo-fris, Tapo-
firis, &c. and is in all probability derived from the He¬
brew word Sar, Sur, or Sir, which fignifies a prince,
potentate, or grandee. As the name of the god was in
Egypt not Ofris, but Ifiris or Tfris, it was probably
made up of Sir or Siris, and the Hebrew prefix I or ijh,
denotingfrength ; lb that the whole word will fignify
the frorg or mighty prince. If fo, we cannot doubt,
as Diodorus Siculus, Eufebius, Sextus Empericus, &c.
all affirm, that the Egyptians worlhipped the fun by
the name of Ofris, but that by this name they meant
the power or governing mind of the fun, as the Greeks
and Romans feem to have done by their Phoebus and
Apollo.
But though the original Ofiris was undoubtedly the
fun, or the intelligence a&uatir.g the fun, yet there is
reafon to believe that there was a ficondary Ofris, who
at a very early period reigned in Egypt, and was dei¬
fied after his death for the benefits he had rendered to
his country (fee Polytheism). This is indeed fo gene¬
rally admitted, as to have occafioned great controverfies
among the learned refpeffing the time when he flounlh-
ed, and whether he was the civilizer of rude barbarians
or the victorious fovereign of a polifhed nation. The
illuftrious Newton, it is well known, has adopted the
latter opinion ; and with much plaufibility endeavoured
to prove, that Ofris was the fame with Sefofris or Se-
fac: but it muft be confeffed, that his conclufion is con¬
trary to all the moft authentic records of antiquity ; and
that it would be eafy, by the fame mode of arguing, to
give a fliow of identity to two perfons univerfally known
to have fiouriftied hi very diftant ages (a). The annals
of Egypt, as may be feen in the writings of Elerodotus,
Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, and others, who co¬
pied
(a) This has been in faff done by Warburton ; who employs Newton’s mode of reafoning with equal plaufibiii-
ty, and perhaps fuperior force, to prove the identity of King Arthur and William the C onqueror. See Divine
Legation of Mofes, vol. iii. book iy. feff. 5.
O s N
[ 573 1
O S N
pied from thofe annals, expreisly afferted the diftinft
perfonallty of Ofiris and Sefoftris, and placed them in
teras vatxly diftant from each other. Oaris, if any cre-
d,t be due to thofe hiftorians, was the founder o. the E-
pyptian monarchy and, as was cuftomary m tnole days,
having either received the name of the fun, or commu¬
nicated his own to that luminary, was after his death
defied for the benefits which he had rendered to his
and being at firft worQiipped only as a d«
:mi-
god, was in procefs of time advanced to fad divinity,
and confounded with his heavenly godfather. nfte
Greeks, %vho, though original in nothing, were always
prompted by their vanity to hold themfeives out as the
frft of the nations, claimed this Ofiris as their own, and
pretended that he was the fun of Jupiter and Niobe.
He reigned, fay. they, over the Argives; but after¬
wards deEvered "his kingdom to his brother Algialeus,
and took a voyage into Egypt, of which he made hnn-
fclf mailer, and married lo or Ifis. He eitablulted good
laws there ; and they were both after their deaths
worfliipped as gods. That this is a ridiculous iibhon
needs no proof-, fmce every one knows, that good
laws were ellabliihed in Egypt long before tne Argives
had any king, or indeed exifled either as a tribe or na-
03MUNDA, MOON WORT a_ genus of plants be¬
longing to the cryptogamia clafs. See Botany In-
dcx % •
OSNABURG, a bishopric of Germany, fituated m
the centre of the circle of Weftphalia( between tne \\e-
fer and the Ems, having Minden on the eafe, Munuer
on the well, Diepholt on the north call, and Ravenlburg
on the fouth-weft. It is about 45 miles long and 25
broad, producing fome rye, feveral forts of tum, coals,
marble, and good pafturage. The inhabitants, who are
a mixture of Proteilants and Roman Catholics, breed a
confiderable number of cattle, efpecially hogs, ot wuicn
they make excellent bacon and hams y but a great part
of the country confifts of heaths. By the treaty con¬
cluded here in 1648, the bifhopric was to be an alterna¬
tive between the Roman Catholics and Lutherans ; ana
the Lutheran bifhop was to be a younger prince o
f the
houre of Brunfwick. Lunenburg, or in failure thereof,
of Brunfwick Wolfenbuttle. In confequence o, tms
fettlement, it has been twice held by a Bntnh prince
fmee the acceflion of the family of Hanover. I he bi.hop
is able to raife 2500 men, his revenue being between
20,000 and 30,000b The chief manufaflures of tne
country are a coarfe kind of linen cloth ana yarn, whicn
are faid to bring into it annually about 1,000,000 ot
rixdollars. There are alfo fome woollen manufactures
in Ofnaburg and Bramfche. The _ land eftates o. ^tne
bifhopric are, the chapter, the knights, and tne tour
towns. The diets are held at Ofnaburg, when ca,.ed
together bv the bidiop. The count ot Bar is heredi¬
tary fenefchal or Reward, and prefident of the college
of knights. The bhhop is a prince of the empire-, and
in the matricula is rated at fixhorfe and 36 mot, 01 21 j
florins monthly, in lieu of them. To tne .chamber
of the empire he contributes each term 81 nxdokars,
14 kruitzers and a half. The capital of tins bifhop¬
ric is „ , •
Osnaburg, or Ofnabruch. It was formerly an im¬
perial city, and one of the Hanfe towns 5 but it is now
fubjeft to the, bifhop, though it Rill enjoys many pri¬
vileges, and a revenue of about 8000 or 9000 rixdol- Ofnaburg.
lars^ ’it has its name from a bridge over the river - -
Hafe, or Ofe, which divides it into the Old and New
Town, and Rands 75 miles weR of Hanover,-and 30
north eaR of MunRer, being furrounded with walls and
ditches, but commanded by a mountain within rani ion
Riot. It Rands in a fine plain, and is adorned with
feveral good buildings, and on the mountain there is
an abbey. i'lie magiitracy of tms city, which is r^,-
chofen yearly on the 2d ot January, is Lutheran } and
the churches belong, fome to the Lutherans, and fome
to the Papifls. Both parties have the full and free
exercife of their religion, whether the bifhop be Pro-
tefiant or Papifl. f oe biihop’s palace, called PeterJ-
burgh, was built by Bifhop Erneft AuguRus, brother to
Kinv George I. It is well fortified and feparated from
the town by a bridge. It is a hexagon with a court
in the middle, and at each corner a turret. In the
town-houie are Rill preferved the pictures of the ple¬
nipotentiaries that ainfted at tne conferences there for
the famous treaty ofWeflphalia. In the treasure 01
the cathedral are Rill to be feen fome ornaments given
by Charlemagne, as alio his crown, which is only o,
River gilt, and his comb and batoon, fix feet in length,
both of ivory } together with other curiofities. Char -
lemagne is faid to have erefled here a fchool for Latin
and Greek, which the Jefuits in 1625 converted into
an academy. They have the befi bread- and beer that
is to be met with in ail WeRphalia, ana have a pretty
good trade in bacon and linen-, as alfo by brewing a
palatable thick fort of beer called bufe. This city is
noted for a treaty betwixt the emperor and the king
of Sweden in 1648, wherein the affairs of the ProteR-
ants were regulated, which was a branch of the treaty
of Weflphalia. The town, with the reR of the prin¬
cipality, is fubjedt to its bhhop, who is a count of the
empire, and bv the treaty of WeRphaha muR be al¬
ternately a Proteftant and Papift. The Popifh bifhop
is fjffragan to the archbiRiop of Cologne j but the
ProteRant- biRiop is indeed a temporal, prince, and ak
wavs of the houfe of Brunfwic, in coniideration ot the
principality of HalberRat, which was taken from this
houfe, and conferred upon the elector of BrandenDurg-.
Frederic duke of York, fecond fon of his mairily
Geo--a-e III. is the prefent biihop. The cathedral is
in the hands of the Roman Catholics, with the church
and monaflery of the Dominicans in the old city, and
the collegiate church of St John in- the new. ^ The
Proteftants are mailers of the great parochial enuren
of St Mary in the old city j and both religions have
a voice in the election of the magiftrates. Ot 25 ca¬
nons belonging to the cathedral, 18 are-Roman Ca¬
tholics, and the revenues of 4_more are enjoyed by the
Jefuits for the fupport ot their college, fo that.there
are but 3 Proteftant canons, vyho have no voice in the
election of the Roman Catholic bifhop, ween, it is Lis
turn to fucceed. The biff op’s palace is fortified like
a caftle: here it was that George I. was born on the
28th of May 166c, his father Erneft-AuguRus being
then biihop and prince of the place ; and here alio he
died in the night of the 10th of June 1727, and, as
fome fay, in the very room in which he was born. I he
biihopric is fituated in tbe centre of the circle 5 tne .north
part of it is marftvy, and at the fouth extremity it
is mountainous. The inhabitants have confiderable
manufactures
O S O ' [
* u£l? nxanufaftures of linen and a good breed of cattle j etna
Oi'oriuV their hogs, for which they are remarkable, is made
y—— the belt Weltphalia bacon. Not far from this citv are
to be leen the ruins of an old church and caltle called
Bee/em, which fome fay was built by King Witekind
upon his converfion ; and about two miles from it lies
the monaftery of Rulle, on the bank of a lake fo deep,
that report fays it could never yet be fathomed. Tliis*
was the frit town in Weftphalia which received the
Lutheran doctrine.
OSNABURG IJland, one of the illands in the South fea
culcovered by Captain Wallis in 1767. It is a higt/
round iiland, not above a league in circuit; in fome,
parts covered with trees, in others a naked rock. S. Lat.
22. 48. W. Long. 14. 24.
OSORIUS, Jerome, a Portuguefe ecclefiaitic, was
born of a noble family at Lifbon, in 1500. He was
educated at the univerlity of Salamanca, and afterwards
ftudied at Paris and Bologna. On his return to Portu¬
gal he gradually rofe to the bilhopric of Sylves, to which
he was appointed by Catherine of Auftria, regent of the
kingdom in the minority of Sebaftian. At the requeft
ot Cardinal Henry of Portugal, he wrote his Hiftory of
Kmg Emanuel, and the Expedition of Gama 5 which
his great contemporary Camoens.made at the fame time
the fubjeft of his immortal Lufiad 5 a poem which has
at. length appeared with due luftre in our language
being tranflated with great fpirit and elegance by Mr
Mickle. It is remarkable that the hiftory of Qforius,
and the epic poem of Carnoens, were publilhed in the
iameyear, 1572: but the fate of thefe two great am
thors were very different j the poet was fuffered to
penfti .111 poverty, under the reign of that Henry who
patromied the hiftorian : yet allowing for the diffe¬
rence of their profeffions, they poffeffed a fimHarity of
mind. There appear .many traces of that high heroic
qun.t even in the prieft Olbrius, which animated the
loldier Camoens; particularly in the pleafure with
which he feems to defcribe the martial manners of his
countrymen under the. reign of Emanuel. “ In that
age (fays the.hiftorian in the clofe of his manly work)
poverty and iadnefs were baniftied from Portugal. Com¬
plaints were never heard 5 but every place,° from the
court to the cottage, refounded with mirth and muftc.
‘ i^’t Iove was unknown; nor would the ladies liften
to the mo.ft honourable addreffes of fuch youths as had
not fignalized themfelves in. war. No young man about
court, however noble by birth, was permitted to wear
the drefs of manhood till he had paffed over into A-
frica, and thence brought back with him fome animal
edeemed for its rarity ; and fuch was the hardy edu-
cation of the nobility in that age, that many of them
travelled everywhere in queft of adventures.” This
is a ftriking picture of the manners of chivalry to
which Portugal owed, much of its glory in that fplen-
did period. There is one particular in the chara&er
of Ofonus, which, confidering his age and country,
delerves the higheft encomium; and that is his tole-
ratmg fpmt. In the firft book of his hiftory, he
ipeaks of Emanuel’s cruel perfecution of the Jews in
the following generous and exalted language : “ This
(lays he) was authorifed neither by law nor by reli-
gmn. . Can men be compelled to believe what they re-
ject. with abhorrence ? Do you take upon you to re-
A-Aam the Jiberty of the will, or to fetter the under-
574 1 OSS
and (landing > Such an attempt rnuft be unfuccefsful • and
is not acceptable to Chrilt, who cxpefe from man
cevoaon of the heart, and not that formal worfnip
which is the offspring of pains and penalties He
wiihes them to ftudy his religion, and adept it frern
conviction, not from terror : for who does not fee that
forced belief is mere hypocrify ?” .Oforius is faid to
have ufed many arguments to diffuade Sebaftian from
his unfortunate expedition into Africa, and to have
felt fo deeply the mileries which befel the Portuguele
after that fatal event, that his grief was fuppofed to
accelerate his death. He expired in 1 ;8o, happy
lays De Thou (who celebrates him as a model of Chri-’
ftian virtue), that he died juft before the Spanifh army
tCIw' f °^Ugar1,1 and thus efcaPed bting a wftnefs to
the delolation of his country.-^His various works wer^
publifhed at Borne in 1592, by his nephew Oforius”
in four volumes folio, with a life of their author. A-
mong thefe are two remarkable productions; the ftrft
An Admonition to our Q^ueen Elizabeth, exhorting her
to return into the Church of Rome; thq fecond, An
Effay on Glory, written with fuch claffical purity as
to.give birth to a report, that it was not the compo-
htion of Ofonus, but the laft work of Cicero on that
lubjeft.
OSPREY. See Falco, Ornithology Index
OSSA, a lofty mountain of Theffaly, near the Pe¬
ncils, which runs between this mountain and Olympus •
famous in the fabulous ffory of the giants (Homer>
Virgil, Horace, Seneca, Ovid). The bending and un¬
bending of its pines, on the blowing of a ftrong north
wind, formed a clalhing found like thunder (Lucan).
It was once the refidence of the Centaurs, and was for¬
merly joined to Mount Olympus ; but Hercules, as
lome report, feparated them, and made between them
the celebrated valley of Tempe. This reparation of
the two ^ mountains was more probably effe&ed by an
earthquake which happened about 18*85 years before
the Chriftian era. Its greateft celebrity arifes from its
being one. of thofe mountains which the giants in their
wars againft the gods heaped up one on the other to
icale the heavens with more facility. A town of Mace¬
donia.
OSS AT, Arnauld de, a learned French eccleft-
aftic, was born in the diocefe of Auch hi 1 ^56, of
mean, parentage, and was taken notice of by a oentle,
man m the diocefe, who made him ftudy with his ward
the Lord of Caftlenan de Magnoac. He fludied the
law at Dijon under Cujace, and applied himfelf to the
bar at Paris. He was fecreiary at Pome to M. de
Foix, archbifhop of Thouloufe ; 'to Cardinal Efte ; and
afterwards to cardinal de Joyeufe, by the French kinv-’s
exprefs command. After rifing to the higheft dignities
both in church and ftate, in 1599 he was created a car¬
dinal by Pope Clement VIII. He died in 1604.
eminent French writer gives him the following charac¬
ter : “ He was a man of prodigious penetration : ao-
phed.himfelf fo clofely to affairs, and efpecially was ib
judicious in forming his refolutions, that it is almoll im-
poffibl.e to find out one falfe ftep in the many nepocia-
Kons. in which he was concerned.” His works! and
efpecially his letters, have been much efteemed in the
learned world.
OSS IAN, the Ion ot Fingal, a celebrated Celtic
poet, who flourifiled about the end of the fecond and
beginning
Gforftts
II
Oflian.
OSS
[
* OJfiaiis
Poems,
vol. i.
p. 175.
OiTian. beginning of the third century. Several incidents in
^ big poems point out this as his sera : particularly the
engagement of Fingal with Caracul, or Caracalla, the
ion of the emperor Severn s, fly led by Offian, The Son
oj the King oj the World. JVL Tillemont fixes the ele-
vat'on of Caracal!? to a fliare in tlie government to the
year 198, and the afl'ociation of his brother Geta to
208. About which time Gibbon fixes the Caledonian
war, and fpeaks thus upon the fubjeft : “ This Ca¬
ledonian war, neither marked by decifive events, nor
attended with any important confequences, would ill
deferve our attention 5 but it is fuppofed, not without
a conliderable degree of probability, that the invafion
of Severus is connected with the molt fliining period
of the Britifh hillory or fable. Fingal, whole fame,
with that of his heroes and bards, has been revived in
our language by a recent publication, is faid to have
commanded the Caledonians in that memorable junc¬
ture, to have eluded the power of Severus, and to
have obtained a fignal victory on the banks of the Ca-
run, in which the fon of the King of the World, Cara¬
cul, fied from his arms along the fields of his pride*.
Something of a doubtful mill ftill hangs over thefe
Highland traditions ; nor can it be entirely difpelled
by the moll ingenious refearches of modern criti-
cifm (a.) •, but if we could with fafety indulge the pleaf-
ing fuppofition, that Fingal lived, and that Offian
ffing, the linking contrail of the lituation and' manners
of the contending nations m-glit amufe a philofophic
m nd. The parallel would be little to the advantage
of the more civilized people, if we compared the un¬
relenting revenge of Severus with the generous cle¬
mency of Fingal j the timid and brutal cruelly of Ca-
xacalia, with the bravery, the tendernefs, the elegant
genius of Olhan ; the mercenary chiefs who, from mo¬
tives of fear or intereft, ferved under the Imperial
llandard, with the free-born warriors who ifarted to
arms at the voice of the king of Morven : if, in a
word, we contemplated the untutored Caledonians
glowing with the warm virtues of nature, and the dege¬
nerate Homans polluted with the mean vices of wealth
and 11 a very.”
The dale of this action, if the poems be true, is
rather confounding ; for the next expedition, which is
produced to fix the time in which Offian flourilhed,
was conduced by Ofcar (againft the ufurped Carau-
fius, the Caros of Offian), who did not affume the
purple till fo late as the year 287. This account in¬
deed correfponds pretty well with the account gi¬
ven by Iriffi hiilories, which place the death of Fin¬
gal in the year 283, and that of Ofcar (who died
many years before his father Offian) in the year 296.
I hefe hmts are not thrown out becaufe we think they
militate againft the authenticity of the poems; for
dffiant though tilefe dates be, it is yet poffible to re-
75 ] OS S
concile them. Old age was and is very common in Ofllan.
thofe regions; and Offian himfelf, we are told, was an r—
mfiance of great longevity. Indeed at fuch a diftance of
time, it cannot be expected that we ffiould give either
a very particular or a very exafl account gf Offian and
his heroes. Were there no doubts remaining of the
truth of ihe facis, it is ftill natural to fuppofe that
tuey mull have fuffered obfeurity through the ruft of
time, and above all through the negleft of the poems,
which till lately were unknown.
Ihe fiift expedition on which Offian’s father lent
him was, to raiib a Hone on the banks of Crona, to
perpetuate the memory of a viftory which the king of
Morven had obtained at that place. The Highlanders
talk of this as being emblematical of that immortality
which heroes were to receive from his future compoti-
tmns. In this expedition he was accompanied by
! Oicar, rather 01 the beautiful Malvina, the amiable
companion of his grief, after the death of her beloved
Oicar, his fon. It appears from his poems, that in
one of his early expeditions to Ireland, he had fallen
in love with and married Evirallin, daughter to Bran-
no, petty king of Lego. “ I went in fuit of the maid
or Lego’s fable lurge; twelve of my people were
there, they ions of ftreamy Morven. We came to
Bi anno, friend of ftrangers; Branno of the founding
mail. ‘ From whence (he faid) are the arms of fteell
Not eafy to win is the maid that has denied the blue-
eyed fons of Lrin. But bleft be thou, O fon of Fin¬
gal ! happy is the maid that waits thee. Though
twelve daughters were mine, thine were the choice,
ihop fon of fame.’—Then he opened the hall of the
maid ; the dark-haired Eviraliin * ” This Evirallin * Fingal,
was the mother of his fon Ofcar, whofe exploits he B. iv.
celebrates in many of his poems, and whofe death he
laments in the firft book of Temora. Evirallin died
fome time before Ofcar (Fingai., B. iv.), who feems
to have been her only child ; and Offian did not marry ‘
afterwards ; fo that his pofterity ended in the death
of Ofcar; who feems to have died as he was about to
be married to Malvina, the daughter of Tofoar. * Se¬
veral of her lamentations for her lover are recorded by
Offian, which paint her grief in the ftrongeft and moll
beautiful colours. “ It is the voice of my love ! few
are his vifits to my dreams.—But thou dwelleft in the
foul of Malvina, fon of mighty Offian. My fighs arife
Mth the beams of the call; my tears defcend with--
the drops of night. I was a lovely tree in thy pre¬
fence, Ofcar, with all my branches round me: but
thy death came like a blaft from the defert, and laid my
green head low ; the fpring returned with its Ihowers
but no green leaf of mine arofe.” Poem o/Croma. ’
The principal refidence of Offian was in the vale in
Cona, now Glenco, in Argyleffiire. See Fingal.
His poems relate many of his expeditions to Ire¬
land.
(A). “ Vlia1 the °f Offian is the Caracalla of the Roman hiftory, is perhaps the only point of Bntiffi
antiquity m wh.ch Mr Macpherfon and Mr Whitaker are of ihe fame opinion ; and yet the opinion i's not
wit I lout difficulty. In the Caledonian war, the fon of Severus was known only by the appellation of AW
r"f ’• anc it may fcem ftrange that the Highland hard ffiould deferibe him by a nick name, invented four vears"
afterwards fcarcelyufed by the Romans till after the death of that emperor, and feldom employed by the moll
ancient luftomns. See Dion. lib. Jxxvii. r. 1317. Hill. Augufl. p, 89. Aurel. Vicftbr. Eufeb. in Chron. ad ann
214.
OfTian.
*See Gaelit
'Antiqui¬
ties.
f Poem of
Berrath oil.
OSS [
•land, Scandinavia, Clyde, and Tweed or Teutha.
exploits on thefe occafions, after making a large al¬
lowance for poetical exaggeration, (how him to have
been no lefs a warrior than a poet : (See Ossian’s
Works, in the poems Calthom and Co!metl, La.th/non,
Berraihon, &c.) By thefe expeditions, which were al¬
ways undertaken for the relief of the diftreffed, the
mind of Offian teems to have been cultivated and en¬
larged beyond what .is ufually to be met with in io
rude a period of fociety as that in which he lived. His
poems breathe, throughout, Inch a Ipirit of generofity
and tenderneis, efpecially towards the fair lex, as is
feldom or never to be met with in the compofitions of
other poets who lived in a more advanced date of civi¬
lization. He lived to an extreme old age 5 having fur-
vived all his family and friends, many ot whom perilh-
ed by a fatal accident, recorded in one of his poems
called the fall of Turn *. Malvina alone, the love of
his fon Ofcar, remained with him till within a few
years of his death, and paid him every attention that
could be expected from the tender relation in which
lire flood to him. To her he addreffes many of his
poems, which feem to have been compoied for the moil
part in his old age. Her death is pathetically la¬
mented by him in the poem of Berrathon: towards the
clofe of which, he gives the preiages of his own de¬
parture } an event wdiich he often v.nlhes for, under the
blindnefs and other calamities of his declining years.
“ Roll on, ye dark brown years, for ye bring^ no joy
on your courfe. Let the tomb open to Ouian, for
his ftrength has failed. The fons of the long are gone
to reft: my voice remains, like a blaft, that roars
lonely, on the fea furrounded rock, after the winds
are laid. The dark rnofs whiftles there, and the di-
ftant mariner fees the waving trees f—“ But Offian
is a tree that is withered. Its branches are blafted
From
Ollian.
f Gaelic
Antiqui¬
ties, poem
of Dcrmid
and bare ; no green leaf covers its boughs,
its trunk no young (hoot is feen to fpring. I he breeze
whiftles in its gray mofs: the blaft (hakes its head of
ages.—The florm will foon overturn it, and drew all its
dry branches wdth thee, O Dermid ! and with ah the
reft of the mighty dead, in the green winding vale of
Cona J.”
It is not certain at what age Offian died but from
his having been long blind with years, and from the
many contrails between his prefent and pad fituations,
in poems compofed, as it would appear, at a conftderable
diftance of time from each other, it is mod likely he
lived to an extreme old age. The current tradition is,
that he died in the houfe of a Culdce, called the Son of
A/pin, with whom he is faid to have held feveral con¬
ferences about the doclrines of Chriftianity. One. of
thefe dialogues is dill preferved, and bears the genuine
marks of a very remote antiquity •, (Differ tat ion pre¬
fixed to OJfian's Works). Several of Offian’s poems are
addreffed to this fon of Alpin, who was probably one of
thofe Chriftians whom the perfecution under Dioclefian
had driven beyond the pale of the Roman empire.
The poems of Offian, though always held in the
higheft efteem by thofe who knew them, wrere allowed
to remain in the obfeurity of their original Gaelic, till
Mr Macpherfon, above 40 years ago, tranflated a col¬
lection of them into Engliih, which immediately at-
tracted the attention of every perfon who had a true
tafte for poetry. Dr Blair, in particular, introduced
576 ] OSS
His thefe poems into the world with thofe critical remarks
which do no lefs honour to himfelf than' to the poet.
According to that eminent critic, the two great cha-
racleriftics of Offian’s poetry are tendernefs and fub-
limity. Offian is, perhaps, the only poet who never
relaxes, or lets himfelf dowm into the light and amu-
fing drain. Fie moves perpetually in the high region
of the grand and pathetic. The events which he re¬
cords are all ferious and grave; the Iceneiy wild and
romantic. We find not in him an imagination that
fports itfelf, and dreffes out gay triiles to pleale the
fancy. Flis poetry, more perhaps than that of any
other, deferves to be fly led the poetry of i he heart. It
is a heart penetrated with noble fentiments, with fub-
lime and tender paffions; a heart that glows and kindles
the fancy ; a heart that is full, and pours iflelf forth.
Of all the great poets, Homer is the one whole manner
and whole times come the neared to Offian’s. Homer’s
ideas wrere more enlarged, and his characters more di-
verfified. Offian’s ideas fewer, but of the kind fitted
for poetry ; the bravery and generofity of heroes, the
tenderneis of lovers, and the attachment of friends.
Flomer is diffufe ; Offian abrupt and concife. His
images are a blaze of lightning, which tlalh ' and
vanifh. Homer has more of impetuofity and fire;
Oflian of a folemn and awful grandeur, in the pathe¬
tic, Homer has a great powder ; but Offian exerts that
power much oftener, and has the character of ten¬
dernefs more deeply imprinted on his works. No
poet knew better how to feize and melt the heart.
With regard to dignity of fentiment, we mult be fur-
prifed to find that the pre-eminence mull clearly be
given to the Celtic bard. This appears nowhere more
remarkable than in the fentiments which he exprefies
towards his enemies. “ Uthal fell beneath my (word,
and the fons of Berrathon fled.—It was then I faw
him in his beauty, and the tear hung in my eye.
Thou art fallen, young tree, I faid, wdth ail thy beau¬
ty round thee. Thou art fallen on thy plains, and
the field is bare. The winds come from the defert,
and there is no found in thy leaves ! Lovely art thou
in death, fon of car-borne Larthmore His * OJfian's
pofition, that all the little feuds and differences of Works,
this life ffrould be forgotten in a future (late, and that poems of
thofe who had once been foes would “ ftretch their ‘
arms to the fame (hell in Leda,” gives us the higheft
idea of the man as well as of the poet. “ Daughter
of beauty, thou art low ! A ftrange (hore receives thy
corfe. But the ghofts of Morven will open their halls
when they fee thee coming. Heroes around the feaft
of dim (hells, in the midft of clouds (hall admire thee ;
and virgins (hall touch the harp of mill f.” “ The-i
. Berrathon.
“f Gaelic
feuds of other years by the mighty dead are forgotten,
The wrarriors now meet in peace, and ride together Poem'
on the tempeft’s wdng. No clang of the fhield, no0* Trat^ai‘
noife of the fpear, is heard in their peaceful dwellings.
Side by fide they fit, wffio once mixed in battle their
fteel. There, Lochlin and Morven meet at the mutual
feaft, and liften together to the fong of their bards J.” | lb. poem
But the fublimity of moral fentiments, if they want- of Largo.
ed the foftening of the tender, rvould be in hazard of
giving a (tiff air to poetry. It is not enough that we
admire. Admiration is a cold feeling in companion
of that deep intereft the heart takes in tender and pa¬
thetic feenes. With feenes of this kind Offian abounds ;
and
O S' s
Oflian. and his high merit in thefe is inconteftible. He may
—v~— be blamed for drawing tears too often from our eyes j
but that he has the power of commanding them no mart
who has the lead fenfibility can quetHon. His poems
awake the tendered fympathies, and infpire the mod ge¬
nerous emotions. No reader can rile from him without
being warmed by the fentiments Oj. humanity, virtue,
and honour.
But the excellency of thefe poems occafioned in many
perfons a doubt of their authenticity. Their genuine-
nefs, however, has been very ably defended by Dr Blair
and Lord Karnes, and warmly fupported by the author
of the Gae/ic Antiquities, who lias given the public fome
more remains of Offian’s poetry.
As the nature of our work will not allow us to
treat this matter at full length, we diall only give a
brief view of the arguments offered in fupport of the
authenticity of thefe poems, referring our readers to
the authors iud now7 mentioned and others, for fuller
fatisfadlion.
a In every period ot fociety (fays Dr Blair), human
manners are a curious fpedlacle ; and the mod natural
pictures of ancient manners are exhibited in the ancient
poems of nations. Thefe make us acquainted with the
notions and feelings of our fellow-creatures in the mod
artlefs ages •, difeovering wdiat objects they admired,
and what pleafures they purlued, before thofe refine¬
ments of fociety had taken place, which enlarge indeed,
and diverfify the tranfa&ions, but difguife the manners
of mankind.
“ Befides this, ancient poems have another merit with
perfons of tade. They promife fome of the highed
beauties of poetical writing. That date, in which hu¬
man nature flroots wild and free, though unnt for other
improvements, certainly encourages the high exertions
of fancy and paflion.
“ In the infancy of focieties the paffions of men have
nothing to redrain them j their imagination has no¬
thing to check it. And as their feelings are drong,
fo their language of itfelf affumes a poetical turn.
Men never have ufed fo many figures of dyle, as. in
thofe rude -ages, when, befides a warm imagination
to fugged lively images, the want of proper and pre-
cife terms for the ideas they would exprefs, obliged
them to have recourfe to circumlocution, metaphor,
comparlfon, and all thofe fubdituted forms of expref-
fion, which give a poetical air to language. An A-
merican chief, at this day, harangues at the head of
his tribe in a more bold metaphorical dyle than a
modern European wmuld adventure to ufe in an epic
poem.
“ Poetry has been faid to be more ancient than profe,
which, in a qualified fenfe, is true. Mufic or fong
has been found coeval with fociely among the mod
barbarous nations \ and the only fubje&s which could
prompt men, in their fird rude date, to utter their
thoughts in compofitions of any length, wTere fuch as
naturally affumed the tone of poetry •, praifes of their
gods, or of their ancedors •, commemorations of their
own warlike exploits •, or lamentations over their mil-
fortunes. And before waiting was invented, no other
compofitions, except fongs or poems, could take fuch
hold of the imagination and memory, as to be preferved
by oral tradition, and handed down from one race to
another.
VOL. XV. Part II.
OSS
“ Hence wre may expefl to find poems among the an- Oflian.
tiquities of all nations. It is probable, too, that an ex- ^
tenfive fearch would difeover a certain degree of refem-
blance among all the mod ancient poetical produhlions,
from whatever country they have proceeded. In a fi-
milar date of manners, fimilar objects and padions ope¬
rating upon the imaginations of men, will damp their
productions with the fame general character. Some di-
verfity will, no doubt, be occafioned by climate and
genius. But mankind never bear fuch refembling fea¬
tures as they do in the beginnings of fociety. What we
call the oriental vein of poetry, becaufe the earlied poe¬
tical productions have come to us from the ead, is pro¬
bably no more oriental than Occidental; it is charaCterif-
tical of an age rather than a country •, and belongs, in
fome meafure, to all nations at a certain period. Of
this the Works of Offian feem to furnilh a remarkable
proof.
“ He appears clearly to have lived in a period which
enjoyed all the benefit I have jud now* mentioned of tra¬
ditionary poetry. The exploits of Trathal, Trenmor,
and the other ancedors of Fingal, are fpoken of as fami¬
liarly known. Ancient bards are frequently alluded to.
In one remarkable paffage, Offian deferibes himfelf as
living in a fort of claffical age, enlightened by the me¬
morials of former times, conveyed in the fongs of bards,
and points at a period of ignorance which lay beyond
the reach of tradition. Offian himfelf appears to have
been endowed by nature with exquifite fenfibility; prone
to that tender melancholy which is fo often an attendant
on great genius \ and fofceptible equally of drong and
of foft emotions. He was not only a profefled bard, but
a warrior alio, and the fon of the mod renowned here
and prince of his age. This formed a conjunction of
circumdances, uncommonly favourable towards exalting
the imagination of a poet.
“ The manners of Offian’s age wTere favourable to a
poetical genius. Covetoufnefs and effeminacy were un¬
known). . The cares of men were lew7. "L ire great object
purlued by heroic fpirit, was, ‘ to receive their fame,’
that is, to become worthy of being celebrated in the
fongs of bards; and ‘ to have their names on the four
gray dones.’ To die lamented by a bard wras deemed
fo great a misfortune as even to didurb their ghods in
another date. In fuch times as thefe, in a country
where poetry had been fo long cultivated, and fo highly
honoured, is it any wonder that, among the race and
fucceffion of bards, one Homer ffiould ariie : a man who,
endowed with a natural, happy genius, favoured by pe¬
culiar advantages of birth and condition : and meeting,
in the courfe of his life, wdth a variety of incidents pro¬
per to fire his imagination, and to touch his heart, ffiould
attain a degree of eminence in poetry, worthy to draw
the admiration of more refined ages ?”
Befides, his compofitions, when viewed in themfolves,
have, wTe are told, all the internal marks of antiquity fo
drongly impreffed upon them, that no reader of tafle
and judgement can deny their claim to it. They exhi¬
bit fo lively a picture of cuftoms which have difappeared
for ages, as could be drawm only from nature and real
life. The features are fo diftinCt, that few portraits of
the life continually paffing before us are found to be
drawrn wdth fo much likenefs. The manners uniformly
relate to a Very early ftage of fociety ; and no hint, no
allufion to the arts, cuftoms, or manners, of a more ad-
4 D vanced
[ 577 1
O S S [ 5
vaticea period, appears throughout the poems, 'i'o that
oiftinftion of ranks, which fs always found in adult fo-
tieties, the poet appears to have been a perfect ftranger.
The fir ft heroes prepare their own repafts, and indiicri-
rainately condefcend to the moft menial fervices. Their
quarrels arife from caufes generally flight, but in fuch a
period extremely natural. A rivalihip in love, an omif-
fion at a feaft, or an affront at a tournament, are often
the foundation of a quarrel among Angle heroes. And
the wars in which whole tribes are engaged, are carried
tm with a view, not to enlarge their territory, but to
revenge perhaps the killing of a few deer on their moun¬
tains, or the taking forcibly away one of their women.
1 heir occupation eras war and hunting 5 and their chief
ambition was to have their fame in the fongs of the
bards.
i he notions of a future date, exhibited in thefe poems,
are likewife ftrongly marked with the character of an¬
tiquity. A creed fo uncommon, that the imagination
of a modern could not be fuppofed to grafp fo ftrong an
idea of it from mere fancy, is uniformly fupported
throughout. This creed is extremely Ample, but admi'-
rably fuited to the times.
1 he language, too, and the ftrudlure, of thefe poems,
bear the moft linking charafters of antiquity. The lan¬
guage is bold, animated, and metaphorical, fuch as it is
found to be in all infant ftates ; where the words, as
well as the ideas and objefts, muft be few; and where
the language, like the imagination, is ftrong and undif-
ciplined. No abftrafl, and few general, terms appear
in the poems of Oftian. If objefts are but introduced
in a flmile, they are always particularized. It is “ the
young pine of Inifhuna it is “ the bow of the fhowery
Lena.” T his character, fo confpicuous in the poems of
Oftian, is a ftriking feature in the language of all early
ftates; whofe objefls and ideas are few and particular,
and whofe ordinary converfation is of courfe highly fi¬
gurative and poetical. A piflure, therefore, marked
with fuch finking features, could not be drawn without
an original.
The whole texture of the compofition is alfo, like the
language, bold, nervous, and concife yet always plain
and artlefs j without any thing of that modem refine¬
ment, or elaborate decoration, which attend the ad¬
vancement of literature. No foreign ornaments are
hunted after. The wild and grand nature which lay
within the poet’s view, is the only fource from which
lie draws his ornaments. Beyond this circle, his ima¬
gination, though quick and rapid, feldom made any ex-
turfion. We perceive his language always to be that
of a perfon who faw and felt what he deferibes *, who
Lore a part in the expeditions which he celebrates, and
who fought in the battles v.hich he fings. Such is the
nature of the internal proof adduced in the prefent cafe,
which unqueftionably has weight, and that not inconfi-
derable ; but unfupported by external proof, or contrary
to faffs, however forcible it may be in itfelf, when con-
fidered in this connection, and found wanting, it will
neither filence the querulous fceptic, nor, in all probabi-
hty, will it ever convince thofe who have truth for their
objeef, and who wifh to inveftigate, and, if pofiible, dif-
eover it on furer grounds. Internal proof is of the
greateft fervice in a variety of excellent caufes ; but it
comes in rather as a fuccedaneum than as direft e\i-
dence; and without feme iking more to the purpofe, it
78 ] OSS
may excite admiration, but will feldom enforce belief. Off.an.
Of the cuftoms and manners of ancient times we know  v—-
but little, and ot that little we have often but a confu- -
fed notion. There is therefore room for genius and abi¬
lity to exert itfeT in deceiving 5 and in proportion to the
darknefs in which the fabject is involved, the deception
will generally be the more complete, and the lecret
windings of error lefs eafy to be developed.
Deftitute of external proof, authenticity may appear
to be probable, but cannot be certain 5 and in fuch cir-
cumilances, on many occafions, and efpccially with re-
fpeft to ancient writings, we may, without any offence
to tiutn or to iound reafoning, give them up as fpurious.
In the prefent inftance, therefore, it is juft and proper
to add to what has been already faid, the more external
and pofitive proofs of the authenticity of the poems in
queftion, by the ftrength or weaknefs of which the fub-
jeef muft be finally determined. It is obferved, there¬
fore, That there have been in the Highlands of Scot¬
land, for fome ages back, a vaft many poems afenbed
to Oftian : That thefe poems have been held in the
higheft veneration, repeated by ahnoft all perfons, and
on ail occafions. Thefe are facts fo well known, that no¬
body as yet has been hardy enough to deny them.
There is not an old man in the Highlands, who will
not declare, that he heard fuch poems repeated by his
father and grandfather as pieces of the moft remote an¬
tiquity. There is not a diftrift in the Highlands where
there are not many places, waters, illes, caves, and
mountains, which from time immemorial are called af¬
ter the names of Oflian’s heroes.—There is not a lover
of ancient tale or poetry, however illiterate, who is not
well acquainted with aimoft every fingle name, charac¬
ter, and incident, mentioned in thofe tranflations of Of-
fian’s poems, which he may have never heard of.—
Bards, who are themfelves feveral centuries old, quote
thofe poems, imitate them, and refer to them.—The or¬
dinary converfation and companions of the Highlanders
frequently allude to the cuftoms and characters mention¬
ed in them 5—and many of their meft common proverbs,
eftabliftied by the moft ancient ufe, are lines borrowed
from the poems of Oftlan *.—The moft ancient of the * See ex¬
clans boaft of deriving their pedigree, each from fome amples un-
one of Oftian’s heroes :—and many of the figns amio-^ei eac^0*
rial affumed by them, are drawn from the feats aferibed ^thltrceiL
to their predeceffors in thofe poems f. Manufcripts areAntiqui-
mentioned, in which fome of thofe have been preferved^A, p. 513,
for feveral centuries J j and a lift of living names, in94* 95*
different parts of the Highlands, is appealed to, as per-^7^- •
ions who ftill repeat a part of thefe poems |j. \\ hilft note.
Mr Macpherfon was engaged in the tranflation, manyt Karnes's
refpefiable perfens, gentlemen and clergymen, avowed Seiches,
to the public, that thefe were Oflian’s poems, with An
which they had long been acquainted, and that ^tlquiUes^’
tranilation was literal §. This appears alfo from thep. 95,128.
large fpecimens of the originals publiftied and compared § s<-e °f
by proper judges. The originals lay a confideiable ria™e.s’ "T*
time in the hands of the bcokfeller, for the infpeftion
the curious; they have been afterwards fhown frequent- DiiTertk-
ly to many of the beft judges, and offered for pubIica-tion>^-
tion if the editor had been favoured with fubfcriptionsT” ^f^0? ^•r*
The editor of the pamphlet, in which their authenticity ' C ‘
is attefted by many refpedtable names of undoubted ve¬
racity, cbferves, by way of conciufion, “ that more tef-
Unionies might have been produced by a more enlarged
correfpondence
OSS [
Offian. corretpondence with the Highland counties: But I
w>—^ - prehend, if any apology is neceffary, it is for producing
i’o many names in a queftion where the confenting iilence
of a whole country was, to evtry unprejudiced perfon,
the lerongeft proof that fpurious compofitions, in the
name of that country, had not been obtruded upon the
world.” It is likewife argued in fupport of the authen¬
ticity of thefe poem?, that candid iceptics, on hearing
fome of them repeated by illiterate per ions, who had ne¬
ver feen the tranilation, cauied them to give the mean¬
ing of what they repeated, by an extempore tranflation
into Englifh, and by this means had all their doubts of
* Pref. to the authenticity of Offian removed They urge furth-
ffr/JtrCy S/er’ pailages of Oflian’s works as are ftill re-
Peat-e<^ ^ ibme old men, are among the moil beautiful
Poetry, par s of Offian’s poems ) fuch as the battle of Lora, the
ill edit. moil affedting parts of Carthoh, Berrathon, the death
of Ofcar, and Darthula, or the children cf Ufnoth, &c. 5
' which gives a credibility to his being equal to the other
parts ot the collection, none of it being i’uperior to thefe
in merit.
To thefe and the like arguments advanced in fupport
of the authenticity of the poems afcribed to Oflian, ma¬
ny objections have been urged. Thoie of Johnfon and
Pinkerton, his friend Shaw are univerfally known. A later writer
objeCts to them in the following manner ; No fragments
of Britiih poetry in Scotland are to be found. Many
rpecimens of Iriih poetry in Scotland have been publilh-
ed ; but none older than a century or two. Tranfla-
tions have alio appeared } but, in general, of no fidelity.
Thofe of the poems afcribed to Oflian, in particular,
have defervedly drawn much of the public attention 5
but they will only miflead any reader who wdflies to form
an idea of Celtic poetry. He that believes .Oflian to
have fiouriihed about the year 300, and his writings pre-
ferved by oral tradition for 1460 years, large is his faith,
and he might move mountains ! Gentlemen of the High¬
lands of Scotland, with whom our author converfed on
the iubjeCt, affured him, that they looked upon nine-
tenths of Mr Macpherfon’s work as his own j and up¬
on the other tenth, as fo much changed by him, that all
might be regarded as his own compofition. There are
politive evidences, he fays, which convince him that not
one of the poems given to Oflian, and probably not one
paffage of them, is older than the 15th century. The
very firft author we know who mentions Fingal, is Bar¬
bour, a Scotch poet, who wrote in 1375. Fingal was
an Iriih hero : and one Good, a fchoolmalfer of Lime¬
rick, fent fome account of Ireland to Camden, in 1566,
in which mention is ‘made of fome Itrange fables, that
the people amufe themfelves with, about the “ giants
Fin Mac Ftuyle, and Other Mac Ojhin” of which we
lhall fpeak more largely prefently. In the mean time,
to thefe and fuch like objections, it has been anfwered,
That poetry has been cultivated with moll fuccefs in the
earlieft ages of fociety ; that in Greece, Orpheus, Li¬
nus, Hefiod, and Homer, wrote their admirable poems
fome ares before any thing had been written in profe in
the Greek language ; that the book of Job, written in
a very early period of fociety, is highly poetical; that
among the tribes of Lapland and America, there have
been found, in the earlieft ftate, fome excellent pieces
of poetry. I hat the Caledonians, in particular, had
fome peculiar inftitutions, which tended to improve their
poetry : their druids were among the moil learned phi-
579 1 ... 0 s 3
ap- lofophers which perhaps any age or country produced y
their bards or poets were the difciples of thoie druids, '
and were always a Handing order, to which none but
the moll promifing geniufes were admitted. This Hand-'
ing college of poets was furnilhed, not only with the
fruits of their own long ftudy and oblervation, but al-
fo with as much as merited to be preterved of the com
poiitions of their predeceifors in oftice, fince the “ light
of the fong” firil dawned. They had the advantage of
one another’s converfation j which would excite their
emulation, and make them alpire to eminence : 1 he/
were always prefent, and generally engaged, in every
grand operation that was traniacled; which could not
fail to infpire their mufe with the trueil poetic fire.
The cafe of Odian was particularly favourable. He
lived in an age when manners came to a confiderable
degree of refinement under the cate of the uards and
druids. Poetry in his day was conllderably advanced ;
and the language, though ftrong and figurative, had
undergone fome degree of cultivation, and learned to
flow in regular numbers, adapted to the harp, the fa •
vourite inllrument of the times. As a prince and a war
rior, his mind mull have been expanded and much en¬
larged by his excurfions to other countries. At home
he had Ullin, Alpin, Carril, and Ryno, to converle with j
all of them poets of eminence, who would have advan¬
ced him greatly by their example and converfation. All
thele advantages, meeting with a native fire and enthu-
fiafm of genius, as in the cafe of Offian, may well be
fuppofed to have produced poems that might challenge
the veneration of ages.
But it is not to their merit alone that we owe the
prefervation of thefe poems fo long by oral tradition.
Other circumitances concurred } vof which, the infti-
tution of the Bards deferves particular notice. In a
country, the only one perhaps in the world in which
there was always, from the earlieft period almoft to
the prefent age, a Handing order of poets, we can¬
not reafonably be furprifed, either at finding excellent
poems compofed, or, after being compofed, carefully
preferved from oblivion. A great part of the bufi-
nefs of this order was to watch over the poems of
Oflian. In every family of diffinftion there was al¬
ways one principal bard, and a number of difciples,
iv ho vied with each other in having theie poems in
the greateft perfection. Should the inftitution of the
bards laid for ever, the poems of Oman could never
perilh.
Nor were they the only bards of great families who
took an intereft in theie poems; the vaffal, equally
fond of the fong with his fupericr, entertained him-
felf in the fame manner. This, with a life free from,
care, a fpirit unbroken by labour, and a fpaee of time
unoccupied by any other employment or diverfion, con¬
tributed to render the Highlanders a nation of fingers
and poets. From fuch a people, the fuperior merit of
Oflian’s poems would naturally procure every encourage¬
ment, which they always retained as long as the manners-
of the people remained unchanged.
Many other reafons confpired to preferve the poems
of Oflian. The martial and intrepid fpirit which they
breathed, made it the intereft of the chieftains to pre¬
ferve them : the ftrain of juftice, generofity, and hu¬
manity, which runs through them, recommended them
to the fupsrintendants of religion, who well knew how
4 D 2 much
OSS [ sBo ] OSS
OiTian. much the morals of a people muft be tinctured with
thofe fongs which they are continually repeating, and
which have all the advantages of poetry and of mufic.
In fuperftiLious ages, the people revered thefe poems,
from their being addrefied generally to fome “ ion of
the rock,” fuppofed to be the tutelar faint of the
place, or the great Irulr apoftle St Patrick. Beiides,
every hill and dale which the natives of the Highlands
walked over, was claffic ground. Every mountain,
rocks, and river, was immortalized in the long. This
long would naturally be fuggefted by the light of thefe
objects, and every body would hum it as he walked
along. All the proverbs and cultoms to which thefe
poems gave rife, would operate in the fame manner.
The fon would ails, what they meant, and the father
would repeat the fong from which they were taken.
The diftinct and unfubdued date in which the High¬
landers remained for fo long a courfe of ages, every
clan, one generation after another, inhabiting the fame
valley, till towards the prefent century, contributed
much to preferve their traditions and their poems ; and
the conftant and general cuftom of repeating thefe in
the winter nights, kept them always alive in their re¬
membrance.
To thefe caufes and cuftoms the prefervation of
OtTian’s poems, for fo many ages, has been afcribed.
But thefe caufes and cuiloms have ceafed to exift 5 and
the poems of OiTian, of courfe, have ceafed to be re¬
peated.—Within a century back, the Highlands of
Scotland have undergone a greater res olution than it
had done for ten before that period. With a quicker
pace the feudal fyftem v'anifhed ; property fluctuated;
new laws and new cuftoms dept in, and fupplanted
the old : and all this, with fuch hidden and fuch vio¬
lent convulhons, as may well account for the fhaking
of a fabric vdiich had hood fo many ages, that it
feemed to have bidden defiance to all the injuries of
time. Even fince Mr Macpherfon gathered the poems
in his collection, the amufements, employments, and
tahe of the Highlanders are much altered. A greater
attention to commerce, agriculture, and pahurage, has
quite engroffed that partial attention which was paid,
even then, to the fong of the bard. In twenty years
hence, if manners continue to change fo fait as they
do at prefent, the fainteft traces will fcarce be found
of thofe tales and poems. “ Offian himfelf is the laft
of his race *, and he too fhall foon be no more, for
his gray branches are already ftrewed on all the
winds.”
Among the caufes which make thefe poems vanifh
fo rapidly, poverty and the iron rod fhould come in
for a large fhare. From the baneful fhade of thofe
murderers of the mufe, the light of the fong muft fail
retire. No other reafon needs be given why the pre¬
fent Highlanders negleCt fo much the fongs of their
fathers.—Once, the humble, but happy vaffal, fat at
his eafe, at the foot of his grey rock or green tree.
Few were his wrants, and fe.wer ftill his cares •, for he
beheld his herds fporting around him, on his then un-
rneafured mountain. He hummed the carelefs long,
and tuned his harp with joy, while his foul in filence
bleffed his children.—Now, we were going to draw the
comparifon:
 fed Cynthius auretn
Vellit et admonuit,,
It is more agreable to remark, as another caufe for Oflian
the negleCt of ancient poems and traditions, the growth ^
of induitry, which fills up all the blanks cf time to
more advantage, and efpecially the increafe of more
ufeful knowledge.—But above all, the extinction of
the order of the bards battened the calaltrophe of Of-
fiati’s poems. By a happy coincidence Macpherfon
overtook the laft that remained of this order, (Mac-
vaurich, bard to Clanronald), and got bis trealure. This
fact (with the red book fumifhed by Mr Macdonald of
Croidart, and fome other MSS.) accounts for Mr Mac¬
pherfon’s having found thefe poems in greater number
and perfection than they could ever fince be met with.
The fragments, however, which have fince been gather¬
ed, give a credibility to every thing that has been faid of
the original grandeur of the building.
Although this difqxiition has already exended to
a length which readers not partial to Scottilh antiqui¬
ties will perhaps think too great, we cannot difmifs
it without obierving, that Fingal and OiTian have been
claimed by the Irifh as well as by the Caledonians.
On this double claim, as well as on the controverfy
concerning the authenticity of the poems, there is
fo much candour and good fenfe in the following re¬
marks of T. F. Hill, publiihed in the 53d volume of
the Gentleman’s Magazine, that we cannot deny our-
felves the pleafure of making them conclude the ar¬
ticle.
Mr Kill travelled through the Highlands of Scot¬
land during the fummer months of 1780. Fie Teems
to have been very ardent in his inquiries concern¬
ing Olnan, and to have conducted thofe inquiries
with great judgement. The confequence was, that he
received different accounts in different places, and
picked up various fongs relating to Fingal and his
heroes.
“ From this collection, it is evident (fays he) that
there are many traditional fongs preferved in the High¬
lands relating to Fingal and his heroes, as well as to
feveral other fubjebts. It is alfo evident, that thefe
fongs contain portions of the very poems publilhed by
Mr Macpherfon and Mr Smith, under the name of
Offian. \Ve may therefore juftly conclude, that thefe
poems are not wholly the forgery of their editors, but
compiled at leaft from original fongs. I by no means
think it worth my while to notice the various concef-
fions in favour of this couclufion, which the minor anta-
gonifts of Offian have of late been forced to make. I
myfelf have given proofs of it, which need I hope no ex¬
ternal confirmation. To thefe proofs might be added,
that I met with many traditional prefervers of thefe fongs,
in every different part of the Highlands : in fome of
whom, efpecially in Argylefhire, Lochaber, and on the
reft of the weftern coaft, were faid to poffefs various
poems attributed to Offian, although I had neither lei-
fure nor opportunity to colledft copies from them.-—But
enough has already been faid on this fubjedt, if my teftb
mony deferves regard.
“ Thefe principles being eftablllhed, it remains to be
confidered how far the poems publrfhed by Macphcr-
fon and Smith deferve to be confidered as the works of
Offian.
“ The fongs attributed to that bard, which'contain
paffages of the Offian of Macpherfon and Smith, are by
no means uniformly confiftent with the poems in which
the :
OSS [ 581 ] OSS
the parallel paiTages are found, but frequently relate to
different events, and even contain different circumitances.
From hence it feems moft probable, that Mr Macpher-
fon and Mr Smith compiled their publications from thofe
parts of the Highland fongs which they molt approved,
combining them into fuch forms as according to tneir
ideas were moft excellent, and preferving the o d names
and the leading events. In this procefs they were iup-
ported and encouraged by the variety of fongs preferred
m the Highlands upon the fame fubjeft, and by the
various modes in which the lame event is related. Mh
Macpherfon may indeed have MSS. oi all the poems he
has published ; which MSS. may either have been com¬
piled by himielf, or by lome former collector \ or they
may poilibly contain entire poems really ancient. . But
Mr Smith has honeltly acknowledged, that he hinnelf
compiled his Offian m the manner above dcfciib^d.
‘ After the materials were collected (fays he), the next
labour was to compare the different editions ; to itrike
off feveral parts that were manifeitly fpurious j to bring
together feme epifodes that appeared to have a relation
to one another, though repeated feparately ; and teflore
to their proper places fome incidents that leemen to have
run from one poem to another :—and hence it was una¬
voidably neceffary to throw in fometimes a few lines or
fentences to iom fome of the epnodcs together. 1 am
fenfible that die form of thefe poems is confiderably al¬
tered from what is found in any one of the editions from
which they are compiled. I hey have affumed lomewhat
more of the appearance of regularity and art—than that
bold and irregular manner in which they are originally
delivered.’
‘‘ Mr Smith alfo fpeaks of the Offian of Mr Macpher¬
fon in a fomewhat fimilar manner: ‘ 1 hat we have
not the whole of the poems of Offian, or even of the
colleclion tranflated by Mr Maepherfon, we aLow .
yet llill we have many of them, and of almolf all a
part. The building is not entire, but we have dill the
grand ruins of it.’
“ What portion, therefore, of the Oflian of Macpher-
Ibn and Smith is original, no man can determine except
themfelves. Smith indeed fays, that, he has mentioned
fell his ?nateria! alterations, tranfpofftions, and additions,
in his notes } and that, for the m-oji part, he was guided
in them by the Sgeulachds, or traditionary tales accom¬
panying the Tongs’j but there are few fuch notes in his
book, and perhaps as few fuch Sgeulachds in the mouths
of the Highlanders. In Macpherfon and. Smith alfo we
fee thefe poems divefted of their idiomatic, peculiarities
and fabulous ornaments} which renders it impofiible to
difeover what manners and opinions are really ancient,
and what are of modern invention. Yet it is remarkablej
that in fpite of all the objeclions to their authenticity,
neceffarily produced by fuch a treatment of them, tney
ftill pofiefs an internal evidence of originality which has
enabled them hitherto to withffand all the torrent or op-
pofition.
“ The Offian of Macpherfon and Smith appears there¬
fore to be a mutilated work, even though we fhould fup-
pofe that the fongs they originally compiled from were
the undoubted works of that celebrated bard. But this
is far from being the cafe ; for even allowing that an
Offian ever exifted and wrote, yet time muff: have intro¬
duced fuch material changes in his works if preierved
merely by tradition during fo long a period, that their
own author would harly know them again. I think it
however doubtful, whether fuch a being as Offian ever
appeared in the world.
“ All the fongs which I met with in the Highlands
relative to the Teinne or Fingalians were attributed to
Offian : his name feems merely a common title, which
is aferibed to all the poetic annals of his race.
“ From thefe confiderations, we feem authorized finally
to conclude, that the Offian of Macpherfon and Smiih
is a mutilated compilation from Highland fongs, aferibed
indeed to that bard, yet very little likely to be his com-
pofition. Out of thefe they {elected the belt parts, and
rejected fuch as they thought might diferedit the cha¬
racter of Highland antiquity ; attributing them to later
times, and the ignorant bards of the fifteenth century.
Perhaps even the works of Homer himfelf, which had fo
many different editions, very confiderably varying from
each other, were compiled by a«fome what fimilar proccfs
from the ancient Greek fongs.
“ Another queftion remains to be confidered : Whe¬
ther theie fongs are the compofitions of the Highlands
or of Ireland ; and, whether Offian was an Irilh or a
Caledonian Scot ? It is my opinion, that the fongs in
this collecHon evidently manifefl: a connedion with
Ireland, though their traditional prefervation in Scot¬
land has fometimes introduced the name of Scotland
in its Head. One of their principal perfonages is St
Patrick, the peculiar apoftle of Ireland, which alone
feems fufficient to mark their origin ( a). If therefore
we may reafon from a part to the whole, it is juft to
conclude, that ail the other fongs preferved in the
Highlands relative to the Fingalians are alfo Irifh.
They are wholly confined to the weftern coaft of the
Highlands, oppofite Ireland 5 and the very traditions
of the country themfelves acknowledge the Fingaiians
to be originally iriffi. The genealogy of Fingal was
there given me as follows: Fion Mac Coul, Mao
Trathal, Mac Arlht Pdogh Erin, or king of Ireland ;
thus attributing the origin of his race to the Iriffi. I
am inclined to believe that thefe notions about Fingal
were common to the Scots in the moft ancient times,
and brought by them from Ireland to Scotland, the
hereditary fuperftition of both races 5 for, notwith-
ftanding it may appear moft probable that Ireland
ftiould receive colonies from Scotland than the con¬
trary, we have direcV hiftoric evidences that Scotland
received them from Ireland } and no bare theoretic
probability deferves to be oppofed to the pofitive af-
fertions of hiftory.
“ With regard to the Erfe manuferipts, about which
fo much has been faid, it becomes me to acknowledge,
that
(a) The Scots indeed lay claim to the birtn of St Patrick, and boaft affo his buiial-place. Camden, edit.
Gibfon 169$, pp. 921, 1014. And fo alfo do the Britons, ib. p. 631, 1014; but his life and miracles all
agree to attribute it to Ireland. In Gough’s edition of, Camden, the account 01 St Patrick is in vol. m. p. 6\ 2?.
618. See Patrick, St,
OSS [ 582 ] OSS
n that I have never feen enough of them lo give any
~~ decided opinion : thofe which I have feen induce me
to think they principally owe their exigence to Ire¬
land.
“ I ihall not repeat what others have faid to prove the
Fingalians Iriih j though the connexion of Fingal with
Ireland has been already warmly alTerted.
“ But an unnoticed though curious, paffage in Cam¬
den affords us the molt remarkable, and perhaps the moft
-convincing proof, that Fingal is an Irifh hero, which de-
monftrates at leaf! that he was indifputably claimed by
the Iriih 200 years ago. It is contained in an extract
.(already mentioned) made by Camden, from an account
of the manners of the naiive Irifh, written by one Good,
a Schoolmafter at Limerick, in 1 566. ‘ They think,’
fays he, fpeaking of Ireland and its inhabitants, 4 the
fouls of the decealed are in communion with famous men
of thofe places, of whom they retain many ftories and
fonnets ; as of the giants Finmac-Huyle, Ofkir-Mac-
Ofshin, or Ofshin-Mac-Owim 5 and they fay, through
illufion, that they often fee them.’
“ The very material importance of this curious paf¬
fage, with relation to the prefent fubjeft, it is unnecef-
fary to urge for every eye mull fee it. We alfo obtain
from it new information in refpeft to the lall part of the
hiftory of Fingal and his heroes 5 as it enables us to de¬
termine who they were with a precifion which muff
otherwife have been wanting, to complete thefe remarks
on the Highland fongs.
“ The lingular agreement of this paffage with the ac¬
counts of Offian which were taught me in Scotland is
worthy particular remark *, it confirms them even in the
moft novel and peculiar inftances. The Fingalians were
generally reprefented as giants: but the moft remarkable
occurence is in the mythologic charafter attributed by
both to Fingal, Ofcar, and Ofiian. In proof of this, I
have to obferve, that Mac Nab defcribed Fingal as the
Odin of the Scots, and that a fong called Urnig/i OJJian
evidently fpeaks of him as fuch. This curious paffage
reprefents him exaflly in the fame chara6Ier; a hero
with whom the fpirits of the deceafed are in communion,
who is their chieftain, and the lord of their feafts. The
gods of all the northern nations feem to have been of this
clafs \ mighty heroes, efteemed once to have been invin¬
cible on earth, though perhaps not ever ftriclly men, nor
yet conftantly regarded as giants. Such are Odin, Thor,
and the other Teutonic gods; fuch are Fingal, Ofcar, and
the reft of the Fingalians among the ancient Scots 5 fuch
are Hercules, Bacchus, and even Jupiter himfelf, with
all his fons and daughters, among the original Greeks,
a people who agreed in many particulars with our own
anceftors in northern Europe. The notions entertained
about ghofts, as an intermediate order of beings be¬
tween men and divinities, <?ndowred with fome ftiare of
powder to do evil, is alfo remarkably congruous with this
mythology. .
“ As Fingal was a divine hero, fo Oftian feems to
have been a divine bard. Some of the gods of the
"J eutons were bards in like manner 5 the god Niord
and his wife Skada quarrelled in elegant verfe of
their own compofition; and Odin is the relator of his
own Edda. Apollo, the poetic deity of Greece, like-
wife fung the hiftory of his fellow-deities to men on
.earth, as well as Orpheus his fon. The bards and tradi¬
tional prefervexs cf fongs in Scotland and Ireland have
4
ever been fond or aicribmg all ancient poems to this Cilia*.
Oftian, and efpecially thofe relating to bis own race ;  v—
aird from this caufe the poems afcribed to Oftian are be¬
come fo voluminous. The ancient Egyptians had a
fimilar cuftom of afcrn ing their woiks to Hermes : dj
wf.SQOi TTgoftyat rx xvl*>v T>55 <ro(pix, iv^'-xlx xvlu ayslarhc-M
iQf&ov Trx'jln tx OLy.ux ov^^pxxfAxix stz lays Jam-
blichus, S. I. c. 1. which rendered the Flermetic writ-'
ings equally voluminous. The Egyptians, who poftelied
the art of writing, depofited their works in the adyta of
their temples; as the Arabians depofited their pcems of
old in the temple of Mecca : but becaufe the Egyptians
affixed to them no author’s name, except that of Hermes,
to him, as to the Scottilh Offian, almoft all the national li¬
terature was attributed by religious flattery.
“ 1 fincerely wiffi, that fome gentleman poffeffed of
adequate abilities and acquaintance with the Erie lan¬
guage, would undertake to colle£t thefe Offianic fongs
in their Ample original ftate.} as they undoubtedly
contain much curious knowledge, accumulated in the
various ages through which they have defeended to
us, and would probably afford much new information
on fubje&s at prefent very ill underftood. I own, how¬
ever, that I fliould rather choofe to feek for them in
Ireland than in Scotland j but neither country Ihould
be unexplored.
44 After having thus freely, though I hope not un-
candidly, delivered my fentimenls on the Offian of
Mr Macpherfon, it becomes me to acknowledge my-
felf deeply indebted to it for the pleafure in perufal it
has frequently afforded me. I am willing, and indeed
^aPPy> thus publicly to declare myfelf a warm admi¬
rer of it as a literary compofition. The novelty of its
manner, of its ideas, and of the objebls it delcribes,
added to the ftrength and brilliancy of genius which
frequently appears in it, have enabled me to read it
with more delight, and to return to it more frequently,
than almoft any other work of modern times. And let
it be regarded in what light it may, the praife of ele¬
gant fele&ion and compofition certainly belongs to
its editor. If I had not entertained thefe opinions of
its merit, I Ihould never have taken fo much pains to
inveftigate its authenticity • nor indeed can I believe,
if the general opinion had not concurred with mine,
that the world wTould ever have wafted fo much time
in difputing about it.”
Since what has now been faid concerning the authen¬
ticity of the poems of Offian was written, the fame fub-
je6I has been again brought under difeuffion, and more
keenly and ably agitated chan at any former period of
the controverfy. Among thofe who have entered die
lifts in this controverfy, Mr Laing the hiftorian appeals
by far the moft powerful opponent of the authenticity of
thefe celebrated poems. In a hiftorical and critical dif-
fertation * on this fubjea, Mr Laing roundly afferts, that # 0r
the poems, as afcribed to Offian, a bard of the third cen- Scotlarid.
tury, are forgeries, and charges Macpherfon, as well as
Smith, (incur opinion too haftily and ralhly) with dijeft
fraud in impofing on the world their own productions as
the genuine tranflations cf ancient Gaelic poems. The
arguments for the deteftion of thefe forgeries are ar¬
ranged under eight different heads: 1. The Roman
Hiftory of Britain with which Macpherfon has connecled
the poems by falfe and incorrect allufions. 2 The tra¬
ditionary poems in the Highlands refer to the middle
ages,
OSS [ 583 ] O S T
“iciL is, «iuuui me uui ana join cemunes. 3. ine
■ diificulty or imnoffibility of preferving poems by oral
tradition for a period of 1500 years. 4. The remarkable
diverfity in the manners of the Highlanders at the period
in which Fingal lived, as deferibed by hiftorians, and as
they are reprefented by Offian j and the contradiction of
great refinement at an early age and extreme barbarifm in
a future age, are confidered by Mr Laing as ftrong and
decifive proofs of forgery. 5. From tracing the origin
of the poems to other works of Macpherfon, particularly
to an epic poem entitled the Highlander, publtfhed at
Edinburgh in 1 758, which, being unfuccefsful, appeared
afterwards as fragments of ancient poetry, Mr Laing
thinks another proot of deteftion is derived; 6. A fixth
fource of detection, in his opinion, may be traced to the
imitation of the claflics, feripture, and other writings.
7. Mr Laing afferts that the fpecimens of the ori¬
ginal produced by Macpherfon were either written or
tranflated into Erfe from the Englilh original, by the
fuppofed tranflator himfelf. 8. From the ambiguous
language which Macpherfon feems to have employed at
different times during the progrefs of the numerous edi¬
tions of the poems, Mr Laing infers a diftindd avowal of
fraud. But for the illuftration of the arguments now
noticed we muft refer the reader to the differtation
itfelf.
It was not to be expefted that charges fo formally ad¬
duced, and fo keenly fupported, would pafs altogether
unnoticed by the admirers of the poems of Oflian, or
the believers in their authenticity. Accordingly, we
hnd that Mr Laing’s arguments have been combated by
different writers with various fuccefs. Among the works
on this fide of the queftion which have fallen in our way,
the Effay on the Authenticity of the Poems of Offian by
the Rev. Dr Graham, holds the mod refpe&able place.
But our limits abfolutely preclude us even from Hating his
arguments. We refer therefore to the work itfelf which,
the reader will not diflike to find, is written with fome
degree of elegance, and, what is not ufual in controver-
fy, with a great degree of temper and moderation. The
l eader who wifhes to purfue this invefligation, may con-
iult alfo a J reatife on the fame fubjeft by Mr Macdonald,
the Report on Offian by a Committee of the Highland
Society of Scotland j and the Gaelic fcholar has now an
opportunity of perufing the Originals, which have been
pubiiffied by Sir John Sinclair.
OSSI1ICAI ION, in the animal economy, the for¬
mation of the bones, but more particularly the converfion
of parts naturally foft to the hardnefs and confiftency of
bones. Bones, Dr Drake contends, are formed out of
the moft comminute or broken parts of the blood ; fince
we fee that the blood of old men, which by a long cour&
of circulation becomes in a manner unfit for the common
office of nutrition, will however offify, and convert into
bones, many cf tire tendons and ligaments, and even the
coats of the veffels themfelves, whofe fubflance being
next to the bones the moft compacff, admits only of the
fmalleft particles of the blood, which therefore fooneil
become offeous, as they are frequently found. Dr Nif-
bet’s opinion of offificatmn is, that in the blood, or a fluid
lecreted from it, there is an edifying juice, having par-
licies which are not apparent : that whenever nature de-
figns an offification between membranes, or within a car-
tdage, die occafions a more than ufual afflux of this
fluid 3 which fo much diltends the veffels which were
i.ore invilxble, as to make them capable or receiving Offory.
the red globules cf blood, which is always to be feen II.
near to the place where offification is begun. In this Qflah2^
blood gritty bony particles may be felt by the point of
a knife, which have been formed by the attrafticn and
cohefion of the particles of the offifying juice obftru<Red,
along with the other groffer fluids, in the beginning of
the veffels prepared to receive refluent juices. The
blood being capable of forming fine membranes, the
membranous parts of a bone, which acts as a gluten to
keep tbefe particles and fibres together, if there be any
fucb, that do not arife from the coats of its veffels, are
produced by a cohefion round the cretaceous particles of
a part of the fluid, in which they were generated and
contained. Thus the membranes of cartilages ferve as
a bed, between or within which the bony particles are
depofited, or flioot 3 but without any intermixture of the
particles of the bone and cartilage, or continuation of the
fibres of the one fubftance to thofe of the other, as is
evident in cartilages containing bones kept long enough
in water, and then flit 3 for the bone will, as foon as
the large veffels that enter its fubftance are divided, flip
as eafily, and perhaps eafier, from it than an acorn does
out of its cup ; and there is a fmoothnefs and polifln of
tne parts of both cartilage and bone, which ftiow there
is no conjunction of the fibres of the two fubftances.
While the bones are increafing within cartilages, the
cartilages are extended and fpread out 3 by which, with
t1 ^ preffure which they fuffer, and the great influx of
Various fluids, and the nutritious matter being hindered
to flow freely into them, they deereafe continually, and
at lall may truly be find to be entirely deftroyed. Dr
Buddeus endeavours to prove, that the preternatural
offifications, which are commonly laid to be formed in
different parts of the body, do not deferve that name 3
■for that thefe hard fubftances have fcarcely any other
properties of bone except whitenefs and hardnefs.
OSS ORA , the weft divilion of Oueen’s-county in
Ireland.
Ossory, Bale bijhof) of. See Bale.
OSSUNA, an ancient and confiderable towm of An-
dalufia in Spain, with an univerlity, an hofpital, and the
title of a duchy. N. Lat. 37. 8. W. Long. 4. 18.
OS1 ADE, Adrian Van, an eminent Dutch painter
born at Lubec in 161c. He wxis a difciple of Francis
Hals, in whofe fchool Brouwer was cotemporary with
him, where they contracted an intimate friendfhip. The
fubjeCls of his pencil were always of a low kind, he hav¬
ing nearly the fame ideas as Teniers 3 diverting himfelf
with clowns and drunkards in ftables, ale-houfes, and
kitchens. His pictures are fo tranfparent and highly
fimdied, that they have the pohfh and iuftre of enamel;
they have frequently a force fuperior to Teniers 3 yet it
were to be wiftied that he had not defigned his figures fo
flnort. He is perhaps one of the Dutch mafters who beft
underftood the chiaro obfeuro ; and he w7as often employ¬
ed to paint figures for the beft landfcape painters of his
countrymen. He died in 1685. His works, efpecially
thofe of his beft time and manner, are very fcarce • fo
that when they are to be purchafed, no price is thought
too much for them. Flis prints etched by himfelf, large
and fmall, conftft of 54 pieces.
OSTALRJC, a town of Catalonia, in Spain, hav¬
ing a ftrong caftle, and feated on the river Tordera, in
E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 24. 44.
OSTENDy
t
'O S T [ 58
OSTEND, a very ftrong fea-port town of the Ne¬
therlands, in Auftrian Flanders, with a good harbour
and a magnificent town-houfe. It is not very large, but
it is well fortified. It was much more confiderable be¬
fore the long fiege of the Spaniards, which continued
from 1601 to 1604, when it was almolt entirely reduced
to afhes. The Dutch loft 50,000 men, and the Spa¬
niards 80,000. Ifabella Eugenia, governante of the
Netherlands, made a vow ftie would not ftiift her fmock
before Oftend furrendered} but before the town was
taken it had greatly changed its colour. However, the
ladies of the court, to keep her in countenance, had theirs
dyed, that they might be like that of their miftrefs. T his
place was taken by the Dutch in 1706, but reftored to
the emperor in 1724, when an Eaft India company
was eftablilhed here, but entirety fuppreffed by treaty
in 1731. It was taken by the French in Auguft
1745, after 10 days fiege, but reftored by the treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle. It was overrun by the French Re¬
publicans, with Dumourier at their head, but was
quickly recovered by the junction of the allies. It was
evacuated by the French in 1793, and they repoffeffed it
in 1794. Here the Britilh landed a body of troops in
May 1798, who blew up and deftroyed the works of
the Bruges canal j but the wind Ihifting before they
could re-embark, they were under the neceflity of fur¬
rendering to the French. It is 10 miles \V. of Bruges,
eight N. E. of Newport, 22 N. E. of Dunkirk, and
60 N. W. of Bruffels. E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 51.
14.
OSTEOCOLLA, in Natural Hiflory, a
white or afh-coloured fparry fubftance, in ihape like a
bone, and by fome fuppoled to have the quality of
uniting broken bones, on which account it is ordered
in fome plafters ; a 1 up poll l ion, we fear, which is not
warranted by experience. It is found in long, thick,
and irregularly cylindric pieces, which are in general
hollow, but are fometimes filled up with a marly earth,
and fometimes contain within them the remains of a
ftick, round which the ofteocoiia had been formed j
but though it is plain from thence that many pieces of
ofteocoiia have been formed by incruftations round
flicks, ,yet the greater number are not fo, but are ir¬
regularly tubular, anil appear to be formed ol a hat
cake, rolled up in a cylindric fhape. The crufts of
which thefe are comnofed do not form , regular concen¬
tric circles round the internal cavity, as mutl hare been
the cafe had they been formed by incruftation. On
the other hand, they plainly fhow that they were once
fo many thin ftrata, compofing a flat furface, which has
afterwards been rolled up, as one might do a paper three
or four times doubled, into two, three, or moral fpiral
lines ; in which cafe, each Angle edge of the paper
would be everywhere a regular point of a continued
fpiral line drawn from a given point •, but they would by
no means be fo many detached concentric circles. The
ofteocoiia is found of different fizes, from that of a crow-
quill to the thicknefs of a man’s arm. It is compofed of
fand and earth, which may be feparated by wafhmg the
powdered ofteocoiia with water, and is found both in
digging and in feveral brooks, in many parts of Ger¬
many, and elfewhere. It is called hammofteus in many
partscof Germany. It has this name in thefe places from
its always growing in fand, never in clay, or any folid
foil, nor even in gravel. Where a piece of it any where
2
4. ] O S T
appears on the furface, they dig down for it, and fitid the Ofteocd!
branches run ten or twrelve feet deep. They ufualiy run ,)rt
ftraight down, but fometimes they are found fpreading   
into many parts near the furface, as if it were a iub-
terraneous tree, whole main item began at 12 feet
depth, and thence grew" up in a branched manner till
met by the open air. The main trunk is uiually as
thick as a man’s leg, and the branches that grow out
from it are thickeft near the trunk, and thinner as
they feparate from it. The thinneft are about the frze
of a man’s finger. The people employed to collect it,
when they cannot find any mark of it on the furface,
fearch after the fpects of white or little lumps of whitifti
foft matter, which they find lying in various parts on the
top of the fand. Thefe always lead them either to a bed
of perfeft ofteocoiia, or to fome in the formation. If they
mifs of it, they ftill find a fubftance like rotten wood ;
which, when traced in its courfe, is found to proceed
from a main trunk, at the depth of that of the ofteocoiia,
and to fpread itfelf into branches in the fame manner. The
diggers call this fubftance the flower of ofteocoiia, or ham¬
mofteus.
The ofteocoiia found in the earth is at firft foft and
duftile, but in half an hour’s time, if expofed to the
air, it becomes as hard as we find it in the Ihops. The
method to take up a perfett piece for a fpecimen is to
open the ground, clear awray the fand, and leave it fo
for an hour or thereabouts : in this time it will harden,
and may be taken out whole. It is certain, that the
ofteocoiia is produced at this time •, for if a pit be clear¬
ed of it, there will more grow there in a year or two,
only it will be fofter, and will not harden fo eafily in
the air as the other. What the rotten fubftance refemb-
ling the decayed branches of trees is, wc cannot deter¬
mine, unlefs it really be fuch } but the opinion of the
common people, that it is the root of fomeihing, is abfurd,
becaufe its thickeft part always lies at the greateft depth,
and the branches all run upwards. The ofteocoiia is a
marly fpar, which concretes round this matter 5 but what
it is that determines it to concrete no where on the fame
ground but about thefe branches, it is difficult to fay.
The rottennefs of this fubftance, which forms the bails
of the ofteocoiia, renders it very liable to moulder and
fall avray ; and hence it is that we ufualiy fee the ofteo¬
coiia hollow". Sometimes it is found folid ; but in this
cafe there wall be found to have been a vegetable matter
ferving as its bafts, and inftead of one branch, it will be
found in this cafe to have concreted about a number of
fibres, the remains of which will be found in it on a cloie
examination. See Philof. Tranf. N° 39.
OSTEOLOGY, that part of anatomy which treats
of the bones. See Anatomy, Part I.
OSTER VALD, John Fredf.ric, a famous Prote-
ftant divine, was born at Neufchattel in 1663 ; and
made fiich rapid progrefs in his ftudies, that he became
mafter of arts at Saumur before he w"as 16 years of age.
He afterwards ftudied at Orleans and at Paris. At his
return to Neufchattel in 1699, he became paftor of the
church there ; and contrafted a Uriel friendlhip with the
celebrated John Alphonfus Turretin of Geneva, and the
illuftrious Samuel Werenfels of Bafil. The union of
thefe three divines, w'hich was called the Inumvirate of
the divines of Swijferland, lafted till his death.. Mr
Oftervald acquired the higheft reputation, by his virtues,
his zeal in inftrufting his difciples, and reftoring eccle-
ftailical
Dftia,
Oftiacks.
O S T [ 585 ] 0 S T
fiaftical difcipline. He wrote many books in French j
the principal of which are, 1. A Treatife concerning the
Sources of Corruption, which is a good moral piece.
2. A Catechifm, or Inftruftson in the Chrxftian Reli¬
gion j which has been tranflated into German, Dutch,
and Engliih } and the Abridgement of the Sacred Hi-
ilory, which he prefixed to it, was tranflated and print¬
ed in Arabic, in order to be fent to the Eaft Indies,
by the care of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gofpel; and that Society eftablifhed in London, paid
him a high compliment, by admitting him an honorary
member. 3. A treatife againft Impurity. 4. An edi¬
tion of tire French Bible of Geneva, with Arguments
and Reflections, in folio. 5. Ethicn Clirifiiano.. 6. Theo¬
logies Compendium, &c. He died in 1747, regretted by
all who knew him.
OSTIA, a town fituated at the mouth of the Tiber,
about 12 miles to the weftward of Rome. It was built
by Ancus Martius, the fourth king of Rome, and was
called OJlia Tiherina, in the plural number, 1. e. the two
mouths of the Tiber, which were feparated by the Ho¬
ly Ifland, an equilateral triangle, whofe fides were each
of them computed at about two miles. The colony of
Oftia wTas founded immediately beyond the left or fouth-
ern, and the port immediately beyond the right or
northern branch of the river ; and the diltance between
their remains meafures fomething more than two miles
on Cingolani’s map. In the time of Strabo, the fand
and mud depofited by the Tiber had choked the har¬
bour of Oftia j the progrefs of the fame caufe has ad¬
ded much to the fifb of the Holy Ifland, and gradually
left both Oftia and the port at a confiderable diftance
from the there. The dry channels ffiumi morti'), and
the large eftuaries (Jlagno di Ponente, de Lcvante),
mark the changes of the river, and the efforts of the
fea. Its port was one of the moft ftupendous works of
Roman magnificence, and it was a long time one of the
beft towns on the coaft \ but having been deftroyed by
the Saracens, and the harbour choked up, as mention¬
ed above, it has not been able fince to recover itfelf.
Though it be an inconfiderable place, and but poorly
inhabited by reafon of the badnefs of the air, yet it is
the fee of a bifhop, wTho is always deacon of the cardi¬
nals, and crowms the Pope. The old Oftia, where are
feen the ruins of the ancient harbour, is beyond New
Oftia, towards the fea ; the latter is but a little clufter
of houfes, wdth a fmall caftle. It is 12 miles S. W. of
Rome. E. Long. 12. 24. N. Lat. 41, 44. There
were faltw'orks in Oftia, called Salma’ OjUenfes, as early
as the times of Ancus Martius (Livy) •, from which the
Via Solaria, w-hich led to the Sabines, took its name,
(Varro). It gave name to one of the gates of Rome,
W'hich was called OJhenJis (Ammian).
OSTIACKS, a people of Siberia in Afia. They
live upon the banks of the rivers Oby and Yenifey, and
on thofe of fome other river's which fall into thefe.
Vol. XV. Part II.
Thefe people are very poor, and very lazy, and in the Oftiacks
fummer-time live moitly upon fifli. They are of a mid- ”v
die fize, with broad faces and nofes, and yellowiflr or
red hair. All their garments from top to toe are made
of fifli fkins, lor they have neither linen nor woollen r
and indeed they might almoft as well go naked. Their
greateft diverfion is hunting 5 and they go together in
crowds, with a weapon '*ike a large knife faftened in
a ftick. In fummer they take and dry the filh which
ferves them in winter ; and when that feafon begins,
they go into the woods with their bows and arrows,
their dogs and nets, to kill fables, ermines, bears, rein¬
deer, elks, martens, and foxes. Part of the furs of theie
is paid as a tax to the emprefs of Ruffia, and the reft are
fold at a ftated price to the Ruffian governors, but fome-
times they are allowed to difpofe of them to private perfons.
They chiefly live upon venifon, wild-fowl, fiih, and
roots, for they have neither rice nor bread. They drink
for the moft part water, and it is faid they can very
well relifli a draught of train oil. They are immode¬
rately fond of tobacco, and of fwallovving the fmoke,
which foon intoxicates them. In the winter they build
their huts in woods and forefts, where they find the
greateft plenty of game, and dig deep in the earth to
fecure themfelves from the cold, laying a roof of bark
or ruflies over their huts, which are foon covered with
fnow. In fummer they build above ground on the
banks of the rivers, to enjoy the convenience of fifhing,
and make no difficulty of forfaking their habitations.
They have a fort of princes among them, in one of
whofe houfes fome European travellers found four wives
(a). One of thefe had a red cloth coat on, and wras
fet off with all forts of glafs beads. There was no other
furniture than cradles and chefts, made of the bark of
trees fewed together. Their beds coniifted of wood
fhavings, almoft as foft as feathers, and their children
lie naked upon them in cradles. They can neither read
nor write, nor do they cultivate the land ; and feem to¬
tally ignorant of times paft. They have neither tem¬
ples nor priefts ; and their boats are only made of the
bark of trees fewed together. Their religion is Pagan •
and they have fome little brazen idols, tolerably well
caff, reprefenting men and animals, made of wood and
earth, all of which are dreffed in filks, in the manner of
Ruffian ladies. In general, however, they are ill made,
every man being his own carver. They place them on
the tops of hills, in groves, and in the pleafanteft places
their country affords, and fometimes before their huts
yet they have no fet time for performing religious wor-
fliip, but apply to their gods for luccefs in all their un¬
dertakings. As they have no regular priefts, every old
man may devote himfelf to that fervice, and the office
is frequently performed by the mafters and heads of
families. Strahlenberg fays, that when he was among
them he faw one of their temples, which was built of
wood in an oblong form, like a great barn, covered at
4 E the
(a) They may have as many wives as they pleafe, and make no fcruple of marrying their neareft relations.
They purchafe a wife of her relations for three or four rein-deer, and take as many as they pleafe, returning them
again if they do not like them, only lofing what they gave for the purchafe. Upon the birth of their children
fome give them the name of the firft creature they happen to fee afterward. Thus the child has frequently the
name of an animal, and you hear a man call his fon perhaps Sabatjki, or my little dog 5 others call their children
according to the order of their birth, as Firjl, Second, Third, &c.
■
j
o S T [ 586 ] O S T
«-'it;add tlie top with birch bark. At the end of the wall fup-
Oftricifm Port^ng gable wras a kind of altar, made of limber,
on wrhich wrere placed twro idols, reprefenting a man
and woman dreffed in all forts of rags ; and round thele
were other fmall figures, as deer, foxes, and hares, all
which wTere roughly carved in wood, and alfo clothed
in rags. They did not appear to have much devotion,
nor any great reverence for their idols. When they offer
facrifices, they prelent the bead; to the idol 5 and having
bound it, an old man puts up the petitions of thofe who
brought the offering 5 he then lets fly an arrow at the
bduff, and the people aflilf in killing it. It is then drawm
three times round the idol} and the blood being recei¬
ved into a veffel, they fprinkle it on their houfes; they
afterwards drefs the flelli and eat it, rejoicing and fing-
ing their country fongs : they alfo befmear the idol with
the blood of the facrifice, and greafe their mouths wuth
the fat. What they cannot eat they carry home to
their families, and make prefents of it to their neigh¬
bours : they as often facrifice a fiflr as a bead:. At the
conclufion of the feaft they fhout, to (how their gratitude
to the idol for his attending and accepting their devo¬
tions ; for they are perfuaded that the faint or hero re-
prelented by the image always attends their facrifices,
which when over he returns to his abode in the air.
There is nothing more furprifing, nor, if properly im¬
proved, is there any thing more inftrudling, than the hi-
itory of fuperftition. It is wuth this view that wm have
given fo enlarged a view of the Oftiacks, longer, fome
may imagine, than their importance demands. It
would, however, in our opinion, be improper to let fuch
an opportunity flip of exhibiting the extreme rveaknefs
of unaflifled reafon, and the confequent neceflity of a
divine revelation. That the religion of thefe ignorant
and milguided Pagans is the corruption of a primitive
revelation, we think at lead; probable •, nor do wTe fee
any way of fo fatisfa£lorily accounting for the univerfal
ufe of facrifices. The Oftiacks are obliged to take an
oath of fidelity to the Ruffian government ; and on
thefe octafions they ufe the following ceremony. Af¬
ter laying dowm a bear fldn and an axe, and holding
over it a piece of bread on a knife, they fay, “ In cafe
I do not to my life’s end prove true and faithful to the
fupreme government of the country, or if I knowungby
and willingly break through my allegiance, or be want¬
ing in the duty I owe to the faid fupreme government,
may the bear tear me to pieces in the wood j may the
bread I eat flick in my throat and choke me ; may the
knife flab me, and the axe cut off my head.” The like
ceremony is ufed among them in the depofition of a
witnefs.
OSTRACION, a genus of fifties belonging to the or¬
der Cartilaginei. See Ichthyology, p. 103.
OSTRACISM, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the
banifhment of fuch perfons w’hofe merit and influence
gave umbrage to the people of Athens, left they fhould
attempt any thing againft the public liberty. This
prnifhment was called oftracifm, from the Greek word
which properly fignifies a “ fhell 5” but when
applied to this objeft, it is ufed for the billet on which the
Athenians wrote the names of the citizens whom they
intended to banifh. The learned are divided with re-
|*.(.rd to the fubftance of which this billet was formed :
fome infift that it was a fmall ftone, or a piece of brick;
fome that it was a piece of bark ; and others affert; that
it was a fhell. The word admits moft of thefe interpre- Oitraciirn.
tations. But what determines its true fenfe, is the epi- ' v—**
thet given it by ancient authors, of ceramite maflix;
which words fignify, “ The punifhment of potter’s
clay 5” and this expreffion feems to us a proof, that the
wun'd ergusfcoi', when applied on this occafion, fignifies a
“ piece of baked earth, in the form of a fhell j” and un¬
doubtedly the Latin authors had this idea of the wmrd
here, for they tranflated it by tejlula.
The ancients are likewife divided with regard to the
time wffen oftracifm was inftituted. But they all agree,
that the perfon who moved the law wTas its firft vic¬
tim. But as to the name of its patron, and the time of
its eftablifhment, they differ extremely. Many are of opi¬
nion, that oftracifm owes its origin to very remote times.
However that be, the punifhment of oftracifm was in-
fli£led by the Athenians when their liberty wTas in dan¬
ger. If, for inftance, jealoufy or ambition had fowed
difeord among the chiefs of the republic ; and if differ¬
ent parties were formed, which threatened fome revolu¬
tion in the flate ; the people affembled to propofe mea-
fures proper to be taken in order to prevent the confe-
quences of a divifion which in the end might be fatal
to freedom. Oftracifm was the remedy to which they
ufually had recourfe on thefe occafions ; and the conful-
tations of the people generally terminated with a decree,
in which a day was fixed for a particular affembly, when
they were to proceed to the fentence of oftracifm. Then
they wffio were threatened with banifhment, omitted no af-
fiduity or art which might gain them the favour of the
people. They made harangues to evince their inno¬
cence, and the great injuftice that would be done them
if they were banifhed. They folicited, in perfon, the
intereft of every citizen ; all their party exerted them-
felves in their behalf: they procured informers to vilifv
the chiefs of the oppofitite faction. Some time before
the meeting of the affembly, a wooden inclofure was
raifed in the forum, with ten doors, i. e. with as many
as there were tribes in the republic ; and when the ap¬
pointed day was come, the citizens of each tribe enter¬
ed at their refpedlive door, and threw into the middle pf
the inclofure the fmall brick on which the citizen’s
name was written whofe banifhment they voted. The
archons and the fenate prefided at this affembly, and
counted the billets. He who was condemned by 6000
of his fellow citizens, was obliged to quit the city with¬
in ten days ; for 6000 voices, at leafl, were requifite t<?
to banifh an Athenian by the oftracifm.
The Athenians, without doubt, forefaw the inconve¬
niences to which this law was fubjeft ; but they chofe
rather, as Cornelius Nepos hath remarked, fometimes to
expofe the innocent to an unjuft cenfure, than to live in
continual alarms. Yet as they were fenfible that the
injuftice of confounding virtue and vice would have
been too flagrant,'they foftened, as much as they could,
the rigour of oftracifm. It was not aggravated with
the circumftances which were moft difhonourable and'
fhocking in the ordinary mode of exile. They did not
confifcate the goods of thofe who were banifhed by
oftracifm. They enjoyed the produce of their effedH
in the places into which they were banifhed ; and they
were banifhed only for a certain time. But in the com¬
mon banifhment, the goods of the exiles were always
confifcated, and no hopes were given them of ever re
turning to Athens, 1
The.
N
> 0 . S . T . . ' C . 5
Oftradfm. The fcholiaft of Ariftophanes informs us of a third
difference betwixt oftracifm and the common bani/li-
ment. H'^^fays, that a particular place of retirement
•was adigned to thofe who were banilhed by otlracifm,
which was not appointed to the other exiles. We fuf-
peft, liowever, the truth of this obfervation j for Themi-
ftocles was certainly not limited in his banilhment.
That great man, as we are told by Thucydides, though
his chief refidence was at Argi, travelled over all the
Peloponnefus.
This punithment, far from conveying the idea of in¬
famy, became, at Athens, a proof of merit, by the ob¬
jects on which it was inflicfed j as Ariftides the fophift
juftly obferves, in his fecond declamation againft the
Gorgias of Plato, where he fays, that oftracifm was not
an eifeft of the vindi&ive fpirit of the people againft
thofe whom it condemned ; that the law, whether good
or bad, (for he enters not into an examination of the
queftion), was only meant to prune the luxuriant growth
of transcendent merit; that it condemned to an exile of
ten years, only thofe illuftrious men who were accufed
of being exalted far above other citizens by their con-
fpicuous virtue ; and that none of that public indigna¬
tion was ftiown to the exiles by oftracifm, which com¬
monly breaks out againft criminals.
Such were the mitigations with which this law was in¬
troduced among the Athenians : and by them we fee that
they were fenftble of all the inconveniences to which it was
fubjeift. They were indeed too enlightened a people,
not to forefee the many inftances of injuftice which it
might produce *, that if in fome refpe&s it would be fa¬
vourable to liberty, in others it would be its enemy, by
condemning citizens without allowing them a previous
defence, and by making a capricious and envious people
arbiters of the fate of great men ; that it might even
become pernicious to the ftate, by depriving it of its beft
fubje&s, and by rendering the adminiftration of public
affairs an odious employment to men of capital talents
and virtue.
However great the inconveniences of oftracifm were,
it would not have been impoffible to avoid them ; and
we may add, that this law would have been of fervice
to the ftate, if the people by whom it was inftituted had
always had difcernment enough only to give it force on
luch occafions as endangered liberty. But its fate was
like that of almoft all other laws which the wife ft legi-
ftators have planned for the good of communities. De-
ftined by their inftitution to maintain order, to reprefs
injuftice, and to protect innocence, men have found ways
to pervert their application, and have made them inftru-
ments to gratify their private paffions. Thus oftracifm was
eftablilhed to prevent the dangerous enterprifes of the
great, and to preferve the vigour of the democracy ■, but the
people of Athens, naturally jealous and envious, exerted
that law, to remove men of eminent merit from the ftate,
by whofe prefence they were reproved and intimidated.
I he fear of tyranny was commonly but a fpecious pre¬
text writh which they veiled their malignity. The re¬
peated vi&ories which they had gained over the Per-
ftans, had rendered them, fays Plutarch, proud and info-
lent. Intoxicated with their prosperity, they arrogated
aft its glory to themfelves; they were jealous of thofe
citizens whofe political and military talents were the fub-
jetts of public eulogium. They thought the glory ac¬
quired by great men diminiftied their own reputation.
87 ] o s w
An Athenian no fooner diftinguifhed himfelf by a fplen* Oftradfrs
did aftion, than he was marked out as a viftim by pub- II
lie envy. His reputation was a fufficient reafon for his .. ‘v'^
banilhment.
OSTRACITES, in Natural blijlory, a name ufed for
the foible oyfters, common in many parts of England.
Ihey are of various fhapes and kinds 3 and the name h
by fome authors made to fignify the ihell itfelf, when
prefei ved in its native ftate and condition 3 as is the
cafe with thofe about Woolwich and Blackheath 3 and
by others, the ftones caft or formed in thofe (hells, or in
cavities from whence they have been waftied away.
OSTREA, the oyster, a genus of ihell fiih belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacea. See Ostrea, Con-
choeogy Index.
OSTRICH. See Stkctthio, Ornithology In¬
dex.
OSTROVIZZA, in Dalmatia (fee Dalmatia),
fuppofed by fome to be the Arauzona, and by others the
Stlupi of the ancients, though probably it has no con
nedftion with either the one or the other. It was pur -
chafed in 1410 by the republic of Venice, for 5000 du¬
cats, and fome pieces of land belides. Its fortrefs,
which was feated on a rock, perpendicularly cut all
round, and defervedly reckoned impregnable before the
ufe of artillery, was taken by Soliman in 1524, but foon
after reftored to the dominion of Venice. At prefent,
no traces of its fortification remain, and it is only a bare
and ifolated mafs.
OSTUNI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na*
pies, and in the Terra di Otranto, with a bilhop’s fee.
Its territory is well cultivated, and abounds with olives
and almonds. It is feated on a mountain near the gulf
of Venice, in E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 49. 59.
OSWEGO, a fort of North America, feated on the
eaft fide of a river of the fame name, and on the fouth
fide of the lake Ontario, in W. Long. 76. 30. N. Lat.
43- I5-
OSWEIZEN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Cracovia, formerly having the title of a duchy. It
carries on a great trade in fait, and is feated on the ri¬
ver Viftula. E. Long. 19. 47. N. Lat. 50. 1.
OSWESTRY, an old town of Shroplhire, in Eng¬
land, 172 miles from London, with a caftle, a wall, and
a ditch, and was anciently a borough. It is a place ce¬
lebrated in Saxon hiftory and legendary piety. On this
fpot, Auguft 5. 642, was fought the battle between the
Chriftian Ofwald, king of the Northumbrians, and the
pagan Penda, king of the Mercians, in which Ofwald
wras defeated, and loft his life. The barbarian vidftor
cut the body of the (lain prince in pieces, and ftuck
them on ftakes difperfed over the field as fo many tro¬
phies 3 but, according to others, his head and hands on¬
ly -were thus expofed. A prince fo dear to the church
as Ofwald, and fo attached to the profeffors of the mo-
naftic life, received every pofthumous honour they could
bellow. He was raifed to the rank of a faint, and his
fanfility confirmed by numberlefs miracles, wrhich are too
numerous and too trilling to admit of particular deferip-
tiom Its church, which is of no great antiquity, was
formerly a monaftery, and was called Blancminfter. It
is, however, fpacious, and has a handfome plain tower.
In the years 1542 and 1567, this town fuffered much
by fire. It is governed by two bailiffs, burgeffes, &c.
and once had a great trade in Welch cottons and, flan-
4 E 2 nels,
O S Y [ 5
O' ruandes. nels j but this is now snuch decayed. There is now
' fcarcely a tolerable houfe for travellers. Eat befides a
good grammar fchool, it is noted for an excellent cha-
rity-fchool for 40 boys, betides girls, which has the bed
methods for exciting the emulation of the children in
their learning •, for 20 of the boys are fct to drive
againft 20 others for fhoes, and the 20 who perform
their talk bell have Ihoes firit •, then 10 of the boys are
fet again!! xo others for the like premium, and fo on till
they are all fhod : fo in the girls fchool a Ihift is put up
for the belt fpinner, a head-drefs for the belt fempttrefs,
a pair of dockings for the belt knitter, a Bible for the
belt reader, and a copy-book for the belt writer. In
the wail with which the town was fortified there were
four gates. That called the Block gate is demolifhed *,
the New-gate, Willow-gate, and the Beatiice-gate, Itill
remain. The lalt is a handfome building, with a guard-
room on both Ikies. There are only two fragments of
the caftle remaining. It flood on .an ardficktl mount,
lurrounded by a folTe, extending to the Willow-gate.
OSYMANDES, a famous king of Egypt, was, ac¬
cording to fome authors, the firit monarch who collect¬
ed a great number of books for the purpofe of forming
a library. To this curious col!e6tion he gave the title
pf Pharmacy of the Soul. Of all the monuments of
the kings of Thebes, that of Ofymandes is one of the
Jjromkv's molt magnificent. “ He appears (fays an elegant au-
#//?. of the thor) to have been a prince of great elegance and talle
ArtS’ his day. Diodorus Siculus deferibes many fumptuous
edifices erected by him j among thofe edifices his palace
or maufoleum, whichfoever it was, has been eminently
dhtinguilhed for the paintings and fculptures with which
it was adorned. When we look to the fubjects of thofe
works, we fnall l*ive reafon to think that no man in
any age could difeover a fairer and more enlightened
judgement than he did in the employment of the genius
around him, which was. not tamely devoted to dull or
contracted objeCts, nor lavilhed on feenes of favage life,
nor wholly engroiTed in allufions to himfelf, but fenfibly
enlarged to a variety of contemplation which might be¬
come a great fovereign ; and in each of thofe parts the
fubjeft was.charaCteriitically great.
*Diod. Sic. “ * In one place was repreiented, in a multitude of
hb. i. p 45. fculptures, his expedition againlt the Ba&nans, a people
edit. Rho- 0£ whom lie Lad invaded with 400,000 foot, and
20,000 horfe, and whom he conquered. In another
part was difplayed the variety of fruits and productions,
with which Pan, the great fource of all things, had en¬
riched the fertile land over which Ofymandes reigned.
A third group of figures reprefented the monarch him-
felf, as the high priell of the country, offering to the
gods the gold and lilver which he drew every year from
the mines of Egypt. In another part of the edifice was
exhibited, in an infinite number of figures, an affembly
of judges, in the midlt of a great audience attentive to
their decilions 5 the prelxdent or chief of thofe judges,
furrounded by. many books, wore on his brealt a pifilure
of Truth with her eyes fhut—thofe emphatic emblems,
beyond which no age could go for the impreflion of that
wiidom and impartiality which ought to prevail in ad-
minillrative jultice.”
In fhort, we cannot without aftonifhment read the ac¬
count which Diodorus Siculus gives of the almoll incredi¬
ble magnificence of this prince, and of the immenfe
hixns which he fpent upon thofe grand works. Among!!
88 ]
OTA
a variety of other furprliing curiofities, was to be feen Ofymmdes
a ilatue in the attitude of fitting, which was the largell ,>L
in all Egypt, the length of one of the feet being ^ta,r^lte- ^
leven cubits. Not only the art of the fculptor, but
alfo the beauty of the Hone, which was perfect in its
kind, contributed to render this a malterpiece of fculp-
ture. It bore the following infeription : I am OST-
AlANDES, king of kings; whoever will dfpute with
?jie this title, let him furpafs me in any of my works.
Indeed (to ufe the words of the lame elegant author
quoted above) “ the palace or maufoleum of this ac-
complifhed prince mull give us a linking affurance of
the progrefs which had been made in the arts at that
time j whether he lived, as fome have thought f, the f See tfo/-
immediate fucceffor of the firit Bufiris, which was iome- tin's Anc.
what later than the period of Semirarnis ; or, as others H{ft-
have conceived f, fubfequent to Sefoltris, which would . ^ „
be 400 years later. Diodorus Siculus, who deferibes p, ’
that edifice, fays nothing of the age in which Ofyinan- Covyuct,
des lived j every opinion, therefore, on that point mull v°!- u-
be conjedlure. We lhall only remark, that there is no-1’' I41’
thing in the works of art in that edifice which Ihould
appear too much for the earlielt age in which that mo¬
narch has been placed, when we look back to what was
done of thofe works in a period full as early by Semira-
mis in Affyria.”
OTACOUSTIC INSTRUMENT, or Auricular Title,
an inltrument to facilitate the hearing. See Acou¬
stics.
OTAHEITE, a celebrated illand of the South
fea, fituated in W7. Long. 149. 13. S. Lab 17. 46.
It was difeovered by Captain Wallis in i 767 5 after¬
wards Mr Bougainville touched here ; and it was viiited
by Captain Cook in 1773 and 1774, who had in 1769
failed round the illand in a boat to obfeive the tranfit
of Venus.
The illand connlts of two dill in 61 kingdoms, which
are united by a narrow neck of land 1 the larger be¬
ing called by the natives Tiarrabou, or O-Taheitee Nue ;
the fmaller one Opoureonou, or O-Taheitee-Ete.
The
, the
The
TheApPear\
-1 ance ol the
circumference of both iHands is about 40 leagues
larger kingdom being divided into 43 diftrleis.
country has a delightful romantic appearance,
coait, viewed from the fca, prefents a moil beautiful country
profpedt, being elevated like an amphitheatre. The
illand is Ikirted with a reef of rocks, and towards the
fea is level, being covered with fruit trees of various
kinds, particularly the cocoa-nut. At the dillance of
about three miles from the Ihore, the country rifes in¬
to lofty hills that are covered with wood, and termi¬
nate in peaks, from which large rivers are precipitated
into the fea. The Hones everywhere appear to have
been burnt, not one being found which did not give
manifefl figns of fire ; fo that there is great reafon for
fuppofing that this and the neighbouring illands are ei¬
ther the lhattered remains of a continent, dr were torn
from rocks, which from the creation of the world have
been the bed of the fea, and thrown up in heaps to a
height which the waters never reach. What is further
extraordinary, the wTater does not gradually grow7 fhal-
lowr as wTe approach the Ihore, but is of immenfe depth
clofe by -the land : and the illands in this neighbourhood
are almoH everywhere furrounded by reels which appear
to be rude and broken in the manner that fome violent
concuflion would naturally leave the folid fubltanee of
the
Otah’ *«.
Climate.
High
mountain;
Soil and
produce.
OTA- [5
the earth ; and Mr Forfter faw a rock with projecting
longitudinal angles of black corapaff bafaltes. I he ex¬
terior ranges of hills are foraetimes entirely barren, and
contain a great quantity of yellowiih clay, mixed with
iron ochre j but others are covered with mould and
wood like the mountains in the internal parts of the
country. Pieces of quartz are fom.etim.es met with
here ^ but no indications ot precious minerals or me¬
tals of any kind have been obferved, iron only ex¬
cepted.
The air is extremely healthy and pleaiant; the heat
is not troublefome •, and frefh meat will keep very well
for two days, and fifn one day- i'he winds do not
blow conftantly from the call, but generally, a little
breeze from eaft to fouth-fouth-eaft. The tide rifes
Very little •, and, being governed by the winds, is very
uncertain. “ The climate,fays M. Bougainville, “ is
fo healthy, that notwifhftanding the hard labour of the
fhips companies while on ihore, though the men were
continually in the water, and expofed to the meridian
fun, though they dept upon the bare foil, and in the
open air, none of them fell lick ; tliofe who were ax-
Hicted with the feurvy, and were fent on Ihore, regain¬
ed their ftrength : although they were obliged to.affift
in the erefling of a fort, and had fcarce one uninter¬
rupted night, yet they were fo far recovered in the Ihort
fpace of time they continued there, that they were ar-
terwards perfeftiy cured on board.''’
Notwithftanding the great height of the inland moun-
• tains of Otaheite, none of their rocks have the appear¬
ance of barrennefs, every one of them being covered
with woods. “ We hardly believed our eyes,” fays M.
de Bougainville, “ when we faw a peak covered with
woods up to its higheft fummit, which rifes above the
level of the mountains in the jnterior parts of the fou-
thern quarter of this illand. Its apparent lize feemed to
be more than 30 toifes in diameter, and grew lefs in
breadth as it role higher. At a diftance it might have
been taken for a pyramid of immenfe height, which the
hand of an able fculptor had adorned with garlands and
foliage.” One of the mates of the Dolphin, with a
party of marines and feamen, penetrated into the inte¬
rior parts of the iiland; and having afeended, with great
dirficulty, a mountain which they fuppbfed to be a mile
high, they difeovered mountains belore them fo much
higher, that with refpeef to them they feemed to be in a
valley : towards the fea the view was enchanting, the
Tides of the hills were beautifully clothed with wood,
villages were everywhere interlperfed, and the valleys
between them afforded a ftill richer protpefl the houfes
ilood thicker, and the verdure was more luxuriant •, and
Mr Forfter, with other gentlemen, afeended to the fum¬
mit of one of the higheft mountains in the ifland, from
whence they had a profpedf of the ifland of Huahine,
and feme others lying at the diftance of 40 leagues
from which wc may form fome judgement of the prodi¬
gious height of that mountain. The view of trie fertile
plain below them, and of a river making innumerable
meanders, was delightful in the higheft degree. The ve¬
getation on the upper part of the mountains was luxu¬
riant, and the woods conhfted of many unknown forts of
trees and plants.
The foil of this ifland is a rich fat earth, of a IflackiAi
colour. It produces fpontaneoufly, or with the flighteft
culture imaginable, a great variety of the meft excellent
89 ] OTA
fruits j fuch as bread-fruit, cocoa nuts, bananas of 13
forts, plantains, potatoes, yams, a fruit known here by
the name of ja??ibu^ and reckoned mold delicious } lugar-
canes, which the inhabitants eat rawj ginger } turmeric;
a root of the falep kind, called by the inhabitants pea ;
a plant called ethee, of which the root only is eaten ; a
fruit that grows in a pod like that of a large kidney
bean, by the natives called ahee ; a tree called wharra,
which produces fruit fomething like the pine-apple, and
which is known in the Eaft Indies by the name oi pan-
danes ; a fhrub called no>10; the morinda, which alio
produces fruit; a fpecies of fern ; a plant called the-ve ;
and the Chinefe paper-mulberry, of the bark of which
they make their cloth ; an her!) which the inhabitants
eat raw, its flavour fomewhat refembling. that of the
Weft India fpinage called calletoon, but its leaf very
different ; a plant which the natives call ava or cava,
from the root of which tney exprefs a liquor, which, 11
drank to excels, intoxicates like wine or diftilled fpirits.
Here are a fort of lhady trees covered with a dark green
foliage, bearing golden-coloured apples, which, in juici-
nefs and flavour, referable the ananas or pine-apple. One
of the mold beautiful trees in the world received here
the name of Barringtonia ; it had a great abundance of
flowers larger than lilies, and perfebdly white, excepting
the tips of their numerous chives, which were of a deep
crimfon. Such a quantity of thefe flowers were feen
dropped off, that the ground underneath the tree was
entirely covered with them. The natives called the
tree huddov ; and faid, that the fruit, which is a large
nut, when bruifed and mixed up with fome Ihell-filh,
and thrown into the fea, intoxicates the filh for fome
time, fo that they come to the farface of the water, and
fuffer themfelves to be taken with people’s hands. Se¬
veral other maritime plants in tropical climates are
found to have the fame quality. Mr Dalrymple de-
feribes the method of catching flfti with thefe plants as
follows: the:plant is thruft under the coral rocks or hol¬
lows where the fifli haunt; the effefd is moft fenfible in
ftill water, though it is effetftual in the open lea ; for
the fame gentleman fays, he has feen fifn foon after
float on the furface of the water half dead, and fome
totally without life ; and where the effeeft is lefs vio¬
lent, the filh will he feen under the water to have
loft their poife, without coming up to the furface. Fiih
caught in this manner are not in the leaft noxious or ill
tailed.
In this ifland they have domeftic poultry exactly re-
fembling thofe of Europe: befides which there are
wild ducks ; alio beautiful green turtle doves ; large
pig-eons of a deep blue plumage and excellent tafte ;
a fmall fort of paroquets, very lingular on account of
the various mixture of red and blue in their feathers ;
alfo another fort of a greenifli colour, with a few red
fpots ; the latter are frequently tamed, and are valued
on account of their red feathers. Here is a king-
fiflier of a dark green, with a collar of the fame hue
round his white throat ; a large cuckoo, and a blue
heron. Small birds of various kinds dwell in the lhady
trees; and, contrary to the generally received opinion
that birds in warm climates are not remarkable for
their for. g, have a very agreeable note. There were
no quadrupeds but dogs, hogs, and rats : and for thefe
laft the natives were faid to have a fcrupulous regard,
infomuch that they would by no means kill them-;
however.
Otaheite.*
. 5
■xtiimals
otl,t , r 0 T A c 590 I OTA
however Captain Cook, in 1773, turned about 14 cats of dutinflion, fmce only fuch people as have no occafion
on the ifland, which have probably reduced the num- to work can fuffer. them to grow to that length. ThS'
euftom they have in common with the Chinefe ; but the
nail or i i
her of thefe vermin. No frogs, toads, fcorpions, cen¬
tipedes, or any kind of ferpent, have been found here ;
the ants, however are troublefome, but not very nu¬
merous. When the Endeavour firft arrived here in
1769, the flies were found exceflively troublefome-, but
mufqueto nets and fly-flaps in fome meafure removed the
inconvenience. Sydney Parkinlon, m his journal, fays,
that notwithftanding thefe flies are fo great a nuifance,
the natives, from a religious principle, will not kill
them. But there is a ftrange' difagreement in the ac¬
counts of different voyagers concerning this matter.
For M. Bougainville fays, “ this ifland is not infefted
with thofe myriads of troublefome infers that are the
plague of other tropical countries.” And Mr Forfter
fays, "
about us
inconvenience mufl: therefore be felt at certain feafons
of the year, and in certain diftrifts of the country, more
fenfibly than at other times and places. There is great
variety of excellent fifh j and according to Aitourou, a
native who embarked with M. de Bougainville, there
are fea-fnakes on the fhore of Otaheite, whofe bite is
6 mortal.
Defcription The inhabitants of Otaheite are a flout, well-made,
Ot the inha- aftive, and comely people. The flature of the men, in
antS general, is from five feet feven to five feet ten inches 5
the tallefl man feen by Captain Wallis meafured fix
feet three inches and a half; and Captain Cook, in his
fecond voyage, deferibes O-Too, the king of Otaheite,
to be of that height. “ In order to paint a Hercules or
a Mars,” fays M. de Bougainville, “ one could nowhere
find fuch beautiful models.” They are of a pale brown
complexion ; in general their hair is black, and finely
frizzled j they have black eyes, flat nofes, large mouths,
and fine white teeth; the men wear their beards in
many falhions, all of them plucking out a great part,
and have prominent bellies. Moil of them fmell flrong-
of the cocoa-nut oil. The women in general are much
fmaller, efpecially thofe of the lower rank or tawtows,
which is attributed to their early and promifeuous inter-
courfe with the men 5 whilft the better fort, who do not
gratify their paflions in the fame unbridled manner, are
above the middle flature of Europeans. Their fkin is
moil delicately fmooth and foft: they have no colour
in their cheeks ; their rtofe is generally fomervhat flat,
but their eyrs are full of expreflion, and their teeth
beautifully even and white. “ The women,” fays M.
de Bougainville, “ have features not lefs agreeable than
the generality of Europeans, and a fymmetry of body
and beautiful proportion of limbs which might vie with
any of them. The complexion of the men is tawny
but thofe who go upon the water are much more red
than thofe who live on fhore. Some have their hair
brown, red, or flaxen, in which they are exceptions to
all the natives of Afia, Africa, and America, who have
their hair black univerfally 5 here, in the children of
both fexes, it is generally flaxen. The flrongefl expref-
fion is painted in the countenances of thefe people ;
their walk is graceful, and all their motions are per¬
formed with great vigour and eafe.” “ I never beheld
flatelier men, (fays _ Sydney Parkinfon.) The men of
confequence on the ifland w7ear the nails of their finders
long, which they confider as a very honourable badge
4
nail of the middle finger on the right hand is always
kept fhort, the meaning for which peculiarity could not
be learned. Only one Angle cripple was met with
among them, and he appeared to have been maimed by
a fall. The women always cut their hair fhort round
their heads. Both fexes have a cuflom of flaining their
bodies, which they call tallowing ; both men and v-o-
men have the hinder part of their thighs and loins
marked very thick with black lines in various forms :
theie marks are made by flriking the teeth of an inilru-
ment fomewhat like a ccmb juft through the fkin, and
rubbing into the punftures a kind of pafte made of foot
*■ - g v —; : ~r"7‘ ■ and 01b leaves an indelible ftain. The bovs and
not a gnat or mufqueto hummed unpleafantly girls under twelve years of age are not marked ! few
s, or made us apprehenfive of tts bite.” This of the men, whofe legs were marked in c^uers’byth"
fame method, appeared to be perfons of fuperior rank
and authority. Mr Banks faw the operation of tattow-
mg performed upon the backfide of a girl about thirteen
years old. The inftrument ufed upon this occafion had
thirty teeth ; and every ftroke, of which at leaft a hun¬
dred were made in a minute, drew an ichor or ferum a
little tinged with blood. The girl bore it with mofl
lloical refolution for about a quarter of an hour -, but
the pain of fo many hundred pundlures as fhe had re¬
ceived in that time, then became intolerable. She firft
complained in murmurs, then w-ept, and at lafl burfl
into loud lamentations, earneftly imploring the operator
to defift. He was, however, inexorable and when fhe
began to ftruggle, fhe was held down by two women,
who fometimes foothed and fometimes chid her; and
now and then, when fhe was moll unruly, gave her a
fmart blow. Mr Banks ftaid in a neighbouring houfe
an nour, and the operation was not over when he went
away; yet it was performed but upon one fide, the other
having been done fome time before ; and the arches up¬
on the loins, in which they mofl pride themfelves, and
which gave more pain than all the reft, were ftill to be
done. Both men and women are not only decently but
gracefully clothed, in a kind of white cloth that is made
of the bark of a fhrub, and very much refembles coarfe
China paper. Their drefs confifts of two pieces of this
cloth * one of them, having a hole made in the middle
to put the head through, hangs from the fhoulders to
the mid-leg before and behind ; another piece, which is
between four and five yards long, and about one yard
broad, they wrap round the body in a very eafy man¬
ner' : 1 his cloth is not woven but is made like paper,
of the macerated fibres of the inner bark fpread out and
beaten together. Their ornaments are feathers, flowers,
pieces of fhell, and pearls j the pearls are worn chiefly
by the women. In wet weather they wear matting of
different kinds, as their cloth will not bear wetting.
The drefs of the better fort of women confifts of three
or four pieces : one piece, about two yards wide and
eleven long, they wrap feveral times round their waift,
fo as to hang down like a petticoat as low as the middle
of the leg 5 and this they call parou. This Ample
drapery affords the fex an opportunity of difplaying
an elegant figure to the greateft advantage, according
to the talents and tafte of the wearer: no general
fafhions force them to disfigure inflead of adorning them¬
felves, but an innate gracefulnefs is the companion of
fimplkity.
OTA [ 591 ] OTA
Otiiheite. iimplicity. To this cloth they give a very flrong per-
' v fume.
Of their u^e which they make of their houfes is to
huufes. heep in them j for unlefs it rains, they eat in the open
air under the fhade of a tree. Thefe houfes are no other
than flieds, all built in the wood between the fea and
the mountains j they are erefted on an oblong fquare 5
their width is nearly half of their length ; they are
nothing more than a roof, not quite four feet from the
ground, raifed on three rows of pillars, one row on
each fide, and one in the middle. The roof refembles
our thatched houfes in England, and confifts of two
flat fides inclining to each other. Their thatch con-
iifts of palm-leaves. The floor of their dwelling is
covered with hay, over which they fpread mats. Some
of thefe erections are furnifhed with a flool, which is
appropriated folely to the ufe of the mailer of the fami¬
ly : they conliit of no other furniture except a few
blocks of wrood, which being fquare, one flde is hol¬
lowed into a curve ", and thefe they ufe as pillows, and
wdth their apparel they cover themfelves. In thefe open
dwellings the whole family repofe thenjfelves at night.
The fize of the houfe is proportioned to the number that
conilitutes the family. The eltablifhed order in thefe
dormitories is, for the matter and his wife to deep in the
middle } round them the married people ; in the next
circle the unmarried women •, and in the next, at the
fame dittance, the unmarried men 5 and the fervants at
the extremity of the died ; but in fair weather the lat¬
ter lleep in the open air. Some few dwellings, how¬
ever, conftrucled for greater privacy, are entirely in-
ylofed with walls of reeds, connefted together with
tranfverfe pieces of wood, fo as to appear fomewdiat like
large bird cages clofely lined ; in thefe houfes there is
commonly a hole left for the entrance, which can be
clofed up with a board.
1 heir candles are made of the kernels of a kind of
oily nut, wdiich they fttek one above another in a
Ikewer that is thruft through the middle of them ; the
upper one being lighted burns to the fecond, at the
fame time confuming that part of the ikew^er that goes
through it j the fecond taking fire burns in the fame
manner down to the third, and fo to the laft 5 they
burn a confiderable time, and afford a pretty good
light. The natives generally retire to reft about an hour
g after it is dark.
Food, me- ^'^e ^ie common people entirely confifts of
thodof vegetables. Thefe are, the bread-fruit, writh bananas,
coskery. plantains, yams, apples, and a four fruit, which, though
not pleafant by itfelf, gives an agreeable relifti to roafted
bread-fruit, with wdiich it is frequently beaten up. The
flefh, which is referved for the tables of the great, is ei¬
ther poultry, hogs, or dogs $ the flelh of their fowls is
not wrell-tafted, but that of dogs is efteemed by the na¬
tives beyond pork. The fmaller fifti are generally eaten
rave, as we eat oyfters : every thing that can be procur¬
ed from the fea is made an article of their food ; for
they will eat not only fea-infe.cls, but what the feamen
call blubbers, though lome of them are fo tough that
they are obliged to fuffer them to become putrid before
they can be chewed. A very large {hark being caught
by the Dolphin’s people was given to the natives; who
fqon cut it to pieces, and carried it away with great
fitbisfadlion.
They kill the animals they intend for food by fuffo-
cating them, wdiich is done by Hopping the mouth and Otaheite.
nofe with their hands they then huge off the hair, by v *
holding the animal over a fire, and feraping him with a
{hell : with this inftrument they cut him up, and take
cut the entrails j which are walked, and put into cocoa-
nut {hells, together with the blood. Dogs are eaten
that are fed wholly upon bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, yams,
and other vegetables, and are never fuffered to tafte any
animal food } and thofe who have tatted the flefti of a
dog thus fed, have declared it to be little inferior to
Englilh lamb. In order to drefs their food, they kindle
a fire, by rubbing the end ol one piece of dry wood upon
the fide of another, in the fame manner as a carpenter
with us W'hets a chifel. They then dig a pit about half
a foot deep, and twm or three yards in circumference j
they pave the bottom with large pebble ftones, which
they lay dowm very fmooth and even, and then kindle
a fire in it with dry wood, leaves, and the hulks of co¬
coa-nuts. When the ftones are fufficiently heated, they
take out the embers, and rake up the allies on every
fide ; they then cover the ftones writh a layer of green
cocoa-nut leaves, and wrap up the animal that is to be
drefled in the leaves of the plantain. If it is a fmall
hog, they wrap it up whole; if a large one, they fplit
it. When it is placed in the pit, they cover it with the
hot embers, and lay upon them bread-fruit and yams,
which are alfo wrapped up in the leaves of plantain.
Over thefe they fpread the remainder of the embers,
mixing among them fome of the hot ftones, with more
cocoa-nut tree leaves upon them, and then clofe up all
w-ith earth, fo that the heat is kept in ; the oven is kept
thus clofed a longer or Ihorter time according to the
fize of the meat that is dreffed. The meat, when taken
out, is faid to be better dreffed than any other way.
They ufe {hells for knives ; and carve very dexteroufly
with them, always cutting from themfelves. One of
the principal attendants on Oberea, attempting the ufe
of the knife and fork, could not feed himfelf therewith p
but by the mere force of habit, his hand came to his
mouth, and the vidluals at the end of his fork w^ent *
awray to his ear.
They are quite unacquainted wuth the method of
boiling water, as they leave no veffels among them that
will bear the fire. Whilft the noble Oberea was one
morning at breakfaft with Captain Wallis on board
the Dolphin, the furgeon filled the tea-pot by turning
the cock of a vafe that flood upon the table. One of
the lady’s attendants obferved this practice vety atten¬
tively, and foon after turning the cock himfelf, received
the water upon his hand ; he no fooner felt himfelf
fealded, than he roared and danced about in an extrava¬
gant manner. The other Indians, unapprifed of the
caufe of thefe emotions, flood gazing at him in amaze¬
ment, and not without fome mixture of terror : but the
gentlemen in company, who foon perceived the caufe of
the outcry, difpelled the apprehenfions of their vifitants;
and fome ointment being applied to the feald, good hu¬
mour and confidence were again reftored. The gunner
of the ftiip, who was appointed comptroller of the mar¬
ket which was eftabliftied on fhore with the natives,
ufed to dine on the fpot ; the aftoniihment of thefe peo¬
ple was very great to fee him drels his pork and poul¬
try in a pot", at length an old man, who was extremely
ferviceable in bringing dowm provifions to be exchanged,
was put into poffeflion of an iron pot, and from that
tin®
OTA
time lie and Ins friends ate boiled rrteat every day.
veral iron pots were likewife given to Oberea and iome
of tbe chiefs; which were in cpnftant ufe, and drew
every body to fee them ; but although the particulars
of two fuccetTive voyages of Captain Cook to this ifland
are circumftantially related, we hear no more of this
improvement in the culinary art, or of the further af-
filtance which has been rendered thofe people in fupply-
ing them with pots for boiling ; but however defiirous
the natives might be to eat boiled meat, it was not ad-
vifeable to have Inch an article of barter as iron kettles,
when a few fpike nails, or a common hatchet, wmuld
procure one of their largeft hogs.
Salt "water is the ufual fauce to their food; thofe
who live near the fea have it fumifhed as it is wanted,
others at a diftance keep it in large bamboos. I he
kernels of the cocoa-nuts furnifh them with another
fauce : thefe, made into a pafte fomething of the con¬
fidence of butter, are beat up with fait water, which
has a very ftrong flavour; but though at firft it feemed
very naufeous, yet when the taile became familiar, it
was much relifhed.
Their general drink is water, or the milk of the co-
coa-nut. They {bowed in general an avernon to itrong
liquors; and whenever any one of them happened to
drink fo freely with any of the {hip’s company as to be
intoxicated, he refolutely refufed to tafte any thing that
was likely to produce the fame effect again ; but they
have a plant which they call ava ava, from the root of
which they procure a liquor which has an inebriating
quality. Their manner oi preparing this ftrong drink
is as fimple as it is difgufting to an European. Several
of the people take fome of the root, and chew it till it
is foft and pulpy ; they then fpit it out into a platter or
other veffel, every one into the fame : into this general
receptacle water is poured according to the quantity
prepared. The juice thus diluted is {framed through
fome fibrous fluff like fine {havings, after which it is
fit for drinking, and it is always prepared for prefent
ufe: it has a pepperifh tafte ; drinks flat, and rather
infipid; and though it intoxicates, yet Captain Cook
faw but one inftance where it had that effect, as the
natives generally drink it with great moderation, and
but little at a time. Sometimes they chew this root
as Europeans do tobacco, and iometimes they will eat
it wholly.
They eat alone, or at leaft only in company with a
gueft that happens to call in ; and the men and women
never fit down together to a meal: the {hade of a Ipread-
ing tree ferves them for a parlour ; broad leaves fpread
in great abundance ferve for a table-cloth ; and if a
perfon of rank, he is attended by a number of fervants
who feat themfelves round him : before he begins his
meal, he wafties his mouth and hands very clean, and
repeats this feveral times w'hilft he is eating. I he quan¬
tity of food which thefe people eat at a meal is prodi¬
gious. Captain Cook fays, he has feen one man devour
two or three fifties as big as a pearch ; three bread¬
fruits, each bigger than two fifts ; 14 or 15 plantains,
or bananas, each fix or {'even inches long and four or
-five round, and near a quart of the pounded bread-fruit.
Men of rank are conftantly fed by their women ; and
one of the chiefs who dined on board the fhips in 1769,
.{bowed fuch relufiance to feed himfelf, that one of the
-fervarfts was obliged to feed .him to prevent his returning
OTA
without his meal. In one of the excurfions which the Otaheite.
gentlemen of the ftiips made into the country in 1773,
they arrived at a neat houfe, where a very fat man,
who leemed to be a chief of the diitrift, was lolling on
his wooden pillow ; before him two fervants ayete prepa¬
ring his deffert, by beating up with water fome bread¬
fruit and bananas in a large wooden bowl, and mixing
with it a quantity of fermented four pafte called mahie.
While this was doing, a woman, .who fat down near
him, crammed down his throat by handfuls the remains
of a large baked fifli, and feveral bread-fruits, which
he fwallowed with a voracious appetite : his countenance
was the piclure of phlegmatic infenfibility, and feemed
to teftify that all his thoughts centered in the gratifica¬
tion of his appetite. He fcarce deigned to look at
the ftrangers ; and a few monofyllables which he utter¬
ed, were extorted from him to remind his feeders of
their duty, w7hen by gazing at them they grew lefs at¬
tentive to him.
That thefe people, who are remarkably fond of fo-
ciety, and particularly that of their women, ftiould ex¬
clude its pleafures from the table, where, among all
other nations, whether civil or favage, they have been
principally enjoyed, is truly inexplicable. How a meal,
which everywhere elfe brings families and friends to¬
gether, comes to feparate them here, was a {angula¬
rity much inquired about, but never accounted for.
“ They ate alone (they faid), becaufe it was right;”
but why it was right to eat alone, they never attempt¬
ed to explain. Such, however, was the force of habit
in this inftance, as it is in every other, that they ex-
preffed the ftrongeft difiike, and even difguft, at their
vifiiants eating in fociety, efpecially with women, and
of the fame victuals. “ At firft (fays Captain Cook)
we thought this ftrange Angularity arofe from fome
fuperftitious opinion ; but they conftantly affirmed the
contrary. We obferved alfo fome caprices in the cu-
ftom, for which we could as little account as the
cuftom itfelf. We could never prevail with any of the
women to partake of the vi&uals at our table, when
we were dining in company ; yet they would go five
or fix together into the fervants apartments, and there
eat very heartily of whatever they could find : nor were
they in the leaft difconcerted if we came in while they
-were doing it. When any of us have been alone with
a woman, fhe has femetimes eaten in our company ;
but then fhe has expreffed the great unwillingnefs that
it ffiould be known, and always extorted the ftrongeft
promifes of fecrecy. Among themfelves, even two
brothers and two fifters have each their feparate ba-
{kets of provificns, and the apparatus of their meal.
When they firft vifited us at our tents, each brought
his balket with him ; and when we fat down to table,
they would go out, fit down upon the ground, at two
or three yards diftance from each other, and turning
their faces different ways take their repaft: without
exchanging a fingle word. The women not only ab-
ftain from eating with the men, and of the fame vic¬
tuals, but even have their viftuals feparately prepared
by boys kept for that purpofe, who depofit it in a fe¬
parate" {lied, and attend them with it at their meals.
Eut though they would not eat with us, or with each
other, they have often afked us to eat with them, when
we have vifited thofe with whom we were particularly
acquainted at their houfes; and we have often upon
C 592 1
Se-
OTA
[ 595 ]
9
Difeafes.
Otaheite. fuch occaiions eaten out of tlie fame baiket, and drank.
“"“Of out of the fame cup. The elder women, however, al¬
ways appeared offended at this liberty ; and if we hap¬
pened to touch their victuals, or even the bafket that
contained it, they would throw it away.'^
After meals, and in the heat of the day, the middle-
aged people of the better fort generally deep. They
are indeed extremely indolent \ and deeping and eat¬
ing are almoft all that they do. Thofe that are older
are lefs drowfy, and the boys and girls are kept awake
by the natural activity and fprightlinefs of their age.
Thefe idanders, who inhabit huts expofed to all the
winds, and hardly cover the earth, which ferves them
for a bed, with a layer of leaves, are remarkably healthy
and vigorous, and live to an old age without enduring
any of its infirmities •, their fenfes are acute, and they
retain their beautiful teeth to the lad;. M. de Bougain¬
ville defcribes an old roan, whom they faw on their
landing, who had no other charafter of old age, than
that refpe&able one which is imprinted on a fine figure.
His head was adorned with white hair, and a long
white beard } all his body was nervous and defhy; he
had neither wrinkles, nor fhowed any other tokens of
decrepitude. This venerable man feemtd difpleafed at
the arrival of thefe drangers 5 he even retired without
making any returns to the courtefies they paid to him j
but he gave no figns either of fear, adonifhment, or
curiofity : very far from taking any part in the rap¬
tures which the multitude expreffed, his thoughtful and
fufpicious air feemed to indicate, that he feared the ar¬
rival of a new race of men would interrupt the happi-
nefs he had fo long enjoyed. From whence it may be
inferred, that his mind was not a whit more impaired
than his body. There are, however, feveral forts of
leprous complaints on this ifland, Which appear in cu¬
taneous eruptions of the fcaly kind ; fome were feen
that had ulcers upon different parts of their bodies ;
yet they feemed little regarded by thofe who were af-
tlifted with them, and no application whatever was
ufed to them, not fo much as to keep off the flies.
But indances of them are rare, as the • excellency of
their climate, and the fimplicity of their vegetable food,
prevent almod all dangerous and deadly diforders.
They are fometimes afflifled with the cholic, and
coughs are not unknown among them •, and the chiefs,
who fare more fumptuoufly, as a puniflunent for their
voluptuoufnefs are fometimes attacked with a diforder
fimilar to the gout, in which the legs are fwelled and
exceflively painful. M. de Bougainville’s furgeon af-
fured him, that he had feen many with marks of the
fmallpox.
The ufual method employed here to redore the fick
to health, is by pronouncing a fet form of words ; after
which the exorcid applies the leaves of the cocoa-tree
plaited to the fingers and toes of the fick \ fo that na¬
ture is left to conflift with the difeafe, without being
aflided with any falutary application of art. But
though they feem utterly deflitute of medical know¬
ledge, they appear to be no inconfiderable proficients in
furgery, which they had an opportunity of proving
while the Dolphin lay here. One of the feamen, when
on fhore ran a large fplinter into his foot 5 and the fur¬
geon not being at hand, one of Ins comrades endeavour¬
ed to take it out with a pen-knife : but after putting the
moor fellow to a great deal of pain, he was obliged to g-ive
Vol. XV. Part II.
OTA
it over : an old native, who had been very active and Otahcite.
fuccefsful in edablifhing a good underdanding between
the fillip’s company and his countrymen, happening to
be prefent, called a man from the other fide of the
river, who having examined the lacerated foot, fetched
a fhell from the beach, which he broke to a point with
his teeth; with which indrument he laid open the
wound, and extracted the fplinter. Whild this opera¬
tion was performing, the old man went a little way into
the wood, and returned with fome gum, which he ap¬
plied to the wound upon a piece of the cloth that was
Wrapped round him, and in two days time it was per¬
fectly healed. This gum was produced by the apple-
tree ) the furgedn of the fliip procured fome of it, and
ufed it as a vulnerary balfam with great diccefs. Cap¬
tain Cook, in 1769, fiaw many of the natives with dread¬
ful fears j one man, in particular, whofe face was almod
entirely dedroyed ; his nofe, including bone, was perfeft-
ly flat; and one cheek and one eye were fo beaten in,
that the hollow would almod receive a man’s fid \ yet
no one ulcer Kemained.
The venereal difeafe is faid to have been entailed up¬
on thefe people by the crew of M. de Bougainville’s
drips, who vifited this ifland a flrort time after Cap¬
tain Wallis had left it. In 1769, more than one-half
of the crew in Captain Cook’s Ihip had con traded it,
during a month’s day here. The natives didinguifhed
it by a name of the fame import with rottennefs, but
of a more extenfive fignification. They deferibed, in
the mod pathetic terms, the fufferings which the fird
victims to its rage endured ; and told him that it cau-
fed the hair and the nails to fall off, and the fleftr to
rot from the bones; that it fpread an univerfal terror
and condernation among the inhabitants, fo that the
fick were abandoned by their neared relations, led the
calamity drould fpread by contagion, and were left to
periftr alone in fuch mifery as till then had never been
known among them. But there feems to be fome rea^
fon to hope that they had found out a fpecific cure for
it, as none were feen on whom it had made a great
progrefs; and one who went from the fliip infeCted,
returned, after a fliort time, in perfeCt health. Both
Captain Cook and Mr Forder, in their relations of
their voyage in the Refolution, endeavour to edablifh
the opinion, that this fcourge of licentioufnefs was felt
in the South fea iflands previous to any of the mo¬
dern voyages that have been made thither, and that it
was an indigenous dileafe there. But if that conclu-
fion be well founded, how comes it, that at all the
places where the Refolution touched in 1773, which
had before been vifited by the Endeavour in 1769,
fuch as New Zealand for indance, the Crew, more or
lefs, became infeCled by their commerce with the wo¬
men, and not at all fo at places which they vifited, for
the fird time, in the Refolution ? I0
Iflie principal manufactures among the Otaheiteans Manufac-
is their cloth. This is made of the bark of trees, turef‘
which are of three kinds, viz. the Chinefe mulberry-
tree, or aouta ; ■the bread-fruit tree, or ooroo ; and one
that is deferibed by Dr Hawkefworth as refembling
the wild fig tree of the Wed Indies. Of all thefe the
paper mulberry affords the bed cloth ; what is made
from that being both finer, fofter, whiter, and better
fuited to take a colour 5 the ooroo produces cloth much
inferior in contexture; and the lad is very coarfe, in
4 F v colour
Otaheite.
ii
Working
tools.
O T A
colour refembling tlie darker! brorvn paper
laft is the only kind that withftands water : (Seethe
article 13 ark.)—i hey like wife prepare a red dye}
tvhich is made byT mixing the yellow juice of a fmall
fpecies of fig, which the natives call mattee, with the
greenifh juice of a fort of fern or bindweed, or of fe¬
deral other plants, which produce a bright crimfon :
and this the women rub with their hands, if the piece
is to be uniformly of a colour ^ or they make ufe of a
bamboo iced if tne piece is to be marked or fprinkled
into different patterns. The colour fades very foon,
and becomes, of a dirty red ; but notwithllending this
defecl, and its being liable to be {polled by rain, the
cloth thus rtained is highly valued, and is worn only
by the principal inhabitants of the country. The in¬
habitants perfume their clothes with certain plants'}
concerning which, Mr Forfter made all poffible in¬
quiry. Tahea, a friendly native, fliowed him feveral
plants which are fometimes ufed as fubilitutes} but
the moft precious fort, he either could not, or would
not, point out: and from the account of Omai it ap¬
pears that there are no lefs than 14 different forts of
plants employed for this purpofe.
i Matting is another Otaheitean manufaflure : and in
this they are fo dexterous, that they produce finer
mats than any made in Europe. Rufhes, grafs, the
bark of trees, and the leaves of a plant called wharrou,
are the materials which they work up for this purpofe.
I heir matting is applied to various ufes : the coarfer
kind is employed ior fieeping on in the night, or fit¬
ting on through the day j the finer fort is converted
into garments in rainy weather, their cloth being foon
penetrated by wet. They are ^ery dexterous in making
bafket and wicker-work : their baikets are of a vaff
number of different patterns, many of them exceedingly
neat} and the making them is an art pradtifed by every¬
one, both men and women.
Inflead of hemp, they make ropes and lines of the
bark of a tree} and thus they are provided with fiflr-
ing nets} the fibres of the cocoa-nut furniih them with
thread, with which they fallen the different parts of
their canoes, &c. The bark of a nettle which grows
in the mountains, and is called or aw a, fupplies them
with excellent filhing lines, capable of holding any
kind of filh } and their hooks are made of mother-of-
pearl, to which they fix a tuft of hair, made to re-
femble the tail of a filh. Inllead of making them
bearded, the point is turned inwards. They make alfo
a kind of feine of a coarfe broad grafs, the blades of
which are like flags. Thefe they twill and tie toge¬
ther in a loofe manner, till the net, which is about as
wide as a large fack, is from 60 to 80 fathoms long.
This they haul in fmooth thoal water} and its own
weight keeps it fo clofe to the ground, that fcarely a
Angle fith can efcape. They make harpoons of cane,
and point them with hard wood } with which they can
ttrike fiflr more effedlually than an European can with
one headed with iron.
The tools ufed by the Otaheiteans for all their pur-
pofes are, an adze made of tlone } a chifel or gouge
made of bone, generally the bone of a man’s arm be-
tween the writt and elbow } a rafp of coral, and the
{kin of a Ring-ray } alfo coral and fand, as a fife or po-
lifher: and with thefe they fell timber, cleave and po-
litli it, and hew Rone. The Rone which makes the
[ 594 t
but this blade o
o T A
then adzes is a kind of batalies, of a gray or CtaliLite.
blackiih colour, not very hard, but of confiderable v —*
toughnefs} they are formed of different fizes} forne
that are intended tor felling, weigh from fix to eight
pounds } others that are uted for carving, not more
than as many ounces: but it is neceffary to fnaipen
thefe rude tools almoil every minute} for winch pur¬
pofe a cocoa-nut fliell full of water and a Rone aie
always at hand. Yv ith iuch tools they generally take
up teveral days in felling a tree } but atier it is down,
ana iplit into planks, they tmooth them very dexler-
eufly and expeditioufly with their adzes, and can take
oh a thin coat from -a whole plank without miiiinv a
flreke.
Their weapons are flings, which they ufe with great v .
dexterity} pikes headed with the tkins of fting-iays; '
and clubs of about fix or feven feet long, made c: a
very hard wood. Thus armed, they aie laid to fight
with great obflinacy} and to give no quarter to man,
woman, or child, who happens to tali into their hands
during the battle, nor for feme time afterwards, till
their paffion fubfides. They have likewiie bows and
arrows} but the arrow's are good for nothing except to
bring down a bird, being headed only with Rone, and
none of them pointed. They have targets of a femicir-
cular form, made of wicker-work, and plaited flrings
of the cocoa-nut fibres, covered with gloffy, bluiih-
green feathers belonging to a kind of pigeon, and orna-
namented with many thark’s teeth, arranged in three
concentric circles.
Their boats or canoes are of three different forts. Cantes>
Some are made out of a tingle tree, and hold from
two to fix men. Thefe are principally employed
in fithing : the others are conflru&ed of planks very
dexteroufly fewed together} they are of different fizes,
and will hold from xo to 40 men : they generally lath
two of thefe together, and let up two malts between
them } or if they are tingle, they have an on-trigger on
one fide, and only one maff in the middle ; and in tbefe
veffels they will fail far beyond the fight of land.
The third fort feems to be principally defigned for
pleafure or flrew. Thefe are very large, but have no
fail} and in thape referable the gondolas of Venice.
The middle is covered with a large awning ; and fome
of the people fit upon it, and fome under it. The
plank of which thefe veffels are confiiuffied, is made
by fplitting a tree, with the grain, into as many thin
pieces as pofiible. The boards are brought to the
thicknefs of about an inch, and are afterwards fitted
to the boat with the fame exadhiefs that might be ex¬
pected from an expert joiner. To fafien thefe planks
together, holes are bored with a piece of bone, fixed
into a flick for that purpofe. Through thefe holes a
kind of plaited cordage is paffed, fo as to hold the
planks flrongly together. The feams are caulked with
dry rufhes} and the whole outfide of the veffel is painted
over with a kind of gummy juice, which fupplies the
place of pitch. ^
The Otaheiteans are a very induRrious people, and Characters,
friendly in their difpofitions } but like all other nations manners
not fully civilized, their paffrons are extremely vio
lent, and they are very fickle. The manner of tingling
out a man here for a chofen friend is by taking off a
part of your clothing and pulling it upon him. Their
ufual manner of expreffing their refpeCt to ffrangers, or
their
Sec*
O T A [ S9S ] OTA
tlieir fuperjors, at a fir ft meeting, is by uncovering ihem-
feives to the middle. They have a cuftom of fainting
thole who fneeze, by faying evaroeia-t-eatoua, “ May
the good eatoua awaken you,” or “ May not the evil
eatoua lull you alleep 1”
Their propeniily to theft is very great, infomuch,
that M. Bougainville fays, “ even in Europe itfelf one
cannot lee more expert filchers than the people of this
countryand indeed, in ail the voyages made by
Captain Cook and others, they had abundant expe¬
rience of this difpofition of the natives, which often
produced quarrels, and fometimes even fatal effecls. In
their behaviour they are extremely lafeivious, almoft
beyond credibility. A woman of diftindlion who vi-
fn d Mr Banks, ufed the following ceremony on her
firit approach to the ftranger. After laying down fe-
veral young plantain leaves, a man brought a large
bundle of cloth j which having opened, he fpread it
piece by piece on the ground, in the fpace between
Mr Banks and his vifitants. There were in all nine
pieces: having fpread three pieces one upon ano¬
ther, the lady came forward, and, flepping upon
them, took up her garments all around her to her
wait! •, die then turned three times round, after which
flie dropped the veil : when other three pieces were
fpread, the pradhfed the fame ceremony ; and fo the
third time, when the laft three pieces were laid out \
after which the cloth was again rolled up, and deliver¬
ed to Mr Banks as a pref'ent from the lady, who with
her attending friend came up and faluted him. From
the unbridled licentioufnefs of thefe people, the French
gave this iiland the name of the New Cythera. Nay,
to Inch a degree do they carry their libidinous exceffes,
that a number of the principal people, it is related, have
formed themfelves into a fociety, in which every woman
is common to every man. This fociety is diftinguilhed
by the name of Arreoy, the members of which have
meetings from which all others are excluded. At thefe
meetings the pailions are excited by a fludied courfe
of fenfuality, and the coarfeft and moll brutal plea-
fures are enjoyed by the whole company. If, however,
iiotwithflanding thefe exceffes, any of the female mem¬
bers of this community fhould prove with child, unlefs
fhe can procure fome man to adopt the child as his
own, not all the ftrong affedlions of a mother, if fuch
are not entirely eradicated by a courfe of life fubver-
live of the feelings as well as the modefly of nature,
can lave the life of the precondemned innocent; but
the child as foon as born is fmothered, and the mo¬
ther is left at liberty to renew her former courfe of ex¬
ecrable prollitution. Should any man be found to co¬
operate with a woman in faving the life of a child, they
are both excluded for ever from the arreoy, and are
confidered as man and wife. The woman from that
time is diftinguilhed by the term whannow-now, “ the
bearer of childrenwhich in this part of the world
only is confidered as a term of reproach ; and fo de¬
praved are thofe people, that being a member of fuch
a fociety is boafted of as being a privilege, inftead of
being ftigmatized as the fouleft crime. The arreoys
enjoy feveral privileges, and are greatly refpefted
throughout the Society Blands, as well as at Ota-
heite ; nay, they claim a great (hare of honour from
the circumflance of being childlefs. Tupia, one of the
moil intelligent natives, when he heard that the king
of England had a numerous offspring, declared that Otalieite.
he thought himfelf much greater, becaufe he belonged  v—"
to the arreoys. That this fociety indulge themfelves
in promifeuous embraces, and that every woman is
common to every man, is contradicted by Mr Foriler.
He fays, that thele arreoys choofe their wives and
miftreffes from among the proftitutes •, and from this
circuitiftance, as well as their extreme voluptuoufnefs,
they have feldom any reafon to dread the intriifion of
children. He had the following circumitances related
to him by Omi or Omiah, one of the natives, who
was brought to England. He faid, that the pre-emi¬
nence and advantages which a man enjoyed as arreoy
were fo valuable as to urge him againfl his own feel¬
ings to deftroy his child ; that the mother was never
willing to confent to the murder; but that her hulband
and other arreoys perfuaded her to yield up the child ;
and that where entreaties were not fufficient, force was
fometimes made ufe of. But, above all, he added, that
this aCtion was always perpetrated in fecret; infomuch,
that not even the totows or attendants of the houfe were
prefect; becaufe, if it were feen, the murderers would
be put to death.
Both men and women conftantly wafh their whole
bodies three times a-day in running water, and are re¬
markably cleanly in their clothes. They are moil ex¬
pert fwimmers, being accuftomed to die w^ater from
their infancy. Captain Cook relates the following re¬
markable initance of their expertnefs. On a part of
the fhore where a tremendoufiy high furf broke, info¬
much that no European boat could live in it, and the
heft European fwimmer, he was perfuaded, vTould have
been drowned, as the lliore was covered with pebbles
and large Hones, yet here were 10 or 12 Indians fwim-
ming for their amufement. Whenever a furf broke
near them, they dived under it, and rofe again on the
other fide. The Hern of an old canoe added much to
their fport. This they took out before them, and
fwam with it as far as the outermofl breach 5 when tvro
or three getting into it, and turning the fquare end to
the breaking wave, were driven in towards the Ihore
with incredible rapidity, fometimes almoft to the beach \
but generally the wave broke over them before they
got half way ■, in which cafe they dived, and rofe to
the other fide with the canoe in their hands, and fwim-
ming out with it again, were again driven back. This
amazing expertnefs drew the Captain’s attention for
more than half an hour; during which time none of
the fwimmers attempted to come alhore, but feemed to
enjoy the fport in the higheft degree. At another
time, one of the officers of the quarter-deck intending
to drop a bead into a canoe for a little boy of fix years
of age, it accidentally miffed • the boat, and fell into
the feaj but the child immediately leaped overboard,
dived after it, and recovered it. To reward him for
this feat, fome more beads were dropped to him ; which
excited a number of men and women to amufe the of¬
ficers with their amazing feats of agility in the water,
and not only fetched up feveral beads fcattered at once,
but like wife large nails, which, from their weight, de-
feended quickly to a confiderable depth. Some of thefe
people continued a confiderable time under water ; and
the velocity with which they were feen to go down, the
water being extremely clear, was very furprifing. Here
a green branch of a tree is ufed as an emblem of peace,
4 F 2 m
Otahcite
* One of
the Friend¬
ly iflands.
° T A . r 596
in ex aft conformity to the cuftom of the ancient nations.
\\ e fhall add an extract here from Captain Cook’s la ft
voyage to the Pacific ocean.
“ Nothing could make a ftronger impreflion at firft
fight, on our arrival here, than the remarkable con-
traft between the robuft make and dark colour of the
people of Tongataboo *, and a fort of delicacy and
whitenefs which diftintruiih the 'inhaKitanO! n*..
]
OTA
whitenefs which diftinguilh the inhabitants of Ota-
he;te. It was even forne time before that difference
could preponderate in favour of the Otaheiteans 5 and
then on!}, pernaps, becaufe we became accuftomed to
them, the marks which had recommended the others
began to be forgotten. Their women, however, ftruck
us as luperior in every refpeft ; and as poffefling all
tliofe delicate charadleriftics which diftinguifh them
from the other fex in many countries. The beard
which the men here wTear long, and the hair, which
is not cut fo fhort as is the faihion at Tongataboo,
made, alfo a great difference 5 and wre cannot help
thinking, that on every occafion they fhowred a greater
degree of timidity and ficklenefs. The mufcular ap¬
pearance, fo common amongft the Friendly iflanders,
and which feems a confequence of their being accuf-
tbmed to much aftion, is loft here, rvhere the fuperior
fertility of their country enables the inhabitants to
lead a more indolent life ; and its place is fupplied by
a plumpnefs and fmoothnefs of the £kin 5 which, though
perhaps more confonant with our ideas of beauty, is
no real advantage, as it feems attended with a kind
of languor in all their motions, not obfervable in the
others. This obfervation is fully verified in their box¬
ing and wreftling, which may be called little better
than the feeble efforts of children, if compared to the
vigour with which thefe exercifes are performed at the
Friendly iftands.
Perfonal endowments being in great efteem amongft:
them, they have recourle to feveral methods of im¬
proving them, according to their notions of beauty.
In particular, it is a pra<51ice, efpecially amongft the
arreoy, or unmarried men of fome confequence," to un¬
dergo a kind of phyfical operation, to render them
feir. This is done by remaining a month or two in the
houfe; during which time they wear a great quantity
of clothes, eat nothing but bread-fruit, to which they
alcribe a remarkable property in whitening them. They
aifo fpeak, as if their corpulence and colour, at other
times, depended upon their food j as they are obliged,
from the change of feafons, to ufe different forts at dif-
-ferent times.
“ The graceful air and firm ftep with which thefe
people walk are not the leaf! obvious proof of their per¬
fonal acccmplifhments. They confider this as a thing
fo natural, or fo neceffary to be acquired, that nothing
ufed to excite their laughter fooner, than to fee us fre¬
quently Humbling upon the roots of trees, or other ine¬
qualities of the ground.
“ Their countenances very remarkably exprefs the
abundant mildnefs or good nature which they poffefs,
and are entirely free from that favage keennefs which
marks nations in a barbarous ftate. One would, in¬
deed, be apt to fancy that they had been bred up under
the fevereft reftriiftions to acquire an afpeft fo fettled,
and fuch a command of their paflions, as well as fteadi-
nefs in condu<51. But they are at the fame time frank,
sheerful, and good-huiuoured, though fometipjes, in the
prefence 01 their chiefs, they put on a degree of gravity,
and fuch a ferious air, as becomes ftiff and awkward,
and has an appearance of referve.
“ Pheir peaceable difpofition is fufficiently evinced
from the friendly reception all ftrangers have met with
who have vifited them. Inftead of offering to attack
them openly or clandeftinely, as has been the cafe with
moft of the inhabitants of thefe feas, they have never
appeared in the fmalleft degree hoftile, but on the con¬
trary, like the moft civilized people, have courted an
intercourfe with their vifitors by bartering, which is the
only medium that unites all nations in a fort of friend-
fliip. They underftand barter (which they call fukka-
tou') fo perfectly, that at firft we imagined they might
have acquired the knowledge of it by commercial inter¬
courfe with the neighbouring iflands 5 but we were af¬
terwards affured, that they had little or no traffic except
with Feejee, from which they get the red feathers, and
fome few other articles which they efteem. Perhaps no
nation in the world traffic with more honefty, and lefs
diftruft. \fye could always fafely permit them to exa¬
mine our goods, and to hand them about one to an¬
other ; and they put the fame confidence in us. If ei¬
ther party repented of the bargain, the goods were re¬
exchanged with mutual confent and good humour. Up¬
on the whole, they feem poffeffed of many of the molt
excellent qualities that adorn the human mind, fuch as
induftry, ingenuity, perfeverance, affability, and per¬
haps other virtues which our ftiort ftay wdth them might
prevent our obferving.
“ The only defedl fullying their charadler that we
know of is their propenfity to thieving, to which we
found thofe of all ages and both fexes addifted, and
to an uncommon degree. It fhould, however, be con-
fiderei, that this exceptionable part of their conduct
feemed to exift merely with refpeft to us 5 for in their
general intercourfe with one another, I had reafon to
be of opinion, that thefts do not happen more frequent¬
ly (perhaps lefs fo) than in other countries, the dilhoneft
pra&ices of whofe worthlefs individuals are not fuppofed
to authorize any indifcriminate cenfure on the whole bo¬
dy of the people. Great allowances fiiould be made for
the foibles of thefe poor natives of the Pacific ocean,
whofe minds w^e overpowered wfith the glare of objefts,
equally newr to them as they were captivating. Steal¬
ing, amongft the civilized and enlightened nations of
the w'orld, may wrell be confidered as denoting a charac¬
ter deeply ftained with moral turpitude, with avarice
unreftrained by the known rules of right, and with pro¬
fligacy producing extreme indigence, and neglecting the
means of relieving it. But at the Friendly and other
iflands wffiich wre vifited, the thefts fo frequently com¬
mitted by the natives, of what we had brought along
with us, may be fairly traced to lefs culpable motives.
They feemed to arife folely from an intenfe curio-
fity or defire to poffefs fomething wffiich they had not
been accuftomed to before, and belonging to a fort of
people fo different from themfelves. And, perhaps, if
it were pofiible that a fet of beings feemingly as fupe¬
rior in our judgement as wre are in theirs fhould appear
amongft: us, it might be doubted, whether our natural
regard to juftice would be able to reftrain many from,
falling into the fame error. That I have affigned the
true motive for their propenfity to this praftice, appears
from their ftealing every thing indifcriminately at firft
fight,
Otahrite.
O T A
[ 597 J
OTA
Ouheiit. fight, before they could have the leaft conception of
' v ' converting their prize to any one ufeful purpofe. But I
believe, with us, no perfon would forfeit his reputation,
or expofe hhnfelf to punifhment, without knowing be-
fpre-hand how’ to employ the fholen goods. Upon the
whole, the pilfering difpolition of thele itlanders, thougii
certainly difagreeable and troublelome to ftrangers, a-,
the means of aifording us fome information as to the
quicknefs of their intellects, tor their imall thefts were
committed with much dexterity 5 and thofe or greater
confequence with a plan or fcheme fuited to the import¬
ance of the objects. An extraordinary inftance of the
laft fort was, in their attempts to carry away one of the
Difcovery’s anchors at mid-day.
Their common diet is made up of at lead nine-tenths
of vegetable food •, and I believe more particularly the
niahee, or fermented bread-fruit, which makes part al-
moft of every meal, has a remarkable eltedl upon them,
preventing a coftive habit, and producing a very fenfi-
ble coolnefs about them, which could not be perceived
in us who fed on animal food. And it is, perhaps,
owing to this temperate courfe of life that they have fo
few difeafcs among them. See N° 8.
“ They only reckon five or fix which might be call¬
ed chronic or national diforders •, amongft which are the
dropfy, and the fefcn, or indolent fwellings before men¬
tioned, as frequent at Tongataboo. But this was be¬
fore the arrival of the Europeans •, for we have added
to this (hort catalogue a difeafe which abundantly fup-
plies the place of all the others, and is nowr almoll: uni-
verfal. For this they feem to have no effetdual remedy.
The priefts, indeed, fometimes give them a medley ot
fimples, but they own that it never cures them. And
yet they allow’ that in a few cafes nature, without the
atfiftance of a phyfician, exterminates the poifon of this
fatal difeafe, and a perfe£l recovery is produced. I hey
fay, that if a man is infected with it he wall often com¬
municate it to others in the fame houfe, by feeding out
of the fame uienfils, or handling them, and that, hr this
cafe, they frequently die, while he recovers •, though
we fee no reafon why this thould happen. See N° 9.
u Their behaviour on all occafions feems to indicate a
great opennefs and generofity of difpofition. Omai, in¬
deed, who, as their countryman, fhould be iuppofed ra¬
ther willing to conceal any of their defefts, has often
laid that they are fometimes cruel in punifiling their
enemies. According to his reprefentation, they tor¬
ment them very deliberately •, at one time tearing out
finall pieces of fiefii from different parts ; at another tak¬
ing out. the eyes •, then cutting oif the nofe } and lafily,
killing them by opening the belly. But this only hap¬
pens on particular occafions. If cheerfulnefs argues a
confcious innocence, one would fuppofe that their life is
leldom fullied by crimes. ibis, howrever, I rather im¬
pute to their feelings, which, though lively, feem in no
cafe permanent •, for I never faw them in any misfortune
labour under the appearance of anxiety after the critical
moment was pall. Neither does care ever feem to
wrinkle their brow. On the contrary, even the ap¬
proach of death does not appear to alter their ufual vi¬
vacity. I have feen them when brought to the brink of
the grave by difeafe, and when preparing to go to bat¬
tle 5 but in neither cafe ever obferved their countenances
overclouded with melancholy or ferious reflexion. Such
a difpofition leads them to direel all their aims only to
what can give them plealure and eafe. Their amufc- Otabeire.
ments all tend to excite and continue their amorous paf-
fions 5 and their fongs, of which they are immoderately
fond, anfvver the fame purpoie. But as a confiant luc-
ceffion of fenfual enjoyments muft cloy, we found that
they frequently varied them to more refined mbjecls, and
had much pleafure in chanting their triumphs in war,
and their occupations in peace •, their travels to otner
iHands and adventures there ; and the peculiar beauties,
and fuperior advantages of their own ifland over the reft',
or of different parts of it over other lefs favourite di-
Uriels. This marks that they receive great delight from
mufic ; and though they rather expreffed a diflike to
our complicated compofitions, yet w7ere they aUvays de ¬
lighted with the more melodious founds produced fingly
on our inftruments, as approaching nearer to the lirnpli -
city of their own. ' Neither are they ftrangers to the
foothing effefts produced by particular forts or motion,
which in fome cafes feem to allay any perturbation of
mind with as much fuccefs as muftc. Of this I met.
with a remarkable inftance. I'or, on walking one d;. v
about Matavai Point, where our tents were elected, ■
fawT a man paddling in a fmall canoe fo quickly, and
looking about with fuclj eagernefs on each ftde, as to
command all my attention. At firft I imagined that
he had ftolen fomething from one of the ftups, and was
purfued j but on wraiting patiently law’ him repeat his
amufemeut. He went out from the ftiore till he was
near the place wdiere the fwell begins to take its rile j
and, w?atching its firft motion very attentively, paddled
before it with great quicknefs till he found that it over¬
took him, and had acquired fufticient force to carry his
canoe before it, without palling underneath. He then
fat motionlefs, and was carried along at the fame fwift
rate as the wave, till it landed him upon the beach.
Then he ftarted out, emptied his canoe, and went in
fearch of another fwell. I could not help concluding,
that this man felt the moft fupreme pleafure, while he
wras driven on fo fall and fo fmoothly by the fea j efpe-
cially as, though the tents and ftiips were lo near, he
did not feem in the leaf! to envy, 01 even to take any
notice of, the crowds of his countrymen collected to
view them as objefts which were rare and curious. Du¬
ring my ft ay, two or three of the natives evme up, wdio
feemed to fhare his felicity, and always called out when
there wras an appearance of a favourable fwell, as he
fometimes miffed it, by his back being turned, and
looking about for it. By them I underftood that this
exercile, which is called ehorooe, was frequent amongft:
them ; and they have probably more amufements of this
fort, which afford them at leaft as much pleafure as
Ikaiting, which is the only one of ours writh w7hofe el-
fefts I could compare it.” _ ^
The language of thefe iflanders is foft and melodious j Language,
it abounds with vow7els, and the pronunciation of it is &-c-
eafily acquired : but it was found exceffively difficult to
teach the natives to pronounce a Angle Engliffi word \
probably not only from its abounding with eonfonants,
but from fome peculiarity in its ftru&ure ; for Spanilh
and Italian words, if ending in a vowel, they pronoun¬
ced with the greateft eafe. A fufficient acquaintance
has not been formed with it to determine whether it is
copious or not ; but it is certainly very imperfeft, being
totally without inflexion either of nouns or verbs. Few
of the nouns have paore than one cafe, and few7 of the'
verbs-
OTA'
verbs more than one tenfe'. It was
V teacil iflanders to pronounce the names of their
guefts. They called Captain Cook Toote ; Mr Hicks
the firit lieutenant, Hcte, &c. and in this manner they
formed names for almoft every man in the Ihip. In fome,
however, it was not eafy to find any traces of the orTi-
irai ; and they were perhaps not mere arbitrary founds
formed upon the occafion, but fignified words in their
own language ; and it feems that they could perfe&ly
remember thefe appellations at the diitance of four years
by their inquiries after fuch gentlemen as were abfent on
-the lecond voyage by name. Mr Monkhoufe, a midfiiip-
xnan, they called Matte, which in their language figni-
fies dead; becaufe he commanded a party that killed a
man for healing a muiket. The neareft imitation they
could reach of King George, was by calling him Kt-
hiargo. We have the following obfervations on this fub-
jedf, in vol. ii. of Cook’s lalt voyage to the Pacific
ocean : “ The language of Otaheite, though doubtlefs
radically the iame with that of Newr Zealand and the
Friendly illands, is deftitute of that guttural pronouncia-
tmn, and of fome confonants, with which thofe latter
dialeds abound. T*he fpecimens we have already given
are fufficient to mark v’herein the variation chiefly con-
fifis, and to fhorv, that, like the manners of the inhabi¬
tants, it has become foft and foothing. During the for¬
mer voyage, I had colle&ed a copious vocabulary, which
enabled me the better to compare this dialed! with that
of the other iflands 5 and during this voyage I took
every opportunity of improving my acquaintance with it
by converfing with Omai before we arrived, and by my
daily intercourfe with the natives while we now remained
there (a). It abounds with beautiful and figurative ex~
Gtah
no doubt, put it upon a level with many of the languages
that are rnoft in efieem for their warm and bold imao-es.
For inftance, the Otaheiteans exprefs their notions of
death very emphatically, by faying, “ that the foul goes
into darknefs 5 or rather into night.” And, if you feem
to entertain any doubt, in aiking the queftion, “ if fUch
a perfon is their mother ?” they immediately reply with
furprife, “ Yes, the mother that bore me.”" They have
one expreffion that correfponds exa&ly with the phrafeo-
logy of the finripLures, where we read of the “ yearning
of the bowels.’ —I hey nfe it on all occafions, wPen the
paffions give them uneafinefs, as they conftantly refer
pain from grief, anxious defire, and other affe&ions, to
the bowels, as its feat ; where they likewife fuppofe all
operations of the mind are performed. Their language
admits of that inverted arrangement of words which fo
much diftinguifhes the Latin and Greek from moft of
our modern European tongues, wiiofe imperfeftions re-
quue a more oiderly conflrudlion, to prevent ambiguities.
It is fo ^copious, that for the bread fruit alone, in its dif¬
ferent fxates, they have above 20 names ; as many for
the taro root; and about 10 for the cocoa-nut. Add to
this, that, befides the common dialed, they often expo-
ftulate in a kind of ftanza or recitative, wdiich is anfwered
in the fame manner.”
A map of Otaheite, engraved for Captain Cook’s firft
f 59s ] OTA
mrpoflible to voyage was taken out, and laid before Tuahow the hi vh
admiral, without informing him of what it w as 5 however, v
he immediately found it out, and was overjoyed to Ice
fi'Tn eotatf.n 01 h2.S owu coulltry. He pointed out all
the dot nets ot it, naming every cue of them in their order
Fnefe people have a remarkable fagacity in foretel¬
ling the weather, particularly the quarter from whence
1 ie wind will blow. In their long voyages they fleer
by the fun in the day, and in the night by the flars •
all of which they diiiinguifli by feparate names, and
know m what part of the heaven they will appear in
any of the months during which they are vifible in
then horizon. I hey alfo know the times of their an¬
nual appearing and ^appearing, with mere precifion
than would eafily be believed by an European aflreno-
mer l hen- tune they feem to reckon by moons, n
of which make a yean The day they divide into fix
parts, and the night into an equal number. They
judge of the tune of the day by the height of the fun,
but they cannot afeertam the time of the night by the
. art" Jn ^ numeration, the greateft length they can go
is 200 ; that is,- when they have counted each of their
fingers and toes ten times over. When they take the
alliance mem one place to another, they exprefs it by
‘ime which is required to pafs it.
I ne government of the Otaheiteans feems greatly to
thef'H K^eaily^1- 0f\the fur°Pean nations under Govern.
> he Lucul tyfiem. I heir orders of dignity are ec.ree-rahie ment.
which anfwers to King j baron 5 man a hound, vaft
faij and towton, yfllein. There are two kings in the
wG °ne be]ngthe Overeign 0f each of the peninfulas
6f Which it confifts. Each ot them is treated with great
al- ranks’ bu.t does>°t appear to be inverted
preffions, which, were it perfeaiy known, would I have with fo much pow« asis iAifii ZrZ TS
own diflricts. W hen the kino- W'llOTT* 11 ~ J /T rir,_ _
own difl nets. When the king, whom they called O-Tog,
!oahe rl Y°rCa}?,tain C°Gk’ the chiefs> w happened
to be ^ere before-him, immediately ftripped themfelves
“'w ri! i a re'-, CaPtam Cook took notice of it: upon
w ich they faid earee, fignifying, that it was on
account of O-1.00 being prefent; but this was the on¬
ly outward token of refpeef they paid him, for they
never rofe from their feats, or made any other obei
Fheearees are lords of one or more of the diftridfs
to Welch each of the peninfulas is divided, and of
whic , there are 43 m the larger one. Thefe parcel
out their territories to the manahoums, who fuperin-
tend the cultivation of the ground. The loweft dal's
called towtows feem to be nearly under the fame cir-
cumftances with the villeins in feudal governments.
- ey do all the laborious work, cultivate the land,
catch filh, fetch wood and water, &c. Each of the
earees keeps a kind of court, and has a great number
attendants, chiefly the younger brothers of their
own tribe and among thefe fome hold particular of-
-ices, but of which little more is known than fome of
tneir names.
In this,country a child fucceeds to his father’s titles
and authority as foon as he is born : and thus the king
no fooner has a fon born, than his fovereignty cedes.
A
jA)J'e lhlS vo.cabulary at the end of the lecord volume of Captain Cook’s fecond vovare Manv A*
and additions to it w^ere now-made bv this indefafio-atop Inn,. u t 4r r • °'‘u'Aage- Many corredfions
already in the hands of the public, feem fufficient fo Avery ufeful purpofe.^ rCCnn£nS 0l Lhe Ia”guag^ ^ Otaheite,
f'trfuHe.
.1-7
Religion.
OTA [ 599 ] OTA
A regent is then chofen ; and the father generally re¬
tains his power under that title, umil his child be¬
comes of age. rJL he child of the baron succeeds to the
titles and honours of its father, as icon as it is born, as
well as the fon of the king 5 fo that a baron who was
yeflerday called envee, and was approached with tne ce¬
remony of lowering their garments, to as to uncover tne
upper part of the body, is to-day, ii lus wife happens to
be delivered of a child, reduced to the rank 01 a pnvate
man ; all marks of refpeft being transferred to the child,
if it is fullered to live, though the father Hill continues,
poXeffcr and adminiif rator of his eftate. But the acquief-
eence which the lower clafs of people, or tow tows, yield
to the command of their chiefs, is very remarkable. They
are not fuffered to tafte any animal food, although they
are employed in feeding it for their lords. 1 hey
endure patiently very fevere blows, if, when coliefted
into a large body, they in any manner prefs upon or
annoy the king or a chief in his pregrefs ; and all this
pafiive fpirit is preferved without any power being lodged
in the hands of the king to excel it 5 for he ufes no mili¬
tary force, ncr is even attended with body guards.
There are but few aflions which are reckoned crimes
among the Olaheiteans. Adultery, however, is ibme-
times pumfhed with death : but in general, the woman
tfcapes with a fevere beating, and the gallant pailes un¬
noticed. The regulation of public juflice is rtot confined
to the magiftrate : for the injured party redreffes his own
wrong by inflicting whatever punifhment he can upon
the offender : but in matters of notorious wrong the
chiefs fometimes interpofe. The nobility have livery for
their fervants; and in proportion as the mailer’s rank is
more or lefs elevated, thefe fafhes are worn higher or
lower, being faftened clofe under the arms of the fervants
belonging to the chiefs, and going round the loins of
thofe belonging to the loweft clafs of nobility. Several
parts of the ifland feem to be private property, which
defeend to the heir of the poffeffor on his death, and the
defeent feems to fall indifferently on man or woman.
Captain Cook was of opinion that the number of inhabi¬
tants on the whole ifland amounted to 204,000 including
women and children.
The religious language of the Otaheiteans, like that
of the Gentoo Bramins, is different from what is ufed in
common difeourfe : but, according to the accounts we
have of their notions concerning the origin of the world,
nothing can be more ridiculous. They imagine that the
Supreme Deity, befldes a great many female defeendants,
has one fon named Tone; and to him they direft theirwor-
fhip, though they do not believe that the good or bad
conduff of mankind here on earth makes them more or
lefs acceptable to this divinity. They believe the exift-
ence of the foul after death, and of a greater or leffer
degree of happinefs to be then enjoyed : but they feem
to have no conception of a flate of punifliment or of fuf-
fering hereafter. The (hare of happinefs which they
imagine every individual will enjoy in this future (late,
will be afligned to him according to the rank he holds
on earth. We are not, however, told wherein they
foppofe the happinefs of this future ftate to confift ; but
it is mod probably a pretty exact imitation of a Moham¬
medan paradife, for -thefe voluptuaries can hardly be fup-
pofed capable of imagining any pleafure independent of
the intercourfe of the fexes.
The nridlhoodTeems to be hereditary in one family
or tribe 5 and as it is faid to be numerous, probably thofe
of that order are reftrained from becoming members of
the arreoy : but whether or not any peculiar decorum
is neceffary to be obferved, hath not yet appeared. Thefe
priefts are profeffedly the men of fcience) but their knowr-
ledge is altogether frivolous- and ufelefs ; for it c.onfifls
in being converfant with the names of their different
divinities, and inch abfurd traditions as have been handed
down among them from one generation to another. Their
religious notions being depofited in an unknown tongue,
they are refpecred becaufe they are not underftoed ; and
as tire cure, of the foul is no objecl of regard, the moil im¬
portant concern to thefe people, the cure of their bodies,
is committed to the priefts, and much parade is ufed in
their attempts to recover the fick, though their remedies
confift of ridiculous ceremonies and enchantments rather
than any thing eke.
The marriages of thefe people are merely fecular con¬
tracts 5 but no one has a right to perform the operation
of tattowing except the priefts j and this being a cuftom
univerfally adopted by the natives, it may be fuppofed
that performing it is a very lucrative employment. The
males in general undergo a kind of circuxncifion, which
it is difgraceful not to comply with, and which is like-
wife the exclufive privilege of the priefts to perform. But
what moft eftablfthes the credit of this order of men is
their (kill in ailronomy and navigation.
Captain Cook, who had fome reafon to believe that
among the religious cuftoms of this people, human facri-
fices were fometimes offered up to their deities, went to
a morai, or place of worftiip, accompanied by Captain
Furneaux, having with them a failor who fpoke the lan¬
guage tolerably well, and feveral of the natives. In the
morai was a tupapow, a kind of bier, with a (bed erect¬
ed over it,-on which lay a corpfe and fome provifions.
Captain Cook then afked if the plantain were for the
Eatua ? If they facrificed to the Eatua hogs, dogs, fowls,
&c. ? To all of which an intelligent native aniwered in
the affirmative. He then afked if they facrificed men to
the Eatua ? He was anfwered, taalo eno, “ bad men they
did ; firft tiparrahy, beating them till they were dead.”
He then alked if good men were put to death in this man¬
ner ? Elis anfwer was no, only taato eno. The Captain
then afked if any earees were ? The native replied, they
had hogs to give the Eatua, and again repeated taato eno.
He was then afked if towtows, who had no Bogs, dogs,
or fowls, but yet were good men, were ever facrificed to
the Eatua ? The anfwer dill was no, only bad men..
Many other queflions were put to him ; all his anfvvefo
to which feemed to confirm the ideas that men for cer¬
tain crimes were condemned to be facrificed to the gods,
provided they did not poffefs any property which they
might give for their redemption. However, in purfuing
fuch inquiries as thefe, no certain information could ber
obtained, on account of the flight knowledge which had
been acquired of the language of the country : but ac¬
cording to further accounts which Captain Cook receiv¬
ed from Omai, it feems to reft with the high-pried to
Angle out the victims for facrifice ; who, when the peo¬
ple are affembled on any folemn occafion, retires alone
into the houfe of Gcd, and (lays there for (bme time ;
when he comes out, he informs the affembly that he has
feen and converfed with the great god (the high prieft
alone having that privilege), and that he has afked for a
human facrifice; and tells them he has defired fuch a
perlon.
Otaheite.
It
OTA [ 60
Otaheite. perfon, naming a man prefent, who has mcfl probably,
v .. ou fome account or other, rendered himlelx obnoxious to
this ghoftly father. The words are no fooner gone out
of his mouth, than the devoted wretch is put to death j
for his guilt cannot be doubted, after the oracle has pro¬
nounced his doom.
On this ifland was feen the figure of a man conftrufted
of balket work, rudely made, but not ill defigned: it was
fomething more than feven feet high, and rather too bulky
in proportion to its height. This wicker fkeleton was
completely covered with feathers, which were white
where the Ikin was to appear, and black in the parts
which it is their cuftom to paint or ftain, as well as upon
the head, which wTas defigned to reprefent hair. Upon
the head alfo were four protuberances, three in front, and
■one behind, which the Indians called tate ete, little men.
The image w7as called Momoe ; it wras a reprefentation
of Mauwe, one of their Eatuas, or gods of the fecond
clafs, and was faid to be the only one of the kind on
Otaheite.
Thefe people pray at funrife and funfet. They have
Jilfo a number of fuperftitious praftices, in order to con¬
ciliate the influence of evil genii. E-Tee, a chief, who
teemed to be the king’s prime minifter in 1774, very
terioufly alked Mr Fortier whether they had a god
(Eat it a) in their country, and whether they prayed to
him (epore When he told them that they acknow¬
ledged a divinity wTho had made every thing, and rvas
invifible, and that they were accuftomed to addrefs their
petitions to him, he feemed to be highly pleafed, and
repeated his words wflth comments of his own, to feveral
jperfonsw'ho fat round him 5 feeming thereby to intimate,
that the ideas of his countrymen correfponded with theirs
-in this refpefl.
Their morais are ufed both as burying-grounds and
places of worfhip } they are approached with the moft
wonderful expreflions of reverence and humility 5 and
this, it fliould feem, not becaufe any thing there is
efteemed facred, but becaufe they there wormip an in¬
vifible being, for w'hom they entertain the moll reve¬
rential refpeft, although not excited by the hope of
reward or the dread of puniftiment. Though they do
not appear to have any vifible objefl of worfhip, yet,
fays Captain Cook, this ifland, and indeed the reft that
lie near it, have a particular bird, fome a heron, and
others a king’s-fifher, to wThich they pay a particular
regard, and concerning which they have fome fuper¬
ftitious notions, refpeftmg good or bad fortune, as we
have of the fwallow and robin redbreaft, and will on
no account moleft or kill them. One of thefe ceme¬
teries, or places of wmrfliip, was knowm to Captain
Coek, on his firft voyage, by the name of Tootahah’s
morai, then the regent; but w7hen, on his fecond voy¬
age, after the death of that chief, he called it by that
name, Maratata, a chief that accompanied the party,
interrupted him, intimating, that it wTas no longer
Tootahah’s after his death, but was then knowm as
O-Too’s morai, the then reigning prince. A fine mo¬
ral for princes! daily reminding them of mortality
whilft they live, and teaching them, that after death
they cannot call even that ground their own which their
dead corpfe occupies ! The chief and his wife, on palling
by it, took their upper garments from their fhoulders.
From hence it would feem, that the royal family have a
3 ]
OTA
particular morai, and that it always bears the name of the Otaheiin
reigning prince.
An Indian, who had fnatched away a mulket from'a l8,
fentry whilft on duty, wms, by the inhumanity of a mid-Funerals<
fhipman who commanded the guard, purfued and fhot.
The unhappy fate of this poor fellow7 gave an opportu¬
nity for feeing the manner in which thefe people treat
their dead. They placed the corpfe in the open air till
the bones became quite dry : a Ihed was eredted clofe
by the houfe where the deceafed had refided •, it was
about 15 feet long, and xi broad; one end was left
quite open 5 the other end, and the two fides, were
partly inclofed with a fort of wicker-work. The bier
was a frame of wood, like that on which the fea-beds,
called cots, are placed, with a matted bottom, and fup-
ported by four polls, at the height of about four feet
from the ground. The body w7as covered firft with a
mat, and then with white cloth ; by the fide of it lay a
wooden mace, one of their weapons of w7ar: and near
the head of it, which lay next to the clofe end of
the Hied, lay tw7o cocoa-nut Ihells; at the other end a
bunch of green leaves, with fome dried twigs, all tied
together, were lluck in the ground, by which lay a Hone
about as big as a cocoa-nut. Near thefe lay one of the
young plantain-leaves that are ufed for emblems of peace,
and olofe by it a Hone axe. At the open end of the Ihed
alio hung, in feveral firings, a great number of palm
nuts; and without the Ihed was ftuck up in the ground
a Hem of a plantain tree, about fix feet high, upon the
top of which w7as placed a cccoa-nut fliell full of frelli
■water ; again!! the fide of one of the polls hung a fmall
bag, containing a few pieces of bread-fruit ready roafted,
w’hich had not been put in all at one time, fome being frefli
and others Hale. This minute examination of their man¬
ner of treating their dead, feemed to be very umvelcome
to the natives. The food fo placed by the corpfe is de¬
figned as an offering to their gods. They call in, near
the body, fmall pieces of cloth, on which the tears and
blood of the mourners have been Ihed ; for in their pa-
roxyfras of grief it is an univerfal cullom, to wound them-
felves with a lhark’s tooth. The mourner is always a
man ; and he is dreffed in a very Angular habit. Wheri
the bones are llripped of their flefli, and become dry, they
are buried, i his regard to their dead is very remarkable:
one of the fliip’s company happening to pull a flow7er from
a tree wrhich grew on one of their fepulchral inclofures,
an Indian came fuddenly behind him and ftruck him ;
and a party of failors, who w7ere fent to get fome Hones
for ballaft for the Ihip, had like to have been embroiled
by the natives, by pulling down fome part of an inclofure
of this kind. This lhade under wrhich their dead are laid
is called tupapow ; the inclofure in which their bones are
depofited is called morai; thefe latter, as has been already
related, are alfo places of worlhip. As foon as a native
of Otaheite is known to be dead, the houfe is filled with
relations, wTho deplore their lofs; fome by loud lamenta¬
tions, and fome by lefs clamorous, but more genuine ex¬
preflions of grief. Thofe w7ho are in the neareft degree
of kindred, and are really affefted by the event, are
filent ; the reft are one moment uttering paflionate
exclamations in a chorus, and the next laughing and
talking without the leaft appearance of concern. In
this manner the remainder of the day on which they
affemble is fpent, and all the fucceeding night. On the
next
4
OTA [ 601 ] O T A
Ouheitc. .next morning the body is fhrouded in- their cloth, and
 'v — conveyed to the fea-lide on a bier, which the bearers
fupport upon their f ho aiders, attended by the pried, who
having prayed over the body repeats his fentences during-
the proceiTion. When it arrives at the water’s edge, it
is fet down upon the beach; the pried renews his prayers,
and taking up fome of the water in nis hands, fprinkles
it towards the body, but not upon it. It is then carried
back 40 or 50 yards ; and foon after brought again to
the beach, where the prayers and fprinkling are re¬
peated. It is thus removed backwards and forwards
feveral times; and while thele ceremonies have been
performing, a houfe has been built, and a fmall fpace of
ground railed in. In the centre of this houle, or tupa-
pow, as they term it, pods are fet up to fupport the bier,
which is at length conveyed thither, and placed upon it;
and here the body remains to putrify, till the dedi is
wholly wafted from the bones. Thele houies of corrup¬
tion are of a dze proportioned to the rank of the perfon
whofe body they are to contain. Thofe allotted to the
lower clafs are juft futficient to cover the bier, and have
no railing round them. The largeft that was feen was
11 yards long ; and fuch are ornamented according to
the abilities and inclination of the furviving kindred, who
never fail to lay a profulion of good cloth about the
body, and fometimes almoft cover the outlide ot the
houfe. Garlands of the fruit of the palm nut, or pan-
danus, and cocoa-leaves, twifted by the priefts in myfte-
rious knots, with a plant called by them eth.ee no moral,
which is particularly confecrated to funeral folemnities,
are depolited about the place ;. provifion and water are
alfo left at a little diftance. As foon as the body is de-
pofited in the tupapow, the mourning is renewed. The
women affemble, and are led to the door by the neareft
relation, who ftrikes a lhark’s tooth feveral times into
the crown of her head ; the blood copioufly follows, and
is carefully received upon pieces of linen, which are
thrown under the bier. The reft of the women follow this
example ; and the ceremony is repeated at the interval
of two or three days, as long as the zeal and forrow of
the parties hold out. The tears alfo which are fhed
upon thefe occafions are received upon pieces of cloth,
and oftered as oblations to the dead. Some of the
younger people cut off their hair, and that is thrown
under the bier with the other offerings. This cuftom
is founded on a notion, that the foul of the decealed,
which they believe to exift in a feparate ftate, is hover¬
ing about the place where the body is depofited; that it
obferves the actions of the furvivors, and is gratified by
fuch teftimonies of their affeftionate grief. Whilft thefe
ceremonies are carrying on by the women, the men feem
to be wholly infenfible of their lofs; but two or three days
after, they alfo begin to perform a part. The neareft
relations take it in turn to affume the drefs, and perform
the offices.
The chief mourner carries in his hand a long flat flick,
the edge of which is fet with (harks teeth ; and in a
frenzy, which his grief is fuppofed to have infpired, he
runs at all he fees, and if any of them happen to be'
overtaken, be ftrikes them moft unmercifully with his
indented cudgel, which cannot fail to wound them In a
dangerous manner. The proceffions continue at certain
intervals for five moons ; but are lefs and lefs frequent,
by a gradual diminution, as the end of that time ap¬
proaches. When it is expired, what remains of the body
Ygl. XV. Part II.
is taken down from the bier; and the bones, having been Otabcite.
feraped and waftied very clean, are buried, according to
the rank of the perfon, either within or without a morai.
If the deceafed was an earee, or chief, his fkull is not
buried with the reft or his bones, but is wrapped up in
fine cloth, and put in a kind of box made for that pur-
pofe, which is alfo placed in the morai. This coffin is
called ewharre no te oremetua, “ the houfe of a teacher,
or mafter.” After this the mourning ceafes, except lome
of the women continue to be really affiiifted at the lofs,
and in that cafe they will fuddenly wound themfelves
with the ffiark’s tooth wherever they happen to be. The
ceremonies, however, do not ceafe with the mourning ;
for prayers are ftill faid by the prieft, and offerings made
at the morai. Some of the things, which from time to
time are depofited there, are emblematical ; a young
plantain is faid to reprefent the deceafed, and a bunch ~
of feathers the Deity who is invoked. The prieft places
himfelf overagainft the fymbol of the god, accompanied
by fome of the relations, who are furniftied with a fmall
offering : he repeats his orifon in a fet form, conlifting of
feparate fentgnees ; at the fame time weaving the leaves
of the cocoa-nut into different forms, which he afterwards
depofites upon the p round where the bones have been in¬
terred : the Deity is then addreffed by a thrill fcreech,
which is ufed only upon that occafion. When the prieft
retires, the tuft of feathers is removed, and the provitions
are left to putrify, or be devoured by the rats.
This ceremony of mourning, as deferibed above, was
performed by Tirope, one of the wives of Tubourai
Tamaide ; who, when the bleeding from the wounds
which the had thus given lierfelf ceafed, looked up
with a fmile on the company round her, and who had
before inquired of her, very earneftly, the caufe of her
behaviour, without receiving any anfwer, or having been
at all noticed by her. She then began to pick up fome
fmall pieces of cloth which the had fpread to catch the
blood ; and having got them all together, {lie went to
the ffiore, and threw them into the fea. She then plunged
into the river ; and having wafhed her whole body, re¬
turned to the company as cheerful as ever. To add to
the Angularity, of this conduct, the Indians who flood
round her all the time that this frantic diftrefs was
performing, converfed with great indifference and jocu¬
larity.
There is not a more ancient cuftom handed down to
us than that of cutting the body to exprefs grief and
diftrefs of mind. In the code of laws delivered by
Mofes to the Israelites, 1400 years before the Chriftian.
era, this practice is exprefsly forbidden to that people :
“Ye (hall not cut yourfelves, or make any baldnefs be¬
tween the eyes for the dead,” Deut. xiv. 1. Hence it
may be fuppofed that this rite prevailed in Egypt, from
whence the Jews derived moft of thofe propenfities which
were inhibited by their great legiilator. We are told
likewife in the book of Kings, of the priefts of Eaal
wounding themfelves, after they had long waited in vain
for the fupernatural intervention of their idol. D’Arvieux
informs us, that the modern Arabs retain the fame cuftom,
and that the part they chiefly wound is their arms. The
difference in the pra£lice as now prevailing in Otaheite
and Arabia feems to be, that in the firft none but the
women make ufe of it, and in the latter it is confined to
the men, and generally ufed to exprefs their defperate paf-
fion for fome favourite miftrefs.
4 G The
eite.
OTA [ 602
The mOurnir.g which is worn here is n head drefs of
feathers, the colour of which is confecrated tO death, and
a veil over the face. This drefs is called eeva. The
whole nation is faid to appear thus on the death of their
king. The mourning for fathers is very long. The wo¬
men mourn for their hulhands, but not the hufbands for
their wives.
_ We (hall conclude this account of Otaheite with the
hiftory of Omai, or, as he is improperly called Omiak,
wno was brought over to England. He was a native of
Uuetea, or Raietea } and embarked at Huaheme wdth
Captain Furneaux, on board the Adventure, in Septem-
ber 1773 i an^ the two flups feparating in a (torm on
the coalt of New Zealand a fewT months afterwards, the
voyage of the Adventure was brought to a much earlier
conclulion than that of the Refolution, for (he arrived at
Spithead the 1 _jth of July following. This youth is faid
to have had fome property in his native foil, of which he
was difpoffefled by the people of Bolabola : but he was
not one of the earees, or gentry of that country, but of
the middling clafs of people. He was eminent neither
for figure, (hape, nor complexion ) his colour being of a
deep hue, refembling a towtow, or one of the common
people 5 and both Captain Cook and Mr Forfter agree
in thinking him no proper fample of the inhabitants of
thofe iflands, in refpeft of perfonal beauty. However,
they are both of opinion, that the qualities of his heart
and head refembled thole of his countrymen in general,
and that no one ot the natives would have given more
general fatisfafHon by his behaviour whillt he remained
in England. He is deferibed as polTefling a good under-
ftanding, quick parts, and honeft principles : not an ex¬
traordinary genius like Tupia; yet not at all deficient in
intelligence, which appears from his knowledge of the
-v i r . 1 1 . o . — "—^‘I'-’vv a ihuil ludgnmceur ouuamg
game ot cheis, in which he made an amazing proficiency. and commands a molt extenfive and beautiful profneft
] O T H
go, he expreffed a fatisfadtion as the time of his return OtAfite
approached. y
Such is the account of this people which our limits
permit us to give. In the hiftory of mankind it is not v  
without importance 5 and in the hands of the philofo-
pher, the moraliit, or the divine, it may be ufeful. The
fubjedt, becaufe but newq has been much agitated, and
is pretty generally known. Such of our readers as make
men and manners their peculiar Rudy, will be anxious
for further information 5 we muft refer them, however,
to thofe authors who have written particularly and co-
pioufly on the iubjedf. Cook and other vovagers of emi¬
nence will at leaft command attention. We may juR
remark, that tneie muR (urely be fomething extremely
fafeinating in the perfons, manners, or cultoms of the
inhabitants, or in the foil and appearance of the country,
that could tempt the greater part of a thip’s crew to re-
fiR authority, and forcibly to return to Otaheite j yet
fuch we know w^as the cafe; and the fuft'erings of the
commander, and thofe who refufed to join in this vile
confpiracy, and who were therefore expofed in an open
boat, were indeed (hocking. An account of it has been
publithed.
O TALGIA, the Ear-ach. See Medicine Index.
OTELANDS, or Oatlands, in England, in the
county of Surry, near Weybridge, w^as formerly a royal
palace, wherein Henry duke of GlouceRer, third fon to
King Charles I. ivas born ; and had a deer park, which
in the civil wars was by the parliament laid open, and
the houfe demolilhed. In 1673 there was a brick wall
remaining, which encompaffed ten acres 5 but there were
then fmall traces of the chief pile, befides the gardener’s
lodge, wherein was the filk-worm room railed by King
James I.’s queen. It is now a mofl magnificent building’
His principal patrons, whilfl in England, were, the earl
of Sandwich, Mr Banks, and Hodfor Solander. Plis
noble patron introduced him to his majefly at Kew ; and,
during his flay in England, he was careffed by many of
the principal nobility. He naturally imitated that eafy
and elegant politenefs which Is prevalent among the great,
and which is one of the ornaments of civilized fociety.
Indeed he adopted the manners, the occupations, and
amufements of his companions in general, and gave
many proofs of a quick perception and a lively fancy.
He appears, however, to have been treated, whilfl he
redded here, rather as a falhionable exhibition, than
as a rational being. No attention feems to have been
paid to the enriching his mind with ufeful knowledge,
fuch as might have rendered him a valuable acquifition
to his country on his return thither 5 no means were
ufed to inflrudl him in agriculture, or any mechanical
art or ufeful manufaflure; and, above all, to poflefs
him with a moral fenfe ; to teach him the exalted ideas
of virtue, and the fublime principles of revealed reli¬
gion. After a Ray of two years in England, and ha¬
ving been inoculated for the fmallpox, he embarked
with Captain Cook, on board the Refolution, on his
return home, loaded with a profufion of prefents. At
parting with his friends here, his tears flowed plenti¬
fully, and his whole behaviour befpoke him to be fin-
cereiy affedfed at the feparation : but though he lived
in the midfl of amufements during his refidence in
England, his return to his native country was'alivays
Rn his thoughts j and though he was not impatient to
In the park there was a paddock, where Queen Eliza¬
beth ufed to (hoot with a crofs bow. It is now the pro¬
perty of his royal highnefs the duke of York, who
purchafed it for 43,000!. of the duke of Newcaftle.
1789-
ORTFORD, in England, in the county of Kent, by
the Darent, at the bottom of a hill. In 793 there was
a battle at this place, between the two Saxon kings, Of-
fa of Mercia and Alrick of Kent, who was killed by Of-
fa 5 and another in 1016, ivherein the Danifli king Ca¬
nute was routed by King Edmund Ironfide. The faid
Offa, to atone for the blood he had (hed in that battle,
firfl gave this place to Chrifl-church, Canterbury (as
the deed fays) in pafcua porcorum, “ for the fupport of
the archbifliop’s hogs and fo it remained in the arch-
biftiQp’s liberty, till exchanged with King Henry VIII.
for other lands. There 'was a chantry founded at the
Ryehoufe in this parifli. The church was once a chapel
to Shoreham.
OTHNIEL, in facred hiflory, the fon of Kenaz, of
the tribe of Judah. We are told (Jolh. xv. 17.), that
Othniel was brother to Caleb \ and (Judges i. 13.) it is
exprefsly faid, that he was Caleb’s younger brother.
There are, however, fome difficulties in this; for if
Caleb and Othniel had been brothers, the latter could
not have married his niece Achfah the daughter of
Caleb. Secondly, the feripture never afligns to Caleb
and Othniel the fame father: it always names Kenas as
father to Othniel, and Jephunneh as the father of Caleb.
Laflly, Caleb mufl be much older than Othniel, fince
he
Otliniel,
Otho.
O T H [ 603 ] O T H
he gave Ot’nniel Ins daughter Achfah in marriage. Thus
it feems much better to iuppofe Kenaz and Jephunneh to
be two brothers, and that Gthniel and Caleb were coufin-
germans, and in this fenfe to be nearly related, or brothers
according to the language of fcripture. J hus Achfah
being but fecond coulin in refpeft of Othniel, he might
marry her without doing any thing contrary to the letter
of the law.
Caleb having received his portion in the mountains of
Judah, in the midlt of a country that was poffeiTed by
giants of the race of Anak, after he had taken the city
of Hebron, he advances towards Debir, otherwife called
Kirjath-fepher, and declares that he would give his
daughter Achfah in marriage to him that thould take
Kirjath-fepher. Othniel took it, and had Achfah to
wife.
After the death of Jofliua, the Ifraelites not giving
themfelves the trouble to exterminate the Canaanites
that were then in the land, and not having continued
in their fidelity to the Lord, he delivered them over to
Chulhan-ruihathaim king of Mefopotamia (Judges iii.
4, &c.), to whom they continued in fubjeftion for eight
years. Then they cried to the Lord, who raifed them
up a deliverer in the perfon of Othniel the fon of Kenaz,
who was filled with the fpirit of God, and judged Ifrael.
He came into the field, and gave battle to Chufhan-
rulhathaim, beat him, and delivered Ifrael in the year of
the world 2599 ; and the country was at reft for 40 years.
After this Othniel died; but the precife year of his death
is not known.
OTHO, M. Salvius, a Roman emperor, born A. D.
32, of a family defcended from the ancient kings of E-
truria. He -was among the number of Nero’s favou¬
rites, and accordingly was raifed to the higheft offices
of the ftate, and made governor of Pannonia by the in-
tereft of Seneca, who wiffied to remove him from Rome,
left Nero’s love for Poppspa ffiould prove his ruin. Af¬
ter Nero’s death Otho conciliated the favour of Galba
the new emperor ; but when he did not gain his point,
and when Galba refufed to adopt him as his fucceffor,
he refolved to make himfelf abfolute, without any regard
to the age or dignity of his friend. The great debts
which he had contracted encouraged his avarice 5 and
he procured the aiTaflination of Galba, and made him¬
felf emperor. He was acknowledged by the fenate and
the Roman people j but the hidden revolt of Vitellius in
Germany rendered his fituation very precarious, and it
was mutually refolved that their refpecfive right to the
empire fhould be decided "by arms. Otho obtained three
victories, but in a general engagement hear Brixellum
his forces were defeated, and he ftabbed himfelf when
all hopes of luccefs had vaniffied. This happened about
the 37 th year of his age, after a reign of about three
months. It has been juftly obferved, that the laft mo¬
ments of Otho’s life were thofe of a philofopher. He
comforted his foldiers who lamented his fortune, and he
exprefled his concern for their fafety when they earneft-
ly folicited to pay him the laft friendly offices before he
ftabbed himfelf; and he obferved, that it was better
that one maa fhould die than that all fhould be involved
in ruin on account of his obftinacy. His nephew was
much affected and feared exceedingly the anger and
haughtinefs of the conqueror ; but Otho comforted him,
and obferved, that Vitellius would be kind and affec¬
tionate to the friends and relations of Otho, fince Otho
was not athamed to fay, that in the time of their great-
eft enmity the mother of Vitellius had received every
friendly treatment from his hands. He alfo burnt the
letters which, by falling into the hands of "Vitellius,
might provoke his refentment againft thofe rvho had fa¬
voured the caufe of an unfortunate general. Thele
noble and humane fentiments in a man who was the af-
fociate of Nero’s fhameful pleafures, and who had ftain-
ed his hand in the blood of his mafter, have appeared
to fome wonderful, and have paffed for the features of
policy, and not of a naturally virtuous and benevolent
heart. His father was a favourite of Claudius.
Othq, a tribune of the people, who, in Cicero’s con-
fulftiip, made a regulation to permit the Roman knights
at public fpeCtacles to have the 14 firlt rows after the
feats of the fenators. This was oppofed with virulence
by fome, but Cicero ably defended it, &c.
Otho, Venius, a very celebrated Dutch painter. He
was defcended of a confiderable family in Leyden, and
was born in 1556. He was carefully educated by his
parents in the belles lettres, and at the fame time learn¬
ed to defign of Ifaac Nicholas. He was but x 5 when
the civil wars obliged him to leave his country. He
retired to Liege, finiffied his ftudies, and there gave the
firft proofs of the excellence of his mind. He was well
known to Cardinal Groofbeck, who gave him letters of
I'ecommendation wffien he went to Rome, where he was
entertained by Cardinal Pvladuccio. His genius was fo
a£tive, that he applied himfelf to philofophy, poetry,
mathematics, and painting, all at once. He became a
great proficient in defigning under Irederico Zuchero.
He acquired an excellence in all the parts of painting,
efpecially in the knowledge of the claro-obfcuro; by
wffiich means he came to be accounted one of the moil
ingenious men of his age. He lived at Rome feven
years, during which time he performed feveral rare
pieces j and then paffing into Germany, wTas received
into the fervice of the emperor. After this the duke of
Bavaria and the elector of Cologne employed him ; but
all the advantages he got from the courts of foreign
princes could not detain him there. He had a defire
to return into the Low Countries, of which Alexander
Farnefe, prince of Parma, wTas then governor. He drew
the prince’s picture, armed cap-a-pee, which confirmed
his reputation in the Netherlands. After the death of
that prince, Venius returned to Antwerp, U'here he
adorned the principal churches wfith his paintings. The
archduke Albert, wffio fucceeded the priace of Parma in
the government of the Lowt Countries, fent for him to
Bruflels, and made him mafter of the mint; a place
which occupied much of his time, yet he found fome
time for the exercife of his profeffion. He drewr the
archduke and the infanta Ifabella’s portraits at large,
which w^ere fent to James I. of Great Britain : and, to
ffiow his knowdedge of polite learning likewife, he pub-
lifhed feveral treatifes, wffiich he embellilhed with cuts
of his own defigning. Louis III. made him very great,
offers to tempt him into his fervice ; but he would never
leave his own country, fatisfying himfelf with the cha¬
racter and employments he held there. Pie was the
firrt, after Polydore Caravaggio, who reduced the claro-
obfcuro to a principle of the art of painting. Rubens
perfeCled wffiat he began, and the whole Flemifh fchool
4 G 2 learned
Othonna
II.
OtodinL
o
learned it of him.
in his 78th year,
who was a graver,
T O
Venius died at
He had two brothers,
a painter.
Henry's
Hijl . Gr.
Brit- vol. i.
p. 185, &c.
Gilbert,
0 ; , and Peter a painter. He had al-
fo the honour of breeding up the famous Rubens in his
art.
OTHONNA, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefra clafsj and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compo/itte. See Rot any Index.
O 1 HRY ADES, one of the 300 Spartans who fought
agamft 300 Argives, when thole two nations difputed
their refpe&ive.right to Thyreata. Two Argives, Al-
cinor and Cronius, and Othryades, furvived the battle,
i he Argives went home to carry the news of their vic¬
tory 5 but Othryades, who had been reckoned among
the number of the flain on account of his wounds, re¬
covered himfelf, and carried fome of the fpoils of which
he had dripped the Argives into the camp of his coun¬
trymen } and after he had railed a trophy, and had writ¬
ten with his own blood the word did on his Ihield, he
killed himfelf, unable or unwilling to furvive the death
of his countrymen.
OTIS, a genus of birds belonging to the order of
gallinae. See Ornithology Index.
OTLE Y, a town of England, in the weld ridinu
oi York (hi re, under a cliff called CKevin, on the fouth
fide of the river Wherfe. The adjacent parts are rec¬
koned the moft delightful in England. Its church has
lately been elegantly fitted up, in which are f^veral
good old monuments. The adjacent country is much,
improved, arid from the Chevin is a mod beautiful view
of an extenfive feope of undefcribed manfions. This
manor was given by Atheldan to the fee of York,
whole -archbifhop had a palace here, with feveral exten¬
five privileges. 1 here is a free grammar fchool in this
place, funded by Mr Cave, 1611, called Prince Plen¬
ty s School. In 1673? it differed much by an inunda¬
tion \ which carried away feveral bridges, mills, &c.
as well as much corn, &c. W. Long. 1. 48. N. Lat.
53- 54-
o rODINI, ancient Britons, feated, as fome fuppofe,
to the north ead of the Brigantes, in the countries now
called Northumberland, Merfe, and the Lothians. As
the Otodini are not mentioned by any of the Roman hid
torians, but only by Ptolemy, it is uncertain whether
they formed a didinct independent date, or were united
with the Brigantes. They were, however, a confider-
able people, and poff^ffed a long traft of the fea-coad,
from the river Tine to the frith of Forth. Their name
is derived by Baxter from the old'Britilh words Ot 0
dineu,' which fignify “ a high and rocky Ihore 5” de-
fcriptive enough of their country. They were probably
reduced by Agricola at the fame time with their more
powerful neighbours the Brigantes 5 but as they lived
without the wall of Severus, they were, like the red of
the Maeatae, engaged in frequent revolts. In the mod
pcrfedl date of the Roman government in this ifiand,
the country of the Otodini made a part of the Roman
province called Valentia ; which comprehended all that
large traft^ between the two walls. As this province
was never long together in the peaceable poffeffion of
the Romans, they had but few Rations in the country of
Otrat te.
[ 604 ] O T R
Bruffe's, 1634, [he Olodini, except thofe on the line of the wall of Se-
verus.  y  .
Various authors have derived the name of this people
in various ways, and it is very differently fpelled ; and
various opinions dill feem to be entertained among the
learned relpetding their real fituation : and it is^ even
doubtful whether their country was in England o., in
Scotland, i he celebrated Drummond of Hawthornden
contends for the latter.
O r RAN i O, or 1 erra d Otranto, a province of
Italy in the kingdom of Naples •, bounded on the north
by the J erra gi Lari and by the gulf of Venice, on the
ead by the fame gulf, and on the fouth and weft by a
great bay which is between that and the Bafilicata. " It
is a mountainous country, abounding in figs, olives and
ivine. It is often vifited by locufts, and by Algerine
pirates, who carry off all the people they can catch into
ilavery. But to keep them off, there are a great many
forts on the coads.
Otranto, a city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples,
anu capital of the province of the fame name, with a
commodious harbour, an archbifhop’s fee, and a Uroim
citadel, where the archbifhop refides. Mr Swinburne * * Travels
gives this account of it: “ It is (fays he) fmall, dands-^^c Yu/e.
on a hill, and contains only 3000 inhabitants. Its little
harbour is not fb bad but it might induce more people'0^’ *"
to fettle here, as no port on the coaft lies fo convenient
for traffic with Greece. The Adriatic gulf is here but
60 miles wide. I climbed to the top of "a tower, to get
a fight of the Acroceraunian mountains; but a vapour
hanging over the lea, along the horizon, hid them from
my view: in a clear morning, their fnowy tops are faid:
to be very vifible. The cathedral of Otranto is Gothic,
and, according to the Puglian fafhion, has its fubterra-
neous fan&uary. The columns are of beautiful marble
and granite ; die pavement, a rude fpecies of mofaic,
commonly -called Saracenic: As it is to be met with in
all churches founded by the Norman kings of Sicily,
the artids who laid it wrere probably Saracens, or at
lead Greeks, their fcholars. Ihefe mofaics are com-
pofed of pieces of porphyry, ferpentine, and cubes of
gilt glafs,—difpofed in ffars, circles, or chequers. The
compartments of the dalls are bordered with them j and
the fmall twided columns, which fupport the pulpits and
canopies, are ornamented with a fpiral dripe of the fame
work. It is a pity fo much durability, compaclnefs, and
beauty of materials, ffiould have been lavifhed on fuch
barbarous defigns. Otranto was a Roman colony, as is
certified by an mfcription, almod the-only monument of
antiquity left there (a). In the 10th century it was
made an archbifhop’s fee. In 1480, Laurence de Me¬
dici, to deliver himfelf from the attacks of the king of
Naples, perfuaded Mahomet II. to invade the realm ;
and Otranto wras the unfortunate place where the Turks
landed. It was inveded, dormed, and pillai/ed. Its
prelate was flain at the door of his church 5 800 prin¬
cipal citizens dragged out of the gates and butchered;
their bodies left 12 months unburied, till the duke of
Calabria retook the city, and committed them to hal¬
lowed earth. About 100 years after, a devout perfon
affirmed, that thefe bones had appeared to him in a
dream ;
(a) “ Num. Hyd;.—iER Caput barb. & laureat. YAPONTINSJN. == Tridens, cum duobus delphinibus.”
O T W [
dream ; and, upon tire ftrength of his viiion, they be¬
came, for the vulgar, oInters ot almoft equal veneration
with the relieks of the primitive martyrs.'”
OTRICO.LI, a final 1 town of Italy,, in the eeclefia-
llical date, and in the duchy of Spoletto, m E. Long, x 2.
20. N. Lat. 42. 26. fituated on a riling ground on the
frontiers of the patrimony of St Peter. From this town
is feen a fine plain, and fome of the windings oi the fa¬
mous river Tiber. The ruins that are Icattered here
and there at the entrance of the plain,, deicendmg from
Otricoli, are thought to be the remains of the ancient
Otricolum j they confift of fome fhapeiels fragments of
column's, cornices, and other pieces of mafble. In the
middle of the great llreet of Otricoli, there is a marble
pedeftal, upon which you fee an infeription, 1 bowing
they had erected a ftatue to Julia Lucilla, wuo had
built public baths at Otricoli at her own expence.
OTTER. See Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Otter of Ro/es. See Roses.
OTTERS URN, in England, in the county ot Nor¬
thumberland, near Ellefdon. It was the field of battle
between the Englifh and Scots in 1388, wherein Hcn-
ry Percy, called Hotfmr, was taken pnfoner, and Dou-
alas the Scotch general was killed. On this battle was
founded the delightful old ballad of Chevy chafe j. the
village being fituated by the river Rhead, on the fonth
fide of the Cheviot hills. The. entrenchments are itill
vifible 5 and a number of tumuli fcattered over the au-
jacent ground mark to future ages the daughter made
there. .
OTTERY St Mary’s, a market town m Devon-
fhire, fituated 159 miles weft of London, and 10 miles
eaft of Exeter. The church is very ancient, and fome-
what refembles a cathedral. A very extenfive woollen
manufactory was lately eftablUhed here by xjir Geo*
Yonge, and Sir John Duntze, Barts. It has no corpo¬
ration. It derived its name, as fome fuppofe, from the
river Otter, and that from the otters formerly'found in
it. This town was given by King Edward the Confer-
for to the church of St Mary at Roen in Normandy ,
but was afterwards bought by Grandifon bifhop of Exe¬
ter j who made of it a quarter college in 10 Edward
III. and therein placed fecular prietbs, with other mmi-
Iters, to whom he gave the whole manor, paiifh, ty the:-,,
fines, fpiritual profits, &c. which amounted to 3°4^- 2S*
iod. yearly.
OTWAY, Thomas, ran eminent tragic poet, was
the fon of Mr Humphry Otway, reftor of Wolbeding
in Suffex ; and was bom at Trottin in that county
on the 3J of March 1651. He was educated at Ox¬
ford ; when, leaving the univerfity without a degree,
he retired to London, where he commenced player,
but with indifferent fuccefs. However, the fprightli-
nefs of his converfation gained him the favour of Charles
Fitz-Charles earl of Plymouth, who procured him a
coronet’s comraiffion in one of the new-raifed regimems
fent into Flanders; but he returned from thence in.veiy
neceffitous circumftances, and applied himfelt again to
writing for the flage. In comedy he has been deemed
too licentious •, which, however, was no great objection
to his pieces in the profligate days of Charles II. But,
in tragedy, few Englifh poets have ever equalled him •,
and perhaps none ever excelled him in touching the
paflions, particularly the tender paflion. There is ge¬
nerally fomething familiar and domeftic in the fable of
605 ] OVA
his trapedies, and there is amazing energy in his expref-
f0n.—The heart that doth not melt at the diftrefles of
his Orphan muff be hard indeed! But though: Otway _
poffehed in fo eminent a degree the rare taient of writ¬
ing to the heart, yet he was not very favourably re¬
gal ded by fome of his cotemporary poets,, nor was he
always fuccefsful in his dramatic compolitions. After
experiencing many reverfes of fortune in regard to his
circumftances, but generally changing for the worfe,.he
at laft died wretchedly in a public houfe on lower-hillj
whither, it is fuppofed, he had retired, in order to avoid
the preffure of his-creditors. Some have faid, that down¬
right hunger compelling him to fall too eagerly on .a
piece of bread, of which he had been for fome time in
want, the firit mouthful choked him, and inftantly put
a period to his days. Dr Johnfon gives this account of
the matter: “ Fie died in a manner which I am unwil¬
ling to mention. Having been compelled by bis ne-
ceffities to contraft debts, and. hunted, as is fuppoied by
the terriers of the law, he retired to a punhc houfe on
Tower-hill, where he died of want *, or, as it is related by -
one of his biographers, by fwallowing, after a long fan,
a piece of bread which charity had {applied. Fxe went .
out, as is reported, almoit naked, in the. rage of hunger,
and finding a gentleman in a neighbouring coffee-houfe,
afked him for a fhilling. The gentleman gave him a
guinea •, and Otway going awray bought a roll, and was
choked with the firft mouthful. .All this, .1 hope, is
not true} but that indigence, and its concomitants, for-
row and defpondency, brought him to the grave, has
never been denied.”
Johnfon fpeaks of him in nearly thefe terms : Otway
had not much cultivated verfification, nor much, reple-
niflxed his mind with general knowledge.. Flis principal
power was in moving the paffions, to which Dryden in
his latter years left an illuflrious teitimony. Fie appears,
by fome of his verfes, to have been a zealous royaliit 5
and had what was in thofe times the common reward of
loyalty ; he lived and died negledled.—His dramatic
writings are nine in numberthe mold admired of
which are, T/ie Orphan, and Venice Preferved. He. had
alfo made fome tranflations, and wrote feveral mifcel-
laheous poems. His whole wTorks are printed in two
pocket volumes. He wrote four adls of a play which
are loft.
OVAL, an oblong curvilinear figure, otherwife called
ellipfis. (See Ellipsis). However, the proper oval,
or egg fhape, differs confiderably from that of the ellip-
fis, being an irregular figure, narrower at one end than
at another : whereas the ellipfis or mathematical oval,
is equally broad at each end : though it muff be owned,
thefe two are commonly confounded together; even
geometricians calling the oval ^falfe ellipfis.
OVARY, in Anatomy, that part of a female animal
wdierein the ova or eggs are formed or lodged. See
Anatomy, N° 111.
OVARIUM, in Botany, a name by which botanifts
who are fond of aftimilating the animal and vegetable
kingdoms have diftinguifhed the germen or feed bud,
as containing the rudiments of the future feed.
OVATION, in the Roman antiquity, a leffer tri¬
umph, allowed To commanders for victories won with¬
out the effufion of blood; or for defeating a mean and
inconfiderable enemy. I he fhow generally began at
the Albanian mountain, whence the general with his-
retinue
Otway
II.
Ovatioa.
Oirle
o V E [6
retinue made his entry into the city on foot, with
Overall. n^any dutes or pipes founding in concert as he paffed
■r—v—^ along, and wearing a garland or myrtle as a token of
peace. The term ovation, according to Servius is
deiived from ovis, a “ Iheep hecaufe on this occalion
the conqueror facrificed a llieep, as in triumph he fa-
cnficed a bull. The fenate, knights, and principal ple¬
beians, affifted at the proceffion ; which concluded at
the Capitol, where rams were facrificed to Jupiter. The
firft ovation was granted to Publius Pofthumius the con¬
sul, for his viftory over the Sabines in the 253d year of
OUDE, a province of Hindoftan Proper, fubjedl: to
a nabob, whole dominions lie on both fides of the Ganges,
occupying the flat country between that river and the
northern mountains, as well as the principal part of
t lat fertile trafl, lying between the Ganges and Jumna,
known by the name of Dooab, to within 40 miles of the
city Delhi. Oude and its dependencies are computed
at about 360. miles long from eafl to weft, and 180
broad. A brigade of the Bengal army is conftantly
itationed on the weftern frontier, anfwering the double
purpofe of covering both Oude and Bengal 5 in coniide-
ration of which the nabob pays an annual fubfldy of
420,000!. fterling. The capital of the province is
Tucknow. Oude is alfo the name of a city in the above
province, faid to have been the principal city of Hin-
doftan about 1200 years before the Chriftian era.
OUDENARDE, a rich and ftrong town of the
Auftrian Netherlands, in the province of Flanders, in
^'onS* 3- 39» N. Lat. 50. 54. fifteen miles fouth of
Ghent, and eighteen from Tournay. It is a large
well fortified town, having a very confiderable fort in
the middle of it, fituated on the river Scheldt, which
divides it into two parts. It is almoft encompaffed by
meadows, only tnere is a hill which commands it on
the fouth fide. The buildings are pretty good, and
the ftreets wide and handfome. The market-place is
adorned with a beautiful town-houfe, and a fine large
fountain, ihere are feveral good churches and mo-
nafteries well worthy of the notice of travellers. The
town has a very flourifiring trade in fine linen and ta-
peftry, and is the capital of a caftellany, which contains
33 villages. The French laid fiege to it in 1708, which
brought on an obftinate engagement, wherein they were
defeated by the allies under the command of the duke
of Marlborough. It was befieged by the French again
in 1744, and taken in a few days 5 but it was reftored
at the general peace.
0\ EN, a kind of domeftic furnace, ufed for baking
bread,^ pies, tarts, &c. of a circular ftru&ure, with a
very low roof, well lined, both on the top, bottom,
and fides, with ftone j it has a fmall entrance in the
front, which is exaftly fitted by a kind of door, which
being clapped to the mouth of the oven confines the
heat, while bread, pies, or puddings, are baking. Over
this, paftry cooks, &c. have another oven built much
in the fame manner, which is ufed for fuch things as
require a lefs degree of heat. Ovens are heated by
burning dry wood, faggots, &c. in them, till all the
parts are equally hot.
OVERALL, John, a celebrated Englilh bifhop,
was born in 1359 • and, after a proper foundation in
grammar learning, was fent to St John’s college, Cam¬
bridge, and was ele&ed a fcholar of that fociety: but
3
-6 J O V E
afterwards removing to Trinity, was chofen fellow of
that college. In 1596 he was made regius profeflfor
ot divinity, when he took the degree of D. D. and
about the fame time was ele&ed mafter of Catherine-
hall.^ In 1601 he was railed to the deanery of St
Paul’s, London, by the recommendation of his patron
Sir _Fulk Grevilie, and Queen Elizabeth 3 and in the
beginning of King James’s reign, he was chofen pro-
ocutor of the lower houfe of convocation. In 1612
e was appointed one of the firft governors of the
Charter-houfe hofpkal, then juft founded by Thomas
Sutton, Elq. In April 1614 he was made bilhop of
Litchfield and Coventry 3 and in 1618 he was tranf-
iated to Norwich, where he died in May 1619, aved
as it is reported, 60 years. He was buried in that
cathedral, where he lay unnoticed and forgotten till
iome time after the reftoration of Charles II. when
Cofin, bilhop of Durham, who had been his fecretary
erected a monument in 1669, with a Latin infcription*
m which he is laid to be, “ Vir undequaque do(ftiilimus,
et omni incomio major.”
Wood obferves, that he had the chara&er of being
the bell fcholaftic divine in England 3 and Colin, who
perhaps may be. thought to rival him in that fort of
learning, calls himfelf his fcholar, and abfolutely fays
that he derived all his knowledge from him. He
IS alfo celebrated by Smith for his diftinguiftied wif-
dong erudition, and piety. In the controverfy which
m his time divided the reformed churches about pre-
deftination and grace, he held a middle opinion, in¬
clining perhaps to Arminianifm. He feems indeed to
have paved the way for the reception of that doftrine
in England, where it was generally embraced a few
years afterwards, chiefly by the authority and influ¬
ence of Archbilhop Laud. Overall cultivated a parti¬
cular friendlhip with Gerard Voflius and Grotius 3 and
was much grieved to fee the love of peace, and the
projedfts of this laft great man to obtain it, fo ill repaid.
He laboured heartily himfelf to fettle the differences
m Holland, upon what is known by the name of the
^vinquarticular controverfy; as appears in part by his
letters to the two learned correfpondents juft mentioned
fome of which are printed in the Epijiolce prafantium
virorum, &c.
The bifhop is known in England chiefly by his Con¬
vocation Booh, of which Bifhop Burnet gives the fol¬
lowing account : “ This book was wrote on the fubjeft
of government, the divine inftitution of which was very
pofitively afferted. It was read in convocation, and
pafled by that body, in order to the publifhing of it 3 in
oppofition to the principles laid down in the famous
book of Parfons the Jefuit, publifhed under the name of
Do/eman. But King James did not like a convocation
entering into fuch a theory of politics 3 fo he difcouraged
the printing of it, efpecially fince, in order to juftify the
owning of the United Provinces, who had lately thrown
off the Spanifli yoke, to be a lawful government, it was
laid down, that when a change of government was
brought to a thorough fettlement, it was then to be own¬
ed and fubmitted to as work of the providence of God.
Here it flept, till Archbifhop Sancroft, who had got
the book into his own hands, and not oblerving the lafl-
mentioned paffage in it, refolved to publifh it in the
beginning of King William’s reign, as an authentic
declaration the church of England had made in the
•« point
Overall.
O V E
Overbury, point of non-refiftance. Accordingly it was publifh-
> ed in 410, as well as licenfed, by him, a very few days
before he was under fufpenhon for not taking the
caths.”
OVERBURY, Sir Thomas, a learned Englifhman,
was born in 1581 ; and ftudied at Queen’s college,
Oxford, after which he removed to the Middle-Temple,
London. He afterwards travelled for fome time, and
returned a moll accomplifhed perfon ; when he contract¬
ed an intimate acquaintance with Sir Robert Carr,
knight of the Bath, who being foon after taken into
his majedy’s favour, had Mr Overbury knighted at
Greenwich. Sir Thomas perceiving the familiarity
which fubfifted between his patron Carr, now made
Vifcount Rochefter, and the lady Frances, the wife of
Robert earl of Effex, was lb much difpleafed at it, that
he endeavoured to diiTuade him from keeping her com¬
pany, and from proceeding in the bafe defign he had
formed of having her fir it divorced from her hufband,
and then marrying her. The vifcount, refenting this
honeft advice, told what he had faid to the lady, who
was as remarkable for her wickednefs as for her beauty 5
on which they immediately refolved on his deitrudfion.
About this time, the king wanting to fend an ambaffa-
dor abroad, the vifcount recommended Sir Thomas
Overbury. His majeily approving the choice, the vif¬
count imparted the king’s intentions to Sir Thomas ;
but, under a treacherous fliow of friendfhip, diffuaded
him from accepting of that employment, as it might
hinder him from a better wTay of advancement j promi-
fmg that he would prevent his majefty from being dif¬
pleafed at his refufal. The vifcount then went to the
king, and artfully incenfing his majefty againft Sir
Thomas for refufing to obey his commands, that gen¬
tleman was committed to the Towrer for his contempt,
on the 21 ft of April 1613, where he continued till he
was defpatched by poifon on the 15th of September
following, and - his body was interred in the Tower-
chapel the fame day. About two years after, the
whole contrivance of his death was difeovered. On
this feveral perfons were condemned and executed •,
but though Carr, earl of Somerfet, and the lady
Frances his countefs, wTere condemned to death for
contriving the murder, and hiring the perfons who
were concerned in it, the king only banilhed them
from court, and afterwards pardoned them. Sir Tho¬
mas Overbury wrote feveral poems, &c. and an account
of his travels.
His charadler is reprefented by a hiftorian of thofe
times; who, after relating the occafion and circum-
ftances of his death, proceeds in the following terms :
u In this manner fell Sir Thomas Overbury, worthy
of a longer life and a better fate 5 and, if I may com¬
pare private men with princes, like Germanicus Cte-
far, both by poifon procured by the malice of a wo¬
man, both about the 33d year of their age, and both
celebrated for their {kill and judgement in poetry, their
learning, and their wifdom. Overbury was a gentle¬
man of an ancient family, but had fome blemiflies
charged upon his charadfter, either through a too great
ambition, or the infolence of a haughty temper. 
After the return from his travels, the vifcount Ro¬
chefter embraced him with fo entire a friendftiip, that
exercifing by his majefty’s fpecial favour the office of
fecretary provifionally, he not only communicated to
[ 607 ]
O V I
Sir Thomas the fecrets, but many times gave him the Over-haul,
packets and letters unopened, before they had been ir,§
perufed by the king himfelf: which as it prevailed
too much upon his early years, fo as to make him, in
the opinion of feme, thought high and ambitious j
yet Iiq was fo far from violating his truft and confidence,
that he remains now one example among others who
have fuffered in their perfons or their fortunes for a free¬
dom of advice, which none but flncere friends will give,
and which many are fuch ill friends to themfelves as not
to receive.”
OVER-Hauling, the a£t of opening and extending
the feveral parts of a tackle, or other aflemblage of
ropes, communicating with blocks or dead eyes. It is
ufed to remove thofe blocks to a fufficient diftance from
each other, that they may be again placed in a ftate of
adtion, fo as to produce the effect required.
OVER-Hauling, is alfo vulgarly exprefied of an exa¬
mination or infpedlion into the condition of a perfon or
thing.
OvER-Rakc, among feamen : When a ftiip riding at
anchor fo overbeats herfelf into a high fea, that {he is
wafhed by the waves breaking in upon her, they fay ’
the waves over-rake her.
OVERSMAN, in Scots Law, a perfon appointed
by arbiters, or by the parties lubmitters, to determine
the matter fubmitted, in cafe the arbiters difagree in
their opinion.
OVER"!', the fame with Open : Thus an overt a£l
fignifies an adt which, in law, muft be clearly proved;
and fuch is to be alleged in every indictment for high
treafon.
OVERTURE, or Ouverture, opening or pre¬
luding : a term ufed for the folemnities at the begin¬
ning of a public adt or ceremony j an opera, tragedy,
comedy, concert of mufic, &c. The overture of the
theatre or feene, is a piece of mufic ufually ending
with a fugue : the overture of a jubilee is a general
proceffion, &c.
OVERYSSEL, fo named from its fituation beyond
the river Yffel, one of the Seven United Provinces 3 ’
bounded on the eaft by the bifhopric of Munfter, on
the north by Friefland and the territory of Gronin¬
gen, on the weft by the river Yffel, and on the fouth
by the county of Zutphen and the bifhopric of Mun¬
fter. It is divided into three diftindl parts ; which are
the territories of Drenfe, Twente, and Salland. There
are many moraftes in this province, and but few inha¬
bitants, in comparifon of the reft. Its greateft riches
confift in turfs; which are dug up here, and fent to
the neighbouring provinces, particularly Holland. It
extends near 60 miles in length from north to fouth,
and 40 in breadth from eaft to weft. The whole
country is low and marfhy, but it produces a tolerable
quantity of corn. It \vas formerly a dependance of the
bifhopric of Utrecht, before Henry of Bavaria, biftiop of
that fee, transferred the fovereignty of it to the emperor
Charles V.
OVI EDA, a genus of the angiofpermia order, be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs of plants; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 40th order, Perfqnatw.
See Botany Index.
OVIEDO, a town of Spain, and capital of Aftu-
rias d’Oviedo, with a bifhop’s fee, and an univerfity j
feated at the confluence of the rivers Ove and Deva,
whicE-i
O V I
Oughu-ed, wKich form the Afta, 50 miles north-weft of Leon, and
. < AK‘ ■ 238 north-weft of Madrid. W. Long. 5. N. Lat.
43- 23.
OUGHTRED, William, an eminent mathema¬
tician, was born at Eton in 1573, and educated in the
fchocl there, whence he was eleded to KingVcollege
in Cambridge, of which he afterwards became fellow.
Being admitted to holy orders, he left the univerfity
about the year 1603, and was prefented to the reclory
of Aldbury, near Guildford in Surry 5 and about the
y*ar 1628 was appointed by the earl of Arundel to
inftruft his fon in the mathematics. He kept .a corre-
fnondence by letters with fome of the moft eminent
fcholars of his time upon mathematical fubjedls 5 and
the moft celebrated mathematicians of that age owod
moft of their Ikill to him, whofe houfe w'as full of
young gentlemen that came from all parts to receive
his inftruction. It is faid that, upon hearing the news
of the vote at Weftminfter for the reftoration of King
Charles II. he expired in a hidden tranfport of joy,
aged 88. He w7rote, 1. Cl avis Mathematical which
was afterwards publifhed in England. 2. A defcription
of the double horizontal dial. 3. Qpnfcula Mathema-
tica ; and feveral other works. He left alfo behind him
a g’-eat number of papers upon mathematical fubjecfs,
which are now in the mufeum of William Jones, Efq.
F. R. S.
David Lloyd, in his Memoirs, has given the follow7-
ing flrort charadier of him : “ That he v7as as facetious
in Greek and Latin, as fo)id in arithmetic, geometry,
and the fphere of all meafures, mufic, &c. exadt in his
ftyle as in his judgement; handling his tube and other
inftruments at 80 as fteadily as others did at 30 5 ow¬
ing this, as he faid, to temperance and archery 5 prin-
cipling his people with plain and fplid truths, as he
did the world with great and ufeful arts ; advancing
new inventions in all things but religion, which, in its
old order and decency, he maintained fecure in his
privacy, prudence, meeknefs, fimplicity, refolution, pa¬
tience, and contentment.” He had one fon ; whom
he put an apprentice to a watchmaker, and wrote a
book of inftrudlions in that art for his ufe.
0\TD, or Publius 0VIDIUS Najb, a celebrated La¬
tin poet of the Auguftan age, was a Roman knight,
born at Sulmo, in the 43d year before the Chriftian
era. He ftudied rhetoric under Aurelius Fufcus, and
for fome time frequented the bar. His progrefs in
the ftudy of eloquence w7as great, but the father’s ex-
pedlations were fruftrated } his fon was born a poet,
and nothing could deter him from purfuing his natural
inclination to write poetry, though he was often re¬
minded that Homer lived and died in the greateft po¬
verty. Every thing he wrote w7as exprefted in poeti¬
cal numbers, as he himfelf fays, Et quod tentabam fcri-
bere verfus erat: A lively genius and a fertile imagina¬
tion foon gained him admirers; the learned became
his friends : Virgil, Propertius, Tibullus, and Horace,
honoured him w'ith their con efpondence, and Auguftus
patronized him with the moft unbounded liberality.
I hefe favours, however, were but momentary •, for
after having obtained the efteem of Auguftus, he incur¬
red his difpleafure, and was banifhed to Tomos, a city
on the Pontus Euxinus, near the mouth of the Danube,
when he was 50 years of age. The true caufe of
ihis hidden exile is unknowm. Some attribute it to
O V I
a fuameiul amour with Livia the wife of Auguftus, 6vie!,
while oihers fuppole that it arofe from the knowledge v~“
which Ovid had of the unpardonable inceft of the
emperor with his daughter Julia, 'i hefe reafons are in¬
deed merely conjectural j the caufe was of a very pri¬
vate and very fecret nature, of which Ovid himfelf is
afraid to fpeak. It was, however, fomething improper
in the family and court of Auguftus, as thefe lines feem
to indicate :
Cur ahquid vidi ? Cur tioxia lurrdno. feci ?
Cur imprudenti cognita culpa mi hi ejl ?
Infcius AEtceon vidit Jine vejle Dianam,
Prcedafuit canibus non minus Me fuis.
Again,
Infcia quod crimen viderunt lumina pleBory
Peccatumque oculos ejl habuijje meum.
And in another place,
Perdiderunt cum me duo crimina, carmen et errory
Alterius fach culpa flenda mihi efl.
In his banifhment, Ovid betrayed his pufillanimily
in a great degree ; and however affeded and diftreffed
his fituation was, yet the flattery and impatience which
he ftrowed in his writings are a difgrace to his pen, and
lay him more open to ridicule than to pity. Though
he proftituted his pen and his time to adulation, yet
the emperor proved deaf to all entreaties, and refuted
to liften to his moft ardent friends at Rome who wiftr-
ed for his return. Ovid, who really wiftied for a Bru¬
tus to deliver Rome of her tyrannical Auguftus, ftill
continued his flattery even to meannefs and when the
emperor died, he was fo mercenary as to confecrate a
Imall temple to the departed tyrant on the {hore of the
Euxine, where he regularly offered ftankincenfe every
morning. Tiberius proved as regardlefs as his predecef-
for to the entreaties which were made for the poet, and
he died in the feventh or eighth year of his banifhment,
in the 57th year of his age. He was buried at Tomos.
In the year 1508 of the Chnftian era, the following
epitaph was difeovered at Stain, in the modern kingdom
of Auftria.
Hie ftus efl votes quern Divi Ccefaris ira,
Augujlipalria Cedere jufjit humo.
Scrpe mifer vohut patriis occumbere tends,
Sedfrufra ! hunc Mi fata dedere locum.
This, however, is an impofition to render celebrated
an obfeure corner of the world, which never contain-,
ed the bones of Ovid. The greateft part of his poems
are remaining. His Metaphorphofes, in 15 books, are
extremely curious, on account of the great varietv of
mythological fadls and traditions which they* relate,
but they can have no claim to epic honours. In com-
pofing this the poet was more indebted to the ex-
ifting traditions, and to the theogony of the ancients,
than the powers of his own imagination. His Fajii '
were divided into 12 books, like the conftellations in
the zodiac, but of thefe fix are loft ; and the learned
world have reafon to lament the lofs of a poem which
muft have thrown fo much light upon the religious
rites and ceremonies, feftivals and facrifices, of the an¬
cient Romans, as we may judge from the fix that have
furvived the ravages of time and barbarity. His TriJ-
tia,
[ 608 ]
Ovid,
Oviedo.
O V 1 [6
t;a, which are divided into five books, contain much
elegance and fiofinefs of expreffion ] as alio his E/egies
on different fubjedls. The Herotdes are nervous, fpirit-
ed, and diffufe ; the poetry is excellent, the language
varied, bul^ the expreffions are often too wanton and
indelicate 5 a fault which is very common with him.
His three books Amcrum, and the fame number de
Arte Amandi. with the other de Remedio Amoris, are
written with peculiar elegance, and contain many flow¬
ery defcriptions; but the doctrine which they hold
forth is dangerous, and they are to be read with cau¬
tion, as they feern to be calculated to corrupt the
heart, and to fap the very foundations of virtue and
morality. His Ibis, which is written in imitation of a
poem of Callimachus of the fame name, is a fatirical
performance. Befides thefe, there are extant fome frag¬
ments of other poems, and among thefe part of a tra¬
gedy called Medea. The talents of Ovid as a dramatic
writer have been difputed, and fome have remarked
that he who is fo often void of fentiment was not born
to flrine as a tragedian. He has attempted, perhaps,
too jnany forts of poetry at once. On whatever he
has written, he has totally exhaufted the fubjeft.
He everywhere paints nature with a mafterly hand,
and adds ftrength even to vulgar expreffions. It has
been judicioufly obferved, that his poetry after his ba-
nifhment from Rome was deftitute of that fpirit and
vivacity which wc admire in thofe which were written
before. His Fq/ii are perhaps the belt written of all
Iris poems; and after them we may fairly rank his
love verfes, his Her aides, and after all his Metamor-
phofes, which were not totally finifhed when Auguftus
banilhed him. His Epifths from Pontus are the lan¬
guage of a weak and fordid flatterer. However critics
may have caufe to cenfure the indelicacy and the inac¬
curacies of Ovid, it is to be acknowledged that his
poetry contains great fweetnefs and elegance, and, like
that of Tibullus, charms the ear and captivates the
mind.—Another perfon of the name of Ovid accom¬
panied his friend Csefonius when banifhed from Rome
by Nero.
OVIEDO, John Gonsalvez de, born at Madrid
about the year 1478, was educated among the pages of
Ferdinand king of Arragon and Ifabella queen of Ca-
flile •, and happened to be at Barcelona in 1493, when
Chriftopher Columbus returned from his firft voyage to
the ill and Haiti, which he called Hifpaniola, and which
now' goes by the name of St Domingo, tie formed an
intimate acquaintance with Columbus and his compa¬
nions, and was at pains to inform himfelf of every thing
relating to the new difeoveries. He rendered fuch ef-
fential fervice to Spain during the war of Naples, that
Ferdinand determined to fend him to the ifland of Hai¬
ti, as intendant and infpeflor general of the trade of
the New World. The ravages which the venereal dif-
eafe had made during that war, induced him to inquire
into what were the moft efficacious remedies for this
malady, which was funpofed to have come from the
Well It rdies. His inquiries were extended to every thing
which regards the natural hifiory of thefe regions ; and,
on liis return to Spain, he publifhed Summario de la Hi-
Jloria general y natural de las Indies Occidenta/es,
■which he dedicated to Charles V. Pie afterwards
made fome additions to this work, which he pubhfhed
under the title of La Hi/loria general y natural de las
Vol. XV. Part II. '
39 ] O tj P
India s Occidentals ; Salamanca, 1535, folio. It was On ha,
tranflated into Italian, and afterwards into French ; Pa- l:^>ey'
ris, 1556, folio. In this work, Oviedo fays that the  
French pox is endemical in the ifland of Haiti, and that
it has palled frem thence into Europe. He greatly exi
tols the ufe of the wood of guaiacum for'the cure of
this difeafe •, but whether the difeafe is now become
more obftinate, or the remedy does not poffefs that effi¬
cacy which is aferibed to it, it is at prefent in little efti-
mation.
OVILIA, or Septa, in ancient Rome, a place in
the Campus Martius, at firft railed in like a Iheep-pen,
whence its name. Afterwards it was mounted with
marble, and beautified with walks and galleries, as alfo-
with a tribunal, or feat of juftice. Within this pre-
cinff or inclolure the people were called to give their
fuffrages for the election of magilirates. The afeent
into the oviiia was not by flairs, but by pontes, or nar¬
row boards, laid there for the occafion ; on which ac¬
count, de ponte dejin fignified “ to be deprived of the
privilege of voting and perfons thus dealt with were
called depontani.
OVIPAROUS, a term applied to fuch animals as
bring forth their young from eggs j as birds, infefts,
&c.
OVIS, the Sheep, a genus of the mammalia clafs,
and of the order of Pecora. See Mammalia Index.
OUNCE, a weight, the 16th part of a pound avoir¬
dupois, and the 12,h part of a pound troy. The word
is derived from the Latin, uncia, “ the twelfth part of
any whole,” called as; particularly in geometrical mea-
fures, an inch, or 1 2th part of a loot. See Inch and
As.'
Ounce. See Felts, Mammalia Index.
OVOLO, or Ovum, in ArchiteBure, a round mould¬
ing, whofe profile or fweep, in the Ionic and Ccmpofite
capitals, is ufiually a quadrant of a circle : whence it is
alfo commonly called the quarter-round. It is ufually
cut with reprefentations of eggs and arrow-heads or an¬
chors placed alternately.
OU-poey-tse, a name given by the Chmefe to a
kind of nefts made by certain infers upon the leaves
and branches of the tree called ycn-fou-tfe. 1 hefe nefls
are much ufed in dyeing, and the phyficians employ
them for curing many diftempers. Some of thefe nefts
were brought to Europe, and put into the hands of the
celebrated Mr Geoffrey. After having examined them
with the utmoft attention, this learned academician
thought he perceived fome conformity in them to thofe
excrefcences which grove on the leaves of the elm, and
which the vulgar call elm-bladders: he found thefe nefts
fo (harp and aftringent to the tafte, that he confidered
them as far fuperior to every other fpecies of galls ufed
by the dyers. According to him, they are the ftrongeft
affringents exifting in the vegetable kingdom.
It is certain that there is a great affinity between the
ou-poey-tfe and the elm-bladders. The form of both is
unequal and irregular j they are covered on the outfide
with a ftiort down, which renders them foft to the touch 5
within they are full of a whltiftp-grey duff, in which may
be obferved the dried remains of fmall infefls, without
difeovering any aperture through which they might have
paiTed. Thefe nefts or bladders harden as they grow
old; and their fubftance, which appears refinous, be¬
comes brittle and tranfparent; however, the Chmefe do
4 II not
Oufe,
Oufter.
O tJ S
not confider the ou-poey-tfe, notwithftanding their re-
femblance to elm-bladders, as excrefcences of the tree
yen-fou-tfe, upon which they are found. They are per-
luaded, that infeds produce a kind of wax, and conftrud
lor themfelves on the branches and leaves of this tree
(the fap of which is proper for their nourilhment) little
retreats, where they may wait for the time of their me-
tamorphofis, or at leaft depofit in fafety their e^gs, which
compofe tnat fine dull with which the ou-poey-tfe are
fihed. Some of the ou-poey-tfe are as large a$ one’s
hit; but thefe are rare, and are generally produced by
a worm of extraordinary ftrength, or which has aifccia-
ied with another, as two filk worms are fometimes Veen
finut up in the fame balk The fmalleft ou-poey-tfe are
of the fize of a chefnut j the greater part of them are
iound and oblong j b-it they feldom refemble one ano¬
ther entirely in their exterior configuration. At firft,
they are of a dark green colour, which afterwards
changes to yellow } and the hulk, though pretty firm
becomes then very brittle.
The Chinefe peafants colled thefe ou-poey-tfe before
the firft hoar-frofts. They take care to kill the worm
incloied in the hulks, and to expofe them for fome time
to t ie fleam of boiling water. Without this precaution,
the worm might foon break through its weak prifon,
which would immediately burft and be ufelefs. The
ou poey-tfe are uled at Pekin for giving paper a dura-
le and deep-black colour ; in the provinces of Kiang-
nan and Tche-kiang, where a great deal of beautiful
latm is made, they are employed for dyeing the filk
before it is put on the loom. The Chinefe literati
alio blacken their beards with them when they become
white.
The medicinal properties of the ou-poey-tfe are very
numerous. The Chinefe phyficians introduce them into
the compofition of many of their remedies. Thev re¬
commend them for flopping bloodings of every kind :
tney confider them as an excellent fpecific for curing in¬
flammations and-ulcers, and for counteracting the effeds
of poifon; and they employ them with fuccefs in the
<1 reply, phthifis, epilepfy, catarrhs, ficknefs, fluxions of
tlie eyes and ears, and in many other diforders.
Greater OUSE, a river which rifes near Fitwell in
Oxfordfhire, and proceeds to Buckingham, Stony-Strat-
xord, and Newport-Pagnel, in Buckinghamihire j from
thence it proceeds to Bedford, and turning north-eaft it
paftes on to Huntingdon and Ely, till at length it arrives
at Lynn-Regis in Norfolk, and falls into the lea. It is
na\ igable to fome diftance above Downham, where there
is a good harbour for barges; and a confiderable trade
is cairied on by it to Eynn and other towns.
Smaller OtASE,^rifes in Suffolk, and, feparating that
county from Norfolk on the fouth-weft, difeharges itfelf
into the great Oufe near Dovtnham. There is ftill ano¬
ther of the fame name which rifes in the weft-north-
weft fide of Yorkfhire ; and chiefly running to the fouth-
eaft, at length falls into the Humber.
OUSTER, or Dispossession, in Laxv, an injury
whica carries with it the amotion of pofleffion ; for
by means of it the wrong doer gets into the adual pof-
e hon of the land or hereditament, and obliges him that
^ to feek a legal remedy, in order to gain
ponefiion, together with damages. This oufter may ei¬
ther be of the freehold by abatement, intrufion, diffeifin
ail continuance, and deforcement j or of chattels real,
[ <5io ]
OUT
as an eftate by ftatute-merchant, ftatute-ftaple, or elegit, Oufter Ie
or an eitate tor vears 7 & ’ »* • .
or an eftate for years. ~ • Main
Om-TER le Main, amovefe manum, in Law, denotes n J
a livery of lands out of the king’s hands ; or a judge ’
ment given for him that t raver led, or fued, a monjrans
tc aroit. V\ hen it appeared, upon the matter being dif-
cufied, that the king had no right or title to the land
feized, judgment was given in chancery, that the king’s
hand be amoved 5 and oufter le main, or amoveas ma¬
num, was therefore awarded to the efeheator,. to reftore
the land, &c. All wardfhips, liveries, oujler le mains,
&c. are now taken away and difeharged by ftatute 1 2
Car. II.
OUS LTOUG, a town of the Ruffian empire, and
capital of a province of the fame name, with an arch
biihop’s fee and a caftle j feated on the river Suchan
over-agamft the mouth of the Jug, in E. Long. 4,0 2 c’
N. Lat 61. 48. ® ^
Oustioug, a province of the Ruffian empire, bound¬
ed on the north by Dwina, on the eaft by the foreft of
Ziram, on the fouth by Wologda, and on the weft by
Cargapol and Waga._ It is divided into two parts by
the river Suchana j is full of forefts; and the rivers
yield plenty of filli, which the inhabitants dry in the
fun, and which make their principal nourifhment.
OUT-posts, in a military fenfe, a body of men port¬
ed beyond the grand guard, called out-pojh, as being the
rounds or limits of the camp.
OUTLAW, fignifies one that is deprived of the be¬
nefit of the law, and therefore held to be out of the
king’s protedfion.
Bradton afferts, that an outlaw forfeits all he has -
and that, from the time of his outlawry, he wears a
wolf’s head ; and any body may kill him with impuni¬
ty, efpecially if he defend himfelf or fly. But in Ed¬
vard III. s time it was refolved by the judges, that it
fliould not be lawful for any man, but the fheriff alone
(having fufficient warrant for it), to put to death a man
that was outlawed.
. OU JL LAW PA , the punifliment of a perlon who be¬
ing called into law, and lawfully, according to the
ufual forms, fought, does contemptuoufly refufe to appear.
. 1 h.e .efte& 0* being outlawed at the fuit of another,
in a civil caufe, is the forfeilure of all the perfon’s goods’
and chattels to the king, and the profits of his land,
while the outlawry remains in force. If in treafon or
felony, all the lands and tenements which he has in fee.,
or for life, and all his goods and chattels, are alfo for¬
feited 5 and befides, the law interprets his abfence as a
Efficient evidence of guilt 5 and without requiring far¬
ther proof, accounts the perfon guilty of the fad, on
which enfues corruption of blood, &c. And then’ ac¬
cording to Brafton, he may perifti without law, ’&c.
However, to avoid inhumanity, no man is intitled to
kill him wantonly or wilfully ; but in fo doing he is
guilty of murder, unlefs it happens in endeavouring to
apprehend him ; for any body may arreft an outlaw, eB
ther of his own head, or by writ or warrant of capias
utlagatum, in order to bring him to execution.
If after outlawry, in civil cafes, the defendant pub¬
licly appear, he is to be arrefted by a writ of capias ut¬
lagatum, and committed till the outlawry be reverfed : '
which reveifal may be had by the defendant’s apnearing
in court (and in the king’s-bench, by fending an attor¬
ney, according to ftatute 4 and 5 W. and M. cap. 18.)
and.
OWE [ 6n ] O W H
Cvnm An- and any plauflble circumftance, however trifling, is in
guirm n general liifficient to reverfe it 5 it being confidered only
Ovven as a Proce^s f°rce appearance. The defendant muft,
..— -. however, pay full cofts, and muft put the plaintiff in the
fame condition as if he had appeared before the wTrit of
exigi facias was awarded. It is appointed by magna
charta, that no freeman fliall be outlawed, but according
to the law of the land. A minor or a woman cannot be
outlawed.
In Scotland outlawry anciently took place in the cafe
of refufal to fulfil a civil obligation, as well as in crimi¬
nal cafes. At prefent, however, it only takes place in the
two cafes of flying from a criminal profecution, and of
appearing in court attended by too great a number of
followers. But the defender, upon appearing at any di-
ftance of time and offering to ftand trial, is entitled de
jure to have the outlawry reverfed, and to be admitted
to trial accordingly, and even to bail if the offence be
bailable. See Waive.
OVUM anguinum. See Anguinum.
OUTWORKS, in Fortification, all thofe wrorks made
without-fide the ditch of a fortified place, to cover and
defend it. See Fortification.
OUSEL, a fpecies of Motacilla. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
OWEN, Thomas, a judge of the common-pleas,
fon of Richard Owen, Efq. of Condover in Shropfhire,
was educated at Oxford. Having taken a degree in
arts, he left the univerfity, and entered himfelf of Lin¬
coln’s inn in London, where in procefs of time he be¬
came an eminent counfellor. In 1583 he was eledfted
Lent-reader to that fociety. In 1590 he was made fer-
geant at law, and queen’s fergeant foon after. He arri¬
ved at length at the dignity of judge of the common
pleas; which office he is faid to have executed, during
five years, with great abilities and integrity. He died
in 1598 ; and was buried on the fouth fide of the choir
in Weftminfter abbey, where a monument was erected
to his memory. He had the reputation of a learned
man, and a patron of literature. He was the author of
“ Reports in the common pleas, wherein are many
choice cafes, moft of them thoroughly argued by the
learned fergeants, and after argued and refolved by the
grave judges of thofe times, with many cafes wherein
the difference of the year-books are reconciled and ex¬
plained.” Lond. 1656, folio.
Owen, Dr John, an eminent and learned diffenting
minifter, was born in 1616, at Hadham, in Oxfordftiire,
of w’hich place his father wras vicar. He made fuch
furprifing proficiency in learning, that at twelve years of
age he was admitted into Queen’s-college, Oxford, and
in 1635 was made mafter of arts : but foon after, difap-
proving the new regulations made by Archhilhop Laud
their chancejlor, with which he refufed to comply, he
was obliged, in 1637, to leave the univerfity 5 when, ta¬
king orders, he became chaplain to Sir Robert Dormer
of Afcot in Oxfordftiire, and wras at the fame time tutor
40 his eldeft fon. He was aftenvards chaplain to John
Lord Lovelace of Hurley in Berkftiire •, when the civil
war broke out, he openly avowed the caufe of the par¬
liament ; which was fo refented by an uncle, who had
intended to leave him his eftate, that he difcarded him,
and left it to another. Yet though Lord Lovelace joined
the king, he treated his chaplain with great civility; but
-on his taking the field with the royal army, Mr Owen
went to London, and focn after joined the noti-cohfor- Owen,
mjfts. In 1642 he publifhed his book, intitled, A Dijplay 0why ;e',
of Arminiamfm, which laid the foundation of his future v
advancement: for the committee for purging the church
of fcandalous minifters were fo pleafed wdth it, that Mr
V kite their chairman fcnt him a prefentation of the li¬
ving of Fordham in Effex: but wdien he had been there
about a year and a half, the patron hearing that the le-
queftered incumbent was dead, pmented another to the
living j upon which the earl of Warwick gave Mr
Owen the living of Coggelhal. He had not, however,
been long at that town before he left the Prefbyterians}
and, joining the Independents, formed a church there.
He was now lent for feveral times to preach before the
parliament; and among the reft on the 28 th of Febru¬
ary 1648-9, the day of humiliation for the intended ex¬
pedition to Ireland. Cromwell, who was prefent at this
laft difcourfe, and had never heard him before, was ex¬
tremely pleafed with it, and defired his company into
Ireland, and that he would refide in the college of
Dublin., This he did ; but returned in about half a
year. Soon after Cromwell fent him into Scotland j
but he alfo returned from thence after about half a
year’s ftay at Edinburgh. He was then promoted to
the deanery of Chrift-church, Oxford, whither he went
in 1651 ; and Cromwell, being now chancellor of the
univerfity, nominated him his vice-chancellor. The
next year he was created dodtor of divinity by diploma.
Dr Owen enjoyed the poft of vice chancellor five years $
during which he behaved with the greateft modefation ;
for, though often folicited, he never molefted the meet¬
ing of the royalifts at the houfe of Dr Willis the phy-
fician, where divine fervice was performed according to
the liturgy of the church of England : and though he
-was a commiflioner for ejedting fcandalous minifters, he
frequently overruled his brethren in favour of thofe
royalifts who were diftinguithed by their merit. At the
death of Cromwell, he was removed from the vice-chan-
cellorfhip j and at the Reftoration was ejefted from
his deanery of Chrift-church. But he had provided
himfelf a comfortable retreat at an eftate he had pur-
chafed at Hadham. He now employed himfelf in
preaching as often as he had an opportunity, and in
writing books; one of which, intitled Fiat Lux, falling
into the hands of Lord Clarendon, he was fo pleafed
with it, or (as is faid) from policy pretended to be fo,
that he fent for Dr Owen, and acknowledging the fer¬
vice he had done by it to the Proteftant religion > offer¬
ed to prefer him in the church if he would conform $
but he defired to be excufed.—His moderation drew
him refpedf from perfons of oppofite principles; and in
the number of his friends were Dr Wilkins bilhop of
Cheftet, and Dr Barlorv biftiop of London. He died
at Ealing in 1683. His works are printed in feven vo¬
lumes folio.
Wood, after cenfuring him in many refpe&s, fays ne,-
verthelefs, that, “ to fpeak impartially, he was a per-
fcn well fkilled in the tongues, Rabbinical learning, and
Jewifh rites and cuftoms; that he had a great command
of his Englilh pen, and was one of the genteeleft and
faireft writers who have appeared againft the church of
England.”
OWHYHEE, the eafternmoff, and by far the laf-
geft, of the Sandwich iflands. Its greateft length from
'north to fouth is 28-^ leagues, its breadth 24, and its
4 H 2 circumference
y
O W H r 6
X'iwIiyLce
circumference nearly 300 Englilli miles. It is divided
into iix large diltricis j two of which on the nerth-eaft
lide are feparated by a mountain, that rifes in three
peak's, v/hich is perpetually covered with fnovv, and may
be fden clearly at 40 leagues dillance. To the north of
this mountain, the coaft confifts of high and deep cliffs,
down which fall many beautiful cafcades of water. The
■whole country is covered with cocoa-nut and bread-fruit
trees. rihe peaks oi the mountain on the north-call
fide appear to be about half a mile in height, and en¬
tirely covered with fnow. To the fouth of this moun¬
tain, the coaft prefents a prcfpedl of the molt dreary
kind, the whole country appearing to have undergone
a total change by means of fome dreadful convuiiion.
The ground is everywhere covered with cinders, and
interfedled in many places with black ftreaks, which
feem to mark the comfe of a lava that has flowed not
many ages iince from the mountain to the ftiore. The
iouthern promontory looks like the mere dregs of a vol¬
cano. The projefting headland is compofed of broken
and craggy rocks, piled irregularly one upon another,
and terminating in (harp points; yet amidft thefe ruins,
there are many pieces of rich foil, which are carefully
laid out in plantations, and the neighbouring fea affords
a vaft, variety of excellent filh : fo that this quarter is
much better inhabited than thofe which are more ver¬
dant. The fields are inclofed with ftone fences, and are
interfperfed with groves of cocoa nut trees. We are
told indeed by fome of Cook’s people who walked
through a confiderable part of it, that they did not ob-
ferve a fpot of ground, that was fufceptible of improve¬
ment left unplanted ; and indeed the country, from
their account, could fcarcely be cultivated to greater ad¬
vantage for the purpofes of the natives. They were fur-
prifed at feeing feveral fields of hay •, and upon their in¬
quiry, to‘ what particular ufe it was applied, they were
informed, that it was intended to cover the grounds
where the young taro grew, in order to preferve them
from being fcorched by the rays of the fun. They ob-
ferved among the plantations a few huts fcattered about,
which afforded occafional finelter to the labourers ; but
they did not fee any villages at a greater diftance from
the fea than four or five miles. Near one of them,
which was fituated about four miles from the bay, they
difeovered a cave forty fathoms in length, three in
breadth, and of the fame height. It was open at each
end ; its fldes were fluted as if wrought with a chifel ;
and the furface was glazed ever, perhaps by the aftion
of fire. There are fuppofed to be on this ifland about
150,000 inhabitants. So long as the name of Captain
Cook fhall be remembered, this ifland will not be for¬
gotten ; for he here fell a viclirn to a ftrange concatena¬
tion of events. See Cook.
We have the following account of the inhabitants of
this ifland in Ellis’s Authentic Narrative, &c. “ The
men are above the middle fr/e, flout, wTell made, and
flefliy, but net fat. Corpulency is not altogether fo
great a mark of drum ft ion in thefe as in the Society
ifles; and tallhefs, for which the Otaheiteans have great
partiality, is alfo overlooked. Their colour is in gene¬
ral browm olive. The w-omen are in general mafeuline,
though there are feme delicately made, and the voice
of them all is foft and feminine. The hair both of the
head and bend is Hack \ that of the head the men w ear
12] o w H
in the form of a helmet, that is, a long frizzled ridge C«h\hee.
from the forehead to the neck, the fides being much %  
fhorter. This fathion feems to prevail only among the
principal people, that of the inferior fort being of an
equal length in every part. Moft of them were very
defirous of parting with their beards, which, they laid,
were difagreeable and troublefome, and w-ere fond of
being lhaved by our people. Some oi the priefts wore
their beards long, and would not on any account pa.t
with them. The woinen wear their hair long before,
but very ftiort behind, which is not the moft becoming
mode } and, like thofe .of the Friendly ifles, they have
a way of rendering it of different colours, red, yellow,
and brown. The features oi both fexes are good, and
we faw iome of the females who might really be called
fine women. Their teeth are even and perfectly white.
In general, they feem to be very healthy, and we obfer-
ved feveral who appeared to be of great age. As to
difeafes, we faw none who laboured under any during
our ftay, except the venereal complaint; cough? and
colds indeed were pretty general, and one man died.
From w hat we could learn of his diforder from the na¬
tives, it wqs a violent griping or colic.
“ Both men and women appeared to be of a good
difpofition, and behaved to each other with the tendered,
regard: when they did fail out, which lometimes was
the cafe, occafioned by the upfetting of a canoe, or lome
fuch trifling accident, they only fooided a little, and this
was foon over and forgotten. We never iawT them
ftrike each other upon any occafion. They are all
thieves, from the aree to the tow tow, but not quite fo
expert at it as our Otaheite friends.
“ The cuftom of tattowing prevails greatly among
thefe people, but the men have a much larger fhare of
it than the women 5 many (particularly fome of the na¬
tives of Mow’whee) have one half their body, from head
to foot, marked in this manner, which gives them a moft
ftriking appearance. It is done with great regularity,
and looks remarkably neat : fome have only an arm
marked in this manner, others a leg 5 fome again have
both arm and leg, and others only the hand. The wo¬
men are for the rnoft part marked upon the tip of their
tongpe ; but of thefe w7e faw7 but few. Both fexes have
a particular mark according to the diftrict in which they
live } or it is rather the mark of the aree, or principal
man, under whofe jurifdiflion they more immediately
are. We never faw the operation of ta'towing perform¬
ed, nor could we procure a fight of the inftruments ufed
upon this occafion } but it is likely they are much the
fame as thofe of the Friendly and Society ifles.
“ Both men and women are very cleanly in their
perfons ; the latter vafh their whole bodies in freftr wa¬
ter twice and fometimes three times a-day *, but the wo¬
men of Otaheite have the advantage of them in one
point of cleanlinefs, which is eradicating the hairs from
under the arm-pits. This is a cuftom we obferved no¬
where but at the Society ifles.
“ There are no people in the w7orld who indulge
themfelves more in their fenfual appetite than thefe : in
fa£l, they carry it to a moft fcandalous and fhameful de¬
gree, and in a manner not proper to be mentioned. The
ladies are very lavifli of their favours; but are far from
being fo mercenary as thofe oi the Friendly or Society
ifles, and fome of their attachments feemed purely the
effe£t
O W H > [ 61
Owhyhce. efTcvTi of a-Tuflion. They are initiated into this way of
—y—— lire at a very early period j we faw fome v/ho could not
be more than ten years old. .
“ t heir clothing coniifts of cloth of different kinds :
that worn by the men, whicn is called marro, is about
half a y ard wide, and four yards long } that of the wo¬
men three quarters of a yard wide, and of the fame
length as the men’s: this they call pa!:-oou'X>a > they
both -wear it round their middle, but the men pafs it
between their legs. This is the general drefs of bath
lexes 5 but the better fort fome limes throw a large
piece loofely over their (boulders. Behdes the mavro,
they have ieveral other kinds of cloth, which derive
their names either from the different ides they are ap-
iied to, or their different texture and pattern •, all,
ovvever, as fur as we could learn, are made born the
Chinefe paper -1 alberry tree. The principal of theie
is the cappa, which is about IQ or 12 feet long, and
nearly as many wide, and is thick and warm ; they
wrap themfelves up in this when they retire to ileep.
They have another kind, which is white, and much
thinner 5 this,, as has been before obferved, they throw
loofely 'over their fhoulder j it is fometimes 20 or 30
yards long, and wide in proportion. ihe marro and
pah bouwa are curioufly painted of various patterns,
but the others are generally white, or dyed red, black,
and yellow.
“ The principal ornaments of the men are the
feather caps and cloaks j fome of the latter reach down
to their heels, and have a molt magnificent appear¬
ance. They are made for the moft part of red and
yellow feathers, which are tied upon fine net-work.
The caps are compofed of the fame kind of feathers,
which are fometimes intermixed with black ; they are
fecured upon a kind of baiket-work, made in the form
of a helmet. Both caps and cloaks are made oi va¬
rious patterns and fizes. The cloaks are not ail com¬
pofed of the fame kind of feathers, but are fomeiimes
varied with the long tail feathers of the cock, vrith a
border of yellow or red, and fometimes with thcie of
the tropic bird. Both caps and cloaks, however, are
only to be feen in the pofTefiion of the principal people.
They have alfo a kind of fly-flap, made of a bunch of
feathers fixed to the end of a thin piece of Imooth
and polifhed wood: they are generally made of the
tail feathers of the ccck, but the better fort of people
have them of the tropic bird’s feathers, or thofe belong¬
ing to a black and yellow bird called mo ho. The
handle is very frequently made of one of the bones of
the arms or leg of thofe whom they have killed in bat¬
tle, curioufly/inlaid with tortoife-fliell: thefe they deem
very valuable, and will not part with them under a great
price. This ornament is common to the fuperiors of
both fexes.
“ The women too have their fhare in the ornamen¬
tal way : that which they value moil is the oran ’I his
is a kind of ruff or necklace, made of red, green, black,
and yellow feathers, curioufly put together, and in
moif elegant patterns, which really do honour to the
fancy of the lathes, whofe bunnefs it is to make them.
They never think themfelves dreffed without one or
two of thefe round their necks, and thofe who can
afford it wear many. Others again are ccmpofed cf
fmall variegated {hells, difpofed in a very neat manner 5
and fome conuit of feveral rows of twilled hair, with
3 1 . 0 X F 
a piece of carVecl wood or bone, highly poiitued, the
bottom part forming a curve. The higher the qua- 0,H.>nl
lity of ihe wearer, the greater is the Ike of the wood —
or bone, and the quantity of the twilled hair. The
next thing is the poo-remah or bracelet 5 the moft va¬
luable are made of boar’s tufks ialtened together fide
by fide with a piece, of firing;-,’ by means oi a hole drill¬
ed though the middle j the larger the tulks, the greater
the value. Sometimes two iheils tied round the wrifts
with twilled or braided hair, ferve the purpofe of
bracelets ; but even in this cafe they fhow great nice¬
ty, being particularly careful to match them as near as
poflible. They were prodigiouily fond of thofe we
gave them, which were only a few/ beads, fecured by
thread upon a ftrip cf fcarlet cloth, and made to but¬
ton round the miff. So much did. they at firft value
them, that a finall hatchet and one of thefe would pur-
chafe a hog, winch without it could not have been
bought for three large hatQiaets. ihe women, were
perpetually teazing the men to difpofe of their various
articles for thefe bracelets 5 at leak one ot them was al¬
ways to make a part of the price.'’ \\r. i-ong. 1 36. o.
N. Lat. 19. 28.
OWL. See Sirix, Ornithology Index.
OWLING, fo called from its being ufually carried
on in the night, is the offence of tranfporting wool or
flieep out of this kingdom, to the detriment of its Ita-
ple manufacture. This was forbidden at common law,
and mors particularly by ftatute 11 Edw. EL c. 1.
when the importance of our woollen manufacture was
fir ft attended to-, and there are now many later fta-
tutes relating to this offence, the moll ufeful and prin¬
cipal of which are thefe enacted in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, and fince. The ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 3. makes
the tranfportation of live flieep, or embarking them on
board any fhip, for the firii offence forfeiture of goods,
and imprifonment for a year, and that at the end of
the year the left hand ihall be cut off in fome public
market, and ihall be there nailed up in the openefl
place; and the fecend offence is felony, ihe ftatuies
12 Car. II. c. 32. and 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 28. make
the exportation of wool, flieep, or fullers earth, liable *■
to pecuniary penalties, and the forfeiture or the inte-
reft of the ihip and cargo by the owners, it privy; and
confifcation of goods, and three years imprifonment to
the matter and all the mariners. And the ftatute 4
Geo. I. c. xi. (amended and farther enforced by 12,
Geo. II. c. 21. and 19 Geo. II. c. 34.),. makes it
tranfportation for feven. years, if the penalties be not
paid.
OXALJS, WOODSORRSL, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the decaiidria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 14th order, Gruinali-s. See Bo¬
tany Index.
OXFORD, the capital of a county-of the fame name
in England, celebrated for its univerfity, and pleafant-
ly fituated in a plain, in the middle of a fine fruitful
country. The compofition of the name is obvious. In
the Britiflx times it feems to have been a place of ftudy..
“ The wifdom of our anceftors (fays Camden) as ap¬
pears in our hiftory, confecrated even in the Britifh
times this city to the nudes, tranflating them from Greck-
lade ( now a frazil town in Wilts) hither, as to a more
fruitfulnurfery. For Alexander Necham* writes, “ Italy * T)~e Na-
clalias- fuperior knowledge of civil law ; but the ftudytuia Re-
cf/-//.w, Lb, ?.
O X F
[ 614 ]
“ -'*■ L ui^ j Q ^1^ jp
^f°rd divinity and the liberal arts proves, that the univerfity againft the Pe1apian n j r „
°ther,S* .A§yee- their plan and* inftitution.
    ctJL CO LiiClL LI1C
of Paris deferves the preference to all others. Agree*-
able alfo to Merlin’s prophecy, Wifdom has hourifhed at
the Ford of Oxen, and will in its due time pals over alio
into Ireiand. Put in the following Saxon age, when
fo many cities were dellroyed, it underwent the com¬
mon fate, and for a long while was famous only for the
relicks of Fndefwide, who was ranked among the faints
for her holy life, merely becaufe Ihe had folemnly de¬
voted herfelf to God j and Prince Algar, {eliciting her
in marriage, was miraculoufly, as they fay, deprived of
his eye-fight.”
Perhaps the following additional extract from Cam¬
den. will be more to the purpofe in developing the
ancient {fate of learning in this city, than any thing
■which we could bring forward of our own. “ When
the {form of the Danilh war was over, the molt reli-
*A.D.88<5 gious Prince Alfred* reftored their retreats to the
long-exiled mufes, by founding three colleges, one for
grammarians, another for philofophy, and a third for
divinity. This will be more fully explained by the fol¬
lowing paffage in the old annals of the New Monaitery
at Wincheiter. ‘ In the year of our Lord 806, the
lecond year of the arrival of St Grimbald in England,
the univerfity of Oxford was begun ; the firit who’
iuftitUtion' with unheard-
of condefeenfion, gave both parties attentive hearing
and repeated his pious and feafonable advice to main¬
tain mutual union and concord, and left them with the
pioipect that both parties would follow his advice and
embrace his inifitutions. But Grymbold, ofi'ended at
this proceeding, immediately retired to the monafiery
at V\ inchefter lately founded by King Alfred. He aL
i^U rd ,hlSJ t.°mb to be removed to Winchefter, in
which he had intended to lay his bones when his courfe
ot hie was ended, m the vault under the chancel of St
lete1 s church at Oxford, which church himfelfhad
built from the ground, of ftone polifhed in the mod cod-
ly manner.’
. / b^s haPPy redoration of learning was followed
m a lew years by various calamities. The Danes in
the reign of Edward plundered and burnt the place •
and loon after Harold Harefoot praftifed the mod in¬
human barbarities here in revenge for fome of his men
who were killed in an affray 5 fo that the mod melan-
cnoly remove of the dudents enfued, and the univer-
iity remained almod extindl, a lamentable fpedlacle till
the time of William the Norman. Some have falfely
iuppoled this prince took the city, milled by a wrong
Oxford.
prefided and Ld divMty leflunes ^ ‘aTS
“bb°haAabIef d,IV,"e’ a"d S* Gn-nbald^a poft time, however, it was the feat of an univerfit^as we
1^*0 vr» f vrxrv-.   C T 1 1 1 ... ! ^
. w v*xviiiv.? cmul a molt
eminent profeffor of the incomparable fweetnefs of the
facred pages; Affer the monk, an excellent fcholar,
profelling grammar and rhetoric ; John monk of the
church of St David giving leftures in logic, mufic,
and arithmetic ; and John the monk, colleague of St
Grimbald, a man of great parts, and a univerfal fcho¬
lar, teaching geometry and adronomy before the mod
glorious and invincible King Alfred, whole memory
will dwell like honey in the mouths of all.” Soon af¬
ter, as wre find in an. excellent MS. of the faid Affer,
who was at that time profeffor here, ‘ broke out a
(harp and fatal quarrel between Grymbold and thofe
very learned men whom he had brought thither with
him, and the old Icholars whom he found there ; who,
on his coming, unanimoufly refufed to receive the’
rules, methods, and forms of lefturing, that Grymbold
introduced. Ihree years had paffed without any great
difference between them ; but the fecret averfion after¬
wards broke out with the utmoft violence. In order
to quell it, the invincible King Alfred, as foon as he
heard of it by the meffages and complaints from Grym¬
bold, went in perfon to Oxford to put an end to the
difpute, and he took the greateft pains to hear the
caufes and complaints on both fides. The foundation
of the difference was this : The old fcholars maintain¬
ed, that before Grymbold came to Oxford, learnino-
had fiourilhed there, though the fcholars at that time
were fewer than in more ancient times, the greater
part being driven out by the cruelty and oppreffion of
the Pagans. They alfo proved and Ihowed, and that
by the undoubted teftimony of ancient chronicles, that
ine ordinances and regulations of the place were efta-
blifhed by certain religious and learned men, fuch as
Gildas, Melkinnus, Ninnius, Kentigern, and others,
who had all lived to a good old age in thefe ftudies,
having fettled . matters there in peace and harmony;
and alfo that St Germanus came to Oxford, and ftaid
‘.here half a year in his journey over Britain to preach
4
. ' r . 7,   ^ Uiuvwimy, as we
learn from thefe words of Ingulphus, who lived at that
time. ‘ I Ingulphus fettled firft at Weftminfter, was
afterwards fent to iludy at Oxford, having made greater
proficiency than many of my| own age in Ariftotle,
n n aT1 un™erfay, they in that age
called ’d. Jludy. Many are of opinion that it was de-
lerted till about the year 1 j 29, and that this defertion
was m confequence of its having been befieged and
taken by William the Conqueror. About this year
however, Robert Pulen began to read le&ures in divi¬
nity, or (as it is expreffed in the chronicle of Ofenev
abbey) the Holy Scriptures, which had fallen into ne¬
glect in England; and fuch was the refort of ffudents
to it, that in the reign of King John there were not
Wr than 3000. Robert d’Oily, a Norman, to whom
illiam the Conqueror had given the greateft part of
!t, bmlt a caftle on the weft fide in 1071 ; and he is
alio iuppoled to have furrounded it with walls. In a
palace built by Henry I. was born Richard I. com¬
monly called Cceur de Lion. About the tenth of Kina
John, there happened a quarrel between the citizens
and Undents; in confequence of which many of the
latter quitted it, but returned again a few years after¬
wards. Here Henry III. held a parliament to fettle
the differences betwixt him and his barons; when he
confirmed the privileges granted to the univerfity by
his predeceffors, and added others of his own. In this
reign tne Undents are faid to have been 30,000, who
were all excommunicated by the pope for fbme’rude-
nefs to his legate. In the time of Duns Scotus, we
are told that 30,000 fcholars attended his le&ures.
Matthew Paris ftyles the univerfity of Oxford, ‘ the
fecond fchool of the church after Paris, and the very
foundation of the church,’ The popes had before
this honoured it with the title of University, which
they had conferred by their decrees on no other but
that of Paris, this of Oxford, and thofe of Bologna
and Salamanca. It was decreed in ihe council of Vi¬
enne,
O X F [ 61
Oxford, enne, that ‘ fchools for the ftudy of the Hebrew, A-
rabic, and Chaldee languages, fhould be erefted in the
ftudies of Paris, Oxford^ Bologna, and Salamanca (as
the moft confiderable), that the knowledge of thefe
languages might prevail by their being thus taught j
and that Catholic perfons be chofen, fufficiently verfed
therein, two in each language. For thole in Oxford,
the bilhops, monalleries, chapters, convents, colleges, ex¬
empt and not exempt; and the recfors of churches
throughout England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales,
were to provide a competent maintenance.” In Edw. III.’s
time, the fcholars were fplit into two factions, called the
northern and fouthern men ; a divilion which was attend¬
ed with many diforders and much violence, but in alhort
time concord and harmony again prevailed.
As colleges began about this time to be founded and
endowed, we lhall here prefent our readers with a lill of
them, together with the time when, and the perfons by
whom, they were founded.
Colleges. Founders. Kings reigns.
Univerfity, King Alfred. Alfred.
-n ,|>- I C Sir John Baliol, father to'the king 7 n ttt
£d 0!- / of Scots. " Henry III.
Mprtnn C Walter Merton, lord chancellor J , ]T
M^rt0n- i and bifhop of Rochefter. J Edward I.
Oriel. Edward II. Edw. II.
Exeter. Walter Stapleton, bifliop. Edw. II.
Queen’s. Robert Eglesfield, B. D. Edw. III.
New College. II1-
Lincoln. {^coln^ Flemm^ b‘fll°P °f Lin*^ Henry VI.
AH-Souls. ..chbUlop o^He^VI.
Magdalen.
Srazen.Nofe. | } Hen. VIII.
Corpus-Chrili. { } Hen. VI,L
Chrift-Church. | Hef^ VIIL and Cardinal Wol-| Hen. VIII.
Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope. Mary.
St John Baptift.|SnLddl"™as White> ^rchant of|
Jefus
Wadham.
Queen Eli2abeth. . Elizabeth.
Nicolas and Dorothy Wadham. James I.
Pembroke 5 Thomas Tifdale, Efq. and Dr 7
7. Richard Whitwick. ^jame i.
Worcefter was called Gloucejler-hall till lately, that it was en¬
dowed by Sir Thomas Coke, and made collegiate.
Hartford was Hart hall till 1740, that itwaserefled into a col¬
lege by Dr Richard Newton.
All thefe are richly endowed, and have fine gardens,
libraries, chapels, &c. The halls in which the flu-
dents maintain themfelves, except a few that have ex¬
hibitions, are thefe: St Edmund’s, belonging to Queen’s
college; Magdalen, to Magdalen college j St Al¬
ban’s, to Merton j St Mary’s, to Oriel j New-Inn, to
New-college. Several perfons have been great bene-
faflors to particular colleges, as Dr Ratcliffe to Uni-
verfity college ; Colonel Codrington and Dr Clarke,
to All-Souls j Queen Caroline, to Queen's; the before-
mentioned Dr Clarke and Mrs Eaton, to Worcefler 5
Dr Wake, archbifhop of Canterbury, to Chrifl-church.
I he molt confiderable of thefe colleges are Magdalen’s
and Chrifl-church, which are as noble foundations as
any in the world, i he church of the latter is the ca¬
thedral, and has a dean, eight canons, eight chaplains,
eight finging men, eight chorifters1 a teacher of mu-
5 ] O X F
fic, and an organiit. Each of the colleges has its vi- Oxford,
fitor appointed by its flatutes, except Chriil-church, Oxfordfliire.
which is fubje£t to the vifitation of the Sovereign alone.
The other remarkable buildings belonging to the uni-
verfity are, firft, the public fchools 5 fecondly, the Bod¬
leian or public libraey; thirdly, RatclifFe’s library, a
moft elegant ftrudture, for building and furnifhing
which, Dr Ratcliffe left 40,000!.; fourthly, the theatre,
built by Sheldon, archbifhop of Canterbury 5 fifthly,
the mufeum, in which is an laboratory and a repoii-
tory for natural and artificial rarities and antiquities j
fixthly, the Clarendon printing-houfe, fo called, be-
caufe it was built partly with the money ariiing to
the univerfity by the fale of Lord Clarendon’s hiltory.
To the fouth of Magdalen college lies the phyfic gar¬
den, inftituted by the Earl of Dauby, and much im¬
proved by Dr Sherrard. It contains five acres, in
which is a complete feries of fuch plants as grow natu¬
rally, difpofed in their refpective clafles j together with
two neat and convenient green-houfes, flocked with a
valuable colleblion of exotics, and a hot-houfe, where
various plants brought from the warmer climates are
railed. The whole body of the univerfity, including
profeflbrs, fellow's, and Undents of all forts, exceeds
3000.^ Each college has its particular flatutes and
rules for government. There are four terms in the
year for public exercifes, &c. and particular days and
hours for public leblures by the feveral profeflbrs. The
univerfity is governed by a chancellor, high-flew'ard,
vice-chancellor, two problors, a public orator (fee Pu¬
blic Orator) ; a keeper of the archives, a regifler,
three efquire-beadles, and three yeomen-beadles. As-
to the city, it has had the fame privileges granted ter
it as London, particularly an exemption from toll all
over England. It wras made an epifcopal fee in 1541,
when Robert King, the lafl abbot of Ofeney, was
elebled bifliop. It is governed by a mayor, high-flew-
ard,. recorder, four aldermen, eight afliflants, two
bailiffs, a town-clerk, twTo chamberlains, all that have
borne the office of bailiff and chamberlain, and 24 com¬
mon-council men ; but thefe are fubjedt to the chancel¬
lor or vice-chancellor of the univerfity in all affairs of
moment j and not only the mayor, but the principal
citizens, and fheriff of the county, take an oath to main¬
tain the privileges of the univerfity. The city, includ¬
ing the colleges, is a place of confiderable magnitude,
haying 13 parifh-churches, befides the cathedral, well
built, clean, and regular. At the entrance of the town
from the Woodflock and Banbury roads, a neat hofpital
hath been lately eredted by the truflees of Dr Ratclifte’s
benefadtion, out of the furplus money remaining after
defraying the expence of his library. The male line of
the family of Vere, to whom the city had given the
title of earl for 500 years, failing in Aubrey de Vere,
who wras twentieth earl, Queen Anne conferred the title
upon Robert Harley, a defeendant of the Veres, in
whofe family it ftill continues. The chief trade of the
city is in malt, conveyed in barges to London. It is
impoflible, in the narrow bounds neceffarily preferibed
to this article, to give fo particular an account of this
celebrated place as its importance demands : but we
fhall refer our readers to the article University, w’hen
this feminary, amongff others, fliall be mors particularly
deferibed.
OXFORPSHIRE, which made part of the ter¬
ritory
O X Y [ 61
^x-?ar1,? ritory of the ancient Dob uni, a county of England,
, '* bounded on the weft by Gloucefterlhire j on the foulh,
fa:ygcn. ^.|iere jt js broa(je{t^ the river Ins divides it from Berk-
ihire j on the eaft, it is bounded by Buckinghamftiire ;
and on the north, where it terminates in a narrow
point, it has on the one fide North?.mptonfhire, and
on the other Warwickftiire. It extends 50 miles from
north to fouth, and 35 from eaft to weft, making
about 130 in circumference : within which are con¬
tained one city, 15 market towns, 280 pariihes, 14
hundreds, 534,000 acres, and about 109,620 fouls.
The air is Tweet and pleafant, and the foil rich and
fertile. 'J he lower parts conftft of meadows and corn¬
fields, and the higher were covered with woods till rhe
civil wars: in which they were fo entirely deftroyed,
that wood is now extremely fcarce and dear, except in
what is called the Chiltern, and fo is coal} of confe-
quence fuel bears an exorbitant price. I he county is
extremely well watered 5 for befides the If s, I ame,
Cherwell, Evenlode, and W indrulh, there is a great
number of leffer rivers and brooks. One of the tour
great Roman ways paffes quite through this county, en¬
tering at the parilh of Chinner, and going cut at that of
Goring. There is another lefier one, that extends be¬
tween Colnbrook and Waliinford, called Greintfd.ke.
The county fends nine members to parliament, viz.
two for the (lure, two for the city, two tor the univer-
fity, two for New' Woodftock, and one for Banbury.
OXGANG, or OxgATE, is generally taken, in our
old law -books, for 15 acres, or as much ground as a
fugle ox can plough in a year.
OXUS, or Jihun, a large river of Afia, much
taken notice of in ancient hillories, but dees not rife
in the north of India, as moft writers aftirm; for,
according to the beft and lateft maps made by ihofe
who have been upon the fpot, it ran a courfe of about
260 miles from the Cafpian tea to the lake K ral,
whofe dimenfons have lately been tlifeovered, and is
but very lately known to the Europeans , but, as it
pafles through a defert country abounding wuth lands,
the inhabitants fo diverted its courfe, that the old chan¬
nel can hardly be difeovered.
OXYCRATE, an old term, in 'Pharmacy, denot¬
ing a mixture of vinegar and water, proper to aftuage,
' cool, and refrefh. The ufual proportion is one fpoon-
ful of vinegar to ftve or fix fpoonfuis of w ater.
OXYBE, or oxide, in Chemifry, is the term ufed
to denote a very numerous clafs of bodies formed by the
union of certain bafe's with a fmaller proportion of oxy¬
gen than wftiat is neceffary for their converfion into
acids. The rnoft remarkable of thefe bodies are what
wrere formerly called metallic calces, and have for their
bafe feme metallic fubftance. It is in this ftate that
metals are often contained in the ores, from which
they are extracted, and converted into the metallic form,
by the procefs called redu&ion. Metals are converted
into oxides by combuftion, and by folution in acids ;
and many of them affume this form from the a ft ion of
the atmofplvere alone, but more readily when this is af¬
filed by moifture. See the hiftory of the metals under
Chemistry.
OXYDATTON, or Oxidation, is a term employed
to exprefs the procefs by which bodies are converted in¬
to oxides. See Metals under Chemistry.
QXYGEN, a term adopted in the new chemical
3
5 ] O Z A
nomenclature, to fexprefs the acidifying principle 5 from
“ acid,” and yvoycu “ to generate.” It is not if
found naturally in a feparate ftate, but always combined °zanam-
with feme other fubftance. In its aeriform or elaftic
ftate, it is called oxygenous gas, and is the fame as the
dephlogijlicated air of Prieftley and Cavendiih, the em¬
pyreal air of Scheele, the vital and pure air of other
chemifs. See Oxygen, Chemistry Index. ^
OXYGLYCU, a fpecies of drink prepared of the
Twee; eft honey-combs macerated and boiled. The combs,
from which all the honey has been exprefied, are put
into a pot with pure water, 'and boiled till they Teem
to have depofted all their contained honey in the wa¬
ter. This liquor is to be kept ; and, when diluted
with cold water, is to be drank in the fummer time,
in order to remove thirft.
OXYMEL, in Pharmacy, a compoftion of vinegar
and honey.
OYER, in law'-books, feems to have been anciently
ufed for what is now called ajjifes. See Assise.
QYES, a corruption of the French Oyez, Hear
ye; a term or formula frequently ufed by the criers
in our courts on making proclamations, or to enjoin
filence.
OYSTER, a flicTl-ffh. See Ostrea, Conchoeqgy
Index.
0 TSTER-Catcher. See Htematofus, Ornithology
Index.
OYSTERS, Fqffi/e. The largeft bed that is known of
foffile oyfters is that near Riding in Berkfhire. Their
ihape is entire, and they confift of the fame fubftance
with recent oyfter-fhells 5 and yet fince the oldeft hi-
ftories that mention the place give an account of them,
we muft fuppofe they have lain there for a long time.
They extend over no lefs than fix acres of ground ; and
juft above them is a large ftratum of a greenifti loam,
which feme writers call a green earth, and others a
green fand. It is compofed of a crumbly marie, and pbiicf.
a large portion of fand. Under them is a thick ftra- Travf.
turn of chalk. They all lie in a level bed j and the N0 2(Jl-
ftrala above the {hells are natural, and appear never P1 'i54*
to have been dug through till the time of finding the
{hells.
OZATNA, a foul and malignant ulcer of the nofe,
diftinguiftied by its feetor, and often accompanied with
a caries of the bones of the nofe.
OZANAM, James, an eminent French mathe¬
matician, born at B'oligneux in Breffe, in 1640, of a
wealthy family. ITis father gave him a good educa¬
tion, and dsfigned him for the church : but fome ma-..
thematical books falling into his hands, infpired him
with a love for that fcience and though he had no
mafter to inftruft him, he made fuch progrefs in it,
that, at 1 ? years of age, he w'rote a piece in mathe¬
matics, which he thought proper to infert in the works
he afterwards publilhed. Fie at length taught that
fcience at Lyons’, and his mathematical leffons brought
him in a confiderable revenue, till the year 1701 : at
which period, a wTar breaking out on the Tucceftion to
the crown of Spain, he loft almoft all his Icholars, and
was reduced to a very melancholy fituation and his
wife dying the fame year, he was fo afflifted, that he
never perfeftly recovered it. In 1702 he was admit¬
ted into the Royal Academy of Sciences; and died
of an apoplexy in 1717-—-He was of a mild and fe-
rene
O Z I [6
Oztli, rciiC temper, of fingular generofity, and of a clieerful
Uzias. difpofition.—He would not allow hindelf to know
v more of religion than the common people. He ufed
to fay1, that “ it was the bufmefs of the doftors of the
» rrbonne to dilpute, of the pope to decide, and of a
mathematician to go to heaven in a perpendicular line.”
His works, are very numerous, and have met with the
approbation of the learned. ILhe principal are, i. Prac¬
tical Geometry, 12mo. 2. A mathematical didlionary.
3. A courfe of mathematics, 5 vols. 8vo. 4. Mathe¬
matical and philosophical recreations, the molt complete
edition of which is that which, was improved by Mon-
tucla, and afterwards enlarged by Dr Charles Hutton,
publithed in 1803, *n f°Llr vols. 8vo. 5. An eafy me¬
thod of furveying. 6. New elements of algebra, a work
much commended by Monf. Leibnitz. 7. Theoretical
and practical perfpeftive, &c.
OZELL, John, a well-known tranflator, educated
in Chrift’s Hoipital, was poffeffed of a competent for¬
tune, and always enjoyed good places, being auditor-
general of the city and bridge accounts, of St PauPs
cathedral and of St Thomas’s hofpital. Notwithftand-
ing his attention to buhnefs, he frill retained a love for
polite literature : and though he did not appear as an
original author, yet having made himfelf mailer of moil
of the living languages, he favoured the world with
many tranilations from thefe, as -well as from the Latin
and Greek 5 which, if they are not the moil elegant,
are generally faithful and true to the originals. He
died in the year 1743.
OZIAS, in facred hiilory, the fon of Micha, of
the tribe of Simeon, one of the governors of Bethu-
lia when it was beiieged by Holofernes. He vigo-
rouily fupported the liege againil this general, and
received Achior into his houfe, when he had been
driven from the Affyrian camp. Finding however at
7 ] o z o
length that the city was reduced to great neceffity 0>:m
for water, and that, the people mutinied againil him, J
he promifed to furrender the place in five days, if in _ y ^ .
that time God did not fend them relier. Judith (Vi.
vii. viii. ix. and x.) being informed oi this refolution,
lent to fpeak with Ozias and the other leading men
of the city j made a prudent remonilrance upon their
feeming to prefcribe a time to the Lord, in which he
muil fuccour them ) encouraged them to patience j
and without difcovering her defign, told them that
ihe would go out in the night. Ozias being at the
gate of the city when Judith departed, opened it to
her, and waited in the city for the fuccefs ox her un¬
dertaking, praying with her people to God that he
would be pleafed to deliver them. See the article
Judith.
OZOLZE, or Ozoli, a people who inhabited the
eailern parts of ZEtolia which were called (Molea. This
tradl of territory lay at the north of the bay of Co¬
rinth, and extended about 12 miles. They received
their name from the bad flench of their bo¬
dies and clothes, which were the raw hides of wild
beafts. Some derive it from the flench of the ftag-
nated water in the neighbouring lakes and marihes.
According to a fabulous tradition, they received their
name from a very different circumftance : During the
reign of a fon of Deucalion, a bitch brought into the
world a flick inftead of whelps. The flick was planted
into the ground by the king, and it grew up to a large
vine, and produced grapes, from which the inhabitants
of the country were called O^olce, not from c^nv, “ to
fmell bad,” but from o^og, “ a branch or fprout.” The
name 0%olce, on account of its indelicate fignification,
was highly dlfagreeable to the inhabitants 5 they there¬
fore exchanged it loon for that of ZEtolians.
Pfhe 15th letter and nth confonant of the al-
9 phabet; the found of which is formed by ex-
p re flip g the breath fomewhat more luddenly than in
forming the found of b ; in. other re (peels thefe two
founds are pretty much alike, and are often confound¬
ed one with another. When p Hands before t
its found is loft j as in the words pfalms, pfychology, pto-
kmaic, ptifan, &c. When placed before //, they
both together have the found f ; as in philofophy, phy-
Jic, &c.
P and B are fo like each other, that Quintilian de¬
clares, that in the word obtinuit, his reafon required
him to put a b, but that his ears could hear nothing but
a p, optimal : hence in ancient inferiptions, and old
glolfaries, it appears that thefe two letters have often
been confounded. Several nations Hill pronounce one
for the other, the Welch and Germans particularly,
Vox. XV. Part II.
who fay, ponum vinum, for human vinutn. Plutarch
obferves, it was ufual for thofe of Delphi to fay /3«7£<v
for TTcfiuv, for 5 and among the Latins, as
often as an s followed, the b was changed into a/>, as
fcn'bo, feripji.
As an abbreviation, P Hands for Publius, Pondo, &c.
PA. DIG. for Patricia Dignitas; P. C. for Patres
Confcripti; P. F. for Publii Fi/ius P. P. for Propoji-
tum, or Propnjitum publice ; P. R. for Populus Romanus;
P. R. S. for Pro; tor is fententia, P. R. S. P. for Pr cafes
provincice.
P. M. among Afronomers, is frequently ufed for
pof meridiem, or “ afternoon ;” and fometimes for pojl
mane, “ after the morning, i. e. after midnight. P was
alfo ufed among the ancients as a numeral letter, figni-
fying the fame with the G, viz. a hundred j according
to the verfe of Ugutio,
4l
P
P A C
Pabulum
[ 6
Pack.
P Jimilem cum G nuinerum monjlratur habere.
_ Though Baronius thinks it rathef ftood for feven.
When a dafh'was added a-top of p, it ifood for
four hundred thoufand.
St Jerome obferves on Daniel, that the Hebrews had
no P ; but that the ph ferved them inftead thereof j ad¬
ding that there is but one word in the whole Bible read
■with a P, viz. apadtio. 1 he Greek tt fignified 80. On
the French coins, P denotes thofe that were ftruck at
Dijon.
In the Italian mufic, P Hands for piano, or “ foftly
and P. P. P. for pianijjimo, or “ very foftly.”
Among phyficians, P Hands for pugil, or the eighth
part of an handful; P. AS. partes cequales, or equal
parts of the ingredients j P. P. fignifies pulvis pairum,
or Jefuit’s bark in powder j and ppt. preparatus or
prepared.
PABULUM, among natural philofophers, the fame
with Fuel.
Paca, fee Mus, Mammalia Index.
PACE, a meafure taken from the fpace between the
two feet of a man in walking; ufually reckoned two
feet and a half, and in fome men a yard or three feet.
The geometrical pace is five feet j and 60,000 fuch
paces make one degree on the equator.
Pace, in the manege, is of three kinds, viz. walk,
trot, and gallop ; to which may be added an amble, be-
caufe fome horfes have it naturally.
Horfes which go flmffling, or with mixed paces be¬
tween the walk and amble, are for the moH part of no
value ; which commonly proceeds from their fiery tem¬
per, but fometimes from a weaknefs in their reins or
kgs.
PACHAMAC, a valley of Peru, in South America,
ten miles fouth of Lima •, celebrated for its pleafantnefs
and fertility, but more on account of a magnificent tern - /
pie built by the Incas of Peru, to the honour of their
god. When the Spaniards conquered Peru, they found
immenfe riches therein.
PACHSU, a fmall ifland in the Mediterranean fea j
near the coaH of Epirus, and in European Turkey. It
lies fouth of Corfu, and is fubject to Venice.
PACIFIC ocean, that vafl ocean which feparates
Afia from America. It is called Pacific, from the mo¬
derate weather the firfi mariners who failed in it met
with between the tropics ; and it was called South Sea,
becaufe the Spaniards croffed the ifihmus of Darien
from north to fouth when they firfl difcovered it; though
it is properly the Weflem ocean with regard to Ame¬
rica.
Geographers call the South fea Mare Paciflcum, “ the
Pacific ocean,” as being lefs infeHed with fiorms than
the Atlantic; but M. Frezier affirms it does not deferve
that appellation, and that he has feen as violent florms
therein as in any other fea ; but Magellan happening
to have a very favourable wind, and not meeting with
any thing to ruffle him when he firfl traverfed this vafl
ocean in 1520, gave it the name which it has retained
ever fince. Maty, however, adds, that the wind is fo
regular there, that the veffels would frequently go from
Acapulco to the Philippine ifiands without fliifting a
fail.
PACK, in commerce, denotes a quantity of goods
18 ] pad
made up in loads or bales tor carriage. A pack of ivool
is 17 Hone and 2 pounds, or a horfe’s load.
3 ACKAGE, is a fmall duty of one penny in the
pound, paid for all goods not particularly rated.
PACKEI, or PdCKEl' Boat, a velfel appointed 1 -
the government to carry the mail of letters, packets,
and expreffcs from one kingdom to another by fea in
the moil expeditious manner. Thus, the packet-
boats, under the direction of the pofl-mafter-general
of Great Britain, carry the mails from Dover to
Calais, from Falmouth to Lilbon, from Harwich to
Helvoetfluys, and from Parkgate to Dublin. See
Post.
PACOS, or Paco, ir\ Zoologij, a fpecies of camel,
commonly, though improperly, reckoned a fpecies of
ffieep^ and known among many by the name of the In¬
dian Jheep, or Peruvian Jheep. See Camelus, Mamma¬
lia Index.
I his creature has been accounted a Iheep, becaufe its
hair is fo long as to refemble wool, and it is prodigioufly
thick, its head and neck alone having more wool on
them than the whole body of our largefl flieep. Its body
is clothed in the fame proportion with a woolly hair
equally fine.
LAC 1 OLUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Ly¬
dia, called Chryforrhoas, from its rolling down golden
fand, according to Herodotus, Plutarch, Pliny, and
Strabo ; riling in Mount Tmolus (Strabo). From this
river Croefus is thought to have had all his riches. In
Strabo’s time it ceafed to roll down any. It ran through
Sardis; after which it fell into the Hermus, and both
together into the Atgean fea at Phocaea in Ionia. A ri¬
ver celebrated by Virgil, Ovid, Lucan, Lycophron, Ho¬
race, Appollonius.
PACUVIUS, Marcus, of Brundufium in Calabria,
a tragic poet in high reputation about the year of Rome
600. He was nephew of Ennius; publifhed feveral
theatrical pieces, though we have only fome fragments
of his poetry remaining; and died at Tarentum at above
90 years of age.
PADAN-ARAM (Bible), literally the plains of
Aram, or Syria; tranllated by the Seventy fimply Mefo-
potamia, or Mefopotamia of Syria ; by the Vulgate, Sy¬
ria’ ; the Syrians on this and on the other fide of the
Euphrates, not differing remarkably from each other in
language and manners, as Jofephus allows.
PADDOC, or PABBOC-Courfe, a piece of ground
encompaffed with pales or a wall, and taken out of a
park, for exhibiting races with greyhounds, for plates,
wagers, or the like. ,
A paddoc is generally a mile long, and a quarter of
a mile broad : at the one end is a little houfe where the
dogs are to be entered, and whence they are flipped ;
near which are pens to inclofe two or three deer for the
fport. Along the courfe are feveral polls, viz. the low
poll, which is 160 yards from the dog-houfe and pens ;
the quarter of a mile poll, half-mile poll, and pinching
poll ; befides the ditch, wffiich is a place made to receive
the deer, and preferve them from farther purfuit. And
near this place are feats for the judges chofen to decide
the v'ager.
The keepers, in order to flip the dogs fairly, put a
falling collar upon each, flipped round a ring; and the
deer being turned look, and put forward by a teazer,
PAD [ 619 1 PAD
•Paderinm as fboh as he is arrived at the low pod, the dog-houfe
' door is tnrown open, and the dogs flipped. If now the
deer fwerve fo much, as that his head is judged nearer
the dog-houfe than the ditch before he arrive at the
pinching-poif, it is no match, and mufl: be run over
again three days after: but if the deer runs llraight
beyond the pinching poft, then that dog which is
reareft when he fwerves, or is blanched by any acci¬
dent, wins the match ; but if no fuch fwerve happens,
then the match is won by the dog who firft leaps the
ditch.
PADERBORN, a duchy of Germany in the circle
of Weftphalia, has the county of Lippe on the north
and welt j Heffe-Caffel and Waldeck, on the fouth*, and
Munlter, with the duchy of Weftphalia on the weft:. Its
greateft: length from eaft to weft is about 40 miles, and
its breadth where wideft 30. Sortie parts of it yield
good pafture, and breed abundance of cattle 5 but it is
not very fruitful in corn. There is a heath called the
■Senne or Sende, of great extent, but very barren and de¬
folate. There are, however, good iron mines in the
’country, with fait and medicinal fprings, plenty of de6r
and other game ; and it is watered with feveral rivers
-abounding with fifh, as the Wefer, the Dimer, the Bi-
Ver, the Nette, the great Emmer, the Lippe, the Alme,
and the Pader. It contains 54 pariflies, in wdiich are
25 market towms and 16 monafteries. The Roman Ca¬
tholic is the predominant religion of the country, yet
there are alfo many Proteftants in it. The bilhopric
"liVas ereeled by Charlemagne, towards the clofe of the
eighth century, and the cathedral w7as confecrated by
Pope Leo in perfon, anno 796. The bifhop is fovereign
of the country, a prince of the empire, and fuffragan of
the archbilhop of Mentz. His revenue is about 30,000
pounds a-year, and he is able to raife 3000 men. In
the matricula his afleflrtient is 18 horfe and 34 foot, or
352 florins monthly in lieu of thetti. Towards the
-charges of the fovereign courts of the empire, he pays
Tor each term 162 rix-dollars and 29 kruitzers. The
chapter confifts of 24 capitular canons, wdio muff prove
their noble extra6lion by four defeents. The arms of
the bifhopric are a crofs or, in a field gules. For the
government of it, and the adminiftration of juftice,
there are feveral councils and colleges under the biftiop.
Here are alfo a hereditary marfhal, fewer, cup-bearer,
chamberlain, ftew^ard, and purveyor. It was in this
bifhopric that Quintilius Varus, writh the Roman army
tinder his command, was routed by the Germans under
Arminius.
, Paderborn, the capital of the above bifhopric. It
Hands 40 miles north-weft of Caffel, 50 fouth^eaff of
Munfter, and 60 fouth-weft of Hanover ; being a large,
populous, wTell-built, and w’ell fortified city. Its name
is compounded of pader, a rivulet, which rifes juft under
the high altar of the cathedral, and born, i. e. a fpring.
It was one of the Hanfe-towns j and, till 1604, an im¬
perial city. The cathedral is a grand fabric, inferior
to few in the empire. There is a gold crucifix in it of
60 pounds weight, prefented by Otho II. The univer-
fity, of which the Jefuits have the diretftion, w7as found¬
ed in 1592, and the -walls were built in the beginning
of the nth century. In 1530 an attempt \Vas made to
introduce Lutheranifm *, but 16 of the principal citi¬
zens who had embraced it were executed, and the reft
obliged to abjure it. Duke Chriftian of Brunfwick car¬
ried off from hence, in 1692, the filver imJtges of the Fanogri
twelve apoftles, and the filvei coffin of St Lotharius 5 ^ ^ II
and had them coined into money, with this infeription,
God's Friend, the Pficji's Enemy. The trade of this
town, though formerly great, is now' inconfiderable ; and
the inhabitants fubfilt moftly by agriculture and breed¬
ing of cattle. Though the bilhop has a palace in the
city, he refides (w'hen he vouchfafes to vilit this coun¬
try, w'hich is feldom, having other and more valuable
benefices) at Neuhaus, feven miles off, where he has a
magnificent cdftle. Charlemagne and other emperors
fometimes refided here, and held diets of the empire.
PADOGI, a puniihment ufed in Ruffia. The body*
of the criminal is ftripped to the wnift, and then laid
upon the ground 5 one Have holds the head of the perfon
to be punifhed between hiS knees, and another the low'er
part of the body; then rods are applied to the back till
fome perfon gives notice to defift, by crying out, enough.
This puniftiment is confidered in Ruflia merely as a cor-
reftion of the police, exercifed on the foldier by military
difeipline, by the nobility on their fervants, and by per-
fons in authority over all fuch as are under their com¬
mand. After the acceflion of Elizabeth to the throne
of Ruffia, the punifhments wxere reduced to two kinds,
viz. the padogi and Knout.
PADUA, an ancient, large, and celebrated city of
Italy, wdth a univerfity and a bifhop’s fee. It is alfo
capital of the Paduano *, but is much lefs confiderable
than it was formerly : for it now contains no more than
30,000 inhabitants, w'hereas it formerly had 100,000,
Und many of the houfes are gone to ruin : however, the
hall where juftice is adminiftered is a fuperb ftrufture.
The cathedral church, and the college of the univerffty,
are in that part called the Old Town ; and there are
piazzas under all the houfes, w'here perfons may w7alk
without being expofed to the weather. The garden of
the univerfity is curious, on account of the number o£
plants. Here a ftudent may take his degrees, let him
be of w'hat feft of Chriftianity he wdll 5 nay, though he
Ihould be a Jew or a Turk. The patron of this city is
St Anthony, who lies in the cathedral 5 they have fuch
a veneration for him, that the beggars do not alk chari¬
ty in the name of God, but for the love of St Anthony;
The Jew's live in a diftimft part of the city 5 and the
neighbouring mountains produce excellent wane and oil,
with delicious fruit. It‘was taken by the Venetians in
1706. It is feated on the rivers Brentac and Bachig*
lione, in a fine plain, and is about feven miles in cir¬
cumference. E. Long. 11. 55. N. Lat. 45. 24.
PADUAN, among medalifts, a modern medal ftruck
in imitation of the antique, or a hew' medal ftruck whth
all the marks and characters of antiquity. This name
is properly applicable to thofe medals only that were
ftruck in the feventh century by an Italian painter bom
at Padua ; who fucceeded fo w'ell in the impofture, that
the beft judges are at a lofs to diflinguifti his medals
from the genuine ones. Though it is frequently ufed in
general for all medals of this kind.
PADUANO, a fmall province of Italy, in the ter¬
ritory of Venice, bounded on the eaft by the Dogado,
on the fouth by the Polefino di Rovigo, on the w'eft by
the Veronefe, and on the north by the Vicentino. Its foil
is w'ell wateredand is one of the moft fertile in Italy.
The province is about 40 miles in .length, and 35 in
breadth. Padua is the capital town.
4 I 2 PAD USj
PAG [ 620 ] PAG
PAD US, anciently called Ena anus, efpecially by the
Greeks^ a river famous for the fable of Phaeton (Ovid).
j ft rifes in Mount Vefulus, in the Alpes Cothiae, from
three fprings, dividing the Cifalpine Gaul into the
Tranfpadana and Cifpadana, (Strabo); and fwelled by
other rivers falling, into it on each fide from the Alps
and Apennines, it difcharges itfelf with a courfe from
weft to eaft, nt feven mouths, into the Adriatic (Mela),
i lie lake through which it difcharges itfelf into the
lea, is called by the natives the Seven Seas. Now
the Po.
Padus, a fpeqies of cherry. See Prunus, Botany
Index.'
PyEAN, among the ancient pagans, was a fong of
rejoicing fung in honour of Apollo, chiefly ufed on oc-
calions oBviciory and triumph. See Apollo.
P/EAN, in the ancient poetry, a foot con lifting of four
h llables; of which there are four kinds, the psean pri¬
mus, fecundus, &c.
The paean primus conlifts of one long fyllable and
tluee ihort ones, or a trochseus and pyrrhichius, as tcm-
poribus ; the paean fecundus conlifts of a ftiort fyllable,
a long, and tun ftiort, or an iarpbus and a pyrrhichius,
as potentm ; the paean tertius confifts of two ihort fyl-
lables, a long and a fliort one, or a pyrrhichius and a
trochieus, as am mat us; the paean quartus confifts of
three fhort fyllables and a long one, or a pyrrhichius and
iambus, as celeritas.
PftEDEROTA, a genus of -plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 30th order, Contortce. See Botany Index.
PyEDO BAPTISM : infant baptifm, or that conferred
on children ; from tcuo; infant, and fiaTKrpet; baptifm.
This has been the fubjeft of great controversy in the
church. See Anabaptists, Batists, &c.
PyEONIA, Piony, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 26th order, Mukifiliquce. See Botany
Index.
PrESTUM, called Pofdonia by the Greeks, a town
of Lucania, on the Sinus Pseftinus ; an ancient colony
prior to the firft Punic war, according to Livy ; but
later, according to Velleius. Pcefame rof v were in
great efteem, and produced twice a-year (Virgil,
Ovid).
PAGAN, Blaise Francois Comte de, an emi¬
nent French mathematician, was born at Avignon in
Provence, March 3. 1604 ; and took to the profeffion of
a foldier at fourteen, having been bred to it with the
greateft: care. In 1620 he was engaged at the fiege
of Caen, in the battle of Pont de Ce, and the reduflion
of the Navareins, and the reft of Bearn ; where he fig-
nalized himfelf, and acquired a reputation far furpaffing
his years. He was prefent, in 1621, at the ftege of St
John d’Angeli, as alfo that of Clarac and Montauban,
where he loft his left eye by a mufket-fhot. At this
liege he had another lofs, which equally afflidfted him,
viz. that of the conftable of Luynes, who died there of
a fcarlet fever. The conftable was a near relation, and
had been his patron at court. He did not, however,
fink under the misfortune, but on the contrary took
frefh fpirits from the neceftity he was now in of trufting
folely to himfelf. Accordingly there happened after
this time neither fiege, battle, nor any other occafion,
in which he did not fignalize himfelf by fume effort of
courage and condudt. At the paffage of the Alps, and
the barricade of Suza, he put himfelf at the head of the
forlorn hope, confifting of the braveft youths among the
guards; and undertook to arrive the fiift at the attack,
by a private way which was extremely dangerous; when,
having gained the top of a very fteep mountain, he
cried out to his followers, “ See the way to glory !”
He flipt along this mountain ; and, his companions fol¬
lowing him, they came firft to the attack, as they wiftied
to do. They immediately began a furious affauit ; and,
the army coming to affift, they forced the barricades.
Fie had afterwards the pleafure of Handing on the left
hand of the king, when his maj.-ity related this heroic
adlion to the duke of Savoy with the deferved com¬
mendations, in the prefence of a very full court. When
the king laid fiege to Nancy in 1633, our hero had the
honour to attend his fovereign, in drawing the lines and
forts of circumvallation. In 1642 his majefty tent him
to the fervice in Portugal, in the poll of field marfiial.
In this fame year lie unfortunately loft his eye fight by
. a diftemper. But though he was thus dilabled from
lerving his country with his conduct and courage, he
rqaffumed, with greater vigour than ever, the ftudy of
the mathematics and fortification; and, in 1645, gave
the public a -treai.he.cn this latter fubject. It was al¬
lowed by all who underftood the feience, that nothing
had then appeared- that was preferable to it; and, in¬
deed, whatever improvements have been made lince,
they have perhaps been derived chiefly from this trea-
tife, as conclufions from their principles. In 1651 he
publifhed his Geometrical Theorems, which Ihow a pec-
feel knowledge of all the parts of the mathematics. In
1635 he printed y'i Paraphrafe, in French, of the Ac¬
count, in Spanifh, of the River of the Amazons, by Fa¬
ther de Rennes, a Jefuit; and we are affured, that,,
though blind, he drew the chart of that river and the
parts adjacent which is feen in this work. In 1657 he
publifhed The Theory of the Planets, cleared from that
multiplicity of eccentric circles and epicycles, which
the aftronomers had invented to explain their motions.
This work diftinguiihed him among aftronomers as much
as that of fortifications did among engineers ; and he
printed, in 1658, his Aftronomical Tables, which are
very fuccincf and plain. Few great men are without
fome foible : Pagan’s was that of a prejudice in favour
of judicial aftrology ; and though he is more referved
than moft others, yet we cannot put what he did on that
fubjecl among thofe productions which do honour to his
underftanding. He wras beloved and refpefted by all
perfons illuftrious for rank as well as feienee.: and bis
houfe was the rendezvous of all the polite and worthy
both in city and court. Fie died at Paris, Nov. 18.
166; ; and was never married. The king ordered his
firft phyfician to attend him in his illnefs, and gave fe-
veral marks of the extraordinary efteem which he had
for his merit.
He had an univerfal genius; and, having turned him¬
felf entirely to the art of wTar, and particularly to the
branch of fortification, he made extraordinary progrels
in it. Fie underftood mathematics .not only better than
is ufual for a gentleman whofe view is to pufh his for¬
tune in the army, but even to a degree of perfection fu-
perior to that of the ordinary mailers who teach that
fcience. He had fo particular a genius for this kind of
learning, that he obtained it more readily by meditation
than.
than by reading
lefs time in fuch- books than he did in thofe of hiitory
and geography. He :iad alio made morality and poli¬
tics his particular iludy *7 fo that he may be faid to have
drawn his own character in his Homme H roique, and
tr> have been one of the completed gentlemen of his
time. Louis XIII. was heard to fay feverai times,
that the count de Pagan was one ol the mot wor¬
thy, bed turned, mod adroit, and mod valiant men, in
his kingdom.—That branch of his family, which re¬
moved from Naples to France in- 1552, became extinct
m hi > perfon.
Pagan, a heathen, gentile, or idolater 3 one who
adores fade'gods. See Mythology.
PAGAN ALIA, certain fedivals obferved by the an¬
cient Romans in the month of January. They were in-
itituted by Servius Tullius, who appointed a certain
number of villages (pngi), in each of which an altar
Was to be railed for annual facrifices to their tutelar
gods 3 at which ail the inhabitants were to aflift, and
give prefents in money, according to their fex and age,
by which means the number of country-people was
known. The fervants upon this occaflon offered cakes
to Ceres and Tellus, to obtain plentiful harvefls.
PAGANELLUS, a fpecies of fbh. See Gobius,
Ichthyology Index.
PAGANISM, the religious worddp and difeipline
of pagans 3 or, the adoration of idols and falfe gods.
See Idolatry, Mythology, and Polytheism.
PAGEANT, a triumphal car, chariot, arch, or
other like pompous decoration, varioudy adorned with
colours, flags, &c. carried about in public {hows, pro-
ceffions, &c.
PAGI, Antony, a very famous Cordelier, and one
of the ablell critics of his time, was born at Rogne in
Provence in 1624. He took the habit in the convent
at Arles in 1641, and was at length four times provin¬
cial of his order 3 but his religious duties did not prevent
his vigorous application to the Iludy of chronology and
ecclefiallical hi dory, in which he excelled. Hts mod
considerable work is, A Critique upon the Annals of
Baronins 3 where, following the learned cardinal year
by year, be has recfiiled an infinite number of midakes
both in chronology and in the reprefentation of facts.
He pablifhed the fird volume in 1689, dedicated to the
clergy of France, who allowed him a penfion : the
whole was printed after his death, in 4 vols folio, at
Geneva, in 1705, by the care of his nephew Francis
Pagi, of the fame order. Pie wrote fome other things
before his death, which happened in 1699 3 and had the
character of an able hidorian as well as of a learned and
candid erhic. His nephew Francis, above mentioned,
wrote A Chronological Abridgement of the Hi dory of
the Popes, in Latin, ^ vols 4to. Francis had alfo a
nephew, Anthony Pagi, who added three more volumes
to the Hidory of the Popes 3 of which two more were
intended, if not executed.
PAGNINUS, Sanctes, an Italian dominican, emi¬
nent for his Skill in oriental languages and biblical learn¬
ing, was born at Lucca in 1466, and became afterwards
PAG
an ecclefiadic of the order of St Dominic. He was
deeply and accurately fkilled in Latin, Greek, Hebrew,
Chaldee, and Arabic 3 but he' was particularly excellent
in the Hebrew. He applied himtelf to examine the
vulgar tranfladon of the Scriptures 3 and believing it to
be either not of Jerome, or greatly corrupted, he under¬
took to make a new one from the prelent Plebrew text 3-
in which he meant to imitate St Jerome, who fet about
making a new tranflation at a time when the church
would admit no other but the Septuagiut. ' This defign
of Paguinus, fo early after the redoration of letters,
feemed a bold one 3 yet fuch was the reputation of the-
man, that it was approved by Pope Leo X. who promi-
fed to furnnh him with all neceffary expences icr carry¬
ing 'On the work : and, befides, we find at the beginning
of this trail 11 at ion, which was printed at Lyons in 1527,
two letters of the fucceeding popes, Hadrian VI. and
Clement VII. which llcenled the printing of it. Pag-
ninus, in his Letters to Pope Clement, for the printing
of this tnmllation, openly'declares, that the Vulgar edi¬
tion, as it is at prefent, is not St Jerome’s 3 yet adds,
that he has retained in his tranflation as much ot it as he
could. It appears by a letter of Picus Mirandula to
Pagnimrs, that he had fpent 25 years upon this tranfla¬
tion. It is the firit modern tranfiation of the Bible from
the Hebrew text 3 and the Jews who read it affirmed,
that it agreed exactly with the Hebrew, and was in
fome refpects fuperior to the ancient tranflations. The
great fault of Pagninus was, that he adhered with too
great fervility to the original text 3 and this fcrupulous
attachment made his tranflation, fays Father Simon,
“ obfeure, barbarous, and full of folecifms. He imagi¬
ned, that to make 3’ faithful tranflation of the Scriptures,
it was neceffary to follow exactly the letter according to
the flrichiefs of grammar. This, however, is quite con¬
trary to his pretended exaclnefs, becaufe two languages
feldom agree in their ways of fpeaking 3 and therefore,
inftead of exprefling the original in its proper purity, lie
defaces and robs it of all its ornaments.”' Father Simon
neverthelefs allows the great abilities and learning of
Pagninus 3 and all the later commentators and tranfla-
tors of the Scriptures have agreed in giving him his juft
praife. Huetius, though he thinks Father Simon’s criti-
cifm of him juft and well grounded, yet propofes his
manner as a model for all tranflators of the facred books :
Script arm interpretandee ratioms utile nobis exemplar pro-
pofuit Sanclus Pagninus. He alfo tranftated the New
Teftament from the Greek, as he had done the Old from
the Hebrew, laying the Vulgar all the while before
him ; and dedicated it to Pope Clement VII. Pie was
author of a Hebrew Lexicon, and a Hebrew Grammar :
which Buxtorf, who calls him vir linguarum Qnenta-
lium peritiffimus, made great ufe of in compiling his.
He died In 1 336, aged 70. Luther fpoke ox him and
his tranflations in terms of the higheft applaufe.
PfkGO, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, feparated
from the continent of Morlachia by a narrow channel.
The ancient geographers iiave left us no deferiptio: of
it 3 though (as Forlls. obferves) its form (a), extent,
and rich produce, unqueftionably deferved it.” And
this
PAG [ 621 ]
authors upon it 3 and accordingly fpent
- (a) Its figure is indeed remarkably irregular, its breadth being in no proportion to its length 3 for one of the
extremities, called Punia di Loni, is above ten miles, long, and lefs than one broad. Aknoft all the circumference
I
* Travels
into Dal¬
matia.
PAG [62
this is the more unaccountable, as we know the Romans
were well acquainted with it; and on the other iflands
adjoining to it are many veftiges of buildings, infcrip-
tions, tiles, and hewn ftones, all fure figns of Roman
habitations. Its ancient name was in all probability
Portunata. “ This illand (fays Mr Fortis *) is extend¬
ed from north to fouth over againft maritime Croatia,
or the mountain Morlacca. It is about 50 miles long •
its breadth is unequal. One particular circumftance di-
ftinguifhes it from all the other iflands of the Adriatic,
and is a large internal falt-water lake 15 miles long from
louth to north, into which the fea enters by a canal not
above a quarter of a mile broad in fome places. This
lake is frequented by the tunny filh, which, when once
in, cannot return again to the fea. There are alfo two
fmaller lakes on the ifland j one near Vlaflich, abound¬
ing in fifli, particularly eels; and one near the hamlet
of Slabine.
“ In this ifland the winter is dreadfully cold, and the
iummer fcorchingly hot. Thofe who have been there
in the winter time fpeak of it as a Siberia quite covered
with fnow and ice, and always expofed to the cold north
wind 5 I, who was there in the hot feafon, thought it
equal to the mofl: fcorching parts of the world. The na¬
ked rocks, which not only form the organization, but
alfo the fuperficies of almofl: all the ifland ; the narrow-
nefs of the valleys ; the reverberation of the water of
^ he lake, generally quite calm in fummer ; multiply the
heat fo prodigioufly among thofe hones, that the vines,
which are planted all round the lake, ripen their grapes
by the beginning of Auguft ; and the other produfts
that grow there anticipate the ufual time of maturity in
the fame manner. The meteors are exceedingly irregu¬
lar in the fummer time j hidden whirlwinds aj-e frequent,
and heavy Ihowers of rain : the laft are hurtful to the
inhabitants of one part of the ifland, and are favourable
to the cultivation of the oppofite end.
“ They cultivate neither corn nor oil on this ifland 5
but it produces plenty of wine, and an immenfe quan¬
tity of fait. Che other products are wool, honey, and
a little fait fifli. The quantity of wine amounts annual¬
ly, on a medium, to 40,000 Venetian barrels ; and from
the hulks, they diltil 2000 barrels of rakia or brandy.
The fait, in 1663, amounted to 800,000 VenetianJiare.
1 he falt-works are well contrived and well kept: they
extend along a Ihallow pool, which forms the eaftern
extremity of the lake within for four miles in length and
about half a mile in breadth. On the fides of this fen
the bell part of the vines lie j but the upper part of the
hills on each fide is altogether naked and barren 5 there
is not even a lufficiency of fire-wood, and the inhabi¬
tants are obliged to provide themfelves elfewhere. The
loil at the foot of the hills, where the vines are planted,
2 ] PAG
is full of gravel and fmall Hones: and hence the wine is
of good quality. . The air is not unhealthful, notwith-
ftanding the vicinity of the fait pits j but the frequent
high winds carry oft' the noxious exhalations. The moft
conliderable produS of the ifland is the fait. The great-
eft part of the people of Pago live by working in the
fait pits, and have a comfortable fubfiftence regularly
paid by the government: it is therefore a very import¬
ant circumftance for the inhabitants of the city to have
a dry fummer •, and hence the ignorant vulgar look up¬
on rain as a mifchief brought upon the country by the
force of witchcraft. In confequence of this idea, thej*
ele<ft a friar to exorcife the meteors, and keep the rain
oft" the ifland. Ir, notwithftanding the poor friar's en¬
deavours, the fummer happens to be rainy, he lofes his
reputation- and his bread j but if two or three dry fea-
fons follow fucceflively, he meets with great reverence
and advantage. Part of the fait works belongs to the
government, and the reft to private proprietors 5 they
are meliorated every year j and for that end the public
lends money to thofe proprietors who want it, and who
without that afliftance could not make the requifite irm-
provements.
“.Many veftiges of ancient habitations ftill remain on
the ifland of Pago, as well as of walled places, which
either have been deftroyed by the incurfions of enemies
or by time. Hiftorians fay that the ifland was often
abandoned by its inhabitants ; and indeed it is rather to
be wondered at how men ever could refolve to fettle in
fo wretched a country. The fmall number of inhabi¬
tants, after fo many years of peace and tranquillity un¬
der the Venetian government, evidently proves how
little the ifland is really habitable. The town of Pago
was built by the Venetians about 300 years ago 5 and
contains upwards of 2000 inhabitants, and all the reft of
the ifland fcarcely 900. The difficulty of accefs to the
city of Pago, and the ill accommodation that ftrangers
meet with, make it very little frequented. Hence the
inhabitants are as wild and unpoliflied as if they lay at
the greateft diftance from the fea and the commerce of
polite people. The gentry, who pretend to fliow their
manners different from thofe of the vulgar, are truly
grotefque figures, both in their drefsy behaviour, and
infolent pretenfions. The ignorance of their clergy is
incredible ; a prieft of the greateft confequence there,
and who jvas thought a man of learning, did not know
how Pago was called in Latin. There are two convents
of friars in Pago and one of nuns 5 and feveral churches,
all in very bad order, and ill ferved. At Terra Vecchia
alfo there is a convent of Francifcan monks ; a race of
men who, under various names and difguifes, infeft eve*
ry place where credulous ignorance can be perfuaded to
maintain the idle and fuperftitious. One fuperftitious
cuftomf
h diiinal, without trees or any kind of vifible plants'or grafs, fteep, craggy, and uninhabited. On entering the
lake through the channel that communicates with the fea, nothing is to be feen either on the right or left but bare
hanging rocks, fo disfigured on the outfide by the violent percuffion of the waves, that the ftraiification is hardly
mmnguithable. In general, the ftone of the ifland is of the fame kind as the Iftrian, or breccia ; and, befides,
-t ere are large ft rata of blue and yellowiffi fandftone. The channel, or inward bay of Pago, is not a harbour ; on
t e contrary, it is a .very dangerous ftation, and even inacceffible in winter, when the north wind blows with fuch
ury, that tne inhabitants of the town dare not ftir out of their houfes, and much lefs the few that are fcattered
over the country. The fky appears always cloudy in that feafon, by the thick mift that arifes from the repercuf-
iibn of the waves on that long chain of rough and hollow rocks.
4
Fagot!.
PAG [ 623 ] PAG
euflom, amongfl a variety of others, exifts among their ably larger than life, attraQ; attention
women, and particularly. among thofe who have been
married but a fhort time : if their hulband happens to
die, they tear their hair out in good earned, and fcatter
it on the coffin 5 and this ceremony is fo much confecra-
ted by cuftom, that no woman, even though ffie had
nctorioufly hated her hufband, would fail in perform¬
ing it.”
PAGOD, or Pagoda, a name given by the Eaft
Indians to the temples where they worffiip their gods.
We (hall not in this place enter into a full detail of the
feveral pagodas of different nations, and their peculiar
circumftances. Thefe matters feem to come in more
properly under the religion, or, as others will call it, the
fuperjlition, of the people to whom they belong. We
ffiall therefore content ourfelves in the prefent article
with an account of a paper in the AJiatic Refearches,
concerning the fculptures, &c. at Mavalipuram, a few
miles north of Sadras, and known to feamen by the
name of the /even pagodas.
The monuments which Mr Chambers (who commu¬
nicated the paper) defcribes, appear, he fays, to be the
ruins of fome great city decayed many centuries ago.
“ They are lituated clofe to the fea, between Covelong
and Sadras, fomewhat remote from the high road that
leads to the different European fettlements. And when
vifited in 1776, there was ftill a native village adjoining
to them which retained the ancient name, and in which
a number of bramins refided that feemed perfeflly well
acquainted with the fuhjefts of moft of the fculptures to
be feen there.—The rock, or rather hill of ftone, on
which great part of thefe works are executed, is one of
the principal marks for mariners as they approach the
coaft, and to them the place is known by the name of
the Seven Pagodas, poffibly becaufe the fummits of the
rock have prefented them with that idea as they paffed :
but it mult be confeffed that no afpedt which the hill af-
fumes as viewed on the (here, feems at all to authorize
this notion ; and there are circumftances, which will be
mentioned in the fequel, that would lead one to fufpedt
that this name has arifen from fome fuch number of pa¬
godas that formerly Hood here, and in time have been
buried in the waves.” The rock here mentioned, as it
rifes abruptly out of a level plain of great extent, natu¬
rally engroffes the attention of the eye. It conlifts
chiefly of a fingle ftone ; and in its ffiape (which is lin¬
gular and romantic), in a diftant view, it has the ap¬
pearance of an antique and lofty edifice. Works of ima¬
gery and fculpture crowd thicker upon the eye on a
nearer approach, and at firft fight at leaft favours the
idea of a petrified town, which, through the credulity
of travellers has been fuppofed to exift in various
parts of the world. “ Proceeding on by the foot of the
hill on the fide facing the fea, there is a pagoda riling
P- 155>^cc- out of the ground, of one folid ftone, about 16 or 18
feet high, which feems to have been cut upon the fpot
out of a detached rock that has been fbund of a proper
fize for that puvpofe. The top is arched, and the ftyle
of architefture according to which it is formed, different
from any now ufed in thofe parts.” Beyond this a nu¬
merous group of human figures in bafs relief, confider-
* See
Shanu's
Travels.
They reprefent
confiderable perfons, and their exploits, many of which "
are now very indiftinct through the injuries of time, af-
fifted by ihe corroding nature of the fea air ; others,
while protefted from that element, are as frelh as when
recently finilhed.
The hill, which is at firft of eafy afcent, “ is in other
parts rendered more fo, by very excellent fteps cut out
in feveral places, where the communication would be
difficult or impracticable without them. A winding
flair of this fort leads to a kind of temple cut out of the
folid rock, with fome figures of idols in high relief upon
its walls, very well finifhed and perfectly frelh, as it
faces the weft, and is therefore Iheltered from the fea
air.” This temple our author conjedlures to have been
a place of worffiip appertaining to a palace j fome re¬
mains of which ftill exift, and to which there is a paf-
fage from the temple by another flight of fteps. This
conjedlure (for it is brought forward as merely fuch)
in lome mealure favoured by feveral ruins ftill remaining,
and by the tradition of the bramins who inhabit the
place. This finilhes the objedls “ on that part of the
upper furface of the hill, the afcent to which is on the
north ; but on defcending from thence, you are led
round the hill to the oppolite fide, in which there are
fteps cut from the bottom to a place near the fummit,
where is an excavation that feems to have been intended
for a place of worffiip, and contains various fculptures
of Hindoo deities. The moft remarkable of thefe is a
gigantic figure of Vifhnou (a), alleep on a kind of bed,
with a huge fnake wound about in many coils by way
of pillow for his head ; and thefe figures, according to^
the manner of this place, are all of one piece hewn from-
the body of the rock.” Thefe works, however, al¬
though they are unqueftionably ftupendous, are, in our
author’s opinion, furpaffed by others about a mile and
a half to the fouthward of the hill. “ They confift of
two pagodas of about 30 feet long by 20 feet wide, and
about as many in height, cut out of the folid rock, and
each confifting originally of one fingle ftone. Near
thefe alfo Hand an elephant full as big as life, and a lion
much larger than the natural fize, but very w'ell execu¬
ted, each hewn alfo out of one ftone. None of the
pieces that have fallen off in cutting thefe extraordinary
fculptures are now to be found near or any wffiere in the
neighbourhood of then*, fo that there is no means of af-
certaining the degree of labour and time that has been
fpent upon them, nor the fize of the rock or rocks from
which they have been hewm 5 a circumftance which ren¬
ders their appearance the more ftriking and Angular.
And though their fituation is very near the fea beach,
they have not ft-ffered at all by the corrofive air of that
element, which has provided them with a defence againfl
itfelf, by throwing up before them a high bank that
completely ffielters them. There is alfo a great fymme-
try in their form, though that of the pagodas is differ¬
ent from the ftyle of architedlure according to which
idol temples are nowr built in that country. The latter
refembles the Egyptian j for the towers are always py-
ramidical, and the gates and roofs flat and without
arches j but thefe fculptures approach nearer to the Go¬
thic '
Paged.
(a) See a figure of Vifmou in the plate of Indian gods, with its defeription, under the article Polytheism,
PAG [ 624 ] PAG
line tafle, being furmounted by arched roofs or domes
that are not femicircular, bul compofed of two fegments
of circles meeting in a point at top.” Our author ob-
ferves, that the lion in this group, as well as one on a
ifone couch in what he took to. be a royal palace, are
perfe£!ly juft reprefentations of the true lion, and the na¬
tives there give them the name which is always under-
flood to mean a lion in the Hindoo language, to wit,
fag; but the figure which they have made to reprefent
that animal in their idol temples for centuries paft,
though it bears the fame appellation, is a diitoried mon-
fter totally unlike the original : infomuch that it has
from hence been fuppofed, that the lion was not ancient¬
ly known in this country, and that Jing was a name gi¬
ven to a monfter that exifted only in Hindoo romance.
But it is plain that that animal was well known to the
authors of thefe works, who, in manners as wel 1 as
arts, feem to have differed much from the modern Hin¬
doos.
“ There are two circumftances attending thefe monu¬
ments which cannot but excite great curiofity, and on
which future inquiries may poflibly throw fome light.
One is, that on one of the pagodas laft mentioned, there
is an infcription of a fingle line, in a charadler at pre-
fent unknown to the Hindoos. It refembles neither
the Heyva-nagre, nor any of the various charadlers
connected with or derived from it, which have come
to the writer’s knowledge from any part of Hindo-
flan. Nor did it, at the time he viewed it, appear to
correfpond with any character, Afiatic or European,
that is commonly known. He had not then, however,
Teen the alphabet of the Balic, the learned language of
the Siamefe, a fight of which has fince r-aifed in his
mind a fufpicion that there E a near affinity between
them, if the characler be not* identically the fame. But
as thefe conjeftures, after fuch a lapfe of time, are fome-
what vague, and the fuhject of them is perhaps yet with¬
in the reach of our refearches, it is to be hoped that
dome method may be fallen upon of procuring an exa£!
-copy of this infcription.
“ The other circumftance is, that though the out¬
ward form of the pagodas is complete, the ultimate
defign of them has manifeftly not been accompliftied,
but feems to have been defeated by fome extraordi¬
nary convulfion of nature. For the weftcrn fide of the
moft northerly one is excavaUr to the depth of four
or five feet, and a row of pillars left on the outfide to
fupport the roof; but here the work has been flop¬
ped, and an uniform rent of about four inches breadth
has been made throughout the folid rock, and appears
to extend to its foundations, which are probably at a
prodigious depth below the furface .of the ground.
That this rent has happened fince the work began, or
while it was carrying on, cannot be doubted ; for the
marks of the mafons tools are perfectly vifible in the
excavated part on both fides of the rent, in fuch a
manner as to fliow plainly that they have been divided
by it. Nor is it reafonable to i’uppofe, that fuel) a
work would ever have been defigned or begun upon a
rock that had previoufty been rent in two. Nothing
lefs than an earthquake, and that a violent one, could
apparently have produced fuch a fiffure in the folid
rock : and that this has been the cafe in point of faH,
may be gathered from other circumftances, which it is
ateceffary to mention in an account of this curious
2
place. The great rock above deicribed is at fome fmail Pa god.
diltance from the fea, perhaps 30 or 100 yards, and  v—"
in that fpace the Hindoo village before mentioned
flood in 1776. But dole to the fea are the remains
of a pagoda built of brick, and dedicated to Sib, the
greateft part of which has evidently been ftvallowed up
by that element ; for the door of the innermoit apart¬
ment, in which the idol is placed, and before which
there are always two or three fpacioas courts fur-
rounded with walls, is now walhed by the waves, and
the pillar ufed to difeover the meridian at the time
of founding the pagoda is feen Handing at fome di-
ftance in the fea. In the neighbourhood of this build¬
ing there are feme detached rocks, walhed alio by the
waves, on which there appear fculptures, though now
much worn and defaced. And the natives of the place
declared to the writer of this account, that the more
aged people among them remembered to have feen the
tops of leveral pagodas far out in the fea, which being,
covered with copper, (probably gift) were particularly
vifible at funrife, as their rhimng furface uied then to
re He cl the fun’s rays, but that now that effect was no
longer produced, as the copper bad fince become incruft-
ed with the mould and verdegreafe.”
From thefe circumftances otir author conjectures,
and we think reafonably, that the magnificent city
of which thefe appear to be part of the ruins, has
been deftroyed partly by an earthquake, by which
the rock was rent, and partly by a hidden inunda¬
tion of the fea, occafioned by this commotion of the
earth. The bramins give an account of this matter
peculiar to themfelves, filled with extravagance, fable,
and folly; from which, however, with the affiftance
of ancient monuments, coins, and inferiptions, lome
probable conjectures at leaft, if not important dif-
coveries, may, it is hoped, be made on thefe fubjefls,'
which are far from being uninterefting to us either as
men, philofophers, or Chriftians. Our author thinks,
therefore, that the infcription on the pagoda mentioned
above is an object which merits confiderable attention;
and he defends, by very reputable authorities, the con-
jectuve which places it among the languages of Siam;
but which it is unneceffary for us either to abridge or to
tranferibe. In the courfe of this inquiry, our author re¬
marks a very near relemblance between Summonncodom,
the idol of the Siamefe, and the great idol Buddou, held
facred by the Clungelays ; and this reftmblance extends
alfo to their priefts. But from the detail of circum-
llances which our author brings forward, and to which
we refer, he thinks this a fyftem of religion different
from that of the Vedt, and fome of them totally incon-
fiftent with the principles and practice of the bramins ;
none of whom, as far as. we can colieft from Mr Knoxf, j. cf
exift among the Chingelays, whofe religion is totally
different from that of the prefent Hindoos. The only
part in which there feems to be any agreement is in
the woilhip of the Debtahs, which has probably crept
in among them from their Tamulian neighbours, but
that is carried on in a manner very different from
the braminical fyftem, and appears to be held by the
nation at large in very great contempt, if not abhor¬
rence. Knox’s account of it is this: “Their temples
(i. e. thofe of the Debtahs) are called covelsf which is
the Tamulic word for pagoda. Fie then goes on to fry,
“ a man pioufly difpofed builds a fmall houfe at his own
charge,
PAG [6
charge, which is the temple, and hhnfelf becomes prieft
* thereof. This houfe is feldom called God's houfe, but
moil ufually Jacco the devil's''1 But of the prevailing
religion he fpeaks in very different terms, and defcribes
it as carried on with much parade and fplendour, and
attended with marks of great antiquity. “ The pago¬
das or temples of their gods (fays he) are fo many, that
I cannot number them. Many of them are of rare and
exquifite work, built of hewn ftone, engraven with images
and figures, but by whom and when I could not at¬
tain to know, the inhabitants themfelves being ig¬
norant therein. But fure I am they were built by
far more ingenious artificers than the Chingelays that
now are on the land. For the Portuguefe in their in-
vafions have defaced fome of them, which there is
none found that hath fkill enough to repair to this
day.” In another place, he fays, “ here are fome an¬
cient writings engraven upon rocks, which puzzle all
that fee them. There are divers great rocks in divers
parts in Cande Uda, and in the northern parts. Thefe
rocks are cut deep with great letters for the fpace of fome
yards, fo deep that they may laft to the world’s end.
No body can read them or make any thing of them.
I have afked Malabars and Gentoos, as well as Chin¬
gelays and Moors, but none of them underftood them.
There is an ancient temple, Goddiladenni in Yatta-
nour, ftands by a place where there are of thefe let¬
ters.” From all which the antiquity of the nation
and their religion is fufficiently evident, and from
t)ther paffages it is plain, that the worfhip of Bud-
dou, in particular, has been from remote times a very
eminent part of their religion *, for the fame author,
fpeaking of the tree at Anurodgburro, in the north¬
ern part of the ifland, which is facred to Buddou,
lays, “ the due performance of this worfhip they rec¬
kon not a little meritorious: infomuch that, as they
report, 90 kings have reigned there fucceffively, where,
by the ruins that ftill remain, it appears they fpared
not for pains and labour, to build temples and high
monuments to the honour of this god, as if they had
been bom to hew rocks and great ftones, and lay them
up in heaps. Thefe kings are now7 happy fpirits, having
merited it by thefe labours.” And again he fays, “ For
this god, above all others, they feem to have a high re-
fpeft and devotion,” &c.
Such is the nature of Mr Chamber’s communica¬
tion, as far as it refpefts pagodas; a fubjecl to which
the Ajiatic Society will doubtlefs again direcl their at¬
tention *, and from the penetration and afiiduity of its
members wre have much to expeft. Other parts of
this paper (hall be brought forwards under other ar¬
ticles, to which wre refer. Few refearches are of more
fervice to true religion, than thofe which give us a
correfl view of the falfe and fuperftitious modes of
worfliip pra&ifed by men who have had no light but rea-
fbn, or weak and corrupted traditions. They are ufe-
ful likewife to the philofopher, as they always tend to
give us a minuter view of the real nature of man as he
is in himfelf, and ihow with fufficient ftrength the im-
becillity of the human intellect without fome fupernatu-
ral aid. The external pomp of all Pagan religions feems
to have been their effence •, a circumftance which alone
fhows the neceffity of that, the intention of which is
to reform the heart. See Siam, SommonacodON,
Temple, &c.
Vol. XV. Part It.
5 1 P A I
Pagod, or Pagoda, is alfo the name of a gold and Fa^o<fs
filver coin, current in feveral parts of the Faff Indies. . ^>a|n
PAIN, an uneafy fenfation, arifing from a hidden and
violent folution of continuity, or other accident in the
nerves, membranes, veffels, mufcles, &c. of the body.
Pain, according to fome, confifts in a motion of the or¬
gans of fenfe \ and, according to others, it is an emotion
of the foul occafioned by thofe organs.
As the brain is the feat of fenfation, fo it is of pain,
Boerhaave, and molt other authors on this fabje^l, aflign
a ftretching of the nerves as the only immediate caufe
of pain : but as the nerves do not appear to confift of
fibres, this caufe of pain does not feem to be well-
founded ; nor indeed will it be eafy to treat this fubje£t
clearly, but in proportion as the means of fenfation are
underftood.
Many kinds of pain are met with in author^: fuch as,
A gravitative pain 3 in which there is a fenfe of weight
on the part affe&ed, wdiich is always fome fleftiy part,
as the liver, &c. A pulfative pain 3 which, Galen fays,
always fucceeds fome remarkable inflammation in the
containing parts, and is obferved in abfeeffes while fup-
purating. A tenfive pain, which is alfo called a di/lend-
ing pain 3 it is excited by the diftenfion of fome nervous,
mufcular, or membranous part, either from fome humour,
or from flatulence. An acute pain is, when great pain
is attended with quick and lively fenfations: A dull
pain is, when a kind of numbnefs is as much complained
of as the pain is.
The mediate and more remote caufes of pain are ge¬
nerally obvious ; and w'hen this is the cafe, the cure will
confift for the moft part in removing them : for though
in many inftances the chief complaint is very diftant
from the feat of thofe caufes, yet their removal is the
proper method of relief. See Medicine, paflim*
Perhaps all pains may be included, with irritation, in
thofe that have fpafm or inflammation for their fource.
When pain is owing to inflammation, the pulfe is quicker
than in a natural ftate 3 it is alfo generally full, hard,
and tenfe 3 the pain is equal, throbbing, and unremit¬
ting. If a fpafm be the caufe, the pulfe is rarely affeft-
edj at intervals the pain abates, and then returns with
fome degree of aggravation 3 gentle motion fome times
abates, or even cures, in fome inftances 3 but in inflamma¬
tory cafes no fuch effects are ever experienced. See Dr
Lobb’s Treatife on Painful Dijlcmpers.
The pain fo frequently attendant on women in child¬
bed, called after-pains (from their happenfhg only
after being delivered of a child), are often occafioned
by attempts to bring awray coagulated blood, which is
a needlefs endeavour. When no improper treatment
in delivering the fecundines can be fufpe&ed, the irri¬
tability of the uterus alone is to be confidered as the
caufe. Care ftiould be taken not to confound thefe
after-pains with, or miftake the pains attending puer¬
peral fevers for the colic. After-pains come by fits, and
foon go off 3 but return at different intervals, wThich are
longer each day, and after twTo or three days are ufu¬
ally at an end, though fometimes they continue feven
or eight: notwithftanding thefe pains, the lochia flow
properly, and generally more abundantly after the ceffa-
tion of each fit 3 this does not happen in colicky com¬
plaints, nor is the belly fo free from tumefa&ion when
the puerperal fever is attendant.
As thefe pains are of the fpafmodic kind, anodynes
4 K and
i’ a i [ 62G i p a r
imu gentle opiates, with frequent draughts of warm cau¬
dle, chamomile tea, Sec. with external fomentation, are
all that are required in order to their relief.
Among the various caufes of pain, a fmgular one is
related in the third vol. of the Lovr/. Med. Obf end Inq.
p. 241. &c. Some perlons who had taken cold during
their being falivated, were afflicted with pains which
refilled all the ufual methods of relief. At length the
author of the narrative referred to fuggelied the caufe 5
and by exciting a freffl falivation the pains abated $
the fpitting was kept up a little while, and permitted
to abate with fome caution; and thus the cures were
completed.
Pain.
PAIN
T>AIMING is the art of reprefenting to the eye, by
means of figures and colours, every object in nature
that is difcernible by the fight : and of fometimes ex-
prefling, according to the principles of phyfiognomy,
*nd by the attitudes of the body, the various emotions
of the mind. A fmooth furface, by means of lines and
colours, reprefents objefts in a date of projection 5 and
may reprefent them in the molt pleafant drefs, and
in a manner mold capable of enchanting the fenfes.
Still farther, the objeCts which delight us by their ani¬
mation, and lively colours, Ipeak to the foul, by giving
us the image of ivhat rve hold molt dear, or by indica¬
ting an action which infpires us with a talte for innocent
pleafures, with courage, and with elevated fentiments.
Sucli is the definition, and fuch are the eftects of
painting.
Ey an admirable effort of human genius, painting of¬
fers to the eye every thing which is molt valuable in
the univerfe. Its empire extends over every age and
country. It prefents to us the heroic deeds of ancient
times as well as the fafts in which we are more conver-
fant, and diitant objects as well as thole which we daily
lee. In this refpeCt it may be conlidered as a fupple-
jnent to nature, which gives us only a view of prefent
objeCts.
The art of painting is extremely difficult in the exe¬
cution ; and its merit can only be appreciated by thofe
who profefs the art.
The painter who invents, compofes, and colours con¬
ceptions which are only agreeable, and which fpeak
merely to the eye of the fpeCtator, may be reckoned to
poffefs the firit merit in the Ityle of embellilhment and
decoration.
The painter who is diitinguilhed for noble and pro¬
found conceptions 5 who, by means of a perfeCt delinea¬
tion, and colours more capable of fixing the attention
than dazzling the eye, conveys to the fpcCtators the fen¬
timents with which he himielf was inlpired j who ani¬
mates them with his genius, and makes a lalting impref-
fion on their minds ; this arlilt is a poet, and worthy to
Ihare even in the glories of Homer.
It is in forming this great idea of his art that the
painter becomes himfelf great.
But if he feek only to pleafe or aftonilh by the illu-
fion of colours, he mult reit contented with the fecond-
ary merit of flattering the eye with the variety and op-
pofltion of tints, or of making an indultrious affemblage
of a great multiplicity of objeCts. It is in painting as
it is in poetry. The man who clothes trivial or com¬
mon ideas in verfe, exercifes the profeffion of twitting
fyllables into a certain meafure. The poet who clothes
tu good verfe, ideas and fentiments that are merely agree-
T I N G.
able, profeffes an agreeable art. But he who by the
magic of verfe, of ideas, of imagery, or of colours, adds
fublimky to the fublirae objects of nature, is a great
poet and a great painter. He deferves the crown which
the nations have decreed to Homer, Virgil, Milton, Ra¬
phael, and the ftatuary who modelled the ancient Apol¬
lo. It is reafonable to place in the fame clafs thofe who
have expreffed the fame ideas, whether it be in verfe ox
in colours, on brafs or on marble. The painter and fla-
tuary, who excel in their profeffions, deferve all the re-
fpedt due to genius : they are of the number of thofe
men whom nature, fparing of her belt gifts, grants but
occafionally to the inhabitants of the earth. If they
are fublime, they elevate the human race ; if thev are
agreeable only, they excite thofe fweet fenfatkms necef-
farv to our happinefs.
In 1 aying before our readers a fuccinft account of
this noble art, we fhall, firft, give the hiitcry of paint¬
ing, including its rife, progrefs, and decline, in ancient
and modern times; an account of the fchools, and of
the different merits of painters ; and a cempirifon be¬
tween the ancient and modern painting. Secondly, we
fhall lay down the principles of the art, and the order-
in which the artiit conducts his fludies. Thirdly, we
fhall enumerate the different claffes of painting, with
obfervations on each. And, Fourthly, we fhall treat of
economical or houfe painting.
HISTORY.
Sect. I. Rife, Progrefs, and Decline of Painting in
Ancient and Modern Times.
It is to be imagined that men mult naturally, and
very early, have conceived an idea of the firft principles
of the art of painting ; the fliadow of each plant and
animal, and of every object in nature, mult have afford¬
ed them the means of conceiving, and pointed out the
poffibility of imitating, the figures of all bodies. Thus
the favage nations, an emblem of what men -were in the
infancy of fociety, poffefs the firft rudiments of this art,
even before thofe which are ufeful and almoft neceffary
to exiftence ; their naked bodies are covered with punc¬
tures of various forms, into which they infufe indelible
colours. The next demand for this art,'is to preferve
the memory of warlike exploits. It is more natural to
form fome reprefentation of an action, than to give an
account of it by means of arbitrary charafters. Hence
the pjeture-writing of the Mexicans, and the more com¬
plex hieroglyphics of Egypt.
Painting confifled of fimple outlines long before the
expreffion of relievo, the application of colour. It
was
Hiftory. PAIN
Rife, Pro- was fimply drawing •, and lire mailer-pieces of painting
Decline^ *n t^at rUC^e Pe”oc^ v’'ere. not fuperior to the {ports of
i, ^ ' children. Although occupied about a iingle point, it
was not brought to perfection } for conftant experience
initrufts us that men never excel in the inferior parts of
an art till they are capable of carrying the whole to
perfection.
After employing for a long time thofe fimple out¬
lines, the next ilep in the art of painting was to make
the imitation more complete by applying colours : this
was firil accompliihed by covering the different parts of
the figure with different colours, in the fame way that
we colour maps}. and feveral nations, as the^, Egyptians,
the Chinefe, and the different nations of India, have
never painted in a better manner. Other nations, more
ingenious and more attentive to the arts, obferving that
the objeCls of nature have relievo, have invented what
is called claro-obfcuro. The Greeks, the moil ingeni¬
ous, penetrating, and delicate of all, invented this part
antecedent to colours 5 than which there cannot be a
greater proof of their exquifite taile, as the glare of
colours without judgment excites more admiration in the
minds of the vulgar and ignorant, than the camaieu or
drawings of one colour executed by the mofr. fkilful artift.
Thefe general obfervations concerning the gradual
improvement of this art, will be bell illuflrated by a
more particular attention to the ancient nations in wdiich
it flourifhed.
Painting Plato, who lived 400 years before the Chriftian era,
among the informs us that painting had been praftifed in Egypt for
Egyptians. ten thoufand years •, that fome of the productions of that
high antiquity were in exiftence; and that they bore
an exaCt refemblance to thofe which the Egyptians exe¬
cuted in his time. Without regarding the period of ten
thoufand years mentioned by Plato, it is reafonable to
confider it as an indeterminate period, which carries us
back to very remote antiquity.
The figures either in the painting or fculpture of
Egypt were extremely iliff; the legs were drawn toge¬
ther, and their arms were palled to their fides. It ap¬
pears that their only model was their mummies, and that
their fkill in anatomy was derived from embalming
them. They were extremely incorreft in every part of
the head ; they placed the ears much higher than the
nofe. Befides, they gave the face the form of a circle
inftead of an oval 5 the chin was fhort and rounded ; the
cheeks exceflively fo ; and they turned upwards the cor¬
ners of the mouth and eyes. Many of thefe faults may
be aferibed to the formation of the human face in E-
gypt *, but the placing of the ears could only be found¬
ed in caprice or ignorance.
r The exaClnefs of the Egyptian proportion is much
celebrated •, but although we grant that they obferved
the proper length of the different parts of the human
body, they wrere ffill defe&ive artifts, fince they did not
obferve the breadth, and wrere moreover ignorant alto¬
gether of the lhape and fize of the mufcles. Works
converted to religious purpofes chiefly occupied the E-
gyptian painters. They had figures for imitation from
v/hich they would not depart, and thofe figures were mon-
ftrous; the bodies of animals with the heads of men 5
the bodies of men with the heads, of animals : or if the
figure was more agreeable to nature in its parts, yet it
was fo deformed and imaginary, as to have nothing fimi-
lar to it as a whole in the creation of God.
TING. > 627
The monuments of Egyptian painting with which wre Rife, Pro-
are belt acquainted (fays Winklemann) are the cheils greG and
of mummies. Thefe works have refilled the injuries oi
time, and are Hill fubmitted to the examination of the
curious. The white, made of white lead, is fpread over
the ground of the piece ; the outlines o. the figure are
traced with black ilrokes, and the colours are four in
number ; namely, blue, red, yellow, and green, laid on
without any mixture or fhading. The red and blue
prevail moil; and thofe Colours feem to have been pre¬
pared in the coarfeft manner. The light is formed by
leaving thofe parts of the ground where it is neceffarv,
covered with the white lead, as it is formed by the white
paper in fome of our drawings. This defeription is fuf-
ficient to convince us that the whole art of painting in
Egypt confifted in colouring : but every perfon knows,
that without tints and the mixture of colours painting
can never arrive at great perfeclion.
In Upper Egypt there feems to have exiiled a kind
of coloffian painting, which has never been examined
except by travellers who were no great critics in the
art. Winklemann had fome reafon to exprefs a delire
that thofe remains of antiquity, with regard to the man¬
ner of working, the ilyle, and the character, had been
accurately explored. Walls of 24 feet in height, and
pillars of 32 feet in circumference, are wholly covered
with thofe coloffian figures. According to Norden they
are coloured in the fame manner with the mummies :
the colours are applied to a ground prepared in manner
of frefco ; and they have retained their freihnefs for
many thoufand years. Winklemann adds, that all the
efforts of human {kill and induffry could make as little
impreffion on them as the injuries of time. His enthu-
fiafm for antiquity has perhaps led him into this extra¬
vagant exaggeration.
It appears that the great employment of the Egyp¬
tian painters was cn earthen veffels, on drinking cups,
in ornamenting barges, and in covering with figures the
cheils of mummies. They painted alio on cloth 5 but
painting, as an induilrlous occupation, fuppofes a work¬
man, not an artift : the decoration of temples, houfe
painting, and that of the figures relative, to religion,
are to be confidered only in this point of view. The
workmen in Ruffia who paint our Saviour holding the
globe in one hand, and bleffing the people with the other,
are not members of the imperial academy, of fine arts.
Pliny informs us that the Egyptian artiils painted al¬
io the precious metals ; that is to fay, they varniihed or
enamelled them. It. is doubtful what this art was, but
moil probably it confiiled In covering gold or iilver with
a fingle colour.
The Egyptians are fuppofed to have continued this
coarfe ilyle till the reign of the Ptolemies. „
The Perfians were fo far from excelling in the arts, in perfia,
that the paintings of Egypt were highly elleemed
among them after they had conquered that country.
The carpets of Perfia were of great value in Greece,
even in the time of Alexander the Great, and thefe
were adorned with various figures 5 but this is no proof
that they were well executed, any more than a demand
for feveral of the Chinefe productions is at prefent a
proof of the taile of that people in the arts. It was the
fabrication of the filk, and not the truth of the repre-
fentation, which made the Greeks admire the carpets of
the Periians.
4 K 2
The
\
628
PAIN
Rife, Pro- The Perfians, as well as the Arabians, had fome
grefs, and knowledge of mofaic work. This is only valuable
i when it copies, in a manner that cannot be deftroyed,
the works of a great mailer j but if the Perlians had
no good pidlures to copy into mofaic, it was of no con-
fequence to be able to arrange, in a folid manner, pieces
of tiint one befide another.
There is only one Perfian painter whole name has de-
fcended to pollerity $ and he is preferved, not becaufe
he was a painter, but becaufe he accommodated the an¬
cient doftrine of the two principles to the Chriftian re¬
ligion. Belides, it is doubted whether Manes wras a
Perlian or a Greek, and it is Hill lefs known wdiether he
wTas a painter. He is praifed in Afia for drawing ftraight
lines without a ruler.
The modern Perfians have made no kind of progrefs
in the arts. The emperor Schah Abbas, wilhing from
caprice to be inftru£led in drawing, wTas obliged to have
recourfe to a Dutch painter who happened to be in his
dominioas.
In India The modern Perfians paint on cloth, and the artills
and Thi- India are their rivals in this branch of induftry j but
fcet. their paintings are purely capricious. They reprefent
plants and dowers which have no exiftence in nature j
and their only merit confills in the brightnefs and the
ftrength of their colours.
Befides this, the art in India, as it was in the mod
remote antiquity, is confined to monftrous figures con¬
nected wdth their religion, animals not to be found in
the wTorld, and idols wTith a multitude of arms and heads,
which have neither exaftnefs in their forms nor propor¬
tions. See Polytheism.
The paintings of Thibet difcover great patience in
the artift, and are remarkable for the finenefs of their
llrokes. Their painters might difpute with Apelles and
Protogenes for extreme tenuity of pencil •, but it is in
this alone, without any regard to the art, in wdiich their
merit confills.
Some of the idols in Thibet are executed in a cer-
4
In China.
tain ffyle of relievo •, but thole produdlions are not only
imperfeft, they are alio fo dellitute of beauty as to for¬
bid every hope of excellence in the art. The fame
thing may be obferved with regard to many of the ealf-
em nations j they feem to have that wrant of llyle
which wrould for ever condemn them to mediocrity, even
if they Ihould happen to arrive at it.
An obfcure Italian painter named Giovanni Ghirardi-
ni, who travelled into China, wBofe judgment is more
to be depended on in an art which he praftifed than
that of other travellers, declares that the Chinefe have
not the leafl idea of the fine arts j and this opinion is
confirmed by every thing wdiieh w7e know of that peo¬
ple.
The Chinefe feem not to have the finalleft concep¬
tion of perfpedlive. Their landfcapes have no plan, no
variety in the appearance of the clouds, and no di-
minilhing of the objefls in proportion to their di-
flance.
The great objecl of their painting feems to con fill in
making their figures as unlike nature as poflible ; it is a
ftrious caricature of the human figure.
To make the art fiourilh, it is neceffary that the artift
be elleemed and rewarded. In China, there is no artift
Xo poorly paid as.the painter.
The ignorant admire the brightnefs and purity of
TING.
inner, v.
their colours •, but fimple colours appear always bright! Rife, Pru-
and pure : The difficulty of the art confills in melting
them into one another in fuch a manner that the mixture ' .
fiiall not be perceived. It mull at the fame time be con-
felled, that their natural colours are more brilliant than
ours ; but if there be any merit in this, it is to be aferi-
bed to their climate, not to their ability.
A jefuit miffionary, who in his youth had been a
grinder of colours, was railed to the greatell eminence
as a painter in the Imperial court of China, and Raphael
himfelf was never fo much refpected. The Chinefo
battles fent from that country to Paris to be en¬
graved, arc the work of the Jefuits j and except they
were done by the Chinefe themfelves, it is impoffible to
conceive that they could be worfe executed.
The Chinefe, like other eallern nations, have a few\
fimple Itrokcs which they repeat in all their variety of
figures. In the figures on the earthen ware, they dif¬
cover no knowledge of forms, no expreffion of the moil
coufpicuous mufcles, and no idea of proportion. And
in all the paintings of China anatomy feems to bear no
relation to the art. Some heads done by a Chinefe
painter have a fort of refemblance to nature, hut they
are in a low and vicious talle : The fulnefs of the dra¬
pery conceals the parts in fuch a manner that they do
not feem to exill under it. Sculpture in China is in a
Hate of no great perfe&Ion, but at the fame time it is
better executed than their paintings. ^
The ancient inhabitants of Etruria, now called 7 t:f- In Etru*i»,
cany, were the firft who connecled the arts with the llu-
dy of nature. In fome of their monuments which Hill
remain, there is to be obferved a firll ilyle, which ffiows
the art in its infancy j and a fecond, which, like the
works of the Florentine artills, firows more ol great-
nefs and exaggeration in the charadler than precifion
or beauty.
Pliny fays that painting wTas carried to great perfec¬
tion in Italy before the foundation of Rome 5 perhaps
he means in companion with the infancy of the art m
Greece at that period ; but it appears that even in hr-s
time the painters of Etruria Were held in great reputa¬
tion.
The only Etrurian paintings which remain, have been
found in the tombs of the Tarquins. They confiil of
long painted frizes, and pilallers adorned with huge 1>-
gures, which occupied the whole fpace from the bafe ta
the cornice. Thefe paintings are executed on a ground
of thick mortar, and many of them are in a Hate of
high prefervation. g
Winklemann is of opinion that the Greek colonies In Camjja-
eflablilhed at Naples and Nola, had at a very early pe*-™*-
riod cultivated the imitative arts, and taught them to
the Campanians ellabliffied in the middle of the country.
This learned antiquarian conliders as wmrks purely Cam¬
panian, certain medals of Capua and Teanum, cities cf
Campania into which the Greek colonies never penetra¬
ted. The head of a young Hercules, and the head of
a Jupiter, according to Winklemann, are executed in the
fineil manner. It is Hill a queflion, however, in the
learned world, whether thefe medals owTe their exillence
to Carthage or to Campania.
“ But there has been difeovered (adds Winklemann)
a great number of Campanian vafes covered with paint¬
ing. The defign of the greatell part of thefe vafes
(fays he) is fuch} that the figures might occupy a diltim-
guifhed
Hnlary. _ PAIN
Rife, Pro- guifhed place in a work of Raphael. Thofe vafes, when
greis, and we conflcler that this kind of work admits of no correc-
^ Upline. [ tjonj and t]13t the ftroke which forms the outline mult
* remain as it is originally traced, are wonderful _ proofs
of the perfe&ion of the art among the ancients.*’
Winklemann had an opportunity of examining a very
fine Campanian vafe, on which was painted a bur-
lefque reprefentation of the loves of Jupiter and Alc-
mena. "But as this muff have been derived from
fome fragment of a Grecian comedy, the Count de
Caylus is perfuaded that the Campanian vafes are of
_ Greek origin.
Among the Although the hiflory of Greek painting be more
Creeks. fully known than that of the fame art among the bar¬
barous nations, it is neverthelefs involved in much ob-
feurity. Pliny is almoft the «nly author who has pre-
ferved the materials of its hiftory 5 and he complains,
that on this occafion the Greek writers have not difee-
vered their ufual preciiion. They place, fays he, the
firfl painter, of whom they fpeak, in the p^th Olympiad,
42/}. years before the Chriftian era. It is certain that
painting in dry colours exifted at the time of the fiege
of Troy, or at lead when Homer wrote the account of
it. The buckler of Achilles is a fufficient proof that
the Greeks were then acquainted with the baflo-relie-
vo, a kind of fculpture which bears a near affinity to
painting.
In the Iliad, Helen is reprefented as working at a
tapeftry, whereon (he figured the numerous combats of
which Ihe was the caufe'. When Andromache was in¬
formed of her huffiand’s death, ffie was occupied in re-
prefenting on tapeftry flowers of various colours. I rom
thefe fadls, it is certain that painting was not confined
to fimple ftrokes, nor even to the camaieu ; and hence
it is reafonable to conclude, that what is called lineanj
painting was praflifed long before the time of Homer.
Polygnote of Thafos, who lived about 420 years before
the Chriftian era, was the firft painter of any eminence
in Greece. Pliny informs us that he was the firft who
clothed his female figures, who varied the colours of the
different parts of their drefs, or who opened their mouths
in fuch a manner as to fho\v their teeth. Ariftotle,who
fiourifned in a fubfequent period, allows this painter, to
have excelled in expreffion. But the art of painting
may be ftill confidered in its infancy in Greece, till
about 400 years beiore the Chriftian era, when Zeuxis
and Parrhafius flouriffied. In the conteft between thefe
eminent painters, Zeuxis declared himfelf to be over¬
come, becaufe in a clufter of grapes which he painted
he had deceived the birds} whereas Parrhafius in a.cur¬
tain which he executed deceived his rival. 1 he princi¬
pal works of Zeuxis are his Penelope, in which, accord¬
ing to Pliny, he appears to have exprelTed the manners
of that princefs ; a Jupiter furreunded by.the gods; a
Hercules ft rankling the ferpents in the preience of Am-
phitrion and Alcmena •, an Helen and a Mariyas bound.
From this enumeration of thefe works, and from the
fame which they have acquired, it is evident that the
difficult parts of the art, and thofe which in the execu¬
tion render it eftimable, were now begun to be ftudied.
By Apelles, Protogenes, and Euphranor, it Was carried
to the greateft height of perfecHon. Grace, and
fymmetrv, and proportion, and illufion, were now ad¬
ded by "the greateft mailers to. the nobleft obje&s of
stature.
TING. - 629
We have already ften, tliat before the foundation of RA, Vm-
Rome the arls were cultivated in Etruria. I hey were
alfo early introduced into Latium j but whether that . _ ^ <
country employed its own artifts or thofe of Etruria, s
remains altogether uncertain. One need not be afto- Among tfie
nilheJ, that at a period when the arts were in their infan- Remans,
cy in Greece, they were railing ftatues to their kings in
Rome : but at that period all their artifts were Etruri¬
ans or Latins j and when they conquered Italy, they
made all the nations of rt as barbarous as they were
themfelves.
In the year 259 from the building of the city of
Rome, and 494 years before the Chriftian era, Appius
Claudius confecrated a number of ihields in the temple
of Bellona, which contained in balfo relievo the por¬
traits of his family. This example was followed j and
in procefs of time it was common among the Romans
to place thofe images in private houfes. The execution
in baffo relievo is a proof that they had an idea of paint¬
ing, at leaft with one colour. As long as the Roman*
employed artifts of other nations, they had little defire
to cultivate the arts; but towards the year of Rome
450, and 303 years before Chrift, one ol the Faba
thought it no diferedit to a noble family to employ
himfelf in painting. He painted the temple of Safety ;
and liis works remained till that temple was deftroyed
by fire, in the reign of Claudius. It is worthy of re¬
mark, that the fame man was the firft painter and the
firft hiftorian in his country.
The example of Fabius, fumamed PiRoi' from his
profeffion, did not excite his felknv citizens to imitation.
A century and a half elapfed before the tragic poet
Pacuvius, nephew of Ennius, painted the temple of
Hercules in the forum boarium. The glory which he
had acquired by his dramatic works ffied fome luftre on
the art, which he condefcended to exercife j but did not
confer on it that refpect which could recommend it to
general practice. The paintings of Fabius were the
works, or rather the recreations of his youth ; thofe of
Pacuviu^, the amufements of his old age : but paint¬
ing is a difficult art, which requires the whole atten¬
tion, and which can never be profecuted with fuccefs,
except thofe who love it are folely devoted to the per¬
formance.
It appears that there were no eminent painters at
Rome till the time of the emperors; but as the national
fpirit was changed, the profeffion of the fine arts acqui¬
red more refpectability. The Romans, during the time
of the republic, were animated with the fpirit of liberty
and the d'efire for conqueft. When thefe two paffions '
were weakened, the love of the arts obtained among
them. As a proof of this it is fufficient to fay, that
Nero himfelf gloried in being an artift. A coloffian
picture of 120 feet was painted at Rome by the com¬
mand of this emperor, which was afterward deftroyed
by lightning. The name of the painter is not recorded,
and there are various opinions conc.erning the merit of
the performance •, but the thing chiefly worthy of ob-
fervation is, that this is the only painting on cloth men¬
tioned by ancient authors. 9
The paintings of the ancient artifts were either move- Of the
able or on the ceilings or compartments of buildings. m°<ks 01
According to Pliny, the moft eminent were thofe who
painted moveable pictures. The latter were either on ancients,
fir.wood, larch, boxwood, or canvas, as in the coloffian
picture
<
\
63©
■ Rife, Pio-
^reP, and
Decline.
PAIN
piciuffi mentioned tlbove, and lometimes on marble.
W hen they employed wood, they laid on in the firft in-
ilance a white ground. Among the antiquities of Her¬
culaneum are four paintings on white marble.
Their immoveable paintings on avails were either in
frefco or on the dry il-ucco in diftemper. Indeed all the
ancient paintings may be reduced to, JirJ}, frefco paint¬
ing j fecondhj, water colour, or diftemper painting on a
dry ground ; and, thirdly, encaultic painting.
The ancient frefco-paintings appear to have been al¬
ways on a white ftucco-grouud, the colours inlaid very
deep, and the drawing much more bold and free than
any limilar performance of modern art. The outlines
of the ancient paintings on frefco were probably done
at once, as appears from the depth of the incifion and
the boldnefs and freedom of the defign, equal to the
care and ipirit of a pencilled outline.
In general the ancients painted on a dry ground even
in their buildings, as appears from the Herculanean an¬
tiquities, moil of which are executed in this manner.
At Rome and Naples, the firft (deepeft) coat is of true
puzzolana, of the fame nature with the tarras now ufed
in mortar, required to keep out wet, about one finirer
thick ; the next of ground marble or alabafter, and
fometimes of pure lime or flucco, in thicknefs abbut one
third of the former. Upon this they appear to have
laid a coat of black, and then another of red paint; on
which lad the fubjeft itfelf was executed. Such feems
to have been their method of painting cn walls • but in
their moveable pi£lures,and in the performance of their
firft artifts, and where effect of (hade and light were
neceffary, they doubtlefs ufed white.
The colours employed they feetn to have mixed up
with fize, of which they preferred that made by boiling
the ears and genitals of bulls. This appears to have
made the colours fo durable and adhefive, that the an¬
cient paintings lately found bear wafhing with a foft
cloth and water 5 and fometimes. even diluted aquafortis
is employed to clean their paintings on frefco. Pliny
fays that glue difiblved in vinegar and then dried, is not
again foluble.
W’hat the encauftic painting of the ancients was, has
been much difputed. From the works of Vitruvius
and Pliny, it appears evidently that it was of three
kinds.
Firjl, Where a piflure painted in the common way,
was covered with a varniih of wax melted, diluted with
a little oil, and laid on warm with a brufih.
Secondly, Where the colours themfelves were mixed
up with melted wax, and the mixture ufed while
warm. And,
Thirdly, Where a painting was executed on ivory by
means of the cejlrum or viricu/um.
Some experiments on this laft method by Mr Cole-
brook may be found in the Phil. Tranf. vol. 51. and
more particular direftions in Muntz’s Treatife on En-
cauftic Painting.
It appears from ancient writings of the heft authori¬
ty, that in the earl left and pureft times of this art, the
painters ufed few colours, perhaps not more than four.
“ The paintings of the ancients (fays Dionyfius Plali-
carnaffeus) were fimple and unvaried in their colouring,
but correct in their drawing, and diilinguifhed by their
elegance. Thofe which fucceeded, lefs correU: in their
drawing, were more finifhed, more varied in their light
3
T I N G. Kiftory.
and lhades, trufting their effect to the multitude of their Rite, Pro-
colours.” But no certain conclufion can be drawn, that £re(s> and
the more early among the great painters of the ancients, I)edine-
finch as Apollodorus, Zeuxis, Timantbes, &c. had or -U
ly four different colours, merely becaule they did not
ufie them. On the contrary, it may be conjectured
with fome degree of probability, from their chaftenels
in defign, and from the complaints Pliny makes of the
gaudy taite of the Roman painters, that the Greeks in
general were dejigned/y chafte in their colouring, and not
lo merely from neceflity, at leaft about the time of Zeu¬
xis and Apelles •, for the former could not have paint¬
ed grapes fo naturally as he is laid to have done with
four colours only : and the rebuke given by -the latter
to one or his icholars r\ho had painted an Helen very
gaudily, is a confirmation of thefe obfervations. “ Young
man (lays Apelles), not being able to make her beauti¬
ful, you have made her rich.”
Of white colouring fubftances, the ancients had white The co¬
lead varioufiy prepared, a white from calcined egg-lours ufed
fkeils, and preparations from cretaceous and argillaceousthe 371'
earths. I he moderns in addition have magifiery of bifi-ClCntS’
muth, little ufed; and ought to have the calces of tin
and zinc.
Of Uachs, the ancients had preparations fimilar to
lamp, ivory, blue, and Franckfort black; alfo to Indian
ink, and common writing ink 5 and they ufed, what we
do not, the precipitate of the black dyers vats.
Hie ancients poffeffed a fpecies of vermilion ox fine
cinnabar, a coarfer cinnabar, red lead, various earths
burnt and unburnt, apparently fimilar to our red ochre,
Ven etian red, Indian red, Spanitk brown, burnt ter¬
ra de Sienna, and fcarlet ochre 5 they had alfo a fub-
lianee alike in colour and in name to our dragon’s
blood.
The yellow pigments of the ancients were generically
the fame •with our orpiments, king’s-yellow, Naples yel¬
low, -&c. They efid not poffefs turpeth-mineral, mineral
yellow, or gamboge; nor do they appear to have known
of gall-ftcne as a pigment.
Of blue paints they had preparations from the lapis
cyanus and lapis armenius. Indigo they had, and per¬
haps bice and fin alt j for they made blue glafs, but whe¬
ther from fome ore of cobalt or of wolfram muft be
uncertain : they had not Pruflian blue, verditer, or lit¬
mus, which we have. We do not ufe the blue precipi¬
tate of the dyers vats, or mou'ntain blue, which they
certainly employed.
Ofg reen colours they had verdegrife, terre verte, and
malachite, or mountain green. The latter is not in ufe
among us. Sap green, green verditer, and Scheele’s green,
appear to have been unknown to them: like us, they pro¬
cured as many tints as they pleafed from blue and yellow
vegetables.
We have no original purple in ufe : that from gold by
means of tin, though very good, vben well prepared, is
too dear perhaps, and unneceflary. Their purple was a
tinged earth. Their orange or fandarac (red orpiment)
we alfo poffefs. Hence there does not appear to have been
any great want of pigments, or any very material diffe¬
rence between the colours they ufed and fuch as we ge¬
nerally employ. Perhaps the full e fie cl of colouring may
be obtained without the ufe of exceeding brilliant pig¬
ments, depending chiefly on the proportion and oppofi-
tion of tints.
The
Hiftory. PAIN
Rife, Pro- Tlic aaeients could not know any thing about the fpirit
f refs, and vamiihes, diftillation being a modeni invention j but they
. _ were undoubtedly acquainted with the ufe of the better
j j oil varmihes, that is, with the ufe and effedt of refmOus
Whether gums diffolved in boiling infpiffated oils,
the ancients One of the belt prelerved mummies in the Erititl}
pa nted in Mufeum has an aitoniihing t)righfnefs of colours on the
oulfide of the coftin. Thoufands of years have not im¬
paired them j they are as frefh as if they had been laid
on yefterday.
The chalk ground, and the excellency of the colours,
fome of which imply a good deal of chemical and metal¬
lurgical knowledge, do not lufliciently account for their
fplendour and frelhnefs : it muff be owing to other cir-
cumitances j either to the mixture of fliining colours,
or to a hard glohy fkin, which vihbly covets them all
over. '
From an accurate examination of one of thofe mum¬
mies belonging to the univerfity of Cambridge, it ap¬
peared, that the varnifli which covered the colours could'
not be diffolved, or in the lead affedled by common water 5
and that it equally refilled the diffblving power of the
ftrongeff fpirits: hence it is reafonable to conclude that
the coffins of the mummies were not covered with fize,
white of eggs, fimple gums, or any preparation of wax,
but with a fine tranfpa'rent oil varniih. It was difcovered
at the fame time, that the colours themfelves were not
prepared or mixed with oil y for where the external gloffy
Ikin was damaged, broken, or rubbed off, even common
water wmuld wafh the colours away, and affedl the chalk
ground under them.
Pliny has defcribed the general and particular effefls
of the varnifh of Apelles, under the name of atramentu?n,
fo indillin£tly,that nobody can diflinguifh the thing or the
mixture he is fpeaking of. He has mentioned the fliin-
ing gloffy fkin of the varnifh which excites the bright-
nefs of the colours, and preferves them againft duff 5 he
obferved, that this fkin was laid on fo thin, that it could
not be difccrned at any diflance: nor was he left accurate
in reporting the particular effeffs of that mixture which
Apelles made ufe of •, it harmonized and lowered the tone
of the brighteft florid colours in an imperceptible manner,
and the whole appeared as if it had been feen through
ifinglafs. The chemifls and connoiffeurs are fully of
opinion, that no liquid fubflnnce or mixture of any kind
is fit to produce thefe effects befides the oil varnifhes :
and if there are not, Apelles and the Greeks were cer¬
tainly acquainted with thofe varnifhes: a faff which
plight be ftrongly urged in behalf of their knowledge of
oil colours.
The black outlines of the figures on the moft ancient
Greek paintings yet extant, that is, on Etrufcan vafes,
are fo fharp, fo thick, and drawn in fo eafy and mafterly
a manner, that onp cannot help looking upon them as
having been drawn in oil colours. Had they been in
diftemper or water colours on the red clay ground on
which they are applied, they would have been imbibed
and foaked into it. Our china and enamel painters pre¬
pare and apply their colours with fpikc or other'liquid
oils; and the Greek matters feem to have done the fame,
unlefs they fliould appear to have burnt their vafes be¬
fore they painted them, or to have ufed a mixture of
diffqlved wax or gum for giving a body to their colours,
which might have anfwered the fame ends as oils. And
tins is the more probable, as there is feme .jreafon to be-
TING. . 63f
lieve that thefe vafes went through two different fires, Rife, Prc-
that of baking them, and that of imelting or burning in £reT aiK*
their colours. , D<::c^ine- t
The Greek and Roman paintings that have been pre-
ferved or difcovered at Rome and Herculaneum do not
countenance the fjppofition of oil colours j at leaft Turn-
bull and the academifts at Naples, who have defcribed
the royal colleftion at Portici, Cochin, and many other
authors who have feen and defcribed them, do not hint
any thing of that nature. On the other hand, Vitruvius,
who has left us fo many valuable notices of the ancient
arts, acquaints us, that there was a kind of painting which ‘
ahfolutely required a mixture of oil : And Pliny, to the
fame purpofc, exprefsly fays, “ Sun and moon fhine are
inimical and obnoxious to red lead. The remedy is to
apply the red wax when hot and melted with fome
oil on the well dried walls, which is to be done with
bru flies.”
From thefe obfervations, the evidence which the an¬
cients have given us in behalf of themfelves, and of their
knowledge of oil painting, may be fummed up in few
words.
Their having been acquainted with the white chalk
ground, which many modern mafters have ufed for oil
painting on boards, proves no more than that the an¬
cients might have done the fame.
ffhe oil vamiihes ufed by the Egyptians and by If
pelles might have brought them to the difeovery of oil
painting ; but as it appears both from mummies and
from the works of Pliny, that their colours were not
prepared and mixed with that varnifh, and. as it is plain
rather that this varnifh was externally laid over the
finifhed pictures ; no other conclufion can be drawn, ex¬
cept that they were within fight of the difeovery, and
that it is a matter of wonder that they fliould not have
laid hold of it.
The outlines of the old Greek or Etrufcan vafes arc
merely fallacious appearances.
The old Greek and Roman paintings on walls and
Hones are either painted in diftemper and frefco, or they
have not been fufficiently examined.
The oil ufed in the coarfer wax and wall paintings
proves at moft that experiments had been tried with
oils : but we have no direct proofs of oil painting ha-
bing been underftood or ufed by the Egyptians, Greeks,
or Romans ; and that, however great their {kill or in¬
genuity, they might very well have been within fight
and reach of the difeovery, and neverthelcfs have miffed
r . . . . m
xhe art ot painting was revived in Europe about the Rife, pro-
end of the 13th or beginning of the rqth century. The.grcG anT
human mind, however, plunged in profound ignorance, oi:
was deftitute of every principle of found philofophy which -
might enable it to determine on the objefls of the arts;
and of confequence the painters contented themfelves with
works adapted to the general tafte, without beauty and
without proportion. In Italy, where the firft attempts ■
were made, they were employed in reprefenting the my-
ftcries of the pajjion, and fubje&s of a fimilar nature, on.
the walls of chapels and churches. Their labours were
direfled to a vaft number of figures, rather than to the
beauty and perfeflion of each ; and the art in more mo¬
dern times has always preferved fome what of this abfurd '
fault which it contra fled at that early period. The artift
in our times is not, like thofe in Greece, at liberty to
devote .
632 PAIN
Rife, Pro- devote his talents only to men of knowledge and difcern-
greb, and ment . he is conftrained to pleafe thofe who are rich, and
^ Decline. yery frequently thofe who are ignorant. Inftead of pro-
pofmg to himfelf the perfettion of the art as the great ob-
je6t of his purfuit, he mult reft his fuccefs and charaifter
on the facility of his operation and the abundance of his
•■works.
Painting did not long continue in the imperfect con*
•dition in which it was left by thofe who firft cultivated
it among the moderns. It was natural that their fuccef-
fors ftiould endeavour to furpafs them by joining fome de¬
gree of theory to the barbarous praftice they had adop¬
ted. The firft thing which they difcovered, or rather
which they revived after the manner of the ancients, was
.perfpedftive. This made the artifts capable of exprefling
what is called forejhortehing, and of giving more effe£t
and more truth to their works.
Dominique Ghirlandaios, a Florentine, was the firft
who enriched the ftyle of his compofition by grouping
his figures, and who gave depth to his pidhires, by di-
ftinguifhing, by exaft gradations, the fpaces which his
figures occupied 5 but his fucceffors have far furpaffed
him in boldnefs of compofition.
Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Giorgian, Ti¬
tian, Bartholomew de St Marc, and Raphael, ftourilhed
about the end of the 14th century. Leonardo da Vinci
was the inventor of a great many details in the art: Mi¬
chael Angelo, by ftudying the ancients, and by his
knowledge of anatomy, arriVed at great elegance in
drawing the outlines of his figures: Giorgian enriched
the art in general, and gave greater brilliancy to his
colours than his predeceffors : Titian, by a careful imi¬
tation of nature, made great pnoficiency in the truth and
q^erfebtion of his tones: Bartholomew' de St Marc ftudied
particularly the part of drapery, and difcovered the claro
obfcuro, the beft manner of giving drapery to his figures,
and of making the naked to be felt even where they wrere
covered: Raphael, endowed with a fuperior genius, began
with ftudying carefully all his predeceffors and all his
contemporaries. He united in himfelf all the excellen¬
cies which they poffeffed •, and formed a ftyle more per¬
fect and more univerfal than any painter who wTent before
or wrho has fucceeded him. But w’hile he excelled in
every part of the art, he was chiefly fuperior in thofe of'in-
vention and of compofition. It is probable that the Greeks
themfelves wrould have been filled with admiration if they
had beheld his chief pieces in the Vatican, where to the
greateft abundance of paintings is joined fo much perfec¬
tion, and purity, and eafe.
After painting had arrived at the greateft perfe&ion
among the Greeks by the exertions of Zeuxis and
Parrhafius, Apelles found nothing to add to the art
except grace j in the fame manner among the moderns,
after Raphael had appeared, grace was the only thing
wanting to the art, and Corregio became the Apelles
of Europe. Painting wras by him carried to the high-
eft degree among the moderns the tafte of the beft
critics and the eye of the vulgar tvere equally gratified.
After thefe great mafters a confiderable interval elap-
fed till the time of the Caracci. Thofe artifts, born at
Bologna, by ftudying the w7orks of their predeceffors
with great care, and particularly thofe of Corregio, be¬
came the firft and the moft celebrated of their imitators.
Jiannibal poffeffed a very corredl defign, and united
TING. IMory.
fomew'hat of the ancient ftyle to that of Lewis his bro- Rife, P10-
ther j but he neglected to inquire into the intricate prin- ar'd
ciples and philofophy of the art. The pupils of the Ca- ^.
racci formed a fchool after their manner j but Guido, a
painter of an eafy and happy talent, formed a ftyle alto¬
gether graceful, and rich, and eafy. Guerfhen formed
after Caravagio, or invented himielf, a particular ftyle
of the claro-obfcuro, compofed of ftrong ftiades and vivid
oppofitions.
Peter de Cortone fucceeded thofe great imitators of
their predeceffors and of nature j who finding it difficult
to fucceed in that kind of painting, and having befides
great natural abilities, applied himfelf chiefly to compo¬
fition or arrangement, and to what the artifts call tafte.
He diftinguifhed invention from compofition •, appeared
not to have attended to the former, but chiefly to thofe
parts which are moft prominent in the pidlure, and to the
contrafting of groups. It wTas then that the praftice was
introduced of loading pi&ures with a great number of
figures, without examining whether or not they agreed
to the fubjeef of the hiftory. The ancient Greeks em¬
ployed a very fmall number of figures in their works, in
order to make the perfedlion of thofe which they admit¬
ted more evident. The difciples or imitators of Cortona,
on the Other hand, have fought to conceal their imper-
feftions by multiplying their figures. This fchool of
Cortona is divided into many branches, and has changed
the charafter of the art. The multiplication of figures,
without a judicious and proper choice, carried back the
art of painting to that point wThere the firft reftorers of
it among the moderns had left it; while at the fame time
the difciples of Cortona were enabled to give to this firft
condition of the art a greater degree of perfettion than
the firft artifts.
About the middle of the J 7th century flourilhed at.
Rome Carlo Maratti, who, aiming at the greateft per¬
fettion, carefully ftudied the wrorks of the firft painters,
and particularly thofe of the fchool of the Caracci.
Although he had already ftudied nature, he difcovered
by the w'orks of thefe artifts that it is not always proper
to imitate her with a fcrupulous exattnefs. This prin¬
ciple, which he extended to every part of the art, gave
to his fchool a certain ftyle of carefulnefs, which however
is confiderably degenerated.
France has alfo produced great mafters, particularly
in the part of compofition ; in which Pouffin, after Ra¬
phael, is the beft imitator of the ftyle of the ancient
Greeks. Charles le Brun and many others diftinguifh¬
ed themfelves for great fertility of genius : and as long
as the French fchool departed not from the principles of
the Italian fchool, it produced mafters of great merit in
the different branches of the art.
Mengs, from w’hom this account is taken, is not de¬
ceived when he declares the art of painting to have de¬
generated in France after Le Brun ; but he feems to be
miftaken in giving the imitation of the works of Rubens
found at Paris as the caufe of this decay. It appears from
this opinion, that the recent French fchool was not well
known to him. The French, indeed, if wre may believe
their own authors, were never much occupied in the imi¬
tation of Rubens j and they have for a long time defpifed
him. But the perfettion of the dramatic art in France,
the drefs of their attors, the magnificence and manners
of the court, have contributed very much to the decay of
painting.
Hiftory. PAIN
Rife, Pro- painting. In#ead of forming tlieir tafte on the beautiful
grefs, and fimplicity of nature, their painters ftudied the geflures and
, Recime. a|-^ju(jes Gf comedians, the fopperies of women of fa-
fhion, the affedled airs of courtiers, the pageantry of Ver-
failles, and the magnificence of the opera. Mengs fays,
“ that the French have formed a national flyle, of which
ingenuity and what they call efprit are the difcriminaling
qualities j that they have ceafed to introduce Greek, Egyp¬
tian, Homan, or barbarian perfonages into their paintings;
and that after the example of Poullin, they content them-
felves with figures altogether French, as if it were their
intention to hand down to pofterity that fuch a nation
once exifted.”
Since, according to the confeffion of Mengs, their
figures are altogether French, there is no reafon to be¬
lieve that the French painters have imitated Rubens,
whofe works are marked much more llrongly than thofe
of his mafter Abacus with the Flemifli charadler. The
truth is, that their painters, like Cortona and Maratti,
have crowded their pictures with a great number of
figures ; have grouped them in a manner moll calcula¬
ted to flrike the fenfes 5 have been more intent on agree¬
able artifices than expreflion and beauty 5 and, finally,
that they have borrowed the manners of tire court and
theatre.
The firft mailers of the great fchools of painting, with
the ancients and nature for their guides, and their genius
for their fupport, carried every part of the art to the
greatell height of perfection. Thofe who followed them,
and who had the example of their predecefibrs in addi¬
tion to the firlt fources of truth and beauty, did by no
means arrive at the fame excellence. The Caraccis in
their fchool, Paul Veronefe, and all the painters of his
time, Vandyke, and all thofe who exercifed the art in
Italy, in Flanders, and in France, fupported it with great
brilliancy. But foon after the number of artills was
multiplied 5 and ilavifhly copying men of inferior talents,
they produced works of an inferior nature. Some want¬
ing to be colourills, their pieces were exaggerated j others
affedling fimplicity, became cold and inlipid. At this
period of the art, men of real abilities, and covetous of
fame, who wifhed to rife fuperior to the mediocrity of
the times, feem not to have taken the road of truth and
nature. They affiedled a ftyle of pompous preparation,
and annexed a kind of merit to the expert management
of the pencil. The afi'edled forms of Cortona and of his
pupils, the fantallical attitudes and the poignant effedls
of Piazetta, and in Ihort the ingenious contrivances of the
lalt mailers of the French fchool, are decided proofs of
this increafing bad tafte.
It appears, that for fome time pall greater pains have
been taken to form men for the art than to encourage
thofe who poffefs the talent. In confequence of this
ruinous praftice, fchools for drawing, very different from
thole formed by able painters, have been exceedingly
multiplied 5 and thefe give the elements according to an
.uniform fyllem, by which the mind is laid under a regu¬
lar rellraint at the very threlholdof the profeffion. This
evil is produdlive of two inconveniences j it gives mid¬
dling painters, and it multiplies them to that degree, as
to hallen the downfall and bring into contempt the art
itfelf.
The particular reputation of the Italian painters fur-
nilhes another reafon for the decline of the art. The
firll painters of that country were few in number ; they
VoL. XV. Part II.
TING. ' 633
were honoured, and they deferved to be honoured. Their RFe, Pro-
diilinguilhed reputation has conferred a value on the ge- Sre1^ an<J
neral paintings oi their countrymen. 1 lie Genre ox poi- ^ ^
felling talle, or of being thought to poffefs it, had led the
rich and the ignorant of all nations to give a preference
to the Italian market. Neceffity, in this cafe, wTould
multiply the painters ; and their abilities mull bear a
pretty exadl proportion to the diferimination of thofe
who give the price.
The decline of painting has alfo arifen from the defpo-
tifm which for fome time reigned in the academic focie-
ties. In fadl, thefe have often been ruled by men who
would force every exertion of genius into their peculiar
tracl of operation. If they required fuch or fuch merit
of execution, thi firll principles of the art were neglect¬
ed for that peculiar excellency. In this manner the
fchools were abfolute in behalf of defign as long as lla-
tuary was held in chief eilimation. The artiil, whofe
abilities and inclination led him to colouring, was ob¬
liged to abandon a purfuit which could be of no fervice
to him, and devote himfelf to that for which he was not
qualified by nature. On the other hand, if the inftruc-
tions of the fchools be confined to colouring, a mind dif-
pofed to the choice and exadlnefs of forms will find no
encouragement, and be for ever loll to the art. In this
manner the ignorance of thofe who with to be connoif-
feurs, and the narrow views of thofe who pretend to direft
the general talle, have equally contributed to the decline
of the arts.
Sect. II. Of the Schools.
A School, in the fine arts, denominates a clafs of
artifts who have learned their art from a certain mailer,
either by receiving his inliruclions, or by lludying his
works •, and who of confequence difeover more or lefs
of his manner, from the defire of imitation, or from the
habit of adopting his principles.
All the painters which Europe h?,s produced fince
the renovation of the arts are claffed under the following
fchools : the fchool of Florence, the Ichool of Rome, the
fchool of Venice, the Lombard Ichool, the French fchool,
the German fchool, the Flemilh fchool, the Dutch fchool,
and the Englilh fchool. 13
This fchool is remarkable for greatnefs *, for attitudes School of
feemingly in motion 3 for a certain dark feverity 3 for an. Fkrcucv.
expreffion of llrength, by which grace perhaps is exclud¬
ed 3 and for a charafler of delign approaching to the
gigantic. The productions of this fchool may be con-
fidered as overcharged 3 but it cannot be denied that they
poffefs an ideal majelty, which elevates human nature^
above mortality. The Tufcan artills, fatisfied with com¬
manding the admiration, feem to have confidered the art
of pleafing as beneath their notice.
This fchool has an indifputable title to the veneration
of all the lovers of the arts, as the firft in Italy which
cultivated them.
Painting, which had languifhed from the deftruclion
of the Roman empire, was revised by Cimabue, born of
a noble family in Florence in the year 1240. This painter
tranflated the poor remains of the art from a Greek artift
or two into his own country. His works, as may eafily
be imagined, were in a very ordinary ftyle, but they re¬
ceived the applaufe and admiration of his fellow-citizens 3
and if £imabue had not found admirers, Florence in all
4 L probability
634 P AIN
Schools, probability would not bare been honoured wit a Michael
1  — Angelo. " The number of painters became foon fo con-
fiderable in Florence, that in the year 1350 they eilab-
lifhed a fociety under the proteftion of St Luke.
Maffolino, towards the beginning of the 15th century,
gave more grandeur to his figures, adjufled their drefs bet¬
ter, and fired over them a kind of life and expreflion. He
was furpaffed by Maffacio his pupil j whofirft gave force,
animation, and relievo to his works.
Andrew Caftagna was the firft Florentine who painted
in oil. But Leonardo da .Vinci and Michael Angelo con¬
temporary painters,, were the glory 01 the fchool of blo-
xence. Michael Angelo was fuperior to Leonardo m
grandeur, in boldnefs of conception, and in knowledge
of defign ; but Leonardo was fuperior to him in all the
amiable parts of the art. Leonardo, poffeiied of a fine
imagination, and full of fenfibility, devoted himfelf m
pointing to exprefs the aflechons of the foul a:id if, in
this fublime branch of the art, he was afterwards fuvpaf-
fed by Raphael, he had at leaft the glory not only of ex¬
ceeding all the painters who went befoie him, but of pur-
fifing a path which none of them had attempted. Flis
defign was pure and neat, and not wholly defiitute of
greatnefs. He never went beyond nature, and he made
a good choice of objefls for imitation.
Michael Angelo, lefs formed to experience fweet af-
fe ft ion s than vehement paffiens, fought nr nature u .rat
the ftrength of man might accomplish, not that which
conftitutes beauty. He delighted in being great and
terrible, more than in graceful and plealant attitudes.
Well acquainted with anatomy, he knew more exaftly
than any other artift in what manner to exprefs the join¬
ing of the bones of the body, and the office and infertion
oi the mufcles : but too eager to difplay his knowledge
of anatomy, he feems to have forgotten that the mufcles
are foftened by the {kin which covers them •, and that
they are lefs vifible in children, in women, and in young
men, than in confirmed and vigorous manhood. “ In
his figures (fays Mengs) the articulations of tire mufcles
are fo eaiy and free, that they appear to be made for the
attitude in which he reprefents them. The fleflry parts
are too much rounded, and the nrufcles are in general too
large, and of too equal ftrength. You never perceive in
Iris figures a mufcle at reft ; and although he knew ad¬
mirably well how to place them, their aftion is very fre¬
quently inconftftent with their ^rtuation.,
“ Fie did not poffefs (fays Sir Jofhua Reynolds) fo
marry delightful parts of the art as Raphael j bur thofe
which be had acquired were of a more fublime nature.
Fie faw in painting little more than what might be at¬
tained in fculpture 5 and be confined it to exa£lrtcfs of
form and the expreftion of paffions.”
He informs us, in one of his letters, that he modelled
in earth or wax all the figures which he intended to
paint. This method was familiar to the great painters
of his time, and ought never to be abandoned. It ap¬
pears, that in reprefenting them in this manner in re¬
lievo, tire painter can imitate them much more exactly
than when they are drawn with a crayon or pencil on a
plain furface.
“ Michael Angelo (continues Sir Jofhua Reynolds)
never attempted the leffer elegancies and graces in the
art. Vafari fays, he never painted but one jri&ure in
oil"; and refolved never to paint anotherfaying it was
an employment only fit for ■women and children.
T 1 N G. Hiftoiy.
“ If any man bad a right to look down upon the Schools,
lower accomplilhinents as beneath bis attention, it was v *
certainly Michael Angelo; nor can it be thought
ftrange, that fuch a mind firould have {lighted, or
have been withheld from paying due attention to all
thofe graces and embelliftrments of art which have dii-
fufed iuch luftre over tire works ofblher painters.
Ancient Rome, rich with the works brought from Roman
Greece, or fiuifiied in its own boiom by Grecian artuts,tdiooi.
banded down in its ruins the remains of that glory
to which it had been elevated. It was by the itudy
of tlrefe remains that the modern ar tills were formed :
they derived from them the knowledge of ddign, the
beauty of exquiftte forms, greatnefs of ftyle, and juitnefs
of expreflion, carried to that length only which did
not affect the beauty of the figure. From them alft>
they derived the principles of the art of drapery ; and ^
they followed thefe principles even while they made the
drapery of modern paintings more large and flowing
than what was piafilifed by the ancient iculptors.. lire
Roman fchool was altogether devoted to the principal
parts of the art, to thole which require genius and vaft
conceptions; and was no farther occupied with colours
than what was neceffary to eftabiiftr a difference be¬
tween painting and fculpture, or rather between paint¬
ing varied with colours and in claro-oblcuro.
’Raphael Sanzio, born at Urbino in 1483, and fcholar
to Pietro Perugeno, was the undoubted founder of tins
fclrool. His firft manner was that of Perugeno his
rnafter j but he travelled twice to Florence to ftudy the
great artifts who flouriflied in that city.
It was fortunate for Raphael, fays Mengs, that he
was born, in what he terms the infancy of the art,
and that he formed himfelf by copying nature before
he bad accefs to fee the works ot any great mafter.
He began by ftudying, with great exaftnefs, the Ample
truth in his figures. He was then ignorant that airy
choice was neceffary } but he faw the works of Leonar¬
do da Vinci, of Maffacio, and of Michael Angelo,
which gave bis genius a new direction. Alter this he^
perceived that there was fomething more in tne art o£
painting than a fimple imitation of truth. Lut the
works ' of thofe mailers were not fufficiently perfect
to point out the heft choice to maice \ and he conti¬
nued in uncertainty till he faw at Rome the works
of the ancients. Then he perceived that he had. found
the true models which he wanted j and in imitating
them he had only to follow the natural inrpulle of his
genius.
Habituated by bis firft manner to imitate nature
with precifion, it was not difficult to carry the fame
exaftnefs into the imitation of the ancients ; and it
was a great advantage to liurr that be irounflied in an
age wherein the artifts were not arrived at facility of
execution at the expence of rigorous exaclnefs. He
never loft fight of nature-, but he was inftru&ed(by
the ancients in what manner ftre ftrould be ftudied.
He perceived, that the Greeks bad not entered rmo
minute details, that they bad felecied what was great
or beautiful, and that one of the chief caufes ot the
beauty of their works was the regularity of their pro¬
portions ; he began, therefore, by carefully ftudyiirg^
this part of the art. He faw alfo that the joinings of
the bones, and the free play of their articulations,
are the caufes of all graceful movement: he there-
6s$
Schtols.
Iliftory. PAIN
Schools, fore, after tlie example of the ancients, gave the great-
e{|; attention to this part, and was led by thefe obferva-
tions not to be contented with the fimple imitation of
nature.
His defign is excellent, but neither fo perfedl nor
fo finifhed as that of the Greeks. He excelled in re-
prefenting the charafter of philofophers, apoftles, and
other figures of that kind •, but he did not equal the
Greeks in ideal figures, which ought to carry the im-
preflion of divinity. His tafte for defign was more
Homan than Greek, becaufe he formed it chiefly on
the baflo-relievos which he found at Rome. On this
account he had the habit of marking ftrongly the bones
and the articulations, and labouring the tlefhy parts
lefs; but as thefe ballo-relievos are very exact with
regard to the reciprocal proportions of every member,
fm excelled in this part, while at the fame time he did
not give to his figures all the elegance of the Greek
artifts, nor the flexibility of articulation which is ad¬
mired in the Laocoon, in the Apollo of Belvidere, and
in the Gladiator.
The manners and fpirit of his age, and the fubjefls
which he moft commonly treated, prevented him from
reaching the ideal of the ancients. Having feldom oc-
cafion to reprefent figures altogether ideal, he devoted
himfelf to purity of expreffion. He knew that the
expreflinn of the paflions of the foul is abfolutely ne-
ceffary in an art which reprefents the actions of men,
fmce from thofe affeclions the aftions may be faid
truly to originate. To make figures act, and yet ne-
glect the interior fprings of action, is nothing more
than a reprefentation of automata. The attitudes and
aftibn are evident •, but they appear not to aft of
themfelves, becaufe they are void of thofe principles
from which alone men are fuppofed to aft. An artift
who neglefts expreflion, gives no juft reprefentation of
charafter, even though he fhould take nature for his
model.
Raphael’s firfl care, when he wanted to compofe a
piece, was to weigh the expreflion ; that is to fay, to
eftablilh, according to the nature of the fubjeft, the
paffions which were to animate the charafters. All
the figures, all the acceffories, all the parts of the com-
pofition, were moulded to the general expreffion.
As he had not found examples in the ancient fla-
tues of the claro-obfcuro, he was comparatively weak
in this part; and if there was any thing remarkable in
his diftribution of light and fhade, he owed it to the
works of the Florentine painters. It cannot be faid,
however, even with regard to the claro-obfcuro, that
he imitated nature without tafte. He delighted in
what are called maffes of light; and difpofed the great
lights in the moft confpicuous places of his figures,
whether naked or in drapery. If this method did not
produce effects highly illufive, it gives his works that
diftinflnefs which makes his figures confpicuous at a
diftance ; and this muft be allowed to be an effiential
part of the art of painting. He did not proceed be¬
yond this; and content with that kind of claro-ob¬
fcuro which comprehends imitation, he never attempted
that which is ideal.
The compofition and the enfemble of his figures were
the chief excellencies of Raphael. His philofophical
mind could not be affecfed with objects which had not
exnreffiion. He had too high an idea of painting to
T i N G.
confider it as a mute art; he made it ffipeak to the 
heart and foul: and he could only do this in fubje&s 1 * *
which required expreffion. If Raphael did not reach
the Greek excellence, if he did not poflefs the art of
embelliftiing nature in the fame high degree, he faw at
leaft, and imitated her in whatever was expreffive and
beautiful. “ The Greeks failed with majefty (fays
Mengs) between earth and heaven : Raphael walked
with propriety on the earth.”
“ Compofition is in general (fays the fame author)
of two kinds : Raphael’s is the expreffive kind ; the
other is the theatrical or pifturefque, which confifts of
an agreeable difpofition of the figures. Lanfranc was
the inventor of this laft, and after him Pietro de Cor¬
tona. I give the preference to Raphael; becaufe rea-
fon prefides over all his works, or at leaft the grcateft
part of them. He never allowed himfelf in common
ideas, and was never allured to give any thing in his
acceffory figures which might turn the attention from the
principal objeft of the piece.”
A hiftory of the fchools is nothing more than a hi-
ftory of the painters who founded them. In thofe
two which we have already given, Michael Angelo and
Raphael come readily forward to claim our attention;
and therefore we cannot do better than conclude the
account by the mafterly contraft of thefe eminent
painters given by Sir Joftiua Reynolds. “ If we put
thofe great artifts (fays he) in a light of companion
with each other, Raphael had more tafte and fancy,
Michael Angelo more genius and imagination. The
one excelled in beauty, the other in energy. Michael
Angelo has more of the poetical in operation ; his
ideas are vaft and fablime ; his people are a fuperior
order of beings; there is nothing about them, no¬
thing in the air of their aflions, or their attitudes, or
the ftyle and caft of their limbs or features, that puts
one in mind of their belonging to our fpecies. Ra¬
phael’s imagination is not fo elevated ; his figures are
not fo much disjointed from our own diminutive race
of beings, though his ideas are chafte, noble, and of
great conformity to their fubjecls. Michael Angelo’s
works have a ftrong, peculiar, and marked character ;
they feem to proceed from his own mind entirely ; and
that mind fo rich and abundant, that he never needed,
or feemed to difdain, to look abroad for foreign help.
Raphael’s materials are generally borrowed, though
the noble ftru&ure is his own. The excellency of this
extraordinary man lay in the propriety, beauty, and
majefty of his charafters; his judicious contrivance of
compofition, correftnefs of drawing, purity of tafte,
and the Ikilful accommodation of other men’s concep¬
tions to Ids own purpofe.” t -
This fchool is the child of nature. The Venetian Venetian
painters not having under their eyes like the Reman fchcxffi
the remains of antiquity, were deftitute of the means
of forming a juft idea of the beauty of forms and of
expreffion. They copied without choice the .forms of
nature ; but they were chiefly delighted with the
beauties which prefented themfelves in the mixture
and the variety of natural colours. Their attention
not being detached from this part by any thing of
greater importance, colouring was their chief objeft,
and they fucceeded in it. They did not reft content¬
ed with charafterizing the objefts by comparifon, in
making the colour proper for one of more value by the
4 L 3 colour
636
Schools.
*
PAIN
colour more proper for another ; but they endeavoured
ftill father, by the agreement and oppofition of the
coloured objefts, and" by the contrail of light and
(hade, to produce a vigorous effedl, to demand and fix
the attention. Dommic, who was faid to have pe-
riihed at Florence by the jealoufy of Andre Caftagna,
and who was the fecond Italian artift who painted in oil,
had educated, before he quitted Venice, his native coun¬
try, Jacques Beilin, who was remarkable for nothing but
the pi&urefque education which he gave to Gentel and
John his two fons.
Gentel, who was the elded, painted chiefly in water
colours. John contributed much to the progrefs of his
art in painting conflantly in oil, and after nature. Al¬
though he always retained great fliffnefs in his manner,
he had lefs than his father or brother. Great neatnefs
of colouring, and an approach to harmony, are evi¬
dent in his works. His tade in defign is Gothic, the
air of his heads is fufficiently noble, his attitudes are
without judgement, and his figures without expreflion.
He had for fcholars Giorgion and Titian, who de-
ferve to be confidered as the founders of the \ enelian
fchool.
Giorgion didinguiihed himfelf by a defign'of a bet¬
ter tafle ’than that of his mailer; but he chiefly fur-
pafled him in colouring. He died in bis 3 2d year j
and excited the emulation of Titian, who foon greatly
excelled him.
Tiziano Vecelli, known bed by the name of Titian,
was indrufted to copy nature in the mod fervile man¬
ner in the fchool of John Beilin; but when he had
feen the works of Giorgion, he began to dudy the ideal
in colouring.
The truth of hidory is not to be expefled in his hi-
dorical paintings, or in thofe of the artids of the fame
fchool. He feems to have paid little attention to the
confidence of fcene, to the codume, to expreflion adapt¬
ed to the fubjecl, or, finally, to the accommodation of
parts which chara&erife the works of thofe who have
ftudied the ancients. He wTas in fliort a great painter
and nothing more.
But although he deferves not to be placed among
the mod diflinguifhed artids in point of judgement,
yet he is by no merdis deditute of great and noble con¬
ceptions. There is often to be found among his male
figures a confiderable degree of grandeur : but if he has
fometimes, like Michael Angelo, overcharged his de¬
fign, it was more difcovered in the Iwelling of the folt
and flefliy parts than in vigour and mufcular drength.
Almod entirely devoted to Ample imitation, he had
fcarcely greater choice in the claro-obfcuro than in de¬
fign. He cannot be juflly reproached at the fame
time for weaknefs in this- particular 5 becaufe in endea¬
vouring to imitate the colours of nature, he was obliged
to obferve the degrees of light. And in proportion
as he fucceeded in the imitation of natural colours he
mud be lefs defeftive in the claro obfcuro; but it is
not in the knowledge of this part of the art that we
are to feek for the beauties of his works. Thefe are
to be found in the happy difpofitions of colours both
proper and local, and he carries this to the highefl point
of perfedlion.
The artifls in the Florentine and Roman fchools
jpainted tnofl commonly in water qolours or in frefpo }
TING. Hiftory.
and in the exercife of their profeflion, inflcad of na- Schools. ^
ture, they finidied their works from their firfl {ketches. ""*•
Titian painted in oil, and finiflied from the objefts in
nature; and this pradlice, joined to his exquifite ta¬
lents, gave the greated truth to his colours. His be¬
ing a portrait painter w7as alfo of advantage to him as
a colourid. In this department he was accuflomed
to the colours of nature in carnations and draperies.
He w-as a landfcape-painter, and here alfo he took the
colours from nature. ' <
“ As Titian perceived (fays Mengs) that the oh-
jedls which are beautiful in nature have often a bad ef¬
fect in painting, he found it neceffary to make a choice
in the objedls of imitation 5 and he obferved, that
thefe wTere objedls of which the local colours were ex¬
tremely beautiful, which neVerthelefs were in a great
meafure dedroyed by the refledlion of light, by the
porofity of the body, and by different luminous tints,
&c. He perceived alfo, that in every objeft there
was an infinite number of half tints, which conducled
to the knowledge of harmony. In fliort, he obferved
in the objedls of nature, a particular agreement of
tranfparency, of opacity, of rudenefs, and of polifh, and
that all objecls didered in the degrees of their tints
and their fliades. It wTas in this diverfity he fought
the perfection of his art) and in the execution he mo¬
derated the effedl of natural colours. For example, in
a carnation which had many demi-tints, he confined
himfelf to one 5 and he employed even lefs than a demi-
tint, where there were few' in the natural objeft. By
this means he obtained a colouring exquifitely fine j and
in this part he was a great mailer, and deferves to be
carefully iludied.”
Titian has in general little expreflion in his piflures,
and he fometimes introduces figures wFich augment the
coldnefs of the piece •, for if it be true that the heads,
even in hillorical painting, ought to be fludied after na¬
ture, it is true alfo that an individual nature ought not
to be prefented, but one general and ideal. It is ne-
ceflary that they fliould be men, while they referable not
men we are accuftomed to fee. The painter fails in the
effeCt which he ought to produce, if, when he reprefents
Achilles, HeCtor, and Caefar, his perfonages are familiar
to our obfervation.
The colours of his paintings are fo mingled toge¬
ther, as to give no idea of the colours on his pallet;
which diftinguifhes him from Rubens, who placed his
colours one at the fide of another. It is impoflible to
fay, on the narroweft infpection, with what colours
he produced his tints. This pradice, which enabled
hiin to imitate fo exaCtly the colours of nature, gives
a marked diftindtion to his manner of painting. In
the examination of his wanks, the critics lofe an ordi¬
nary fource of pleafure, which arifes from marking
the freedom of hand ; but they may confole them-
felves with the natural and exquifite touches of this
artift. /
He is of hiftorical painters one of thofe who have
fucceeded in landfcape. His fituations are well chofen ;
his trees are varied in their forms, and their foliage well
conceived. He had a cuftom of reprefenting fome re¬
markable appearance in his landfcapes to render them
more ftriking.
The diftinguithing charaCIeriftics of this fchool are, Lomparti
grace, fchoof
Hiftory. PAIN
Schools, grace, an agreeable tafle for Jefign, without great cor-
1 v reclion, a mellownefs of pencil, and a beautiful mix¬
ture of colours.
Antonio Allegri, called Corregio, was the father and
greateft ornament of this fchool. He began like the
painters of his time to imitate nature alone j but, as he
was chiefly delighted with the graceful, he was care¬
ful to purify his deflgn from all ihort turnings and un-
neceffary angles. He perceived that largenels contri¬
buted to grace ; and therefore he not only rejefted all
fmall fip-ure®, but enlarged as much as poflible the out¬
lines, avoided acute angles and ftraight lines, and by
thefe means gave an eafy grandeur to his defign. He
made his figures elegant and large ; he varied the out¬
lines by frequent undulations •> but he was not always
pure and correft.
Corregio painted in oil, a kind of painting fufcep-
tible of the greateft delicacy and fweetnefs; and as
his character" led him to cultivate the agreeable, he
gave a pleafing captivating tone to all his pictures.
He fought tranfparent colours to reprefent fhades con¬
formable to nature, and adopted a manner of glazing
which actually rendered his lhadows more obfcure.
Obfcurity in painting cannot be fully obtained without
traniparent colours; for thefe abforb the rays of light,
and of confequence give lefs refleftion. He laid his co¬
lours very thick on the brighteft parts of his pictures, to
make them capable of receiving, by a proper touch, the
greateft degree of light. He perceived, that the reflec¬
tions of light correfpond with the colour of the body
from which they are reflected ; and on thefe principles
he founded his theory of colours with refpeft to light
and (hade and reflection. But it is chiefly in the co¬
lour of his fhades that he deferves to be imitated ; for
his lights are too clear, and fomewhat heavy'5 and his
flefhy parts are not fufliciently tranfparent.
Harmony and grace are connected together ; and
on this account Corregio excelled alfo in harmony.
As the delicacy of his tafte fullered him not to em¬
ploy ftrong oppofitions, he naturally became a great
mafter in this part, which chiefly confifts of eafy gra¬
dations from one extreme to another. He was har¬
monious in his defign, by making the lines which
formed the angles of the contour arched and undula¬
ted. But in the lights and fhades, he placed always
between the two extremes a fpace which ferved to
unite them, and to form a paffage from the one to
the other. The delicacy of his organs made him per¬
ceive, better than any other artift, what relief was
neceifary to the eye after a violent exertion; and he
was therefore careful to follow , a bold and prevailing
colour with a demi-tint, and to conduCl the eye of the
fpeClator, by an invifible gradation, to its ordinary
ftate of tenfion. In the fame manner (fays Mengs) does
agreeable and melting mufic pull one fo gently out of
fleep, that the awaking refembles enchantment more
than the difturbing of repofe. A delicate tafte in co¬
lours, a perfeft knowledge of the claro obfcuro, the
art of uniting light to light, and (hade to (hade, to¬
gether with that of detaching the objeCts from the
ground, inimitable, grave, and perfect harmony, were
the qualities which diftinguhhed Corregio from all
the painters, and placed him near the head of his pro-
feflion.
The Caracci, Lewis, Auguftin, and Hannibal, form-
637
TING.
ed what is called the fecand Lombard fchoof, which is Schools,
frequently diftinguiihed by the name of the fchool of *
Bologna.
Lewis was the mafter of the other two ; he had
ftudied the works of Titian and Paul Veronefe at Ve¬
nice, tbofe of Andre del Sarle at Florence, thole of
Corregio at Parma, and thofe of Jules jloinaen at
Mantua 5 but he chiefly endeavoured to imitate the
manner of Corregio. Hannibal fluctuated between Cor¬
regio and Titian. Auguftin their rival in painting had
his mind cultivated by learning, and devoted part of
his time to poetry and muftc, to dancing and to other
manly exercifes. Thefe three painters often employed
their talents on the fame piece j and it was admirable
that their united labours feemed to be animated with the
fame fpirit.
They eftabliihed an academy at Bologna, which their
zeal for the advancement of their art made them call
l'Academia degli Defderoji; but it was afterward called
the Academy of the Caracci, becaufe the reputation which
thefe artifts acquired, permitted not a more illuftrious
name to be given to an eftablifliment of which they
were the founders. In this fchool were taught the art
of conftructing models, perfpeClive, and anatomy j lef-
fons were given on the beautiful proportions of nature,,
on the beft manner of ufing colours, and on the princi¬
ples of light and iliade. They held frequent conferen¬
ces, in which not only artifts, but men of general know¬
ledge, were permitted to elucidate points relative to the
art of painting : but they were feparated upon Hanni¬
bal’s going to Home to adorn the gallery of the cardinal
Farneie.
The works of the Caracci are often, from the refem-
blance of their manner, confounded together ; efpecial-
ly thofe which were finished previous to the refidence of
Hannibal at Rome. Meanwhile each of them has a de¬
cided charafler diitmft from the other two. Lewis had
lefs fire, but more of gracefulnefs and grandeur; Au¬
guftin had more fpirit in his conception, and more plea-
fantnefs in his execution : Hannibal* is characterized by
boldnefs, by a defign more profound, by an expreflion
more lucky, and by an execution more folid.
Sir Jofhua Reynolds, who law the works of Lewis at
Bologna, holds him out in his difeourfes as the beft mo¬
del for what is calledfijle in painting ; which is the fa¬
culty of difpofmg colours in fuch a manner as to exprefs
our fentiments and ideas. “ Lodovico Caracci,” fays
he, “ (1 mean in his beft works) appears to me to ap¬
proach the neareft to perfection. His unaffected breadth
of light and (liadow, the fimplicity of colouring, which,
holding its proper rank, does not draw aside the lead.,
part of the attention from the fubjedt, and the foie mu ~
effeft of that twilight which feems diffufed over his pic¬
tures, appears to me to correfpond with grave and dig¬
nified fubietts better than the more artificial brillian-
enlightens
the pictures of Ti- -
cy of funfhine w
tian.”
Hannibal is efteemed by the beft judges as a model
for beauty and defign. Thofe who blame him' for be¬
coming lefs a colourift at Rome, than he was at Bologna,
ought to recollect that it is his performances at Rome
which have chiefly fecutred his reputation. Severe cri¬
tics have maintained that his defign is too little varied
in his figures ; that he excels only in male beauty ; that
in imitating ancient ftatues, he excites fome refcmblance,
but
;
8
P A* I N
Schools.
but without arriving at the fablimily of ideas and of
ityle which characterize Uie ancientsor, in other
words, that he hath fuccefsfully imitated the exterior of
their manner, but that he was incapable of reaching the
interior and profound reafonings which determined thofe
admirable artifts.
The fuccefs of Hannibal, and the reputation which
he acquired, have been pernicious to the art. His fuc-
ceffors, deluded by thefe confiderations, have made him
the object of their imitation, without afcending to the
Sources from which he derived his knowledge, and which
he never could equal. The refult has been, that, in-
Itead of becoming equal to Hannibal, they have oiten
copied his imperfections.
The t rench This fchool has been fo different under different ma-
ichool. ffers,. that it is difficult to characterize it. Some of its
artiits have been formed on the Florentine and Lombard
manner, others on the Roman, others on the Venetian,
and a few of them have diftinguithed themfelves by. a
manner which may be called their own. In fpeaking in
general terms of this fchool, it appears to have no pecu¬
liar character ; and it can only be diftinguilhed by its
aptitude to imitate eafily any impreffion ; and it may be
added, fpeaking ttill in general terms, that it unites, in
a moderate degree, the different parts of the art, with¬
out excelling in any one of them.
It is equally difficult to determine the progrefs of
painting in France. Miniature painting, and painting
on glafs, were early cultivated in that country 5 and in
thefe two kinds, the Italians had often recourfe to the
French artifts. When Francis I. encouraged Roffo a
Florentine, and Primatice a Eolognian, the painters in
France were not remarkable for any fuperior talent }
but they were capable of working under thefe foreign
artifts.
Coufin, a painter on glafs, and portrait-painter, was
the firft who eftablithed any kind of reputation in
France. He was correCt, but poffeffed very little ele¬
gance of defign.
Painting, for fome time encouraged by Francis I.
fell into a ftate of languor, from which it was not reco¬
vered till the reign of Louis XIII. Jacques Blanchard,
formed at the Venetian fchool, and called the French
Titian, flouriffied about this period. But as he died
young, and without educating any pupils to perpetuate
his manner, he muft be regarded as a fingle good artift,
and not as a founder of the French fchool.
In the fame manner Pouffin, one of the greateft
French painters, and who is called the Raphael cj
France, educated no pupils, nor formed any fchool.
His ftyle and charadkr of painting are defcribed by Sir
Joffiua Reynolds as fimple, careful, pure, and corredl.
No works of any modern (adds the fame author) have
fo much of the air of antique painting as thofe of Pouf-
fm. His beft performances have a remarkable drynefs
of manner, which, though by no means to be recom¬
mended for imitation, yet feems perfeftly correfpondent
to that ancient fimplicity which diftinguifties his ftyle.
In the latter part of his life he changed from this
T I N G. Hiftory.
manner to one much fofter and richer j where there is Schools,
a greater union between the figures and the ground. v J
His favourite fubjecls were ancient fables $■ and no paint¬
er whs ever better qualified to paint fuch objects, not
only from his being eminently {killed in the knowledge
of the ceremonies, cuftoms, and habits of the ancients,
but from his being lo well acquainted with the different
characters which thofe who invented them gave their al¬
legorical figures.
If Pouffin, in the imitation of the ancients, reprefents
Apollo driving his chariot out of the fea by way of re-
prefenting the fun rifing, if he perfonifies lakes and ri¬
vers, it is no way offenfive in him, but feems perfeftly
of a piece with the general air of the pidlure. On the
contrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a
modern air or countenance, if they appeared like our
countrymen, if the draperies were like cloth or filk of
our manufacture, if the landfcape had the appearance of
a modem view, howr ridiculous would Apollo appear ?
inftead of the fun, an old man j or a nymph with an
urn, ihftead of a river or a lake.
Pcuffiri, how’ever, more admired than imitated, had
no manner of influence in forming the French fchool.
Simon Vouet, his enemy and perfecutor, had this ho¬
nour, becaufe his pupils, in the happy age of the arts in
France, conferred on it the higheft fplendor. Vouet
was a man of diftinguiffied abilities; but the fchool
which he ereCled would have had no continuance if his
fcholars had purfued his manner of painting. He had a
kind of grandeur and facility j but his defign was falfe
with regard to colours, and without any idea of expref-
fion. It wras faid of him, that he only needed to take
the pencil in his hand to finifh with one ftroke the fub-
jeft which he had conceived j and on this account one
is tempted to be pleafed, becaufe he is aftonifhed. He
had the merit of deftroying the infipid manner which
reigned in France, and of pointing the way to a better
tafte.
If Vouet laid the foundation of the French fchool,
Le Brun finifhed the edifice. When Le Brun rvas pla¬
ced under the tuition of Vouet, he aftoniflied his mafter
and the reft of his pupils with the rapidity of his pro¬
grefs. At the age of 26 he finilhed his piece called
the horfes of Diomede, which gained a place in the pa¬
lace royal (a), befide thofe of the moft eminent pain¬
ters. Fie wras afterwards recommended to Pouffin ; but
the young artift was more difpofed by his natural incli¬
nations to that modern part of the art which is called
the great machine, than to the profound and ftudied
manner of the Greek artifts. Pouffin at the fame time
was of great fervice to him, in recommending to his
ftudy the monuments, the cuftoms, the drefs of the an¬
cients j their architecture, their rites, their fpeftacles
their exercifes, their combats, and their triumphs.
Le Brun had a noble conception and a fruitful imagi¬
nation. He wTas on no occafion inferior to the vaft com-
pofilions which he undertook, and he chiefly excelled
in rigorous coftume and exact likeneffes.
Few painters have united lb great a number of effen-
tial
(a) Where it may now' be is uncertain. Perhaps it perifned during the revolutionary frenzy of the French,
which at firft threatened the utter deftruction of every thing connected with fcience or the liberal arts.
2
Hiftory. _ P A I N
Schools, tial qualities and acceiTories of the art j and if he had
—V  fupefiors, it conlifted in this, that they polfeffed feme
particular quality in a more eminent degree.—He was a
good drawer, but his defign was far from being fo ele¬
gant as that of Raphael, or fo pure as that of Dome-
nique, arid it was lei's lively than that of Hannibal Ca-
racci, whom he had taken for a model. In drapery he
followed the Roman fchool : the clothes which- he gave
to his figures were not like thofe of the Venetian fchool,
of fuch and fuch a fluff j they were draperies and no-
thino- more, and this manner agreed with the heroic
ftyle'of his works; but in this part he was not equal to
the painter of Urbino.—He had iiudied the expreflipn
of the affections of the foul, as is evident from his trea-
tife on the character of the paflions : but after obferving
the general characters, and edablifiling the principal
ftrokes of expreffion, he thought he reached the whole
extent of this fubjedt, which is fo infinitely extenued.
He always employed the few charafters which he had
once found out, and neglected to ftudy the prodigious
variety of gradations by which the interior affeftions are
manifeded in the exterior appearance. He fell then in¬
to the manner of repeating always ; and poffeffed nei¬
ther the delicacy, nor the depth, nor the extreme juft-
nefs, of Raphael’s expreffion. He loved and poffeffed
in a high degree the grand machine of the art ; he was
delighted with great compofitions ; and he gave them
life,° and animation, and variety ; but he wanted the vi¬
gour -and infpiraticn of Raphael. His compofilions are
formed on philofophical principles, but thofe of Raphael
are created. Le Brun thought well; Raphael, Pouflin,
l.e Sueur, thought moil profoundly.— Le Brun had ele¬
vation, but he was not elevated like Raphael, to the fu-
blime.
In colouring, Le Brun did not imitate the painters of
the Venetian fchool. The fweet attra&ions and ftrong
and folid colours of the fchools of Rome and Lombardy
feem rather to have been the objeft of his imitation; and
and from them alfo he learned an eafy, agreeable, and
bold management of the pencil. _ ^
As Le Brun poffeffed a great fhare of lively imagina¬
tion, be delighted in allegory, which gives the greateft
fcope for ingenious invention. The fecundity and re-
fources of his imagination appeared ftill farther, in his
inventing, fymbcls for his allegorical figures, without
relling contented with thofe employed by the ancients.
But fanciful reprefentations of this kind are dlffant from
the operations of true genius. Spirit and thought in tne
arts are very different from fpirit and thought m literary
produ&ions. A painter of moderate abilities may intro¬
duce into his works' a great deal of the inventxosi which
belongs to poetry without enriching his peculiar art.
The true fpirit of painting confifts in making the figures
appear in the very circumftances and attitudes in which
they are fuppofed to a cl, and penetrated with the fenti-
ments with which they ought to be affefled. By there
means the fpefrator is more certainly intereffed than if
the a6Hons and thoughts were reprefented by allegorical
iymbols. Pouffin appears to have lefs wafte of fpirit
and imagination than Le Brun, while at the fame time
he gives more delight to people of fpirit and imagina¬
tion.
Euftach le Sueur was the contempcrarv and rival of
Le Brun ; and no painter approached nearer to Raphael
in the art of drapery, and in difpofing the folds in the
T I N G.
<539
mod artful and the nobleft manner. His defign was in Schools,
general more fiender than that of Raphael, but, like his,
it was formed on the model of the ancients. Like Ra¬
phael he reprefented with art and precifionthe affections
of the foul; like him, he varied the air of the head, ac¬
cording to the condition, the age, and the character cl
his perfonages; and, like him, he made the different
parts of every figure contribute to the general effefl.
His intention in compofing was to exprefs bis iubjcct,
not to make fhining contrails or beautiful groups of fi¬
gures, not to ailonifh and bewitch the fpedlator by the
deceitful pomp of a theatrical feene, or the fplendor ot
the great machine. His tones are delicate, his tints
harmonious, and his colours, though not fo attradiive as
thofe of the fchools of Venice and Flanders, are yet en-
gaging. They Heal peaceably on the foul, and fix it
without diffraction on the parts of the art, fuperior to
that of colouring.
His pieaching of St Paul, and the pidlure which he
painted at St Gervais, which the critics compare with
the beft produdlions of the Roman fchool, and the 22
pidlures which he painted for the Carthufian mcnaftery at.
Paris, and which were formerly in pofleffion of the king,
are efteemed his beft pieces. His contemporaries af¬
firm, that he confidered as {ketches merely thofe excel¬
lent performances which are the glory of the b reach
fchool.
If Le Sueur had lived longer, or if, like Le Brun, he
had been employed under a court, fond of the arts, and
of learning, to execute the great works of the age, the
French fchool would have adopted a different and a bet¬
ter manner. The noble beauty of his heads, the fimple
majefty of his draperies the lightnefs of his defign, the
propriety of his expreffion and attitudes, and the fimpli-
city of his general difpofition, would have formed the
charafter of this fchool. The deceitful pomp of thea¬
trical decoration would have been more lately introdu¬
ced, or perhaps would never have appeared, and Paris
might have been the counterpart to Rome. But as Le
Brun, by an accidental concurrence of favourable cir¬
cumftances, was the fafhionable painter, to be Employed
or rewarded it was neceffary to imitate his manner ; and
as his imitators poffefted not his genius, his faults be¬
came not only current but more deformed.
The French fchool not long ago changed its princi¬
ples ; and if, when peace {hall be reftored to this un¬
happy nation, they continue to follow the road which,
while the artifts flourifhed among them, they marked
out for themfelves, they have the chance of becoming
the moll rigid obfervers of the laws impofed on the
Greek artifts. The count de Caylus, pupil of Bouchar-
dion, who by his rank and fortune had the means of en¬
couraging the imitators of the ancients, and of the ma¬
ilers of the 15th century, firlt formed the defign of re-
ftoring a pure tafte to the art of painting. He was fe-
conded by the talents of M. Vien, an artift w ho had on¬
ly occafion to have his leffons and his example la’d be¬
fore him.— In this manner commenced a revolu ■on, lb
much the more wonderful, as it was fcarcely ever known
that any nation fubftituted a fyftem of fimple and rigid
excellence in place of a falfe and glittering tafte. The
hiftory of all nations, on the contrary, diicovers a gra¬
dual progrefs from a rude beginning to perfection, and
afterwards to irremediable decay. The French pad the
profpeft of flopping Ihort in this ordinary courfe. They
>
64-0
PAINTING.
Hiflory.
Schools.
xS
The Ger-
begati in a manner which promifed fuccefs j and the beft
confequences may be expedted, from being in poffeflion of
thofe precious treafures of fculpture and painting of which
they plundered the countries fubdued by their arms.
In Germany there can hardly be faid to be a fchool,
man fchool. as it is a continuation of fingle artitts, who derived their
manner from different fources of originality and imita¬
tion. There were Ibme German painters of eminence,
when the art, emerging from its barbarous ftate, firft
began to be cultivated with fuccefs in Europe. As they
were totally unacquainted with the ancients, and had
fcarcelv accefs to the works of their contemporaries in
Italy, they copied nature alone, with the exception of
fomewhat of that ftiffnefs which forms the Gothic man¬
ner. It is this manner, if we fpeak of the early Ger¬
man painters, which characterizes their fchool. But
this is by no means the cafe with their fucceffors, part
of whom were educated in Flanders and part in Italy :
For if Mengs or Dietrich were comprehended in this
fchool, there would be nothing peculiar to its manner
difeovered in their works. And it is therefore neceffary
to confine our obfervations to the more ancient German
painters, in whom the pothic ftyle is confpicuous.
Albert Durer was the firft German -who cor reeled the
bad tafte of his countrymen. He excelled in engraving
as well as painting. His genius was fertile, his compo-
fitions varied, his thoughts ingenious, and his colours
brilliant. His works, though numerous, were finifhed
with great exaftnefs ; but as he owed every thing to his
genius, and as works of inferior merit were by the falfe
tafte of the times preferred to his, it was impoflible for
him altogether to avoid the faults of his predeceffcrs.
He is blamed for ftiffnefs and aridity in his outlines, for
little tafte or grandeur in his expreflion, for ignorance
of the coftume of aerial perfpeclive and of gradation of
colours; but he had carefully ftudied lineal perfpedlive,
architecture, and fortification.
John Holbeen or Holbein, nearly contemporary with
Albert Durer, painted in oil and water colours. He
excelled chiefly in hiftory and in portrait painting. His
colours are frefli and brilliant, and bis works are highly
finifhed ; but in his hiftorical fubjedts, his draperies are
not in fo good a tafte as thofe of Albert Durer.
The Flemifn fchool is recommended to the lovers of
the art by the difeovery, or at leaft the firft pradtice, of
oil painting. Van Mander gives us the account of this
wonderful difeovery in the following words : “ John
Van Eyck w-as fo excellent a chemift, that he difeover¬
ed a method of varniftiing his diftemper colours with a
varnifh, which was made of feme oils, and was very
pleafing on account of the glofs and luftre it gave them.
Many artifts in Italy had vainly attempted to find out
that fecret; they never hit on the true method. It hap¬
pened once that John, in his ufual manner, having high¬
ly finifhed one of his pidtures on boards, and having var-
nifhed it with his new invented vamifh, expofed it to
dry in the fun 5 but whether the boards rvere not well
joined, or whether the heat of the fun was too violent,
the boards fplit afunder and opened in the jundlures.
John faw with concern that his work was fpoiied, and
refolved to contrive fomething againft future accidents
of the fame kind. Being dlfgufted at diftemper painting
and varniftiing, he thought of a varnifh that might dry
without funfhine •, and having tried many oils and fub-
fiances, he found that linfeed and nut oil dried better
3
ip
The I le
mifli
fchool.
than any other. He boiled them with fome other drugs, Schools,
and produced the beft varnifh in the world. Ever bent
on improvements, he found, after much inquiry, that
colours mixed with thefe oils worked and dried extreme¬
ly well, and when dried would be water-proof. He ob-
ferved likewife, that thefe oils would animate and give
them a glofs and luftre without any farther varniftringd’
The truth, however, of this account is now very much
queftioned } and it is even proved by the manuferipts of
Theophilus Prefbyter, and alfo by lome old paintings in
England, that this method of painting was difeovered
long before the time of John Van Eyck. At the fame
time we admit, that John and his brother Hubert may
have been the firft who brought oil painting into gene¬
ral practice, not only by fliowing the excellence of which
it was fafceptible, but alfo by making feveral improve¬
ments on the art. And this is the more probable, from
the great reputation which their piifturcs acquired over
all Europe, by the foftnefs and delicacy of their colours.
The attention of the Italian painters was chiefly ex¬
cited, infcmuch that Antoine de MefTma performed a
journey into Flanders for the exprefs purpole of acquir¬
ing the confidence of John Van Eyck, and of difeover-
ing the fecret.
John de Bruges was the founder of painting as a pro-
feffion in Flanders 3 Peter Paul Rubens was the founder
of the art. This extraordinary perfon produced an im-
menfe number of works. He excelled equally in hifto¬
rical, portrait, and landfcape painting 3 in fruits, flow¬
ers, and in animals. He both invented and executed
with the greateft facility ; and to fliow the extent of his
powers, he frequently made a great number of fketches
on the fame fubjedt altogether difl'erent, without allow¬
ing any time to elapfe between them. The works of
Rubens were deftitute of that foft infpiration, productive
of fweet and pleafant effects, fo confpicuous in the works
of Raphael 3 but he poffeffed that fprightlinefs of genius
and ftrength of mind which is ever ready to burft forth
in wonderful and aftonifliing effects. Plis figures ap¬
pear to be the exadt counterpart of his conceptions, and
their creation nothing more than a Ample adt of the
will.
His talent for defign is unjuftly cenfured, for on eve¬
ry occafion his defign is noble and ealy. He had great
knowledge of anatomy, but he was hurried away by the
impetuosity of his imagination and the ardour for execu¬
tion ; he preferred fplendor to the beauty of forms, and
lacrificed corredtnefs of defign too often to the magic of
colours. In fliort, his qualities fuppole a mind full of
fire and vigour, rather than accuracy or profound
thought. His drapery may be confidered rather as fine
than properly adapted to his figures 3 for, in the lan¬
guage of the art, to clothe and to give drapery are not
fynonymous terms. A portrait painter may excel in
clothing his perfonages, while he is totally incapable of
giving good drapery to a hiftorical painting. His chief
merit confifts in colouring 3 though in this branch of
the art he has not equalled Titian. He is the firft
among painters eminent for pomp and majefty 3 the
firft among thofe who fpeak to the eye, and the power
of the art is often carried by him almoft to enchant¬
ment.
It is evident from the works of Rubens, that his me¬
thod of painting was to lay the colours in their place,
one at the fide of another, and mix them afterwards by
Hiftory. P A ,I. N
Schools- a flight touch of the pencil. Titian mingled his tints as
' v ' they are in nature, in fuch a manner as to make, it im-
pofiible to difcover where they began or terminated ;
the effect is evident, the labour is concealed. Thus Ru¬
bens is more dazzling, and Titian more harmonious. In
4his part, the firit excites the attention, the fecond fixes
it. The carnations of litian refemble the blufn of na¬
ture 5 thole of Rubens are brilliant and polilhed like fa-
tin, and fometimes his tints are fo ftrong and feparated
as to appear like fpots.
“ Rubens (fays Sir Jolhua Reynolds) is a remarkable
inftance of the fame mind being feen in all the various
parts of the art. I he whole is lo much of a piece, that
one can fcarce be brought to believe but that if any one
of them had been more corre£t and perfe£t, his works
would not be fo complete as they appear. If we fliould
allow a greater purity and correctnefs of drawing, his
want of fimplicity in compofition, colouring, and dra¬
pery, would appear more grofs.”
In his compofition his art is too apparent. His. fi¬
gures have expreflion, and a£t with energy, but with¬
out fimplicity or dignity. His colouring, in which he
is eminently ikilled, is notwithitandmg too much of
what we call tinted. Throughout the whole of his works
there is a proportionable wrant of that nicety of dildnc-
tion and elegance of mind, which is reejuired in the
higher walks of painting •, and to this want it may be in
fome degree afcribed, that thofe qualities which make
the excellency of this fubordinate ftyle appear in him
with their greateft luftre,—Indeed, the facility with
which he invented, the richnefs ot his compofition, the
luxuriant harmony and brilliancy ot his colouring, fo
dazzle the eye, that, whilft his works continue before
us, we cannot help thinking tnat ail his deficiencies are
fully fupplied.
The Flemith fchool, of which Rubens is the greateft
mailer, is remarkable tor great brilliancy of colours and
the magic of the clcwo-obfcuro. lo thefe may be joined
a profound defign, which is yet not founded on the moft
beautiful forms } a compofition poffeffed of grandeur, a
certain air of noblenefs in the figures, ftrong and natural
expreflions} in Ihort, a kind of national beauty, which
is neither copied from the ancients nor from the Roman
nor Lombard fchools, but which deferves to pleafe, and
is capable of pleafing.
To fpeak in general terms, and without regarding, a
great number ot exceptions, the Dutch fchool carries
none of the above qualities to great perfeftion, except
that of colouring. Far from excelling in the beauty of
heads and forms, they feem chiefly to delight in the ex-
aft imitation of the loweft and moft ignoble. Their
fubjefts are derived from the tavern, the fmith’s (hop,
and from the vulgar amufements of the rudeft peafants.
The expreflions are fufficiently marked ; but it is the ex¬
preflion of paflions which debafe inftead of ennobling
human nature. One would think that they praftifcd
the art of degrading the bodies and fouls of men.
It muft be acknowledged, at the fame time, that the
Dutch painters have fucceeded in leveral branches of
the art. If they have chofen low objefts of imitation,
they have reprei’ented them with great exaftnefs ; and
truth muft always pleafe. If they have not fucceeded
in the moft ditficult parts of the claro-obfcuro, they at
leaft excel in the moft ftriking, fuch as in light confined
in a narrow fpace, night illuminated by the moon or by
Vol. XV. Part II.
20
The Dutch
fchool.
ting.
torches, and the light of a fimth’s forge. The Dutch ^
underftand the gradations of colours ^ and by their know¬
ledge of contrail they have arrived at the art of paint¬
ing light itfelf. They have no rivals in landfcape paint¬
ing, confidered as the faithful reprelentation or pifture
of a particular fcene 5 but they are far from equalling
Titian, Pouflin, Claude Lorrain, &c. who have carried
to the greateft perfeftion the ideal landfcape, and whoie
piftures, inftead of being the topographical reprelenta¬
tion of certain places, are the combined reiult of every
thing beautiful in their imagination or in nature. I he
Dutch, however, diftinguifti themfelves by their per-
fpeftive, by their clouds, fea fcenes, animals, fiuits,
flowers, and infefts •, and they excel in miniature paint¬
ing. In Ihort, every thing which requires a faithful
imitation, colour, and a nice pencil, is well executed by
the Dutch painters.
Holland has alfo produced hiftory painters, as Oc¬
tavius Van Been, and Vander Hilft the rival of Van¬
dyke, and perhaps his fuperior: but it is not in the wroiks
oi thole artifts that we find the cnarafter of the Dutch
fchool.
Neither is the origin of their ftyle to be derived from
the works of Lucas of Leyden, though, from the time
he flourilhed, viz. about the end of the 15th century, he
may be canfidered as the patriarch of the Dutch fchool.
Lucas painted in oil, in water colours, and on glafs} and
the kinds of his painting were hiftory, landfeape, and
portrait. His pifture of the Laft Judgement is pre-
ferved in the Hotel-de-Ville of Leyden $ it poffeffes vaft
merit in point of compofition, and a great variety of
figures.
If miniature painting be conliclered as a cliarac-
teriftic of the Dutch fchool, Cornelius Polembourg
may be regarded as the father ot it. He poffefled the
colour, delicacy of touch, and difpofilion of the claro-
obfcuro, which chiefly diftinguilh this Ichool j and if
any thing is to be added, it is want of correctnefs in his
defign.
But if the choice of low figures is its chief charafteri-
ftic, this is to be found in the greateft perfeftion in. the
works of the celebrated Rembrandt Vanryn j and it is
the more offenfive in this artift, as his compofitions fre¬
quently required an oppofite choice of figures. As his
father was a miller near Leyden, his education muft
altogether have depended on the exertion of great ta¬
lents and the ftudy of nature. He ftudied the gro-
tefque figure of a Dutch peafant or the fervant of an inn
with as much application as the greateft mailers of
Italy would have ftudied the Apollo of Belvidere or
the Venus de Medicis. This was not the manner of
elevating himfelf to the noble conceptions of Raphael;
but it was acquiring the imitation of truth in vulgar
painting.
“ Rembrandt (fays M. Defcamps) may be compared
to the great artifts for colour and delicacy of touch and
claro-obfcuro. It appears t-bat be would have difcover-
ed the art, though he had been, the firft perfon that ever
attempted it. He formed to himfelf rules and a method
of colouring, together with the mixture of colours and
the effeft of the different tones. He delighted in the
great oppofitions of light and Ihade} and he leems to
have been chiefly attentive to this branch of the art. His
worklhop was occafionally made dark, and he received
the light by a hole, which fell as he chofe to direft it
4 M -or
642 PAIN
t Schools, on the place which he defired to be enlightened. On
"'v particular occafions he pafled behind his model a piece
of cloth of the fame colour with the ground he wanted j
and this piece of cloth receiving the fame ray which en¬
lightened the head, marked the difference in a fenfible
manner, and allowed the painter the power of augment¬
ing it according to his principles.
“ Rembrandt’s manner of painting is a kind of magic.
No artift knew better the effedls of different colours
mingled together, nor could better diftinguifh thofe
which did not agree from thofe which did. He placed
every tone in its place with fo much exaftnefs and har¬
mony, that he needed not to mix them, and fo deftroy
what may be called the flower and frefhnefs of the co¬
lours. He made the firft draught of his pictures with
great precifion, and with a mixture of colours altoge¬
ther particular : he proceeded on his firfl fketch with a
Vigorous application, and fometimes loaded his lights'with
fo gr^tt a quantity of colour, that he feemed to model
rather than to paint. One of his heads is faid to have a
nofe nearly as much projected as the natural note which
he copied.”
Such is the power of genius, that Rembrandt, with
ad his faults, and they are enormous, is placed among
the greateft artifts by M. Hefcamps, who faw his
works, and was himfelf an artifl. It is neceffary to
obferve, that if Rembrandt was ignorant of the effen-
tial parts of his art, or negledled them, he was yet ac¬
quainted with expreflion, which alone was capable of
giving animation to his works. His expreflions are not
noble, but they are juff, lively, and excited with great
judgement.
John de Laer, a miniature painter, and wdio made
choice of his fubjedls from common life, deferves a di-
flinguiihed place in the Hutch fchool. He painted hunt-
ing-fcenes, the attacks of robbers, public feftivals, land-
fcapes, and fea-views j and he ornamented his pictures
with old ruins, and enriched them wdth figures of men
and animals. He had a correct defign, and employed
vigorous and lively colouring.
Van Oftade, although born at Lubeck, Gerard Dow,
IVfetzu, Miris, Wouvermans, JBerghem» and the cele¬
brated painter of fkwers Van Huyfum, belong- to the
Hutch fchool.
I he greater part of the fchools of which we have
treated have no longer any exiftence. Italy alone had
four fchools, and there only remain at prefent a very few
Italian artifts known to foreigners. The fchool of Ru¬
bens is in vain fought for in Flanders. If the Dutch
fchool ftill exifts, it is not known beyond the precincts
of Holland. Mengs a German artift has made him¬
felf famous in our days ; but it was in Italy that he
chiefly improved his talents and exercifed his art.
M. Dietrich, another German, has made himfelf known
to ftrangers : but two folitary artifts do not form a
x* fchool.
The Eng- A new fchool is formed in our times and in our own
aih fchool. country, called the Englifo fcfiool. It is connefted with
the academy in London, inftituted in 1766 by letters
patent from the king, and formed only in 1769. Sir
Jofhua Reynolds is the undoubted founder of it. His
works give him a diltinguifhed rank among the artifls
of the prefent age, and exhibit a genius in their author
which has feldonx been furpalfed : but the effects which
TING. Hiftory.
he has contrived to give to them by the formation of a Schools.
newr fchool, and by the good principles which his dif- ——v-—
courfes to academicians, and his example as a painter
have difleminated, will fecure his reputation as long as
England fhall efleem the advantages and the worth of
great abilities. The Englifh tafte appears to be formed
on the great mafters of the Italian and the Flemifli
fchools. Sir Jofhua was a great admirer of Michael
Angelo, and particularly recommends him to the atten¬
tion of the academicians. “ I feel (fays Sir Jofhua), a
felf-congratulation in knowing myfelf capable of fuch
fenfations as he intended to excite. I refledl, not with¬
out vanity, that thefe difcourfes bear teflimony of my
admiration of that truly divine man ; and I fhould de¬
fire that the lafl words which I fhould pronounce in
this academy, and from this place, might be the name
of—Michael Angelo.'1'1 But though he thus enthuftafti-
cally admired this very great man, yet he allows, what
cannot indeed be denied, that he w as capricious in his
inventions : “ and this (fays he) may make fome cir-
cumfpeftion neceffary in fludying his wmrks; for though
they appear to become him, an imitation of them is al¬
ways dangerous, and will prove fometimes ridiculous.
‘ In that dread circle none durft tread but he. ’ To me,
I confefs, his caprice does not knver the eftimation of
his genius, even though it is fometimes, I acknowledge,
carried to the extreme : and however thofe eccentric
excurfions are confidered, we muft at the fame time re¬
coiled!, that thofe faults, if they are faults, are fuch as
never could occur to a mean and vulgar mind •, that they
fiowTed from the fame fource wrhich produced his greateft
beauties ; and wTere therefore fuch as none but himfelf
was capable of committing ; they wrere the power¬
ful impulfes of a mind unufed to fubjedtion of any
kind, and too high to be controuled by cold criti-
cifm.”
The effect of Sir Tofhua’s difcourfes is vifible in the
pidtures of this fchool. The Death of General Wolfe,
the Departure of Regulus for Carthage, the Arrival of
Agrippina, and fome other fubjedts, are decided proofs
that the Englifh fchool is acquainted with greatnefs of
ftyle, boldnefs of expreflion, and the art of managing a
great number of figures. It will be fortunate for the
painters of this fchool, if, more rigid with regard ttr
their forms than ambitious of poignant and aftonifhing
effedts, they fupport the charadler which they have
already acquired. But although England had not
enjoyed this brilliant fuccefs in painting, fhe would
have immortalized herfelf by the excellency of her en¬
gravings.
It is eafy to perceive in all thofe fchools the caufe
of the charadfer which diftinguifhes them. In the Ro¬
man fchool, it is the excellent education of its firfl
mafiers, together with the precious remains of an¬
tiquity found in the ruins of ancient Rome. In the
Venetian fchool, the magnificence derived from the
commerce of the eaff, the frequency of fealls and
mafquerades, and the neceflity of painting to the rich
and luxurious, who were accuflomed to behold thefe
magnificent objedls, were the caufes of its gaudy tafte.
In the Dutch fchool, the peculiarity of its grovelling
manner may be accounted for from the habits of the
artifts. Accuftomed to vifit taverns and wrorkfhops,
and having moil commonly expofed to their view
low '
Hiftory. PAIN
Schools, low and grotefque figures, tliey reprefer.t in their pic-
11 —v tures the obi efts which were molt familiar to them in
life.
**Encyclop- Beauty (fays a French writer*) ought to be the
^rtS’ eharafteriftic of the Englilh fohool, becaufe the artills
have it often expofed to their view. If this beauty is
not precifely fimilar to that among the ancients, it is
not inferior to it. The Englilh fchool Ihould alfo di-
ftinguilh itfelf for truth of exprcflion ; becaufe the liber¬
ty enjoyed in that country gives to every paflion its na¬
tural and unbiafled operation. It will probably long
preferve its fimplicity unpolluted by the pomp of thea¬
trical tafte and the conceit of falfe graces, becaufe
the Englilh manners will long preferve their fim¬
plicity.
“ Examine the pifture of a Frenchwoman (continues
he) painted by an artift of that nation, and you will ge¬
nerally find, in place of expreflion, a forced grin, in
which the eyes and the forehead do not partake, and
which indicates no affeftion of the foul. Examine the
pifture of an Englilhwoman done by one of their pain¬
ters, and you obferve an elegant and fimple expreffion,
which makes you at once acquainted with the charafter
t>f the perfon reprefented.”
Sect. III. Comparifon between the Ancient and Modern
Painting.
No perfon of judgement or tafte hefitates to give the
Tuperiority to the ancient fculpture j but the moderns
comfort themfelves with refufing the fame fuperiority
to the Greek artifts in the art of painting. The fmall
number of their produftions which remain, and the pro¬
bable conjeftures which may be formed concerning thofe
which have perilhed, go the length to prove that the
Greek painters condufted themfelves on other principles
than thofe which have received the fanftion of cuftom
and the force of laws in our fchools. But this cenfure
might be applied with equal juftice to Homer as an epic
poet, and to Ssphocles and Euripides as writers of tra-
gedy.
The principal difference between the ancient and
modern manner of painting confifts in the complica¬
tion of figures, and the pompous decoration of fcenery
which prevails in the modern, when compared with
the unity and fimplicity of the ancient painters. This
fimplicity, however, does not feem to arife from the
want of capacity, but from a choice, as Polygnotus,
one of their moft ancient painters, reprefents in one
of his pieces the fiege of Troy, and in another the
defcent of Ulyffes into hell j but they foon decided in
favour of fimplicity, and their pieces generally contain
one or two figures, a^d very rarely more than three or
Four.
Poetry in this particular is condufted on very dif¬
ferent principles. A poet may with great propriety
multiply his charafters, and enter into details of a
variety of aftions, becaufe the whole of his charafters
and aftions do not occupy the mind of his reader at
the fame time. The whole of his art confifts in ma¬
king one naturally fucceed another *, but every part
of the poem which contains a feparate tranfaftion
would make a pifture capable of fixing the attention.
In painting, the eye takes in the whole 5 and it is by
tio means fatisfied if 20 or 30 figures are prefented to
TING,. 643
it, which it cannot pofilbly comprehend. It is in Compari-
vain to group the figures, or to call the attention to *on be~
the principal objeft by a greater degree of light j the
fpeftator is anxious to examine every objeft which is an(j
prefented to him ^ and if they are not to be examined, dern.
for what reafon are they painted ? An excellent piece, v 1 '■-J
at the fame time, confifting of a great number of fi¬
gures, will give pleafure; but it is accompanied with
that fatigue which one experiences when he runs over
a gallery furniftied with a great variety of excellent
piftures.
Thofe obfervations on the attention of the fpeftator
led the Greeks to make fimilar ones on the attention of
the artift. They perhaps thought that the painter who
had to execute a great variety of figures in the fame
work, could not ftudy each of them with equal accuracy
and care $ and of confequence that he might produce
fomething aftoniftiing in the extent, and yet difgufting
in the detail.
This difference, however, between ancient and mo¬
dern painting, cannot give any decided principle to de¬
termine on their comparative merit. We are accuftom-
ed to behold affemblages in nature u.Egid it is a faft, that
even in affefting fcenes a great number of figures may
not only be brought together, but that they may heigh¬
ten the diftrefs. It is fuppofing a pifture to have little
effeft, to imagine that we can coolly, and with the fame
kind of attention, examine the principal and the accef-
fory figures. If it is highly finilhed, our whole foul muft
be abforbed in that objeft which the artift: intended to
be moft confpicuous 5 and if we give any attention to
the furrounding figures, we fhall confider them as fpefc-
tators of the fame fcene, and derive from them an addi¬
tion of fympathy and of feeling. The whole queftion
in this particular point of view amounts to this, that
the modems have chofen a more difficult part; and
if they have executed it with fuccefs, their merit is
greater. And this obfervation will hold good, unlefs it
can be proved that it is utterly impoffible to make an
affemblage of figures lead to one general and common
effeft.
The proper manner of deciding the comparative me¬
rit of the ancients and moderns, is to confider, as far as
we have fufficient data to go upon, to wffiat degree the
ancients excelled in the particular departments of thB
art. There are two fources from which we can derive
information 5 namely, from the morfels of antiquity which
yet remain, and from what the ancient writers have faid
on the fubjeft of painting, both of winch are extremely
defeftive. It is allowred, however, by every Ikilful per¬
fon who has viewed the remains of ancient paintings*
that none of them appear to be the performances of fu-
perior artifts* notwithftanding much merit in the defign
and accuracy in the drawing, which indeed feems to
have been habitual to almoft every ancient artift. The
beft among thefe paintings (according to Sir Joffiua
Reynolds), “ the fuppofed marriage in the Aldroban-
dine palace,’'’ is evidently far ffiort of that degree of ex¬
cellence undoubtedly implied in the defcriptions of an¬
cient authors, and which from them wre are fairly led to
expeft.
Still more defeftive, if pofiible, is this laft Ijiecies of
evidence : for we have no direft treatife remaining on
the fubjeft by any of the ancients, although many were
compofed by their artifts. The paffages from which we,
4 M 2 are
644 PAIN
Compari- are to decide are, either the curfory remarks of writers
^ fon be- noj. exprefsly treating on the fubjeft of painting, or the
Arr-ient;6 defcriptions of thofe who at beft can rank but as ama-
and Mo- teurs of a fafhionable art. From thefe indeed we may
dem. pretty fafely affert the degree of excellence which the
^—v  paffages imply j but we lliould reafon very inconclufive-
ly, were we to deny them any higher or any other me¬
rit than appears to be ftricfly contained in thefe featter-
obfervations. Let any one for a moment place the
modern painters in his mind in the lame fitualion as the
ancients, and he will quickly decide on the truth of
thefe remarks.
Neverthelefs, it is necelTary on this fubjeft to derive
fome conclufions from the information which is occa-
fionally given in ancient authors, lhat the ancients
paid a particular attention to delign, would be evident
from the manner in which they Ipeak ol this depart¬
ment of the graphic art, even though the moderns were
not in pofieltion of fuch remaining proofs ol their ex¬
cellence herein (though by artills of an inferior clals),
as to place this point beyond the reach of doubt.
Indeed, when it is confidered that, with refpeft to
freedom and correiftnefs of outline, painting and fculp-
ture are very nearly connected \ that Phidias and A-
pelles were nearly contemporaries 5 that many of the
ancient painters, fuch as Zeuxis, Protogenes, Apelles,
&c. wrere accuftomed to modelling for the purpofe of
fculpture or of calling 5 that the extreme elegance of
delign in the ancient llatues is fo notorious as to be
the acknowledged model even for modern artifts ; and
that thefe ornaments of fculpture were well known and
univerfally admired among the ancients—we fliall have
little helitation in admitting their equality with the mo¬
derns fo far as defign is concerned. But Ihould any
doubt remain on this point, the drawings from the an¬
tiquities of Herculaneum wail be ftriking proofs that
truth, elegance, and fpirit, in a degree rarely to be met
with among the moderns, were habitual even to the
common run of artills in the declining age of ancient
painting.
The ancients excelled moreover not merely in the
common and obvious parts of defign •, but. they appear to
have had no inconfiderable degree of Ikill in the art of
forejhortening. The performance of Paufanias is a proof
of this : Fecit autejn grandes tabulas ficut fpeRatam in
Pompeii porticibus bourn immolationem. Earn emm pic-
turam primus invcnit, quam pojlea imitaii funt multi,
cquavit nemo. Ante omnia, cum longitudinem bovis of-
tendere vellet, adverfiun eum pinxit, non tranfverfum, et
abunde intelligitur amplitudo. Dein cum omncs qui 110-
lunt eminentia videri, candicantia faciani, coloremque
condant, hie totum bovem atri colons fecit; umbreeque
corpus ex ipfo dedit; magna prorfus arte in cequo extan-
tia ofiendens et in confracJo folida omnia.
Nor will it be difficult to Ihow, that the ancient pain¬
ters were not inferior to the moderns in exprejjion. The
ftate of fculpture alone among the ancients wmuld al-
moft furnilh a decifive proof that the filler art of paint¬
ing could not be deficient. Among the ancient 11a-
tues which yet remain, expreffion is carried to a won¬
derful height 5 not merely the features of the face,
but almoll every mufcle of the body, combining to en-
* On Faint- force the idea intended to be conveyed.
%ng and ]yir Webb * very properly obferves, that “ the an-
149 r’>,,1)' cients thought characters and manners fo effential to
Ton be¬
tween thfr
Ancient
and Mo¬
dern.
TING. Hiftoiy
painting, that they exprefsly term painting an art de- Comp.m-
feriptive of manners. Ariitotle in his Poetics fays of
Polygnotus, that he was a painter of the mann rs •, and
objeCls to Zeuxis, his weaknefs in this part.” ,Ve have
in Philoftratus the following defeription of a picture :
“ We may inftantly (fays he) diitinguiffi Uly:: s by his
leverity and vigilance j Menelaus by his mildi ;ls $ and
Agamemnon by a kind of divine majeity. the fon
of Tydeus is exprefied an air of freedom j Ajax .s known
by his fallen fiercenefs; and Antilochus by hi al^rtnefs.
To give to thefe fuch fentiments and actions are con-
fequential from their peculiar characters, is t j ethic of
painting.”
Another inltance of excellence in expreffion among
the ancient paintings was the Medea of 1 imomachus.
She was painted about to kill her infants. Aufonius
(peaks with admiration ot the mingled expreffion ot
anger and maternal fondnefs in her face and man-
Imtnanem exhauft rerum in diver fa laborem
Emgeret afebhun mains ut ambiguum,
Ira Jub eji lachrymis, miferatio non caret ira,
Altere utrum videos ut Jit in alicre ulro.
It may not be amils, however at this period of our in¬
quiry, to make lome observations on the Leitimomes o,
ancient authors relpeCting this lubjeCl.
It is certainly true, that when the works of an an¬
cient artift are praifed for any real or foppofed merit,
the commendations will be relative to the degree or
perfection to which the art had anlen at the time, anu
to the opportunities of information, the tafte, and judge¬
ment of the perfon who bellows them. Excellence
will always be aienbed to him who leaves his cotem¬
poraries far behind \ and thofe performances will or tew
be confidered as lupremely beautnul v> tiich e-'.cced in
beauty all that have gone before.
In like manner, a perfon of natural feasibility, but
who has been accuftomed all his life to performances of
an inferior ftamp, w ill be in raptures at any which much
exceed the beft he has heretofore been taught to admire;
and whatever opportunities of information he may has e,
his evidence will not be of much weight, if he do not
pofiefs a fufficient degree of tafte and judgement to ufe
them properly.
In afeertaining therefore the degree of credit due to
the praifes beftow7ed on any performance in a branch ot
the fine arts, wre muft take into confideration the gene¬
ral ftate of the art at the time, and the competence of
the perfon wrho bellows the praile.
No flight degree of probability, however, may be at¬
tained on both thefe points, by attending to a circum-
ftance not generally noticed, viz. that in an advanced
ftate of the art, and when the obferver is acquainted
with his fubjeCt, the praife will feldom be given in loofe,
general, and comprehenftve expreffions ; but the terms
in which it is conveyed wall be charaCteriftic and deter¬
minate, and often technical; they will frequently Ihow
the ftate of the art, by marking the fubdivifions and the
(kill of the obferver by judicious dilcrimination. When,
added to thefe, the latter can refort for comparifon to
any exiftent ftandard of perfe&ion, his praife may fairly
be adopted in its full extent, and regarded as evidence
upon the point in queftion.
To apply thefe obfervations to painting, it is clear,
with
Hiftory, PAIN
Cotnpari- with rtfpeci: to the mofi ditFicult, the moll funclamen-
ion be- tal, and the highell in rank among the departments of
tweeii the ^ ar^ Y;7- delign and expreffion, that the ancients
vlo- were ftilly equal to the moderns j and their expreflions
dern. of praife mud be allowed to imply an equal degree of
—'v  abfolute ikill, with fimilar expreflions, if applied to the
great mafters of modern art. It is alfo clear that paint¬
ing was extremely cultivated among the ancients, and
that their good painters were more efleemed than ai-
tilts of equal merit in modern times j that what we fliould
term gentlemen artiils were frequent with them (" a pud
Romanos qaoque honos mature huic arti contigit') ; and
that the expreflions of the ancient connoiffeurs evince
much theoretical and technical knowledge of the ait, and
difplay a ditlribution of its parts almoft as minute, com¬
plete, and fcientific, as the prefent ftate of it can boaft.-,
With regard to colouring, the praifes of the ancient
authors chiefly relate to the flyle of it as exerted upon
Angle figures or particular tints. It may therefore be
doubted whether the ancients were poffeffed of the art
of dillributing their colours through the whole of a pic¬
ture, fo as to produce an harmony and general tone of
colouring fimilar to that which we admire in the Lom¬
bard and'Flemilh fchpols. The prefent remains of an¬
cient paintings do not appear to warrant any fuch con-
clufion j but being undoubtedly the works of inferior
hands, their authority is very fmall when alledged
againll the general or particular merit of the ancient ar-
lifts. The following ext rafts will be fufficient to evince,
that, the ancients did attend to this technical branch of
colouring.
Indeed the modern technical expreflions appear bor¬
rowed from the following paffage of Pliny, which may
be regarded as decifive on the fubjeft. Tandem fefe
ers ipfa di/linxit, et invenit lumen atque umbras, diffe¬
rentia coloruni alterna vice fefe excitante. Dein adjeBus
ejl fplendor ; aims hie quam lumen ; quern quia inter hoc
et umbram ejfet appellaverunt tonon. Commijfuras vero
colorum et tran/it us, harmogen. The lumen atque um¬
bras of this paffage might have been regarded as mere¬
ly deferiptive of the light and fnade neceflary to relieve
Angle figures, if it were not for the fubfequent defini¬
tion of tone. rYh.& harmogen ot Pliny means the/z£«ir/-
ling or fidlful blending and feftening colours into one
another, rather than what we now call harmony.
Lucian *, in his fine defeription of that fpirited
*In his painting by Zeuxis of the male and female centaurs,
Ztuxu. after relating the- treatment of the fubjeft itfelf, pro¬
ceeds to notice the technical execution of the piclure j
and he praifes particularly the truth and delicacy of the
drawing, the perfeft blending of the colours, the flcilful
{hading, the fciemific prefervation of five and magni¬
tude, and the equality and harmony of the proportions
throughout the whole piece.
Painters, fays Plutarch, increafe the eneff of the
light and fplendul parts of a piflure by the neighbour¬
hood of dark tints and (hades. And Maximus Tvrius
obferves, that bright and vivid colours are always pba-
fant to the eye j but this pleafure is always LiTened if
you omit to accompany them with fomewhat dark and
gloomy. Theie paffages feetn to imply a knowledge
of the ufe of cold and dark tints even where a bril¬
liancy of tone is required. The beil among the an¬
cient. painters, however, feem to have preferred a chafte
TING. 645
and fober flyle of colouring to the gaudihefs and flutter Cempari-
oi the later artifts. ion be-
Upon the whole, therefore, with refpccl to colour-
ing as employed upon Angle figures, as the ancients ai,d Mol
were fully as competent to judge of excellence herein dern.
as the moderns; as the expreflions of the ancient con-
noifleurs are very warm in praife of the colouring of
many of their painters j as they appear alfo to have at¬
tended very much to the art of colouring } and, more¬
over, as probable evidence can be adduced that they at¬
tended to miniature painting—a. confiderable degree of
merit may be allowed them in the ufe of the colours
they pofieffed.
Chiaro-fcuro, or the art of placing and proportioning'
light and (hade in fuch a manner as to produce a piea-
fing effeef, independently of any other circumftance
connefted with tlie picture, has been commonly deem¬
ed a chara&eriftic difference between the knowledge of
ancient and modern painters. On this fubjeft the works
of the ancients now remaining give little or no informa¬
tion ; hence Sir Jofltua Reynolds obferves, “ that this,
which makes fo confiderable a part of the modern art,
was to them totally unknown. If the great painters
had poffeffed this excellence, fome portion of it would
have infallibly been diffufed, and have been diicovered, in
the works of the inferior ranks of artifts which have
come down to us, and which may be confidered as on
the fame rank with the paintings that ornament our
public gardens.” But the accounts of the places where
thefe paintings have been found, make it evident that
they were thus ornamented at a very confiderable ex¬
pence. The generality of them confift of Angle figures j
fome of them of two or three figures, generally relieved
by an uniform ground ; and, except in a few inftances,
evidently defigned as mere reliefs to a compartment,
and anfwering, as near as-may be, to the ftuccoed orna¬
ments in our modern rooms ; nor do any of them feem
the works of artifts equal in their day to thofe at
prefent employed on the painted ceilings of private
houfes.
The Abbe du Bos maintains, on the other hand, that
what Pliny and other ancient writers lay concerning the
claro-obfcuro and the delightful diftributfon of light
and (hade, is altogether decifive •, and that their wri¬
tings are full of fo many probable circumftances, that-
it cannot be denied that the ancients at leaft equalled
the moft celebrated of the moderns in this part of the
art.
On the examination of the greater part of the paf¬
fages from antiquity, it is evident that they may re¬
late to the light and (hade of Angle figures, without in¬
volving what is now called the fcience of the claro-ob¬
fcuro. lie paffage of Pliny, however, already quoted,
and feveral others, go very near to prove that this branch
of painting was underftood among the ancients. The
dark, the light, and mezzotint are evidently and accu¬
rately deferibed in that paflage.
Equally ftrong is that expreflion in Quintilian :
"Zeuxis luminum umbrarumque rationem invenife tradi-
tur. This cannot well be otherwife tranllated* than by
the fcience of light and (hade.
That fome technical knowledge of the effefl produ¬
cible by mafes of light and (hade was pofteffed by the
ancients, appears indubitable from the gaffages adduced;
to
■646 PAIN
Compari- to what extent It was carried cannot now be afcertained.
fon be, In all probability they Were much inferior in this re-
1 Tn" rn t0 tlle moderns ; otherwife, although much fcience
and Mo- of this kind could hardly be expefted from the trifling
dern performances that remain, much more would have oc-
u—  curfed on the fubjeft, it would have been more largely
dwelt on, and more precifely expreffed among the ob-
fervations of ancient authors on the belt painting of the
ancient mailers.
Neither is there fufficient evidence that the ancients
were eminent in that important branch of the compo-
fition of a pifture, which confills in diftributing the fi¬
gures and objects in groups or maffes. 1 here are few
examples of this difficult branch of the art among the
remaining antiquities 5 and indeed from the paucity of
the figures introduced in the generality of thefe ancient
paintings, there is little room to expert them. But
what makes it Hill more doubtful whether the ancients
attained any degree of eminence in grouping is, that
among the many paintings of thefe great mailers enu¬
merated by Pliny, Lucian, or Philoftratus, there is none
•of them praifed for this fpecies of excellence.^ This,
however, it mull be confeHed, may as well arife from
want of knowledge in the writer as of Ikill in the artilt}
for in a picture found in Herculaneum, which reprefent*
in all probability the education of Achilles, the figure
of an old man holding a child on his knees, together
with that of a woman behind him, form a very agreeable
group. A work of the fame colleftion, painted in one
colour on marble, confills of five figures grouped very
much after the modern idea, if it were not that three of
the heads are at the fame height. It is extremely pro¬
bable, that this morfel had been the copy of a picture
finiflied in the purell times of the art. But although it
were proved that the ancients did not attempt grouping
their figures, it is Hill uncertain whether this might not
arife from their peculiar and perhaps excellent talle in
the arts. Wilhing to enjoy in the fullelt manner their
painted figures as they enjoyed the afpeft of a llatue,
they took care that every figure ffiould be detached from
another in the fame pidure, which permitted them to
give their obje£ls more relief, and to render them more
diltindt to the eye of a diltant fpedlator.
We are not therefore to conclude, that they were en¬
tirely ignorant of grouping, on the one hand; or that
they declined the execution of it from want of Ikill, on
the other. Indeed it adlually appears- to have been
technically attended to by them, whatever might be
their comparative excellence in it} for Apelles is ex-
prefsly afferted by Pliny to have been inferior to Melan-
thius in compofition (cle dlfpofitione): and one of their
paintings mentioned by the fame author, is faid to have
contained one hundred figures ^ but this unwieldy num¬
ber mult have been offenfive, if they were not grouped
with fome Ikill.
From the connedtion between the filler arts of poetry,
painting, and fculpture, and the admirable performances
of the ancients in the other two departments of the fine
arts, it is reafonable to conclude that the ancient paint¬
ers were not deficient in invention. Many inltances,
were it neceflary, might be colledled in fupport of their
well-founded claim to this branch of the art} but it
■will be fufficient to obferve, that as invention is rather a
natural endowment than an acquired talent, and as the
TING. IMory.
ancients univerfally feem to be at leaf! equal to the mo- Compari.
derns in the gifts of genius and good fenfe, we cannot f°n t>e-
but admit, on their part, an equality with ourfelves fo t'f’een l!ie
tar as invention is concerned. ari£j jyjo_
Very nearly connected with the fubjedl of invention dern.
is that of the cojlume; by which is meant an attention
to probability with refpedl to times, places, objedts,
perl’ons, and circumltances in the tranfadlion repre-
fented.
The ancient paintings now remaining, fo far from ex¬
hibiting any proofs of attention to this important branch
of the art, are full of grofs violations of probability,
and reprefentations of impoffible connedtion. But very
little llrefs is to be laid on thefe inltances •, firlt, becaufe
they are evidently the performances of artills of no re¬
putation ; fecondly, becaufe none of them to which this
objedtion can be made are regular reprefentations of any
perfon or tranfadlion •, and thirdly, becaufe, as they
were (for the molt part) manifeltly intended as orna¬
ments to apartments, the talle of the owner, and not of
the artift, would of courfe be chiefly confulted. No¬
thing, however, can be more clear than that the ancients
required an attention to probability in the works of their
artifts •, and from the manner in which their writers ex-
prefs themfelves on the fubjedt (not fo much recom¬
mending the practice of it as taking it for granted),
we may reafonably conclude, that their bell painters
were feldom guilty of any grofs violation of the coltume.
Sint JiBa Jimillima veris was an apophthegm generally
known, and when known mull have been univerfally
admitted.
The principles of the coltume are well ekpreffed and
illultrated by Horace in the firlt lines of his Art of
Poetry j and Vitruvius, lib. vii. chap. 5. fays, that no
pidtures can be approved of which have not a refem-
blance to truth and nature. Whether the ancient
painters put in pradtice a greater lhare of good fenfe
■with refpedt to the coltume than the moderns, cannot
now be accurately determined ; the advantage feems to
be in favour of the former : for, as we lhall have occa-
lion more particularly to obferve afterwards, the- moll
celebrated of modern painters from Raphael to Sir Jo-
Ihua Reynolds have been guilty of fuch flagrant breaches
of probability, as wrould appear altonilhing to thofe wrho
are not in the habit of expedting them.
It has been doubted whether the ancients were ac¬
quainted with the fcience of perfpeclive: and if the re¬
mains of ancient painting were alone to decide the que-
Ition, it mult be determined again!! them : for the wTorks
of the ancient painters now in polfeffion of the moderns
afford no proof of attention to the rules of perfpedtive
equal to the performance of a modern fign-painter.
The pidture of the facrifice among the Herculanean an¬
tiquities, and the fourth of the prints which Bellori has
publilhed and defcribed, taken from the paintings in the
fepulchre of the Nafonii, are barely tolerable; but the
other landfcapes (almoft the only remaining antique
paintings which admit of perfpedtive) are grofsly de-
fedtive in this particular ; fo much fo indeed, that con-
fidering the late period when landfcape-painting was in¬
troduced among the ancients, together with this mani-
felt imperfedtion in point of perfpedtive of fuch as are yet
extant, we cannot help fufpedting the inferiority of the
ancients in this refpedt. In perfpedtive, as in the chiaro-
fcuro, ♦
4
Hiftory. PAIN
Compari- fcuro, had good pra&ice been common, Tome traces
tween the W0.Uid have been difcovered in the works of their lowed
Ancient artlfS* r
and Mo- Ahg yet iome general knowledge of the principles^
dern- an<^ (ome degree of attention to the praftice, of per-
^ fpeftive, cannot well be denied to the ancients. They
were good mathematicians, they were excellent archi-
tefts, and fome of them are celebrated for their ft:ill in
icene-painting. Geminus the Rhodian, contemporary
v\ith Cicero, was the author of an exprefs treatife on
perfpefHve 5 and Euclid, Heliodorus, Lariffeus, Aga-
tharcus, wrote alfo on the lame fubjeff. It is well
known, befides, that the ancients pratdifed the art of
painting in perfpeflive on walls in the fame wray that it
is now done by the moderns; Pliny (Nat. Hid. lib.
xxxv. c. 4.) fays, that one of the walls of the theatre
of Claudius Pulcher, reprefenting a roof covered with
tiles, was finilhed in fo maderly a manner, that the
rooks, birds of no fmall fagacity, taking it for a real
roof, attempted to light upon it. We are likewife told,
that a dog was deceived to fuch a degree, by certain
Reps m a perfpedive of Dantos, that expeding to find
a free paffage, he made up to them in full fpeed, and
dauied out his brains. But what is dill more, Vitruvi¬
us tells us in exprefs terms by whom and at what time
this art was invented. It was fird pradded by Aga-
tharcus, a contemporary of fEfchylus, in the theatre of
Athens 5 and afterwards reduced to certain principles,
and treated as a fcience, by Anaxagoras and Democri¬
tus ; thus faring like other arts which exided in pradice
before they appeared in theory.
Portrait painting feems to have been a principal em¬
ployment ^of the fird artid wdiom the ancients have to
boad of, fince Alexander is faid to have permitted no
painter but Apelles, and no fculptor but Phidias to take
his hkenefs. Pliny particularizes feveral indances of
Apelles as a portrait painter.
In the drawing and colouring of fingle figures, to
which the ancients paid peculiar attention, they mud be
allowed to be equal, if not fuperior, to the moderns.
1 hat fpirit and animation, eafe and dignity, were com-
mon to the performances of ancient artids, the ancient
datues and paintings dill remaining mod evidently
evince 5 and as they poflelfed, therefore, all the requi-
fites to excel in portrait painting, a branch of the art at
all times much in requed among them, there is good
TING.
reafon to infer, in favour of the ancients, at lead an e-
quality with the moderns in this refpefl.
On the whole, all the principal parts of the art, as
purity of defign, and beauty and expreftion in the forms,
were not only to be found in the ancient datues, but
were, aflually the foundation of excellence in modern
painting; and hence we may conclude that their
painters formed on the fame models, and very often
the fame men who excelled in fculpture, were not infe¬
rior in thofe branches of the art. But with regard to
the inferior parts, the allurement of colouring, the inge-
tiuity of the claro-obfcuro, the fplendor of compofition,
the art of grouping figures, and the nice handling of the
pencil, the moderns are fuperior to thofe ancient painters
who have mod deferved the notice of their contempora¬
ry writers. It is dill to be obferved, however, that the
progrefs of the arts among the ancients, from the prin¬
cipal parts to the more fplendid, was fomewhat fimilar
to that among the moderns 5 and as the painters of the
fird rank were more immediately the objects of criticifm
and delight to authors of genius, it is impodible at this
didance of time to date any accurate comparifon be¬
tween the ancients and moderns in what may be termed
the decay of the art. This is particularly the cafe with
regard to. colours, there being in ancient as well as in
modern times two epochs j the one comprehending Po~
lygnotus and his immediate fuccelfors, and the other the
painters both of Greece and Rome after the art began
to decay. The colouring of Polygnotus was hard, and
his manner had fomething of wildnefs ; but his defign
was in the highed dyle of perfeflion. In the fuc-
ceeding ages the colouring was more varied, more bril¬
liant, more harmonious, and the handling more agree¬
able ; but the defign wras iefs elegant and exaid. And
the true connoifleurs continued to prefer the works of the
ancient fchool, in the fame manner that the bed writers
in our times prefer the works of the Roman and Vene¬
tian maders to the more brilliant piflures of their fuc-
ceflbrs. From this datement of faffs it is abundantly
evident., that from the ancient authors we can form fome
comparifon between the bed ancient and modern paint¬
ers in thofe things which are mod excellent in the art y
while in the inferior parts, from the filence of authors,,
and the lofs of paintings, we have no grounds upon
which a companion can be accurately made.
647
Compan¬
ion be¬
tween the
Ancient
and Mo¬
dern.
Part I. Principles of the Art, and the Order of the ArtiiPs Studies,
WE have joined thefe together, becaufe they are
like caufe and effefl 5 and comprehend both on what
par ts in the. execution of the art the painter is to em¬
ploy his chief attention, and alfo the manner in w7hich
he is to employ it. We lhall not therefore be confined
to the dry and abitraff, and as it were unembodied prin¬
ciples but conneft them with the ufeful and agreeable
branches of the art, in that order in wrhich it appears to
us they thou Id be dudied.
Sect I. Of Anatomy,
To aT if the dudy of anatomy is requifite to a
painter, is the fame thing as to aik if,, in order to learn
any fcience, a man mult fird make himfelf acquainted
with the principles of it. It would be an ufelefs wade
of . time to cite, in confirmation of this truth, the autho¬
rities of the ancient maders, and the mod celebrated
fchools. A man, who is unacquainted with the form
and confirm?!ion of the feveral bones which fupport and
govern the human frame, and does not know in what
manner the mufcles moving thefe bones are fixed to
them., can make nothing of what appears of them thro’
the. integuments with which they are covered; and
which appearance is, however, the nobleft objedt of the '
pencil. It is impoffible for a painter to copy faithfully
what he fees, unlefs he thoroughly underhand it. Let
him employ ever fo pinch time and dudy in the attempt.
4
648 P A I N
Anatomy, it cannot but be attended witb many and great miftakes.
—v~— juft as it mu ft happen to a man,, who undertakes to
copy fomething in a language which he does not un-
derftand j or to tranflate into his own, what he has
written in another, upon a fubject with which he is not
acquainted. „ . .
It feldom happens, that nothing more is. required ot a
painter than to copy exactly an object which he has be¬
fore him. In {till and very languid attitudes, in which
every member is to appear motionlefs and dead, a living
model may, no doubt, yield for a long, time a faithful
image, and prove an ufeful pattern to him. But m re¬
gard to gettures any way hidden, motions, any way vio¬
lent, or thofe momentary attitudes which it is more fre¬
quently the painter’s bufinefs to exprefs, the cafe is quite
different. In thefe a living model can hold but an in-
ftant or two j it foon grows languid, and fettles into a
fixed attitude, which is produced by an inftantaneous
concourfe of the animal fpirits. If, therefore, a painter
poffefs not fo thoroughly all the principles of anatomy,
as to be at all times' able to have immediate recourfe. to
them j if he know not the various manners in which
the feveral parts of the human body play, according, to
their various pofitions ; living models, far from proving
an ufeful pattern to him, will rather tend to lead him
affray, and make him lole fight of truth and nature, by
exhibiting the very reverfe of what is required, or at
leaft exhibiting it in a very faint and imperfect man¬
ner. In living models, we often behold thole paits
flow, which ftiould be quick j thole cold and toi pid,
which ftiould have the greateft lhare of life and fpirit
in them.
Nor is it, as fome may be apt to imagine^ merely to
reprefent athletic and vigorous bodies, in which the parts
are moft bold and determined, that anatomy is requifite-
it ftiould be underftood to reprefent perfons 01 the moft
delicate frame and condition, even women and children,
whofe members are fmootheft and roundelt, though the
parts made known by it are not to be ftrongly exprefled
in fuch object •, juft as logic is equally requifite under
the polilhed infinuations of the orator, and the rough
arguments of the philofopher.
But it is needlefs to fpend much time in proving, that
a painter ftiould be acquainted with anatomy •, or in
ftiowing, how far his acquaintance with it Ihould extend.
For inftance, it is unneceffary for him to enter into the
different fyftems of the nerves, blood-veffels, bowels, and
the like ; parts which are removed from the fight, and
which therefore may be left to the furgeon and the phy-
fician, as being a guide in the operations of the former
and in the prefcriptions of the latter. It is enough for
the painter, to be acquainted with the Ikeleton •, in other
words, with the figure and conneefjon of the bones,
which are, in a manner, the pillars and props of a hu¬
man body •, the origin, progrefs, and ftiape of the
muicles which cover thefe bones ■, as alfo the different
degrees in which nature has clothed the mufcles with
fat, for this fubftance lies thicker upon them in fome
places than in others. Above all, he ftiould know in
what manner the mufcles effeft the various motions and
geftures of the body. A mufcle is compofed of two
tendinous and {lender parts, one called the head, the
■other the tail, both terminating at the bones ; and of an
intermediate part, called the belhj. The a£lion. of. a
mufcle confifts in an extraordinary fwelling of this in-
2
T I N G. Part I.
termediate part, while the head remains at reft, fo as to Anatomy,
bring the tail nearer the head, and. confequently the v
part to which the tail of the mufcle is fixed, nearer to
that part into which the head is inferted.
There are many motions to effect which feveral of
the mufcles ffor this reafon called co-opei atvig mujcles)
muft fwell and operate together, while thofe calculated
to effect a contrary motion (and therefore called antago-
Jiijl mufcles') appear foft and flaccid. Ihus, for exam¬
ple, the biceps and the brachiceus intemus labour when
the arm is to be bent, and become more prominent than
ufual 5 while the gemellus, the brachiseus externus, and
the anconseus, whofe office is to extend the arm, conti¬
nue, as it were, flat and idle. The fame happens re-
ipedtively in all the other motions of the body. W lien
the antagonift mufcles of any part operate at one and
the fame time, fuch part becomes rigid and motionlefs.
This action of the muffle is called tonic.
Michael Angelo intended to give the public a com¬
plete treatiff upon this fubjeft j and it is no fmall mif-
fortune, that he never accompliflied fo ufeful a defign.
This great man, having obferved, as we are told in hi 3
life by Condivi, that Albert Durer was deficient on the
fubjeft, as treating only of the various meafures and
* forms of bodies, without faying a word of their attitudes
and geftures, though things of much greater importance,
refolved to compofe a theory, founded upon his long
practice, for the fervice of future painters and ftatuaries.
And, certainly, no one could be better qualified to give
anatomical precepts for that purpoff, than he who, m
competition with Da Vinci, defigned that famous cart oon
of naked bodies, which was ftudied by.Raphael himfelf,
and afterwards obtained the approbation of the Vati¬
can, the greateft fchool ot the art we are now treat¬
ing of.
The want of Michael Angelo’s precepts may, in
fome meafure, be fupplied by other books written on
■the fame fubjedt by Moro, Cefio, and 1 ortebat, and
lately by Boucherdon, one of the moft famous ftatu¬
aries in France. But nothing can be of equal lervice
to a young painter, with the leftons of fome able diffec-
tor ; under whom, in a few months, he may. make him¬
felf matter of every branch of anatomy which he need
to be acquainted with. A courfe of ofteology is of no
great length; and of the infinite number of muffles dil-
covered by curious myologifts, there are not above 80
or 90, with which nature fenfibly operates all thofe mo¬
tions which he can ever have occafion to imitate cr ex¬
prefs. Thefe, indeed, he ffould clofely ftudy, thefe he
fliould carefully ftore up in his memory, fo as. never to
be at the leaft lofs for their proper figure, fituation, office,
and motion. .
But there is another thing, befides the diffeftion of
dead bodies, by which a young painter may profit
greatly •, and that is anatomical calls. Of thefe we
have numbers by ffveral authors j nay, fome which pais
under the name of Buonarroti himfelf. But there is
one in which, above all the reft, the parts are moft di-
ftindlly and lively expreffed. This is the performance
of Hercules Belli, who has perhaps gone greater lengths
in this kind of ftudy than any other mafter. . We have,
befides, by the fame able hand, fome calls of particular
parts of the human body, fo curioufly coloured for the
ufe of young painters, as to reprefent thefe parts exablly
as they appear on removing the integuments 5 and thus,
by
Part I. PAIN
Anatomy, by the difference in their colour as well as configura-
   lion, render the tendinous and the fleihy parts, the belly
and the extremities of every mufcle furprifingly diftinct j
at the fame time that, by the various direction of the
fibres, the motion and play of thefe mufcles become ve¬
ry obvious ; a work of the greateft ufe, and never
enough to be commended ! Perhaps, indeed, it would
be an improvement, to give the mufcles various tints ;
thofe mufcles, efpecially, which the pupil might be apt
to miftake for others. For example, though the maftoi-
des, the deltoides, the fartorius, the fafcia lata, the ga-
fterocnemii, are, of themfelves, fufficiently diftinguiih-
able, it is not fo with regard to the mufcles of the arm
and of the back, the right mufcles of the belly, and
lome others, which, either on account of the many parts
into which they branch, or of their being interwoven
one with another, do not fo clearly and fairly prefent
themfelves to the eye. But let the caufe of confufion
to young beginners be what it will, it may be effectually
removed, by giving, as already hinted, different colours
to the different mufcles, and illumining anatomical fi¬
gures ; in the fame manner that maps are coloured, in
order to enable us readily to diltinguifh the feveral pro¬
vinces of every kingdom, and the feveral dominions of
every prince.
The better to underftand the general effeCt, and re¬
member the number, fituation, and play of the mufcles,
it will be proper to compare, now and then, the anato¬
mical caffs, and even the dead body itfelf, with the li¬
ving body covered with its fat and fkin j and above all
things, with the Greek ftatues ftill in being. It was
the peculiar happinefs of the Greeks, to be able to cha¬
racterize and exprefs the feveral parts of the human bo¬
dy much better than we can pretend to do; and this,
on account of their particular application to the ftudy
of naked figures, efpecially the fine living ones which
they had continually before their eyes. It is well
known, that the mufcles moft ufed are likewife the moft
protuberant and confpicuous j fuch as, in thofe who
dance much, the mufcles of the legs ; and in boatmen,
the mufcles of the back and arms. But the bodies of
the Grecian youth, by means of their conftant exertion
of them in all the gymnaftic fports, were fo thoroughly
exercifed, as to fupply the ftatuary with much more per¬
fect models than ours can pretend to be.
There are a great many exercifes-, which a young
painter fliould go through while engaged in the ftudy of
anatomy, in order to make himfelf more thoroughly
mafter of that fcience. For example : The thighs of
any figure, a Laocoon for inftance, being given, he fliould
add to them legs fuftable to that ftate in which the muf¬
cles of the thighs are reprefented, that is, the mufcles
which ferve to bend and extend the legs, and to effeCtu-
ate in them fuch a precife pofition and no other. To
the fimple contour of an anatome, or a ftatue, he
ftiould add the parts included by it, and give it a fy-
ftem of mufcles conformable to the quality of that par¬
ticular contour 5 for every contour denotes fome one
certain attitude, motion, exertion, and no other. Exer¬
cifes of this kind would foon eftablifh him in the moft
, fundamental principles of painting, efpecially if he had
an opportunity of comparing his drawings with the fta¬
tue or caft from which the parts given him to work
upon were taken, and thereby difccvering-and correcting
Vol, XV. Part II.
T 1 N G- 649
his miftakes. This method is very like that ufed by Perfpec-
thofe wTho teach the Latin tongue j when, having given dve.
their fcholars a paffage of Livy or Caefar already tranf- ”"Y “J-
lated into their mother-tongue, to tranflate back into La¬
tin, they make them compare their work with the origi¬
nal text.
Sect. II. Of PerfpeSlive.
The ftudy of peifpedive fliould go hand in hand
with that of anatomy, as not lefs fundamental and ne-
ceffary. In faCt, the contour of an objeCt drawn upon
paper or canvas, reprefents nothing more than fuch an
interfedion of the vifual rays fent from the extremities-
of it to the eye, as wrould arife on a glafs put in the
place of the paper or canvas. Now, the fituation of
an objeCt at the other fide of a glafs being given, the
delineation of it on the glafs itfelf depends entirely on
the fituation of the eye on this fide of the glafs j that
is to fay, on the rules of perfpeCtive : a fcience which,
contrary to the opinion of moft people, extends much
farther than the painting of fcenes, floors, and what
generally goes under the name of quadrature. Per-
IpeCHve, according to that great mafter da Vinci, is to
be confidered as the reins and rudder of painting. It
teaches in wfliat proportion the parts fly from, and leffen
upon the eye ; how' figures are to be marftialled upon a
plain furface, and fore-fhortened. It contains, in ftiort,
the ivhole rationale of defign.
Such are the terms which the mafters beft grounded
in their profeflion have employed to define and commend
perfpeCtive: fo far wrere they from calling it a fallacious
art, and an infdious guide; as fome amongft the mo¬
derns have not bluftied to do, infilling that it is to be
followed no longer than it keeps the high road, or leads
by eafy and pleafant paths. But thefe writers plainly
fliow, that they are equally ignorant of the nature of
perfpeCtive, wdiich, founded as it is on geometrical
principles, can never lead its votaries aftray ; and of
the nature of their art, which, without the afliftance
of perfpeCtive, cannot, in rigour, expeCt to make any
progrefs, nay, not fo much as to delineate a fimple
contour.
When a painter has formed a feene in his mind, and
fuppoied, as it is cuftomary, that the capital figures of
this feene lie clofe, or almoft clofe, to the back of his
canvas, he is, in the next place, to fix upon fome point
on this fide of the canvas, from which he would choofe
his piece fhould be feen. But in choofing this point,
which is called the point of fght, regard ftiould be had
to its fituation to the right or left of the middle of the
canvas: but, above all things, to its diftance and its
height with refpeCt to the lower edge of the canvas ;
w hich edge is called the hafe line, and is parallel with
the horizontal line that pafles through the eye. For by
affuming the point of fight, and confequently the hori¬
zontal line, too low, the planes upon which the figures
ftand will appear a great deal too fliallow ; as, by affu¬
ming it too high, they will appear too fteep, fo as to
render the piece far lefs light and airy than it ought to
be. In like manner, if the point of fight is taken at
too great a diftance from the canvas, the figures will
not admit of degradation enough to be feen with fuffi-
cient diftinCtnefs j and if taken too near it, the degra-
.4 -N datioa
%
65o P A I N '
Ferfpec- dation will be tco quick and precipitate to have an
ti\e. agreeable effedi. j. hus, then, it appears, that no finall
* attention is requiftte in the choice ot this point.
When a pi&ure is to be placed on high, the point of
fight fliould be affumed low, anu. vice vcfjh j m older
that the horizontal line of the piflure may be, as near
as poffible, m tne fame horizontal plane with that of
the fpecfator 5 for this difpofition has an amazing ellcct.
When a picture is to be placed very high, as, among It
many others, that of the Purification by Paolo Veronefe,
engraved by le Fevre, it will be proper to affume the
point of light fo low, that it may he quite undei the
picture, no part of whofe ground is, in that cafe, to be
vilible j for, wege the point of fight to be taken above
the picture, the horizontal ground of it would appear
Hoping to the eye, and both figures and buildings as
ready to tumble head foremoft. -it is true, indeed, that
there is feldom any neceflity for fuch extraordinary
exactnefsand that, unlels in lome particular cafes, the
point of fight had better be rather high than low : the
re a fon of which is, that, as we are more accullomed to
behold people on the fame plane with ourfelves, than ei¬
ther higher or lower, the figures of a piece mult itrike
us molt when Handing on a plane nearly level with that
upon which we ourfelves Hand, do this it may be ad-
/led, that by placing the eye low, and greatly Ihortening
thq plane, the heels of the back figures will feem to bear
again!! the heads of the foremoft, fo as to render the di-
flance between them far lefs perceptible than otherwife
it would be.
The point of fight being fixed upon according to the
fituation in which the pidbure is to be placed, the point
of difiance is next to be determined. In doing this, a
painter fhould carefully attend to three things: firft, that
the fpe&ator may be able to take in, at one glance, the
whole and every part of the compofition •, feconfily, that
he may fee it diitindtly 5 and, thirdly, that the degrada¬
tion of the figures and other objedls of the pi&ure be
fufficiently fenfible. It nvould take up too much time
to lay down certain and precife rules for doing all this,
confidering the great variety in the fizes and ihapes of
pibbures •, for which reafdn we mull leave a great deal
to the diferetion of the painter.
Eut there is a point fiill remaining, which will not
admit of the lead latitude. This i«, the delineation of
the pidlure, when once the point of light has been fix¬
ed upon. The figures of a pidlure are to be confider-
ed as fo many columns erefted on different fpots of the
fame plane 5 and the painter mull not think of defigning
any thing, till he has laid down, in perfpedfive, all thofe
columns which are to enter his compofition, with the mod
fcrupnlous exaftnefs. By proceeding in this manner, he
may not only be lure of not committing any miftake in
the diminution of his figures according to their different
diftances, but may flatter himfelf with the thoughts of
treading in the fteps of the greateft mafiers. It is to the
punctual obfervance of thefe laws, that we are to attri¬
bute the grand effebt of feme paintings by Carpazio and
Mantegna, fo carelefs in ether refpebls; whereas a Angle
fault againit them is often fufficient entirely to fpoil the
works of a Guido, in fpite of the fublimity and beauty of
his fuperior ftyle.
Now, as the demonftration of the ndes of perfpeblive
depends on the dobtrine of proportions, on the properties
af fimilar triangles, and on the interfqblion of planes, it
r I * N G. Fart I.
will be proper to put an abridgement of Euclid into the Symmetry,
hands of the young painter, that he may underftand thefe ~ v '
rules fundamentally, and not Hand confined to a blind
prablice of them : but, then, there is nothing in this
author relative to the art of painting, which may not
be eafily acquired in a few months. For, as it would
be of no ufe to a painter to launch out into the anatomi¬
cal depths of a Monro or an Albinus, it would be equally
fuperiluous to perplex himfelf with the intricacies of the
higher geometry with a Taylor, who has handled per¬
fpeblive with that lich profoundnefs, which we cannot
help thinking does a great deal more honour to a ma¬
thematician, than it can pcfiibly bring advantage to a
Ample artift.
But though a much longer time were requlfite to be¬
come a periebl mafter of perfpective, a painter, liirely,
ought not to grudge it ; as no time can be too long to
acquire that knowledge, without which be cannot pojhbly
expebf to fucceed. Nay, we may boldly affirm, that the
fhorteft road in every art is that which leads through
theory to praftice. From theory arifes that great faci¬
lity, by means of which a man advances the'quicker, in
proportion as he is furer of not taking a wrong fiep ;
whilfi thofe,, who are not grounded in the Icience, labour
op in perpetual doubt ; obliged, as a certain author ex-
preffes it, to feel out their way with a pencil, juft as the
blind, with their flicks, feel for the ftreeis and turnings,
with which they are not acquainted.
As prablice, therefore, ought in every thing to be built
upon principle, the ftudy of Optics, as far as it is re-
quifite to determine the degree in which objebls are to
be illuminated or ffiaded, fhould proceed hand in hancT
with that of perfpeblive : And this, in order that the
{hades, caft by figures upon the planes on which they
Hand, may fail properly, and be neither too ftrong nor
too light ; in a word, that thofe moil beautiful eft eels
of the chiaro-fcuro may run no nfk of ever receiving
the lie from truth, which fooner or later difeovers itfeif
to every eye.
Sect. III. Of Symmetry.
The ftudy of fymmetry, it is obvious, fhould imme¬
diately foliowr that of anatomy •, for it. would avail us lit¬
tle to be acquainted with the different parts of the human
body, and their feveral offices, were we at the fame time
ignorant of the order and proportion of thofe parts in re¬
gard to the whole in general, and to each other in par¬
ticular. The Greek ftatuaries diftinguifhed themfelves
above all others, as much by the juft fymmetry of their
members, as by their {kill in anatomy j but Polycletes pi{nii
furpaffed them all by a ftatue, called the Ru/e, from Nat. Hift.
which, as from a moft accurate pattern, other artiftslib. xxxiv.
might take meafures for every part of the human body.c- 8-
Thefe meafures, to fay nothing of the books which treat
profeffedly of them, may now be derived from the Apollo
of Belvedere, the Laocoon, the Venus of Medicis, the
Faunus, and particularly the Antinous, which laft was
the rule of the learned Pouffin.
It is the general opinion of painters, that the ancients
were not fo happy in reprefenting the bodies of children,
as they are allowed to have been in reprefenting thofe of
women and men 5 efpecially thofe of their gods; in which
they excelled to fuch a degree, that with thefe gods were
often worfhipped the artifts who had carved them. Yet
§ Cic- in
Verrent, de
figni5-
Strabo,
lib. ix.
Plin. Nat.
Hijl. lib.
xxxvi. c, 5.
PAIN
the Venus of Gnldus by Praxiteles was not more famous
than her Cupid, on whofe account alone people flocked
to Thefpise To children, fay they, the ancients knew
not how to impart that foftnefs and effeminacy which
Flammingo has fince contrived to give them, by repre¬
fen ting their cheeks, hands, and feet, fwelled, tneir heads
large, and with fcarce any belly. But fuch critics feem
to forget, that thefe firfl; {ketches of nature very feldom
come in the painter’s way, and that this puny and deli¬
cate {late has not in its form even the leaft glimmering
of perfcnion. The ancients never undertook to repre-
fent children lefs than four or five years old ^ at which
age the fuperfluous humours of the body being in fome
meafure digefted, their members begin to aiTume fuch a
contour and proportion as may ferve to point out what
they are afterwards likely to be. This obfervation is
confirmed by the children w'hich we meet with in an¬
cient baffo-relieyos and paintings : for they are all doing
one thincr or another •, like thofe molt beautiful little
Cupids m a pifture at Venice, who are playing with
the arms of Mars, and lifting up the ponderous fword of
that Deity; or that little urchin in the Daniie of Caracci,
who empties a cpnverof itsarrorvs in order to till it with
the golden fhower. Now', what can be a greater blunder
in point of coftume, than to attribute actions, which re¬
quire fome degree of ftrength and judgement, to infancy,
to that raw and tender age lo totally unable to govern and
fupport itfelf ?
Let a young painter confider the Greek flatues ever
fo often, of whatever charafter or age they may be re-
prefented, it is impoflible he fiiould ever confider them
without difeovering new beauties in them. It is there¬
fore impofiiBle he ffiouid copy them too often, accor¬
ding to that judicious motto placed by Maratti on his
print called The fcl tool. This truth was acknowledged
by Bubens himfelf} for though, like one bred, as he
was, in the foggy climate of the Low Countries, he
generally painted from the life-, in fome of his works
he copied the ancients 5 nay, he wrote a treatile on the
excellency of the ancient flatues, and on the duty or a
painter to ftudy and imitate them. As to the iatirical
print, or rather pafquinade, of the great 'I ilian, in
which he has reprefented a parcel of young monkeys
aping the group of Laocoon and his fons he intend¬
ed nothing more by it than to lafh the dulnefs and po¬
verty of thofe artiffs, who cannot fo much as draw a
figure without having a ftatue before them as a model.
In fail, reafon requires, that an artift fhould be fo
much mafter of his art, as feldom to ftand in need of a
pattern. To what other purpofe is he to fvTat and toil
from his infancy, and fpend fo many days and nights in
ffudying and copying the beft models \ efpecially the fineft
faces of antiquity, which we are {till pofieffed of ; fuch
as the two Niobes, mother and daughter \ the Ariadne,
the Alexander, the young Nero, the Silenus, the Nile :
and likewife the fineff figures ; for inftance, the Apollo,
the Gladiator, the Venus, and others j all which (as was
faid of Pietro Fefta), he fhould have, as it were, perfeclly
by heart! With a flock of excellencies like thele, trea-
fured up in his memory, he may one day hope to produce
fomething of his ow-n without a model; form a right
judgement of thofe natural beauties which fall in his
way , and, when occafion offers, avail himfelf properly
of them.
It is very injudicious to fend boys to an academy to
TIN G. <55r
draw after naked figures, before they have imbibed a Symmetry
proper reliih for beautiful proportions, and have been '"','™~
well-grounded in the true principles of fymmetry. They
flrould firft learn, by ftudying the precious remains of an¬
tiquity, to improve upon life} and diicern w’here a natural
figure is faulty through fliffnefs in the members, or cluir.fi-
nefs in the trunk, or in any other refpebl} fo as to be able
to correct the faulty part, and reduce it to its proper
bounds. Painting, in this branch, is, like medicine, the
art of taking away and adding.
It muff not, however, he diffembled, that tne me¬
thods hitherto laid down are attended with feme dan¬
ger: for by too flavifh an attention to ftatues, the young
painter may conlracl a hard and dry manner} and by
ftudying anatomies too fervilely, a habit of icprefenting
living bodies as ftripped of their fkin : for after all, there
is nothing but what is natural, that, befides a certain pe¬
culiar grace and livelinefs, pofi’effes that fimplicity, eafe,
and foftnefs, which is not to be expefted in the works
of art, or even in thofe of nature when deprived of life.
Pouflin himfelf has now and then given into one of thefe
extremes, and Michael Angelo very often into the other:
but from this wre can only infer, that even the greateft
men are not infallible. It is, in fhort, to be confidered
as one inftance, among a thoufand, of the iff uie thofe
are wront to make of the beft things, wrho do not Know
how to temper and qualify them properly with their con¬
traries.
But no fuch danger can arife to a young painter from
confining himfelf lor a long time to mere defign, fo as.
no! to attempt colouring till he has made himfelf mafter
of that branch. If, according to a great mafter *, co¬
lours in painting are in regard to the eye what numbers * pouft;Pj •
in poetry are in regard to the ear, fo many charms to in his Life
allure and captivate that fenfe } may we net ahum, thatby Ecueri.
deiign is in the fame art what propriety of language is
in writing, and a juft utterance of founds in mufic ?
Whatever fome people may think, a pifture defigned
according to the rules of perfpective and the principles
of anatomy, will ever be held in higher efteem by good
judges, than a picture ill defigned, let it be ever lo well
coloured. Hannibal Caracci fet fo great a value upon
the art of contour, that, according to fome expreflions
of his which have reached us, he confidered almoft every
thing elfc as nothing in< companion with it. And this
his judgement may be juftified, by confidering, that na¬
ture, though flie forms men of various colours and com¬
plexions, never operates in the motions contrary to the
mechanical principles of anatomy, nor, in exhibiting
thefe motions to the eye, againft the geometrical laws
of perfpeflive : a plain proof, that, in point of defign,
no miftake is to be deemed trifling. Flence we are en¬
abled to feel all the weight of thofe words in w-hich
Michael Angelo, after he confidered a pi cl u re drawn
by a prince of the Venetian fchool, addrcfled Vafari i
“ What a pity it is,” faid he, “ that this man did not
fet out by ftudying defign !” As the energy of nature
fliines moll in the fmallelt fubjecls, fo the energy of art
fliines moft in imitating them.
Sect. IV. Of Imitation.
When you confider art as the imitation of nature
(favs Mengs), it is not to be underflood that nature,
which is the objedl, is more perfect than art which
4 N 2 imitates
\
652 PAIN
imitates It. Nature, it is confeiTed, offers fume views
' 0f whieh the imitation mull for ever remain imperfect,
as in the inltance of the claro-obfcuro 5 but, on the
other hand, in every thing relative to beauty of form,
imitation may even furpafs nature. Nature, in her pro¬
ductions, is fubject to many accidents. Art, labouring
on paffive and obedient materials, renders perfeCt the
objeCts of its creation, choofes every thing in nature the
moft excellent, and collects the different parts and the
different beauties of many individuals into one whole. It
is feldom that we find in the fame man greatnefs of foul
and the due proportions of body, vigour, fupplenefs,
firmnefs, and agility, joined together. Art conftantly
reprefents what is rarely or never to be met with in hu¬
man nature j regularity in the outlines, grandeur in the
forms, grace in the attitudes, beauty in the members,
force in the bread, agility in the limbs, addrefs in the
arms, franknefs in the forehead, fpirit in the eyes, and
affability over the whole countenance. Let an artilf
give force and expreffion to all the parts of his fubjeCf,
let him vary this force and expreffion as different cir-
cusnftances make it neceffary, and he will foon perceive
that art may furpafs nature. But although this be
granted, the artitl is not to imagine that art is a&ually
arrived at this lupreme degree of perfeClion, and can pro¬
ceed no farther. The moderns feem never to have per¬
ceived the trad pointed out by the ancient Greeks : for,
fince the revival of painting, the true and the agreeable,
inftead of the beautified, have been the objeCts of culti¬
vation. Still, however, imitation is the firft part of the art
of painting, though not the moff excellent or beautiful.
It is a neceffary dep in the progrefs which leads forward
to greater perfection.
A painter ought attentively to confider, compare to¬
gether, and weigh in the balance of reafon and truth, all
the different dyles of the great maders; but he ought
likewife carefully to guard againit too great a fondnefs
for any one of them in particular that he may think pro¬
per to adopt •, otherwife, to ufe the expredion of a fird-
rate mader *, indead of the child, he would become the
* Drt Find grand child of nature.
on Pamt- Befides, his imitation mud be of generals, and not of
particulars. Whatever a young painter’s natural difpo-
fition may be, whether to paint boldly and freely like
Tintoret and Rubens, or to labour his works, like Ti¬
tian or da Vinci, let him follow it. This kind of imi¬
tation is very commendable. It is thus that Dante, at
the fame time that he carefully avoided adopting the par¬
ticular expreflions of Virgil, endeavoured to feize his bold
and free manner, and at lad caught from him that ele¬
gance of dyle which has done him fo much honour.
As to the red, nothing fhould hinder an able mader
from making ule now and then of any antique, or even
modern figure, which he may find his account in em¬
ploying. Sanzio, in a St Paul at Lytira, fcrupled not
to avail himfelf of an ancient facrifice in baffo-relievo ;
nor did Buonarroti himfelf difdain to ufe, in his paint¬
ings of the Sextine chapel, a figure taken from the fa¬
mous cornelian which tradition tells us he wore on his
finger, and which was lately in the poffefiion of the mod
Chridian king. Men like thefe avail themfelves of the
productions of others in fuch a manner as to make us ap¬
ply to them, what La Bruyere faid of Defpreaux, that
one would imagine the thoughts of other men had been
of his own creation.
T I N G.
Part I.
In general, a painter iLouid have his eye condantly Imitation.
fixed on nature, that inexhaudible and varied fource of v 
every kind of beauty 5 and Ihould dudy to imitate her
in her mod fingular effedts. As beauty, fcattered over
the whole univerfe, fhines brighter in fome objeds than
in others, he diould never be without his little book
and crayon, in order to make drawings of every beau¬
tiful or uncommon objed that may happen to prefent
itfelf; and take fketches of every fine building, every
fituatieti, every effed of light, every flight of clouds,
every flow of drapery, every attitude, every expreflion
of the pafllons, that may happen to drike him. He
may afterwards employ thefe things as occafions offer *,
and in the mean time will have the advantage of acqui¬
ring a grand tade.
It is by carefully dudying the bed maders, and imi¬
tating nature, that a painter arrives at the dyle of per-
fedion which the Italians call gufto grando, the French
le heau ideal, and the Englilh the great Jhyle.
“ A mind (fays Sir Jodiua Reynolds), enriched by an
affemblage of all the treafures of ancient and modern art,
will be more elevated and fruitful in refources in propor¬
tion to the number of ideas which have been carefully col •
leded and thoroughly digeded.
“ The addition of other men’s judgement is fo far from
weakening, as is the opinion of many, our own, that it
will fadiion and confolidate thofe ideas of excellence
which lay in their birth feeble, ill-diaped, and confufed ;
but which are finidied and put in order by the authority
and pradice of thofe, whole works may be faid to have
been confecrated by having dood the ted of ages.
“ When we fpeak of the habitual imitation and con¬
tinued dudy of maders, it is not to be underdood that I
advife any endeavour to copy the exad peculiar colour
and complexion of another man’s mind 5 the fuccefs of
luch an attempt mud always be like his who imitates
exadly the air, manner, and gedures, of him whom he
admires. His me del may be excellent, but he himfelf
will be ridiculous j and this ridicule arifes not from his
having imitated, but from his not having chofen the
right mode of imitation.
“ It is a neceffary warrantable pride to difdain to
walk fervilely behind any individual, however elevated
his rank. The true and liberal ground of imitation is an
open field, where, though he who precedes has had the
advantage of darting before you, yet it is enough to
purfue his courfe : you need not tread in his footdeps ;
and you certainly have a right to outdrip him if you
can.
“ Nor, whild I recommend dudying the art from
grtids, can I be fuppofed to mean that nature is to be
neglefled : I take this dudy in aid, and not in exclufion
of the other. Nature is, and mud be, the fountain,
which alone is inexhaudible ; and from which all ex¬
cellencies mud originally flow.
“ The great ufe of dudying our predeceffors is to
open the mind, to Ihorten our labour, and to give us
the refult of the fele&ion made by thofe great minds of
what is grand or beauiiful in nature: her rich dores are
all fpread out before us ; but it is an art, and no eafy
art, to know how or what to choofe, and how to attain
and fecure the objeff of our choice.
“ Thus the highed beauty of form mud be taken
trom nature ; but it is an art of long deduction and-
great experience to know how to find it. I cannot
avoid
Part I. PAIN
Colouring, avoid mentioning here an error which ftudents are apt
   to fall into.
“ He that is forming himfelf mud look with great
caution and warinefs on thofe peculiarities or prominent
parts which at firft force themfelves on view, and are the
marks, or what is commonly called the manner, by which
j that individual artift is diftinguilhed.
“ Peculiar marks I hold to be generally, if not al¬
ways, defects, however difficult it may be wholly to
efcape them.
“ Peculiarities in the works of art are like thofe in
the human figure *, it is by them that we are cognizable
and diitinguiffied one from another} but they are always
lb many blemiffies, which, however, both in the one cafe
and in the other, ceafe to appear deformities to thofe who
have them continually before their eyes. In the works
of art, even the mod enlightened mind, when warmed by
beauties of the highed kind, will by degrees find a repug¬
nance within him to acknowledge any defeats j nay, his
enthufiafm will carry him fo far as to transform them into
beauties and objedls of imitation.
“ It mud be acknowledged, that a peculiarity of dyle,
either from its novelty, or by feeming to proceed from a
peculiar turn of mind, often efcapes blame j on the con¬
trary, it is fometimes driking and pleafing j but it is vain
labour to endeavour to imitate it, becaufe novelty and pe¬
culiarity being its only merit, when it ceafes to be new,
it ceafes to have value.
“ A manner, therefore, being a defedl, and every
painter, however excellent, having a manner, it feems
to follow that all kinds of faults as well as beau¬
ties may be learned under the fandtion of the greated
authority.”
Sect. V. Of Colouring.
Colouring, though a fubject greatly inferior to many
others which the painter mud dudy, is yet of fufficient
importance to employ a confiderable drare of his atten¬
tion ; and to excel in it, he mud be well acquainted
with that part of optics which has the nature of light
and colours for its object. Light, however fimple and
uncompounded it may appear, is neverthelefs made up,
as it were, of feveral didin61 fubdances \ and the num¬
ber, and even dote, of thefe ingredients, has been hap¬
pily difcovered by the moderns. Every undivided ray,
let it be ever fo fine, is a little bundle of red, orange,
yellow, green, azure, indigo, and violet rays, which,
while combined, are not to be didinguiffied one from
another, and form that kind of light called white: fo that
t Trattato white is not a colour per fe, as the learned Da Vinci f
della Pit- (lb far, it feems, the precurfor of Newton) exprefsly
tura, c. 14. affirmSj but an aflemblage of colours. Now thefe colours,
which compofe light, although immutable in themfelves,
and endued with various qualities, are continually, how¬
ever, feparating from each other in their refledlion from
and paffage through other fubdances, and thus become
manifed to the eye. Grafs, for example, retledls only
green rays, or rather refledls green rays in greater num¬
ber than it does thofe of any other coldur ; one kind of
wine tranfmits red rays, and another yellowidi rays: and
from this kind of feparation arifes that variety of colours
with which nature has diverfified her various produ6tions.
Man, too, has contrived to feparate the rays of light by
making a portion of the fun’s beams pafs through a glafs
TING* 653
prifm •, for after pading through it, they appear divided Colouring,
into feven pure and primitive colours, placed in fuccef- '
fion one by the other, like fo many colours on a painter’s
pallet.
Now, though Titian, Corregio, and Vandyke, have
been excellent colourids, without knowing any thing
of thefe phyfical fubtleties, that is no reafon why others
diould negledl them. For it cannot but be of great
fervice to a painter to be well acquainted with the na¬
ture of what he is to imitate, and of thofe colours
with which he is to give life and perfeflion to his de-
figns ; not to fpeak of the pleafure there is in being
able to account truly and folidly for the various effe6ts
and appearances of light. From a due tempering, for
example, and degrading, of the tints in a pidlure \ from
making colours partake of each other, according to the
refledlion of light from one obje6t to another; there
arifes, in fome meafure, that fublime harmony which
may be confidered as the true mufic of the eye. And
this harmony has its foundation in the genuine prin¬
ciples of optics. Now this could not happen in the
fyftem of thofe philofophers, who. 5held, that colours
did not originally exiit in light, but were, on the con¬
trary, nothing elfe than fo many modifications which
it underwent in being rededled from other fubftances,
or in palling through them ; thus fubjecl to alterations
without end, and every moment liable to periffi. Were
that the cafe, bodies could no more receive any hues
one from another, nor this body partake of the colour
of that, than fcarlet, for example, becaufe it has the
power of changing into red all the rays of the fun or
Iky which immediately fall upon it, has the power of
changing into red all the other rays refledled to it from
a blue or any other colour in its neighbourhood.
Whereas, allowing that colours are in their own na¬
ture immutable one into another, and that every body
retle6ls, more or lefs, every fort of coloured rays,
though thofe rays in the greatelt number which are of
the colour it exhibits, there mull neceffarily arife, in
colours placed near one another, certain particular hues
or temperaments of colour: nay, this influence of one
colour upon another may be fo far traced, that three or
four bodies of different colours, and likewife the in-
tenfenefs of the light falling upon each, being affign-
ed, we may eafily determine in what fituations and how
much they would tinge each other. We may thus, too,
by the fame principle of optics, account for feveral other
things pra6tifed by painters •, infomuch that a perfon,
who has carefully obferved natural effecls with an eye
dire61ed by folid learning, (hall be able to form ge¬
neral rules, where another can only diflinguilh particular
cafes.
But after all, the pi6Iures of the beft colouriffs are,
it is univerally allowed, the books in which a young
painter muff chiefly look for the rules of colouring;
that is, of that branch of painting which contributes
fo much to exprefs the beauty of objedls, and is fo re-
quifite to reprefent them as what they really are. Gi¬
orgio and Titian teem to have difcovered circumftances
in nature which others have entirely overlooked ; and
the lalt in particular has been happy enough to exprefs
them with a pencil as delicate as his eye was quick and
piercing. In his works we behold that fweetnefs of
colouring which is produced by union, that beauty
which is confident with truth; and all the infenfibhr
tranfmutationsp.
654 PAIN
^Coloanty^ iranimutations, ali tlae foft tranfitions, in a word, all
v the pleafmg modulations, of tints and colours. When
a young painter has, by clofe application, acquired
from Titian, whom he can never fufficiently dwell up¬
on, that art which, of all painters, he has bed: contri¬
ved to hide, he would do well to turn to BaiTano and
Paolo, on account of the beauty, boldnefs, and ele¬
gance of their touches. That richnefs, foftnefs, and
freflmefs of colouring for which the Lombard fchool
is fo juftly cried up, may hkewbe be of great fervice
to him. Nor will he reap lefs benefit by ftudying the
principles and praftice of the Flemiih fcliool • which,
chiefly by means of her varnishes, has contrived to give
a moil enchanting luftre and tranfparency to her co¬
lours.
But whatever piclures a young pdnter may choofe
to ftudy the art of colouring upon, he mud take great
care tnat they be wtll preferved. There are very few
pieces which have not differed more or lefs by the
length, not to fay the injuries, 6f time ; and perhaps
that precious patina, which years alone can impart to
paintings, is in fome meafure akin to that other kind
which ages alone impart to medals ; inafmuch as, by
giving tellimony to their antiquity, it renders them
proportionably beautiful in the fuperftitious eves of the
learned. It mud indeed be allowed, that if, on the
one hand, this patina bedows, as it really does, an
extraordinary degree of harmony upon the colours of a
pklure, and dedroys, or at lead greatly leffens, their
original rawnefs, it, on the other hand, equally im¬
pairs the frefhtiefs and life of them. A piece feen many
years after it has been painted, appears much as it
would do,, immediately after painting, behind a dull
glafs. It is no idle opinion, that Paolo Veronefe, at¬
tentive above all things to the beauty of his colours
and what is refrito^ left entirely to time the care
of harmonizing them perfectly, and (as we may fay)
mellowing them. But mod of the old maders took that
talk upon themfelves \ and never expofed their works
to the eyes of tne public, until they had ripened and
linifhed them with their own hands. And who can fay
whether the Chri/i of Moneta, or the Nothin/ of Baf-
fano, have been more improved or injured (if we may
fo ipeak) by the touchings and retouchings of time,
in the courfe of more than two centuries? It is indeed
impofiible to be determined. But the d idious pupil
may make hnnfelf ample amends for any injuries -which
his originals may have received Bom the hands of time,
by turning to truth, and to Nature which never grows
old, but condantly retains its primiuve dower of youth
and was itfelf the model of the models before him. As5
foon, therefore, as a young painter lias laid a proper
foundation for good colouring, by dudying the bed
maders, he diould turn ail his thoughts to truth and
nature. And it would perhaps be well worth while to
have, in the academies of painting, models for colour¬
ing as well as defigning ; that as from the one the pu¬
pils learn to give their due proportion to the feveral
members and mufcles, they may learn from the offer
to make their carnations rich and warm, and faithfully
copy the different local hues which appear quite dif-
tinft in the different parts of a fine body. To illudrate
dill farther the ufe of fuch a model, let us fuppofe it
placed in different lights : now in that of the fun, now
in that of the Iky, and now again in that of a lamp or
3
T I N G. Part I.
candle ; one time placed in the {hade, and another in Drapery,
a refle&ed light. Hence the pupil may learn all the  v-—'
difierent efiedfs of the compledlion in different circum-
itances, wnether the livid, the lucid, or tranfparent j
and, above all, that variety of tints and half tints, oc-
cafioned in the colour of the fkin by the epidermis ha¬
ving the bones immediately under it in fome places,
and in others a greater or lefs number of blocd-veffels
or quantity of fat. An artid who had long dudied
fuch a model would run no rifk- of degrading the beau¬
ties of nature by any particularity of dyle, or of giving
into that prepoderous fulnefs and lloridnefs of-colour
which js at prefent fo much the lade. He would not
feed his figures with rofes, as an ancient painter of
Greece Ihrewdly expreffed it, but with good beef 5 a IVelbAvA.
difference which the learned eye of a modern writer 5.
could perceive between the colouring of Barocci and
that of Titian. To praftife in that manner, is, ac¬
cording to a great mafter, no better than inuring one’s
felt to the commiflion of blunders. What datues are
in dengn, nature is in colouring; the fountain-head of
that perfection to which every artid, ambitious to ex¬
cel, diould condantly afpire : and accordingly the Fle-
mifh painters, in confequence of their aiming folely to
copy nature, are in colouring as excellent as they are
wont to be aukward in defigning. The bed model for
the tone of colours and the degradation of (hades is
furnifhed by means of the camcra-obfcura. See Diop¬
trics, Seel. vi. and ix.
Sf.ct. VI. Of Drapery.
Drapery is one of the mod important branches of
the whole art, and accordingly demands the greateil
attention and dudy. It feldom happens that a painter
has nothing but naked figures to reprefent ; nay, his
fubjeCts generally confid of figures clothed from" head
to foot. Now the flowing of the folds in every gar¬
ment depends chiefly upon the relief of the parts that
lie under it. A certain author, we forget his name,
obferves, that as the inequalities of a furface are dif-
coverable by the inequalities in the water that runs over
it, fo the podure and diape of the members mud be
difcernible by the folds of the garment that covers
them. Thofe idle windings and gatherings, with which
fome painters have affe&ed to cover their figures, make
the clothes made up of them look as if the body had
fled from under them, and left nothing in its place but
a heap of empty bubbles, fit emblems of the brain that
conceived them. As from the trunk of a tree there
iffue here and there boughs of various forms, fo from
one midrefs fold there always flow many leffer ones:
and as it is on the quality of the tree that the elegance,
eompaftnefs, or opennefs of its branches chiedy depends;
it is, in like manner, by the quality of the duff of which
a garment is made, that the number, order, and dze of
its folds mud be determined. To fum up all in two
words, the drapery ought to be natural and eafy, fo as
to (how what duff it is, and what parts it covers. It
ought, as a certain author expveffes it, to cover the
body, as it were merely to (how it.
It was formerly the cudom with fome of our maders
to draw all their figures naked, and fffen drape them ;
from the fame principle that they fird drew tbe 'lkele-
tons of their figures, and afterwards covered them with
irittfcles.
Part I. , PAIN
Drapery, mufcles. And it was by proceeding in this manner
v v that they attained to fuch a degree ot truth in expref-
fing the folds of their drapery, and the joints and di¬
rection of the principal members that lay under it, To
as to exhibit in a moft ftriking manner the attitude of
the perfon to whom they belonged.. That the ancient
fculptors clothed their ilatues with equal truth and
grace, appears from many cf them that are ftill in be-
ing ; particularly a Flora lately dug up in Rome, whole
drapery is executed with lo much judgement, and in fo
grand and rich a ftyle, that it may vie with the fineft
ot their naked fcatues, even with the Venus of IVIedicis.
i he ftatues of the ancients had fo much beauty when
naked, that tney retained a great deal when clothed.
Tut here it mult be confidered, that it was ufual with
them to fuppole their originals clothed with wet gar¬
ments, and of an extreme finenefs and delicacy, that,
by lymg dole to the parts, and in a manner clinging
to them, they might the better fliow what thefe parts
were. For this reafon a painter is not to confine him-
lelf to the iludy of the ancient ftaiues, left he fliould
contract a dry flyle, and even fall irr o the fame faults
with feme great mailers who, accuftomed to drape with
iiich lignt Huffs as fit ciofe to the body, have after¬
wards made the coarlelt he in the fame manner, fo as
plainly to exhibit the mufcles underneath them. It is
therefore proper to iludy nature herfelf, and thofe mo¬
dern mailers who have come neareft to her in this
branch , fuch as Paolo Veronefe, Andrea del Sarto,
iluoens, and above all, Guido Reni. 1 tie llow of their
drapery is loft and gentle ; and the gatherings and plaits
are fo contrived, as not only not to hide the body, but
to add grace and dignity to dt. Their gold, filk, and
woollen fluffs, are fo diftinguifhable one from another,
by the quality of their Several luftres, and the peculiar
light and fhade belonging to each, but above all by the
form and llow of their folds, that the age and lex of
their figures are hardly more difcoverable°by their faces.
Albert fhirer is another great mafter in"this branch,
infomuch that Guido himfeif was not afhamed to fludy
him. 1 here are ftill extant leveral drawings made
with the pen by this great man, in which he has copied
whole figures from Albert, and fcrupuloufly retained
the flow of his drapery as far as his own peculiar ftvle,
lels harih and fliarp, but more eafy and graceful, would
allow. It may be faid that he made the fame ufe of Al¬
bert that our modern waiters ought to make of the belt
authors of the 13th century.
To drape a figure wxdJ, it is neceffary that the folds
be large and few in number ; became large folds pro-
duce. great maffes of light and fhadow, while final] ones
multiply the objefts of view and dill raft the attention.
But if the charafter of the drapery or kind of fluff re¬
quire fmall folds, they fliould at leaf! be diftributed in
gioups, in Inch a manner that a great number of fmall
folds lhall be fubordinate to an equal mafs formed by a
principal fold.
It is alfo proper to obferve, that the colour of the
drapery contributes to the harmony of the whole, and
pioduces effefls which the claro obfeuro cannot do
alone. At the fame time, the principles of the claro-
oofeuro fhould prefide over, or at leaf! regulate, the
art of drapery. If the folds of the fluff which cover
the. members expofed to the light are too ftrongly fliad-
T T N C. . 655
ed, they will appear to enter into the members, and cut Drapery.
Drapery contributes to the life, to the charafler, to
the expreflion of the figures, provided all the move¬
ments ol tne lolds announce the lively or more tran¬
quil movement of thofe figures. The colour, and the
kind of fluff, concur alfo to promote the general ex¬
preflion ; brilliant cr fine drapery cannot be properly ,
introduced m a mournful fubjeril, nor the oppofite in a
gay one.
The drapery muff alfo agree with the age and cha¬
racter of the figures : And if nature in any inftance is
found to contradict thofe principles, it is becaufq they
relate to the ideal of the art 5 and it is this ideal which
canles it to the greateft perfection.
Great attention is alfo neceffary to the fituation in
which the figures are placed, and the actions about
which they are employed. If they are in the aft of
a cending, a column of air wTeighs down the drapery j
if, on the contrary, they are defeending, the drapery
is fuppoi ted and fpread cut. I he folds placed on
every member, and the general play7 of the drapery,
fhould indicate whether the figure is in action or about
to be fo ; whether aftion be beginning or ending • and
whether it be flow, cr quick, cr violent. All this is
agreeable to nature; but it alfo partakes of the ideal,
fince nature never can be copied in fuch fiuctuatirg fi-
tuations. The practice of the Roman fchcols, firit to
draw after nature, and then to paint after the drawing,
cannot ce adopted by colounfts 5 becaufe nature, accord¬
ing to the kind ot the fluffs, produces tones and lights
winch give more perfection and truth to the work.
Meamvhile Raphael, who followed this practice, enjoys
the firft reputation for giving play to his drapery, and
difpofing the folds in the be A order. In this part he has
even attained the height of ideal beauty. He is the
greateft painter of drapery, as the Venetians are the
greateit in painting fluffs.
Raphael, fays Mengs, imitated at firft his mafter
Perugin’s manner of drapery; and he brought this
manner to perfection, by fludying the works of Ma¬
fic c 10 and ot Bartholomew 1 but he departed en---
tirely from the talte of the fchocl in winch he was
educated when he had feen the works of the ancients.
It was the baffo-relievo of antiquity which pointed out
to him the true flowing of drapery, and he was not
backward to introduce it. Fie difeovered, by attend¬
ing to the principles of the ancients, that the naked is
the principal part 5 that drapery is to be regarded al¬
together as an acceffory, and that it is intended to cover
not to conceal ; that it is employed from neceffity, not
caprice 5 that of confequence the clothes fhould not he
io narrow as to conitrain the members, nor fo ample as
to embarrafs them ; but that the aftift fhould adapt
them to the fize and attitude of the figures intended to
wTear them.
He underflood that the great folds fhould be placed
at the large places of the body ; and where the nature
of the drapery required fmall folds, that it w as necef¬
fary to give them a projection, which indicates a fub-
ordination to the principal parts.
He made his ample draperies without ufelefs folds,
and with bendings at the articulations. It was the form
of the naked figure which pointed out to him the form
cf.
656 PAIN
Landfcape of Ms folds, and on the great mufeles he formed great
andArchi-maflfes. When any part required to ,be foreihortened,
, te<^ure' he covered it with the fame number of folds as if it had
'""~v " been ftraight j but then he crowded them in proportion
to the forediortening.
He frequently difcovered the border of his drapery,
to fhow that his figures were not dreffed in a fimple
fack. The form of the principal parts, and the fpecific
weight of the air, wTere always the caufes of his folds.
It was eafy to difcover in his works, by the folds of
his drapery, the attitude of the figure previous to the
one in which it was placed j and whether, for example,
the arm Was extended or otherwife, immediately be¬
fore the aft ion. This was an expreflion which he had
carefully ftudied on all occafions, becaufe he found it in
nature.
When the drapery was to cover the leg or arm but
half, or in an imperfeft manner, he made it cut ob¬
liquely the member which was partly to be covered.
His folds were of a triangular form. The reafon of
this form is in nature : for all drapery has a tendency
to enlarge itfelf and be extended j and as at the fame
time its own weight obliges it to fall back on itfelf, it
is naturally formed into triangles.
He knew perfeftly that the movements of the body
and of its members are the caufes of the aftual fitua-
tion of drapery, and of the formation of its folds. All
his praftice is nothing elfe but the unfolding and de-
monftrating of this theory j and drapery executed in
any other manner muft be in a falfe and vicious tafte.
Sect. VII. Of Landfcape and ArchiteBure.
WHEN our young painter has made a fufficient pro-
grefs in thofe principal branches of his art, the defign-
ing, perfpeftive, colouring, and drapery of human fi¬
gures, he Ihould turn his thoughts to landfcape and ar-
chitefture : for, by ftudying them, he will render him-
felf univerfal, and qualified to undertake any fubjeft 5
fo as not to referable certain literati, who, though great
mailers in fome articles, are mere children in every thing
elfe.
The moll eminent landfcape painters are Pouflin,
Lorenefe, and Titian.
Poufiin wTas remarkable for his great diligence. His
pieces are quite exotic and uncommon \ being fet off
with buildings in a beautiful but lingular llyle $ and
with learned epifodes, fuch as poets reciting their verfes
to the woods, and youths exercifing themfelves in the
feveral gymnaltic games of antiquity j by which it
plainly appears, that he was more indebted for his fub-
iefts to the defcriptions of Paufanias than to nature and
truth.
Lorenefe applied himfelf chiefly to exprefs the vari¬
ous phenomena of light, efpecially thofe perceivable in
the heavens. And thanks to the happy climate of
Rome, where he lludied and exercifed his talents, he
has left us the brightell Ikies, and the richell and moll
glorioufly cloud-tipt horizons, that can be well concei¬
ved. Nay, the fun himfelf, which, like the Almighty,
can be reprefented merely by his effefts, has fcarcely
efcaped his daring and ambitious pencil.
Titian, the great confidant of nature, is the Homer
of landfcape. His fcenes have fo much truth, fo much
variety, and fuch a bloom in them, that it is impoihble
4
T I N G. __ Part I.
to behold them, without wifhlng, as if they wete real, LandA ape
to make an excurlion into them. And perhaps the andArchi-
finelt landfcape that ever iffued from mortal hands, is teftul,%
the back ground of his Martyrdom of St Peter; where,
by the difference between the bodies and the leaves of
his trees and the difpofition of their branches, one im¬
mediately difcovers the difference between the trees
themfelves j where the different foils are fo well expref-
fed, and fo exquilitely clothed with their proper plants,
that a botanill has much ado to keep his hands from
them. See Part II. feft. ii.
Paolo Veronefe is in architefture what Titian is in
landfcarpe. To excel in landfcape, we mull, above all
things, lludy nature. To excel in architefture, we mull
chiefly regard the finell works of art j fuch as the fronts
of ancient edifices, and the fabrics of thofe moderns
\vho have bell lludied and bell copied antiquity. Next
to Brunellefchi and Alberti, who were the firlt revivers
of architefture, came Bramante, Giulio Romano, San-
fovino, Sanmicheli, and lallly Palladio, whofe works
the young painter Ihould above all the reft diligently
ftudy and imprint deeply on his mind. Nor is Vignola
to be forgotten •, for fome think ke was a more fcrupulous
copier of antiquity, and more exaft, than Palladio him¬
felf, infomuch that moll people confider him as the firft
architeft among the moderns. For our part, to fpeak
of him, not as fame, but as truth feems to require, we
cannot help thinking, that rather than break through
the generality of the rules contrived by him to facili¬
tate praftice, he has in fome inftances deviated from
the moll beautiful proportions of the antique, and is
rather barren in the diftribution and difpofition of cer¬
tain Members. Moreover, the extraordinary height of
his pedeftals and cornices hinders the column from
Ihowing in the orders defigned and employed by him,
as it does in thofe of Palladio. Amongft that great
Variety of proportions to be met with in ancient ruins,
Palladio has been extremely happy in choofing the beft.
His profiles are well contrafted, yet eafy. All the parts
of his buildings hang well together. Grandeur, ele¬
gance, and beauty, walk hand in hand in them. In
fhort, the very blemifhes of Palladio, who was no Have
to conveniency, and fometimes perhaps was too profufe
in his decorations, are pifturefque. And we may rea-
fonably believe, that it was by following fo great a
mafter, whofe works he had continually before his eyes,
that Paolo Veronefe formed that fine and mafterly tafte
which enabled him to embellilh his compofitions with
fuch beautiful ftruftures.
The ftudy of architefture cannot fail, in another re-
fpeft, of being very ufeful to the young painter, inaf-
mufch as it will bring him acquainted with the foi'm of
the temples, thermae, bafilics, theatres, and other build¬
ings of the Greeks and Romans. Befides, from the
baffo-relievos with which it was cuftotnary to adorn thefe
buildings, he may gather, with equal delight and profit,
the nature of their facrifices, arms, military enfigns, and
drefs. The ftudy of landfcape, too, will render familiar
to him the form of the various plants peculiar to each
foil and climate, atid fuch other things as ferVe to cha-
rafterife the different regions of the earth. Thus by
degrees he will learn what rve call cq/Iutne, one of the
chief requifites in a painter 5 fince by means of it ire
may exprefs with great precifion the time and place in
which his fcenes are laid.
Sect,
Part I, PAIN
Expreffion
Paflions. Seci. v Iz I. Oj the KxprejJion of the Pajfons.
That language which above all others a painter
fliould carefully endeavour to learn, and from nature
herfelf, is the language of the patTions. Without it
the fineft works mull appear lifelefs and inanimate. It
is not enough for a painter to be able to delineate the
mod exquilite forms, give them the mod graceful at¬
titudes, and compofe them well together^ it is not
enough to drefs them out with propriety, and in the
mod beautiful colours ; it is not enough, in fine, by the
powerful magic oi light and lhade, to make the canvas
vanilh. No 5 he mud likewife know how to clothe his
figures with grief, with joy, with fear, with anger; he
mud, in fome fort, write on. their faces what they think
and what they feel ; he mud give them life and fpeech.
U is indeed in this branch that painting truly foars, and
in a manner rifes fuperior to itfelf; it is in this branch
die makes the fpeclator apprehend much more than what
die expreflfes.
The means employed in her imitations by painting,
aie the circumfcription of terms, the chiaro-fcuro, and
colours ; all which appear folely calculated to drike the
vifual faculty. Notwithdanding which, die contrives
to reprefent hard and foft, rough and finooth furfaces,
which are objefts of the touch : and this by means of
certain tints, and a certain chiaro-fcuro, which has a
different look in marble, in the bark of trees, in downy
and delicate fubftances. Nay, die contrives to exprefs
found and motion, by means of light and diade, and
certain particular configurations. In fome landfcapes
of Diderich, ne almod hear the water murmur, and
fee it tremble along the fides of the river and of the
ooats upon it. In the Battle of Burgogne, we are
Really hpt to fancy that the trumpet founds 5 and we
fee the horfe, who has thrown his rider, fcamper aloim
tne plain. But what is dill more wonderful, painting^
m virtue of her various colours and certain particular
gedures, expreffes even the fentiments and mod hidden
affections ot the foul, and renders her vifible, fo as to
make the eye not only touch and hear, but even kindle
into padton and reafon.
Many have written, and amongd the red the fa¬
mous Le Brun, on the various changes that, according
to the various padions, happen in the mufcles of the
fece, which is, as it were, the dumb tongue of the foul.
They obferve, for example, that in fits of anger the
face reddens, the mufcles of the lips puff out, the eyes
iparkle ; and that, on the contrary, in fit$ of melancholy,
the eyes grow motionlefs and dead, the face pale, and’
the lips fink in. It may be of fervice to a painter to
read thefe and fuch other remarks j but it will be of in-
Enitely more fervice to dudy them in nature itfelf, from
which they have been borrowed, and which exhibits them
in that lively manner which neither tongue nor pen can
exprefs.
■ Upon Le Brim’s Treatife on the Padions, we have
the following jud, though fevere, criticifm by Winckle-
man. “ Expredion, though precarious in its nature
{fays he), has been reduced into a fyftem, in a Trea-
tife on the Padions by Charles le Brun, a work gene¬
rally put into the hands of young artids. The plates
which accompany this treatife do not only give to the
face the affetfions of the foul in too high a tone, but
Voir. XV. Part II.
ting. 6s7
there are many of the heads in which the paflions are Expreffion
reprelented in an outrageous manner. He appears to °f the
give indruclions in expreflion, as Diogenes gave ex- ^>a^0D?‘
amples of morality : I a£t like muficians, faid that cy- v~
nic, who give a high tone,' in order to indicate a true
one. . But the fervour of youth has naturally more in¬
clination^ to. feize the extreme than the middle ; and
hence it is difficult for the young artifl, in copying after
Le Brun, to leize the true tone. Youth in general may
be fuppoled to have that regard for the calm and mo¬
derate in the arts, which they have for the precepts of
wdfdom and virtue.”
Other biench writers have given inflrudlions re-
fpecling the .expreflion of the paflions, equally excep¬
tionable with thole of Le Brun. All of them whom
we have confulted make lo many divifions and fubdi-
vifions of paflions, that a philofopher cannot follow
them in metaphyfical theory, nor a painter exhibit their
effedls upon canvas. Nature therefore mud be his
guide, particularly in treating thofe very minute and
almofl imperceptible differences, by which, however,
things very different from each other are often ex-
preffed. This is particularly the cafe with regard to
the paflions of laughing and crying 5 as in thefe, how¬
ever contrary, the mufcles of the face operate nearly
in the fame manner. As the famous Pietro de Cor¬
tona was one day finifliing the face of a crying child
in a reprefentation of the Iron Age, with which he
was adorning the floor called the Hot-bath in the royal
palace of Pitti, Ferdinand II. who happened to be
looking over him for his amufement, could not forbear
exprefling his approbation, by crying out, “ Oh how
well that child cries!” To whom the artifl,—“ Has
your majefty a mind to fee how eafy it is to make chil¬
dren laugh ? Behold, I’ll prove it in an inflantAnd
taking up his pencil, by giving the contour of the
mouth a concave turn downwards inflead of the con¬
vex upwards which it before had, and with little or no
alteration in any other part of the face, he made the
child, who a little before feemed ready to burd its
heart with crying, appear in equal danger of burfling
its .fides with immoderate laughter ; and then, by re-
ftoring the altered features to their former pofition, he
foon let the child a-crying again.”
The different expreflions of laughter and weepingb.eclure^ of
are thus deferibed by Le Brun. “ The movements o£PbiliP Bal'
laughter are. expreffed by the eye-brows elevated to-^T '"
waids the middle oi the eye, and lowered towards the demy of La
fides of the nofe : the eyes, almod dmt, appear fome- Cmfca il
times moiflened with tears: the mouth, a little open, Lyjlrato,
allows the teeth to be feen: the extremities of the^"0,
mouth drawn back, make a dimple in the cheeks,
which appear to be fwelled: the noflrils are open;
and the face becomes red. The changes which weep-
ing occafions are equally vifible. The eye-brow is
lowered on the middle of the forehead j the eyes are
almod dmt, moiflened., and lowered towards the fides of
the .cheeks : the noftrils are fwelled, and the veins of
the forehead very apparent; the mouth flmt, by the
lownefs of its. fides, occafions wrinkles in the cheeks;
the under lip is turned down, and preffes at the fame
time the upper lip ; the whole countenance is wuinkled
and becomes red; efpecially the eye-brows, the eyes,
the nofe, and the cheeks.”
According to Leonardo da Vinci, the bed maflers
4 O that
658 V AIN
Expreffion tKat a painter can Lave recourfe to in this branch are
of the thofe dumb men who have found out tne method of
■ I a l'ons' expreffing their fentirnents by the motion oi their hands,
.eyes, eye-brows, and in fhort every other pait or tnc
body. ’ If this advice be at all proper, fuch gedures
mult be imitated with great fobnety and moderation,
left they ftiould appear too ftrong and exaggerated 5 and
tbe piece ftiould fiiow nothing but pantomimes, wnen
fpeaking figures alone are to be exhibited j and fo be¬
come theatrical and fecond-hand, or, at bed, looiv mm
the copv of a theatrical and fecond-hand nature.
The 'artift wild reap greater benefit from ftudying
fucb fine ancient heads as thofe of Mithiidams, Sene¬
ca, Alexander dying, Cleopatra, Niobe, &tc. and above
all, from attentively obferving fuch movements of ^na¬
ture as we daily meet, with in tne world. IjUl mt h.m
chiefly confult his looking-glafs, and ftudy slier hus
own face, what, in certain expreffions, ai£ the muic^cs,
the lineaments, the tints, and the accidental cncum-
ftances which charafterife the fituation of the foul.
It rarely happens that a model, which is aftefled with
no fentiment, prefents that to us which we ourfelves
feel, and which we are capable of exprefling when we
are our own model. Puget executed the legs or ins
Milo after his own *, and many ingenious artifts have
had recourfe to a fimilar expedient. In ftiort, to be
•affecTed ourfelves is the true fecret of affe&ing the
fpeflator. '
Wc muft not negleft, at the fame time, to fecure
the fleeting charafters which nature prefents to us on
a thonfand occafions. We muft diftruil cur memory,
and all the refources which are not eafily employed
when wre happen to ftahd in need of them. It is necei-
fary to watch the circumftances from which we can de¬
rive any ufeful hint •, to feize them when they prelent
themfelves ■, and to be careful never to lofe, by an irre¬
parable negligence, the fruit of a happy incident.
Let us alfo endeavour to polTefs the feeling of what
we are to exprefs: whether it be by forming the
image of a thing aolent as if it were prefent, or by
being affefted with the lively idea of a fixation which
we have either experienced, or with which we have
been another perfon remarkably affefted. We muft
never forget, "that all the terrible or agreeable, the
violent or flight movements, are to be treated in a na¬
tural manner, and bear a relation to the age, condi¬
tion, fex, and dignity of the perfon. Thofe grada¬
tions, which art varies according to the nature of the
fituation, and the charafter of men, compofe the prin¬
cipal ingredients of difeernment, knowledge, and tafte.
They have been the objefts of attention and inquiry
to tbe moft eminent painters of every age j and they
■were of the laft importance in afllfting them to arrive at
that degree of excellence to which they have carried
expreffion.
We are told ftrange things of the ancient painters
of Greece m regard to expreflion ; especially of Ari-
ftides •, who, in a pifture of his, reprefenting a woman
wounded to death at a fiege, with a child crawling to
her breaft, makes her appear afraid, left the child,
when (lie was dead, ftiould, for want of milk, fuck her
blood. A Medea murdering her children, by Timoma-
chus, was likewife much cried up, as the ingenious
artift contrived to exprefs, at once, in her countenance,
bath the fury that hurried her on to the commiflipn of
TING; Part I.
fo great a crime, and the tcnderr.efs of a mother that kxprdlion
feemed to withhold her from it. Rubens attempted to 0i the
exprefs fuch a double effeft in the face of Mary of Me- . a |°nS‘ i
dicis, ftiil in pain from her part labour, and at the fame
time full of joy at the birth of a Dauphin. And in
the countenance of Sanfta Polonia, painted by iiepolo
for St Anthony’s church at Padua, one may clearly
read a mixture of pain from the wound given her by tire
executioner, and of pleafure from the profpeft of para-
dife opened to her by it.
Few, to fay the truth, are the examples of ftrong
expreffion afforded by the Venetian, ITemifti, or Lom¬
bard fchools. Deprived of that great happinefs, the
happinefs of being able to contemplate, at leifure, the
works of the ancients, the pureft fources of perfefticn
in point of deftgn, expreftion, and charafter and ha¬
ving nothing but nature conftantly before their eyes $
they made ftrength of colouring, blooming complec-
tions, and the grand effefts of the chiaro-obfcuro, their
principal ftudy : they aimed more at charming the fell¬
ies than at captivating the underftanding. The Ve¬
netians, in particular, ieem to have placed their whole
glory in fetting off their pieces with all that rich va¬
riety of perfonages and drefs, which their capital is
continually receiving by means of its extenfive com¬
merce, and which attracts fo much the eyes of all thofe
who vifit it. It is much to be doubted, if, in all the
piftures of Paolo Veronefe, there is to be found a bold
and judicious expreffion, or one of thofe attitudes
which, as Petrarch expreffes it, fpeak without words j
unlefs, perhaps, it be that remarkable one in his Mar¬
riage Feajl of Cana of Galilee. At one end of the table,
and direftly oppofite to the bridegroom, whofe eyes are
fixed upon her, there appears a woman in red, holding
up to him the Ikirt of her garment j as much as to lay,
we may fuppofe, that the wine miraculoufiy produced
was exaftly of the colour with the fluff on her back.
And in faft it is red wine we fee in the cups and
pitchers. Rut all this while the faces and attitudes of
moft of the company betray not the leaft fign of wonder
at io extraordinary a miracle. They all, in a manner,
appear intent upon nothing but eating, drinking, and
making merry. Such, in general, is the ftyle of the .
Venetian fchool. The Florentine, Over which Michael
Angelo prefided, above all things curious of defign, was
moft minutely and fcrupuloufly exaft in point of ana¬
tomy. On this flie fet her heart, and tock fmgular
pleafure in difplaying it. Not only elegance of form,
and noblenefs of invention, but likewife ftrength of ex¬
preftion, triumph in the Roman fchool, nurfed as it were
amongft the works of the Greeks, and in the bofom of
a city which had once been the feminary of learning
and politenefs. Here it was that Dcmenichino and
Pcuffin, both great mafters of expreffion, refined them-
felves, as appears more particularly by the St Jerome
of the one, and the Death of Germanicus, and the
Slaughter of the Innocents, by the other. Plere it was
that Raphael arofe, the fovereign mafter of them all.
One would imagine, that piftures, which are generally
confidered as the books of the ignorant, and of the ig¬
norant only, he had undertaken to make the inftruftors .
even of the learned. One would imagine, that he in-'
tended, in fome meafure, to juftify Quintilian *, who * InJUt.
affirms, that painting has more power over us than all1,b- Xl- c. 3.
the arts of rhetoric. There is not, indeed, a Angle pic-
~ ture
Part I. PAIN
ExprefTion ture of Raphael’s, from the iludy of which thole who
’aftons are CUi^ous P0’nt °f expreffion may not reap great be-
■ 11 nefit ; particularly his Martyrdom of St Felicitas, his
Transfigurations, his Jofieph explaining to Pharaoh his
dream, a (piece fo highly rated by PoulTin. His School
of Athens in the Vatican, is, to all intents and purpofes
a fchool of expreffion. Among the many miracles of
art wdth which this piece abounds, we (hall fxngle out
that of the four boys attending on a mathematician,
who, ftooping to the ground with his compafles in his
hand, is giving them the demonftration of a theorem.
One of the boys, recolledting within himfelf, keeps back,
U'ith all the appearance of profound attention to the rea-
foning of the mailer j another, by the briiknefs of his
attitude, difeovers a greater quicknefs of appreheniion ;
while the third, who has already feized the conclufion,
is endeavouring to beat it into the fourth, wffio, Handing
motionlefs, with open arms, a Haring countenance, and
an unfpeakable air of flupidity in his looks, will never
perhaps be able to make any thing of the matter. And
it is probable from this very group that Albani, who
fludied Raphael fo clofely, drew the following precept
of his ; “ That it behoves a painter to exprefs more
circumflances than one by every attitude } and fo to
employ his figures, that, by barely feeing what they
are adlually about, one may be able to guefs, both what
they have been already doing, and are next going to
do.” This is indeed a difficult precept •, but it is only
by a due obfervance of it that the eye and the mind
can be made to hang in fufpenfe on a painted piece of
canvas. It is expreffion that a painter, ambitious to
foar in his profeffion, mufl, above all things, labour to
perfeft himfelf in. It is the lad goal of his art, as So-
Xenoph. crates proves to Parrhafius. It is in expreffion that
Memoral. dumb poetry confifls, and what the prince of our poets
iib. iii. calls a vilible language.
Sect. IX. Of Invention.
As the operations of a general ffiould all ultimately
lend to battle and conquefl, fo fliould all the thoughts
of a painter to perfect invention. Nowq the fludies
which -we have been hitherto recommending, will prove
fo many wings by which he may raife himfelf, as it
ivere, from the ground, and foar on high, when defirous
of trying his flrength this way, and producing fome-
thing from his owm hand. Invention is the finding out
probable things, not only fuch as are adapted to the
fubjeft in hand, but fuch, befides, as by their fublimity
and beauty are mofl capable of exciting fuitable fenti-
ments in the fpeftator, and of making him, when they
happen to be w'ell executed, fancy that it is the fubjeft
itielf in its greatefl perfeftion, and not a mere reprefen-
tation of it, that he has before him. We do not fay
true things, but probable things ; becaufe probability or
verifimilitude is, in fa<R, the truth of thofe arts which
have the fancy for their objeft. It is, indeed, the bu-
finefs and duty of both naturaliHs and hiHorians to draw
objects as they find them, and reprefent them with all
thofe imperfections and blemiihes, to which, as indivi¬
duals, they are fubjeCt. But an ideal painter, and fuch
alone is a true painter, refembles the poet: inflead of
copying, he imitates : that is, he wmrks with his fancy,
and reprefents objedts endued with all that perfection
T I N G. 559
which belongs to the fpecies, and may be conceived in Invention,
the archetype. "—y—
“ ’iis nature all, but nature methodis’d j”
fays an eminent poet, fpeaking of poetry : And the
fame may be faid ot painting; it is nature methodized,
and made perfeCt. Infomuch, that the circumflances
of the aCtion, exalted and fublimed to the higheft de¬
gree of beauty and boldnefs they are fufceptible of,
may, though poffible, have never happened exactly fuch
as the painter fancies and thinks proper to reprefent them.
Thus, the piety of /Eneas, and the anger of Achilles, are
things fo perfeCt in their kind, as to be merely probable.
And it is for this reafon that poetry, which is only an¬
other word for invention, is more philofophical, more in-
HruCtive, and more entertaining, than hiflory.
Here it is proper to obferve, what great advantages
the ancient had over the modern painters. The hiflory
of the times they lived in, fraught with great and glo¬
rious events, was to them a rich mine of the moft
noble fubjeCb, wffiich, befides, often derived no fmall
fublimity and pathos from the mythology upon which
their religion was founded. So far were their gods
from being immaterial, and placed at an infinite di-
ftance above their worffiippers; fo far was their reli¬
gion from recommending humility, penance, and felf-
denial, that, on the contrary, it appeared calculated
merely to Hatter the fenfes, inflame the paffions, and
poifon the fancy. By making the gods partake of
our nature, and fubjecting them to the fame paffions,
it gave man hopes of being able to mix with thofe
who, though greatly above him, refemhled him, not-
withftanding, in fo many refpeCts. Befides, thofe dei¬
ties of theirs were in a manner viable, and to be met
at every ftep. The fea wTas crowded with Tritons and
Nereids, the rivers with Naiads, and the mountains
with Dryads. The woods fwarmed with Fauns and
Nymphs, who, in thefe obfeure retreats, fought an
afylum for their ftolen embraces. The mofl potent
empires, the moft noble families, the moft celebrated
heroes, all derived their pedigree from the greater di¬
vinities. Nay, gods interefled themfelves in all the con¬
cerns of mankind. Apollo, the god of long arrows,
flood by the fide of HeCIor in the fields of Troy, and
infpired him with new flrength and courage to batter-
down the walls and burn the fhips of the Greeks.
Thefe, on the other hand, were led on to the fight
and animated by Minerva, preceded by Terror, and fol¬
lowed by Death. Jove nods, his divine locks {hake
on his immortal head ; Olympus trembles. With that
countenance, which allays , the tempeft, and reflores
ferenity to the heavens, he gathers kiffes from the
mouth of Venus, the delight of gods and of men. A-
mong the ancients, every thing fported with the fancy;
and in thofe works which depend entirely on the ima¬
gination, fome of our greateft mafters have thought they
could not do better than borrow from the Pagans, if we
may be allowed to fay it, their pictures of Tartarus, in or¬
der to render their owm drawings of hell more ftriking.
After all, there have not been wanting able inventors
in painting among the moderns. Michael Angelo, not-
withftanding the depth and boldnefs of his own fancy,
is not afhamed in fome of his compofitions, to Dantixe ;
as Phidias and Apelles may be faid formerly to have
4 O 2 Homerized.
66o PAIN
Invention. HomenzeJ. Raphael, too, tutored by the Greeks, has
- found means, like Virgil, to extraft the quinteffence of
truth 5 has feafoncd las works with grace and noble-
nefs 3 and exalted nature, in a manner, above herfelf, by
giving her an afpect more beautiful, more animating,
and more (ublime, than fhe is in reality accuftomed to
wear. In point of invention, Domenichino and Hanni¬
bal Caracci come very near Raphael, efpecially in the
pieces painted by them in Rome 3 nor does Pouflin fall
very fhort of him in fome of Iris pictures, particularly in
his EJlher before Ahafuerus, and his Death of Germani-
cus, the richefi jewrel belonging to the Barberine family.
Of all the painters who have acquired any extraordina¬
ry degree of reputation, no one tludied lels to let oft his
pieces by bold and .beautiful circumltanc.es, or was
more a ftranger to what is called poetical perfection,
than Jacopo Bafiano. Among the numberld’s inftances
we could produce of his careleffnefs this way, let it fuffice
to mention a Preaching of St Paul painted by him in a
place, near that @f his birth, called Marofego. Inltead
of reprefenting the apoltle full of a divine enthuliafm,
as Raphael has done, and thundering againit the fuper-
ftitions of the heathen in an aflembly of Athenians 3 in¬
ltead of exhibiting one of his auditors Itruck to the quick,
another perfuaded, a third inflamed 3 he makes him hold
forth, in a village of the Venetian Hate, to a parcel of
poor peafants and their waves, who take not the lealt no¬
tice of him 3 the women efpecially, who feem to mind
nothing but the country labours in which he had found
them employed.
With regard to invention, painting and poetry re-
femble each other fo much in many other refpects, be-
fides that of combining in every a£tipn all the beauty
and elegance it will admit, that they well deferve the
name oif/ler arts. They differ, however, in one point,
and that too of no fmall importance. It is this.
The poet, in the reprefentation of his ftory, relates
what has already happened, prepares that which is Hill
to come, and fo proceeds, ftep by ftep, through all
the circumftances of the action 3 and, to produce the
greater effeft on his hearers, avails himfelf of the fuc-
ceffion of time and place. The painter, on the con¬
trary, deprived of fuch helps, mull be content to de¬
pend upon one Angle moment. But what a moment!
A moment, in which he may conjure up, at once, to
the eyes of the fpe&ator, a thoufand objefts 3 a mo¬
ment, teeming with the moll beautiful circumltances
that can attend the action 3 a moment, equivalent to
the fucceflive labours of the poet, il his the works of
the greatell matters, which are everywhere to be feen,
fufficiently evince : among others, the St Paul at Lystra,
bv Raphael, whom it is impoflible not to praife as often
as this picture is mentioned. In order to give the fpec-
tator a thorough inflghtinto the fubjeft of this piece, the
painter has placed in the front of it the cripple already re-
Itored to his limbs by the apoltle, flred with gratitude to¬
wards his benefaftor, and exciting his countrymen to yield
him all kinds of honour. Round the cripple are fome
figures lifting up the Ikirts of his coat, in order to look
at the legs reduced to their proper lhape, and acknow7-
Webfr ledging by geitures full of altonilhment the reality of the
dial. 7. miracle j an invention, fays a certain author, a profeffed
admirer of antiquity, which might have been propofed
as an example in the happielt age of Greece.
We have another Ihining initance of the power of
T 1 N G. Parti.
painting to introduce a greater variety of objects on the Invention,
feene at the fame time, and of the advantage it has in Y '
this refpebt over poetry, in a drawing by the celebrated
La Fage. This drawing reprefents the delcent of JP.-
neas into hell. The field is the dark caverns of Pluto’s
kingdom, through the middle of which creeps llowly
the muddy and melancholy Acheron. Neatly in the
centre of the piece appears ./Eneas with the golden
bough in his hand, and with an air of altonilhment at
w’hat he fees. The •'Sibyl, who accompanies him, is
anfwering the queftions which he alks her. The per-
fonage there is the ferryman of the pitchy lake, by
which even the gods themfelves are afraid to fwear.
Thofe who, crowding in to the1 banks of the river,,
numberlefs as the leaves lhaken off the trees by autuirir
nal Malts, exprefs, with outitretched hands, an impa<-
tience to be ferried to the oppolite fhore, are the un¬
happy manes, who, for want of burial, are unqualified
for that happinefs. Charon, accordingly, is crying
out to them, and with his lified-up oar driving them
from his boat, which has already taken in a number
of thole who had been honoured with the accuftomed
funeral rites. Behind /Eneas and the Sibyl we difeover
a confufed group of wretched louls, lamenting bitterly
their misfortune in being denied a paflage 3 two of
them wrapped up in their clothes 3 and, in a fit of de-
fpair, funk upon a rock. Upon the firlt lines of the
piece Hands a third group of uninhumed (hades. Leu-
cafpes, Orontes, and, in the midit of them, the good
old Palinurus, formerly mailer and pilot of the hero’s
own vefl’el, who with joined hands molt earnellly de¬
fires to be taken along with him into the boat, that,
after death, at lealt, he may find fome repofe, and his
dead body no longer remain the fport of winds and
waves. Thus, what we fee fcattere'd up and down in.
many verfes by Virgil, is here, as it were, gathered in¬
to a focus, and concentered by the* ingenious pencil of
the painter, fo as to form a fubjebt well worthy of being
expofed,in morefhapes than one, to the eyes of the public.
When a painter takes a fubjeft in hand, be it hiltc-
rical, be it fabulous, he Ihould carefully perufe the
books which treat of it, imprint well on his mind all
the circumltances that attend it, the perfons concern¬
ed in it, and the paffions with which they mult have
been feverally animated 3 not omitting the particulars
of time and place. His next bufinefs is to create it,
as it were, anew, obferving the rules already laid down,
for that purpofe : From what is true, choofing that
which is molt Itriking 3 and clothing his fubjedt with
fuch acceffory circumitances and abtions, as may render
it more confpicuous, pathetic, and noble, and belt dii-
play the powers of the inventive faculty. But, in do¬
ing this, great diferetion is requifite 3 for, let his ima¬
gination grow ever fo warm, his hand is never to exe¬
cute any thing that is not fully approved by his judge¬
ment. Nothing low or vulgar Ihould appear in a lofty
and noble argument 3 a fault, of which fome of the
greatelt mailers, even Lampieri and Poufiin, have been
now and then guilty.
The adtion mult be one, the place one, the time
one. We need not fay any thing of thofe painters,
who, like the writers of the Chinele and Spaniih
theatre, cram a variety of adtions together, and lo give
us at once the whole life of a man. Such blunders, it jS
prefumed, are too grofs to be feared at prefent. The
poll ten el's
Part I. PAIN
Invention, politenefs and learning of tlie age feem io demand conii-
'—- (Jerations of a more refined nature 3 fuch as, that the epi-
fodes introduced in the drama of a pidlure, the better to
fill and adorn it, fhould be not only beauliful in them-
felves, but indifpenfably requifite. The games celebrat¬
ed at the tomb of Anchifes, in Sicily, have a greater va¬
riety in them, and more fources of delight, than thofe
that had been before celebrated at the tomb of Patro-
clus under the walls of Troy. The arms forged by Vul¬
can for iEneas, if not better tempered, are at leal! bet¬
ter engraved, than thofe which the fame god had forged
feveral ages before for Achilles. Neverthelefs, in the
eyes of judges, both the games and the arms of Homer
are more pleafing than thofe of Virgil, becaufe the for¬
mer are more neceflary in the Iliad than the latter in the
TEneid. Every part fhould agree wdth, and have a re¬
lation to, the whole. Unity fhould reign even in varie¬
ty ; for in this beauty confifts. This is a fundamental
maxim in- all the arts whofe object it is to. imitate the
works of nature. ,
Pictures often borrow no front! grace and beauty
from the fidlions of poetry. Albani has left us, in fe¬
ver ai of his works, fufRcient proofs of the great fhare
the belles lettres had in refining his taile. But Ra¬
phael, above all others, may in this branch too be con-
fidered as a guide and mafter. To give but one in-
ftance out of many 5 what a beautiful thought wTas it to
reprefent the river himfelf, in a PaJJage of Jordan, fup-
porting his waters with his own hands, in order to open
a way to the army of the Ifraelites 1 Not has he difplayed
lefs judgement in reviving, in his defigns engraved by
Agoftino of Venice, the little loves of Aetius playing
with the arms of Alexander, conquered by the beauty of
Roxana.
Among the ancients, Apelles and Parrhafius were
thofe who difHnguifhed themfelves moft in allegorical
fubje&s, in which the inventive faculty fhows itfelf to
the greateft advantage 5 the ftrft by his picture of
Calummj *, the fecond by that of the Genius of the
.Athenians The ancient painter called Galaton gave
likewife a fine proof of his genius in this branch, by
D«t?, in the reprefer.ting a great number of poets greedily quench-
Life of ing their third in the waters gulhing from the mouth
Jpelles, of the fubl
ime Homer. And to this allegory, accord-
f t? Pl'inii ing to Guigni, Pliny J has an eye, when he calls-that
Nat. Hi ft. prince of poets the fountain of wits. But it is* aftef
all, no way furprifmg that we fliould often meet fuch
fine flights of fancy in the ancient artids. They were
not guided in their works by a blind praSice: they
were mdn of polite education, converiant with the
letters of the age in which they lived; and the com¬
panions rather than the fervants of the great men who
employed ‘them. The fined allegorical painter among
the moderns was Rubens; and he was accordingly
much celebrated for it. The bed critics, however,
find fault with his uniting in the Luxemberg gallery,
the queen-mother, in council, with two cardinals and
Mercury. Nor is there lefs impropriety in his making
Tritons and Nereids, in another piece of the fame gal¬
lery, fwim to the queen’s veffel through the- galleys of
the knights of St Stephen. Such freedoms are equally
difguding with the prophecies of Sannazaro’s Proteus,
concerning the mydery of the incarnation, or the Indian
kings of Camoens, reafbning with the Pbriuguefe on the
>adventures cf Ulvffes.
* See Lu.
cian upon
Calumny;
and Carlo
lib. xxxv.
c 10.
4 Plinii
Nut. Mi/t
lib. xvii.
c. 5.
Webb,
&al. 4.
fclym.
d'ai. 18.
TING.
661
The bed modern performances in pi&urefque allegory Invention,
are certainly thofe of Poudm 3 wTho availed himfelf, with ^ ' *
great diferetion and judgement, of the vad treafures
with which, by a clofe dudy of the ancients, he had en¬
riched his memory. On the other hand, Le Brim, his
countryman, has been very unhappy this way. Ambi¬
tious to have every thing his own, indead of allegories,
he has filled the gallery of Verfailles with enigmas and
riddles, of which none but himfelf was qualified to be
the Oedipus. Allegory mud be ingenious, it is true ;
but then it mud be equally perfpicuous 3 for which rea-
fbn, a painter fhould avoid all vague and indeterminate
allufions, and like wife thofe to hidory and heathen my¬
thology, which are too abltrufe to be underdood by the
generality of fpeftators. The bed way, perhaps, to
fymbolize moral and abdraft things, is to reprefent par¬
ticular events : as Caracci did, by advice of Monfignore See
Agucchi, in the Farnenan palace. For example, what ^fe V
can better exprefs a hero’s love towards his country, than ‘a
the virtuous Decius ccnfecrating himfelf boldly to the
infernal gods, in order to fccure victory to his country¬
men over their enemies ? What finer emblems can we
defire of emulation, and an infatiable third for glory,
than Julius Ciefar weeping before the datue of Alexan¬
der in the temple of Hercules at G ades ? of the incon-
dancy of fortune, than Marius fitting on the ruins of
Carthage, and receiving, indead of the acclamations of
an army joyfully fainting him imperator, orders from a
licior of Sextilius to quit Africa ? of indiferetion, than
Candaules, who, by blowing the naked beauties of his
wife to his friend Gyges, kindled a padion that foon
made him repent his folly ? Such reprefentatxons as thefe
require no comment 3 they carry their explanations along
with them. Befides, fuppofing, and it is the word we
can fuppofe, that the painter’s, aim in them fhould hap¬
pen not to be underdood, his piece would dill give de¬
light. It is thus that the fables of Ariodo prove fo en¬
tertaining, even to thofe who underdand nothing of the
moral couched under them 3 and likewife the wEneis,
though all do not comprehend the alludons and double
intent of the poet.
Sect. X. Of Difpojition.
So much for invention. Difboftion, which may be
| eonfidered as a branch of invention, ccnfids in the pro¬
per ftationing of w7hat the inventive faculty has imagi¬
ned, fo as to exprefs the fubjeft in the moil lively man¬
ner. The chief merit of difpofition may be faid to con-
fid in that diforder, which, wearing the appearance of
mere chance, is in faft the mod budied ebeci of art. A
painter, therefore, is equally to avoid the drynefs of
thofe ancients who always planted their figures like fb
many couples in a proceffion, and the affectation of thofe
moderns who jumble them together as if they were met
merely to fight and fquabble. In this branch Raphael
was happy enough to choofe the jud medium, and at¬
tain perfection. The difpofition of his figures is always
exaftly fuch as the fuhjeft requires. In the Battle of
Confiantine, they are confufedly cindered with as much
art, as they are regularly marlhalled in Cliff's commit¬
ment of the keys to St Peter, and condituting him prince
of the apodles.
Let the inferior figures of a piece be placed as they
will, the principal figure fhould drike the eye mod, and
band
662 PAIN
Difpolkion. ftand out, as it were, from amoi-g the refr. This may
be efFefted various ways, as by placing it on the foremoft
lines, or in feme other confpicuous part of the piece }
by exhibiting it^ in a manner, by itfelf} by making
the principal light fall upon it; by giving it the molt
refpiendent drapery ", or, indeed, by feverai of thefe
methods, nay, by all of them together. For, being the
hero of the pidlurefque fable, it is but juft that it fnould
draw the eye to itfelf, and lord it, as it were, over all
the other objedfts.
According to Leon Batifta Alberti, painters Ihould
follow the example of comic writers, who compofe their
fable of as few perfons as poffible. For, in fact, a crowd¬
ed picture is apt to give as much pain to the fpedtator,
as a crowded road to the traveller.
Some fubjedts, it muft be granted, require a number,
nay, a nation, as it were, of figures. On thefe occa-
ftons, it depends entirely on the ftdll of the painter to
difpofe of them in fuch a manner, that the principal ones
may always make the principal appearance ", and con¬
trive matters fo that the piece be not overcrowded, or
want convenient refts and paufes. He muft, in a word,
take care that his piece be full, but not charged. In
this refpecl, the Battles of Alexander by Le Brun are
mafterpieces which can never be fufficiently ftudied ;
whereas nothing, on the other hand,'- can be more un¬
happy than the famous Paradife of Tintoret, which co¬
vers one entire fide of the great council-chamber at Ve¬
nice. It appears no better than a confufed heap of fi¬
gures, a fwarm, a cloud, a chaos, which pains and fa¬
tigues the eye. What a pity it is that he did not dif¬
pofe this fubject after a model of his own, now in the
gallery of Bevilacqua at Verona ! In this laft the feve¬
rai choirs of martyrs, virgins, bifhops, and other faints,
are judicioufly thrown into fo many clufters, parted here
and there by a fine fieece of clouds, fo as to exhibit the
innumerable hoft of heaven drawn up in a way that
makes a moft agreeable and glorious appearance. There
goes a ftory, to our purpofe, of a celebrated mafter, who -
, in a drawing of the Univerfal Deluge, the better to ex-
prefs the immenfity of the waters that covered the earth,
left a corner of his paper without figures. Being allied,
if he did not intend to fill it up: No, faid he", do-not
you fee my leaving it empty is what precifely conftitutes
the picture ?
The reafon for breaking a compofition into feverai
groups is, that the eye, palling freely from one obledl
to another, may the better comprehend the whole. But
the painter is not to ftop here ", for thefe groups are, be-
fides, to be fo artfully put together, as to form rich
clufters, give the whole compofition a lingular air of
grandeur, and afford the fpeclator an opportunity of dif-
cerning the piece at a diftance, and taking the whole in,
as it were, at a fingle glance. Thefe effedls are greatly
promoted by a due regard to the nature of colours, fo
as not to place together thofe which are apt to pain by
their oppofition, or diftrafl by their variety. They
Ihould be fo judicioufly difpofed as to temper and quali¬
fy each other.
A proper ufe of the chiaro-fcuro is likewife of great
fervice on this occafion. The groups are eafily parted,
and the whole picture acquires a grand effecl, by intro¬
ducing fome ftrong falls of fhade, and, above all, one
principal beam of light. This method has been follow¬
ed with great fuccefs by Rembrandt in a famous pifture
3
T I N G. Parti.
of his, reprefenting the Virgin at the foot of the crofsDifpofnion.
on Mount Calvary ; the principal light darting upon ~v™—1
her through a break of the clouds, while the reft of the
figures about her Hand more or lefs in the fiiade. Tin-
.toret, too, acquired great reputation, as well by that
brilknefs with which he enlivened his figures, as by his
mafterly manner of {hading them ; and Polidoro de Ca¬
ravaggio, though he fcarcely painted any thing but baf-
fo-relievos, was particularly famous for introducing with
great {kill the effedls of the chiaro-fcuro, a thing firft
attempted by Mantegna in bis Triumph of Julius Cafar.
It is by this means that his compofitions appear fo Itrik-
ingly divided into different groups, and, among their
other perfeclions, afford fo much delight through the
beautiful difpofition that reigns in them.
In like manner, a painter, by the help of perfpeflive,
efpecially that called aerial, the oppofition of local co¬
lours, and other contrivances which he may expefl to
hit upon by ftudying nature, and thofe who have heft
ftudied her before him, will be able not only to part his
groups, but make them appear at different diftances, fo
as to leave fufficient paflages between them.
But the greateft caution is to be ufed in the purfuit
of the methods here laid down ; efpecially in the ma¬
nagement of the chiaro-fcuro, that the effedls attributed
to light and fhade, and to their various concomitants,
may not run counter to truth and experience. This is a
capital point. For this purpofe, a painter would do wTell
to make, in little figures, as Tintoret and Pouflin ufed
to do, a model of the fubjedl that he intends to repre-
fent, and then illuminate it by lamp or candle-light. By
this means he may come to know with certainty, if the
chiaro-fcuro, which he has formed in his mind, does not
clafh with the reafon of things. By varying the height
and diredlion of his light, he may eafily dilcover fuch
accidental effefts as are moft likely to recommend hi?
performance, and fo eftablifh a proper fyftem for the il¬
luminating it. Nor will he afterwards find it a difficult
matter to modify the quality of his fliades, by foftening
or ft l engthening them, according to the fituation of his
feene, and the quality of the light falling upon it. If
it ftiould happen to be a candle or lamp-light feene, he
would then have nothing to do but confider his model
well, and faithfully copy it.
In the next place, to turn a group elegantly, the beft
pattern is that of a bunch of grapes adopted by Titian.
As, of the many grains that compofe a bunch of grapes,
fome are ftruck diredtly by the light, and thofe oppofite
to them are in the fhade, whilft the intermediate ones
partake of both light and fhade in a greater or lefs de¬
gree •, fo, according to Titian, the figures of a group
Ihould be fo difpofed, that, by the union of the chiaro-
fcuro, fevcral things may appear as it were but one
thing. And in faft it is only from his having purfued
this method, that we can account for the very grand ef¬
fect of his pieces this way, in which it is impoffible to
ftudy him too much.
The mannerifts, who do not follow nature in the track
of the mafters juft mentioned, are apt to commit many
faults. The reafon of their figures cafting their fhades
in this or that manner feldom appears in the piflure, or
at leaft does not appear fufficiently probable. They are,
befides, wont to trefpafs all bounds in fplaffiing their
pieces with light, that is, in enlivening thore parts which
we ufually term the deafs of a picture. This method,
no
Part I.
P A 1 N
Dif,*.fiuon.no douot, has fometimes a very fine eft'eft j but it is,
v" however, to be ufed with r.o froall difcretion, as other-
wife the whole lofes that union, that paufe, that raajef-
tic filence, as Caracci ufed to call it, which affords fo
Hogarth's much pleafure. The eye is not lefs hurt by many lights
Analyjis of fcattered here and there over a picture, than the ear is
Beauty. ^}ie confured noife of different perfons fpeaking all to¬
gether in an affembly.
Guido Reni, who has imparted to his paintings that
gaiety and fplendor in which he lived, feems enamoured
with a bright and open light 3 whereas Michael Angelo
de Caravaggio, who was of a fallen and favage difpofi-
tion, appears fondeft of a gloomy and clouded Iky : fo
that neither of them were qualified to handle indifferent¬
ly ail objeffs. The chiarc-fcuro may likewife prove of
great fervice to a painter in giving his compofition a*
grand effedl 3 but, neverthelefs, the light he choofes
muff be adapted to the fituation of the Icene where the
action is laid : nor would he be lefs faulty, who in a
grotto or cavern, where the light entered "by a chink,
fliould make his fliades foft and tender, than he who
Ihould reprefent them ftrong and bold in an open ikv-
%ht-
But this is by no means the only fault which mariner-
iffs are apt to be guilty of in hiftoiical pieces, and parti¬
cularly in the dilpofition of their figures. To fay nothing
of their favouffte group of a woman lying on the ground
with one child at her breaft, and another playing about
her, and the like, which they generally place on the
firft lines of their pieces ; nor of thofe half-figures in the
back ground peeping out from the hollows contrived for.
them : they make a common practice of mixing naked
with clothed figures; old men with young 3 placing one
figure with its face towards you, and another with its
back 3 they coniraft violent motions with languid atti¬
tudes, and feem to aim at oppofition in every thing 3
whereas oppofitions never pleafe, but when they arife
naturally from the fubjecl, like antithefes in a dif-
courfe.
As to foreihortened figures, too much affectation in
ufing or avoidir/g them is equally blameahle. The at¬
titudes had better be compofed than otherwife. It
very feldom happens that there is any occafion for mak¬
ing them fo impetuous as to be in danger of lofing
their equilibrium 3 a thing too much praCtifed by feme
painters.
In regard to drapery, equal care ffiould be taken to
avoid that poverty, which makes fome mailers look as
if, through mere penury, they grudged clothes to their
figures ; and that profufion which Albani imputed to
Guido, faying, that he was rather a tailor than a
painter. The ornaments of drefs fhould be ufed with
great fobriety 3 and it will not be amils to remember
what was once faid to an ancient painter : “ I pity you
greatly : unable to make Helen handfome, you have ta¬
ken care to make her fine.”
Let the whole, in a word, and all the different parts
of the difpofition, poffefs probability, grace, coftume,
and the particular character of what is to be reprefent-
ed. Let nothing look like uniformity of manner 3
which does not appear leis in the compofition than it
does in colouring, drapery, and defign 3 and is, as it
■were, that kind of accent, by which painters may be as
readily, diffinguilhed as foreigners are, by pronouncing
T I N G. 653
in the fame manner ail the different languages they hap- lllufion.
pen to be acquainted with. ——
Sect. XL Of lllufion.
Among painters, and the writers on painting, there
is one maxim umverfally admitted and continually in¬
culcated ; it is, that naiure ought to be imitated, and ob~
jeCts are laid to be reprefen ted naturally, when they
have fuch relief that they may feem real. If we inquire
to what degree painting may carry this iliufion, we lhall
find that it deceives the eye, and qbliges the fpeClator
to employ the touch in mouldings and in baffo-relievos
where they are a little projected 3 but that it is weakened,
and the effeCt partly uertroyed v. here the projection is
one or two feet. It is poliible alfo to make "it in the
highelt degree complete in pictures of flowers, fruits,
and other reprefentations of llill life, provided they be
feen in a certain point of view, and at a confiderable di-
itance 3 but there is no example of a picture containing
a number of figures, and placed in a proper light, being
miftaken for real life. We are told, indeed, of a buff
of an abbe painted by Charles Coypel, which, placed
in a certain direction behind a table, and in a certain
light, deceived feveral perfons fo completely as to in¬
duce them to falute it: but, without admitting any
thing very extraordinary in the projection or iliufion of
this painting, it is evident, from the circumitances at¬
tending the relation, that the deception arofe from fur-
prife and inattention, which might happen to a produc¬
tion of an inferior artift. And hence we may conclude
that it is vain to pretend to perfeCt the illufion, efipeci-
ally in pictures confifting of a number of figures, and
with confiderable diftances fuppofed between them.
Among the obftacles which are oppofed to the per¬
fection of this branch of the art, we lhall chiefly attend
to thofe which naturally proceed from our habits of
thinking and judging on all occufions. Thefe, together
with the experience we daily have of light on all kinds
of furfaces, and of all colours, are lufficient to demon-
ftrate the want of reality in the mere, reprefent a tion of
any feenes.
It has been elfewhere (hewn, that diftance, figure, and
magnitude, are not naturally objects of perception by
the fenfe of fight 3 that we judge of thefe things by the
eye only, in coniequence of affociations early formed be¬
tween the perceptions of touch and the correfponding
impreflions on the retina and optic nerve by the rays of
light; and that a painter makes his picture refemble the
original, merely by laying his colours on a plane fur-
face in fuch a manner, as that they refleCt the fame rays
of light with the convex or concave original, when the
fpeCtator Hands at the proper diffance (fee Metaphy¬
sics, N° 49, 50, 51, 52, and 95.). But if this be ad¬
mitted, illufion in painting can never be made perfeCt,
on account of the inevitable falfity cf the lliades which
mark the moft diffant parts of the picture. The painter
can only imitate thofe lhades by obfeure colours, laid on
a plane furface, and fufceptible of reflecting the light
with a degree of force relative to the real diffance. Now
our eyes give us the true plane of this furface, oppofed
to the idea of deepening which the painter wiihes to
produce, a contrariety which prevents the deception.
On this account, the faults found in the works of the •
greateff •
PAIN
greatefl mailers, with regard to the eftedts produced by
the whole, molt frequently relate to their manner of
fhading, which is fufficient to prove, that the want of
illufion in painting depends chietly on the imperfection
of the (hades.
This defedt, though it cannot be wholly avoided, may
yet be rendered lefs perceptible. There has yet, indeed,
been no painter able to imitate fhadow, nor is it proba¬
ble that any one will ever perfedtly accomplifh his talk.
Shadow in nature is not a body, but the privation of
light, which deftroys colours in a greater or lefs degree,
in proportion as it is more or lefs complete. Now the
painter can only imitate this privation and real darknefs,
by colours which mud from their very nature be capa¬
ble of relledting light.—The colours may be more or
lefs obfcure, but they preferve alvCays fomething which
gives a mixture of reiledlion. To carry the imitation of
fhadow to the higheft degree of perfedlion, it would be
neceffary to apply a colour capable of darkening all
others, more or lefs as there fhould be occafion, and
which might have no vifible trace of its exiftence, that
is, no one part of it w’hich refledled one coloured ray
more flrongly than another. Perhaps this kind of nega¬
tive colour might be found in pradtice to be of fervice
to the art} but it wmuld not render the furface totally
invihble, for it would be neceffary, farther, that it
fhould have the property of not retledling a fingle ray of
light w'hen expofed to it ; which is altogether impofhble,
as there is no colour or body in nature without refledlion
in fuch a fhuation.
We fhall be further convinced of the impoffibihty of
painting fhadow, if we attend to the pictures of the
greatert matters, with regard to the imitation of truth.
Every part, when taken by itfelf, connedted with light,
•enr wdth demitints, prefents a perfedt imitation. Even
the different degrees of light or the objedls are fnfhcient-
ly exadt, but notwithftanding this affemblage of circum-
rtances correfponding with truth, and of which the re-
fult fhould be perfedt illu/ion, yet in conttdering the
■whole, we are never fo completely deceived, as to take
a picture for a reality ; from which we may conclude,
that the want of illufion proceeds almoit entirely from
the imperfedtion of fhading.
Illutton then, in the ftridteft fenfe, cannot exift in
painting ; but there is another kind of illutton, perhaps
improperly fo called, which is one of the principal parts
of the art, and worthy of the greateft attention : It is,
that the picture ttiall refemble truth to fuch a degree, by
the juftnefs of its forms, by the combination of colours,
and by all its general effedts, that the image ttiall give
all the pleafure to be expedted from the imitation of
truth. This is not illufion in the proper fenfe of the
word, ttnce it exifts as well in pidtures on a fmall fcale
as in thole of equal dimenttons with the original •, but it
is that truth of imitation of which painting is fufceptible,
feven in pidtures containing any numbers of figures at any
reafonable diftance from each other.
But it remains to be confidered whether this imitation
of truth, taken by itfelf, be the higheft attainable per-
fedtion in painting. It is generally granted, that the
greateft beauty is that which not only pleafes at firft
view, but on the neareft and moft critical examination.
But if illufion, fuch as we have defcribed it, were the
foie merit of the art, it wmuld follow, that the perfon
who was leaft acquainted with its beauties would expe-
T I N G. Parti.
rience the fame pleafure as he who had ftudied them Uluficft.
moft. Farther, in examining the w orks of the greateft —
matters, it is eafy to perceive, that it is not their illufion
which has excited the attention and admiration of the
critic. Even the w’orks of the divine Raphael do net
deceive the eye in any point of viewT more completely
than thofe of an ordinary painter. Raphael, pure in his
charadter and defign, is, without doubt, very deficient
in this part of the art. Meanwhile the grandeur of his
ideas in compofition, and the choice of his forms; the
beauty of his heads, wherein one does not admire fimply
the imitation of any known truth his ingenious and
noble manner in drapery, which yet does not refcmble
any known fluff, or the garb of any nation } in (hort,
all his beauties are fnperioF to the fimple imitation of
truth, and contradict the lentiment of the greateft plea-
fure arifing from illufion.
If we pafs to thofie who have p.urfued colouring with
the greateft fuccefs, we (hall find them, doubtleis, ap¬
proach nearer to illufion than thofe wdio have negledted
it and it is alfo a fadt, that their works have been more
univerfally admired.
At the fame time it is not the illufion occafioned by
colours which has altogether excited this admiration.
The exquifite demitints and the freftinefs of Corregio
and Titian, which excel the ordinary beauties of na¬
ture, and even imitate her moft perfedt produdtions,
may perhaps not be confidered as deftroying illufion \
but it is no lefs a fadt, that weaker and le(s precious co¬
louring would carry it to greater perfedtion. Befides,
this large, eafy, and exquifite manner of painting, this
harmony, of which they have given us the heft exam¬
ples, are owing to qualities in them much more excel¬
lent than w’hat uTould be fufficierit to produce the fimple
imitation of truth. Guido, Cortona, and fome others,
appear to approach nearer to illufion. But even thofe
matters prove by their works, that the moft eftimable
beauties in painting do not all tend to this branch of the
art j for notwithftanding the high charadter wrhich they
have gained, they are much inferior to Raphael, Corre¬
gio, and Titian, although the firft failed in colouring
and in the knowdedge of the claro-obfeuro, the fecond
in point of corredtnefs, and the third in the choice of
noble fubjedts.
From this wTe may conclude, that the neareft refem-
blance to truth is not the foie objedt in painting; that it
requires a fuperior degree of elevation by the art of add¬
ing beauty and perfedtion to the molt exadt refemblance j
and that it is this art which diftinguifhes and characte¬
rizes extraordinary men.
If ufe run over the great branches of painting, we
(hall find a number of effential beauties different from
thofe which are capable of carrying illufion to the great¬
eft poftible height. In compofition, wre principally ad¬
mire the extent of genius, the choice of pidturefque and
graceful attitudes, the ingenious combination of groups,
whether in uniting the light, and (hade in order to ob¬
tain the greateft effedt, or in diipofing a whole in fuch
a manner as to make no part fuperfiuous; and finally,
that kind of pradtical talent by which the mind takes
poffeftion of nature, and forces it to produce all the
beauties of which the art is fufceptible. In this enume¬
ration of particulars it is eafy to perceive that the beau¬
ties of compofitiern are very ditiant from thole of il¬
lufion.
To
Part I. - PAIN
Illufion. To.obtain illufion In dcflgn, there Is no occafion for
 ' corrednefs nor tafte beyond what is perceived in nature
by the moft ignorant fpedator. And with regard to
colouring, that is not always moft admired which is moft
natural. What departs widely from truth, indeed, is
not of confequence beautiful, but many qualities are re¬
quired befides the Ample imitation of truth. Freftmefs,
cafe, and tranfparency in certain tones, are deemed ab-
folutely requifite j and the moft efteemed colourifts have
carried their beauties in all thefe refpecls beyond rvhat
they have feen in nature. If fome tones in the fleftiy
parts have approached towards vermilion, to a light-blue,
or a ftlver-gray, they have made them more apparent j
not only to point them out to the fpeclator, but to ftiow
their knowledge in the difcovery and their art in paint¬
ing them. This would have been going beyond the li¬
mits of perfc&ion, if thefe had confifted in fimple illu¬
fion.
The oppofition of colour, of light, and of (hade, would
have been in this cafe alfo fuperftuous ; for nature is al¬
ways true, without any pointed attempt to make her
more engaging. The fuppreflion of certain lights,
which truth would require, and which art extinguifhes,
in order to augment the harmony of effeft, would be
alfo worthy of cenfure, whatever pleafure would refult
from it.
Finally, one of the greateft beauties of the art, name¬
ly, the peculiar manner of a great mafter, has no relation
to illufion. This is not even founded in nature, but de¬
pends on the genius or Angularity of the artift. It is
this manner which diftinguilhes the original of a great
mafter from the moft exaft copy j and which characte¬
rizes the talents of the artifts fo well, that the fmalleft
part of the picture, and even the leaft interefting, is fuf-
ficient to difcover the painter. The diftinCtion between
the beautiful and illufive in painting has made Sir Joiliua
Reynolds, in exprefs terms, recommend a perfection fu-
perior to the imitation of nature. “ The principle now
laid dowm (fays he), that the perfection of the art does
not conAft in mere imitation, is far from being new or
Angular. It is, indeed, fupported by the general opi-«
nion of the enlightened part of mankind. The poets,
orators, and rhetoricians of antiquity, are continually
enforcing this pofition, that all the arts receive their per¬
fection from an ideal beauty, fuperior to what is to be
found in individual nature. They are ever referring to
the praCtice of the painters and fculptors of their times,
particularly Phidias the favourite artift of antiquity, to
illuftrate their aflertions. As if they could not fufficient-
ly exprefs their admiration of his genius by what they
knew, they have recourfe to poetical enthuftafm. They
call it infpiration •, a gift from heaven. The artift is
fuppofed to have afcended the celeftial regions to fumifh
his mind with this perfeCt idea of beauty. ‘ He (fays
Proclus) who takes for his model fuch forms as nature
produces, and conAnes himfelf to an exaCl; imitation of
them, will never attain to what is perfectly beautiful.
For the works of nature are full of difproportion, and
fall fhort of the true ftandard of beauty. So that Phi¬
dias, when he formed his Jupiter, did not copy any ob-
feCt ever prefented to his Aght 5 but contemplated only
that image which he had conceived in his mind •from
Homer’s defcription.’
“ It is not eafy to define in what this great ftyle con-
fifts, nor to defcribe by words the proper means of ac-
Vol. XV. Part II,
TING.
quiring it, if the mind of the fttidertt (hould be at all ca¬
pable of fuch an acquifition. Could we teach tafte or
genius by rules, they would be no longer tafte and ge¬
nius. But though there neither are nor can be any pre-
cife invariable rules for the exercife or the acquifition of
thefe great qualities j yet we may truly fay that they al¬
ways operate in proportion to our attention in obferving
the works of nature, to our tkill in feleCting, and to our
care in digefting, methodifing, and comparing our ob-
fervations. There are many beauties in our art that feem
at firft to lie without the reach of precept, and yet may
eafily be reduced to practical principles. Experience is
all in all 5 but it is hot every one that profits by expe¬
rience : and moft people err not fo much from want of
capacity to find their objeCt, as from not knowing what
objeCt to purfue. This great ideal perfection and beau¬
ty are not to be fought in the heavens, but upon the
earth. They are about us, and upon every fide of us ;
But the power of difcovering what is deformed in na¬
ture, or, in other words, what is particular or uncom¬
mon, can be acquired only by experience; and the
whole beauty and grandeur of the art confifts in being
able to get above all fingular forms, local cuftoms, par*
ticularities, and details of every kind.”
After thefe opinions, however, derived from the prac¬
tice of the art, and this high authority, it may not be
improper to hazard a few obfervations. Although illu¬
fion can be diftiogufthed from many of the moft excel¬
lent parts of the art taken feparately, yet it does not fol¬
low that it fliall not add in every picture to the beauty
of the whole. It is impoflible to ftate it in oppofition to
defign, to compofition, to colouring, or to the peculiar
manner of a great artift •, becaufe all thefe may exift
where there alfo exifts the moft perfect illufion. This is
evident from the works of art: which have real relievo,
and which at the fame time are capable of perfection in
all thofe branches, and of fhowing the peculiar manner
of the artift. Again, it appears evident, that illujlon,
properly fo called, ftiould be a proper objeCt of attention
in painting. We may rate the ideal beauty very high,
and with great juft ice ; but it ftill confifts in overcom¬
ing the defects in individual objeCts in nature, and not
in departing from the truth of reprefentation. And per¬
haps it may be alleged, that the impoflibility of giving
perfect illufion on a plane furface has puftied the greateft
matters too far, and made them crowd artificial beauties
into their pictures to conceal their want of power to
give real ones. It is not improbable that on this very
account the art is lefs perfect than otherwife it might
have been : For in all fubjeCts thought to be impoftible,
there is not only great room for exertion, but the perfon
carries the art to greater perfection as he comes nearer
to fhow that it may not be hnpoftible. And if the
works of Raphael, in point of illufion, are not fuperior
to an ordinary artift, we may be permitted to fay that
there is great room for improvement in this branch.
e65
Illufion-
 , *
Sect. XII. Of the Cojhane.
The coftume in painting correfponds with the unities
of time, place, and aCtion, in tragedy and in epic poetry..
It is chiefly confined to hiftory painting *, and regards-
the cuftoms of different periods, the manners, the drefs,
and the colour, of different nations. Great exaftnefs in
the coftume is fcarcely practicable 3 but too fenfible a
4 P -departure
665
-Coftume.
jManchefier
Tranfac
tions, vol.
iii. p. 564.
&c.
PAIN
departure from it denotes unpardonable negligence. It
frequently happens that a piece compofed 01 pifturefque
figures derives confiderable advantage from certain liber¬
ties which are calculated to pleafe both the artitl and
the fpedator j for the judges of painting are nothaoi -
tually occupied with the details of ancient and modern
niftory, or profoundly verfed in all the circumflances
which make a departure from the coflume confpicuous.
On the other hand, if they were lb ignorant as not- to
underftand, or fo indifferent as not to regard thofe circum-
nances, this branch of the art would ne altogether arbi¬
trary. The road of the painter is between thefe two
extremes, not to defpife beauty on the one hand, nor
probability on the other. But in purfuing this part of
tne art, it is in vain to feek for perfect models in ancient
or modern painting.
When Raphael in his cartoons introduces monks
and Swifs guards \ when he puts into a boat more fi¬
gures than it is evident the boat could actually contain ;
when in. the challifement of Heliodorus, who attempted
to defpoil the temple of Jerufalem, Pope Julius II. is de¬
puted as being prefent; when, in the donation of Con-
Itantine in the Vatican, a naked boy is placed confpicu-
oos in the fore ground, aftride upon a dog, in the imme¬
diate prefence of the pope and the emperor j when Ve¬
netian fenators are introduced while Pope Alexander
excommunicates BarbarolTa 5 when Ariftotle, Plato,
Dante, and Petrarch, are brought together in the fchool
of Athens, to omit the leffer improprieties of ihoelefs
apoftles, &c.—every perfon muff acknowledge that fuch
oriences as thefe againft truths fo obvious, if they do not
ariie from a defedt of underftanding, are inllances of in-
excufable carelelfnefs.
u manner, when the fame great mafler paints
tne dreams of Jofeph and his fellow-prifoner in circles
over their heads ; when iimilar contrivances to exprefs
tuiuie events are ufed by Albani, Pameggiano, and
1 ufeli—is it not evident that no poffibility can make the
hcdion true ; and that real and feigned exiftences are un¬
naturally introduced in one narration ?
V hen Polydore choofes to reprefent the death of
Cato, and expofes to the fpedlator the hero of the piece
with his bowels gufhing out 3 when Paul Vertmefe, at a
banquet painted with his ufual magnificence, places be¬
fore us a dog gnawing a bone, and a boy making water:
however fuch difgufting circumflances may be forgiven
in the chef d'ceuvre of a Michael Angelo, had he repre-
lented thefe initead of the horrible figures of his Day of
Judgement, the performance of an inferior artift cannot
atone for them.
1 “ bo alio, when one of the firft rate among the mo-
dern painters, we mean Paul Veronefe, introduces Be-
nediciine monks at the marriage of Cana 3 when, in a
pidluie. ^le crucifixion, he puts the Roman foldiers
in. the jerkins of the 16th century, and adorns their heads
with, turbans 3 when Guido, in a painting of Jefus ap¬
pearing to his mother after his refurredlion, places St
Cnarles r>orromee in a kind of defk in the back-ground
as witnefs to the interview 3 when Tintoret, at the mi¬
raculous fall of manna, arms the Ifraelites with fufils 5
and Corregio appoints St Jerome as the inftrudlor of the
child Jefus common fenfe revolts at the impropriety ;
and we are compelled to exclaim, Quicquid of end is mild
fc, incredulus odi!
44 The mythological tafte of the learned Pouffin is
T I N G. . partr.
weil known 3 but Rubens ftems to claim the merit of Coftume.
having prefented to the world a Bill greater number of  c——*
f'upreme abiurdities in this learned ftyle : nor is it eafy
to conceive a more heterogeneous mixture of circumftan-
ccs, real and imaginary, facred and profane, than the
Luxembourg gallery, and the other works of that great
mailer, perpetually exhibit.
“ When fo great an authority as Sir Jofliua Reynolds* * Bifcour-
contends for the rejection of common fenfe in favour 0f/V 8vd- P-
fomev. hat he terms a higher fenfe; when he laments, in-
directly, that art is not in fuch high eftimation with us,
as to induce the generals, lawgivers, and kings of mo¬
dern times, to fuffer themfelveS to be reprefen ted naked,
as in.the days of ancient Greece 3 when he defends even
the ridiculous aberrations from poffibility, which the ex¬
travagant pencil of Rubens has fo plentifully produced 
it is not furprifing that the artifts of the prelent day
ffiould be. led to rejetl the company of common fenfe 3
or that Sir Joffiua’s performances ffiould furnifn examples
of his own precepts.
Mrs Siddons is reprefented by Sir Jcffiua in the cha¬
racter (as it is find) of the tragic mufe : She is placed in
an old-faffiioned arm chair 3 this arm chair is fupported
by clouds, fufpended in the air; on each fide of her
head is a figure not unapt to fuggeft the idea of the at¬
tendant imps of an enchantrefs : of thefe figures, one is
luppofed to reprefent Comedy, and the other Tragedy 5
Mrs Siddons herfelf is decently attired in the faffiionable
babilements of 20 or 30 years ago.
44 L this be a picture of the tragic mufe, the oupht
not to appear in a modern drefs, nor ought Ihe to°be
feated in an old arm chair. If this be a portraiture of
Mrs Siddons, fhe has no bufinefs in the clouds, nor has
ffie any thing, to do with aerial attendants. If this be
Mrs Siddons in the character of the tragic mufe, the firlt
fet of objections apply 3 for ffie is placed in a fituation
where Mrs Siddons could never be.
In the death of Dido, Sir Jofhua Reynolds introdu¬
ces her lifter, lamenting over the corple of the unfortu¬
nate queen. This is pcffible ; but he has aHb introdu¬
ced Atropos cutting Dido’s hair with a pair of feiffars, a
being equally real and apparent in the painting with
Dido or her lifter. This (continues our author) appears
to me a grofs offence againft mythological probability 3
nor is it the only offence againft the coftume with which
that picture is chargeable.
There is one other breacn of the coftume, howevcf
common among painters, more grofs and offenfive than
any of the inftances hitherto alleged 3 we mean the per¬
petual and unneceffary difplay of the naked figure. We
lhall not. ftay to inquire whether more Ikill can be ffiown
in painting the human body clothed or unclothed. If
the perfonages introduced in any pidfure are more naked
in the reprefentation than can be juftified by the proba¬
bility of the times, perfens, places, or circumftances, it
is.a breach of the coftume proportionate to the deviation.
This fault, however, is fo common as hardly to be noti¬
ced ; fo flight indeed, when compared with that general
taft.e for voluptuous imagery and obfeene reprefentation,
which has fo long difgraced the art of painting in every
ft age of its progrefs, that fcience-and morality are cal¬
lous to the fight offence.
44 This depravity of imagination, this proftitution of •
the pencil to the bale purpofes of lalcivious inclination;,
was a 1 abject of much complaint among the ancients.
Part I.
Coftfime.
Abhe de
Marfy.
pain
Nor is there lefs reafon to complain in modern times,
that this delightful art, which might be employed in ex¬
citing the nobleft fentiments, and become fubt'ervient to
the bed interefts of fociety, fliould lb often be exercifed
upon fabjefls folely calculated to pleafe the eye of the
voluptuary and debauchee. It is hardly pofiible to pals
through any admired collection without meeting with
fome of thele ; of which, however excellent the perform¬
ance may be, the common feelings of decency and mo¬
rality (if we are neither profeiled artills nor connoiffeurs)
prevent us from viewing them without a mixture of dif-
gult.”
Kt pudor averjbs texit velamine vultus *.
It is impodible to exprefs how much a piffure differs
by fuch loofenefs of fancy, and finks as a baftard of the
att in the eileem of good judges. Some people, indeed,
are of opinion, that fo fcrupulous an obfervance of the
coltume is apt to hurt pictures, by depriving them of a
certain air of truth, arifmg, they think, from thofe fea¬
tures and habits to which w7e are accuftomed ; and which
are therefore apt to make a greater imprelhon, than can
be expected from things drawn from the remote fources
ot antiquity j adding withal, that a certain degree of li¬
cence has ever been allowed thofe artifts who in their
works mu ft make fancy their chief guide. See, fay they,
the Greeks \ that is, the mailers of Raphael and Poufiin
themfelves. Do they ever trouble their heads about fuch
niceties ? The Rhodian ftatuaries, for example, have not
fcrupled to reprefent Laocoon naked •, that is, the prieft
of Apollo naked in the very aft of facrificing to the
gpds, and that too in prefence of a whole people, of the
virgins and matrons of Ilium. Now, continue they, if
it wa.s allowable in the ancient ftatuaries to negleft pro¬
bability and decency to fuch a degree, to have a better
opportunity of difplaying their Ikill in the anatomy of
the human body ; why may it not be allowable in mo¬
dern painters, the better to attain the end of their art,
which is deception, to depart now and then a little from
the ancient manners and the too rigorous laws of the
coftume ? But thefe reafons, we beg leave to obferve,
are more abfurd than they are ingenious. What! are
we to draw conclufions from an example, which, far
from deciding the difpute, gives occafion to another ?
The learned are of opinion, that thofe Rhodian mafters
wrould have done much better had they looked out for a
fubjeft in which, without offending fo much againft
truth, and even probability, they might have had an
equal opportunity of difplaying their knowledge of the
naked. And certainly no authority or example what¬
ever Ihould tempt us to do any thing contrary to what
both decency and the reafon of things require, unlefs we
intend, like Carpioni, to reprefent
Sogiu d"1 infer mi, e foie di roman%i.
The dreams of fick men, and the tales of fools.
No: a painter, the better to attain the end of his art,
which is deception, ought carefully to avoid mixing the
antique with the modern, the domeftic with the foreign 5
things, in lliort, repugnant to each other, and therefore
incapable of gaining credit. A fpeftator will never be
ting.
667
Painter.
brought to confider himfelf as aftually prefent at the Prop;
fcene, the reprefentation of which he has before him, Books ror a
unlefs the circumftanees which enter it perfeftly agree
among themfelves, and the field of aftion, if we may
me the expreftion, in no ftiape belies the aftion itfelf.
for inftance, the circumftances, or, if you pleafe, the
accelfories, in a Finding of Mofts, are not, furely, to re-
p ire font the borders of a canal planted with rows of pop¬
pies, and covered with country-houfes in the European
tafte 5 but the banks of a great river (haded with cluf-
ters of palm trees, with a Sphinx or an Anubis in the
adjacent fields, and here and there 111 the back-ground a
a toxvering pyramid. And indeed the painter, before
he takes either canvas or paper in hand, fhould. on the
wings of fancy, tranfport himfelf to Egypt, to Thebes,
or to Rome; and fummoning to his imagination the
phyfiognomy, the drefs, the plants, the buildings, fuit-
able to his fubjeft, with the particular fpot where he has
cnofen to lay his Icene, fo manage his pencil, as, by the
magic of it, to make the enraptured fpeftators fancy
themfelves there along with him.
Sect. XIII. Of proper Boohs for a Painter.
From what has been already faid, it may be eafily
gathered, that a painter ihould be neither illiterate nor
unprovided with books. Many are apt to imagine, that
the Iconologia of Ripa, or fome fuch colleftion, is alone
fufficient for this purpole, and that all the apparatus he
Hands in need of, may be reduced to a few cafts of the
remains of antiquity, or rather to what Rembrandt ufed
to call his antiques, being nothing more than coats of
mail, turbans, ihreds of ftufif, and all manner of old
houfehold trumpery and wearing apparel. Such things,
no douot, are necefiary to a painter, and perhaps, enough
for one who wants only to paint half-lengths, or is will¬
ing to confine himfelf to a few low fubjefts. But they Algarottt
are by no means Efficient for.him who would foar high-®” Paint-
er 1 for a painter who would attempt the Univerfe, and
reprefent it in all its parts, fuch as it would appear, had
not matter proved refraftory to tlie intentions of the fo-
veieign Aitift. Such a painter alone is a true, an uni-
verfal, a perfeft painter. No mortal, indeed, muft:
ever expeft to rife to that fublimity; yet all Ihould
aipiie to it? on the pain of otherwiie ever continuing1 at
a very mortifying diftance from it: as the orator, who
willies to make a figure in his profeffion, fhould propofe
to himfelf no lefs a pattern than that perfeft orator de-
feribed by Tully ; nor the courtier, than that perfeft
courtier^delineated by Caftiglione. It cannot, therefore,
appear rarprifing, if we infill on the propriety of rec¬
koning a good colleftion of books as part of fuch a paint¬
er’s implements. The Bible, the Greek and Roman hi-
ftonans, the works of Homer, that prince of poets, and
of Virgil, are the moft claffical. To thefe let him add
the Metamorphofes of Ovid, fome of our bell poets, the
voyage of Paufanias, Vinci, Vafari, and others, upon
painting. 1
It will alfo he of confiderable advantage to him to
have a well chofen colleftion of drawings by the bell
mafters (d), in order to trace the progrefs and hiftory
4 P 2 of
(d) We have formerly (fee Hi/iorg of Anatomy), mentioned a great anatomical work carrying on by
' Andrew
668 PAIN
Proper of Kis art, and make kimfelf acquainted with the various
Boofci for a ftyies 0f painting which have been, and now are, in the
l ^ <il^"r* greateft vogue, i. he prince of the Roman ichool was
not afhamed to hang up in his ftudy the drawings of Al¬
bert Durer •, and fpared no pains or expence to acquire
all the drawings he could meet with that were taken
from baffo-relievos •, things which the art of engraving
has fmce rendered fo common as to be in every one’s
hands. This art of multiplying drawings by means of
the graver, is of the fame date, and boaits the fame ad¬
vantages, with the art of printing, by means of which
the works of the rq^nd are multiplied, as it were, at one
llroke, and difperfed over the whole world.
The fight of fine fubjefts treated by able matters, and
the different forms which the fame fubjefts affume in dif¬
ferent hands, cannot fail both of enlightening and en-
flaming the mind of the young painter. The fame may
be faid of the perufal of good poets and hiftorians, with
the particulars and proofs of what they advance *, not to
mention thofe ideas and flights of invention, with which
the former are wont to clothe, beautify, and exalt every
thing they take in hand Bouchardon, after reading
Homer, conceived, to ufe his own words, that men were
three times taller than before, and that the w'orld was
enlarged in every refpedh It is very probable, that the
beautiful thought of covering Agamemnon’s face writh
the fldrt of his mantle at the facrifice of Iphigenia, w^as
fuggefted to Timantes by the tragedy of Euripides.
And the fublime conceit of Raphael, who, in a Creation
of his, reprefents God in the immenfe fpace, with one
hand reaching to the fun and the other to the moon,
may be confidered as the child of the following words of
the Pfalmift : The heavens declare the glonj of God, arid
the firmament Jheweth his handy-work.
This thought of Raphael has been, indeed, cenfured
by Mr Webb. “ A God (fays this gentleman), extend¬
ing one hand to the fun, and another to the moon, de
ttroys that idea of immenfity which ftiould accompany
the wrork of creation, by reducing it to a wrorld of a few
inches.” But the opinion of Count Algarotti is very
different. “ For my part, (fays that elegant critic), I
cannot difcover in this painting a world of a few inches,
but a world on a much greater fcale ; a world of mil¬
lions and millions of miles : and yet this fo immenfe a
w orld, by means of that act of the Godhead, in which
with one hand he reaches to the fun, and with the other
to the moon, (brinks, in my imagination, to a mere
nothing, in refpeft to the immenfity of God himfelf \
which is all that the powers of painting can pretend to.
This invention is, though in a contrary fenfe, of the
fame kind with that of Timantes, who, to exprefs the
enormous fize of a fleeping Polyphemus, placed round
him fome fatyrs meafuring the montter’s thumb wdth a
thyrfus. Hence Pliny, wflro relates the facl, takes oc-
cafion to tell us, that his works always imply more than
they exprefs ; and that how great foever he may be in
execution, he is ftill greater in invention : Atque in om¬
nibus ejus operibus intelligitur plus fiemper quam pingitur ;
TING. Parti.
et cum ars fiumma fit, ingenium tamcn ultra artem efiT Propei
Nat. Hitt. lib. xxxv. c. to. Bocks for a
The perufal of good authors cannot but be very fer- Painter. .
viceable to a painter in another refpedt •, as, among the
great number of fubjedls afforded by hittory and poetry,
he may expett to meet wuth many on which his talents
may difplay themfelves to the greateft advantage. A
painter can never be too nice in the choice of his. argu¬
ments •, for on the beauty of them, that of his piece will
greatly depend. How much to be pitied, therefore,
were our firtt matters, in being fo often obliged to re¬
ceive their fubjecfs from the hands of Ample and illite¬
rate perfons ! and what is wmrfe, to fpend all the riches
of their art upon barren or unworthy fubje&s ! Such are
the reprefentations of thofe faints, who, though they ne¬
ver had the lead intercourfe with each other, and per¬
haps even lived in different ages, are, notwithftanding, to
be introduced, tete a tete, as it rvere, into the fame picture.
The mechanic of the art may, indeed, difplay itfelf on thefe
occafions : but by no means the ideal. The difpofition
may be good and praifew^orthy, as in the wTorks of Cor-
toni and Lanfranc ; but wre are not to expeft in them
either invention or expreflion, which require foi their
bafis the reprefentation of fome fa& capable of producing
fuch effedls. Who does not, on the bare mention of
this abufe, immediately recoiled! many fad inftances of
it ? fuch as the famous St Cecilia of Raphael, furround-
ed by St Paul, St Mary Magdalen, St John, and St
Auguftin and the pifture of Paolo Veronefe, in the
veftry of the Nuns of St Zachary at Venice, in which
St Francis of Aflizium, St Catharine, and St Jerome
richly habited in his cardinal’s robes, form a ring round
the Virgin feated on a throne with the child Jelus in her
arms 5 perhaps the moil beautiful and pidlurefque of all
the infipid and infignificant pieces with which Italy a-
bounds. It-is very (hocking to think, that young paint¬
ers (liould be obliged to ttudy their art from fuch wTetch-
ed compofitions.
The fubjedls in which the pencil triumphs moft, and
with which a judicious painter may flock himfelf by the
perufal of good books, are, no doubt, thofe which are
mod univerfally known, which afford the largeft field
for a difplay of the paffions, and contain the greateft va¬
riety of incidents, all concurring, in the fame point of
time, to form one principal adtion. Of this the (lory of
Coriolanus befieging Rome, as related by Livy, is a
fhining example. Nothing can be imagined more beau¬
tiful than the fcene of adfion itfelf, which ought to take
in the praetorium in the camp of the Volfcians, the Tu¬
ber behind it, and the feven hills, among which the
towrering Capitol is, as it wrere, to lord it over the reflx
It is impoflible to conceive a greater variety, than what
mutt appear in that crowd of foldiers, wmmen, and chil¬
dren, all which are to enter the compofition •, unlefs,
perhaps, it be that of the different paffions with which
they are feverally agitated 5 fome wifhing that Coriola¬
nus may raife the fiege, others fearing it, others again
fufpecfing it. But the principal group forms the piclurefque
part
Andrew Bell, Efq. in Edinburgh, of the figures of which, as they are engraved under the infpedlion of fo able
an anatomift as Mr Fyfe, and with the approbation of Dr Monro, we may at lead form a favourable opinion *,
and if well executed, of which there can be but little doubt, they will unqueftionably be of effential fervice to the
painter.
PartT. PAIN
Painter’s part of the piece. Coriolanus, haftily defcending from
Balance, tribunal, and hurried on by filial affe&ion, to em-
"v brace his mother, flops fhort through (hame, on her cry-
"^Tb ?ee' °Ut t0 me firft know, if it is a fon,
^ 1 ' ’ or an enemy, I am going to embrace ? Thus a painter
may impart novelty to the xnoft hackneyed fubjeft, by
taking for his guides thofe authors who poffefs the hap¬
py talent of adding grace and dignity, by their beauti¬
ful and fublime defcriptions, even to the moft common
and trifling tranfadlions.
Sect. XIV. Of the 'Painter's Balance.
The celebrated De Piles, who by his writings has
thrown fo much light upon painting, in order to aflift
young painters in forming a right judgement of thofe
matters who hold the firft rank in the profeflion, and to
reduce fuch judgement to the greater precifion, be¬
thought himfelf of a piftorical balance, by means of
which a painter’s merit may be weighed with the great-
ett exa&nefs. This merit he divides into Compofition,
Defign, Colouring, and Expreflion j and in each of
thefe branches he has afligned to every painter that (hare
to which he thought him in titled, according as he ap¬
proached more or lefs the higheft degree of excellence
and fummit of perfection j fo that, by fumming up the
numbers which, (landing againft each matter’s name, ex-
prefs his (hare of merit in each of thefe branches, we
have his total merit or value in the art, and may hence
gather what rank one painter holds in regard to ano-
See Mai- then Several objections, it is true, have been darted
marks6in to method.of calculation, by a famous mathemati-
Mem.de c^an our days, who, among other things, infills, that
VAcad, des it is the produft of the above numbers multiplied by
Sciences, each other, and not the fum of them, that gives the me-
I7S3- rit of the artift. But this is not a place to enter into
fuch niceties, nor indeed would the doing of it be of
any fervice to the art. The only thing worth our no¬
tice is, whether the original numbers, (landing for the
painter’s merit in the feveral branches of his art, are
fuch as he is really intitled to, without fuffering ourfelves
to be biaffed by any partiality, as De Piles has been, in
favour of the prince of the Flemifh fchool; the confe-
quenee of which, ftrange as it may appear, is, that in
his balance Raphael and Rubens exactly turn out of the
fame weight.
The idea of the painter’s balance is doubtlefs curious,
and therefore deferved to be mentioned’, but as the me¬
rits of the moft eminent painters have been already ap¬
preciated under the fecond feftion of the hiftorical part
of our article, to which we refer, it is needlefs to be
more particular here, or to repeat what has been already
treated of at fufficient length.
Sect. XV. PraBical Qbfervations.
Having thus laid down the principles of the art,
and ventured to give the ftudent fome directions with
regard to his ftudies, we (hall conclude this part of
the fubjeCl with a few obfervations relative wholly to
praftice.
And, i. The young painter mutt be careful not to
be led aflray by the ambition of compofing eafily, or
• attaining what is called a maflerly handling of the chalk
or the pencil \ a pernicious attempt, by which (indents
TING. 669
are excluded from all power of advancing in real excel- Practical
lence. To this attempt, however, young men have not obierva-
only the frivolous ambition of being thought mafterly,. ^ .
inciting them on the one hand, but alfo their natural
(loth tempting them on the other. They are terrified
at the profpeCl before them, and of the toil required to
obtain exaCfnefs ; whilft the lives of the mod eminent
painters furnifti us with examples of the moft unceafing
induftry. When they conceived a fubjeCi, they firft
made a variety of (ketches $ then a finiflied drawing of
the whole} after that a more correCl drawing of every
feparate part, heads, hands, feet, and pieces of drapery 5
they then painted the picture, and after all retouched
it from the life. The pictures thus wrought with
fuch care, now appear like the effefhs of enchantment,
and as if fome mighty genius had (truck them off at a
blow.
But a ftudent is not always advancing becaufe he is
employed; he muft apply his ftrength to that part of
the art where the real difficulties lie ; to that part which
diftinguiffies it as a liberal art, and not by miftaken in¬
duftry lofe his time in that which is merely ornamental.
The (Indents, inftead of vying with each other who
(hall have the readied; hand, (hould be taught to la¬
bour who (hall have the pureft and moft correct out¬
line ; inftead of driving who (hall produce the bright-
eft tint, or endeavouring to give the glofs of fluffs fo
as to make them appear real, let their ambition be di¬
rected to contend, who (hall difpofe his drapery in the
moft graceful folds, and give the greateft dignity to the
human form.
He who endeavours to copy accurately the figure be¬
fore him, not only acquires a habit of exaftnefs and
precifion, but is continually advancing in his knowledge
of the human figure ; and though he feems to fuperficial
obfervers to make a (lower progrefs, he will be found at
laft capable of adding (without running into capricious
wildnefs) that grace and beauty which is neceffary to
be given to his more finiffied works, and which cannot
be got by the moderns, as it was not acquired by the
ancients, but by an attentive and well-direfted ftudy of
the human form.
2. It is, in the next place, a matter of great impor¬
tance, that the drawings on which the young artift firft:
exercifes his talents be of the moft excellent kind. Let
the profiles, the hands, and the feet given him to copy,
be of the beft mafters, fo as to bring his eye and his
hand early acquainted with the moft elegant forms and
the moft beautiful proportions. A painter who has ear¬
ly acquired a fine tafte, finds it an eafy matter to give
dignity to the meaneft features, while even the works of
a Praxiteles or a Glycon are feen to fuffer. in the hands
of another. A veffel will ever retain the fcent which
it has firft contraQed.
3. It would be proper alfo to make the pupil copy
fome fine heads from the Greek and Roman medals •,
not fo much for the reafon juft laid down, as to make
him acquainted, if we may ufe the expreffion, with thofe
perfonages which in time he may have occafion to in¬
troduce into his pieces, and, above all, to improve him
early in the art of copying from relief. Hence he will
learn the rationale of light and (hade, and the nature of
that chiaro fcuro by which it is, properly fpeaking, that
the various forms of things are diftinguiffied.
There is no danger of ftudying too much the y/orks
of
670
PAINTING.
Parti.
Practical of the greateft mailers, either in painting or fculpture j
Obierva- kut pi0W +iiey may advantage is an inquiry
7 ’ of great importance. “ Some (lays Sir Jolhua Rey¬
nolds), who have never raifed their minds to the conli-
deration of the real dignity of the art, and who rate
the works of an artift in proportion as they excel or are
defeflive in the mechanical parts, look on theory as
fomething that may enable them to talk, but not to
paint better; and, confining themfelves entirely to me¬
chanical pracficc, very affiduoully toil in the drudgery
of copying, and think they make a rapid progrefs, while
they faithfully exhibit the minuteft part of a favourite
picture. This appears to me a very tedious, and, I
think, a very erroneous method of proceeding. Of
every large compofition, even of thofe which are molt
admired, a great part may be truly faid to be common
place. This, though it takes up much time in copying,
conduces little to improvement. I conlider general co¬
pying as a delulive kind of induftry : the Undent fatis-
fles himieif with the appearance of doing fomething j
he falls into the dangerous habit of imitating without
feledting, and of labouring without any determinate ob-
je£l: as it requires no effort of the mind, he deeps over
his work 5 and thofe powers of invention and ccmpoli-
tion which ought particularly to be called out, and put in
aclion, lie torpid, and iefe their energy for want of ex-
ercife. ,
“ However, as the praflice of copying is not entirely
to be excluded, lince the mechanical pradlice of paint¬
ing is learned in fome meafure by it, let thofe choice
parts only be feledled which have recommended the
work to notice. If its excellence confids in its general
effe<ff, it will be proper to make flight Iketches of the
machinery and general management of the picture.
Thofe Iketches Ihould be kept always by you, for the
regulation of your ftyle. Inftead of copying the touches
of thofe great mailers, copy only their conceptions.
Inftead of treading in their footfleps, endeavour only to
keep the fame road. - Labour to invent on their general
principles and way of thinking. Poffefs yourfelf with
their fpirit. Confider with yourfelf howr a Michael
Angelo or a Raphael would have treated this fub-
jeft, and work yourfelf into a belief that your pic¬
ture is to be feen and criticifed by them when com¬
pleted. Even an attempt of this kind will roufe your
powers.”
The fame great mailer recommends to Undents to Practical
keep their minds fixed on the higheil excellencies.  Obferva-
“ If you compafs them, and compafs nothing more,
you are Hill in the fir ft clafs. We may regret the in- v'
numerable beauties which you may_ want : you may be
very imperfect : but Hill you are an imperfect perfon of
the higheft order.
“ I inculcate as frequently as I can your forming
yourfelves upon great principles and great models.A
Your time will be much mifpent in every other purfuit.
Small excellencies Ihould be viewed, not Itudied ; they
ought to be viewed, becaufe nothing ought to efcape a
painter’s obfervation, but for no other reafon.
“ There is another caution which I wifh to give you.
Re as felect in thofe whom you endeavour to pleai'e, as
in thofe whom you endeavour to imitate. Without the
love of fame you can never do any thing excellent} but
by an exceffive and undiltinguiihing thirft after it, you
will come to have vulgar views ; you will degrade ycyr
flyle ; and your tafle will be entirely corrupted. It is
certain that the loweit ftyle wall be the moil popular,
as it falls within the compais of ignorance itfelf, and
the vulgar will always be pleafed with what is na¬
tural in the confined and rnifunderftood fenfe of the
word.”
Genius he conftders as an improveable talent, ne¬
ver to be deftroyed by the moll exceflive, if well
diredled, application, and difplaying the elegancies
of the art in proportion to the number of ideas
wdiich have been carefully colledled and digefted in
the mind.
He cautions painters, therefore, in every ftage of
their progrels, to beware of that falfe opinion, but too
prevalent among artifts, of the imaginary power of na¬
tive genius, and its fufficiency in great works.
This opinion, according to the temper of mind it
meets with, almoft always produces, either a vain con¬
fidence or a iluggiih defpair, both equally fatal to all
proficiency. “ Study, therefore, the great works of the
great mailers for ever. Study, as nearly as you can, in
the order, in the manner, on the principles on which
they ftudied. Study nature attentively, but always with
thofe mailers in your company : confider them as mo¬
dels which you are to imitate, and at the fame time as
rivals whom you are to combat.
Part II. Of the Different Grasses of Painting.
Sect. I. General Enumeration.
AS all the objefls in nature are fufceptible of imita¬
tion by the pencil, the mailers of this art have applied
themfelves to different fubiecls, each one as his talents,
his tafte, or inclination may have led him.—From whence
have arifen the following Gaffes.
I. Hijlory painting; which reprefents the principal
events in hiftory facred and profane, real or fabulous ;
and to this clafs belongs allegorical exprejjion. Thefe
are the moft fublime produdiions of the art; and in
which Raphael, Guido, Rubens, Le Brun, &c. have ex¬
celled.
II. Rural hijlomj ; or the reprefentation of a country
life, of villages and hamlets, and their inhabitants.
This is an inferior clafs ; and in which Teniers, Breug¬
hel, Watteau, &c. have great reputation, by rendering
it at once pleafmg and graceful.
HI. Portrait painting ; which is an admirable branch
of this art, and has engaged the attention of the
greateft mailers in all ages, as Apelles, Guido, Van¬
dyke, Rembrandt, Regauds, Pefne, Kneller, La Tour.
&c.
_ IV. Grotefque hi/iorics ; as the no&urnal meetings of
witches, forceries and incantations 5 the operations of
mountebanks, &c. a fort of painting in which the young¬
er Breughel, Teniers, and others, have exercifed their
talents with fuccefs.
0
V. Battle
PAIN
Pan II.
Mu'vcr- ^ ’ BQattIe;Picces > by which Huchtemberg, Wouver-
tior. manS’ ^c- have rendered themfelves famous:
v——y——^ 1-,an4fcaPc:s > a charming ipecies of painting, that
has been treated by mailers of the greateil genius in
every nation.
VII. Lanajcapes diverfified with waters, as rivers,
halves, catara&s, &c.; which require a peculiar talent,
to exprefs the water fometimes finooth and tranfparentj
and at others foaming and milling furionily along.
VIII. Sea pieces; in which are'reprefented the ocean
harbours, and great rivers j and the veffels, boats,
barges, &c. with which they are covered 5 fometimes
in a calm, lometimes with a frefh breeze, and at others
m a dorm. In this clafs Backhuyfen, Vandervelde,
. oaie> aad many others, have acquired great reputa¬
tion. 0 l
. Night pieces ; which reprefent all forts of objccls
either as illuminated by torches, by the flames "of a
conflagration, or by the light of the,moon. Schalk,
Vanderneer, Vanderpool, &c. have here excelled.
_X. Living Agiimals: A more difficult branch of
painting than is commonly imagined ; and in which Ko¬
la Carre, Vandervelde, and many others, have fucceed-
ed marvelloufly well.
XI. Birds of all hinds; a very laborious fpecies
and whrch^ requires extreme patience minutely to ex-
prels the infinite variety and delicacy of their plu¬
mage. l
XII. Culinary pieces; which reprefent all forts of pro-
yifions, and animaB without life, &c. A fpecies much
imenor to tne reft, in which nature never appears to ad-
yantage, and which requires only a fervile imitation of
objefts that are but little pleafmg. The painting of .
fifties is naturally referred to this clafs.
XIII. Fiuil pieces, of every kind, imitated from na¬
ture.
XIV. Flower pieces; a charming clafs of painting,
where Art m the hands of Huyzum, P. Se.^erts, Meri-
an, &c. becomes the rival of Nature. Plants and in-
Je.s are ufually referred to the painters of flowers, who
with them ornament their works.
XV Pieces of architeRure; a kind of painting in
which the Italians excel all others. Under this clafs
may be comprehended the reprefentations of ruins, fea-
ports, ftreets, and public places ; fuch are feen in the
works of Caneletti, and other able mailers.
XVI. Infiruments of mufic, pieces of furniture, and
rm lnammate 0bje£ls j a trifling fpecies, and in
which able painters only accidentally employ their ta¬
lents.
XVII. Imitations of bas-reliefs; a very pleafmg kind
oi painting, and which may be carried by an able hand
to a high degree of excellence.
XVIII Hunting pieces : thefe alfo require a peculiar
ta.ent, as*they unite the painting of men, horfes, dogs,
and game, to that of landfcapes.
It will not be expet-led that we ffiould here give the
rules that the painter is to obferve in handling each
particular fubje.6l. What has been faid on hiftorical
ferWof P7 ing(Pa^ I-*) may throw fome light on the reft,
Invention f ^ muft be learaed from the ftudy
zndDifoJ,.0} the art ^felf. Good mafters, academies of re nut a-
tion, and a rational prariice, are the fources from whence
the young painter muft derive the detail of his art. We
ffiall however xnfert fome rules and obfervations relative
TAN G- 671
to J^andfcape and Portrait; thefe, with Hftory painting Lantlfcapes.
(already pretty fully treated), forming the principal —v—-
branches of the art.
Sect. II. Of Landfcapes.
Landscape painting includes every objecl that the
country prefents: and it is diftinguiihed into the heroic,
and the pajloral or rural 3 of which indeed all other
Ityles are but mixtures.
The heroic ftyle is a compofition of objeds, which in ^ Files on .■
then kinds draw both from art and nature every thimr ^Anting.
that is great and extraordinary in either. The fitua?
turns are perfectly agreeable and furprifing. The only
buddings are temples, pyramids, ancient places of buri¬
al, aitars confecrated to the divinities, pleafure houfes of
regular architeclure 3 and if nature appear not there as
we every day cafually fee her, (he is at leail reprefented
as we think ftie ought to be. This ftyle is an agreeable
iliuhon, and a fort ox enchantment, when handled by a
man of fine genius and a good underftanding, as Pouffm
was, who has io happily expreffed it. But if, in the
coune or this ftyle, the painter has not talent enough to
maintain the fublime, he is often in danger of failino-
into the childiih manner. ° fa
Thn ruralfyle is a reprefentation of countries, rather
abandoned to the caprice of nature, than cultivated : we
there fee nature fimple, without ornament, and without
artifice 3 but with all thofe graces wherewith ftie adorns
herieli much more when left to herfelf than when con-
ftrained by art.
In _ this ftyle, fituations bear all forts of varieties •
. fometimes they are very extenfive and open, to contain
tae hocus of the ffiepherds 3 at others very wild for
tne retreat oi folitary perfons, and a cover for wild
beafts.
It rarely happens that a painter has a genius extenfive
enough to embrace all the parts of painting : there is
commonly fome one part that pre-engages our choice,
and io fills our mind, that we forget the pains that are
cue to the other parts 3 and we leldom fail to fee, that
thofe whofe inclination leads them to the heroic ilyle
think they have done all, .when they have introduced’
into their compofitions fiich noble objects as will raife
the imagination, without ever giving thcmfelves the
trouble to ftudy the die els of good colouring. Thofe
on the other hand, who pradife the paftoral, apply
cloleiy to colouring, in order to reprefent truth mere
hydy. Both thefe ftyles have their fedaries and par-
tiians. I hole who follow the heroic, fupply by their
imagination what it . wants of truth, and they look no
tarther.
As a counterbalance to neroic landfcare, it would
be proper to put into the paftoral, befides a Weat cfot-
T kr 2 A™?’ f°me affeainS> extraordinary, but pro¬
bable died of nature, as was Titian’s cuftom.
There is an infinity of pieces wherein both thefe
fty.es happily meet ; and which of the two has the aft
Cendant, will appear from what we have been juft ob-
iervmg of their reipedive properties. The chief parts
ol_ landlcapes arc, their openings or fituations, accidents,
iKies and clouds, offskips and mountains, verdure or
turfing, rocks, grounds, or lands, terraces, fabrics, waters,
fore-grounds, plants, figures, and trees 3 of all which in
their places.
%
67
2 PAIN
Lardfcapes. Of Openings or Situations. The word Jite,^ or fitu-
V v : ation, fienifies the “ view, profpecT, or opening ot a
country” It is derived from the Italian word Jilo;
and our painters have brought it into ufe, either becaule
they were ufed to it in Italy, or becaufe, as we think,
they found it to be very expreflive. , r jt
Situations ought to be well put together •, and lo di-
engaged in their make, that the conjunction ol grounds
maynotfeem to be obdrufted, though we Ihould fee
but a part of them. .
Situations are various, and reprefented according to
the country the painter is thinking of: as either open or
clofe, mountainous or watery, tilled and inhabited or
wild and lonely ; or, in fine, variegated by a prudent
mixture of fome of thefe. But if the painter be obli¬
ged to imitate nature in a fiat and regular country, he
muft make it agreeable by a good difpofition of the c/a-
ro-obfcuro, and fuch pleafing colouring as may make one
foil unite with another.
It is certain, that extraordinary fituaiions are very
pleafing, and cheer the imagination by the novelty and
beauty of their makes, even when the local colouring is
but moderately performed: becaufe, at worft, fuch
piaures are only looked on as unfinilhed, and wanting
to be completed by fome fkilful hand in colouring*,
whereas common fituations and objeas require good
colouring and abfolute finifliing, in order to pleafe. it
was only by thefe properties that Claude Lorrain has
made amends for his infipid choice m moft of his fitua¬
tions. But in whatever manner that part be executed,
one of the belt ways to make it valuable, and even to
multiply and vary it without altering its form, is proper¬
ly to imagine fome ingenious accident in it. _
Of Accidents.—An accident in painting is an ob-
ftruftion of the fun’s light by the interpofition of clouds,
in fuch manner, that fome parts of the earth fliall be in
light and others in fliade, which, according to the mo¬
tion of the clouds, fucceed each other, and produce luch
wonderful efiefts and changes of the claro-obfcuro, as
feem to create fo many new fituations. This is daily
obferved in nature. And as this newnefs of fituations
is grounded only on the lhapes of the clouds, and their
motions, which are very inconftant and unequal, it. fol¬
lows, that thefe accidents are arbitrary } and a painter
of genius may difpofe them to his own advantage when
he thinks fit to ufe them : For he is not abfolutely
obliged td do it *, and there have been fome able
landfcape painters who have never pra&ifed it, either
through fear or cuftom, as Claude Lorrain and iome
others. ^ x
Of the Shy and Clouds.—T\vz Iky, m painters terms,
is the ethereal part over our heads j but more particu¬
larly the air in which we breathe, and that where clouds
and florins are engendered. Its colour is blue growing
clearer as it approaches the earth, becaufe of the inter¬
pofition of vapours arifing between the eye and the ho¬
rizon *, which, being penetrated by the light, communi¬
cates it to objetts in a greater or leffer degree, as they
are more or lefs remote. .
But we muft obferve, that this light being either yel¬
low or reddifh in the evening, at funfet, thefe fame ob-
iefts partake not only of the light, but of the colour :
thus the yellow light mixing with the blue, which is the
natural colour of the Iky, alters it, and gives it a tint
TING.
Part II.
more or lefs greenifh, as the yellownefs of the light is Landfcapes.
more or lefs deep.
This obfervation is general and infallible : but there
is an infinity of particular ones, which the painter muft
make upon the natural, with his pencil in his handy
when occafion offers j for there are very fine ami Angu¬
lar effefts appearing in the fky, which it is difficult to
make one conceive by phyfical reafons. W ho can tell,
for example, why we fee, in the bright part of fome
clouds, a fine red, when the fource of the light which
plays upon them is a moft lively and diftmguifhing yel¬
low ? Who can account for the different reds feen in dif¬
ferent clouds, at the very moment that thefe reds receive
the light but in one place ? for thefe colours and furpri-
fing appearances feem to have no relative to the rain¬
bow, a phenomenon for which the philofopher pretends
to give folid reafons.
Thefe effeas are all feen in the evening when the
weather is inclining to change, either before a ftorm, or
after it, when it is not quite gone, but has left fome re¬
mains of it to draw our attention.
The property of clouds is to be this and airy, both
in fhape and colour : their fhapes, though infinite, muft
be ftudied and chofen after nature, at fuch times as they
appear fine. To make them look thin, we ought to
make their grounds unite thinly with them, efpecially
near their extremities, as if they were tranfparent: And
if we would have them thick, their refleaions muft be
fo managed, as, without deftroying their thinnefs, they
may feem to wind and unite, if neceffary, with the clouds
that are next to them. Little clouds often difcover a
little manner, and feldom have a good effeft, unlefs
when, being near each other, they feem altogether to
make but one objeft.
In ftiort, the character of the Iky is to be luminous.*,
and, as it is even the fource of light, every thing that is
upon the earth muft yield to it in brightnefs.: If, howe¬
ver, there is any thing that comes near it in light, it muft
be waters, and poliftied bodies which are fufceptible of
luminous reflexions.
But whilft the painter makes the Iky luminous, he
muft not reprefent it always ftiining. throughout.
On the contrary, he muft contrive his light fo, that
the greateft part of it may fall only upon one place:
and, to make it more apparent, he muft take as much
care as poflible to put it in oppofition to fome terreftnal
objeft, that may render it more lively by its dark co¬
lour j as a tree, tower, or fome other building that is a
little high.
This principal light might alfo be heightened, by a
certain difpofition of clouds having a fuppofed light, or
a light ingenioufly inclofed between clouds, whofe fweet
obfcurity fpreads itfelf by little and little, on all hands.
We have a great many examples of this in the Flemilh
fchool, which beft underftood landfcape ; as Paul Bril,
Brugel Saveri: And the Sadelers and Merian’s prints
give a’clear idea of it, and wonderfiilly awaken the
genius of thofe who have the principles of the claro-
fcuro. , ^ . ,
Of Offships and Mountains.—OR&iys have a near
affinity with the Iky j it is the fky which determines ei¬
ther the force or faintnefs of them. They are darken
when the fky is moft loaded, and brighteft when it is
moft clear. They fometimes intermix their fhapes and
lights y
4
Part II. PAIN
Landfcapes. liglits j and there are times, and countries, where the
—v clouds pafs between the mountains, whofe tops rife and
appear above them. Mountains that are high, and co¬
vered with fnow, are very proper to produce extraordi¬
nary effe&s in the offskip, which are advantageous to the
painter, and pleafing to the fpedlator.
The difpofition of offskips is arbitrary ; let them on¬
ly agree with the whole together of the picture, and the
nature of the country we would reprefent. They are
ufually blue, becaufe of the interpofition of air between
them and the eye : but they lofe this colour by degrees,
as they come nearer the eye, and fo take that which is
natural to the objefts.
In diltancing mountains, wiS muft obferve to join them
infenfibly by the roundings off, which the refleftions
make probable •, and muft, among other things, avoid a
certain edginefs in their extremities, wdiich makes them
appear in llices, as if cut with feiffars, and ftuck upon
the cloth.
We muft further obferve, that the air, at the feet of
mountains, being charged with vapours, is more fufeep-
tible of light than at their tops. In this cafe we fuppofe
the main light to be fet reafonably high, and to enligh¬
ten the mountains equally, or that the clouds deprive them
of the light of the fun. But if we fuppofe the main light
to be very low, and to ftrike the mountains, then their
tops will be ftrongly enlightened, as well as every thing
elfe in the fame degree of light.
Though the forms of things diminifh in bignefs, and
colours lofe their ftrength, in proportion as they recede
from the firft plan of the pifture, to the moft remote oft-
Ikip, as we obferve in nature and common praftice; yet
this does not exclude the ufe of the accidents. Thefe con¬
tribute greatly to the wonderful in landfcape, when they
are properly introduced, and when the arlift has a juft
idea of their good effefts.
Of Verdure, or Turfing. By turfing is meant the green-
nefs with which the herbs colour the ground : This is
done ieveral ways ; and the diverfity proceeds not only
from the nature of plants, which, for the moft part, have
their particular verdures, but alfo from the change of
feafons, and the colour of the earth, when the herbs are
but thin fown. By this variety, a painter may choofe
or unite, in the fame traclof land, feveral forts of greens,
intermixed and blended together, which are often of
great fervice to rhofe who know how to ufe them \ becaufe
this diverfity of greens, as it is often found in nature,
gives a ebarafter of truth to thofe parts, where it is pro¬
perly ufed. There is a wonderful example of this part
of landfcape, in the view of Mechlin, by Rubens.
Of Rocks. Though rocks have all forts of ftiapes, and
participate of all colours, yet there are in their diverfity,
certain characters which cannot be well expreffed with¬
out having recourfe to nature. Some are in banks, and
fet off with beds of ftirubs ; others in huge blocks, either
projecting or falling back-, others confift of large broken
parts, contiguous to each other j and others, in ftiort, of
an enormous fize, all in one ftone, either naturally, as
free-ltone, or elfe through the injuries of time, which in
the courfe of many ages has worn away their marks of
feparation. But, whatever their form be, they are ufual¬
ly fet out with clefts, breaks, hollows, bulhes, mofs, and
the ftains of time and thefe particulars, well managed,
create a certain idea of truth.
Rocks are of themfelves gloomy, and only proper for
Vol. XV. Part II.
TING.
673
folitudes : but where accompanied with bullies, they in- Landfcapes.
fpire a frelh air j and when they have wraters, either pro- v
ceeding from, or wafhing them, they give an infinite plea-
fure, and feem to have a foul which animates them, and
makes them fociable.
Of Grounds or Lands. A ground or land, in painters
terms, is a certain diftinct piece of land, which is neither
too woody nor hilly. Grounds contribute, more than
any thing, to the gradation and diftancing of landfcape *,
becaufe they follow one another, either in ihape, or in the
c/aro-obfcuro, or in their variety of colouring, or by fome
infenfible conjun&ion ol one with another.
Multiplicity of grounds, though it be often contrary
to grand manner, does not quite deftroy it; for befides
the extent of country which it exhibits, it is fufceptible
of the accidents we have mentioned, and which, with good
management, have a fine effedl.
There is one nicety to be obferved in grounds, which
is, that in order to charaflerize them well, care muft be
taken, that the trees in them have a different verdure and
different colours from thofe grounds} though this diffe¬
rence, withal, muft not be too apparent.
Of Terraces. A terrace in painting, is a piece of
ground, either quite naked or having very little her¬
bage, like great roads and places often frequented.
They are of ufe chiefly in the foregrounds of a picture,
where they ought to be very fpacious and open, and ac¬
companied, if we think fit, with fome accidental verdure,
and alfo wuth fome ftones, which, if placed with judge¬
ment, give a terrace a greater air of probability.
Of Buddings. Painters mean by buildings any ftruc-
tures they generally reprefent, but chiefly fuch as are of
a regular architecture, or at leaft are moft confpicuous.
Thus building is not fo proper a name for the houfes of
country-people, or the cottages of fhepherds, which are
introduced into the rural tafte, as for regular and ftiowy
edifices, which are always brought into the heroic.
Buildings in general are a great ornament in land¬
fcapes, even when they are Gothic, or appear partly in¬
habited and partly ruinous : they raife the imagination
by the ule they are thought to be defigned for 5 as ap¬
pears from ancient towers, which feem to have been the
habitations of fairies, and are now retreats for fhepherds
and owls.
Pouflin has very elegantly handled the Roman man¬
ner of architecture in his works, as Bourdon has done
the Gothic ; w-hich, however Gothic, fails not to give
a fublime air to his landfcapes. Little Bernard has in¬
troduced into his facred hiftory what may be called a
Babylonian manner } which, extraordinary as it is, has
its grandeur and magnificence. Nor ought fuch pieces
of architecture to be quite rejeCted : they raife the ima¬
gination ; and perhaps would fucceed in the heroic ftyle,
if they were placed among half-diftant objeCts, and if we
knew how to ufe them properly.
Of Waters. Much of the fpirit of landfcape is owing
to the waters which are introduced in it. They appear
in divers manners; fometimes impetuous, as wdren a ftorm
makes them overflow their banks \ at other times rebound¬
ing, as by the fall of a rock-, at other times, through un-
ufual preffure, guihing out and dividing into an infinity
of filver ftreams, whofe motion and murmuring agree¬
ably deceive both the eye and ear -, at other times calm
and purling in a fandy bed 5 at other times fo ftill and
Handing, as to become a faithful looking-glafs, which
4 £) doubles
674
PAIN
Landscapes, doubles all the objects that are oppofite to it j and in
"" " v tbis ftate they have more life than in the moll violent
agitation. Confult Bourdon’s works, or at leaf! his
prints, on this fubjeft : he is one of thofe who have
treated of waters with the greateft fpirit and bed ge¬
nius.
Waters are not proper for every fitua'tion : but to
exprefs them well, the artift ought to be perfect mailer
of the exa&nefs of watery reflections • becaufe they only
make painted water appear as real; for practice alone,
without exa&nef*, deitroys the effect, and abates the
pleafure of the eye. The rule for thefe reflections is
very eafy, and therefore the painter is the lefs pardon¬
able for neglecting it.
But it muft be obferved, that though water be as a
looking-glafs, yet it does not faithfully reptefent ob¬
jects but when it is itill; for if it be in any motion,
either in a natural courfe, or by the driving of the
W’ind, its furface becoming uneven, receives on its
furges fuch lights and (hades as, mixing with the ap¬
pearance of the objects, confound both their drapes and
colours.
Of the Foreground of a Piclure. As it is the part of
the foreground to ufher the eye into the piece, great
care muft be taken that the eye meet with good recep¬
tion ; fometimes by the opening of a fine terrace, whofe
defign and workmanfliip may be equally curious; fome¬
times by a variety of well diftinguiftied plants, and thofe
fometimes flowered j and at other times, by figures in a
lively tafte,. or other obje&s, either admirable for their
novelty or introduced as by chance.
In a v/ord, the artift cannot too much ftudy his fore¬
ground objefts, fince they attraft the eye, imprefs the
firft charafter of truth, and greatly contribute to make
the artifice of a picture fuccefsful, and to anticipate our
efteem for the whole work.
Of Plants. Plants are not always neceflary in fore¬
grounds, becaufe, as we have obferved, there are fe-
yeral ways of making thofe grounds agreeable. But
if we refolve to draw plants there, we ought to paint
them exactly after the life 5 or at leaft, among fuch as
we paint pra&ically, there ought to be fome more fi-
niftied than the reft, and whofe kinds may be diftin¬
guiftied by the difference of defign and colouring, to
the end that, by a probable fuppofition, they may give
the others a charafter of truth. What has been faid
here of plants may be applied to the branches and barks
of trees.
Of Figures. In compofing landfcape, the artift may
have intended to give it a chara&er agreeable to the fub-
je<ft he has chofen, and which his figures ought to repre-
lent. He may alfo, and it commonly happens, have only
thought of his figures, after finiftiing his landfcape. The
truth is, the figures in moft landfcapes are made rather to
accompany than to fuit them.
It is true, there are landfcapes fo difpofed and fituated,
as to require only paffmg figures j which feveral good*
mafters, each in his ftyle, have introduced, as Pouflln in
the heroic, and Fouquier in the rural, with all probabi¬
lity and grace. It is true alfo, that refting figures have
been made to appear inwardly a&ive. And thefe two dif¬
ferent ways of treating figures are not to be blamed, be¬
caufe they aft equally, though in a different manner. It
is rather inaftion that ought to be blamed in figures 5 for
in this condition, which robs them of allconneftion with
TING. part IJ;
the landfcape, they appear to be pafted on. But without Landfcapes-
obftrufting the painter’s liberty in this refpeft, undoubt- —  
edly the belt way to make figures valuable is, to make
them. fo to agree with the charafter of the landfcape,
that it may feem to have been made purely for the
figures. We would not have them either infipid or in-
different, but to reprefent fome little fubject to awaken
the fpeftator’s attention, or elfe to give the pifture a name
of diftinftion among the curious.
Great care muft be taken to proportion the fize of the
figures to the bignefs of the trees, and other objefts of
the landfcape. 11 they be too large, the pifture will
difeover a little manner j and if too fmail, thej will
have the air of pigmies 5 which will deftroy the worth
6f them, and make the landfcape look enormous. There
is, however, a greater inconvenience in making fio-ures
too large than too frnall; becaufe the latter at leaft gives
an air of greatnefs to all the reft. But as landicape
figures are generally (mail, they muft be touched with
(pint, and fuch lively figures as will attraft, and yet
preferve probability and a general union. The artift
muft, in fine, remember, that as the figures chiefly give
life to a landfcape, they muft be difperfed as conveniently
as poffible.
0/7 'rees. The beauty of trees is perhaps one of the
greateft ornaments of landfcape j on account of the va¬
riety of their kinds, and their frdhnefs, but chiefly their
lightnefs, which makes them feem, as being expofed to
the air, to be always in motion.
I hough diverfity be pleafing in all the objefts of
landfcape, it is chiefly in trees that it (hows its gieateft
beauty. Landfcape confiders both their kinds and their
forms. Their kinds require the painter’s particular
ftudy and attention, in order to diitinguifh them from
each other 5 for we muft be able at firft fight to difeo¬
ver which are oaks, elms, firs, fycamorcs, poplars, wil¬
lows, pines, and other fuch trees, which, by a fpecinc
colour, or touching, are diftinguiihable from all other
kinds. This ftudy is too large to be acquired in all its
extent; and, indeed, few painters have attained fuch a
competent exaftnefs in it as their art requires. But it
is evident, that thofe who come neareft to perfeftion
m it, will make their works infinitely pleafing, and gain
a great name.
Befides the variety which is found in each kind of
tree, there is in all trees a general variety. This is ob¬
ferved in the different manners in which their branches
are difpofed by a fport of nature 5 which takes delight
m making fome very vigorous and thick, others more
dry and thin; fome more green, others more red or
yellow. The excellence of praftice lies in the mixture
of thefe varieties : but if the artift can diftinguifli the
forts but indifferently, he ought at leaft to vary their
makes and colours ; becaufe repetition in landfcape is as
tirefome to the eye, as monotony in difeourfe is to the
ear.
The variety of their makes is fo great, that the pain¬
ter would be inexcufable not to put it in praftice upon
occafion, efpecially when he finds it neceffary to awaken
the fpeftator’s attention ; for, among trees, we difeover
the young and the old, the open and clofe, tapering and
fquat, bending upwards and downwards, (looping and
(hooting : in (hort, the variety is rather to be conceived
than expreffed. For inftance, the charafter of young
trees is, to have long (lender branches, few in number,
but
l. P A I N
. but well let Out 5 boughs well divided, and the foliage
vigorous and well fliaped : whereas, in old trees, the
branches are Hiort, llocky, thick, and numerous; the
tufts blunt, and the foliage unequal and ill draped •, but
a little obfervation and genius will make us perfe&ly
ienfible of thefe particulars.
In the various makes of trees, there mull alio be a
diftribution of branches, that has a juft relation to, and
probable connexion with, the boughs or tufts, fo as
mutually to aftift each other in giving the tree an ap¬
pearance of thicknefs and of truth. But, whatever
their natures or manners of branching be, let it be re¬
membered, that the handling muft be lively and thin,
in order to preferve the fpirit of their characters.
Trees likewife vary in their barks, which are com¬
monly gray j but this gray, which in thick air, and low
and marihy places, looks blackiih, appears lighter in a
clear air : and it often happens, in dry places, that the
bark gathers a thin mofs, which makes it look quite yel¬
low ; fo that, to make the bark of a tree apparent, the
painter may fuppofe it to be light upon a dark ground,
and dark on a light one.
The obfervation of the different barks merits a parti-
cular attention ; for it will appear, that, in hard woods,
age chaps them, and thereby gives them a fort of em¬
broidery ; and that, in proportion as they grow old, thefe
chaps grow more deep. And other accidents in barks
may ariie either from moifture, or drynefs, or green mof-
fes, or white ftains of feveral trees.
The barks of white woods will alfo afford much mat¬
ter for practice, if their diverfity be duly ftudied 5 and
this connderation leads us to fay fomething of the ftudy
of landfcape.
Of the Study of Landfcape. The ftudy of landfcape
may be confidered either with refpeCt to beginners, or to
thofe who have made fome advances in it.
Beginners will find, in practice, that the chief trouble
of landfcape lies in handling trees ; and it is not only in
praftice, but alfo in {peculation, that trees are the moft
difficult part of landfcape, as they are its greateft orna¬
ment. But it is only propofed here, to give beginners
an idea of trees in general, and to fhow them how to ex-
prefs them well. It would be needlefs to point out to
them the common effefts of trees and plants, becaufe
they are obvious to every one •, yet there are fome
things, which, though not unknown, deferve our reflec¬
tion. We know, for inftance, that all trees require air,
lame more, fome lefs, as the chief caufe of their vegeta¬
tion and produ&ion •, and for this reafon, all trees (except
the cyprefs, and fome others of the fame kind) feparate
in their growth from one another, and from other ftrange
bodies as much as poflible, and their branches and foliage
do the fame : wherefore, to give them that air and thin-
r.efs, which is their principal character, the branches,
boughs, and foliage, muft appear to fly from each other,
to proceed from oppofite parts, and be well divided.
And all this without order ; as if chance aided nature
in the fanciful diverfity. But to fay particularly how
thefe trunks, branches, and foliages, ought to be diftri-
buted, would be needlefs, and only a defcription of the
works of great mafters: a little reflection on nature will
be of more fervice than all that can be faid on this head.
By great roafters, we mean fuch as have publiflred prints j
for thofe will give belter ideas to young copyifts than even
the paintings themfelves.
T I N G.
Among the many great mafters of all fchOols, De Landfc
Piles prefers Titian’s wooden prints, where the trees
are well fhaped •, and thofe which Cornelius Cort and
Agoftino Caracci have engraved. And he afferts, that
beginners can do no better than contraCt, above all things,
an habit of imitating the touches of thefe great mafters,
and of confidering at the fame time the perfpeCIive of
the branches and foliages, and obferving how they ap¬
pear, either when rifing and feen from below, or when
finking and feen from above, or when fronting and view¬
ed from a point, or when they appear in profile j and, in
a word, when fet in the various views in which nature
prefents them, without altering their characters*
After having ftudied and copied with the pen or
crayon, firft the prints, and then the defigns of Titian
and Caracci, the ftudent fhould imitate with the pencil
thofe touches which they have moft diftinCtly fpecified, if
their paintings can be procured j but fince they are
fcarce, others ftiould be got which have a good charac¬
ter for their touching } as thofe of Foquier, who is a
moft excellent model: Paul Bril, Breugel, and Bour¬
don, are alto very good j their touching is neat, lively,
and thin.
After having duly weighed the nature of trees, their,
fpread and order, and the difpofition of their branches,
the artift muft get a lively idea of them, in order to keep
up the fpirit of them throughout, either by making them
apparent and diftinCt in the fore-grounds, or obfeure and
confufed in proportion to their diftance.
After having thus gained fome knowledge in good
manner, it will next be proper to ftudy after nature, and
to choofe and reClify it according to the idea which the
aforefaid great mafters had of it. As to perfeCIion, it can
only be expeCtedfrom long practice and perfeverance. On
the whole, it is proper for thofe vffio have an inclination
for landfcape, above all things to take the proper methods
for beginning it well.
As for thofe who have made fome advances in this
part of painting, it is proper they ftiould collect the ne-
ceffary materials for their further improvement, and ftudy
thofe objefis at lead: which they ftiall have moft frequent
occafion to reprefent.
Painters ufually comprife, under the wordfvdy, any
thing wffiatever which they either defign or paint fena-
rately after the life ; whether figures, heads, feet, hands,
draperies, animals, mountains, trees, plants, flowers, fruits,
or whatever may confirm them in the juft imitation of na¬
ture : the drawing of thefe things is what they cdiljludy;
whether they be tor inftruftion in defign, or only to afi>
fure them of the truth, and to perfect their work. In
faft, this wordJiudy is the more properly ufed by pain¬
ters, as in the diverfity of nature they are daily making
new difioveries, and confirming themfelves in what they
already know.
As the landfcape-painter need only ftudy fueh objects
as are to be met with in the country, wre would recom¬
mend to him fome order, that his drawings may be al¬
ways at hand when he wants them. For inftance, he
Ihould copy after nature, on feparate papers, the diffe¬
rent effefts of trees in general, and the different efte£ls
of each kind in particular, with their trunks, foliage,
and colours. He ihould alfo take the fame method with
fome forts of plants, becaufe their variety is a great orna¬
ment to terraces on fore-grounds. He ought likewife to
ftudy the effe6Is <?f the Iky in the feveral times of the day
4 Q.2 • • and
f
67.6
PAIN
Landfcapes and feafons of the year, in the various difpofiticns of clouds,
v——' QQtJi in ferene, thundering, and ftormy weather •, and in
the offskip, the feveral forts of rocks, waters, and other
principal objefls.
Thefe drawings, which may be made at different
times, fhould be eolle£fed together ; and all that relate
to one matter be put into a book, to which the artifl
may have recourfe at any time for what he wants.
Now, if the fine effecls of nature, whether in fhape or
colour, whether for an entire piclure or a part of one,
be the artilfs ftudy i and if the difficulty lies in choofing
thofe effefls well, he mufl for this purpofe be born with
good fenfe, good taide, and a fine genius j and this ge¬
nius muft be cultivated by the obfervations which ought
to be made on the works of the beft mafters, how
they choofe nature, and how, while they corrected her,
according to their art, they preferved her charafter.
With thefe advantages, derived from nature and per-
fectcd by art, the painter cannot fail to make a good
choice ; and, by diftinguiffiing between the good and
the bad, mult needs find great inllruction even from the
moft common things.
To improve themfelves in this kind of ftudies, painters
have taken feveral methods.
There are fome artifts who have defigned after nature,
and in the open fields; and have there quite finifhed
thofe parts which they had chofen, but without adding
any colour to them.
Others have drawn, in oil colours, in a middle tint,
on ftrong paper and found this method convenient,
becaufe, the colours finking, they could put colour on
colour, though different from each other. For this
purnofe they took with them a flat box, which com-
modioufly held their pallet, pencils, oil, and colours.
This method, which indeed requires feveral imple¬
ments, is doubtlefs the beft for drawing nature more par¬
ticularly, and with greater exaftnefs, efpecially if, after
the wmrk be dry and varnifhed, the artifl return to the
place where he drew, and retouch the principal things
after nature.
Others have only drawn the outlines of objecls, and
{lightly wafhed them in colours near the life, for the
eafe of their memory. Others have attentively obferved
fuch parts as they had a mind to retain, and contented
themfelves with committing them to their memory, which
upon occaflon gave them a faithful account of them.
Others have made drawings in paflil and wafli together.
Others, with more curiofity and patience, have gone fe¬
veral times to the places which were to their tafte : the
firfl time they only made choice of the parts, and drew
them correftly ; and the other times were fpent in ob-
ferving the variety of colouring, and its alterations
through change of light.
Now thefe feveral methods are very good, and each
may be pra&ifed as befl fuits the fludent and his tem¬
per : but they require the neceffaries of painting, as
colours, pencils, paftils, and leifure. Nature, how¬
ever, at certain times, prefents extraordinary but
tranlient beauties^ and fuch as can be of no fervice to
the artift who has not as much time as is neceffary
to imitate what he admires. The befl: way, per¬
haps, to make advantage of fuch momentary occa'fions,
is this:
The painter being provided with a quire of paper,
a black-lead pencil, let him quickly, but flightly,
TING. Part II.
defign what he fees extraordinary j and to remember Landfcapes.
the colouring, let him mark the principal parts with
characters, which he may explain at the bottom of the
paper, as far as is neceflary for himfelf to underftand
them : A cloud, for inflance, may be marked A, ano¬
ther cloud B, a light C, a mountain D, a terrace E,
and fo on. And having repeated thefe letters at the
bottom of the paper, let him write againft each that it is
of fuch or fuch a colour ; or, for greater brevity, only b/ue,
red, violet, gray, &c. or any other fliorter abbrevia¬
tion. After this, he muft go to painting as foon as pof-
fible ; otherwife moft of what he has obferved will, in a
little time, flip out of his memory. This method is the
more ufeful, as it not only prevents our lofing an infinity
of hidden and tranfitory beauties, but alfo helps, by
means of the aforefaid marks and characters, to perfedt
the other methods we have mentioned.
If it be afked, Which is the propereft time for thefe
ftudies ? the anfwer is, That nature ftiould be ftudied
at all times, becaufe Are is to be reprefented at all fea¬
fons \ but autumn yields the moft plentiful harveft for
her fine effedts: the mildnefs of that feafon, the beauty
of the Iky, the richnefs of the earth, and the variety of
objects, are powerful inducements with the painter to
make the proper inquiries for improving his genius and
perfecting his art.
But as we cannot fee or obferve every thing, it is
very commendable to make ufe of other men’s ftudies,
and to look upon them as if they were our own. Ra-'
phael fent fome young men into Greece to defign fuch
things as he thought would be of fervice to him, and
accordingly niade ufe of them to as good purpofe as if
he himfelf had defigned them on the fpot: for this,
Raphael is fo far from deferving cenfure, that he ought,
on the contrary, to be commended 5 as an example, that
painters ought to leave no way untried for improving
in their profeffions. The landfcape painter may, ac¬
cordingly, make ufe of the works of all thofe who have
excelled in any kind, in order to acquire a good man¬
ner ; like the bees which gather their variety of honey
from different flowers.
General Remarks on Landfcapes. As the general
rules of painting are the bafis of all the feveral kinds
of it, we muft refer the landfcape painter to them, or
rather fuppofe him to be well acquainted with them.
We fhall here only make fome general remarks on this
kind of painting.
I. Landfcape fuppofes the knowledge and pradlice
of the principal rules in perfpeclive, in order to maintain
probability.
II. The nigher the leaves of trees are to the earth,
the larger they are, and the greener j as being apteft
to receive, in abundance, the fap which nourifhes
them : and the upper branches begin firft to take the
rednefs or yellownefs which colours them in autumn.
But it is otherwife in plants; for their flocks renew all
the year round, and their leaves fucceed one another
at a confiderable diftance of time, infomuch that ma¬
ture, employed in producing new leaves to adorn the
flock as it rifes, does by degrees defert the under ones j
which, having firft performed their office, are the firft
that die : but this effedl is more vifible in fome than in
others.
III. The under parts of all leaves are of a brighter
green than the upper, and almoft always incline to the
fxlverifh
Part II. . , P A I N
Landfcapes filverilh , and thofe which are wind-fhaken are known
«—v from others by that colour: but if we view them from
beneath, when penetrated by the fun’s rays, they dif-
cover fuck a fine and lively green as is far beyond all
comparifon.
IV. There are five principal things which give fpirit
to landfcape, viz. figures, animals, waters, wind-fhaken
trees, and thinnefs of pencilling; to which add fmoke,
wdien there is occafion to introduce it.
V. When one colour predom.nates throughout a land¬
fcape, as one green in fpring, or one red in autumn,
the piece will look either as of one colour, or elfe as
unfinifhed. We have feen many of Bourdon’s land¬
fcapes, which, by handling the corn one way through¬
out, have loft much of their beauty, though the fit na¬
tions and waters were very pleaiant. T he ingenious
painter muft endeavour to correct, and, as they fay, re¬
deem the harfh unfightly colouring of winter and fpring
by means of figures, waters, and buildings ; for fummer
and autumn fubjects are of themfelves capable of great
variety.
VI. Titian and Carrache are the beft models for in-
fpiring good tafte, and leading the painter into'a good
track, with regard to forms and colours. He muft ufe
all his efforts, to gain a juft idea of the principles which
thofe great men have left us in their works \ and to
have his imagination filled with them, if he would ad¬
vance by degrees towards that perfection which the
artift fhould have always in view.
VII. The landfcapes of thefe two mafters teach us
a great many things, of which difcourfe can give us
no exaCt idea, nor any general principle. Which way,
for example, can the meafures of trees in general be
determined, as vTe determine thofe of the human body ?
The tree has no fettled proportions} moft of its beau¬
ty lies in the contraft of its branches, an unequal dif-
tribution of boughs, and, in fhort, a kind of whimfi-
cal variety, which nature delights in, and of which
the painter becomes a judge when he has thoroughly
relifhed the works of the two mafters aforefaid. But
we muft fay, in Titian’s praife, that the path lie ftruck
out is the fureft ; becaufe he has exaftly imitated na¬
ture in its variety with an exquifite tafte, and fine co¬
louring : whereas Carrache, though an able artift, has
not, more than others, been free from manner in his
landfcapes.
VIII. One of the greateft perfections of landfcape,
in the variety it reprefents, is a faithful imitation of
each particular character: as its greateft fault is a
licentious praCtice, which brings us to do things by
rote.
IX. Among thofe things which are painted praCtical-
]y, we ought to intermix fome done after nature, to in¬
duce the fpeClator to believe that all are fo.
X. As there are ftyles of thought, fo there are alfo
ftyles of execution. We have handled the two relating
to thought, viz. the heroic and paftoral ; and find
that there are two alfo with regard to execution, viz.
the firm ftyle, and the poliflied j thefe two concern the
pencil, and the more or lefs ingenious way of conduct¬
ing it. The firm ftyle gives life to work, and excufe
for bad choice •, and the polifhed finifties and brightens
every thing *, it leaves no employment for the fpeCta-
tor’s imagination, which pleafes itfelf in difcovering
and finiftiing tilings which it afcribes to the artift, though
TING. 677
in faCt they proceed only from itfelf. The poliftied Portraiture-
ftyle degenerates into the foft and dull, if not fupported
by a good opening or fituation j but when thofe two
characters meet, the picture is fine.
Sect. III. Of Portraiture.
If painting be an imitation of nature, it is doubly fo
in a portrait 5 which not only reprefents a man in gene¬
ral, but fuch a one as may be diftinguifhed from all
others. And as the greateit perfection of a portrait is
extreme likenefs, fo the greateft of its faults is to re-
femble a perfon for whom it was not made ; fince there
are not in the world two perfons quite like one another.
But before we proceed to the particulars which let us
into the knowledge of this imitation, it is neceffary, for
ftiortening this part of our iubjeft, to attend toTome ge¬
neral propofitions.
I. Imitation is the effence of painting : and good
choice is to this effence what the virtues are to a
man 5 they ralfe the value of it. For this reafon, it
is extremely the painter’s intereft to choofe none but
good heads, or favourable moments for drawing them,
and fuch pofitions as may fupply the want of a fine na- -
tural.
II. There are views of the natural more or lefs ad¬
vantageous ; all depends upon turning it well, and tak¬
ing it in the favourable moment.
III. There is not a Angle perfon in the world who has
not a peculiar ehara&er both in body and face.
IV. Simple and genuine nature is more proper for imi¬
tation ) and is a better choice than nature much formed,
and embelliftied too artificially.
V. To adorn nature too much is doing it a violence 3
and the aCtion which attends it can never be free when its
ornaments are not eafy. In ftiort, in proportion as we
adorn nature, we make it degenerate from itfelf, and
bring it down to art.
VI. Some means are more advantageous than others
to come at the fame end.
VII. We muft not only imitate what we do fee in
nature, but alfo what we may poftibly fee that is advan¬
tageous in art.
VIII. Things are valuable by comparifon 3 and it is
only by this we are enabled to make a right judgement
of them.
IX. Painters eafily accuftom themfelves to their own
tints, and the manner of their mafters : and after this
habit is rooted in them, they view nature not as ftie
really is, but as they are ufed to paint her.
X. It is very difficult to make a pifture, the figures -
of which are as big as the life, to have its effeft hear
as at a diftance. A learned piCIure pleafes the ig¬
norant @nly when it is at fome/diftance 3 but judges
will admire its artifice near, and its effect at a di¬
ftance.
XL Knowledge makes work pleafant and eafy. The
traveller who knows his road, comes to his journey’s end
with more fpeed and certainty than he who inquires
and gropes it out.
XII. It is proper, before we begin a work, to me¬
ditate upon it, and to make a nice coloured fketch
of it, for our own fatisfaction, and a help to the me¬
mory.
We cannot too much reflect on thefe propofilicns 3 and •
it S
678
P A I N
Portraiture.It necefiary to be well acquainted with them, that they
many prefent themfelves to our mind, of their own ac¬
cord, without our being at the trouble to recal them to
our memory when we are at work.
There are four things neceflary to make a portrait
perfect j air, colouring, attitude, and drefs.
Of Air. The air refpects the lines of the face, the
head attire, and the lize.
The lines of the face depend upon exa£tnefs of draught,
and agreement of the parts ; which all together muft re-
prefent the phyfiognomy of the perfon painted in fuch a
manner, that the picture of his body may feem to be al-
fo that of his mind.
It is not exaftnefs of delign in portraits that gives
fpirit and true air, fo much as the agreement of the parts
at the very moment when the difpolition and tempera¬
ment of the fitter are to be hit off. We fee feveral
portraits which, though correctly defigned, have a cold,
languiihing, and ftupid air; wdiilft others, lefs correct in
defign, ftrike us, however, at firft fight with the fitter’s
character.
Few painters have been careful enough to put the
parts well together: Sometimes the mouth is fmiling,
and the eyes are fad j at other times, the eyes are
cheerful, and the cheeks lank: by which means their
work has a falfe air, and looks unnatural. We ought
therefore to remember, that, when the fitter puts on a
fmiling air, the eyes clofe, the corners of the mouth
drawr up towards the noftrils, the cheeks fwell, and the
eyebrows widen : but in a melancholy air, thefe parts
have a contrary effeft.
The eyebrows, being railed, give a grave and noble
air ; but if arched, an air of afioniihment.
Of all the parts of the face, that which contributes
mod; to likenefs is the nofe j it is therefore of great mo¬
ment to fet and draw it well.
Though the hair of the head feems to be part of the
drefs, which is capable of various forms without altering
the air of the face 5 yet the head attire which one has
been mofl: accuftomed to Creates fuch a likenefs, that
we fcarce know a familiar acquantance on his putting
on a periwig foniewhat different from that which he
ufed to wean It is neceffary therefore, as far as poflible,
to take the air of the head ornament, and make it ac¬
company and fet oif that of the face, if there be no rea-
fon to the contrary.
As to the ftature, it contributes fo much to likenefs,
that we very often know people without feeing their
face : It is therefore extremely proper to draw the fize
after the fitter himfelf, and in fuch an attitude as we
think fit; which was "Vandyke’s method. Here let us
remark, that, in fitting, the perfon appears to be of
a lefs free make, through the heaving of his fhoulders ;
wherefore, to adjuft his fize, it is proper to make him
Hand for a final 1 time, fwaying in the pofture we would
give him, and then make our obfervation. But here oc¬
curs a difficulty, which we (hall endeavour to examine:
“ Whether it is proper, in portraiture, to correct the de¬
fers of nature ?”
Likenefs being the effence of portraiture, it would
feem that we ought to imitate defefts as well as beau¬
ties, fince by this means the imitation will be more
complete : It wTould be even hard to prove the contrary
to one who would undertake the defence of this pofi-
tion. But ladies and gentlemen do not much approve
2
TING. Part II.
of thofe painters who entertain fuch fentiments, and put Colouring,
them in praftice. It is certain that fome complaifance —~v-—
in this refpeft is due to them j and there is little doubt
but their pi&ures may be made to refemble, without
difpleafing them j for the effectual likenefs is a jurt a-
greement of the parts that are painted wfith thofe of na¬
ture j fo that we may be at no lofs to know the air of
the face, and the temper of the perfon, whofe picture is
before us. All deformities, therefore, when the air and
temper may be difeovered without them, ought to be either
corrected or omitted in women’s and young men’s portraits,
A nofe fomewhat awrry may be helped, or a (hrivelled
neck or high Ihoulders adapted to a good air, without
going from one extreme to another. But this mult be
done with great difcretion : for, by endeavouring to cor-
reft nature too much, wre infenfibly fall into a method
of giving a general air to all our portraits j juft as, by
confining ourfelves too much to the defefts and little- .
nefs of nature, we are in danger of falling into the low
and taftelefs manner.
But in the faces of heroes and men of rank, diftin-
guilhed either by dignities, virtues, or great qualities,
we cannot be too exa£t, whether the parts be beauti¬
ful or not : for portraits of fuch perfons are to be Hand¬
ing monuments to pofterity ; in which cafe, every thing
in a pidure is precious that is faithful. But after what¬
ever manner the painter acquits himfelf in this point,
let him never forget good air nor grace j and that there
are, in the natural, advantageous moments for hitting
them off.
Of Colouring.—Colouring, in portraiture, is an effu-
fion of nature, difeovering the true tempers of perfons j
and the temper being effential to likenefs, it ought to be
handled as exaftly as the defign. This part is the more
valuable, as it is rare and difficult to hit. A great many
painters have come to a likenefs by ftrokes and outlines j
but certainly they are few who have ffiown in colours
the tempers of perfons.
Two points are neceffary in colouring $ exaclnefs of
tints, and the art of fetting them off. The former is
acquired by pradlice, in examining and comparing the
colours wre fee in life with thofe by which we would
imitate it: and the art of thofe tints confifts in know¬
ing what one colour wall produce when fet by another,
and in making good wffiat either diftance or time may
abate of the glow and frelhnefs of the colours.
A painter who does nothing more than wffiat he fees,
will never arrive at a perfeft imitation ; for though his
work may feem, on the eafel, to be good to him, it may
not appear fo to others, and perhaps even to himfelf, at
a diftance. A tint which, near, appears disjoined, and
of one colour, may look of another at a diftance, and be
confounded in the mafs it belongs to. If you would
have your wTork, therefore, to produce a good effeft in
the place where it is to hang, both the colours and
lights muft be a little loaded •, but learnedly, and with
difcretion. In this point confult Titian, Rubens, Van¬
dyke, and Rembrandt’s method ; for indeed their art is
wonderful.
The tints ufually require three times of obfervaticn.
The firft is at the perfon’s firft fitting down, when he
has more fpirit and colour than ordinary ; and this is to
be noted in the firft hour of his fitting. The fecond is
when, being compoied, ms look is as ufual y which is
to be obferved in the. fecond hour. And the third is
when,
Part II. PAIN
. AttlllKic- when, through tirefomenefs by fitting in one pofture,
his colour alters to what wearinefs ufually creates. On
which account, it is bell to keep to the fitter’s ufual
tint, a little improved. He may alio rife, and take fome
turns about the room, to gain frelh fpirits, and lhake off
or prevent tirefomenefs.
In draperies, all forts of colours do not fuit all forts
of perfons. In men’s portraits, we need only obferve
great truth and great force: but in women’s there mull
alfo be charms ; whatever beauty they have mull appear
m a hne hght, and their blemithes mull by fome means
or other be foftened. For this reafon, a white, lively,
and bright tint, ought never to be fet off by a fine yel¬
low, which would make it look like plaller ; but rather
by colours inclining to green, blue, or gray, or fuch
others as, by the oppofition, may make the tint appear
tnore flefhy than ufual in fair women. Vandyke often
made a fillemot coloured curtain for his ground 5 but
that colour is loft and brown. Brown women, on the
other hand, who have yellow enough in their tints to
fupport the cnaradler of tlefhinefs, may very well have
yellowifh draperies, in order to bring down the yellow
of their tints, and make them look the frefher j and
near very high coloured and lively carnations linen,
does wonders.
In grounds, two things are obfervable 5 the tone and
t le colour. The colour is to be confidered in the fame
manner as thofe of draperies, with refpedt to the head.
I ne tone muff be always different from the mafs it lup-
ports, and of which it is the ground, that the objects
coming upon it may not feem tranfparent, but folid and
rat fed. The colour of the hair of the head ufual ly de¬
termines the tone of the ground ; and when the former
is a bright chefnUt, we are often embarraffed, unlefs
helped by means of a curtain, or fome accident of the
claro obfcuro, fuppofed to be behind, or unlefs the ground
is a fky. &
We muff further obferve, that where a ground is nei-
ther curtain nor landfcape, or fuch like, but is plain and
like a wall, it ought to be very much party-coloured,
with almoft imperceptible patches or ftains 5 for, befides’
its being fo in nature, the piflure will look the more
grand.
Of Attitude, or Po/W—Attitudes ought to fuit the
age and qualities of perfons and their tempers. In old
men and women, they fhould be grave, majeftic, and
fometimes bold : and generally, in women, they ought
to have a noble fimplicity and modeft cheea;fulnefs; for
modefty ought to be the charafter of women ; a charm
mfinitely beyond coquetry ! and indeed coquettes them-
felves are not to be painted fuch.
Attitudes are of two kinds : one in motion, the other
.at rcft-. Thofe at reft may fuit every perfon : but thofe
in motion are proper for young people only, and are
hard to be expreffed • becaufe a great part of the hair
and drapery muff be moved by the air j motion, in
painting, being never better expreffed than by fuch agi¬
tations. 1 he attitudes at reft muff not appear fo much
at reft as to feem to reprefent an inactive perfon, and
one who fits for no other purpofe but to be a copy.
And though the figure that is reprelented be at reft, yet
tne painter, if he thinks fit, may give it a flying dra-
pery, provided the fcene or ground be Hot a chamber or
clofe place.
It is above all things neceffary that the figures which
TING.
♦
are not employed ihould appear to fatisfy the fpeclator’s
curiofity j and for this, purpofe ftiow themfelves in fuch
an adlion as. fuits their tempers and conditions, as if
they would inform him what they really were : and
as nioft people pretend to fincerity, honefty, and great-
nefs of mind, we muft avoid in attitudes, all manner of
affectation j every thing there muft appear eafy and na¬
tural,^ and difcover more or left fpirit, noblenefs, and
majefty, in proportion to the perfon’s charader and dig¬
nity. In a word, the attitudes are the language of por¬
traits ; and tne Ikilful painter ought to give great atten¬
tion to them.
But the beft attitudes are fuch as induce the fpe&a-
tor to think that tire fitter took a favourable opportu¬
nity of being feen to advantage, and without affe&a-
tion. There is only one thing to be obferved with
regard to women’s portraits, in whatever attitude they
are placed 5 which is, that they fway in fuch a man¬
ner as to give their face but little Ihade j and that we
carefully examine whether the lady appear moft beau¬
tiful in a fmiling or in a ferious air, and condud our-
felves accordingly. Let us now proceed £0 the next
article.
Of PraBice in Portraiture.—According to De Piles,
portraiture requires three different fittings and opera¬
tions ; viz. dead colouring, fecond colouring, and re¬
touching or finifliing. Before the painter dead colour,
he muft attentively confider what afped will beft fuit
the fitter, by putting him in different pofitions, if we
have not any fettled defign before us: and when we have
determined this, it is of the laft confequence to put the
parts well together, by comparing always one part with
another 5 for not only the portrait acquires a greater
likenefs when well defigned, but it is troublefome to
make alterations at the fecond fitting, when the artift
xhuft only think of painting, that is, of difpofing and
uniting his colours.
Experience tells us, that the dead colouring ought
to be clean, became of the flope and tranfparency of
the colours, efpecially in the Ihades : and when the
parts are well, put together, and become clammy, they
muft be judicioufly fweetened and melted into each
other j yet without taking away the air of the pic¬
ture, that the painter may have the pleafure of finilhincr
it, in proportion as he draws. But if fiery geniufes
do not like this method of fcumbling, let them only
mark the parts fiightly, and fo far as is neceffary for
giving an air.
In dead colouring, it is proper to put in rather too
little than too much hair about the forehead ; that, in
finifliing, we may be at liberty to place it where’we
pleafe, and to paint it with all poflible foftnefs and de¬
licacy. If, on the contrary, you Iketch upon the fore¬
head a lock which may appear to be of a good tafte
and becoming the work, you may be puzzled in finifli¬
ing it, and not find the life exaftly in the fame pofition
as you would paint it. But this obfervation is not
meant for men of Ikill and confummate experience, who
have nature in their heads, and make her fubmit to their
ideas.
The bulinefs of the fecond fitting is, to put the co¬
lours well in their places, and to paint them in a man¬
ner that is fuitable to the fitter and to the effeft we
propofe : But before they are made clammy, we ought
to examine afrelh whether the parts are rightly placed,
and.
679
Practice
in Poxtrai-
68o
Pradlice of
V andyke.
PAIN
.and here and there to give feme touches towards like-
nefs, that, when we are affured of it, the wTork may
go on with greater faUnaidtion. If the painter under-
ftands what he is about, and the portrait be juftly de-
figned, he ought as much as poflible to work quick ;
the fitter will be better pleafed, and the work will by
this means have the more fpirit and life. But this rea-
dinefs is only the effea of long ftudy and experience;
for we may well be allowred a conliderable time to find
out a road that is eafy, and fuch as wre mull often tra¬
vel in.
Before wc retouch or finifh, it is proper to. ter¬
minate the hair, that, on finilhing the carnations,
we may be abler to judge of the effect of the whole
head.
If, at the fecond fitting, we cannot do all we in¬
tended, which often happens, the third makes up the
lofs, and gives both fpirit, phyfiognomy, and cha¬
racter.
If we would paint a portrait at once, we muff load
the colouring but neither fweeten, nor drive, nor
very much oil it: and if we dip the pencil m var-
nilh as the work advances, this will readily enable us
to put colour on colour, and to mix them without
driving.
The life and fight of good pi&ures give greater
light into things than words can exprefs : What hits
one artift’s underftanding and temper may be difa-
greeable to another’s ; and almoft all painters have
taken different ways, though their principles were of¬
ten the fame.
We are told that a friend of Vandyke’s having ob-
ferved to him hew little time he bellowed on his por¬
traits, Vandyke anfwered, “ That at firfl he worked
hard, and took great pains, to acquire a reputation,
and alfo to get a fwift hand, again!! the time he thould
work for his kitchen.” Vandyke’s cultom is faid to
have been this: He appointed both the day and hour
for the perfon’s fitting, and wrorked not abuse an itovr
on any portrait, either in rubbing in or 'finilhing *, fo that
as foon as his clock informed him that the hour was out,
he rofe up, and made a bow to the fitter, to fignify, that
he had done enough for that day, and ^heii appointed
another hour fome other day, whereupon his fervant
-came to clean his pencils, and brought a frelh pallet,
whilft he was receiving another fitter, whofc day and
hour he had before appointed. By th; method he
worked on feveral piCf^res the fame day, v>idi extraor¬
dinary expedition.
After having lightly dead-coloured the .ace, he put
the fitter into fome attitude which he had before con¬
trived ) and on a gray paper, with white and black,
crayons, he defigned, m a quarter ox an hour, his Ihape
and drapecy, which he difpofed in a grand manner, and
an exquifite tafte. After this, he. gave the drawing to
the Ikilful peoole he had about him, to paint after the
fitter’s own clothes, which, at Vandyke s requell., were
fent to him for that purpofe. When his difciples
had done what they could to thefe draperies, he lightly
wTent over them again ; and fo, in a little time, by his
great knowledge, difplayed the art and truth which we
at this day admire in them. As for hands, he had in
his houfe people of both fexes, whom he paid, and who
ferved as models.
This conduct of Vandyke, however, is mentioned
3
TING. Part II.
rather to gratify the reader’s curiouty, than to ex-Ju4gement
. ^ < * r i r • Tint*;.
cite his imitation 5 he may choofe as much of it as, ot Tints’
he pleafes, and as fuits his own genius, and leave the
reft.
We mull obferve by the way, that there is nothing
fo rare as fine hands, either in the defign or colouring.
It is therefore convenient to cultivate, if we can, a
friendlhip with fome woman wrho will take pleafure in
ferving for a copy : flhe way to win them is, to praile
their beauty exceedingly. But if an opportunity feryes
of copying hands after Vandyke, it mull not be let flip}
for he drew them with a furpiifmg delicacy, and an ad- •
mirable colouring.
It is of great fervice to copy after the manners which
come nearelt to nature } as are thofe of Titian and
Vandyke. We mull, at fuch times, believe them to
be nature itfelf} and, at fome dillance, confider them
as fuch, and fay to ourfelves—W/iat colour aud tint
Jhall I ufe for fuch a part ? And then, coming near
the pifture, we ought to examine whether we are
right or not} and to make a fixed rule of what we
have difeovered, and did not pradlife before without un¬
certainty.
It is recommended, before we begin colouring, to
catch the very firll moments, which are commonly the
moil agreeable and moll advantageous, and to keep
them in our memory for ufe when we are finilhing : for
the fitter, growing tired with being long in the fame
place, lofes thofe fpirits, which, at his firlt fitting down,
gave beauty to the parts, and conveyed to the tint more
lively blood, and a frelher colour. In ihort, we mull
join to truth a probable and advantageous poflibility,
which, far fiom abating likenefs, ferves rather to fet it
off. For this end, we ought to begin with obferving the
ground of a. tint, as well wdiat it is in lights as in ihadesj
for the Ihsdes are only beautiful as they are proportion¬
ed to the light. We mull obferve, if the tint be very
lively, whether it partake of yellownets, and where that
yellownefs is placed } becaufe ufually, towards the end
of the fitting, fatigue diffufes a general yellownefs, which
mikes us forget what parts were cf this colour, and
what were not, unlefs we had taken due notice of it be¬
fore. For this reafon, at the fecond fitting, the colours
mull be everywhere readily clapped in, and fuch as ap¬
pear at the firll fitting down } for theie are always the
finell.
The furelf way to judge of colours is by compa¬
nion } and to know a tint, nothing is better than
to compare it with linen placed next it, or elfe pla¬
ced next to the natural objedl, if there be occafion.—
We fay this only to' thofe who have little praclifed
nature.
The portrait being now fuppofed to be as much
finilhed as you are able, nothing remains, but, at
fome reafonable dillance, to view both the pifture. and
fitter together, in order to determine with certainty,
whether there is any thing Hill wanting to perfeft the
work.
Sect. IV. Of Theatrical Decorations; the Defgns for
Furniture, Embroidery, Carriages, its'e.
Of Theatrical Decorations.—This is a particular art,
which unites feveral of the general parts of painting
with the knowledge of architecture, perfpedlive, &e.
They
1
Part IT. PAIN
Theatrical Xhey veilo .apply tliemfelves to it would do well to
Jiecora- defign their decorations by day, and to colour them
i'1 _ by candle light, as they will be much better able to
judge of the effect of a painting intended to be viewed
by that light. It is proper alto to caution the young
painter to avoid, as much as pofiible, the uniting the
imitations of nature with nature itfelf; that is, he fhould
not introduce with his decorations living horfes, or
other animals, real fountains or cafcades, trees, or fla¬
tties, &.c. For fuch combinations are the effect of
ignorance and a bad tafte ; they are the refource of
painters of little ability; they difrover a fterility of
invention, and produce great inconvenience in the re-
preientation. Tiiofe pieces which they call moving
pictures, where the painted landfcape remains immove¬
able, and the figures move by means of fprings, form a
part of thefe decorations; and there are fome of them,
as thofe of Antwerp and Ghent, that have a pleafing
effect.
The defigns for furniture, carriages, porcelain, and
other branches of manufadture, form allb a very im¬
portant article of painting in general, and of acade¬
my painting in particular. This is a diftindt branch
of the art \ and without doubt not the leaft ufeful of
its parts, as it concurs fo effentially to the fuccefs of
manufadtures, and confequently to the profperity of a
ftate: and it is an art, to which it were much to be
wiflied that youth of ability and invention would ap¬
ply themfelves. See the articles Japanning and Por¬
celain.
Sect. V. Enumeration of the different Methods of Paint¬
ing, or the different Means and Materials that Painters
make ufe of to imitate ail vifible Objedts on a plane Su-
perfeies.
Those now in pradlice are,
1. Painting in OIL j which is preferable to all other
methods, as it is more fufceptible of all forts of expref-
flons, of more perfedl gradations of colours, and is at the
fame time more durable.'
2. Mosaic painting ; an invention truly wonderful.
It is compofed of a great number of fmall pieces of
marble ol different colours, joined together with ftucco.
The works of this kind are made principally at Rome,
where this art has been carried fo far as to refemble the
paintings of the greatefl mafters ; and of thefe are made
monuments for the lateft pofterity.
3. Painting in fresco , which is by drawing, with
colours diluted with water, on a wall newly plaflered,
and with which they fo incorporate, that they periih
only with the flucco itfelf. This is principally ufed on
ceilings.
4. Painting in WATER COLOURS 5 that is, with co¬
lours mixed with water and gum, or pafle, &c.
5. Miniature painting •, which differs from the
preceding as it reprefents objects in the leaft difeemi-
ble magnitudes.
6. Painting in crayons ; for which purpofe colours,
either Ample or compound, are mixed with gum, and
made into a kind of hard parte like chalk, and with
which they draw on paper or parchment.
7. Painting in ENAMEL 5 which is done on copper or
gold, with mineral colours that are dried by fire, and
become verv durable. The paintings on the PORCELAIN
VOL. XV. Part II.
T I N G.
of China and Europe, on Delft ware, &c. are fo many
forts of enamel.
8. Painting in WAX, or encaustic painting: This is
a new, or rather an old invention renewed, in which
there are in France performances highly pleafing. It
is done with wax mixed with varnilh and colours.
9. Painting on glass j of which there are various
kinds.
See all the articles here enumerated, explained in the
order of the alphabet. On one of them, however, fome
additional obferVations may here be fubjoined.
§ I. Of Painting in Frefco.
Of all kinds of painting, frefco is the moft ancient,
the moft durable, the moft: fpeedily executed, and the
moft proper to adorn great buildings. It appears, that
the fragments of ancient painting handed down to us
by the Romans are all in frefco. Nor den, quoted by
Winkleman, fpeaks of the ruins of Egyptian palaces
and temples, in which are coloflal paintings on walls
80 feet high. The defeription which thofe authors
have given of thefe paintings, of the prepared groun ,
and of the manner in which the colours have been em¬
ployed, &c. thows plainly that they have been executed
in frefco.
The liability of frefco is demonilrated by the exift-
ence of thofe fragments of the higheft antiquity. There
are no other kinds of painting which could equally have
refifted the injuries of the weather, the exceflive aridity
of certain climates, the moifture of fubterraneous fitua-
tions, and the encroachments of barbarians.
There are different opinions concerning the climate
moft proper to preferve this kind of painting. “ It is
oblerved (fays Felibien), that the colours in frefco fade
fooner in Italy and Languedoc -than at Paris; perhaps
from lefs heat in the Ml mentioned place, or better
lime.” M. Falconet contradi&s this affertion in his
notes on Pliny, vol. i. p. 223. of his mifcellaneous
works, pubiiftied at Paris 1787. Painting in frefcq,
according to this author, is longer preferved in dry
and warm, than in northern and moift climates. How¬
ever oppofite the fentiments of thefe two authors may
appear to be, it is portable to reconcile them, when
we confider, that the expofure to a burning fun is ca¬
pable of operating a great change of the colours on
the one hand, and that the froft in a cold climate ine¬
vitably deftroys the paintings of frefco on the other.
Froft is capable of burfting ftones, of corroding the
petrified veins of earth in the heart of coloured marble,
and, in fhort, nothing can refill its deftruftive opera¬
tion.
Thefe obfervations on frefco paintings lead us to
conclude, that the choice of place, when they are with¬
out doors, is of the greateft importance. In countries
where there is little or no froft, an expofure to the
north is the moft favourable ; and in cold climates a
weftern expolure fhould be made choice of, becaufe
the firft rays of the riling fun have a very pernicious
eftecl after fioft. Me are not, however, wholly to
adopt the fentiment of M. Falconet with regard to the
pernicious effects of moifture on frefco paintings : for,
1. The ancient paintings recovered from moilt places,
in which they were buried for many ages, have, under
enormous heaps of earth, preferved all their colours,
ihofe from the ruins of Herculaneum have been ob-
4 R ferved,
68l
Frefco.
682
Frefco
P A I N T I N G.
Fait II,
fervcd, on the contrary, to lofe their colours in a flrort
time after they have been dried by the exterior air.
2. The mortar which compofes the ground of this
painting is not deftroyed in our rainy climates. It is
neceffury frequently to ufe powder in removing pieces
of this mortar, which are now found to obih'uct fome
buildings in Paris.
' After the choice of place, the choice of materials is
the next thing of importance in executing frefco. To
make it durable, the ground is the object of chief atten¬
tion ; and to make this perfect, the mortar ufed by the
ancients, now unknown, would be neceffary.
It is eafy to perceive, that a minute detail of forms,
an extenlive mixture and gradation of tints, and the
merit of a delicate and gentle touch, can make no part
of the excellencies of this kind of painting.. It can¬
not bear a clofe examination like a pnilure in oil. Iheie
is always fomething dry and rough which difpleafes.
An artift who would flatter himfelf with fuccefs in a
frefco placed near the eye would be grofsly deceived . a
common fpeclator would find it coarfe and badly fi»
niflied.
Frefco is chiefly employed in palaces, temples, and
public edifices. In thefe vaft places no kind of paint¬
ing can be preferred to it *, large, vivid in its fVrokes,
and conftantiy frefh, it enriches the architecture, ^ani¬
mates it, and gives relief to the eye from the repetition
of the fame forms, and the monotony of colour in a
place where coloured marbles and bronzes are not em¬
ployed. Still more a fine frefco gives the greateft
efleft to a lofty building, fince this building feryes
as a frame and lupport to this enchanting ^rt, which
fixes the attention of every perfon of fenfibility and
tafte.
We {hall afterwards have occafion to fliow the man¬
ner of executing frefco, as well as the nature and ap¬
plication of the colours employed in it : it is neceffary
to demonftrate here, that it has a frefhnefs, fplendoui,
and vigour not to be found in oil or wrater colours.
A known principle in all kinds of painting is, that
the colouring is more perfedl in proportion as it ap¬
proaches to the lights and flrades in nature. _ As co¬
lours applied to any fubjedl can never reach this degree
of perfedlion, the illufion which painters produce con-
iifts in the comparifon and oppofition of the tones of co¬
lours among themfelves.
If the white of the finefi: and pureft oil appears hea¬
vy and gray, compared with great lights in natural
whites, it follows, that, in order to copy them with fide¬
lity, the tones which follow the firfl white muff be de¬
graded in an exaft proportion. Thus it is neceffary
that the {hades of a picture be confiderably deeper than
thefe of the model; efpecially if, from the greateil
liyhts to the browns, one hath proportionally followed
the diftance which is found between the colours on the
pallet and the tones of the objeft copied.
Now- if the white of frefco be infinitely more bright
than that of oil, the fame effedt will be obtained in a
brown tone. On the other fide, if it conftantiy hap¬
pens that the brow-n tones of frefco are much more vi¬
gorous than thofe of water colours, and equal even to
the browns of oil ilfelf, it rs certain that it poffeffes a
fplendour and vigour more extenflve than any other
kind of oainting. I hus in the hands of an artift who
is well acquainted with the colours fit foe frtfco, it is
more fufceptible of the general effect, and more capable
than any other kind, of giving projection and the fem-
blance of life to the figures.
If w e were to inquire why painting in frefco is new?
fcarcely or never praCtifed, we ihould perhaps aferibe it
to the great talents required to execute it. “ Many of
our painters (fays Vafari in his Treatife on Painting)
excel in oil or water colours, and yet fail in frefco; be-
caufe of all kinds this requires the greateft ftrength of
genius, boldnefs in the ftrokes, and refolution.” If in
an age abounding in great matters, it was difficult to
excel in this kind, it muft be much more fo in ours;
but we ftiould not require the characters of fublimity
and ftyle to which men were accuftomed in the time of
Frefco.
Vafari.
We fhould execute in frefco as w-e do in oils j for
Italy herfelf, along with Michael Angelo and Zui-
charo, had Cortonni Giardano and Francifchini as
middling frefco painters. And in France, Lafoffe, Bon-
Boulogne, and Perur, performed feveral works in
frefco which might be imitated by the painters of oiir
times. But let us proceed to the real caufes for aban¬
doning this art.' Thefe proceed from the w ant ot know¬
ledge and tafte in the perfons who employ the artifts,
and from the manners of the age. As a pleafant or
licentious conceit, unfiniihed colouring, and bold effefts
of {hade, are the chief objefts of confideration, a very
fmooth painting enlivened by gentle touches completely
gratifies the perfon who pays the price j and therefore
the philofophical principles of the art, which require
ftudy, are not cultivated.
We {hall now attend to the mechanical procefs of
this ufeful and beautiful kind of painting. Before
painting, it is neceffary to apply tw-o layers. Ii the
w-all on which you are to paint is oi brick, the layer
is eafily applied •, but if it is of free llone clofely united,
it is neceffary to make excavations in the ftone, and to
drive into them nails or pegs of wood in order to hold
the firft layer.
The firft layer is made of good lime and a cement
of pounded brick, or, which is ftill better, river fand :
this latter forms a layer more uneven, and better fitted
to retain the fecond imooth and poliflied layer applied
to its furface.
There ftiould be experiments to difeover a layer
ftill more compaft, and more independent of the vari¬
ations of the air j fuch for example, as covers the aque-
thnfts and ancient reiervoirs conftruifed by the Romans
in the neighbourhood of Naples.
Before applying the fecond layer, or what you are
to paint, it is neceffary that the firft be perfe&ly dry
for there iffues from the lime, when it is moift, a fmell
both difagreeable and pernicious to the artift. .
When the firft layer is perfeftly dry, it is wet with
water in proportion to its drynefs, that the iecond laj er
may the more eafily incorporate with it.
The feeond layer is compofed of lime, flaked in the
air, and expofed for a yea», and of river fand, of an e-
qual grain, and moderately fine.
It requires an aftive and intelligent mafon to apply
this layer, as the furface muft be altogether equal. The
operation is performed wiih a trowel; and the operator
requires to have a fmall piece of w-ood to take away the
large grains of fand, which, remaining, might render the
furface uneven.
To
Part II. PAIN
Frefco. To give a fine polirti to this layer, one ought to take
' — v ' a fheet of paper, apply it to the wall, and pafs arid
repafs the trowel over the paper. By this means the
little inequalities which hurt the exafhiefs of the ftroke,
and which produce falfe appearances at a diltance, are
entirely fmoothed.
The artift muft not lay more than the painter can fi-
nifh in a day, as this kind of painting muft be execut¬
ed on a frefti ground.
The layer being thus prepared, the painter begins
his operation; but as painting in frefco muft be exe¬
cuted rapidly, and as there is no time to retouch any
of the ftrokes, the painter, as we have obferved under
the article Fresco, takes care to provide himfelf with
large cartoons, on which he has drawn, with exa6t-
nefs, and in their full fize, the figures which he is to
paint, which leaves him nothing to do but to copy them
on the wall.
The cartoons are compofed of feveral fheets of large
paper palled one on another, neither too thick nor too
flender.
The painter traces the tracks of the figures on the
plafter, by pafling a fteel point over the tracks in the
cartoons, or in pricking them.
Having in this manner attained an exa£f and fpeedy
drawing, it now remains to execute the painting.
But it is eflential, when one wifhes to finifh any
fmall work of this kind, in the firft place to be inform¬
ed of the proper colours, and of thofe which cannot be
ufed.
In general, the colours which are extracted from
earths, and thofe which have pafted through the fire,
are the only ones which can be employed in this kind of
painting.
The colours are white, made of lime, the white of
egg (hells, ultramarine •, the black of charcoal, yellow
ochre, burnt vitriol, red earth, green of Verona, Vene¬
tian black, and burnt ochre.
There are others which require to be ufed with great
precaution, fuch as enamel blue, cinnabar, and white
marble dull.
When enamel blue is ufed, it requires to be applied
inftantaneoufty, and when the lime is very moift,
otherwife it does not incorporate with the plafter j and
if one retouch with this colour, it muft be done an
hour or more after the firft application, to increafe its
luftre.
With regard to the white marble duft, it is fubjefl to
turn black if it be not mixed up with a convenient quan¬
tity of white lime.
Cinnabar which has a fplendour almoft fuperior to
all other colours, lofes it almoft entirely when mixed
with lime. At the fame time, it may be employed in
places not expofed to the air, with a little degree of
care in the preparation. Reduce a quantity of the
pureft cinnabar to powder, put it into an earthen vef-
fel, and pour lime water on it for two or three times.
By this procefs the cinnabar receives fome impreffion
of lime water, which makes it capable of being employ¬
ed in frefco painting.
One of the beft colours, and the one moft ufed in
frefco for the gradation of tints, and for giving the
requifite tone, is white of lime. This white is prepa¬
red by mixing lime flaked long before with good water.
TING.
68j
The lime depofits a fediment at the bottom of the Vef-
fel; when the water is poured off, this fediment is the
white of lime.
Another kind of white might be ufed, the effe&s of
which would be known by experience, namely, the
white of egg (hells. To prepare this white, one muft
take a great quantity of (hells o( eggs, which muft be
pounded and boiled in water along with a quantity of
quicklime 5 after this they are put into a drainer, and
waftied repeatedly with fountain water.
The (hells are again pounded until the water em
ployed for that purpofe become pure and limpid j and
when they are in this manner reduced to powder, this
powder is grinded in water, and formed into fmall
pieces, and dried in the fun.
All the different kinds of ochres make excellent co¬
lours for frefco, and take different (hades, being pre-
vioufly burned in iron chefts.
With regard to the Naples yellow, it is dangerous
to ufe it where the painting is much expofed to the
air. The blacks of charcoal, of peach (tones, and of
vine twigs, are good : but that extracted from bones is
of no value.
Roman vitriol gathered at the fuhiaces, and which
is called burnt vitriol, grinded afterwards in fpirit of
wine, redds the air extremely well when employed in
lime. There is alfo a red extracted from this preparation
fomewhat like that produced from lac*
This colour is very proper for preparing the layers
to be coloured with cinnabar ; and the draperies paint¬
ed with thefe two colours will vie in fplendour with
thofe painted with fine lac in oil.
The ultramarine is the moft faithful colour; and it
not only never changes, but it communicates this preci¬
ous quality to thofe colours with which it is mixed.
The manner of employing thofe colours, is to grind
them in water, and to begin by arranging them into
the principal tints you are to employ : thefe are after¬
wards put into pots j and it is neceffary to ufe a great
many pallets raifed at the edges, to form the interme¬
diate (hades, and to have under your eye all the (hades
you require.
As all the tints, except burnt ochre, violet, red, and
blacks of all kinds, are apt to become clear, the paint¬
er muft have befide him fome pieces of brick or new
tile very dry. A da(h of the colours is applied to one of
thefe with the pencil before ufing them j and as.the tile
inftantaneoufly imbibes the water, one perceives what
the (hade will be after the frefco is dry.
Frefco.
§ 2. Elydoric Painting, invented by M. Vincent of Mont-
petit.
This new kind of painting is little known, and capable
of great improvement.
Its principal advantages are, that the artift is able to
give the greateft finiftiing poflible to fmall figures in
oil ; to add to the mellownefs of oil painting, the great-
eft beauty of water colours in miniature, and to do it in
fuch a manner that it appears like a large pifture feen
through a glafs which diminifhes objefts.
This kind of painting takes its name from two Greek
words expreftxve of oil and water; becaufe thefe two
liquids are employed in the execution. The following
is the manner of proceeding: A piece of very fine
4 R 2 linen.
684.
PAINTING.
Part II.
Elydoric liucn, or of white tafFety, is fized with ftarch, in the
Painting. mo^ equa} manner pofiible, on pieces of glafs about two
~ inches fquare, the angles of which are blunted in order
that the cloth may cover them neatly and without
wrinkles.
When thefe pieces of cloth are fufficiently dry, a
layer compofed of white lead finely grinded, and oil of
pinks or of poppies, the whited that can be found, is
applied to them with a knife. When this layer is dry
enough to admit of icraping, more may be applied if ne~
ceffary.
As it is of the greated importance for the prefervation
of this kind of painting, that the different layers be
purged of oil, in order that they may imbibe the colours
applied to them, it is neceffary that their furface be
very fmooth, very dry, and very hard.
The artid is next provided w ith a circle of copper
nearly two inches in diameter, one-fourth of an inch in
height, extremely thin, and painted on the infide with
black. This circle is employed to contain the water on
the furface of the pidlure.
The preference is given to water diddled from rain
or fnow; becaufe ordinary water, from the falls which
it contains, is pernicious to this kind of painting.
It is neceffary alfo to obferve, that the colours mud
be grinded between twTo oriental agates, mod carefully
preferved from dud, and mixed with oil of poppies, or
any other ficcative oil which has been extrafted without
fire, and pure as uvater.
Ail the colours being grinded, they are placed in a
fmall heap on a piece of glafs, w'hich is covered with
diddled water in a tin box.
When the materials are thus prepared, the fubjeft
is (lightly traced on one of the pieces of cloth above-
mentioned with a lead pencil.
The tints are formed on the pallets from the heaps
of coloyrs under the water, and the pallet placed as
ufual on the left arm with the thumb through the Elydoric
aperture. Painting.
Tfie piclure is held between the thumb and fore ^
finger, iupported by the middle, and the neceffary pen¬
cils between the third and little fingers, 'j he hand is
fupported on the back of a chair, that there may be full
liberty of bringing the work near, or keeping it at a
didance from the eye.
The pencils are cleaned with the effence of redlified
turpentine.
After having made the rough draught with the colours
dill frelh, the circle of copper, which ought to furround
the pidlure, is fitted exactly to the furface.
The diddled water is poured within this circle to the
height of one-eighth part of an inch 5 and the body
is leaned forward till the fight fall perpendicularly on
the objedt.
The third finger of the right hand mud red on tbe
internal right angle of the picture.
The artid, with a fine and firm pencil, runs over the
fird draught, to give colours to the weak places, and to
foften thole which appear too ftrong.
As foon as the oil Iwims on the top, the water is
poured off, and the pidlure is carefully covered with a
watch glafs, and dried in a box with a gentle heat.
When it is fufficiently dry, to be (craped almoft to
a level with the knife : the above operation is renewed
till the artid is fatisfied with his work.
It is in this lad work that the artid feels all the ad¬
vantage of this new7 method for finifhing.
The water poured on the pidfure difeovers all the
faults of the pencil, gives facility in fearching into the
bottom of the (hades, and the power of corredting the
work and of rendering it perfedt.
When the work is finilhed, it is put under a crydal,
where there is no admiffion of external air, and dried
wuth a gentle heat.
Part III. Of Economical Painting.
Sect. I.
THE objedl of this Part is to give an account of
feme mechanical proceedings in certain kinds of paint¬
ing, calculated to preferve and embellilh the walls of
houfes and furniture. This branch of the art extends
to every part of architedfure. The whole building
becomes the workftrop of the artid ; the dairs, the bal-
luftrades, the fafhes, the doors, and the railing of all
kinds, occupying his fird care, and then the ceiling and
wainfeotting.
The artid gives to all his fubjedts a chofen and uni¬
form tint j but he has it in his power to vary the co¬
lours on different parts of the building in fuch a manner
2a as to produce the mod pleafing objedls.
©f the u- Among the utenlils of the painter, it is needlefs, but
tenths for for rendering the article complete, to mention bruflres
' amun ° an<^ Penc^s °f fizes as abfolutely neceffary.
The brudies are made of boars bridles, or of hair
with a mixture of bridles •, they ought to be ftraight,
very fmooth, and of a round form. Half an hour be-
fpre they are ufed, it is proper to foak them in water,
in order to fw7ell the wood of the handle, and prevent
the hairs from falling off 5 after this they may be appli¬
ed to all purpofes, either in water colours' or in oil •, but
it may be obferved, that for the former they require lefs
foftening.
The pencils are made of badgers hair, or any fine hairs
enchafed in the pipes of quills of all lizes.
The veffel wdierein the pencils are cleaned is made of
copper or of tin, fmooth below, rounded at the ends,
and divided into tw7o parts by a thin plate in the middle.
The oil, or the fubftance with which the pencil is clean¬
ed, is contained in one of the divifions.
The pallet is made of the wood of the pear or apple
tree, of an oval or fquare (hape, very (lender, but
fomewhat thicker at the centre than at the extremities.
A hole is made in one of its fides fufficiently large to
admit the thumb of the workman.
When the pallet is new, it is covered writh oil of
wralnuts ; and as often as it dries, the operation is re¬
peated, till it be fully impregnated j it is afterwards
polifhed, and finally rubbed with a piece of linen dipped
in oil of common nuts.
The painter’s knife is a thin flexible plate, equally
(lender
Part III. PAIN
Application {lender on both ficles, rounded at one extremity, and the
of Colours. olller fixed into a handle of wood.
l—- —v ^ji the veffels employed to hold the colours fhould
be varnished j a precaution neceffary to prevent their
23 drying too quickly.
Of grind- To grind, is to reduce to powder the fubftances
ing and di- which give colours on a piece of marble or any hard
luting the i-j;one means of water, oil, or effence.
cu.oius Tq (jjhite, is to impregnate a liquid with a tint in
fuch a manner as to make it capable of being applied by
a brufh.
When the materials are grinded in water, it is proper
to dilute them in fize made from parchment. It they
are diluted in fpirit of wine, there muft be no more di¬
luted than what ferves the immediate occafion, as co¬
lours prepared in this manner dry very rapidly.
Colours grinded in oil are fometimes diluted with pure
oil, more frequently with oil mixed with etlence, and
commonly with the pure eHence of turpentine } the
enenee makes the colours eafy to work. 1 hole prepar¬
ed in this manner are more folid, but they require more
time to dry.
When colours are grinded with the effence of tur¬
pentine, and diluted in varnilh, as they require to be
immediately applied, it is neceffary to prepare a fmall
quantity at a time. This preparation oi colours gives
greater brilliancy, and dries more fpeedily, than thofe
prepared in oil j but they require more art to manage
them.
They grind colours or coloured fubftances with a
mullet, which is employed on the ftone till they be¬
come a very fine powder. The operation is facilitated
by moiftening them from time to time with a little
water, and by collecting them under the mullet with
the knife. They are afterwards laid in fmall heaps on
a fheet of white paper, and allowed to dry in a fitua-
tion not expofed to duft. Thofe who grind white lead
have a ftone for the purpofe, as this colour is very eafily
tarnifhed. In executing this part well, it is neceffary
to grind the colours equally and moderately} to grind
them feparately, and not to produce a tint by mixture
till the colours are well prepared.
Dilute no more at a time than what you have occa¬
fion to employ, to prevent them from growing thick.
In grinding the colours, put in no more liquid than
what is neceffary to make the folid lubftances yield
eafily to the muller ; the more the colours are grinded,
they mix better, and give a fmoother and more agree¬
able painting.
It is alfo neceffary to give all attention to the grind¬
ing and diluting of colours, that they may be neither
too thick nor too thin.
Sect. II. Application of Colours.
1. Prepare only the quantity neceffary for the
work you undertake, becaufe they do not keep long •,
and thofe which are newly mixed are more vivid and
beautiful. —
2. Hold the brufti ftraight before you, and allow on¬
ly the furface to be applied to the fubjeft : if you hold
it inclined in any other direction, you will run the
hazard of painting unequally.
3. It is neceffary to lay on the colours boldly, and
with great ftrokesj taking care at the fame time to
TING. 681
fpread them equally over the furface, and not filling un Apnlicau m
the moulding and carved work. It this accident ftiould 01 Co^out^.
happen, you muft have a little brufti to clean cut the
colours.
4. Stir them frequently in the veffel, that they rri'ay
preferve alw.ays the fame tint, and that no fediment may
remain at the bottom.
5. Take care not to overcharge the brufti with the
colour.
6. Never apply a fecond layer till the firft or pre¬
ceding one be perfectly dry *, which it is eafily known
to be when, in bearing the hand gently over it, it does
not adhere.
7. In order to render this drying more fpeedy and
uniform, make always the layers as thin as poffible.
8. Before painting, it neceffary to prime the {'ab¬
ject •, that is, to give it a layer of fize, or of white co¬
louring oil, to fill up the pores, and render the furface
fmooth : by this means fewer layers of colour or of var-
nifti are afterwards neceffary.
9. Every fubject to be painted or gilded ought to
have firft a white ground 5 this preferves the colours
frefh and vivid, and repairs the damage which they oc-
cafionally receive from the air.
j 1. Of Painting in Water Colours.
To paint in water colours, is to do it in thofe which
are grinded in water and diluted in fize. There are
three kinds of this painting •, namely common, the var-
nijhed, and that which is called kinfs white ; but before
entering on thefe, it is neceffary to make feme prelimi¬
nary obfervations.
1. Take care that there be no greafe on the fub-
jeift ; and if there be, ferape it off, or clean it with a
lye, or rub the greafy part with garlic and wormwood.
2. Let the diluted colour fall in threads from the end
of the brufti when you take it out of the veffel; if it ad¬
heres to it, it is a proof that it wants fize.
3. Let all the layers, efpecially at the beginning, be
laid on very warm, provided that the liquid be not boil¬
ing, which would effeftually fpoil the fubject •, and if on
wood, expofe it to crack. The laft layer, given imme¬
diately before the varnifti, is the only one which ought
to be applied cold.
4. In very fine work, where it is neceffiry to have
beautiful and folid colours, the fubjefts are prepared by
fize and proper whites, which ferve as a ground to re¬
ceive the colour, and render the furface very equal and
fmooth.
5. Whatever colour is to be laid on, the white
ground is the beft, as it aflimilates moil eafily with
the painting, which borrows always fomething of the
ground.
6. If knots of wood are found in the fubjefl, it is
neceffary to rub them with garlic, to make the fize ad¬
here.
To make the following details fufficiently plain, we
ftiall take the meafures to which the quantity of colours
are applied at fathoms *, that is to fay, fix feet in height
by fix feet in breadth. We ftiall afterwards fix the
quantity of materials, and of liquids, neceffary to cover
this furface. This, however, cannot be exadlly defined;
as fome fubje&s imbibe the colours much more than
others. The manner of employing them alfo makes a
difference 3 as habit enables one to manage them to
greater
> ds
86
FAINTING.
Part III.
i plication greater advantage tliari anotlier. And it is alfo to be
^of !..oloui ,. 0ljfgrve^. that the firlt layer will confume more than
the fecond j and that a prepared fubjeft requires lei’s
than one which has not been fo.
When we fpeak of a fathom, it muft be underftood
of a fmooth and equal furface •, for if the wood is va¬
ried with mouldings and carving, there muft be a dif¬
ference in the quantity of colours. In general, it re¬
quires about a pound of colours to paint a fquare fa¬
thom in water colours. In making up this quantity,
take three-fourths of colours grinded in water, and one-
fourth pound, or fix ounces, of fize to dilute it.
§ 2. Of Painting in Cotnmon Water Colours.
Works which require no great care or preparation,
as cielings and ftaircafes, are generally painted in com¬
mon water colours, i. e. with earths infufed in water
and diluted in fize.
For a common white kind of this painting, fteep
Spanifh white moderately pounded in water for two
hours. Infufe a proper quantity of the black of char¬
coal in water for the fame fpace of time ; ftiix the black
and white in the proportion that the tint requires; af¬
terwards mix them up with a pretty ftrong fize fuffi-
ciently thick and warm, and apply them to the fubjeft
in as many layers as may be thought neceffary. It re¬
quires about two pounds of white in a pint of water, and
a quantity of black in proportion to the tint, together
with a part of fize, to cover a fquare fathom. If this
be employed on old walls, they muft be well fcraped,
the duft bruftied off with a hair befom, and walked care¬
fully with lime water. If on new plafter, the colours
require more fize.
All kinds of colours may be grinded in water only
when the tint is made 5 and when they have been infufed
in water, they muft be mixed up wnth fize.
§ 3. Walls done with the White Des Carmes.
The w7hite des carmes is a manner of whitening in¬
terior w7alls, whereby they are rendered extremely beauti¬
ful.
1. Procure a quantity of the very beft lime, and pafs
it through fine linen •, pour it into a large tub, furniftied
with a fpigot at the height equal to that wThich the lime
occupies: fill the tub with clear fountain wrater 5 beat
the mixture wuth great pieces of wood, and then allow
it to fettle for 24 hours.
2. Open the fpigot, allow the water to run off, fupply
the tub with frelh wrater, and continue this operation
for feveral days until the lime receives the greateft de¬
gree of w’hitenefs.
3. When you allow7 the water finally to run off, the
lime will be found in the confiftency of pafte •, but with
the quantity you ufe it is neceffary to mix a little Pruf-
lian blue or indigo to relieve the brightnefs of the
white, and a fmall quantity of turpentine to give it
brilliancy. The fize proper for it is made of glove
leather, with the addition of fome alum ; and the w7hole
is applied with a ftrong brulh in five or fix layers to new
plafter.
4. The wall is ftrongly rubbed over with a brufh of
hogs briftles after the painting is dry j which gives it its
luftre and value, and wiiich makes it appear like marble
or ftucco.
§ 4. Of Badegcon.
Application
of Colours.
Badegeon is a pale yellow7 colour applied to plafter
to make it appear like free ftones. It gives to old houfes
and churches the exterior of a new building, by affuming
the colour of ftones newly cut.
1. Take a quantity of lime newiy killed.
2. Add to it half the quantity of what the French
call fciure de pierre in which you have mixed of the
ochre of rue, according to the colour of the ftone you
intend to imitate.
3. Steep the whole in a pail of w7aler, in ■which is
melted a pound of rock alum. When the fciitre de
pierre cannot be obtained, it is neceffary to ufe a great¬
er quantity of ochre de rue, or of yellow ochre, or grind
the fcales of the ftone de St Leu *, pafs it through a fieve:
and along with the lime it will fonn a cement, on which
the weather will fcarcely make any impreflion.
§ 5. Of Cielings and the Roofs of Rooms.
When the cielings or roofs are new7, and you wifti to
whiten them, take white of Bougival, to which add a
little of the black of charcoal to prevent the white from
growing reddifti: infufe them feparately in water 5 mix
the whole with half w'ater and half ftze of glove leather,
which being ftrong would make the layer come off in
rolls if it were not reduced with water. Give two
layers of this tint w'hile it is lukewarm.
If the roof has been formerly whitened, it is ne¬
ceffary to fcrape to the quick all the remaining white j
then give it tw o or three layers of lime to ground and
whiten it : Brufh it carefully over; and give it twro
or three layers of the white of Bougival prepared as be¬
fore.
§ 6. Of Colouring the backs of Chimneys with Lead Ore.
Clean them w7ith a very ftrong brufh, and carefully
rub off the duft and ruft } pound about a quarter of a
pound of lead ore into a fine powder, and put it into a
veffel with half a pint of vinegar j then apply it to the
back of the chimney wTith a brufh : When it is made
black w7ith this liquid, take a dry brufh, dip it in the
fame powder without vinegar, and dry and rub it with
this brufh till it become fhining as glafs.
§ '7. Of Varnijhed Water Colours.
The advantages of this kind of painting are, that the
colours do not fade 5 that they reflect the light; that
they give no offenfive fmell, but permit the places to be
inhabited as foon as finifhed 5 and that the varnifh pre¬
fer ves the wood from infecls and moifture.
To make a fine varnifh on water colours, feven prin¬
cipal operations are neceffary 5 namely, to fize the
wood, to prepare the white, to foften and rub the fub-
jeft, to clean the moulding, to paint, to fize, and to var-
nifh.
To fize the wood is to give one or two layers of fize
to the fubjeft W'hich you intend to paint.
Take three heads of garlic and a handful of worm* Firft^pera*
w7ood leaves 5 boil them in three pints of w7ater till they tion.
are reduced to one •, pafs the juice through a linen
cloth, and mix it wdth a pint of parchment fize; add
half a handful of fait and half a pint of vinegar ; and
boil the whole on the fire.
4
Size
Fart III.
P A. I N
Application Size tlie wood with this boiling liquor 5 allow it to
of Colours. penetrate into the carved and fmooth places of the wood,
^ut take care at the fame time to take it as clean off the
work as pofTible, or at leail to leave it at no place thick¬
er than another. This firft fixing ferves to fill up the
pores of the wood, and to prevent the materials after¬
wards from collefting in a body, which would caufe the
25
Second ope¬
ration.
26
Third ope¬
ration.
27
Fourth ope¬
ration.
aS
Fifth ope¬
ration.
work to fall off in fcales.
In a pint of ftrong parchment fize, to which you
have added four pints of warm water, put tw'o handfuls
of white Bougival, and allow it to infufe for the fpace
of half an hour.
Stir it well, and give a fmgle layer of it to the fubjeft
very warm but not boiling, equally and regularly laid
on, and dallied with repeated Itrokes of the brulh into
the mouldings and carved work.
To prepare the white, take a quantity of ftrong
parchment fize, and fprinkle lightly over it with the
hand, Bougival white, till the fize be covered with it
about half an inch in thicknefs} allow it to foak for
half an hour as near the fire as to keep it milk ivarm :
and then ftir it with the brulh till the lumps are broken
and it be fufficiently mixed.
Give feven, eight, or ten layers of this wdiite, or
as many as the nature of the -work or the defects in the
wood lhall render neceffary, giving more white to the
parts which require to be foftened ; but in general, the
layers mull be equal both with regard to the quantity
of the white and the ftrength of the fize.
The lafi: layer of the white ought to be clearer than
the refi, w'hich is made by adding water. It mull be
applied more lliglitly, taking care with fmall brullies
to cover all the difficult places in the mouldings and
carved work. It is neceffary alfo, between the drying
of the different layers, to fill up all the defeats with white
maftich and fize.
To foften, is to give to the fubject after the whiten¬
ing a fmooth and equal furface, and to rub it over with
a pumice Hone.
The wood being dry, take little pieces of white
wood and of pumice Hone, grinded for the purpofe
into all neceffary forms, either for the pannels or the
moulding.
Take cold water, heat being deftruflive of this kind
of work •, in fummer it is common to add a little ice.
Soften the wall with a bruffi, but only as much at a
time as you can eafily work, as the water might dilute
the white and fpoil the whole : Then fmooth and rub it
with the pumice ftones and with the fmall pieces of
wood. Wafh it with a brufh as you fmooth it, and rub
it over with a piece of new linen, which gives a fine
luff re to the work.
The mouldings and carved work are cleaned with an
iron ; and the only thing to be attended to in the opera¬
tion is not to raife the grain of the wood.
The fubjefl thus prepared is ready to receive the co¬
lour you Intend to give it. Choofe your tint; fuppofe
a filver colour.
Grind white cerufe and Bougival white feparately
in water, of each an equal quantity, and mix them to¬
gether.—Add a little blue of indigo and a very fmall
quantity of black of charcoal from the vine tree very
fine, grinded alfo feparately, and in water; more or
lefs of the one or other gives the tint you require.—
Dilute this tint in ftrong parchment fize 3 pafs it
TING.
687
through a bolting cloth of filk veiy fine, and lay the Appli;
tint on your work, taking care to fpread it very oi Cc^
equally 3 and then give it two layers, and the colour
is applied. 29
Make a weak, beautiful, and clean fize 3 ftir it till Sixth epe-
it cools 3 ftrain it through a fine cloth, and give two ra,:ion‘
layers to the work with a foft painting brulh, which
has been ufed, but which you have been careful to
clean. Take care not to choke up the mouldings nor
to lay on the fize thicker on one place than another,
and fpread it over the work very flightly, othenvife you
will dilute the colours, and «ccafion undulations in the
painting.
The beauty of the work depends on this laft fizing 3
for if any part is omitted, the varnilh wall penetrate
into the colours and give it a darker lhade.
When the fizing is dry, lay on two or three layers Seventh
of fpirit of wane varnifli, taking care that the place on operation,
w hich you lay it be warm, and the work is finilhed.
§ 8. Of the King's White.
This derives its name from the ufe of it in the apart¬
ments of the French king. It is in all refpebfs conduct¬
ed like the former, except that there is only a fmall
quantity of indigo, to take the yellow from the white,
without any black of charcoal, and without varnifli.
This white anfwers extremely w7ell for ■ apartments
which are feldom ufed ; but othenvife it fpoils eafily,
efpecially in bedchambers. It is the belt white wffiere
there is any kind of gilding 3 and in this cafe it receives-
a little varnifli.
Sect. III. Of Painting in (Pit Colours.
To paint in oil is to apply to all forts of fubjects,
as walls, wTood, cloths, and metals, coloured earths
grinded and diluted in oil. The ancients are thought
to have been ignorant of this art, and the honour of
the difeovery is generally aferibed to John Van Eyck a
Flemiffi painter. The fecret is nothing more than fub-
ftituting oil in place-of water in grinding and diluting
colours.
By means of oil the colours are longer preferved 3
and not drying fo fpeedily, they give painters longer
time to fmooth, finiffi, and retouch, their works 3 the
colours being more marked, and mixing better together,
give more diftinguiftiable tints, and more vivid and agree¬
able gradations, and the colouring is more fweet and
delicate.
The painting in oil confifts of two kinds, namely, of
that in fimple oil and of that in polifned oil varnifln
§ 1. Obfervations on Painting iti Oil.
1. When bright colours, as white or gray, are grind¬
ed and diluted in oil, it is neceffary to make ufe of the
oil of walnuts 3 but if the colours be dark, fuch as
chefnut, or olive, or brown, you muft make ufe of pure
linfeed oil.
2. When the colours are grinded and diluted in oil,
they muft be laid on cold except on a newr or moiit
plafter, which requires them to he boiling.
3. Every colour diluted in pure oil, or in oil mixed
with effence, ought to fall in threads from the end cf
the brufh.
4. Take care to ftir from- time to time your colour-
before
6M PAIN
Painting in before taking it up on the bun'll, that it may preferve
Oil Coiouis. an equa] thicknefs, and confequently the fame tone.
Notwithltanding the precaution of ftirring, if it is found
to be thicker towards the bottom, it will be neceffary
to pour in from time to time a little oil.
5. In general, every fubjeft which is painted in oil
ought firft to receive one or two la vers of white cerufe,
grinded and diluted in oil.
6. When the painting is expofed to the air, as in
doors, windows, and other works, which cannot be
varnithed, it is neceffary to make thefe layers with pure
oil of walnuts, mixed up with about one ounce of ef-
fence to a pound of colours; more would make the
colours brown, and occafion them to fall oft" in duft ;
but this quantity prevents the fun from blitiering the
work.
7. In fubjcfls on the infide of the houfe, or when
the painting is varnithed, the firtl layer ought to be
grinded and diluted in oil, and the latl diluted with
pure eflence.
8. If copper or iron, or other hard fubftances, are
to be painted, it is neceflary to mix a little eflence with
the firft layers, to make the oil penetrate into them.
9. When there are many knots in the fubject, as is
particularly the cafe with fir wood, and when the colour
does not eafily take imprefiion on thefe parts, it is ne¬
ceffary, when you paint with fimple oil, to lay on a
little oil mixed with litharge on the knots. If you
paint with polifhed oil varnifh, it is neceffary to apply
a hard tint, which we fhall have occafion to fpeak of
afterwards. A fingle layer well applied is generally
fufRcient to give a body to the wood, and make the
other layers apply eafily,
xo. There are colours, fuch as what the French call
jlils-de-grain, black of charcoal, and el’pecially bone and
ivory blacks, which are difficult to dry when grinded
in oil. To remedy this inconveniency, the following
ficcatives are mixed with the colours, to make them
drv, viz. litharge both’of the filver and gold colour, vi-
Xriol or copperas, and what is called ficcative oil.
j 2. Obfervations on the Siccatives.
1. Do not mix the ficcatives with the colours till
they are to be employed, otherwife it will thicken them.
2. Mix it only in very fmall quantities in tin, where¬
in there is white lead or cerufe, becaufe thofe colours
are ficcative of themfelves, efpecially when they are di¬
luted in effence.
2. In painting which is to be vamifhed, give the fic¬
cative only to the firft layer, and allow the other layers,
in which there is effence, to dry of themfelves.
4. In dark colours in oil, give to every pound of co¬
lours in diluting them half an ounce of litharge •, to
bright colours, a drachm of white copperas grinded in
walnut oil.
9. When in place of litharge or copperas the ficcative
oil is employed, it requires a quartern of this oil to every
pound of colour.
The ficcative oil is prepared of one half ounce of li¬
tharge, as much of calcined cerufe, as much of tsrre
d'ombre, a colour with which the French paint fhadows,
and as much of talc boiled for two hours on a flow, and
equal fire, with one pound of linfeed oil, and ftirred the
T INC.
Part III.
whole time. It muft be carefully ft immed and clarified, Painting in
and the older it grows it is better. Oil colours.
§ 3. Obfervations on the Quantities of Suifances and
Liquids.
1. Ochres and earths require more liquids both in
grinding and diluting than cerufe.
2. Different quantities of liquids are required in the
grinding only on account of greater or lefs drynefs; but
in diluting, the quantity is always-the fame.
3. For the firft layer after the priming, which has
no relation to the colours laid on afterwards, to a fiquare
fathom give fourteen ounces of cerufe, about two ounces
of liquid to grind, and four ounces to dilute it. If there
is a fecond layer of the fame materials, the quantities
will require to be lefs.
4. It will require three pounds of colour fov three
layers of a fquare fathom. The firft may confume
eighteen ounces, the fecond fixteen, and the third four¬
teen.
5. To compofe thefe three pounds of colour, take
two or two and a half pounds of grinded colours, and
dilute them in a pint or three half pints of oil, mixed
with effence or pure oil. But if the firft layer of cervfe
is not ufed, there will be a neceflily for a greater quan-.
tity of colours.
N. B. In the following kinds and applications of oil
painting, we are to hold thofe proportions in our eye.
§ 4. Painting in fimple Oil.
3*
On doors and windows give a layer of cerufe grinded,Of doors,
in oil of walnuts diluted in the fame oil, together with windows,
a little ficcative j then give another layer of the fame
preparation •, to which, if you want a grayifh colour, t‘ers<’
add a little black of charcoal and Pruffian blue, grind¬
ed alfo in oil of walnuts. If to thefe you incline to
add a third layer, grind and dilute it in pure walnut
oil; obferving that the two laft layers be lefs clear,
or have lefs oil in them, than the firft; the colour in
this cafe is more beautiful and lefs apt to blifter with
the fun.
Walls that are to be painted muft be very dry ; and of \v "l’s.
this being fuppofed, give two or three layers of boiling
linfeed oil to harden the plafter then lay on two layers
of cerufe or ochre, grinded and diluted in linfeed oil ^
and when thefe are dry, paint the wall.
To paint tiles of a {late colour, grind feparately cerufe of tiles*
and German black in linfeed oil; mix them together in
the proportion which the colour requires, and dilute
them in linfeed oil : then give the firft layer very clean
to prime the tiles; and make the three next layers
thicker, to give folidity to the work.
To paint arbours and all kinds of garden work, give of arbenm
a layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts, and
diluted in the fame oil, with the addition of a little
litharge, then give two layers of green, compofed of
one pound of verdigris and two pounds of white lead,
grinded and diluted in oil of walnuts. N. B. This
green is of great fervice in the country'for doors, win¬
dow (butters, arbours, garden feats, rails, either of
wood or iron 5 and in fliort for all* works exqofed to the*,
injuries of the weather.
To whiten ftatues, vafes, and all ornaments of ftone,
either within or without doors ; firft clean the fubjedt an(j vafes
• well,
2
36
Painting
on the in-
fide of the
lioufe.
.37
Chairs,
benches,
ftone, and
pi after.
38
Steel colour
for locks.
PartHI. PAIN
Painting m well, then give one or two layers of white cerufe,
Oil Colours. grin£]ie(j an(j in pure oil of pinks, and finifli with
giving one or many layers of white lead prepared in lire
lame manner.
If you with to paint On walls not expofed to the
air, or on new plafter, give one or two layers of boil¬
ing linfeed oil, and continue the brufh till the walls
are fully foaked j then give a layer of wdiite cerufe,
grinded in oil of walnuts, and diluted with three-
fourths of the fame oil and one-fourth effence *, and
laftly, give two layers more of white cerufe, grinded in
oil of walnuts and diluted in oil mixed with effence, if
it is not to be varniljied ; but in pure effence if it is. It
is in this manher that walls are painted wdiite. If you
adopt another colour, it is neceffary to grind and dilute
it in the fame quantities of oil arid effence.
To paint chairs, benches, ftone, or plafter, give a
layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts and
diluted in the fame oil, into which you have caft a little
litharge to make it dry 5 then apply a layer of the
tint you fix on, grinded in oil and diluted in one part
oil and three parts, effence j and afterwards give two
more layers of the fame tint grinded in oil and diluted
in pure effence : This may be varnilhed with twro layers
of fpirit of wine.
To make a fteel colour, grind feparately in effence,
white cerufe, Pruffian blue, fine lac, and verdigris.
The tone which you require is procured by the proper
mixture of thofe ingredients. When you have fixed on
the tone of colour, take about the fize of a walnut of
the ingredients, and dilute them in a fmall veffel in one
part of effence and three parts of white oily varnifh.
N. B. This colour is generally made of white cerufe,
of black charcoal, and Pruffian blue, grinded in thick
oil, and diluted in effence, which is the cheapeft me¬
thod of procuring it j but the former is the moft beauti¬
ful.
For painting balluftrades and railings, dilute lamp
black with varniffi of vermilion; giving two layers of
it, and afterwards two layers of fpirit of wine varniffi.
Since the difeovery of oil painting, and the know¬
ledge that wood is preferved by it, and efpecially fince
the difeovery of a varnifti without fmell, and which even
takes away that of oil, the painting of apartments in oil
has been with juftice preferred.
In fa£l the oil flops up the pores of the wood •, and
although it does not altogether refift the impreffion of
moifture, yet the effefl is fo little perceptible, that it is
to be recommended as the beft method of preferving
wood.
To preferve wainfeotting in the moft effeflual man¬
ner from moifture, it is neceffary to paint the wall be¬
hind it with two or three layers of common red, grinded
and diluted in linfeed oil.
To paint the wainfeotting itfelf, give a layer of white
cerufe grinded in oil of walnuts, and diluted in the
fame oil mixed with effence. This layer being dry,
give two more of the colour you have adopted, grinded
in oil and diluted in pure effence. If you wiffi the
mouldings and fculpture to be painted in a different
colour, grind and dilute it in the fame manner.
Two or three days after, when the colours are fully
dry, give two or three layers of your white varniffi
without fmell, and which alfo prevents the offenfive
imell of the oil colours. N. B. Thofe who begin their
Vol. XV. Part II.
39
Balluftrades
and rail¬
ings.
40
Wainfeot¬
ting of a-
partments.
TING. 689
operations in water colours, if they find it more agree- Painting in
able, may finiih it in oil colours as above. 0li Colours.
When the pores of the wood are well flopped by the
prepared white, a layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of
walnuts, and diluted in the fame oil, mixed wulh effence,
may be applied. This will be fufficient, the wood be¬
ing previoully primed ; and afterwards lay on your in¬
tended colour and varnifti.
§ 5. Painting in Oil with the policed Varnijh.
This is the beft kind of oil painting, owing more to
the care it requires than to the proceedings, for they are
nearly the fame with thofe of limple oil painting ; the
difference confiffing only in the preparation and manner
of finifhing.
To paint wainfeottings of apartments with the poliffi- Wiunicot-
ed varniffi, it is neceffary, in the firft place, that the tings,
pannels be new. Then,
1. Make the furface of the fubjetft which you mean
to paint very fmooth and level, which is done by a layer,
which ferves to receive the hard tint or polifhed ground
and the colours.
This layer ought to be of white, whatever colour
you are afterwards to apply. It confifts of wdrite cerufe,
grinded very fine in linfeed oil, with a little litharge,
and diluted in the fame oil mixed with effence.
2. Make the poliffied ground by feven or eight lay¬
ers of the hard tint. In painting equipages, a dozen is
neceffary.
The hard tint is made, by grinding pure white ce¬
rufe, which has not been much calcined, very finely
in thick oil, and diluting it with effence. You muft
take care that the layers of the hard tint be not only-
equal as to the application, but to the quantity of the
white cerufe and the oil, and to the degree of calcina¬
tion. Then,
3. Soften this ground with pumice ftone.
4. Poliffi it moderately with a piece of ferge foaked
in a pail of water, in which you have put fome pow¬
der of pumice ftone finely grinded and paffed through
a fine fieve. There is no occafion to fpare waffiing, as
this part of the operation will not fpoil with water.
5. Choofe the tint with which you intend to deco¬
rate your apartment j grind it in oil, and dilute it in
effence ; pafs it through a piece of very fine filk, give
two or three layers carefully and thinly fpread over the
furface, as on this part of the operation depends in a
great meafure the beauty of the colour. All forts of
colours may be employed in this manner in oil of ef¬
fence.
6. Give two or three layers of a fpirit of wine var¬
niffi, if it is to wainfeotting *, if to the body of a coach,
a varniffi of oil is employed. If the varniffi is to be
polifhed, it is neceffary to give feven or eight layers at
leaft, laid on equally and with great precaution, not to
be thicker in one place than another, which occafions
fpots.
7. It is again poliffied with pumice ftone reduced to
powder, and water and a piece of ferge. If the wain¬
feotting has been painted before, it is neceffary to rub
off the colour till you come to the hard tint, which is
done with pumice ftone and water, or with a piece of
linen dipped in effence.
There is a white painting in oil, called white varnijh White*var-
po/iJhi which correfponds to the king’s white in water nifli polifh
4 S colours,in oiI*
6go PAIN
Painting in colours, 'and is equal to the frefnnefs and glofs of
Oil Colours raarbic if it is applied to wood. To paint in this man-
ner,
j. Give a layer of white cerufe grinded in oil of
walnuts, with a little calcined copperas, and diluted
in effence. But if it is applied to Hone, it is necef-
fary to employ oil of walnuts and calcined copperas
alone.
2. Grind white cerufe very fine in efience, and dilute
it in fine -white oil varnifh with copal.
o. Give feven or eight layers of it to the fubjeft.—
The varnilh mixed with the white cerufe dries fo prompt¬
ly, that three layers of iunay be given in a day.
4. Soften and polilh all the layers as above.
5. Give two or three layers of white lead grinded in
oil of walnuts, and diluted in pure effence.
6. Give feven or eight layers of white fpirit of wine
varnilh, and then polith them.
§ 6. Of Painting in Varnijh.
To paint in vamiih, is to employ colours grinded and
diluted in varnilh, either in fpirits of wine or oil, on all
forts of iuhjefts. Wainfcotting, furniture, and equi¬
pages, are painted in this manner, though we lhall con¬
iine ourfelves to the firil.
1. Give two layers of white of Bougival, diluted in
a ftrong fize boiling hot.
2. Give a layer of wdiat the French call de blanc
appriti
3. Fill up the defecls of the wood with maftich in
water •, and when the layers are dry, fmooth them with
the pumice Hone.
4. When the wood is fmooth, fuppofe the paint a
gray colour, take one pound of white cerufe, one dram
of Pruffian blue, or of black of charcoal or ivory black;
put the white into a piece of leather, fo tied that the
colours cannot efcape; lhake them till they are fufficient-
ly mixed.
5. Put two ounces of colours into a quartern of
varnifh; mix them carefully } give one layer above the
white.
6. This layer being dry, put one ounce of colours
into the fame quantity of varnilh as above, and give a
fecond layer. _
7. To the third layer give half an ounce of colour
to the fame quantity of vamiih. »•
8. As each of thefe layers dry, be careful to rub
them with a piece of new coarfe cloth, in fuch a man¬
ner, however, as not to injure the colour. iV. B. The
three layers may be given in one day.
9. If you want to give a perfect lultre, add a fourth
layer prepared as the third.
All other colours, as blue, &c. may be applied in the
fame manner. This method is the only one by which
orpiment can be employed in all its beauty, but not with¬
out fome of its inconveniences.
Another manner of performing this kind of work,
is to apply the colours and the varnifh without previ-
oully uling the fize and the wdiite ground, il his is ex¬
tremely expeditious, but it is eafy to perceive it will
want the polilh and brilliancy of the other.
Sect. IV.
We cannot perhaps more properly conclude this ar-
TING. Part HI.
tide, than with an account of M. de Morveau’s at-Painting in
tempts to render more perfeft the proportion of colours, °‘1 Colours,
and efpecially of white, employed in painting. Thefe v
we lhall extraft from a memoir of his read in the acado
my of Dijon.
“ White (fays the ingenious academician) is the molt
important of all colours in painting. It affords to the
painter the materials of light, which he di{tributes in
fuch a manner as to bring his objefts together, to give
them relief, and that magic which is the glory of his art.
For thefe reafons I lhall confine my attention at prefent
to this colour.
“ The firlt white which was dijpovered, and indeedExa.mina-
the only one yet known, is ex traded from the calx oftionof
lead. The danger of the procefs, and the dreadful di-knr)Wn
ftemper with which thdfe employed in it are often feized, w^!tes'
have not yet led to the dilcovery of any other white.
Lefs anxious, indeed, about the danger of the artift than
the perfection of the art, they have varied the prepara¬
tion, to render the colour lefs liable to change. Hence
the different kinds of white, viz. white of Crems in Au-
ftria, white lead in Ihells, and white cerufe. But every
perfon converlant in colours, knows that, the foundation
of all thefe is the calx of lead, more or lefs pure, or more
or lefs loaded w ith gas. That they all participate of this
metallic fubltance, will indeed appear evident from the
following experiment, which determines and demonftrates
the alterability of colours by the phlogiltic vapour.
“ I poured into a large glafs bottle a quantity of li¬
ver of fulphur, on a balis of alkali, fixed or volatile, it
makes no difference j I added fome drops of dillilled
vinegar, and I covered the mouth of the bottle with a
piece of paileboard cut to its fize, on which I difpofed
different famples of crems, of white lead, and of cerufe,
either in oil or in water *, I placed another ring of palle-
board over the firft, and tied above all a piece of bladder
round the neck of the bottle with a ftrong pack-thread.
It is evident, that in this operation I took advantage of
the means which chemiftry offers to produce a great
quantity of phlogiftic vapour, to accomplifii inftantane-
oully the effeft of many years} and, in a word, to apply
to the colours the very fame vapours to which the picture
is neceffarily expofed, only more accumulated and more
concentrated. I fay the fame vapour, for it is now fully
eftablifhed, that the fmoke of candles, animal exhalations
of all kinds, alkalefcent odours, the eleCtric effluvia, and
even light, furnilh continually a quantity more or lefs of
matter, not ohly analogous, but identically the fame with
the vapour of vitriolic acid mixed with fulphur.
“ If it happens that the famples of colours are fenfibly
altered by the phlogiftic vapour, then we may conclude
with certainty, that the materials of which the colours
are compofed, bear a great affinity to that vapour ; and
fince it is not poffible to preferve them entirely from it
in any fituation, that they will be more or lefs affeCted
with it, according to the time and a variety of circum-
ftances.
“ After fome minutes continuance in this vapour, I
examined the famples of colours fubmitted to its influ¬
ence, and found them wholly altered. The cerufe and
the white lead both in water and oil were changed into
black } and tbe wffiite of crems into a brownilh black ^
and hence thofe colours are bad, and ought to be aban¬
doned. They may indeed be defended in fome meafure
by varnilh : but this only retards for a time the contaft
of
V
I. PAIN
of the phloglftic vapour j for as the vamifh lofes its hu-
• midity, it opens an infinite number of paffages to this fub-
tile fluid.
“ After having afcertainted the infiability of the whites
in common ufe, I made feveral attempts to difcover fuch
as ^vould prove more lading; and though many of thefe
attempts were without effedt, I lhall give a fuccinct ac¬
count of the whole, -which may fave a great deal of trouble
to thofe who wifli to travel over the fame field.
“ There are three conditions effential to a good colour
in painting.
“ Firji, That it dilute eafily, and take a body both
with oils and with mucilages, or at lead with the one
or other of thefe fubftances, a circumflance which de¬
pends on a certain degree of affinity. Where this affinity
is too llrong, a diflblution enfues j the colour is extin-
guiffied in the new compofition, and the mafs becomes
more or lefs tranfparent} or elfe the fudden re-a£tion ab-
forbs the fluid, and leaves only a dry fubftance, which
can never again be foftened. But if the affinity is too
weak, the particles of colour are fcarcely fufpended in
the fluid, and they appear on the canvas like fand, which
nothing can fix or unite.
“ The fecond condition is, That the materials ©f which
colours are compofed do not bear too near an affinity
with the phlogiftic vapour. The experiments to which
I fubmitted whites from lead, is an infallible means of
afcertaining the quality of colours in this refpecl, with¬
out waiting for the flow impreflion of time.
“ A third condition equally eflential is, That the co¬
louring body be not volatile, that it be not connedled
■with a fubftance of a weak texture, fufceptible of a
fpontaneous degeneracy. This confideration excludes
the greater part of fubftances which have received their
tint from vegetable organization 5 at leaft it makes it im-
poflible to incorporate their finer parts with a combina¬
tion more folid.
“ After thefe reflections, my refearches were direfted,
firft, to the five pure earths ; next, to the earthy com¬
pounds ; in the third place, to the earthy falts, which
can fcarcely be diffolved 5 laftly, to the metallic earths,
either pure or precipitated by Pruflian alkali. M. Wen¬
zel has difcovered a'fixth earth, which I call eburne, and
which, after other experiments, I thought of applying to
the purpofesof painting; but I foon perceived that it would
have the fame fault with other kinds of earth, and, befides,
that it could not be obtained but at a very confiderable
expence. ^
“ The five pure earths poflefs fixity in a very great
degree, and at the fame time are little affedted by the
phlogiftic vapour} but they refufe to unite with oil or
mucilages, and the white is totally extinguilhed when
they are grinded with thefe liquids. I made feveral at¬
tempts on earth from alum, not only becaufe M. Beaume
recommended the ufe of it in painting, and becaufe it
enters into the compofition of Pruflian blue, but alfo be-
eaufe it is a chief ingredient in ochres, and other earths
of that nature, which fuppofes that it ftiould unite in a
certain degree with diluting liquors; notwithftanding, in
whatever manner I treated it, it would not yield a white;
but one will be lefs furprifed at this want of fuccefs, when
he confiders, that in the ochres and Pruflian blue, the earth
from alum is only the vehicle of the colouring body, where¬
as here it is the colour itfelf.
“ To be convinced of the truth of this obfervation, it
TING. , 6
is only neceflary to mix equal parts of this earth, or even Paintin
of clay not coloured, with cerule or any other white: the 0,1 Col<
mixture will be fufceptible of being grinded in oil or in
gum without being extinguifhed; it will eafily unite with
any coloured fubftance, and be productive of no bad con-
fequences to the pure earths.
“ Nature and art prefent to us a confiderable number of
earthy com'pofitions fufficiently white for the purpofes of
painting; fuch as the jafper white, the feldfpat white,
the fchirl white, &c. But all thefe lubftances, in all
the trials which I made, had the fault which I have al¬
ready mentioned ; and originating from the fame caufe,
they wanted a fixed colouring body, which would not
change when it is pulverized, nor be extinguiftied when,
t is diluted.
“ The ultramarine blue, which is extracted from the
blue jafper, and known by the name of lipis lazuli, feems
at firft view to warrant the poflibilipy of appropriating to
painting all the opaque half vitrified compofitions of the
nature of jafper.
“ Prepoffefled with this idea, I conceived the hope of
producing a true white lapis; but I foon perceived
that the experiment confirmed the principle which I
had laid down from my obfervations on pure earths;
fince it is not the fubftance peculiar to the jafper \Vhich
conftitutes the ultramarine blue, but the metallic fub¬
ftance which accidentally colours this particular kind of ‘
jafper.
“ In the fame manner, art in this imitation of nature
fhould have for its objeft to give a permanent bafe to a
colour already formed^ to fix it without altering, and to
augment perhaps its fplendour and its intenfity, without
attempting to produce a colour.
“ In excepting from earthy and metallic falts all thole
of which the acid is not completely faturated, which
would eafily attract the humidity of the air, or which
would be eafily diflblved, you have but a very fmall
number to make experiments on.
“ The natural and artificial felenite gives with oil a
pafte without colour, and tailing fomewhat like honey ;
its white is better preferved with a gum, but even in this
cafe it refembles a half tranfparent pap.
“ The natural or regenerated heavyJpar is the moft
likely fait to produce white. As it is of all others the
moft difficult to diffolve, it appears after pulverization
to be a very fine wffiite, but is fcarcely touched with oil
when it becomes gray and half tranfparent : the muci¬
lage alters it alfo, although lefs difcernibly ; and it does
not even refume its white colour after it becomes dry on
the canvas.
“ The fame is the cafe with calcareous borax, formed
by the folution of borax in lime water ; its white is com¬
pletely extinguilhed with oil, lefs fo with gum ; but it
hardens fo inftantaneoully with the latter, that it is im-
poflible ever to dilute it again.
“ Calcareous tartar, obtained by calling quicklime
into a boiling folution of cream of tartar, is affected
with oil in the fame manner as felenite, but with muci¬
laginous water it gives a pretty good white, only pof-
feffed of little refleflion, and appearing like plafter ; it
applied very well to the canvas, and refilled the phlo¬
giftic vapour.
“ According to M. Weber, in his work entitled Fa-
briken und Kunjie, publilhed 1781, the white, called in
Germany krembfer wiefsr is nothing but the vitriol
4 S 2 of
o ^
692
PAINTING.
Part III.
anting in of lead, prepared by diffelving lead in nitrous acid,
ii Coioms. ancj precipitating it in vitriolic acid ; and forming it
afterwards into folid tablets by means of gum water.
It is certain that this refembles in no fhape the white
called in France the white of crems 5 at lead I never
found that it could be diifolved in vinegar; but I tri¬
ed the white prepared in M. Weber’s manner, and the
refult was the fame as above, that is to fay, it turned
completely black.
“ The vitriols of lead and of bifmuth alter more fpee-
dily than the calces of thofe metals. And thus, with
the exception of calcareous tartar, which may be of
fome ufe in water colours, the bell: earthy falts on which
I have made experiments, may all, or the moll of them,
give a bafe to fome colours, but cannot conilitute by
themfelves a colour ufeful in painting.
“ Of the fifteen known metallic fubllances, there are
nine which yield white calces : namely, filver, mercury,
lead, tin, antimony, bifmuth, zinc, arfenic, and manga-
nefe.
“ Of thefe nine fubflances, we may almoll pafs over
filver and mercury j becaufe, though they yield a very
fine white, precipitated by means of cryltallized vege¬
table alkali, yet it is foon altered when expofed to the
air ; that from filver changing into black, and that from
mercury into yellow.
“ It is well known that lead gives a very good white,
and one which unites eafiiy with, oil or fize •, but that
it is extremely liable to change, has been my principal
object: to prove, and the experiments which I have made
place it beyond contradiction.
“ I {hall only add, that if there is a preparation able
to corre£t this fault, it Ihould be the precipitation of the
earth of this metal in its acetous diffolution by Pruffian
alkali} but the white whjch refults from this preparation
becomes fenfibly brownith when it is expofed a few mi¬
nutes only to the phlogiilic vapour.
, “ It would be therefore unreafonable to perfevere in
the ufe of this fubftance, or to wifh to render it fixed,
fince the changes which it undergoes do not alter its
nature, and the indeftrudtible order of its affinities.—
The calx of tin is eafiiy applied to any purpofe, and
experiences no change from the concentrated phlogiftic
vapour. Thefe confiderations induced me to endeavour
to obtain this calx perfectly white; and here follows
the refult of my operations: The tin calcined gives
a pretty white calx ; but whatever attention I paid to
take off the red furface which the violence of the fire
occafioned, a ffiade of gray always appears wffien it is
^ diluted. Tin calcined by nitre in fufion, gives a tar-
niffied and grofs calx, which multiplied wTaffiings could
not deprive of a yellowilh tint.
“ Having precipitated, by means of cryftallized ve¬
getable alkali, a folution of Engliffi tin, which had been
made in the muriatic acid, after the manner of M. Rayen
to extraft the arfenic, I had a calx of the greateft wdiite-
nefs, fo light that it buoyed up to the furface of the li¬
quor, and fo thin that the greater part of it paffed through
the filter 5 but it experienced at the fame time a kind of
adherence with the falls, which makes the par of it re¬
tained by the filter incapable of being pulverized, gum¬
my, half tranfparent, and even a little changed into yel¬
low In this condition it is extinguiihed when diluted 5
it is r.eceffary, therefore, to moillen it in boiling water,
and afterwards to calcine {lightly the fediment after it Pamtirg in
has had fufficient time to fettle. Oil Colour!..
“ I have tried the calcination by means of moifiure, v
in employing the tin of the pmelt melac, and a rectified
nitrous acid, according to the method of Meyer. It form¬
ed a very white fparkling calx, -which remained in the
filter in the confillency of jelly.—Meanwffiile, I obferv-
ed that it was always a little yellow by the mixture of a
porUon of that earth wffiich took, in the operation, the
colour of turbith mineral,
“ A very fine wffiite calx is extra&ed from antimony,
calcined by nitre in fufion } but the earth of this femi-
metal muft be placed in the number of thofe which
combine too eafiiy with the phlogiftic vapour. The
diaphoretic antimony, grinded in oil, took in ten mi¬
nutes in my phlogiftic apparatus a colour fomewhat like
fulphur.
“ The property of bifmuth to give a very fine white
calx, known by the name of magifierij, or white fard, is
generally known ; it is eafiiy prepared, fince it is only
neceftary to diffolve the bifmuth in nitrous acid, and to
precipitate the folution by pure water : it dilutes per-
feffly with oil and mucilages. But this colour ought to
be rejefted, as the moft alterable by the phlogiftic va¬
pour. It became completely black in ten minutes in my
apparatus; and this faft is alfo proved from what happens
to women who ufe this colour, wffien they are expofed to
the vapours of fulphur, of garlic, or of any putrid fub-
ftances.
“ Zinc fumiffies by all the proceffes of calcination and
precipitation a pretty white calx, when it is pure and fe-
parated from iron j otherwife the folutions of the vitriol
of zinc will become yellowr wffien expofed to the air. I
have precipitated thofe folutions by lime wrater, by cauftic,
and effervefcent alkalies; I have calcined this femi-metal
alone and with nitre ; and in all thofe operations I have
obtained an earthy fubftance of dift’erent degrees of white-
nefs, wffiich, after it wTas dried and prepared, mixed rea¬
dily with oil and mucilages without lofing its colour;
and which experienced no fenfible change wffien expofed
to the phlogiftic vapour.
“ Thefe valuable properties, the chief objefl of my
refearches, engaged me to multiply my experiments to
determine at once the moft economical prbcefs, and the
moft advantageous and infallible preparation.—Thofe at¬
tempts have convinced me, that the calcination of this
femi-metal alone in a crucible, placed horizontally on
the corners of a reverberating furnace, gives the pureft,
the whiteft, and the leaft reducible calx *, and that to
make an excellent colour, it is fufficient to feparate the
parts not burned with water, and grind it with a little
of the earth of alum or chalk to give it a body. Zinc
precipitated in Pruffian alkali, even in diftilled vinegar,
retains always a fhade of yellow7, does not unite fo well
in oil, and takes a demi-tranfparent confiftence like
cheefe.
“ White arfenic extinguifties much lefs in diluting
than one would believe from its faline nature 5 it pre-
ferves its colour heft in gum wrater ; and it is remark¬
able, that inftead of turning black in the phlogiftic
vapour, it takes a very diftinft {hade of yellow7. This
property is fufficiently fingular and conftant to fur-
nilh a new method of analyzing arfenic, fo as to know
it. And this alteration of colour makes it of no ufh
iu
PartlH. PAIN
Painting in in painting, although its deleterious qualities did not
Oil Colours, forc'd the praftice.
v “ The femi-metal known by the name of manganefe,
gives alfo a white calx. I had at firft great hopes from
this colour, as, contrary to all thofe extracted from the
other metals, it became white by the phlogiftic vapour.
There remained, therefore, but one difficulty to over¬
come, viz. to feparate from the manganefe the portion
of iron which it ufually contained, and which infallibly
makes the earth a little yellow. To accomplifli this in
the cheapeft manner, I fubmitted the black ore of the
manganefe to a long calcination to render its iron info-
luble ; I afterwards applied vinegar to it, after the ex¬
ample of M. de la Peyroufe •, and in precipitating the
diffolution by effervefcent alkali, I eafxly obtained a pure
white precipitate. But I foon perceived that the facility
with which a colouring body lofes its phlogifton, is no
lefs an inconveniency than that of attracting it, and pro¬
ductive of the fame alterations.
“ The white of manganefe became very foon yellow
when expofed to the air; and this is not to be afcribed
to the iron contained in it, fince neither the galls nor
Pruffian alkali had difcovered any of it in the difiblution.
This fubitance, therefore, can be of no ufe in producing
a white colour for painting.”
The experiment by which M. de Morveau tried the
colours not alterable by the phlogiltic vapour, was per¬
formed before the academy, the prince of Conde being
prelident. “ I placed (fays he) in my apparatus pieces
of cloth, on which were laid the white of calcareous tar¬
tar in water, different preparations of white from tin and
zinc, in oil and water •, and I allowed them to continue
expofed to the phlogiftic vapour during a fitting of the
academy : if they were not altered, their fuperiority over
the whites in ufe would be fufficiently eftabliftied. The
fitting continued for near an hour j and the bottle hav¬
ing been opened, all the colours continued to have the
fame fhade which they had before. I can, therefore, re¬
commend to painters tbofe three whites, and particular¬
ly that of zinc, the preparation of which is expofed to
lefs variation, the (hade more lively and uniform, and
moreover it is fit for aid purpofes, and perhaps procured
at lefs expence.
“ I will affert farther, that it may be procured in fiuf-
'ficient quantities to fupply the place of cerufe in every
branch of the art, even in interior houfe painting —I
would recommend it, lefs with the view of adding new
fplendour ‘to this kind of ornament,*than for the fafety
of thofe who are employed in it, and perhaps for the
fafety of thofe who inhabit houfes ornamented in this
manner.
“ But, without being too fanguine, although the
proceffes in the fabrication be fimplified in proportion to
the demand, as is ufually the cafe, yet there is reafon to
apprehend that the low price of cerufe will always give
it the preference in houfe-painting. With regard 10
thofe who apply colours to nobler purpofes, they will
not hefitate to employ the white of zinc. I am affured
that four franks is paid for the pound of the white of
crems *, and I believe the white in queftion, prepared in
the manner which I have pointed out, might be fold
"for fix.
“ M. Couriers, connefted with the laboratory of the
academy, has already declared that it is ufed for houfe-
painting : lefs, however, in regard to its unalterability,
T i N G. 693
than to its folubility: and this can be the more readily be- Pair ting in
lieved, as the flower of zinc enters into many compofi- Oil Colours*,
tions of the apothecary. The fame M. Courtors has v—-*
arrived at the art of giving more body to this white,
which the painters feemed to defire, and alfo of making
it bear a comparifon with white lead either in water or
oil. J he only fault found with it, is its drying Howdy
wffien ufed in oil j but feme experiments which 1 have
made, incline me to believe that this fault may be eafily
remedied, or at leaft greatly correfted, by giving it more
body. At any rate, it may be rendered ficcative at
pleafure, by.adding a little vitriol of zinc or copperas
flightly calcined.
“ Painters already know the properties of this fait,
but perhaps they do not know that it mixes wdth the
white of zinc better than wdth any other colour ; the
reafon is, they have chemically the fame bafe. It is
prepared by purging the white copperas of that fmall
portion of iron which wrould render it yellow 5 and this
is eafily done in digefting its folution, even when cold,
on the filings of zinc.
“ The mixture of this fait thus prepared is made on
the pallet, without producing any alteration, and a fmall
quantity wall produce a great efled.11
APPENDIX.
We fhall here add an account of ibme proceffes
which have been recommended, on account of their
cheapnefs, for preparing different materials for economi¬
cal painting. The firft is a method of houfe painting
with .milk, by Cadet de Vaux *. The following are * Mich.
the diredions for preparing this paint. Jn ■, v.
Take of fkimmed milk a pint, which makes tw^o 248* 4t0*'
pints of Paris, or nearly twm quarts Englifh ; frefli fla¬
ked lime, fix ounces, (about fix and a half ounces avoir¬
dupois) ; oil of carawTays, or linfeed, or nut, four ounces ;
Span!fli W'hite (whiting) three pounds : put the lime
into a ft one-ware veffel, and pour upon it a fufficient
quantity of milk to make a mixture refembling thin
cream ; then add the oil a little at a time, ftirring it
wdth a fmall fpatula 5 the remainder of the milk is then
to be added, and laftly, the Spanifti wffiite. Skimmed
milk in fummer is often clotted, but this is a circum-
ftance of no confequence to our objed, becaufe the con-
tad with the lime foon reftores its fluidity. But it muff
©n no account be four, becaufe in that cafe it would
form with the lime a kind of calcareous acetite, capable
of attrading mdifture.
“ The lime is flaked by dipping it in water, out of
which it is to be immediately taken, and left to fall in
pieces in the air.
“ The choice of either of thefe oils is indifferent 5
neverthelefs for white paint the oil of caraways is to be
preferred, becaufe colourlefs. The commoneft oils may
be ufed for painting with the ochres.
“ The oil wffien mixed in with the milk and lime dif-
appears, and is totally diffolved by the lime, with which
it forms a calcareous fope.
“ The Spanifti white is to be crumbled, or gently
fpread on the furface of the fluid, which it gradually
imbibes, and at laft finks ; at this period it muft be wxdl
ftirred in. This paint may be coloured like diftempeffi
(or fize colour) with levigated charcoal, yellow ochre;
&c.
“ And
694 PAIN
Painting in “ Aivd it is ufcd in the fatne rriaTlner :
Oil Colour:,. a r£}ie quant;ity here prefcribed is fafiicient for the
firft coat of fix toifes, or 27 fquare yards Englifn.
“ The price of this quantity amounts to nine fols,
which reduces the price of the fquare toife to one fol,
fix deniers, prime coft.”
And to give this paint a greater degree of folidity,
that it may be employed as a fubftitute for oil paint, the
author adds to the proportions of the paint for out-door
works, of flaked lime, oil, white Burgundy pitch, ^each
two ounces. The pitch is to be melted with a gentle
heat in the oil, and then added to the fmooth mixture
of the milk and lime. In cold weather this mixture is
to be warmed, that it may not occafion too fpeedy cool¬
ing of the pitch, and to facilitate its union with the
milk of lime. This paint, it is faid, has fome analogy
with that known by the name of encaujlic* It has been
employed, the author informs us, for outfide fhutters,
formerly painted with oil, and is preferable to , painting
with lead, obje£ts that are expofed to putrid exhalations,
which are apt to blacken paint compofed of metallic
matters, efpecially of lead.
A method has been propofed by Mr Vanherman, for
making cheap and durable paints with fifli oil. The
paints thus prepared, befide their cheapnefs, are not fub-
je£l to blifter or peel off by expofure to the weather.
They may be manufactured of any colour, and laid on
by ordinary labourers. The price of fbme of them is
fo low as twopence, and the higheft does not exceed
threepence per pound, in a date fit for ufe. The author
adds, that white lead ground with prepared fifh oil, and
thinned with linfeed oil, furpaffes any white hitherto em¬
ployed for refifting all wTeathers, and retaining its white-
t Tranfatt. nefs. The followdng is an account of his proceffes f.
of the So-
“ T° refine one Ton of Cod, Whale, or Seal Oil, for
vol. xxiii. painting, with the cof attending it.
One ton of fifh oil, or 2^2 gallons, L.36 O O
32 gallons of vinegar, at 2S. per gallon, 340
12 lbs. litharge, at 3d. per lb. - 050
12 lbs. wdiite copperas, at 6d. ditto, 060
1 2 gallons of linfeed oil, at 4s. 6d. per gallon, 214 o
2 gallons of fpirits of turpentine, at 8s. ditto, 016 o
L.43 5 O
252 gallons of fifh oil,
. I 2 ditto linfeed oil,
2 ditto fpirits of turpentine?,
32 ditto vinegar.
298 gallons, worth 4s. 6d. per gallon.
Which produces L.67 I O
Deduft the expence 43 5 0
L.23 16 o profit.
“ To prepare the Vinegar for the Oil.
TING. Appendix.
into a ton of v/hale, cod, or feal oil; (but the Southern Painting in
whale oil is to be preferred, on account of its good co~ CM C°ieurs’
lour, and little or no fmell) \ fhake and mix all together,
wdien it may fettle until the next day j then pour off the
clear, wdiich will be about feven eighths ol ttie whole.
To this clear part add twTelve gallons of linfeed oil, and
two gallons of fpirit of turpentine fhake them well to¬
gether, and after the whole has fettled two or three
days, it will be fit to grind w-hite lead, and all fine co¬
lours in j and, when ground, cannot be diflinguifhed
from thofe ground in linfeed oil, unlefs by the i'uperiori-
ty of its colour.
“ If the oil is wTanted only for coarfe purpofes, the
linfeed oil and oil of turpentine may be added at the
fame time that the prepared vinegar is put in, and after
being w7ell fhaken up, is fit for immediate ufe without
beinu' fuffered to fettle.
“ The vinegar is to diffolve the litharge; and the cop¬
peras accelerates the diffolution, and ftrengthens the dry¬
ing quality.
“ The refidue, or bottom, when fettled, by the addi¬
tion of half its quantity of frefh lime-water, forms an
excellent oil for mixing with all the coarfe paints for
preferving outfide work.
“ Ante. All cojours ground in the above oil, and ufed
for infide work, muff be thinned with linfeed oil and oil
of turpentine.
“ (pf The oil mixed with lime-water, I call incorpo¬
rated oil.
“ The method of preparing, and the expence of the va¬
rious Impenetrable Paints.
“ Firft—Subdued Green.
Frefh lime water, 6 gallons, 7
Road dirt finely lifted, 112 pounds,
Whiting, 112 ditto,
Blue-black, 30 ditto,
Wet blue, 20 ditto,
Befidue of the oil, 3 gallons,
Yellow ochre in powder, 24 pounds,
L.o o 3
010
024
026
o 10 o
060
0 2 0
L.i 4 1
“ This compofition will weigh 368 pounds, which is
fcarcely one penny per pound. To render the above
paint fit for ufe, to every eigh ■- -pounds add one quart of
the incorporated oil , and one quart of linfeed .oil, and it
will be found a paint wdth every requifite quality, both
of beauty, durabiiiiy, and cheapnefs, and in this ftate
of preparation does not exceed twopence halfpenny per
pound; whereas the coal tar of the fame colour is
fixpence.” ,
To this we fhall only add the following receipt for a
conftant white for infide painting. This paint, the au¬
thor obferves, is not entirely free from fmell in the ope¬
ration, but becomes dry in four hours, at the end of
which time the fmell is entirely diflipated.
“ Into a calk which will contain about forty gallons,
put 3 2 gallons of good common vinegar; add to this
12 pounds of litharge, and 1 2 pounds of white copperas
in powder ; bung up the veffel, and fhake and roll it
well twice a day for a* week ; when it will be fit to put
“ White Paint.
“ To one gallon of fpirits of turpentine, add two
pounds of frankincenfe; let it fimmer over a clear fire
until diffolved ; ftrain it and bottle it for ufe. To one
gallon
3
Appendix. PAIN
Irtii, gallon ot rny bleached linieed oil, add one quart of the
. 1 a‘!mg- above, lhake them well together and bottle it alfo. Let
any quantity of white lead be ground with Ipirits of tur¬
pentine very fine; then add a fufficient portion of the
T I N G,
laft mixture to it, until you find it fit for laying on. If
in working it grows thick, it mull be thinned with fpi-
rits of turpentine.—It is a flat or dead white.”
6g>
Pairing-,
Paifley.
P- A I ' P A I
PAIR 5 two of a fort, a couple.
PAIRING, the uniting or joining in couples.
1 he inlhnct of pairing is bellowed on erery fpecies
ot animals to which it is neceilary for rearing their
young : and on no other fpecies. All wild birds pair j
but. with a remarkable difference between Inch as place
their nelts on trees and fuch as place them on the
ground. The young of the former, being hatched
blind, and without feathers, require the nurffng care of
both parents till they be able to fly. The male feeds
his mate on the neft, and cheers her with a fong. As
loon as the young are hatched, finging yields to a more
neceilary occupation, that of providing food for a nu¬
merous iffue ; a talk that requires both parents.
Eagles and other birds of prey build on trees, or on
other inacceflible fpots. They not only pair, but con¬
tinue in pairs all the year round } and the fame pair
procreates year after year. This at leall is the cafe of
eagles: the male and female hunt together, unlefs du¬
ring incubation, at which time the female is fed by the
male. A greater number than a Angle pair are never
^ ( feen in company.
Sketches, * Gregarious birds pair, in order probably to prevent
vol. i. difeord in a fociety confined to a narrow fpace. This is
i3>S. the cafe particularly of pigeons and rooks. The male
and female fit on the eggs alternately, and divide the
care of feeding their young.
Partridges, plovers, pheafants, fea fowl, groufe, and
other kinds that place theii* nells on the ground, have
the inflincl of pairing} but difler from fuch as build on
trees in the following particular, that after the female is
impregnated, Ihe completes her talk without needing any
help from the male. Retiring from him, Ihe chcoles a
fafe fpot for her nell, where flie can find plenty of worms
and grafs feed at hand; and her young, as ibon as hatch¬
ed, take foot, and feek food, for thernfelves. The only
remaining duty incumbent on the dam is, to lead them
to proper places for food, and to call them together
when danger impends. Some males, provoked at the
defertion of their mates, break the eggs if they Humble
©n them. Eider ducks pair like other birds that place
their nefts on the ground; and the female finilhes her
nell with down plucked from her own bread:. If the
nell be dellroyed for the down, which is remarkably
warm and elailic, (he makes another nell as celore. If
fhe is robbed a fecond time, Ihe makes a third neff : but
the male furnilhes the down. A lady of fpi f obfer-
ved, that the eider duck may give a leflbn to 1 y a
married woman, who is more difpofed to pluck L uf-
band than herielf. Phe black game never p in
fpring, the cock on, an eminence crows, and cl. his
wings } and all the females within hearing- inltan • e-
fort tp him.
Pairing birds, excepting thofe of prev, floe o-
gether m Febnuary, in order to choofe their m ■ ,s.
They foon dlfperfe ; and are not feen afterward but in
pairs.
Pairing is unknown to quadrupeds that feed on grafs.
To fuch it would be ufelefs; as the female gives fuck
to her young while Ihe herfelf is feeding. If M. Buff
fun deierves credit, the roe deer are an exception. They
pair, though they feed on grafs, and have but one litter
in a year.
Bealls of prey, fuch as lions, tigers, wolves, pair not.
The female is left to flu ft for herielf and for her young j
which is a laborious talk, and often fo unfuccefsful as to
fhorien the life of many of them. Pairing is eflential
to birds oi prey, becaufe incubation leaves the female
no fufficient time to hunt for food. Pairing is not ne~
ceffary to beads of prey, becaufe their young can bear
a long fall. Add another reafon, that they would mul¬
tiply fo fall by pairing, as to prove troublefome neigh¬
bours to the human race.
Among animals that pair not, males fight defperate-
ly about a female. Such a battle among horned cattle-
is finely deferibed by Lucretius. Nor is it unufual for
feven or eight lions to wage bloody war for a Angle- '
female.
The fame reafon that makes pairing neceffary for
gregarious birds, obtains with relpedt to gregarious
quadrupeds; thofe efpecially who llore up food for win¬
ter, and during that feaion live in common. Lifcord
among Inch would be attended with worfe confequences
than even among lions and bulls, who are not confined
to one place. The beavers, with refpedl to pairing, re-
femble birds that place their neils on the ground. As
foon as the young are produced, the males abandon
their flock of food to their mates, and live at large 5 but
return frequently to vifit them while they are luckling
their young.
fledge.logs pair, as well as leveral of the roenkev
kind. We are not well acquainted with the natural
hi lory of thefe-animals ; but it would appear that the
young require the no: ling care of both parents.
Seals have a lingular economy. Polygamy feems to
be a law of nature among them, as a male afibciates
with feversl females. The lea turtle has no occalion to
pair, as the female concludes her talk by laying her esrgs-
in the land. . The young- aie hatched by the fun, and
immediately crawl to the fea. , ' \
PAISLEY, a town of Renfrewihire, in Scotland, fitu-
ated about fix miles and*a half well of Glafgow, on the
river White Cart, over which there are two fione bridges
of two arches each, and one. which confifts of three
arches. The town is very ancient 5 but was. of much
lefs confcquence formerly than it is at prefent. “ No Statifticcd
fatisfaclory ety mology h as hitherto occurred of the name Account of
PaiTiy. The following has been fuggelled by a goodSc0tlanei»
Gaelic Icholar : ‘ A ridge of rocks that runs acrofs thevol‘ viu
river, and forms a Leaulitul cafcade, would, prior to the
building
PAT [ 6c<d ] P A I
■Paiflcy. 'building of the town, be undoubtedly the moft ftriking
"v objedt that this place would preient. 1 he brow or face
of a rock is in Gaelic Pais-licit. A church in front of
the rock would be the church in Pais-hcht. A church
did Hand here previous to 1160: it is named in the
foundation charter Ecclefm de Pafelet, Latinized, in the
records of the monaftery, Pajlatum, an eafy derivative
from Pais-licht in all probability the original of the
modern Paijley. It was eroded into a burgh of barony
by James IV. in the year 1488, at that time probably
deriving all its importance from the rich ihonallery
which had been eftablithed there for feveral ages *, for
George Schaw, who was then abbot of that monatlery,
obtained this privilege from the king. Even in Mr
Crawford’s time, who wrote the hiftory of the fhire of Ren¬
frew near the beginning of the 18th century, it ieems to
have been but an incontiderable place } for he defcribes
it as confifting only of one principal ftreet, about half a
mile in length, with feveral lanes belonging^ to it *
whereas now the town, with its fuburbs, occupies fuch
an extent of ground, that ftrangers are apt to confider
it as, next to Edinburgh and Glafgow, the largeft and
moft populous town in Scotland. Its buildings of late
years have been greatly improved \ its Itreets are well
paved and the different parts of the town and fuburbs,
where the river intervenes, are connected with one ano¬
ther by three bridges at convenient diitances.”
The affairs of the community are managed by three
bailies, of which the eldeft is commonly in the commif-
fion of the peace, a treafurer, a town clerk, and 17
counfellors, who are annually eleded upon the firft
Monday after Michaelmas. It enjoys all the powers
neceffary for government and police, without any of the
burdens to which royal boroughs are fubjeded. The
freedom of the place is conferred on very moderate terms.
The revenues of the town are not great,but they have been
managed to the beft advantage. 1 he rapid increafc of
the place has not been attended with a proportional in-
creafe of revenue •, therefore feveral neceffary improve¬
ments, and intended public buildings, are not yet car¬
ried into execution. It gives the title of baron to the
earls of Abercorn *, the firft of whom was a younger
fon of the Due de Chatelherault. The black book of
Paijley, frequently mentioned in Scottifh hiftory, was a
chronicle of the public affairs and remarkable events, kept
by the monks who refided in the monaftery. It agreed in
every material fad with the Scoti-chronicon of Foidun }
and is by many thought to be the fame performance.
The old part of the town runs from eaft to -weft upon
the fouth Hope of a ridge of hills, from which there is
a fine profped of the city of Glafgow and the adjacent
country 5 but to the fouthward, the view terminates in
a ridge of green hills, about two miles diftant. Inclu¬
ding the late buildings and fuburbs, it is fully a mile
long, and nearly as much in breadth. On the eaft fide
of the river Cart, Hand the abbey and new town. This
new town was fome years ago feued off by the earl of
Abercorn, and now confifts of a number of handfome
buildings. The ftreets are laid off in a regular manner,
but (rather unfortunately for the conveniency and ele¬
gance of fome of the houfes) not in right angles.
Here the earl of Abercorn has built at his own expence
one of the largeft, moft commodious, and moft elegant
inns in Scotland. In the vicinity of it was propefed
*lfo to build feveral convenient and neceffary market
4
places. A little way fouth of the inn hands the ah- Paifley,
bey church, the only one which Paifley formerly requi- x——
red. This church, when entire, has been a moft noble
building, and confiited of feveral diftinft and feparate
places of wTorfhip : what now remains of this magnifi¬
cent Gothic ftructure is not yet unworthy the notice of
the curious in antiquities. Mr Pennant fays, the great
north window is a noble ruin, the arch very lofty, the
middle pillar wonderfully light, and ftill entire : only
the chancel now remains, which is divided into a middle
and two fide aides, by very lofty pillars, with Gothic
arches j above thefe is another range of pillars much
larger, being the fegment of a circle, and above a row
of arched niches from end to end, over which the roof
ehds in a fttarp point. The outfide of the building is
decorated with a profufion of ornaments, efpecially the
great weft and north doors, than which fcarce any thing
lighter or richer can be imagined.
The town of Paifley continued a part of the original
or Abbey pariflt of Paifley till the year 1738; when
the magiftrates and council having purchafed the right
of patronage from the then earl of Dundonald, a new
church wras built, and the town was eredted into a fepa¬
rate parilh. This is called the Laigh Church, is built
in the form of a Greek crofs, very well laid out, and
capable of containing a great number of people. In
1756 another-church was built, upon a very extended
plan, to accommodate its multiplied inhabitants j in
which, though it is one of the largeft in Scotland, yet
the moft; diftant of the congtegation can hear a tolerably
good fpeaker with eafe and diftinftnefs} and as it hands
upon the higheft part of the town, it was afterwards or¬
namented with a lofty and well-proportioned fpire, vifible
at a great diftance. This is called the High Church,
and is a very fine building : it is an oblong fquare of
82 feet by 62 within the walls, built of free ftone well
fmoothed, having ruftic corners and an elegant ftone
cornice at the top. In the conftruftion of the roof
(which is a pavilion covered with flate, having a plat¬
form covered with lead on the top), there is fomething
very curious, and it is admired by every perfon of tafte.
In 1781, the number of the inhabitants ftill rapidly in-
creafing, another church, called the Middle Church, was
built, not quite fo large as the former, but very hand-
fomely and elegantly finifhed: and in the following year,
the towm w^as divided and ere&ed into three feparate
parilhes, exclufive of the Abbey parifh, and named ac¬
cording to their refpeftive churches.
There are two large diffenting congregations in the
town ; thofe of the Antiburgher perfuafion and the
Relief. The firft of thefe has exifted there for upwards
of 30 years \ the other is of a late date. There is be¬
tides a fmall congregation of Cameronians.
The townhoufe is a very handfome building of cut
ftone, wuth a tall fpire and a clock. I ne flefti market
has a genteel front of cut ftone, and is one of the neat-
eft and moft commodious of the kind in Britain. Butch¬
ers meat, butter, cheefe, filh, w'ool, and feveral other ar¬
ticles, are fold here by what they call the tron pound,
of 22 Engliftr ounces and a half.
The poors houfe is a large building, very wHl laid
out} and ftands oppofite to the quay, in a fine free air.
It is fupported by a fmall tax laid upon the inhabitants
quarterly.
Clofe by the Abbey church is the earl of Abercorn’s
burial
P A I [ 697 ] P A I
Faifley. burial place, tlie greatefl curlofity in Paifley. It is a
—vvaulted Gothic chapel, without pulpit, pew, or any other
ornament, but has the fineft echo perhaps in the world.
When the end door (the only one it has) is fhut, the
noife is equal to a loud and not very didant clap of
thunder. If you tlrike a {ingle note of mufic, you have
the found gradually afeending, with a great number of
repetitions, till it dies away as if at an immenfe dillance,
and all the while diffufing itfelf through the circumam¬
bient air. If a good voice lings, or a mulical inftru-
ment is well played upon, the eft'eft is inexpreffibly agree¬
able. The deepejl, as well as the mod acute tones, are
diftin&ly reverberated, and thefe in regular intervals of
time. When a mulical inftrument is founded, it has the
effeft of a number of inftruments of a like lize and
kind playing in concert. When a number of different
inllruments in unifon found the fame note, a good ear
is able to diftinguilh the variety of found produced by
each. A Angle inftrument founding a particular note,
and then inftantly its fifth, or any other concordant note,
the two founds can be heard, as it were, running into
and uniting with each other in a manner peculiarly
agreeable. But the effe£t of a variety of inftruments
playing in concert is particularly charming, and mull
excite fuch emotions in the foul as it is impoflible
to deferibe. In this chapel is the monument of Mar¬
jory Bruce (a) 5 Ihe was daughter of Robert Bruce,
and wife of Walter, great lleward of Scotland, and
mother of Robert II. In this fame chapel were intei*-
red Elizabeth Muir and Euphemia Rofs, both conforts
to Robert II. '
A particular accoltnt of the abbey of Paifiey would
fill many p&ges. It was founded as a priory for monks
of the order of Clugni about the year 1160 by Walter
great lleward of Scotland. It was afterwards raifed to
the rank of an abbacy •, and the lands belonging to it
were by Robert II. erefted into a regality, under the ju-
rifdiiffion of the abbot. After the Reformation, the ab¬
bacy was fecularized by the pope in favour of Lord
Claud Hamilton, third fon of the duke of Chatelhei'ault,
in reward of his Heady adherence to the caufe of Queen
Mary-, and, in 1588, it was by the king and parlia¬
ment ereiffed into a temporal lordlhip, and Lord Claud
was created Lord Pailley. The revenues of the abbacy
TVere very confiderable : They confifted of the tythes of
2,8 different parishes, with the property of the lordlhips of
Paifley, of Kilpatrick in Dumbartonlhire, and of Monk-
ton in Ayrlhire, extending each to a hundred merk
land ; and the forty pound land of Glen in Lochwin-
noch •, with the lands of Achengowm, Grange, &c. and
a confiderable detached property in different parts of the
kingdom. All this property, with the patronage of the
feveral churches, fell to Lord Claud Hamilton, laft ab¬
bot of Paifley. It continued in that family till 1 c65,
Vol. XV. Part II.
when his grandfon James earl of Abercorn fold the lord- Paifley.
Ihip of Paitley to the earl of Angus, wTho next year fold '' v—'
it to William Lord Cochran, Kilpatrick to Sir John Ha-
miltoun of Orbilloun, Monktoun to Lord Bargenny, and
Glen to Lord Semple and others. Great part of the
lordfhip of Paifiey w’as at different times fold off by the
family of Dundonald ; and wdiat remained of it was in
1764 repurchafed by the late earl of Abercorn. The
fabric of the abbey owed much of its magnificence to
Abbot George Schaw, who about 1484 enlarged and
beautified the building, furrounding the church, the
precincls of the convent, the gardens, and a fmall deer
park, with a noble wall of hewn freellone. The abbey
wras, after the Reformation, fucceffively the feat of the
earls of Abercorn and Dundonald. The late earl of
Dundonald demolifhed the ancient gateway ; and, by
feuing off the immediately adjoining grounds for build¬
ing, entirely changed the appearance of the place. As
it wras thus rendered totally unfit for a family refidence,
it has fince that time been let out into feparate dwel¬
lings, and is now in a very mean and almolt ruinous
Hate. The wall Hood almoft entire till 1781, when the
garden being feued off for building upon by the late earl
of Abercorn, the wall was fold to the feuers, and the
Hones of it employed in their houfes.
The veHiges of the Roman camp and preetorium, at
the wreH end of the town, are at prefent almoH annihi¬
lated. It wras liippofed to be vaulted underneath.
The number of inhabitants in the town of Paifley a-
mounted in 1695 to 2200 ; in 1755 they w^ere 4290 ;
in 1782, 11,100 } and in 1792 they were 13,800. At
prefent the number of inhabitants in the town and fub-
urbs certainly exceeds 25,000.
Paifiey is nouT the firff manufafturing towm in Scot¬
land, and is greatly celebrated on account of feme of its
branches. The manufadlory of filk gauze, in this re-
fpe£l, firfi claims our notice. This branch is brought
here to the utmoH perfedion, and is wrought to an ama¬
zing variety of patterns. It has been computed, that
there have been no lefs than 5000 weavers employed in
Pailley and in the country adjacent 5 and the number of
winders, warpers, clippers, and others neceffary in other
parts of the filk manufadure, has been likewile comput¬
ed to be no lefs than 5000. Each loom will produce
in an average value 70I. yearly 3 the whole will then be
350,000!.
It appears, from the beff calculation that could be
made, that in the year 1784 the manufadures of Paifiey
in filk gauze, lawn and linen gauze, and white fewing
thread (b), amounted to the value of 579,185!. 16s. 6d.
and that no fewer than 26,484 perfons were employed
in carrying them on. It is difficult to give an exad ac¬
count of the Hate of its manufadures at prefent. The
filk branch has evidently declined, but the muflin has fo
4 T far
^ hler Hory is lingular : In the year 131?* when fhe was big with child, Ihe broke her neck in hunting near
this place : the Csefarean operation was inflantly performed, and the child taken out alive 3 but the operator chan¬
cing to hurt one eye with his inffrument, occafioned the blemiffi that gave him afterwards the epithet of Blear-eye;
and the monument is alfo Hyled that of ^ueen Bleary. Elizabeth Muir died before the acceffion of her hulhand
Robert.
(b) This was introduced into this town about 60 or 70 years ago. The method of making what is called daKed
. _ white thread, has been difeovered and brought to as great perfedion as that made by Mr Leland apd Son," Lon¬
don. Ihe value of this branch is computed at about 60,cool, annually.
V A I
Paifley. far come in its room, and the thread manufafture has
  confiderably increafed. There is, however, reafon to
conclude, that, though it is daily advancing, it has not
yet recovered its former greatnefs. Belides thefe prin¬
cipal manufactures, there are fome others carried on
there of too much importance to be overlooked : for in-
flance, conliderable tan w orks, four in number, two foap
and candle works, a manufacture of ribbons, and an¬
other of inkle or tape. In 1789 the annual value of all
the manufactures in Paifley of every fort amounted to
660,385!. 16s.
In the various weaving branches there were employ¬
ed at Whitfunday 1791, in the fuburbs of Paiiley, 1108
looms, which, added to 2494 employed in the town,
gives 3602 in all. But it is to be obferved, that the
extent to which the weaving branches are carried on by
the manufacturers in Paifley, is not to be judged of from
the number of looms in the town and fuburbs. Be-
fides about 150 in the country part of the parilh,
there are great numbers employed by them in the villa¬
ges of Neilltoun, Barhead, Beith, Dairy, Kilwinning,
&c. &c. In 1744, when all the bufinefs was confined
to the town and fuburbs, there were 867 looms at work.
—The thread-making in Abbey parifh employs 9 mills,
which, added to 128 employed in Paifley, makes 137
in ail. The number in 1744 was 93. The fpinning
of cotton was introduced into Abbey parifh in 1783.
The principal feat of that manufactory is at Johnftoun, a
neat and regularly built village about three miles weft
from Paifley, upon the eftate of Mr Houfton of John¬
ftoun. The feuing of that village was begun in 1782;
and it contained, at Whitfunday 1792, 293 families, or
1434 fouls. There are five companies eftablifhed in it
for cotton fpinning. Two of thefe carry on their prin¬
cipal operations by water machinery. In the two mills
employed in them, there are going at prefent 11,672
fpindles ; but, when the whole machinery in both fhall
be completed, there will be 22,572. The number of
perfons, young and old, at prefent employed in both
mills is 660. There is alfo in the neighbourhood of
Paifley a calico printing work. Copperas has been long
manufactured at Lord Glafgow’s coal works ; and for
feveral years paft the manufacture of alum has been con¬
ducted on a very extenfive fcale at the fame place.
The bleaching bufinefs in the Abbey parifh is carried
on to a very confiderable extent. Lhere are 10 fields
for whitening muflins and lawns, and about as many for
thread, almoft wholly employed by the manufacturers
in Paifley. About 300 perfons are at work in this
branch of bufinefs, of whom about 240 are women, who
are hired for the feafon. A foap and candle manufac¬
ture pays about 2000I. of duty per annum to govern¬
ment, and has in fome years paid upwards of 3000I.
A black and hard foap manufacture, 4500I. per annum.
The ftarch manufacture is but lately eftablifhed. Ihe
diftillery bufinefs is to be mentioned under this head : it
has for fome time paft been carried on to a great ex¬
tent, and the fpirit manufactured in great perfection. A
confiderable quantity of it is exported, but too much of
it is confumed at home (c).
P A I
The river on which Paifley ftands runs from foulh to P-hfity
north ; and falls into the Clyde, after it has ioined the Jl.
conflux of the rivers Grife and Black Cart at Inchinnan ^ a'x‘
bridge, about three miles below the town. At fpring
tides, veffels of 40 tons burden come up to the quay.
The communication by water is of great importance to
the inhabitants : for in this way they are frequently fup-
plied with fifli of different kinds, and can fend their
goods and manufactures to Port Glafgow and Greenock,
and to Glafgow likewife; and now, by means of the
great canal, they have alfo a communication with the
frith of Forth.
The air here is moift ; a neceffary confequence of the
prevailing fouth-weft winds, which, coming loaded with
vapour from the Atlantic, produce frequent and heavy
rains. The efteCls of this moift atmofphere appear in
rheumatifms, quinfeys, pneumatic ailments, and ail the
tribe of inflammatory diforders. Upon the whole, how¬
ever, neither the town nor country adjacent can be faid
to be unhealthy. Contagions, indeed, at times vifit this
as other places, which run their ufual courle as epide¬
mics ; but none are remembered of any uncommon vio¬
lence except a pleurify in fummer 1771, and which,
contrary to the received opinion, was truly epidemic.
There are no diforders that can be faid to be endemic,
unlefs fcrofula is to be excepted, which is Hill but too
common. This has been afcribed to the water uled by
the inhabitants of Paifley : It more probably proceeded
from, and certainly was greatly aggravated by, poor liv¬
ing, and by the damp Ihops which were neceffary for
the linen manufacture; for fince filk weaving became
the general employment, and increafe of trade has in¬
troduced better living, this diforder is lefs frequent.
From the fame caufes probably it is that fwelled and
fore legs, once extremely common here, are now' but
rarely met with. Dyfentery raged with great violence
in 1765 j fince that time it has been fcarcely complain¬
ed of. Nervous fevers at times appear but they are
neither very general nor uncommonly fatal. It is to be
apprehended, that the confinement and fedentary pofture
of the weaver, and the laborious life of the bleacher,
are frequent caufes of confumptive complaints. Inter-
mittents, which, from the damp air, and adjoining mofs,
might be expefted to be common, are not fo much as
known. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 55. 52.
PAITA, a fea-port of America, in Peru, and in the
audience of Quito. The town confifts of about 200
houfes but one ftory high ; and the walls are made of
fplit cane and mud, and the roofs only a covering of
leaves. The only defence of Paita is a fort without ei¬
ther ditch or outwork 5 but it is furrounded by a brick
wall of little or no ftrength, on which are mounted
eight pieces of cannon. It was frequently plundered by
the bucaniers 5 and Commodore Anfon got poffeflion of
its fort in 1741, and took and burnt the town becaufe
the governor refufed to ranfom it. W. Long. 81. 19.
S. Lat. 6. 12.
PAIX, or Port Paix, a town on the north coaft of
the ifland of Hifpaniola, which has a pretty good har¬
bour. W. Long. 72. 55. N. Lat. 19.. 58.
PALACE,
[ 698 ]
(c) Of the capital, and number of perfons employed in the manufaftures, and of the revenue paid to goveia-
ment from them, it is obvious, that the amount, from numerous circumflances, mult be extremely varia xe.
PAL [ 699 ] PAL
Palace PALACE, Palatium, a name generally given to
P ijmon ^1C ^we^'nS houfes of kings, princes, and other great
t.ir . ^ perfonages ; and taking different epithets, according to
the quality of the inhabitants, as imperial palace, royal
palace, pontifical palace, cardinal palace, ducal palace,
epifcopal palace, &c.
It is cuifomary in China to build palaces in honour of
great ancettors. Hu-pi-lay, of the Mogul empire, in
the year 1263, built one for his anceftors ; and he is the
firlt who borrowed this Chinefe cultom. Amongft the
works of the ancient Egyptians, we have an account, in
the Ancient Univerfal Hiftory, of a moft magnificent
palace in the Upper Egypt, not far from Afwan, the
ancient Syene •, the ruins whereof are enough to Itrike
a fpeclator with aftonifhment. It is as large as a little
city, having four avenues of columns, leading to as ma¬
ny porticoes. At each gate, between twTo pillars of
porphyry, Hand two gigantic figures of fine black mar¬
ble, armed with maces. The avenues confift of columns
fet three and three together, in a triangle, on one pe-
deflal: on the chapiter of each triangle is placed a fphinx
and a tomb alternately. * Every column is 70 feet high,
all of one done. There are in all the four avenues about
5000 or 6000 of thefe columns, a great many of which
are fallen down.
The firil hall of this palace is adorned with pieces of
hiftory, which feem as frefh as if the painting had not
been long finifhed. In fome places they have reprefent-
ed the hunting of antelopes ; in others, feafts, and a
great many young children playing with all kinds of
animals. From thence you go into other apartments,
incrufted with marble, the roof being fupported with
pillars of porphyry and black marble. Notwithftanding
Lucas, the vaft quantity of rubbifh, our author made fhift to
voJ. iii. get Up (-0 t}ie tGp tlnS building, from whence he had
a profpeft of the ruins of the greateft city that ever had
been, as he thought, in the world. He fuppofes it
might be the ancient Thebes} but that city flood much
lower.
PALACE-Court. See MARSHALSEA.
PAL/EMON, or Melicerta. See Melicerta.
Palaimont, Rhemmws, a famous grammarian of
Home, in the reign of Tiberius. Lie was born of a
Have at Vienza. We are told he.was firft brought up
in the buftnefs of a weaver : but attending his mailer’s
(on to fchool, he ufed this opportunity to procure knorv-
ledge ; and acquired fo much fkill in the common learn¬
ing, that he obtained his freedom, and became a teach¬
er or preceptor at Rome. His claim to learning cannot
be queftioned, ftnce he is recorded as a fcholar even by
Juvenal:
■^uis gremio Enceladi doBique Palcemonis offert,
Quantum grammaticus meruit labor ? Sat. vii.
He had alfo an excellent memory, a ready elocution,
and could make verfes extempore. On account of thefe
qualities, notwithftanding his debauched courfe of life,
which was fuch that nobody was more unworthy to have
the preceptorlhip of youth, he held the firft rank among
thofe of his profeflion. But his arrogance furpafled his
merit : he had the confidence to aflert, that learning
was born when he was born, and would die when he
died ; and that Virgil had inferted his name Jn his E-
elogues by a certain prophetic fpirit : for that he, Pa-
Lemon, would infallibly become one day foie judge and
arbiter of all poetry. He was exceftively prodigal for Paljeologus
the gratification of his voluptuous humour j infomuch ^
that neither the immenfe funis he gained by teaching, L' ,
nor the great profit he made, both by cultivating his
lands and in the way of traffic, proved a fufficient fund
to fupport his extravaganciesi We Lave only fome frag¬
ments of his works.
PAL/EOLOGUS, Michael, a very able man
who was governor of Afia under the emperor Theodo-
rus Lafcaris j and wrho, by various ftratagems and cruel¬
ties, procured the empire for himfelf and his pofterity.
See Constantinople, from N° 145. to the end of that
article.
PALiEPAPHOS (Strabo, Virgil, Pliny), a town
of Cyprus, where flood a temple of Venus-, and an ad-
joining town called Bco Paphos; where St Paul ftruck
Elymas blind, and converted the proconful Sergius
Paulus.
PAL/ESTRA, in Grecian antiquity, a public build¬
ing where the youth exercifed themfelves in wreftling,
running, playing at quoits, &c. To prevent the com¬
batants from hurting themfelves by falling, the bottom
of the palaeftra was covered with dull or gravel. Some
will have the paleeftra to be only a part of the gymna-
fium. Many authors imagine that the palaeftra was of
two kinds ; the one for the exercife of the body, the
other for the cultivation of the mind ; but the deriva¬
tion of the word feems to confine it to bodily exer¬
cife.
We have this account of the palaeftrae in Barthelemi’s
Anacharfis f : “ They are nearly of the fame form with t Vol. n.
the gymnafia. We vifited the apartments appropriated
to all the fpecies of baths; thofe where the wreftlers
leave their clothes, where they rub their bodies with
oil to render their limbs fupple, and where they roll
themfelves in the fand in order to give their antagonifts
a hold.
“ Wreftling, leaping, tennis, and all the exercifes of
the lyceum, were here repeated before us with greater
varieties, and with more ftrength and Ikill on the part
of the performers. Among the different groups before
us, we diftinguifhed men of the moil perfect beauty, and
worthy of ferving as models for artifts : fome with vigo¬
rous and boldly marked outlines, as Hercules is repre-
fented 5 and others of a more Aim and elegant ffiape, as
Achilles is defcribed. The former, devoting themfelves
to wueftling and boxing, had no object but to increaie
their bodily ftrength ; the latter, educated to lefs violent
exercifes, fuch as running, leaping, &c. confined theni-
felves to acquirement of agility.
“ Their regimen is fuited to the different exercifes for
which they are defigned. Some ©f them abftain from,
women and wine ; others lead a very abftemious life ;
but thofe who make laborious exertions ftand in need of
a great quantity of fubftantial food, fuch as roafted beef
and pork, to reftore their ftrength. If they require on¬
ly two minae a-day, with bread in proportion, they give
a very favourable idea of their temperance. But feveral
are mentioned who have made a terrible confumption of
provifions. Theagenes of Thafos, for inftance, is faid
to have eaten a wffiole ox in a day. The fame exploit
is attributed to Milo of Crotona, whofe ufual quantity
of food for a day was twenty minae of meat, as many of
bread, and three congii of wine. It is faid likewise,
that Aftydamas of Miletus, when at the table of Ario-
4 T 2 barzanes
V
PAL [ 7©o ] PAL
Palaeftra barzanes the Perfian fatrap, devoured alone the flipper
Pal'imed"s PreParec^ aar n'ne guefts. Thefe itories, no doubt ex-
f ,1 ! ‘ ' P aggerated, prove at lead: the idea generally entertained
of the voracity of this clafs of wreillers. When they are
able to gratify it without danger, they acquire extraor¬
dinary ftrength : their ilature becomes fometimes gigan¬
tic 5 and their adverfaries, ftruck with terror, either de¬
cline entering the lifts, or link under the weight of their
enormous bodies.
“ They are fo opprefted by excefs of nutriment as to
be obliged to pafs part of their lives in a profound fleep,
and foon become fo extremely corpulent as to be no
longer known to be the fame perfons : this is fucceeded
by diforders which render them as wretched as they have
always been unferviceable to their country ; for it can¬
not be denied that wreftling, boxing, and all thofe com¬
bats difputed with fo much fury and obftinacy in the pu¬
blic fokmnities, are no longer any thing but oftentatious
exhibitions, ftnee taftics have been brought to perfec¬
tion. Egypt at no time adopted them, as they give on¬
ly a temporary ftrength. Lacedaemon has corrected
their inconveniences by the wifdom of her inftitutions.
In the other Hates of Greece men have difeovered, that,
by fubjefting their children to them, they incur the rifk
of injuring their ftrape and preventing their growth ; and
that, in a more advanced age, profefled wreftlers never
make good foldiers, becaufe they are unable to fupport
hunger, thirft, watching, the fmalleft wants, or the molt
trifling deviation from their ufual habits.” See Pen-
TATHLUM and PANCRATIUM.
PAL/ESTROPHYLAX, was the director of the
palaeftra, and the exercifes performed there.
PALAMBOANG, or Palambang, a town of A-
fia, in the Eaft Indies, and in the iftand of Java, capi¬
tal of a kingdom •, feated at the eaft end of the ifland,
on the flraits of Bally, and feparated from the ifland of
Bally by a narrow channel. E. Long. 115. io. S. Lat.
7. xo.
PALAMEDEA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of grallae. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
PALAMEDES, a Greek chief, fon of Nauplius
king of Euboea, by Clemene. He was fent by the Gre-.
cian princes who were going to the Trojan war, in or¬
der to bring Ulyftes to the camp, who, to avoid the ex¬
pedition, pretended infanity j and the better to carry on
the impofttion, he often harneffed different animals to a
plough, and fowed fait inftead of barley. Palamedes
foon difeovered the cheat. He knew that regret to part
with Penelope, whom Ulyffes had lately married, was
his only reafon for pretending infanity ; and to demon-
ftrate this, Palamedes took Telemachus, of whom Pe¬
nelope had lately been delivered, and'put him before his
father’s plough. Ulyffes turned the plough a different
way, not to hurt his child. He was therefore obliged
to attend the Greek princes to the war ; but a mortal
enmity took place between Ulyffes and Palamedes. The
king of Ithaca determined to take every opportunity to
diftrefs him \ and when all his expeftations were fruf-
t^ated, he was mean enough to bribe one of his fervants,
atid to make him dig a hole in his matter’s tent, and
there conceal a large fum of money. After this Ulyffes
forged a letter in Phrygian characters, as from Priam to
Palamedes. In the letter the Trojan king feemed to
beg Palamedes to deliver into his hands the Grecian ar¬
my, according to the conditions, which had been previ-
oufly agreed upon when he received the money. This Palamedes
forged letter was carried, by means of Ulyffes, before P
the princes of the Grecian army. Palamedes was fum- a a ina *,
moned, and made the moft folemn proteilations of inno¬
cence, but in vain. The money that was difeovered in
his tent ferved to corroborate the aepufation } and he
was therefore found guilty by the whole army, and ften-
ed to death. Homer is ftlent about the unfortunate fate
of Palamedes •, and Paufanias mentions, that it had
been reported by fome that Ulyffes and Diomedes had
drowned him in the fea as he was ffthing on the coaft.
Philoftratus, who mentions the tragical ftory as above
related, adds, that Achilles and Ajax buried his body
with great pomp on the fea 11;ore •, and that they railed
upon it a fmall chapel, where facrifices were regularly
offered by the inhabitants of Troas. Palamedes was a
man of learning as well as a foldier ; and, according to
fome, he completed the alphabet of Cadmus by the ad¬
dition of the four letters' 0, |, £, (p, during the Trojan
war. To him alfo is attributed the invention of dice
and backgammon ; and it is faid that he was the firft
who regularly ranged an army in a line of battle, and
who placed fentinels round the camp, and excited
their vigilance and attention by giving them a watch¬
word.
PALARIA, among the Romans, a kind of exercife
performed at a flake by the foldiers. The flake being
fixed in the ground, and fix feet high above it, the
young undifeipiined foldiers advanced againtt it, armed
with a hurdle and cudgel, inftead of a fword and ihield,
and went through all the rules of attack and defence,
as if actually engaged writh an adverfary. Sometimes
they flood at a diftance, and attacked with miflive wea¬
pons ; at the fame time uling all the requilite motions
for defending themfelves, and warding off what might
be throrvn againft them.
PALATE, in Anatomy, the flefli that ccmpcfes the
roof, or the upper and inner part, of the mouth.
The palate has much the fame ftructure with the
gums; but it has alfo a great number of glands, dilco*
vered fo early as the time of Fallopius: thefe are prin¬
cipally fituated in the hinder part near the uvula, where
it is pendulous, in the manner of a curtain, which part
is called the velum, or claujlrum, of the palate. The
glands fituated particularly in this part, fecrete a mucous
fluid, ferving to lubricate the mouth and throat, and to
facilitate deglutition : they have a great number of a-
pertures there for the difeharge of this humour into the
mouth.
The great ufes of this membrane are, to defend the
bones of the palate from corrupting •, and for prevent¬
ing, by its clauftrum or velum, the things to be fwal-
lowed from getting up into the noftrils.
PALATINATE, a province or figniory, poffeffed
by a palatine.
Palatinate of the Rhine, a province of Germany,
divided into two parts by the Rhine, called the Upper
and Lower Palatinate. The former lies in the circle of
Bavaria, and belongs to the eleftor thereof; but the
latter, in the circle wre are now treating, belongs to the
ele&or palatine. The latter part is bounded to the eaft
by the county of Katzenellnbogen, the archbifhopnc of
Mentz, the biftiopric of Worms, and part of the terri¬
tory of the Teutonic order in Franconia ; to the weft
by Alface, the duchy of Deuxponts, the county, of
Sponheim,
P A L [ 7
te. Sponheim, the duchy of Simmern, and certain dillrifts
of the eledorate of Mentz 5 to the fouth by the duchy
of Wurtemberg and the biihopric of Spire ; and to the
north by a part of the archbidiopric of Mentz and the
county of Katzeneilnbogen. It contains 41 towns, be-
fides feveral boroughs •, and is about too miles in length,
and 70 in breadth. The air is healthful, and the foil
fruitful in corn, pallurage, wine, tobacco, and all forts
of pulfe and fruits, particularly walnuts, chefnuts, and
almonds. This country alfo breeds abundance of cattle,
and is well watered by the Neckar, the Nahe, and the
Rhine. In the laft of thefe, near Germerfheim and Selz,
is found gold : the exclufive right of fearching for which-
is farmed out by the eleftor. The Hate of religion hath
varied greatly here fmce the Reformation, Lutheranifm
and Calvinifm having been uppermoft by turns, till the
deflorate devolved to the Popilh branches of the family,
when Popery, with all its fuperftition and mummery,
was eftablifhed anew ; fo that the Protellant religion is
now on a very precarious footing in the Palatinate,
though mod of the natives are ftill of that perfuafion :
but the two fefts of Proteftants, namely, the Lutherans
and Calvinifts, have greatly contributed to their own
ruin, by their mutual jealoufy and animofiiy, being no
lefs rancorous againft one another than againft their com¬
mon adverfaries the Papifts. The Lutherans reckon
themfelves 50,000 ftrong, and are poffeffed of about 85
churches •, but not one half of their preachers and fchool-
maflers have a competent maintenance. The number of
Calvinift clergy here is eftimated at 500, and that of
the Roman Catholics at 400. Belides fchools and Je-
fuits colleges in this country, there is one univerlity,
namely, that of Heidelberg •, but there is very little
trade in it except in -wine. Authors are divided about
the origin of the name Palatines, or Pfalx-graves, as the
Grermans call them ; but it feems mod likely to be de¬
rived from the palatia, or palaces, which the old Frank-
idr and German kings and Roman emperors were poflef-
fed of in different parts of the country, and over which
they appointed fupreme dewards or judges, who are cal¬
led Palatines or Pfalzgraves. The countries where
thefe Palatines kept their courts, wrere, from them, cal¬
led Palatinates ; which name came at lad to be appro¬
priated, by way of eminence, to this country, as being
the mod confiderable of them. The ancient electoral
line failing in 168 5, the electorate devolved to Philip
William duke of Neuburg 5 and upon the death of his
fecond fon Charles Philip, to the prince of Sultzbach.
This eleffor has the title of arch-treafurer of the em¬
pire, as well as the eleftor of Brunfwick Lunenburg,
and is the fifth in rank among the fecular electors. He
is alfo one of the vicars of the empire alternately with
the elector of Bavaria, and enjoys many other preroga¬
tives. In his own dominions, he difpofes of all vacant
benefices 5 but allows the ecclefiadical council, compo-
fed of two clergymen and two laymen, to prefent two
candidates, of which he choofes one. He is alfo mader
of all the tithes in his dominions 5 but he either grants
them to the clergy, or falaries in lieu of them, out of
the revenues of the church. His title is Pfalzgrave of
the Rhine ; arch-treafure and eleftor of the holy Roman
empire 5 duke of Bavaria, Juliers, Cleve, and Berg 5
prince of Mons; marquis of Bergen-op-Zoom count of
Veldens, Sponheim the Mark, and Ravenfberg; and
lord of Ravendein. His quota to the army of the em-.
01 ] PAL
pire is 30 horfe and 138 foot, or 914 florins monthly.Palatii
To the chamber of Wetzlar he contributes, each term,' ^
404 rixdollars, 82 kruitzers. There is an order of
knighthood in this country, viz. that of St Hubert 5 the
badge of which is a quadrangular crofs pendant to a red
ribband, with a bar on the bread. The whole of the
elector's revenue, arifing from the Palatinate, the duchies
of Berg and Juliers, the feigniory of Ravendein, and the
duchies of Neuburg and Sultzbach, hath been edimated
at about 300,300!. per annum. The military ebablibi-
ment confids of feveral regiments of horfe and foot, be-
fides the horfe and Swifs life-guards: in time of peace
he is faid to maintain about 6000 men.—All the differ¬
ent courts and councils, ufual in other countries for the
different departments of government, are alfo to be
found here.
In general, the Lower Palatinate has differed mere
by the preceding wars with France than all the provin¬
ces of Germany put together during the fpace of 30
years ; for the French have plundered the country, and
demolifhed fome of its fird towns more than once. It
has undergone various changes during the late French
revolution, for an account of which, fee l RANGE. In
the modern part of the Univerfal Hibory, we have the
following account of the rife of the Palatinate of the
Rhine, under the hidory of Germany.
“ Though Conrad the fon of Everhard inherited from
his father the duchy of Franconia, with the counties of
Heffe and Alface, he could not fucceed him in the dig¬
nity of Count Palatine, becaufe Otho had taken it from
his father, and conferred it on Herman third fon of Ar¬
nold duke of Bavaria : but as this honour was unattend¬
ed with any folid advantage, the emperor began to an¬
nex to it the lands and cables fituated on the Rhine,
whence he acquired the title of Count Palatine of the
Rhine : and, in procefs of time, thefe counts made great
acquifitions by marriages, purchafes, mortgages, and
imperial donations, fo as to form a very confiderable
province.” The powers of qounts palatine in the Ger¬
man empire have always been ample j wTe have this ac¬
count of it in the fame learned work.
“ When the counts palatine of the Rhine began to
execute their office, they neither poflefied on that river
lands, cities, nor cables ; but having by degrees made
great acquifitions by marriages, purchafes, agreements,
imperial donations, or otherwife, they have at length
formed a very confiderable principality. We are told,
that under the emperors of the houfe of Suabia, their
authority and power mere a fed greatly, though it was a
gradual increafe. Under the reign of the emperor
Henry IV. the credit of the counts palatine was very
confiderable at the court •, and by the. German law, the
count palatine of the Rhine enjoys not only during the
abfence of the emperor, but likewife during a vacancy
of the empire, the right of the ban beyond the Rhine,
to within a mile of the city of Metz, and as far as the
ocean, as well as in Flanders. Flowever, this right of •
the ban has not been granted to him by the emperors.
There is likewife an ancient ordonnance, in which the
office of count palatine is mentioned 5 it imports, that
the count palatine is always by right the reprefentative
or lieutenant of the kingdom. Ladly, How great the
power of the counts palatine was, may be underilood
from this, that in the eleftion of Rodolphus of Hapf-
burgh, and in that of Henry VII. the other electors
G promifed
PAL
[
Lvu at mates promiied to acknowledge as emperor him whom he
Palatine ^lou^ name. Although, however, the power of the
counts palatine had as it were fecured to them the vica¬
riate of the empire, neverthelefs the emperors Hill refer-
ved to themfelves the right of eftabliflung vicars.” See
Bavaria.
PALA LINA1 ES of POLAND. Previous to the
revolution in this unfortunate country, it was divided in¬
to palatinates j whether thofe will be now changed can¬
not at prefent be afcertained, though it feems likely.
A Polifh palatine is thus defcribed in the Univerfal
Hiftory :
‘ A palatine may be regarded as the governor of a
province, who levies and leads the troops of his own ju-
riidiction to join the army of the republic. His civil
power is likewife confiderable, as he prefides at the af-
femblies of his palatinate, rates the prices of all commo¬
dities and merchandife in the province, regulates the
weigkts and meafures, and judges and defends the Jews
within his jurifdiftion. This part of his fundlion is par¬
ticularly fpecified, that a fet of men the moff ufeful and
induftrious in Poland may net be opprelfed 5 the king
being likewife obliged, by his oath, to afford them the
protection °f the laws and his fovereignty. Under him
is appointed a fubftitute or vice-palatine, who takes an
oath to his fuperior, and muff be poffeffed of a land
ellate to a certain value.”
PALATINE, or Count Palatine, a title ancient¬
ly given to all perfons who had any office or employ¬
ment in the prince’s palace : but afterwards conferred
on thofe delegated by princes to hold courts of juftice in
the provinces 5 and on fuch among the lords as had a
palace, that is, a court of juftice, in their own houfes.
Counties Palatine in England.—Ch&tzx, Durham,
and Lancafter, are called counties palatine. The two
foimer^are fuch by prefcription, or immemorial cuftom ;
or, at leaf! as old as the Norman conqueft: the latter
w as created by King Edward III. in favour of Henry
Plantagenet, firft earl and then duke of Lancafter;
whofe heirefs being married to John of Gaunt the king’s
ion, the franchife was greatly enlarged and confirmed
in parliament, to honour John of Gaunt himfelf, whom,
on the death of his father-in-law, the king had alfo cre¬
ated duke of Lancafter. Counties palatine are alfo cal¬
led a palatio; becaufe the owners thereof, the earl of
Chefter, the biftiop of Durham, and the duke of Lan¬
cafter, had in t hofe counties jura regalia, as fully as the
king hath in his palace 3 regalem poteflatem in omnibus,
as Bradlon expreffes it. 1 hey might pardon treafons,
murders, and felonies 3 they appointed all judges and
juftices of the peace 3 all writs and induftments ran in
their names, as in other counties in the king’s 3 and all
offences were faid to be done againft their peace, and
riot, as in other places, contra pacem donum regis. And
indeed by the ancient law, in all peculiar jurifdiaions,
offences were faid to be done againft his peace in whofe,
court they were tried 3 in a court-leet, contra pacem do¬
num ; in the court of a corporation, contra pacem balli-
vorum ; in the ftieriff’s court or tourn, contra pacem vi-
ceconntis. Thefe palatine privileges (fo fimilar to the
regal independent jurifdiaions ufurped by the great ba¬
rons on the continent during the weak and infant ftate
.of the firft feudal kingdoms in Europe) were in all pro¬
bability originally granted to the counties of Chefter and
.Dmham, became they bordered upon enemies countries,
702 ] PAL
Wales and Scotland : in order that the owners, being
encouraged by fo large an authority, might be the more
watchful in its defence 3 and that the inhabitants, having
juftice adminiftered at home, might not be obliged to go
out of the county, and leave it open to the enemy’s in-
curfions. And upon this account alfo there were for¬
merly two other counties palatine, Pembrokelhire and
Hexamfhire, the latter now united with Northumber¬
land : but thele were abolithed by parliament, the for¬
mer in 27 Henry \ III. the latter in 14 Eliz. And in
27 Hen. VIII. likewife, the powers before mentioned of
owners of counties palatine were abridged 3 the reafon
for their continuance in a manner ceafing 3 though ftill
all writs are witneffed in their names, and all forfeitures
for treafon by the common law accrue to them.
Of thefe three, the county of Durham is now the on¬
ly one remaining in the hands of a fubjeft. For the
earldom of Chefter, as Camden teftifies, was united to
the crown by Henry III. and has ever fince given title
to the king’s eldeft fon. And the county palatine or
duchy of Lancafter was the property of Henry of Bo-
hngbroke, the fon of John of Gaunt, at the time when
he Wrefted the crown from King Richard II. and affum-
ed the title of Henry IV. But he was too prudent to
fuffer this to be united to the crown 3 left, if he loft one
he ftiould lofe the other alfo. For, as Plowden and Sir
Edward Coke obferve,. “ he knew he had the duchy of
Lancafter by fure and indefeafible title, but that his title
to the crown was not fo affured : for that after the de-
eeafe of Richard II. ,the right of the crown was in the
heir of Lionel duke of Clarence, fecond fon of Ed¬
ward III. 3 John of Gaunt, father to this Henry IV.
being but the fourth fon.” And therefore he procured
an a£t of parliament, in the firft year of his reign, or¬
daining that the duchy of Lancafter, and all other his
hereditary eftates, with all their royalties and franchifes,
ftiould remain to him and his heirs for ever 3 and fhould
remain, defcend, be adminiftered, and governed, in like
manner as if he never had attained the regal dignity :
and thus they delcended to his Ion and grandfon Hen¬
ry and Henry VI. 3 many new territories and privi¬
leges being annexed to the duchy by the former. Hen¬
ry VI. being attainted in 1 Edw. IV. this duchy was
declared in parliament to have become forfeited to the
crown, and at the fame time an aft was made to incor¬
porate the duchy of Lancafter, to continue the county
palatine (which might otherwife have determined by the
attainder), and to make the fame parcel of the duchy :
and, farther to veil the whole in King Edward IV. and
his heirs, kings mf England, for ever 3 but under a fe-
parate guiding and governance from the other inheri¬
tances of the crown. And in 1 Hen. VII. another aft
was made, to refume fuch part of the duchy lands as
had been difmembered from it in the reign of Edw. IV.
and to veil the inheritance of the whole in the king and
his heirs for ever, as amply and largely, and in like
manner, form, and condition, feparate from the crown
of England and poffeflion of the fame, as the three Hen¬
ries and Edward IV. or any of them, had and held the
fame.
The ifle of Ely is not a county palatine, though fome-
times erroneoufty called fo, but only a royal franchife :
the biftiop having, by grant of King Henry l. jura re-
^//h within the ifle of Ely 3 whereby he exercifes a jir-
rifdiftion over all caufes, as well criminal as civil.
Palatine
Pal
PAL
Palat'rfe
ij
Palencia.
PALATINE Games, in Roman antiquity, games infti
tuted in honour of Auguftus by his wife Li\ ia, after he
_ had been enrolled among the gods. They were cele¬
brated in the palace, from whence the name, and w ere
confirmed by the fucceeding emperors.
Some authors fay that thefe games were inflituted
in honour of Julius Ctefar, and others again confound
them with the Ludi Auguftales ; but neither of thefe
opinions feem to be well fupported. See Augu¬
sta les.
PALATINUS mons, or Palatium, the firft moun¬
tain of Rome, occupied by Romulus, and where Ire
fixed his refidence and kept his court, as did Tullus
Hoililius, Auguftus, and all the fucceeding emperors j
and hence it is that the refidence of princes is called
palatium. I he reafon of the name is varioufly affign-
ed : fome fay it is derived from the goddefs Pales, or
from the Palatini, who originally inhabited tire place,
or from balare or pa'are, the bleatings of fheep, which
were frequent there ; or perhaps from the word pal antes,
wandering, becaufe Evander, when he came to fettle in
Italy, gathered all the inhabitants, and made them all
one fociety. To the eaft it has Mount Coelius, to the
fouth the Aventine, to the rveft the Capitoline, and to
the north the Forum.—Palatinus, the furname of Apol¬
lo from this place ; where Auguftus built a temple to
that god, adorned with porticoes and a library, valuable
for the various colleciions of Greek and Latin manu-
fcripts w'hich it contained.
PALATIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place in the
territory of Reate, dlftant from it 25 ftadia. Dionyfius
Halicarnaifeus reckons it one of the firft towns of the
Aborigines ; and from it Varro accounts for the name of
the Mons Palatinus; namely, that a colony from Pala¬
tium fettled there.
Palatium (Pliny), Pallantium (Paufanias), Palan-
teum (Livy) ; Pallanteum (Solinus). This laid is the
true writing; the great grandfather of Evander, from
whom it took its name, being called Pallas, not Palas ;
A town of Arcadia, which concurred to form Megalo¬
polis (Paufanias). From it the Palatium, or Mons Pa¬
latinus, takes alfo its name, according to Virgil and
Pliny.
PALATIUM Dioclejiani; the villa of Dioclefian, near
Salonse, where he died, (Eufebius). Afterwards call¬
ed Spalatum; which rofe to a confiderable city from
the ruins of Salonse ^ fituated in Dalmatia on the Adri¬
atic. Now Spallato, or Spalatro.
PALATIUM Luculh (Plutarch), or Villa Luculli; a
place between Mifenum and Raise in Campania, of won¬
derful ftruckure. Now in ruins, and called Pilcina Mi-
rahile.
PALATO-salpingaius,
PALATO-Staphylinus, ^
PALE, a little pointed ftake or piece of wood ufed
in making enclofures, feparations, &c. The pale was
an inftrument of punifhment and execution among the
ancient Romans, and ftill continues fo among the Turks.
Hence empaling, the palling a lharp pale up the funda¬
ment through the body.
Pale, in Heraldry. See Heraldry.
PALENCIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of
Leon, with a rich archbilhop’s fee. It had an univer-
fify, but it was removed to Salamanca. It is feated in
I 7°3 1
PAL
}
See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
a fertile foil, on the river Carion, on the frontiers of Ca- Palermo.
ftile, in W. Long. 3. 7. N. Lat. 42. 10. ' y r
PALERMO, a city of Sicily, in the Val-di-Mazarav
wdth an archbiihop’s fee and a large harbour. “ This
city (fays Mr Hill *), which is the capital of Sicily, is* Travels
of great antiquity 5 and if a conjecture may be formed through Si-
from its ancient name Panormus, which fignifies an uni-f^ an^
\erfal haibour, it wTas formerly m a very fiounlhing con-
dition. By whom it was founded is uncertain, nor have
wre any authentic accounts of its inhabitants till it be¬
came a colony of the Phoenicians, after which it palled
into the hands of the various nations that became mailers
or this iftand. ^ The prefent city principally confifts of
two wide, uniform, and- well built ftreets, each about a
mile in length, crofting each other at right angles in the
centre, w7here there is a Small oCtagon fpace, ornament¬
ed with four ftutues.” Molt of the cities of Sicily have-
furnames : Palermo is denominated the happy. It has
gained this epithet, no doubt, on account of the advan¬
tages of its lituation. It has two harbours : in the one,
which is very large, and in which there is a mole 1300
paces in length, Ihips lie at anchor j in the other their
cargoes are laden and unladen. Both the harbours open-
to the weft : there is alfo a fuperb quay which extends ‘
a mile from weft to eaft, in a rectilinear direction, and
is called La Marine. The profpect is, on the one ):de,.
loft in the wide expanfe of the ocean, and on the other
confined by the wMls of the city; the w alls appear
adorned wdth pillafters, and crowmed with a row7 of bal-
luftrades through which the eye difcovers a long range
of palaces. Thefe objedts altogether form a delightful
fpeclacle. Indeed nothing can be more pidfurefoue
than the bay of Palermo. It forms a large amphithea¬
tre, with the capital of Sicily in the centre } furrounded
for fome miles by a moft delightful country, and enclof-
ed by romantic rocks and mountains. The town was
formerly furrounded by a ftrong wall 5 but the fortifica¬
tions are now entirely negleded, except" towards the
fea,. where there are ftill a few weak works. The quay
is the principal public walk here. Palermo is embellifh-
ed all round with avenues of trees, and has four princi¬
pal entrances, facing the four cardinal points, which
are at the extremities of the two fpacious ftreets which
crofs each other. The moft frequented of thefe twro
ftreets is called Caffero. It begins where the quay ends,
with the north gate called Porta Felice, the happy gate;
and terminates on the fouth, at the new gate, which
opens on the road to Montreale. Near the laft of thefe
gates, this city, which fo well merits the attention of a
lover of the arts, exhibits a large fquare, round which
ftand fome extenfive monafteries, the palace of the arch-
biftiop, and the palace of the viceroy. Diredfly oppo-
fite to the palace of the viceroy Hands, on a pedeftal
richly ornamented wdth a variety of figures, a ftatue of
Philip IV. The ftatue, the pedeftal, and the ornaments,
are all of marble.
Palermo is quite filled wdth public monuments,
churches, monafteries, palaces, fountains, ftatues, and
columns. Thefe are not all eminently beautiful ; for
they have not been all eredlcd under the reign of good
tajle; but every one of them fliow7s that the nation is
fond of the arts, and poflefles a genius for decoration.
Spring waters are very copious in this city. Not a
quarter in Palermo but is liberally fupplied with foun¬
tains,..
PAL [ 704 ] PAL
Pale,rmo. tains, mofl; of which are marble, all of them adorned
u. 'v ■ ■ - pieces of fculpture, and all afford large quanti¬
ties of w^ater.
The filuation of this city is truly happy 5 the fea, the
hills, the lofty mountains, prefent on all tides beautiful
and linking profpedls, wdiich render it one of the moll
favourable fituations for the genius of the artift, whofe
obje£t is to copy the beauty and fublimity of nature.
Freed from the fetters of the Inquifition, the abolition
of which was procured by the marquis of Caraccioli,
and from the influence of fome other unfavourable infti-
tutions, which are rapidly declining, Palermo mull be¬
come one of the fineft cities in the world; and the ifland
of which it is the capital, being all cultivated like a gar¬
den, one of the moll enchanting fpots on the face of the
earth. Nature has denied none of her bell fpots to Si-
\ cily. It was the benignity of nature, Avhich, in the
happy ages of antiquity, when the political circumltan-
ces of the Sicilians were not fuch as to reprels their ge¬
nius, prompted and enabled them to ere£l fo many il-
lullrious monuments. “ Adjoining to the town, and
, near the fea, is a public garden or promenade, planted
wdth orange and lemon trees, formed into arcades, and
* February, now loaded with fruit* ; the Hems of the trees Hand in
furrow’s, and are continually watered by a fmall ilream.
In the middle is a fountain, on wrhich Hands a coloflus
of white marble, furrounded by four grotefque temples,
in twro of which are canary birds. Among the oranges
is a kind called fanguinei or bloody, which are Hained
in the middle with red, and have ufually the linefl fla¬
vour. Some of the lemons are fweet, but very flat, ta¬
ping like fugar and water. The citrons grow to an im-
menfe lize; the rind, which occupies at leafl three-
fourths of the bulk of the fruit, is eaten with fugar ; the
juice is Hrarper than the foureH lemon. Indian figs in
very great abundance grow wild in the fields and hedges,
to the height of twelve or fourteen feet *, of thefe there
are three kinds, one with large fpines, another with
fmaller, and the* third almoH fmooth. Their fruit is
cooling and delicious, io,oool. worth of which is fold
annually to the poor people in the neighbourhood of this
city. Another plant, very common in this country, is
the aloe, which ufually bloffoms every fifth or fixth year.
Of thefe there are five or fix fpecies, which grow7 moflly
in the hedges, and together with the Indian figs, form
a moH impenetrable fence.
“ The palace, wdiich is an indifferent old building, is
fituated in a fquare, near the fouth gate of the city,
and commands a delightful profpec! of the adjacent
country. At the top is an obfervatcry, inhabited by
an ingenious old prieff who has been in England, and
brought from thence feveral affronomical inflruments
conftructed by Ramfden.” Neither the Hruclure, fitu-
ation, nor architedlural ornaments of the palace are fuch
as to merit any extraordinary praife. It is, like many
others, an affemblage of buildings erecled in various ages,
as need of accommodation or fancy fuggeffed; and, of
confequence, it muH unavoidably be defeftive in archi-
teclural order and beauty. The chapel is the only
part of it that merits any attention. It v.Tas founded
by the Counts Roger, the Norman conquerors of Si¬
cily. Within, it is decorated with beautiful pieces of
marble and porphyry, and of mofaic work in gold and
various colours. It is in the fame tafle with the ca¬
thedral of Montreale. It is built on the fame plan
3
with common churches, only cm a fmaller fcale. The Palermo.
nave is encircled with pillars 5 on the right and the left—v 
are two narrower openings, called lateral or low paffa-
ges : the choir and fancluary are at the end of the nave.
Among all the pillars wrhich enclofe the nave, it would
be hard to find two exaftly of the fame form and work-
manfhip. Oppofite to a channeled column Hands ano¬
ther on which the graving tool has made no fuch im-
preflions} feveral have neither aHragal, nor bale, nor
fcale : they are formed of various kinds of marble, and
are of different orders and unequal in height. The
walls, the arcades, and the arches, are covered with mo¬
faic work, in gold and colours, reprefenting angels, and
male and female faints.
Over the entrance into the choir, and fronting the
nave, there is an Eternal Father of a huge fize 5 the de-
fign of which has, in all probability, been to imprefs
the beholder with a fufficiently awful idea of the great-
nefs of God. Such reprefentations of the deity, how¬
ever improper, not to fay impious,' occur pretty com¬
monly in the churches of Sicily. The cathedrals of
both Montreale and Palermo difplay the Divine Ma-
jefty with equal dignity. Over the walls of the cha¬
pel there are many pieces of granite, porphyry, and
ferpentine, cut into a round, or a fquare, or fome other
form, and fet like panes of glafs. Their edges are en¬
circled with various draughts in gold and colours ; de¬
corations unqueffionably expenfive, as they are indeed
very finely executed in their kind. But it is amazing
that fuch irregularity of defign was admitted in a build¬
ing of fuch magnificence and raifed at fuch an enormous
expence. The pavement of the chapel has been origi¬
nally laid, and Hill tonfiff s in part of large blocks of tin,
porphyry, and ferpentine. MoH of thefe are round \
ornamented with compartments of draughts, and cover¬
ed over, as well as the walls, with incruflations of co¬
loured mofaic work. The feat defigned for the vice¬
roy is of the fame kind, and highly ornamented. The
candleflick intended to receive the wax lights at the
fefiival of Eafler is of white marble. All the riches of
fculpture are lavifhed on it with fuch profufion as ren¬
ders it a prodigy of labour \ but in a fantaitic unnatu¬
ral tafle.
In a long gallery in the palace of the viceroy, Hand
two figures of rams in bronze, concerning which we
find the following tradition.—Archimedes is faid to
have long ago eredled in one of the public fquares of
Syracufe four columns with a brazen ram upon the top
of each. He is faid to have placed them there in fuch
a poflure, as that fome one of them always indicated
which of the four principal winds was blowing ; and it is
added, that they were fabricated with fuch art, that the
wind caufed them to utter founds exaftly fimilar to the
bleating of flieep •, and whenever any one of the four
bleated, he thereby gave notice that the wind was blow¬
ing from that quarter towards which he Hood. It is
certain (as travellers inform us) that the two brazen
rams in this gallery are perforated with fmall holes in
their flanks, clofe to their thighs, and in other places
over their bodies ; and that by blowing through thofe
holes a found is produced pretty much like the bleating
of iheep. The wind appears to pafs through the holes,
and to pafs out at the mouth : there might, however,
be other holes in the pedeflal on which the ram flood,
or in other parts of the body, which might contribute to
produce
PAL
Palermo, produce the bleating •, for travellers agree in
 * that thofe which they could obferve do not appear to be
fufficient to produce the effeft. The prince of Torre
Muzza, one of the moft enlightened men in Sicily, in¬
formed M. Houel, that thefe two rams were dug up
< from among the ruins of Syracufe in the fourteenth cen¬
tury : as they were buried under ground, they had pro¬
bably lain there for many centuries. They were bought
by the Marquis Geraci, of the family of Ventimiglia,
and lay lopg in his caftle. About the end of the i 5th
century they were brought to Palermo, and placed in
the palace of the viceroy. * It is not known what is be¬
come of the other two. They are probably buried in
fome ancient ruins, and may be one day or other difco-
vered in digging for the foundation of fome new build¬
ing. The proportions of thefe two rams are larger
than nature. They are pieces of very fine workman-
fhip : both the heads and the horns are formed with
tafte, delicacy, and truth : the wool is not fo well
executed ; the forms all together are not abfolutely
the fineft that might be feledted from among the whole
fpecies.
The cathedral of Palermo is dedicated to St Rofa-
lia. The Sicilians, though fo exceedingly devout,
have however negledted to repair it 5 and it is at
prefent in a moft miferable ftate, as .the interior parts
appear to be falling into ruins. Propofals have been
made for rebuilding it, and various plans have been
fhown.
The prefent church appears to have been built by
the Counts Roger. The external parts rure in a Go¬
thic tafte, and very heavy : within, it has been at dif¬
ferent periods repaired and embellifhed. The-pillars
of the nave are adorned with pilafters of the Corin¬
thian order : thefe are joined by arches through which
you pafs to the fides of the building. In fome places
it is overloaded with ornaments, in others but very
poorly ornamented : viewed all together, it is fo defti-
tute of order or proportion as to be abfolutely ridicu¬
lous.
In a chapel on one fide of the cathedral are four Go¬
thic tombs of the fame period. They have been origi¬
nally farcophagi; and having efcaped the fate of moft of
the other works of antiquity, have been fpoiled by at¬
tempts to repair or improve them, and have been fet
up here to preferve the remains of fome of the kings
of Sicily. The only thing about them that can deferve
attention is the beauty of the ftone ; they are of a fine
red porphyry.
In the fame chapel there is a fine large tabernacle ;
the whole of which, when viewed without diftindrion
of the parts, refembles the dome and the front gate of
the Val-de-grace at Paris. It fs of rich lapis lazuli,
of the very fineft colour. The whole of it is plated, and
the pillars are faid to be folid. All its ornaments are
of gilt brafs 5 and on the whole it is extremely beau¬
tiful.
Aror« 1 the church are feveral ftatues of faints by
Guagini, the celebrated fculptor. On the way from the
cathedral down the Caflero there is, on the right hand,
a fmall fquare, at the entrance of which ftands a pede-
ftrian ftatue of Charles V. in bronze. Near the place
where the two great ftreets crofs ftands the fenate houfe,
in a fmall court, before which there is a fine marble
fountain ; there are befixies about this edifice many cu-
Vol. XV. Part II.
[ 7°5 ] PAL
faying, rious fragments of antiquity. It would extend this ar¬
ticle beyond all proportion if we were to mention all the
curiofities which are to be found in Palermo. We fliall
now endeavour to give our readers an idea of the inter¬
nal government of the place, which we ihall do in the
words of Mr Hill.
“ The magiftrates appointed to preferve the order
of fociety in this city are, firft, the fupreme judge, to
whom belongs the admxniftration of juftice in criminal
cafes : he is the head of the nobility, and immediately
follows the viceroy in all the folemn functions. Second¬
ly, The praetor, who regulates the affairs of the city.
He is the perpetual deputy of the kingdom j chief in
parliament of the order to whom appertains the right
of regulating the king’s demefne, and poffeiTed of the
prerogative of captain-general during the abfence of the
viceroy. Thirdly, The praetorian court, which cpnfifis
of three judges, citizens of Palermo, who are chofen an¬
nually by the king. They aftift the fupreme judge in
the decifion of criminal affairs, and the praetor in the
deliberations upon the finances 3 thefe two officers, how¬
ever, have neither vote nor fignature, except the praetor,
in the bufinefs refpeeling the public bank and firft fruits.
Fourthly, The fenate of Palermo, compofed of the prae¬
tor and fix pra&itioners of the law, named by the king,
who wear the toga after the manner of the ancient Ro¬
man fenators, and principally infpeCt the police which
regards the grain and provifions. There - are befides
feven great officers of ftate, to each of which is affigned
a peculiar employment. Firft, // MaeJIra Portclano,
to whom is committed the care of the public granaries,
and who manages the fale of the corn both at home and
abroad. The impofition of a tax upon this commodity
has nearly proved the ruin of agriculture, efpeciaily as
the exportation of it is prohibited to all thole who are
not able to pay an exorbitant price for that privilege.
The quantity of corn annually produced in the illand
does not at prefent amount to more than a tenth part of
what was colleCled in former years. Secondly, The
auditor general, who pnffes judgement without appeal
upon all offences committed within the precinCts of the
palace. Thirdly, The high admiral, whofe jurifdiclion
extends over the marine. Fourthly, The chancellor
who overlooks all the notaries of the kingdom, prepares
all official patents, reads the propofitions when the par¬
liament affembles, and at the time of a coronation ten¬
ders the oath of fidelity to the people, and alio proclaims
that of the-monarch, who there- y binds himfelf to main¬
tain and defend the privileges of the city of Palermo.
The fame ceremony takes place upon the inftallation of
a viceroy. Fifthly, The prothonotary of the queen’s
chamber, who has the infpedfion of the demefnes of fix
cities, viz. Syracufe, Lentini, Carlentini, St Filippo,
Mineo, and Virini, which were formerly appropriated
to the queens of Sicily. Sixthly, The chief fecretary,
who prefides over the officers appointed to receive the
taxes and duties in the places of their refpedlive jurifdic-
tions. And, feventhly, The lieutenant of the royal ex¬
chequer, who has the adminiftration of all effedlf that
have been lequeftered or confifcated.
“ Palermo is the principal refidence of the greater
part of the Sicilian nobility j and as it is not the cuftom
for any gentleman to walk in the ftreets, at leaft 1000
carriages are faid to be kept in the town. They are
for the moft part in the Englilh tafte, very elegant,
4 U fhown
Pa'erma-.
PAL .[7=
Palermo, (hown lo the greatest advantage, with-beautiful horfes
”r v richly caparifoned, and as many footmen in fplendid
liveries as can be crowded together behind. Every
evening all the people of rank drive about in this
manner on the grand public terrace by the fea fide.
There are alfo yery convenient hackney coaches, co¬
vered and open, waiting all day in their refpeftive na¬
tions.”
It is very remarkable, that the dead in Palermo are
never burled. Captain Sutherland gives the following
account of this circumitance in his Tour to Conftanti-
nople. The dead bodies are carried to the Capuchin
convent, which is one of the largeft in Italy ; “ where,
after the funeral fervice is performed, they are dried in
a flove heated by a compofition of lime, which makes
the fkin adhere to the bones. They are then placed
ere£t in niches, and faftened to the wall by the back or
neck. A piece of coarfe drab is thrown over the
fhoulders and round the wafte 3 and their hands are
tied together, holding a piece of paper with their epi¬
taph, which is fimply their names, age, and when they
died. We of courfe (fays Captain Sutherland) vifited
this famous repofitory; and it is natural to fuppofe
that fo many corpfes would imprefs one with reverence
and awe. It was nearly dufk when we arrived at the
convent. We paffed the chapel, where one of the or¬
der had juft finifhed faying vefpers, by the gloomy
glimmering of a dying lamp. We were then conduc¬
ed through a garden, where the yew, the cyprefs, and
the barren orange, obfcured the remaining light ; and
where melancholy filence is only diilurbed by the hol¬
low" murmuring of a feeble water fall. All thefe cir-
cumftances tuned our minds for the difmal fcene which
w-e were going to behold j but wTe had ftill to defcend
a flight of fteps impervious to the fun 5 and, thefe at
laft, conveyed us to the dreary manflon of the dead.
But (will you believe me ?) notwithftanding the chil¬
ling fcene through which we had paffed, notwithftand¬
ing our being in the midft of more than a thoufand life-
lels bodies, neither our refpeC for the dead, nor for the
/ holy fathers who conducted us, could prevent our fmil-
* ing. The phyftognomies of the deceafed are fo ridicu-
loufly mutilated, and their mufcles fo contrafted and di-
ftorted in the drying, that no French mimic could equal
their grimaces. Moft of the corpfes have loft the lowrer
part of the nofe; their necks are generally a little twdft-
ed ; their mouths drawn awvy in one direCion, their
nofes in another 5 their eyes funk and pointed different
ways ) one ear perhaps turned up, the other drawn
down. The friars foon obferved the mirth which thefe
unexpeCed vifages occafloned •, and one of them, as a
kind of memento, pointed out to me a captain of caval¬
ry, who had juft been cut off in the pride of his youth :
but three months ago, he was the minion of a king—
the favourite of a princefs—Alas! how changed ! Even
on earth there is no diftin&ion. between him and the
meaneft beggar. This idea in a moment reftored my
refleCion ; and I felt with full force the folly of human
vanity. I turned to the holy father, who gave me this
leffon. His eyes w'ere fixed on what was once a captain
of horfe—T faw in them, ‘ Read this, titled pomp, and
fhrink to thy original nothingnefs. Hie thee to my
lady’s chamber, tell her, though (he paint an inch thick,
to this muft Ihe come at laft—make her laugh at that.’
The relations of the deceafed are bound to fend two
6 ] PAL
wax tapers every year for the ufe of the convent; in Pales,
default of which, the corpfe is taken dowm and throwm Paleftme.
into the charnel houfe. Were it not for the number
of vacancies occafioned by the nonpayment of this fti-
pend, the Capuchins wTould be unable to find niches for
the number of men wriio muft die every year in fo popu¬
lous a city as this. Women are dried as well as
the men, but are not expofed. Nobles are fhut up in
chefts.”
The number of the inhabitants is above 200,000 j
and the harbour though very large, is not fo com¬
modious as might be expe£ied, and the veffels that ride
therein are not always very fafe. There is a magnifi¬
cent caftle built near the fea fide, wherein the viceroy
refides fix months in the year ; and his prefence draws
a great number of nobility to this place. This city
has fuffered greatly by earthquakes, particularly in
1693 5 and it was greatly damaged by a fire in 1730,
when a magazine of powder was blown up, containing
400 tons. It Hands in a pleafant fruitful country, on
the north-eaft coaft of the ifland, and at the bottom
of the gulf of the fame name. E. Long. 13. 23. N.
Lat. 38. 15.
Pi\.LES, in Pagan worlhip, the goddefs of the fliep-
herds, to whom they offered milk and honey, in order
that the might deliver them and their flocks from wild
beafts and infedtious difeafes. This goddefs is repre-
fented as an old woman. She was worfhipped with great
folemnity at Rome ; and her feftivals, called Palilia,
were celebrated on the 21 ft of April, the very day that
Romulus began to lay the foundation -pf the city of
Rome } the ceremonies of which confifted in burning
heaps of ftraw, and leaping over them. No facrifices
were offered, but purifications were made with the fmoke
of horfes blood, and with the afhes of a calf that had
been taken from the belly of its mother after it had been
faerificed, and with the afhes of beans. The purifica¬
tion of the flocks was alfo made with the fmoke of ful-
phur, of the olive, the pine, the laurel, and the rofe-
mary. Offerings of mild cheefe, boiled wine, and cakes
of millet, were afterwards made to the goddefs. Some
call this feftival Parilia, quaji a pariendo, becaufe the
facrifices were offered to the divinity for the fecundity
of the flocks.
PALESTINE, in its prefent ftate, is a part of
Afiatic Turkey, fituated between 310 30' and 330 ic?
north latitude, and between 340 50' and 370 15' eaft
longitude. It is bounded by Mount Libanus, which
divides it from Syria, on the north \ by Mount Hermon,
which feparates it from Arabia Deferta on the eaft 5 by
the mountains of Seir and the deferts of Arabia Petraea,
on the fouth 5 and by the Mediterranean fea on the
weft.
This once fertile and happy fpot was firft called the
land of Canaan, or Chanaan, from Noah’s grandlon.
In Scripture, however, it is frequently diftinguifhed by
other names ; fuch as the Land of Promife, the Land of
God, the Land of Ifrael, &c. It received the jiame of
Pale/line from the Pa/fines or Philiflines, who poffeffed
a great part of it; and it had the name of Judea, or
Judea Palcfina from Judah, the moft confiderable of the
twelve fons of Jacob. The Chriftians have denominat¬
ed it the Holy Land; partly on account of the many
Angular bleflings it received from the Divine Provi¬
dence, and partly on account of its metropolis being
made
PAL [ 707 1 PAL
Paleftine. made tlie Cetltte of God’s worfliip and his peculiar habi-
 * ' tation ; but much more for its being the place of our
Saviour’s birth, the fcene of his preaching and manifold
miracles j efpecially the place in which he accomplilhed.
the great work of our redemption. As to the name of
Judea, it did not begin to receive that till after the re¬
turn of the Jews from the Babylonifh captivity, though
it had been ftyled long before the Kingdom of Judah, in
oppofition to that of Ifrael, which revolted from it un¬
der Jeroboam, in the reign of Rehoboam the fon of So¬
lomon. But after the return, the tribe of Judah, the
only one that made any figure, fettling at Jerufalem,
and in the countries adjacent, quickly gave its name to
the whole territory. By profane authors it was called
by many different names ; fuch as Syria, Paleftina Sy¬
ria, Coelofyria, Iduma, Idumaea, and Phaenicia or Phoe-
nice } but thefe are fuppofed only to have been given
out of contempt to the Jewiih nation, whom they look¬
ed upon as unworthy of any other name than what di-
flinguilhed the molt obfcure parts of the neighbouring
provinces.
That part of the country which was properly called
the Land of Promife, was enclofed on the weft by the
Mediterranean j on the eaft by the lake Afphaltites,
the Jordan, the fea of Tiberias or of Galilee, and the
Samachonite lake j to the north it had the mountains
of Libanus, or rather of Antilibanus, or the province
of Phoenicia 5 and to-the fouth, that of Edom or Idu¬
maea, from which it was likewife parted by another
ridge of high mountains. The boundaries of the other
part, which belonged to the two tribes and a half be¬
yond the river Jordan, are not fo eafily defined, as well
as thofe of the conquefts made by the more profper-
ous kings of the Jews. All that can be faid with any
probability is, that the river Arnon was the firff nor¬
thern boundary on that fide ; and with refpeft to thofe
on this fide the Jordan, there is a confiderable difagree-
ment between the Hebrew and Sarmaritan verfions of
ih e Pentateuch.
The extent of this country is likewife varioufiy fet¬
tled by geographers 5 fome giving it no more than 170
or 180 miles from north to fouth, and 140 in breadth
where broadeft, though not much above half that
breadth where narroweft. But from the lateft and molt
accurate maps, it appears to extend near 200 miles
in length, and about 80 in breadth about the middle,
and about xo or 15, more or lefs, where it widens or
contrafts.
The climate is certainly very happy, its fituation be¬
ing neither too far fouth nor too far north. The long-
eft day is not above 14 hours 15 minutes: But the li¬
mits of Paleftine appear fo fmall, confidering that the
country is likewife interfered by high ridges of moun¬
tains, woods, deferts, &c. that many learned men have
been induced to queftion what ■we read of its fertility
and populoufnefs in former times. It muft be owned, in¬
deed, that when we compare its ancient and flourifhing
ft ate, when it was cultivated with the utmoft diligence
by perfons well {killed in every branch of agriculture,
with what it has been fince the total extirpation of the
Jews out of it, and more efpecially fince it fell into the
hands of the Turks, the contrail is amazingly great:
but when we confider the many evident caufes which
have contributed to cffer this change, and even yet
.confider the nature of the country itfelf, we find not
the leaft reafon to doubt the truth of what the facred Falekine.
hiitorians have related. Mofes defcribes the richnefs v
of it in the ftrongeft terms, even before the Ifraelites
got poffeffion of it. It even exceeded the land of E-
gypt, fo much celebrated by ancient hiftorians 5 efpe¬
cially in the vaft numbers of cattle which it produced :
in the quantity and excellence of its wine, oil, and
fruits. With refpedl to the oil and fruits, it is plain,
that the olives and oil of Canaan exceeded in goodnefs
thofe of Egypt, fince the tribes fent them thither from
thence; and as for vines, Herodotus tells us, that the
Egyptians had none at all, but fupplied the want of
them by a liquor brewed from barley. The prefents
which Jacob fent to his fon Jofeph, of honey, fpices,
myrrh, almonds, and other fruits of Paleftine, Ihow
that they muft have been much better in the land of
Judea than in Egypt. The wines of Gaza, Afcalon,
and Sarepta, -were famous among the moft remote na¬
tions $ though it is allowed, that the wine which was
made at and in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, in
great quantities, was equal at leaft, not fuperior, to any
of the reft : and that of Libanus, mentioned by the pro¬
phet Hofea, was no lefs celebrated for its excellent flavour.
Several circumftances contributed to this wonderful
fecundity: fuch as, the excellent temperature of the
air, which was never fubjefl to exceflive heats or colds;
the regularity of its feafons, efpecially the former and
latter rain; and the natural fatnefs and fertility of its
foil, which required neither dunging nor manuring, and
could be ploughed with a fingle yoke of oxen and a
fmall kind of plough; for the foil was, and is ftill, fo
{hallow, that to have gone deep into it, would rather
have endangered than improved the crop. With re-
fpe£t to the excellency of its corn, we are told, that
the bread of Jerufalem was preferred above all other;
and the tribe of Aftier produced the beft of both,
and in greater quantity than any other tribe ; and
fuch plenty was there of it, that, befides what fuf-
ficed the inhabitants, who made it their chief fu-
ftenance, Solomon, we read, could afford to fend
20,000 cors, or meafures, of it, and as many of oil,
yearly, to Hiram king of Tyre ; befides what they ex¬
ported into other countries. And we find, even fo late
as King Herod, furnamed Agrippa, the countries of
Tyre and Sion received moft of their fuftenance from
his tetrarchy.
As to their fruits, the grapes were delicious, finely
flavoured, and very large. The palm tree and its
dates were in no lefs requeft ; and the plain of Jericho,
among other places, was famed for the great plenty
and excellence of that fruit; infomuch, that the me¬
tropolis of that territory was emphatically ftyled the
city of palm trees. Rut what both this plain, and other
parts of Paleftine, were moft celebrated for, was the bal-
fam ftirub, whofe balm was efteemed fo precious a drug
among the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and other na¬
tions, and is ftill to this day under the name of balm of
Gilead. They had likewife the greateft variety of other
fruit trees in the higheft perfection ; and which might
be, in fome fenfe, ftyled perpetual, becaufe they were
not only covered with a conftant verdure, but becaufe the
new buds always appeared on the fame boughs before the
old fruit was ripe ; and of thofe buds, which were in too
great quantities to be allowed to come to maturity, they
gathered enough to make very delightful pickles and
4 U 3 fweetmeats,
r a l [7
fweetmeat?, efpecially of their citron?, oranges, and
apples of paradife, which lail: commonly hung by hun-
■ deeds in a clulfer, and as big as hen's eggs, and of an
excellent tafte and flavour. Theve vines yield grapes
twice, and fcmetinies three times a year, great quan¬
tities of which were dried up, and preferved for ufe, as
well as their figs, plums, and other fruits. They had
plenty of honey ; the very trees diliilled it; and the
rocks yielded it in great quantities: but whether that
of the latter kind was there depofited by the indu-
jfnous tees, or produced foir^e other way, is much dif-
puted by travellers and naturaiiils. They likewife
cultivated fugar canes in great abundance} and the
cotton, hemp, and flax, were moitly of their own
growth and manufacture, except fome of a finer fort,
that were brought to them from Egypt, and worn by
thofe of the higher rank. Their vicinity to Libanus
made the cedars; cypreffes, and other ftateiy fragrant
trees, very common in mod parts of the land, but
more efpecially in Jerufalem. Cattle, both large and
final], they fed in vafi quantities ; and the hiily coun¬
tries not only afforded them variety and plenty of pas¬
ture, but aifo of water, which defeended thence into
the valleys and low lands, and fertilized them to the
degree we have feen 5 befides feveral oilier rivers and
brooks, fome of the mo ft remarkable of which we
lhall fpeak of in their proper places. But the moft
fertile pafture grounds Were thofe on each fide of the
river Jordan; befides thofe of Sharon, or Saron?, the
plains of Lydda, Jamnia, and fome others then juftly
famed for their fecundity. As for fifh, the river above-
mentioned, the lake of Tiberias, and the Mediterra¬
nean fea, afforded, as they do to this day, great plen¬
ty and variety. Vaft quantities were brought to Jeru¬
falem, on which the inhabitants moftly fubfilled ; and
hence one of the gates of that metropolis was, accord¬
ing to St Jerome, called the fijh gate. The lake Af-
phaltftes yielded fait in abundance, wherewith to fea-
lon and preferve their fifh, which Galen affirms to have
been preferable to any other for wholefornenefs, dige-
ftion, and extenuation. In (hort, the Scripture is fo
pregnant with proofs of the extraordinary richnefs and
fecundity of this once happy land, and the vaft num¬
ber of people that lived in it, almoft wholly upon its
produff, to fay nothing of the vaft exports of its corn,
wine, oil, raifins, and other fruits, &c..that a man muff
have taken a ft range warp to infidelity, that can call it
in queftiojg merely on account of the melancholy and
quite oppofite figure it now makes under its prelent ty¬
rannical government.
But its "fertility has been called inqueftion ; and Vol¬
taire and other infidel writers have railed difficulties and
objections againit the authority of Scripture, from the
pretended fterility of the land of Judea. In anfwer to
which, the Abbe Guenee, about the year 1780, com¬
municated to the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles
Lettres at Paris, Teua Memoirs concerning the Fertility
of Palefinc, in order to fhow that fuch objeclions had
no folid fcundati’oi).
In the firft of them, the author proves, that frorp
the captivity of Babylon to the war of Adrian, Judea
was always confidered as a rich and fertile country.
The pofitive and multiplied authorities of the writers
pf that period, Jews, Greeks, and Romans, not only
atteft in general the fertility of that country, but
c8 ] PAL
many of thefe writers, entering into a particular de¬
tail of circumftances, prove it from the nature of the
climate, tie qualities of the foil, and the excellencies
and variery of its productions. Thefe are confirmed
by proofs of another kind, but which are of a very
convincing nature, even thofe refulting from a great
number ot medals ftruck under the reigns of the kings
of Syria raid Judea, and under the Romans, both by
Jews and Pagans, and which all bear the fymbols of a
rich fertility. To thefe proofs are added a multitude
of faffs, recorded in the hiftory of the Jews during
this period; the efforts of the neighbouring kings to
conquer their country j the long and bloody wars that
the Jews carried on with vigour, and fometimes with
fuccefs, againft powerful princes and nations; the tri¬
bute and taxes they paid to the kings of Egypt and
Syria, to the Romans, 'and to their own princes ; the
magnificence of their fovereigns, and among others of
Herod; the troops he railed and kept on foot; the
temples, fortreffes, palaces, and cities, which he ereded
and embeliiihed, not only in his own country, but alfo
in Syria, Alia Minor, and even in Greece g the im-
menfe firms he lavifhed among the Romans, the donat-
tions he made to his own people, and the vaft treafures
which he left behind him : all thefe circumftances concur
in proving the fertility and riches of Paleftine during
that period.
In the fecond memoir, the Abbe Guenee ccnfiders
the ftate of Paleftine as it was from the time of the
emperor Adrian to the caliphate of Omar, which
comprehends a period of four centuries. From fundry
fads he Ibows, that it could not then have been the
barren country which it has been reprefented by fome
fceptical writers. He particularly mentions the pro-
jed formed by Adrian of rebuilding and embellifhing
Jerufalem, of forming it into a Roman colony, and giv¬
ing it,his own name a projed of which he could
never have entertained a thought, if Judea, which hq
had feen and examined with his own eyes, had appear¬
ed to him finch a barren and wretched country as it is
faid to be by fome who have neither feen that country
nor examined the matter with care and attention. Cur
author alfo ‘produces a variety of other fads, to fliow
that Judea, after all that it had iuffered from the de-
folations of war both in ancient and latter times, Hill
remained at the period in queftion fertile, rich, and
populous. This is the idea which the writers cf the
time, Pagan and Chriftian, as well as Jewifh, have
given of Paleftine. Antoninus Martyr, a citizen of
Placentia, who in the 6th century travelled to Pale¬
ftine, and compofed an account of his voyage, which
is ftill extant, fays, that the canton of Nazareth was
not inferior to Egypt in corn and fruits j and that
though the territory of that city was not very exten-
five, it abounded in wine and oil, and excellent honey.
The country about Jericho appeared to him ftill moio
fertile. He faw Mount Tabor, which he reprefents as
furrounded with cities: and he obferved, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Jerufalem, vineyards, great plantations of
fruit trees, and through the whole country a confidcr-
able number of hofpitals, monafteries, and beautiful
edifices. Our learned abbe, in concluding his work,
acknowledges, that the opulence and fertility of Judea
might begin to diminifli towards the middle of the pe¬
riod treated of in his fecond memoir : but he does noi
think
Paleftine.
P A I
Paleftine. think that any argument can be drawn from hence
again ft its having been at the commencement cf this
period in a flourithing ftate 3 and much lets can any
proof be brought from hence, that in preceding periods,
under the lungs, or under the adminiitration of Mofes,
the country oi h’aleftine was a barren and uncultivated
did riel. _
Betides, it ought to be confidered, that it was then
inhabited by an induftrious people, who knew how to
improve every inch of their laird, and had made even
the molt defert and barren places to yield fome kind
of productions, by proper care and manure 3 fo that the
very rocks, which now appear quite bare and naked,
were made to produce corn, puUe, or pafture 3 being,
by the induftry of the old inhabitants, covered with
mould, which, through the lazinefs of the tucceeding
proprietors, has been tince waftied oft' with rains and
ftorms. We may add, that the kings themfelves were
not above encouraging all kinds of agriculture, both by
precept and example 3 and, above all, thac they had 'the
divine blefiing promifed to their honeft endeavours and
induftry : whereas it is now, and hath been long ftnee,
inhabited by a poor, lazy, indolent people, groaning
under an intolerable lervitude and all manner of difeou-
ragements 3 by which their avertion to labour and agri¬
culture, farther than wdiat barely ferves .to fupply their
prefent wants, is become in a manner natural and invin¬
cible. We may further obferve, after the judicious Mr
Maundrell, that there is no forming an idea of its an¬
cient flour!tiling ftate, when under the influence of hea¬
ven, from what it is now under a vifibie curie. And, if
we had not feveral concurring teftimonies from profane
authors, who have extolled the fecundity of Paleftine,
that Angle one of .fulian the Apoftate, a fworn enemy
to Jews and Chriftians, as well as to all the facred wait¬
ings, would be more than fafficient to prove it 3 who
frequently makes mention, in his epiitles, of the perpe¬
tuity, as well as excellence and great abundance, of its
fruits and produeft. The vifibie effefts of God’s anger,
which this country has felt, not only under Titus Vef-
pafian (when myriads of inhabitants were either flain,
or perithed by the rnoft fevere famine, peftilence, and
■other calamities, and the reft xoid lor Haves into all
lands 3 and new colonies lent to repeople it, who found
it in fuch 'defolate ftate, as quite difeouraged them from
reftoring it to its priftine fruitfulnefs) 3 but much more
fince that emperor’s time, in the inundations cf the nor¬
thern barbarians, of the Saracens, and of the more cruel
and deftruclive Chriftians during the crufades 3 and m
the oppveflion it now' feels under the Turkiih yoke 3 may
be e.uly owned to be more than lufficient to have wrought
the difmal change we are fpeaking cf, and to have redu¬
ced the far greater part into a mere defert.
Neverthelefs, if wTe may credit thofe wtio have view¬
ed it in this doleful condition, they will tell us, there
are ftill fuch vifibie figns of its natural richnefs and
fertility, as plainly fhow, that the bare want of .cul¬
ture is the main if not the only caufe of its prefent po¬
verty and bartennefs. We ftiall hint, as a farther proof
of this, what a learned traveller hath lately written of it
from his own obfervations.
“ The Holy I,and (fays Dr Shaw), were it as well
peopled and cultivated as in former times, would ftill
be more fruitful than the very beft part of the coaft of
Syria and Phcenice 3 - for the foil is generally much
PAL
richer, and, all things confidered, yields a preferable Paieftke.-
crop. Thus the cotton that is gathered in the plains of v-—'
Hamah, Efdraelon, and Zabulun, is in greater efteem
than what is cultivated near Sidon and i ripoli. Neither
is it poftible for pulfc, wheat, or any fort of grain to be
more excellent than what is fold at Jerufalem. I he bar-
rennefs, or fcarcity rather, which fome authors may, eitner
ignorantly or malicioufiy, complain of, doth not proceed
from the incapacity or natural unfruitfulnefs of the coun¬
try, but from the wrant of inhabitants, and the great
averfton there is to labour and induftry in thole few” who
pofiefs it. There are, betides, fuch perpetual difeords and
depredations among the petty princes who {hare this fine
country, that, allowing it was better peopled, yet there
would be fmall encouragement to low, when it was un¬
certain who fhould gather in the harveft. Otherwife,
the land is a good land, and ftill capable of affording its
neighbours the like fuppkes of corn and oil which it is
known to have done in the time of Solomon,”
And Volney, in his Travels in Egypt and Syria, ob-
ferves, that though the whole of Paleftine is almoft an
entire level plain, without either liver or rivulet in fum- ■
mer, and only watered by the winter terrents, the foil is
yet good, and may even be termed fertile; for when the
winter rains do not fail, every thing fprings up in abun¬
dance 3 and the earth, which is black and fat, retains
mciilure fuflicient for the growth of grain and vegeta¬
bles during the fummer. More doera, fefamum, water
melons, and beans, are fown here than in any other part
of the country. They alfo raife cotton, barley, and
wheat 3 but though the latter be moft efteemed, it is
lefs cultivated, for fear of too much inviting the avaricb
of the Turkiih governors and the rapacity of the Arabs.
Judea, in its largeft fenfe, was divided into maritime
and inland, as well as into mountainous find champain 3
and again fubdivided into Judea on this fide, and Judea
beyond Jordan. But the moft confiderable divifton is
that which was made among the twelve tribes, by lot,
to prevent all murmuring and difeontent among that
ftubborn people f 3 of thefe, two and a half were feated j- j'ofi). xiv,
beyond Jordan, and the reft on this fide, it he next re-2. &-c.
markable was made by King Solomon, ivho divided his
kingdom into twelve orovinces or diftnefs, each under
a peculiar officer 3 and every one of thefe Ivas to lupply
the king with provisions for his houfehold in his turn 3
that is, each for one month in the year |. But the moft j x Kirgs^
fatal divifton of all was that which obtained under his iv. 7. Sec.
imprudent fon Behoboam-t when ten ct the twelve tribes
revolted, under, the ccnaucft of Jeroboam, who became
head of this new monarchy, ftyled the kingdom cf Ifrac!% .
in oppofiticn to that of Judah, the title which diftin-
guifhed the maimed kingdom of Rehoboam irom that
time downwards. Under the fecond temple the dftllnc -
lion lafted a confiderable time, and the fame bloody ha¬
tred and hoftiliiies continued between thefe two king¬
doms 3 that of Ifrael taking the name of Samaria from
its capital. The inhabitants were a mixture of the old
J'raelites, and of new colonies fent thither fcy the Icings
of AiTyria after their conqueft of it, till they were fiub-
dued by the Maccabees, and their metropolis deftroyed.
Under the Romans it began to be divided into tetrar¬
chies and toparchies ; the larger were thofe of Judea,
Samaria, and Galilee, Upper and Lower 3 the lefler,
thofe of Geraritica, Sarona, and others of lefs note 3
all which lay on this fide of the Jordan, ft he reft,, on
the .♦
1 7°9 1
\
TPaleftir.e
H.
Palfrey.
PAL [ 71
tlae oilier fide, were thofe of Gilead, Peraea, Gaulo-
nitis, Auranitis, Batanea, and Decapolis. Jofephus men-
v tionsf another divifion made in Gabinius’s time into five
f Antiq. lib. diftricls, or, as he ftyles them, or councils, a-
xiv. greeable to the Roman manner : thele were Jerufalem,
Jericho, and Sephoris on this fide Jordan 5 and Gadaris
and Amathus on the other. In the reigns of the Chri-
flian emperors, it was divided afrefh into Paleftina Prima,
Paleftina Secunda, and Paleftina Tertia or Salutaris;
which laft included the far greater part, if not the whole
country, as is known to all who are acquainted with hi-
ftory. On that account we ftiall wrave all other divifions
and changes that happened to it under the northern bar¬
barians, Saracens, &c. and conclude this article with
the prefent ftate and divifion of it under the Turks.—
I he whole country of Paleftine is now reduced to a di-
ftrift or province, under the beglerbegate or baffalhip of
Sacham or Damafcus, who hath the feven following lan-
giacs or fubgovemors under him, ftyled, according to the
different places of their refidence, 1. The fangiac of Da¬
mafcus, who is under the bafha of that province ; 2, Of
Jerufalem, or, as the Turks call it, Cudjembaric or Coud-
fcherif; 3. Aglum; 4. Bahara; 5. Scifat; 6. Gaza ;
7. Nabolos. Each of thefe has a number of ziamets,
and each ziamet a number of timariots under them ; for
the better underftanding of which terms, we ftiall refer
our readers to Sir Paul Rycaut’s account of the Ottoman
empire. At prefent it will be fufficient to fay of thefe
inferior fubdivifions, under the fangiac of this diftridl, or
fangiacate of Jerufalem, that it hath nine of the former
and fixteen of the latter clafs. Neither muft the reader
imagine thefe fangiacates or fub-governments to be any
thing confiderable, or the refidence of thefe officers to be
places of any note or opulence. The former indeed live
by oppreffing the people under them, and exort contri¬
butions of every thing that comes within their reach,
fuch as the prote&ion of travellers, merchants and cara¬
vans ; but being all under their refpedtive baffias, who
are ftill more griping than their underlings, they are
commonly fleeced of fome confiderable part of their un¬
juft gains. As for the places of their refidence, except
it be here and there one in a confiderable city, as at Da¬
mafcus and Jerufalem, the reft are either fome old cities
or even inconfiderable villages.
There are a variety of curiofities in Paleftine both
natural and artificial ; but they are fo very numerous as
almoft to preclude defcription : we therefore refer our
readers to the Ancient Univerfal Hiftory, vgl. ii. where
they are mentioned and particularly defcribed. The
principal mountains, rivers, and other places of note,
have already been, or wall be, noticed under their re-
fpeftive names.
PALESTRINA, a town of Italy, in the Campag-
nia di Roma, with a biffiop’s fee. It is the capital of a
principality of the fame name, and the biffiop is one of
the fix cardinal biffiops. It wras anciently famous for the
temple of Fortune, being then called Prcenejle, and feat-
ed on the top of a mountain, the ruins of which may yet
be feen. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 41. 51.
Palestrina, is one of the largeft and moft populous
of the iflands called the Lagunes near Venice, and where
the moft confiderable of the noblemen have houfes of plea-
fure. .It is 13,000 paces in length and 400 in breadth j
the principal harbour has alfo the fame name.
PALFREY, is one of the better fort of horfes ufed
4
Palinge-
nefia.
0 1 PAL
by noblemen or others for ftate j and fotnetimes of old Palicaud
taken for a horie fit for a W'oman to ride. Camden ^
fays, that W illiam bauconberge held the manor of
Cuckeny, in the county of Nottingham, in ferjeantry, .
by the fervice of ffioeing the king’s palfrey when the
king fliould come to Mansfield.
PALICAUD, or Palgatcherry, a fortrefs of con¬
fiderable ftrength in India, which commands the paffage
between the two coafts of Malabar and Coromandel, by
way of the Tritchinopoly and Coimbettore countries :
there is alfo a communication with it through the Nayre
country. It v7as held by the Engliffi j and wras of great
importance to them, wffien Coimbettore was in the hands
of Tippoo,. becaufe, by our holding this place on the
weft, and Dindigul on the eaft of Coimbettore, that pro¬
vince was of little ufe to him in the time of wTar, with¬
out a very large force to proteft it. But the fall of that
fovereign, and the reduftion of his territories, have effeft-
ed a total change of circumftances. See Memoir of a
Map of the Peninfula of India by Major Rennel.
PALICAIE, a fea port towm of India", on this fide
of the Ganges. It is feated on the coaft of Coromandel,
in the kingdom of Carnate, 70 miles north of Fort St
George. Here the Dutch had a fadlory, and fort called
the Tort of Guelderland. E. Long. 80. 1. N. Lat. 13. 34.
PALICI, or Palisci, in Fabulous Hi/lory, two dei¬
ties, fons of Jupiter by Thalia, wffiom ALfchylus, accord¬
ing to Macrobius, calls JEtna, in a tragedy wffiich is
loft. The nymph ./Etna, wffien pregnant, begged Ju¬
piter to remove her from the purfuit of Juno. Upon
which he concealed her in the bowels of the earth ; and
when tire time of her delivery arrived, the earth opened
and brought into the w^orld tw7o children, to wffiom were
given the name of Paha, avrc tov ttuXiv ucur&xt, becaufe
they came again into the world from the bowels of the
earth. Thefe deities were worffiipped with many cere¬
monies by the Sicilians 5 and near their temple were two
fmall lakes, wffiich were fuppofed to have fprung out of
the earth wffien they were born. Near thefe pools it was
ufual to take the moft folemn oaths when any body wiffi-
ed to decife controverfies and quarrels. If any of the
perfons who took the oaths were perjured, they were
immediately puniflied fupernaturally 5 and thofe wffiofe
oath, by the deities of the place, was fincere, departed
unhurt. The Palici had alfo an oracle, which w'as con-
fulted upon fome great emergencies, and which rendered
the trueft and moft unequivocal an fivers. In a fuperfti-
tious age, the altars of the Palici wrere ftained with the
blood of human facrifices ; but this barbarous cuftom did
not laft long, as the deities were fatisfied with the ufual
offerings.
PALJNDROMUS, a verfe or fentence wffiich runs
the fame wffien read either backwards or fowards. Such
is the verfe,
Roma tibifubito motibus ibit amor.
Some people of leifure have refined upon the Palindro-
mus, and compofed verfes, each w-ord of which is the fame
backwards as forwards j for inftance, that of Camden :
Odo tenet mulum, madidam ?nappam tenet Anna.
Anna tenet mappam madidam, jnulum tenet Odo.
PALINGENESIA, among divines, the fame with
regeneration. Among the older chemifts, it denotes the
producing of a body from its principles.
PALINGENIUS,
Talingenius
II
Pall.
PAL [ 7
PALINGENIUS, Marcellus, aa Italian poet, well
known by a poem divided into 12 books, and en-
titled Zodiacus Vita-, which he was feveral years in com-
poling, and dedicated to Hercules II. of Efte, duke of
Ferrara. Some fay he was a phylician to that prince :
others rank him among the learned Lutherans, to whom
the duchefs of Ferrara gave a reception in her court, and
honoured with her proteftion. His Zodiac contains good
things, and is a philolbphical fatire againft immorality and
falfe prejudices. Of the author’s life, however, but lit¬
tle is knowm. He died fome time between the years 1537
and 1543.
PALINODY, a difcourfe contrary to former avowed
principles : hence the phrafe of palinodiam canere was
taken for a recantation.
PALINURI PROMONTORIUM (Virgil, Velleius), with
a cognominal port, was fituated at the fouth extremity
of the Sinus Paeftanus on the coaft of Lucania : fo called
from Palinurus, fEneasVfteerfman, who there perilhed
(Mela, Dionylius Halicamafleus).
PALINURUS, in Fabulous FLiftory, ./Eneas’s pilot,
whofe fate Virgil very particularly defcribes. He fell
into the fea when afleep 5 and was three days expofed to
the tempefts and its agitation, and at laft came fafe
afhore, when the cruel inhabitants of the place mur¬
dered him to get his clothes. His body was left un¬
buried on the fea Ihore : and fince, according to the
religion of the old Romans, no one could crofs the
Stygian lake before 100 years were elapfed, if his re¬
mains had not been decently buried, we find /Eneas,
■when he went down to hell, fpeaking to Palinurus, and
a Luring him, that though his bones were deprived of a
funeral, yet the place where his body was expofed Ihould
loon be adorned with a monument, and bear his name j
and accordingly a promontory was called Palinurus.
PALISADES,. in fortification, Hakes made of ftrong
fplit wood, about nine feet long, fix or feven inches
fquare, three feet deep in the ground, in rows about two
and a half or three inches afunder, placed in the covert
way, at three feet from, and parallel to, the parapet or
fide of the glacis, to fecure it from furprife. They are
alfo ufed to fortify the avenues of open forts, gorges, half
moons, the bottoms of ditches, and in general all ports
liable to furprife. They are ufually fixed perpendicu¬
larly, though fome make an angle inclining towards the
ground next the enemy, that the ropes cart over them to
tear them up may Hip off.
Turning PALISADES ; an invention of M. Coehorn,
in order to preferve the palifades of the covert w>ay
from the befiegers Ihot. They are fo ordered, that
as many of them as ftand in the length of a rod, or
about ten feet, turn up and dowm like traps, fo as not
to be in fight of the enemy till they juft bring on their
attack •, and yet are always ready to do the proper fer-
vice of palifades.
PALISSE, in Heraldry, a bearing like a range of
palifades before a fortification, reprefented on a feffe,
rifing up a confiderable height, and pointed a-top, with
the field appearing between them.
PALIURUS, in Botany. See Rhamnus, Botany
Index.
FALL, in Heraldry, a figure like a Greek y, about
the breadth of a pallet 5 it is by fome heralds called
a crofs pall, on account of its being looked upon as an
archicpifcopal bearing.
11 ] p . A L
PALL A, in Roman antiquity, a mantle which wo¬
men wore over the gown calledJlola. It wTas borne on
the left fhoulder •, wdrence parting to the other fide, under
the right arm, the two ends were bound under the left
arm, leaving the breaft and arm quite bare. It had a
great many folds, and derived its name from irxXXu, to
Jhakc or tremble.
PALLADIO, Andrea, a celebrated Italian archi-
teft of the 16th century, wras a native of Vicenza in
Lombardy, and the difciple of Trirtin. He made exadl
drawings of the principal works of antiquity in Rome,
adding commentaries to them, which went through fe¬
veral impreflions. But this, though a very ufeful wTork,
was greatly exceeded by the Treatife of Architecture in
four books, which he publilhed in 1570. Inigo Jones
wrote fome excellent remarks on it; wrhich wTere includ¬
ed in an edition of Palladio, publiftied by Leoni, in two
vols. folio, 1741.
PALLADIUM, in antiquity, a flatue of the god-
defs Pallas. It wyas about three cubits high, and re¬
prefented the goddefs fitting and holding a pike in her
right hand, and in her left a diftaff and a fpindle. It
fell dowm from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was
building the citadel of Ilium. Some, however, fuppofe,.
that it fell at Peflinus in Phrygia j or, according to
others, Dardanus got it as a prelent from his mother
EleClra. There are fome wrho maintain, that the palla¬
dium wyas made with the bones of Pelops by Abaris j but
Apollodorus fays, that it was no more than a piece of
clockwork which moved of itfelf. However various
the opinions of ancient authors be about this celebrated
ftatue, it is univerfally allowed, that on its prefervation
depended the fafety of Troy. This fatality the Greeks,
during the Trojan war, were well aware of j and there¬
fore Ulyffes and Diomedes were commiflioned to fteal it.
1 his they effefted ; and if we can rely upon the authority
of fome, they were direCled how to carry it away by
Helenus, a fon of Priam, wrho in this betrayed his coun¬
try, becaufe his brother Deiphobus, at the death of Paris,
had married Helen, of whom he was enamoured. Mi¬
nerva wras enraged at the violence offered to her ftatue j
and, according to Virgil, the palladium itfelf feemed to
have received life and motion j and by the flalhes which
ftarted from its eyes, and fudden fprings from the earth,
it feemed to (how the refentment of the goddefs. The
true palladium, as is obferved by fome, was not carried
away from Troy by the Greeks, but only a ftatue of
fimilar fize and ftiape, which w’as placed near it, to de¬
ceive whatever facrilegious perfons attempted to fteal it.
I he palladium, therefore, as they maintain, ./Eneas con ¬
veyed fafe from Troy to Italy, and it was afterwards
preferved by the Romans with the greateft fecrecy and
veneration in the temple of Vefta ; a circumftance wdiich
none but the veftal virgins knew. It was efteemed the
deftiny of Rome } and there were feveral others made
perfectly like it, to fecure it from being ftolen, as wras
that of Troy, which the oracle of Apollo declared ftiould
never be taken fo long as the palladium was found with¬
in its walls. A palladium was alfo placed by Nicias in
the citadel of Athens.
Palladium, one of the newly difcovered metals,
which is found alloyed wdth platina. See Chemistry
Index, and Ores, ReduBion of, under Platina.
PALLADIUS, biftiop of Helenopolis in Bithynia, .
and then of Afpona. He was a Galatian, and born at
Cappodocia, .
Palfa
II
Paliadius.
PAL [71
Cappadocia. He became an anchorite in the mountain
of Nebria in 388, and was confecrated a biftiop in 401.
He was an intimate friend of St John Chryfoftom, whom
he never forfook during the time of his perfecution, nor
even in his exile. He went to Rome feme time after
Chryfoftom’s death, and at the requeft of Laufus gover¬
nor of Cappadocia, compofed the Hi dory of the Ancho¬
rites or Hermits, and entitled it Icmfiaca, after the name
of that lord, to whom he dedicated it in 420, when it
was written, being then the 20ih year of his epifcopacy,
and 53d of his age. Falladius was accufed of being an
Origenift. It is true, he w7as an enemy to St Jerome,
of whom he does not fpeak well, and wras intimately
connecled with Ruffbus 5 but perhaps no good proof
can be brought of his Origenifm. He had been the dif-
ciple of Evagrias of Pontus, and was even fufpedled of
entertaining the fentiments of Pelagius. He died in the
5th century, but in what year is not certain. His Hi-
ftory wTas puhlilhed in Greek by Meurfius at Amfter-
dam in 1619, and in Latin in the Bibliotheca Patrum :
but he feetns not to have been the waiter of the Life of
St Jchn Chryfoftom, in Greek and Latin by M. Bigot
printed in 1 i So.
PALLAS, a freed man of Claudius, celebrated for
the power and the riches which he obtained. He ad-
vlfed the emperor his mafter to marry Agrippina, and
to adopt her fon Nero for his fucceffor. It was through
him and Agrippina that the death of Claudius was ha-
ftened, and that Nero was railed to the throne. Nero,
however, forgot to whom he wras indebted for it. He
difearded Pallas, and fome time after caufed him to be
put to death, that he might procure his great riches.
Pallas, a fmall planet lately difeovered, and belong¬
ing to the folar fyftem. See Planet.
PALLAVICINI, Ferrante, an Italian wrriter, de-
feended from a noble family in Placentia, was bom
about the clofe of the i6ih century. He foon gave
proofs of an extraordinary ^genius, and quickly impro¬
ved in claffical erudition. He was aftenvards fent to com¬
plete his education in the monaftery of Auguftin ffiars at
Milan, where he took the habit, lived much efteemed for
piety and learning, and raifed great expectations of fu¬
ture fame ; but being fomewhat amoroufly inclined, he
engaged in an intrigue wdth a young courtezan of Ve¬
nice, whofe charms proved irrefiitible ; and in order to
enjoy them without reftiaint, he obtained leave from
his general to make the tour of France. Accordingly,
he pretended to fet out for that country ; but it was
only a blind to cover his real defign. He never left
Venice, but lived there privately, enchanted in the
arms of his Venus : and having too ready a talent at
invention, he impofed upon his friends by often fend¬
ing them in letters feigned accounts of his travels
through France 5 alfo informing them of feveral things
refpeCling that court, wdiich he learned from the ad¬
vices of many conftderable perfons with whom he cor-
refponded.
His finances, were in the mean time greatly reduced j
and in this exigence he naturally had recourfe to his
wits for fupplies. Pie wrote for the booklellers; and
compofed feveral pieces, more for the fake of lucre than
out of fondnefs for authorftixp. Among other things,
he wrote a Collection of letters, m.oftly fatirical, which he
called The Courier Robbed of his Mail. The w7ork ap¬
peared at firft in luch a call, as could not give great
3
2 ] PAL
offence except to the Spaniards, againrt whom-he hadPal!
fome grudge. The piece w7as accordingly licenfed by
the inquilitors 5 but falling into the hands of the fe-
cretary of the republic of Veitice, who at that time
wras iicenfer of books, he would not give his imprima¬
tur, though great intereft w7as employed for that pur-
pofe, neither would he return the manufeript. This
enraged Pallavicini fo much, that had not his friends
reftrained him, he wmuld have purfued the affair to his
ruin.
At length he found an opportunity of travelling
into Germany with the duke of Amalfi as his chaplain.
This journey, as was to be expefted, had 1x0 good ef-
feCl either upon his wit or his morals. On the con¬
trary, finding himfelf, from the manners of the Ger¬
mans, more at liberty, he indulged his genius and paf-
fions with greater eafe ; and after a relidence there of
upwards of a year with the duke, he returned to Ve¬
nice. He was now refolved to have his full meafure of
revenge againit the fecretary of the republic for keeping
his manufeript 5 and with him his refentment joined the
family of Barberini, Pope Urban VIII. and his nephews,,
becauie they alfo endeavoured, at the inftigation of the
Jefuits, to get all his manuferipts forbid the prefs. In
this rancorous fpirit he call his Courier into a new mo¬
del, and enlarged it with many letters and difeourfes.
Thus new modelled, he offered it to a bookfeller, who
undertook to get it printed} but our author was betray¬
ed by a pretended friend ; who afted the part of a fpy,
and informed the archbifhop of Vitelli, then the pope’s
nuncio at Venice, juft as the work was finifhed at the
prels : at the fame time, this treacherous friend bought
the whole hnpreffion ; and upon the nuncio’s complaint,
Pallavicini was imprifoned. In this miferable condition
he found a friend in one of his miftreffes, who, feeing
him abandoned by moft of his patrons, not only fupport-
ed him, but conveyed letters to him, by which ftxe gave
him fuch information as enabled him to make a proper
defence, and to recover his liberty.
But a war having in the mean time broken out be¬
tween the Barberiiff and the duke of Parma j Palla¬
vicini, in order to revenge himfelf upon the fuppofed in-
ftruments of his itnprifonment, wrote a piece entitled
“ The tinkling Inftrument to call together the Bar¬
berini Bees and dedicated it in terms of the px-o-
foundeft contempt to the nuncio Vitelli. The nuncio
finding that little notice was taken of hi? complaints
on the occafion, procured by bribery one Charles
Morfu, a Frenchman of infamous charatder, who pre¬
tended to pafs for a gentleman, to enfnare Pallavicini:
to which end, the traitor ufed his beft endeavours to
infinuate himfelf into his friendlhip, and at length ex-
hoited him to accompany him to France. He de-
clai'ed that his fortune would be made by the extraor¬
dinary encouragement which was given to men of let¬
ters by Cardinal Richelieu : and the better to favour
the deceit, he produced feigned letters from the Car¬
dinal, inviting our aulhor to France, and exprefting a
defire he had to eftablilh in Paids an academy for the
Italian tongue, under the direction of Pallavicini. The
fnare took 5 and now, fafeinated by the profpedt of
gain, Pallavicini fuffered himlelf to be led like an ox
to the fiaughter, whetherfoever Morfu thought pro¬
per. He left Venice much againft the advice of his
friends, and went firft to Bergamo, where he fpent a
PAL ' • t 7
Pallaviciiii few days with fome of his relations, by way of living
11 V ' fome entertainment to Morfu. They then fet off for
Geneva, to the great fatisfaftion of our author, who
propofed to get fome of his works printed there, which
he had not been able to do in Italy. Morfu, how¬
ever, inftead of conducing him to Paris, took the
road to Avignon ; where, eroding the bridge of So-
races, in the county of Venaiflin, they w’ere feized by
a gang of Jb/rr/, or ftieriff’s officers, on pretence of
carrying contraband goods, and confined. Morfu was
quickly difeharged, and very liberally rewarded ; but
Pallavicini, being carried to Avignon, was imprifoned j
and notwithftanding, on his examination concerning
lome papers found upon him, he made a very artful
defence, it was in vain. The fentence was already
brought from Rome, and he was to undergo a trial
merely for form’s fake. For this purpofe being put
into a dark dungeon, he made another effort to efcape.
He managed matters fo wHl with his keeper, as to pro¬
cure wax candles to be allowed him, under pretence of
amufing himfelf with reading, and when he had got
a number of thefe, he fet fire one night to the prifon
door, in order to get off by that means j but the llra-
tagem did not fucceed, and he was of courfe confined
much clofer, and treated with great inhumanity. Af¬
ter a year’s fuffering, he w^as brought to trial, in which
he made an excellent defence, and flattered himfelf with
hopes of relief. He had even begun a whimfical piece
on the fubjeft of melancholy ; but, contrary to his ex¬
pectations, he was fentenced to die, and loft his head
on a fcaffold in the flowrer of his age.
He was of fo heedlefs and profufe a difpofition, that
had he poffeffed an immenfe eftate he wxmld have fpent
it all. He w^as never engaged in a virtuous paffion, be¬
ing inflamed to a prodigious and unnatural degree with
the love of the meaneft and moft infamous proftitutes.
On the other hand, no one could be more fincere and
faithful in his friendfliips, nor wras ever a man a greater
prey to treachery ; infontuch, that when releafed from
prifon in Venice, he was told that p wretch had betrayed
him, he could not be prevailed upon to believe it, faying,
“ How can this be, fince he declared himfelf my friend,
and I made him privy to all my concerns!” Fie ufed
while he wore a religious habit, to ftudy Or write two
or three hours in bed every morning. The reft of the
day he fpent either in the company of idle perfons, or
elfe with the ladies : but after he had wholly left’the
monaftic life, upon pretence of fecuring himfelf from
the fnares of his enemies, he lived in a very irregular
manner. He was poffeffed of a fine genius, had a
great facility in writing; and till he w’as corrupted by
the commerce of mean lewd Women, he wrote pieces
worthy of immortality. He did not fpend much time
or pains either in compofition or in revifion, for he fi e-
quently fent to the prefs the very firft exertions of his
genius ; yet nature had given him fo noble a Vein of elo¬
quence, which he had greatly improved by perufing the
beft authors, that his firft thoughts were often equal to
the moft laboured compofitions. He was modeft, and
fpoke of himfelf with diffidence : but his works are
ftrongly tin&ured with envy, malice, and gall. He
mace but a poor figure in converfation j and when with
perfons of worth and diftinaion, would often retire to
a corner of the room, and feem quite wrapt up in
thought. He never exerted his wit and humour after
Vol. XV. Part II.
13 ] PAL
his return from Germany, but when he was in the com- Paliene
pany ot iome mean women. Upon the whole, it is dif- II
ficult to determine whether vice or virtue was the moft. Pall°'
predominant feature in his character. His death gave *'
birth to a dialogue, entitled, Anima erranti di Ferrante
-Ptf/Amcz/zz, or, “ The wandering Ghoft of Pallavicini.”
Befides his life at the head of his works in two volumes,
there is another prefixed to the “ Divortio celefte,” at
Amfterdam, 1696.
PALLENE, a fmall peninfula of Thrace or Mace¬
donia formerly called Phlegm. It is fituated near the
bay ot I hermae, and contains five cities, the principal of
vhich is ca$.td Paliene. It was famous, according to
tome of the ancients, for an engagement between the
gods and the giants.
. PALLET, among painters, a little oval table, or
piece of wood or ivory, very thin and fmooth } on and
lound which the painters place the feveral colours they
have oceafion for, to be ready for the pencil. The mid¬
dle ferves to mix the colours on, and to make the tints
required in the wwk. It has no handle, but, inftead
thereof, a hole at one end to put the thumb through to
hold it. 6
Pallet, among potters, crucible makers, See. a
wooden mftrument, almoft the only one they ufe, for
forming, beating, and rounding their works. They
have feveral kinds : the largeft are oval, with a handle :
others are round, or hollowTed triangularly j others,
in fine, are in manner of large knives, fervino- to cut
off whatever is fuperfluous on the moulds of their
work.
Pallet, in gilding, an inftrument made of a fquir-
rel’s tail, to take up the gold leaves from the pillow,
and to apply and extend them on the matter to be gilt
See Gilding. 6
Pallet, in Heraldry, is nothing but a fmall pale
confiftmg of one half of it in breadth, and there¬
fore there are fometimes feveral of them upon one
Ihield.
Pallet, is alfo a.part belonging to the balance of a
watch or movement. See the article Watch.
PA l AE, a name which the Romans gave to
fuch plays as laid the plot in Greece, and required the
performers to appear in Grecian habits. It is ufed in
contradiftinfhon to togatee, in which the feene was laid
at Rome, and in which the dreffes were Roman. The
word palliatce is derived from pallium, which was a part
of drefs peculiar to the Greeks ; wffiereas the toga be¬
longed to the Romans only. See Togataj, Come¬
dy, &c.
. PALLIATION, or a Palliative Cure, in medi¬
cine, is when, in defperate and incurable difeafes, after
predicting the fatal event, the phyfician preferibes fome
remedies for mitigating the pain or fome other urgent
fymptoms, as in ulcerated cancers, or cancerous fiftulas
and the like.
1 PALLIO Cooperire. It was an ancient cuftom,
where children were bom out of lawful wedlock, and
tneir parents were afterwards married, that thofe child¬
ren together with the father and mother, ffiould ftand
palliO' cooperti, under a cloth, while the marriage was fo-
lemnizing 5 which was a kind of adoption, and had the
effeft of a legitimation. Thus Robert Grofthead, the
famous biffiop of Lincoln, in one of his letters fays :
^ Jignum legitim a t lotus, nati ante matrimonium con rue-
4 verunt
PAL [ 7'
Pallium, verunt poni fub pallio fuper parentes eorutn extento in
II matrimonii folcmnvzatwne.
, Falma- , Selden, in his notes on Fleta, adds, that the children
of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, by Catharine
Swinford, though legitimated by act of parliament, yet
were covered with the pall when the parents were mar¬
ried.
PALLIUM, a word often mentioned in our old
hiltorians. Durandus tells us, that it is a garment
made of white wool, after the following manner, viz.
The nuns of St Agnes, every year, on the feail day of
their faint, offer two white lambs on the altar of their
church, during the time they fmg Agnus Dei, in a fo-
lemn mafs} which lambs are afterwards taken by two
of the canons of the Lateran church, and by them gi¬
ven to the pope’s fubdeacons, who fend them to pafture
till Ihearing time, and then they are Ihorn, and the pall
is made of their wool mixed with other white wool.
The pall being thus made, is carried to the Lateran
church, and there placed on the high altar, by the dea¬
cons of that church, on the bodies of St Peter and St
Paul; and after an ufual watching, it is carried away
in the night, and delivered to the fubdeacons, who lay
it up fafe. And becaufe it wras taken from the body of
St Peter, it fignifies the plenitude of ecclefiaftical power :
and therefore it was the prerogative of popes, who
pretend to be the immediate fucceffors of that faint,
to inveft other prelates with it ; which at firft was
done nowhere but at Rome, though afterwards at other
places.
Pallium, in antiquity, an upper garment cr mantle
worn by the Greeks, as the toga was by the Romans.
Each of thefe was fo peculiar to the refpeftive nations,
that Palliatus is ufed to fignify a Greek, and Togatus a
Roman.
PALM, has among almoft all nations been regarded
as an emblem of vi&ory, and afiigned as the reward of
it. The reafon wdiy this tree was adopted, and made
ufe of to reprefent victory, is faid to be, becaufe it
is fo elaftic, that if preffed by the great weight, it
will rife fuperior to the preffure, and be able to re-
ftore itfelf to its former ftate, appearing almoft invin¬
cible.
PALM-Sunday, in the Chriftian church, the Sunday
next before Eafter; being fo called in memory of
eur Saviour’s triumphal entry into Jerufalem, when the
multitude that attended him ftrewed branches on his way.
The ancients had other names for this day. For, I.
They call it Dominica Competentium, i. e. Sunday of
the Competentes •, becaufe on that day the catechumens
capie to afk the bifhop leave to be admitted to baptifm,
which was conferred the Sunday following. They had
alfo then given them the fymbol or credo, to get off by
heart, to be repeated to the bifhop in the ceremony of
baptifm. 2. They called it Capitiluvium, the Sunday
of rvafhing the head} becaufe thofe who were to be bap¬
tized the following Sunday were prepared by wafhing
their heads on this day. Some time afterwards they
called it Indulgence Sunday, becaufe the emperors and
patriarchs ufed to diftribute gifts on that day.
PALM-Tree. See Phoenix, Botany Index.
PALMA, or PALMA Nova, a very ftrong town of
Italy, in Friuli, in the territory of Venice. It is a very
important place, for the defence of the Venetians againft
the Auftrians and Turks} and was built in 1593, ^or
4 ] PAL
that very purpofe. They have cut a canal near this Palma
place, which is very advantageous. It is feated on p ^ H
the fea fide, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Udino, and c c a V 'I’4
north-eaft of Venice. E. Long. .3. 15. N.
46. 2.
Palma, an ifland in the Atlantic ocean, and one of
the Canaries, 56 miles north-weft of Gomera, and about
75 in circumference. It abounds in wine and fugar j
and has a handfome town of the fame name, which car¬
ries on a trade in wine to the Weft Indies and other
parts. Their beft vines grow in a foil called the Brenia,
where they make 12,000 butts of wine every year, .
which is well known by the name of palm wine. There
is plenty of cattle, and all forts of fruits. In 1625 a
volcano broke out in this ifland, with a moft violent
earthquake •, the flame was feen for fix wTeeks toge¬
ther, and a great quantity of afhes were thrown as
far as Teneriffe. It was conquered by the Spaniards
in 1460.
PALMiE, Palms. LTnder this name Linnaeus has
arranged feveral genera, which, although capable of a
place in feparate claffes of his fyftem, he choofes ra¬
ther, on account of their lingular ftnufture, to place
apart, in an appendix to the work.—See Botany In¬
dex.
The fame plants conftitute one of the feven families
or tribes into which all vegetables are diftributed by
Linmeus in his Philofophia Botanica. They are defined
to be plants with fimple Hems, which at their fummit
bear leaves refembling thofe of the ferns, being a
compofition of a leaf and a branch; and whofe flowers
and fruit are produced on that particular receptacle
or feat called a fpadix, protruded from a common ca¬
lyx in form of a flieath or fcabbard, termed by Linnae¬
us fpatha.
Palmer is likewife the name of the firft order in Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
PALMARIS muscle, in Anatomy. See there,
Table of the Mufcles.
PALMATED, fomething refembling the fliape
of the hand: thus we fay, palmated leaves, roots,
ftones, &c.
PALMERSTON’S Island, fituated in the South
Seas, which Captain Cook vifited in his fecond and laft
voyages. It confifts of a group of fmall iflets, nine or
ten in number, connefted by a reef of coral rocks, and
lying in a circular diredtion. It admits of no anchor¬
age, nor are there any inhabitants on it, though it
abounds with cocoa nuts, fcurvy grafs, and the wharra
tree. This ifland is not more than a mile in circumfe¬
rence, and is not elevated above three feet above the
level of the fea. It confifts entirely of a coral fand,
with a fmall mixture of blackilh mould, which appear¬
ed to be produced from rotten vegetables. “ At one
part of the reef (fay our navigators), which bounds the
lake within, almoft even with the furface, there w7as a
large bed of coral, which afforded a moft enchanting
profpedL Its bafe, which wras fixed to the fhore, ex¬
tended fo far that it could not be feen, fo that it appear¬
ed to be fufpended in the water. Even this delightful
fcene was greatly improved by the multitude of fiflies
that gently glided along, feemingly with the moft per-
feft fecurity. Their colours wrere the moft beautiful
that can be imagined, blue, yellow, black, red, &c. far
excelling any thing that can be produced by art. The
richnels
PAL [7
Palmiptdfcsnchnefs of this fubmarine grotto was greatly increafed
II by tiieir various for.rs j and the u'hole could not pofli-
a 1>ri>ra' bly be furveyed without a pleafing tranfport, accompa¬
nied at the lame time with regret, that a work lb alto-
niihingly elegant Ihould be concealed in a place fo fel-
dom explored by the human eye.” E. Long. 196. 35.
S. Lat. 18. 8. r-
PALMIPEDES, among ornithologiils, the fame
with web-footed birds. See Ornithology.
PALMISTRY, a kind of divination, or rather a
deceitful art prattifed by gypfies, who pretend to foretel
events by looking upon the lines and marks of the hand.
PALM US, a long meafure ufed both by the Greeks
and Romans. The Grecian palmus was of two forts ;
the greater, which contained nine finger breadths, and
the lefs which contained four. The Roman palmus was
alfo of two forts •, the greater, which contained twelve
finger breadths, or eight inches and a half Englilh 5 and
the lefs, which contained four finger breadths, or near
three inches Englifh.—The great palmus was taken
from the length of the hand or fpan j the lefs from the
breadth of it. The Greek palmus was called doran.
See Measure.
PALMYRA, or Tadmor, a noble city of ancient
Syria, now in ruins, the origin of whofe name is un¬
certain. Neither is it well known by whom this city
was built ; for though, from the identity of the names,
it is thought by many to have been the Tadmor in the
wi/dernefs built by Solomon *, this point, however, is
* x Kings, much controverted by many learned men. For the
ix. 18. and vvorld have been long and juftly alloniihed to find in the
viiihr0I'ind defert of Syria, at a diftance from the fea, with a very
Jofephus” precarious and fcanty fupply of water only, and without
Ant. Jud. a particular connexion with any great monarchy, ruins
lib. i. of a city more extenfive and fplendid than Rome itlelf,
the depofitary of all the arts which Greece in its moil
flouriihing periods could afford. The problem is an in¬
tricate one ; yet wThen we diveft it of many of its diffi¬
culties, we (hall bring this ffupendous prodigy to no ve¬
ry uncommon magnitude. The coaft of Syria was in
very early ages rich and populous ; and either from the
conveniency of procuring water, or from the vicinity of
India and Egypt, the population, inftead of increafing
on the mountains, extended to Judea, and from thence
through it$ plains only to the internal parts. The ruins
of this numerous people, and of their habitations, re¬
main ; but as their edifices were not uncommonly fplen¬
did, or, as the caufes of their deftruflion were powerful,
they have not attracled much attention. ^ et the ruins
of more than 30 towns are difcoverable to the fouth-
eaft of the Dead Sea, and from thence towards Tadmor
or Palmyra ; we know the caufe of the deftrudtion of
thefe towns, and we know that it did not reach Palmy¬
ra. This fplendid city was not, therefore, infulated in
a mafs of fand : it was probably a link of a continued
chain of population, or perhaps its termination. The
fituations of towns in the fandy defert muff neceffarily
be determined by local advantages. Tadmor is fituated
where two hills converge, and beyond the point where
they approach. Thefe hills afforded water, that necef/
fary aid to animal life ; and the aquedufls through
which it was brought from them were difcovered and
defcribed by Mr Wood. Though the other towns now
in ruins afford fome remains of luxury and opulence, yet
in thefe refpefls they are much inferior to Palmyra j and
15 ] p A . L
this deferves to be explained. Palmyra was undoubted- Palmyra,
ly very ancient. “ The two fprings of frefh water it v
poffeffes (fays Volney f) were, above all, a powerful in- ^ j .aveis
ducement in a defert everywhere elfe fo parched and
barren. Thele, doubtlefs, were the two principal mo- Syria and
lives which drew the attention of Solomon, and induced Egypt.
that commercial prince to carry his arms fo remote
from the limits of Judea.” “ He built llrong walls
there (fays the hillorian Jofephus), to fecure himfelf in
the poffeffion, and named it Tadmor, which fignifies the
Place of Palm trees.” Hence it has been inferred that
Solomon was its firft founder \ but we fliould, from this
paffage, be rather led to conclude that it wTas already a
place of known importance. The palm trees he found
there are not the trees of uninhabited countries. Prior *
to the days of Mofes, the journeys of Abraham and Ja¬
cob from Mefopotamia into Syria, fufficiently prove a
communication between thefe countries, which muff;
foon have made Palmyra flourilh. The cinnamon and (
pearls mentioned in the time of the Hebrew legiffator,
demonftrate a trade w'ith India and the Perfian gulf,
which muff; have been carried on by the Euphrates and
Palmyra. At this diftance of time, when the greater
part of the monuments of thefe early ages have perilh-
ed, wre are liable to form very falfe opinions concerning
the Hate of thefe countries in thofe remote times, and
are the more eafily deceived, as we admit as hiftorical
fadls antecedent events of an entirely different character.
If wre obferve, howrever, that men in all ages are united
by the fame interefts and the fame defires, we cannot
help concluding, that a commercial intercourfe muff ear¬
ly have taken place between one nation and another, and
that this intercourfe muff have been nearly the fame
with that of more modern times. Without, therefore,
going higher than the reign of Solomon, the invafion of
Tadmor by that prince is fafficient alone to throw a
great light on the hiftory of this city. The king of
Jerufalem would never have carried his attention to fo
diftant and detached a fpot, without fome powerful mo¬
tive of intereft ; and this intereft could be no other than
that of an extenfive commerce, of which this place was
already the emporium. This commerce extended itfelf
to India ; and the Perfian gulf w7as the principal point
of union.”
From the nature of the commodities, from the requi-
fite afliftance of the Tyrians, and other forcible argu¬
ments, M. Volney ffiow’s that the Perfian gulf was the
centre of the moft ancient commerce of the eaftem
world j and that it wras with a view of obtaining a
fhorter route, by means of the Euphrates, that Solomon
turned his attention to Tadmor, diffant but three days
journey from it. Our author goes on, “ We may even
reafonably conjecture, when we refleft on the revolutions
of the following ages, that this commerce became a
principal caufe of thofe various wars in Lower Afia, for
which the barren chronicles of thofe early times affign
no motives. If, after the reign of Solomon, the Affy-
rians of Nineveh turned their ambitious views towards
Chaldea, and the lowrer part of the Euphrates, it was
with the intention to approach that great fource of opu¬
lence the Perfian gulf. If Babylon, from being the
vaffal of Nineveh, in a fhort time became her rival, and
the feat of a new empire, it xvas becaufe her fituation
rendered her the emporium of this lucrative trade ; in
ftiort, if the kings of this great city waged perpetual-
4X2 • wars
PAL [71
Palmyra, wars with Jerufalem and Tyre, their objeft was not on-
v " ly to defpoil thefe cities of their riches, but to prevent
their invading their trade by the way of the Red fea.
An hiftorian who has informed us that Nabuchodonofor,
before he laid fiege to Jerufalem, took pofleflion of Tad-
mor, clearly indicates that the latter city afted in con¬
cert with the two neighbouring capitals. Their gradu¬
al decline became, under the Periian empire, and the
fuccelfors of Alexander, the efficient caufe of the hid¬
den greatnefs of Palmyra in the time of the Parthians
and Romans 5 (he then enjoyed a long peace for many
centuries, which allowed her inhabitants to ereft thofe
monuments of opulence wffiofe ruins we hill admire.”
If the former obfervations ffiowTed the conneftion of this
remote fpot with a more populous country, thefe remarks
explain the caufe of the renovation, and of the magnifi¬
cence of this city. Our author’s remarks are at leaft
probable, and are, in our opinion, very convincing.
Cairo, in another, probably a fubordinate route, never
attained the fplendour of Palmyra •, but the genius
of the Egyptians, perhaps the laws of Egypt, prevent¬
ed it.
There is, however, no authentic hiftory of Palmyra
till after the captivity of the Roman emperor Valerian
by the Perfians. It is firft mentioned by the Roman
hiflorians, as a place which Mark Antony attempted to
plunder, upon pretence that it had not obferved a juft
neutrality between the Romans and Parthians. Pliny
takes notice of it as being fituated in a rich foil, among
pleafant ftreams, and totally leparated from the reft of
the world by a vaft fandy defert, wffiich had preferved
its independence between Parthia and Rome. There is
ftill a confiderable fpot of good foil next the town and
on the hills; and even in the wildemefs, there wTere
palms and fig trees, fome of which remained till the
latter end of the 17th century, though not one is now
to be found.
After the captivity of Valerian, it w'as become an
opulent city, to which its fituation in the vicinity of the
Roman and Parthian empires greatly contributed ; as
the caravans, in going to or returning from the eaft, fre¬
quented the place, and thus rendered it a confiderable
feat of merchandife. It enjoyed an independency till
the time of Trajan •, who, having made himfelf mafter
of almoft all the Parthian empire, reduced Palmyra
likewife, and it wras aftenvards accounted part of the
Roman dominions. Rut when the defeat and capti¬
vity of Valerian had fo much weakened the empire, that
the Perfians feemed to be in a fair way of becoming
matters of all the eaftern provinces, the Palmyrenians
began to entertain thoughts of recovering their liberty.
Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, fent a very refpeftable
letter to Sapor on his return, accompanied with confi¬
derable prefents •, but by that haughty conqueror his
letter and embafly were treated with the moft provoking
contempt. The prefents were thrown into the Eu¬
phrates : and to his letter Sapor replied, That his info-
lence in prefuming to write to his lord wras inexcufable *,
but if he could atone for it in any wTay, it would be by
prefenting himfelf before the throne, bound hand and
foot, in token of a confcioufnefs of his crime, and the
puniffiment he deferved. With this injurious treatment
Odenathus was fo provoked, that he fwore either to
bring down the pride of the haughty conqueror, or die
in the attempt. Accordingly, having affembled what
6 ] PAL
forces he could, he fell upon the Perfians, deftroyed a Palmyra*,
number of them, took a great part of their baggage, and —y—
fome of the king’s concubines. Of the wrar of Odena¬
thus with the Perfians, however, we know very little :
only that though the latter wrere often vanquiffied and
the independency of Palmyra eftabliffied for the pre¬
lent ; yet Valerian was never releafed from his captivi¬
ty, though Odenathus earneftly wilhed to have the ho¬
nour of refcuing him from his enemies.
Odenathus enjoyed his fovereignty but a very ffiort
time •, being murdered by his nephew, wffio was foon af¬
ter put to death by Zenobia the wife of Odenathus.
This lady is faid to have been poffeffed of very extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, being, ac¬
cording tmMr (Gibbon, almoft the only Afiatic woman
who is recorded to have overcome the obftacles arifing
from the confined fituation of the fair fex in that part
of the wrorld. Immediately on taking vengeance for
the murder of her hulband, Ihe aflumed the govern¬
ment, and foon ftrengthened herfelf fo much, that flie
refolved to fubmit neither to the Roman nor Perfian
power. The neighbouring ftates of Arabia, Armenia,
and Perfia, dreaded her enmity, and folicited her alli¬
ance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extend¬
ed from the Euphrates to the frontiers of Eithynia, his
widow added the inheritance of her anceftors, the popu¬
lous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. The emperor
Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was content, that,
w hile he purfued the Gothic war, ffie Ihould affert the
dignity of the empire in the eaft. The conduft, how*-
ever, of Zenobia, was attended with dome ambiguity j
nor is it unlikely that fhe had conceived the defign of
ereding an independent and hoftile monarchy. She
blended with the popular manners of Roman princes the
ftately pomp of the courts of Afia, and exafted from her
fubjeds the fame adoration that wras paid to the fuccef-
fors of Cyrus. She bellowed on her three fons a Latin
education, and often ffiow'ed them to the troops adorned
with the imperial purple. For herfelf Ihe referved the
diadem, with the fplendid but doubtful title of ^ueen of
the eaji.
When Aurelian palfed over into Afia, againft an ad-
verfary whofe fex alone could render her an objedl of
contempt, his prefence reftored obedience to the province
of Bithynia, already ffiaken by the arms and intrigues of
Zenobia. Advancing at the head of his legions, he ac¬
cepted the fubmiffion of Ancyra ; and was admitted in¬
to Tyana, after an obftinate fiege, by the help of a per¬
fidious citizen. The generous, though fierce temper of
Aurelian, abandoned the traitor to the rage of the fol-
diers : a fuperftitious reverence induced him to treat
with lenity the countrymen of Apollonius the philofo-
pher. Antioch was deferted on his approach 5 till the
emperor, by his falutary edi&s, recalled the fugitives,
and granted a general pardon to all who, from neceffity
rather than choice, had been engaged in the fervice of
the Palmyrenian queen. The unexpedled mildnefs of
fuch a condufl reconciled the minds of the Syrians, and
as far as the gates of Emefa, the wdffies of the . people
feconded the terror of his arms.
Zenobia would have ill deferved her reputation, had
fire indolently permitted the emperor of the Weft to
approach within too miles of her capital. The fate of
the Eaft wTas decided in twm great battles; fo fimilar in
almoft every circumftance, that we can fcarcely diftin-
guiliv
PAL [7
Palmyra, guifh them from each other, except by obferving that
    the firil was fought near Antioch, and the fecond near
Emefa. In both, the queen of Palmyra animated the
armies by her prefence, and devolved the execution of
her orders on Zabdas, who had already fignalized his
military talents by the conquefl: of Egypt. The nume¬
rous forces of Zenobia confifted for the moll part of
light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in complete
Heel. The Moorilh and Illyrian horfe of Aurelian
were unable to fuftain the ponderous charge of their an-
tagonitls. They fled in real or affefted diforder, enga¬
ged the Palmyrenians in a laborious purfuit, harafled
them by a defultory combat, and at length difcomfited
this impenetrable but unwieldy body of cavalry. The
light infantry, in the mean time, when they had exhauft-
ed their quivers, remaining without proteftion againlt a
clofer onfet, expofed their naked fides to the fwords of
the legions. Aurelian had chofen thefe veteran troops,
who were ufually llationed on the Upper Danube, and
whofe valour had been feverely tried in the Allemannic
war. After the defeat of Emefa, Zenobia found it im-
poflible to collect a third army. As far as the frontier
of Egypt, the nations fubjeft to her empire had joined
the ftandard of the, conqueror ; who detached Probus,
the braveft of his generals, to pofiefs himfelf of the
Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the laft refource of
the widow of Odenathus. She retired within the walls
of her capital *, made every preparation for a vigorous
refiflance j and declared with the intrepidity of a hero¬
ine, that the lafl: moment of her reign and of her life
fliould be the fame.
In his march over the fandy defert, between Emefa and
Palmyra, the emperor Aurelian was perpetually harafled
by the Arabs ; nor could be always defend his army, and
efpecially his baggage, from thofe flying troops of a&ive
and daring robbers, who watched the moment of furprife,
and derided the flow purfuit of the legions. The liege of
Palmyra was an objeft far more difficult and important j
and the emperor, who with inceffant vigour preffed the
the attacks in perfon, was himfelf wounded with a dart.
“ The Roman people, (fays Aurelian in an original let¬
ter), fpeak with contempt of the war which I am wa¬
ging againfl: a woman. They are ignorant both of the
character and of the power of Zenobia. It is impoffi-
ble to enumerate her warlike preparations, of Hones, of
arrows, and of every fpecies of miffile weapons. Every
part of the walls is provided with two or three baliflse,
and artificial fires are thrown from her military engines.
The fear of puniffiment has armed her with a defperate
courage. Yet I trufl Hill in the protefling deities of
Rome, who have hitherto been favourable to all my un¬
dertakings.” Doubtful, horwever, of the protection of
the gods, and of the event of the fiege, Aurelian jud¬
ged it more prudent to offer terms of an advantageous
capitulation : to the queen, a fplendid retreat; to the
citizens, their ancient privileges. His propofals were
obflinately rejeded, and the refufal was accompanied
with infult.
Jffie firmnefs of Zenobia was fupported by the hope
that in a very ffiort time famine would compel the Ro¬
man army to repafs the defert •, and by the reafonable
expectation that the kings of the Eaft, and particularly
the Perfian monarch, would arm in the defence of their
moft natural ally. But fortune, and the perfeverance
of Aurelian, overcame every obffacle. The death of
7 1 p A. 11 .
Sapor, which happened about this time, diflraCted the Palmyra.-
councils of Perfia ; and the inconfiderable fuccours that v~—
attempted to relieve Palmyra were eafily intercepted ei¬
ther by the arms or the liberality of the emperor.
From every part of Syria a regular fucceffion of con¬
voys fafely arrived in the camp, which was increafed by
the return of Probus with his victorious troops from the
conqueff of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia refolved
to fly. She mounted the fleetefl of her dromedaries j
and had already reached the banks of the Euphrates,
about 60 miles from Palmyra, when Are was overtaken
by the purfuit of Aurelian’s light-horfe, feized, and
bfrought back a captive to the feet of the emperor.
Her capital foon after furrendered, and was treated with
unexpected lenity. The arms, horfes, and camels, with
an immenfe treafure of gold, filver, lilk, and precious
Hones, were all delivered to the conqueror j who, lea¬
ving only a garrifon of 600 archers, returned to Emefa,
and employed fome time in the diffribution of rewards
and puniffiments at the end of fo memorable a war,
which reflored to the obedience of Rome thofe provin¬
ces that had renounced their allegiance fince the capti¬
vity of Valerian.
When the Syrian queen was brought into the pre¬
fence of Aurelian, be Hernly alked her, How ffie had
prefamed to rife in arms againfl the emperors of Rome ?
The anfwer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of re-
fpeft and firmnefs: “ Becaufe I difdained to confider as
Roman emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone
I acknowledge as my conqueror and my fovereign.”
But as female fortitude is commonly artificial, fo it is
feldom Ready or confiftent. The courage of Zenobia
deferted her in the hour of trial 5 ffie trembled at the
angry clamours of the foldiers, who called aloud for her
immediate execution ; forgot the geneixais defpair of
Cleopatra, which flie had propofed as her model; and
ignominioufly purchafed life by the facrifice of her fame
and her friends. It was to their councils, which govern¬
ed the weaknefs of her fex, that flie imputed the guilt
of her obftinate refiftance 5 it was on their heads that
flie direCled the vengeance of. the cruel Aurelian. The
fame of Longinus, who was included among the nume¬
rous and perhaps innocent victims of her fear, will fur-
vive that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who
condemned him. Genius and learning were incapable
of moving a fierce unlettered foldier, but they had fer-
ved to elevate and harmonife the foul of Longinus.
Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the
executioner, pitying his unhappy miflrefs, and beftow-
ing comfort on his afflicted friends.
Returning from the conquefl: of the Eaft, Aurelian
had already croffed the ftraits which divide Europe
from Afia, when he was provoked by the intelligence
that the Palmyrenians had maffacred the governor and
garrifon which he had left among them, and again
erefted the ftandard of revolt. Without a moment’s
deliberation, he once more turned his face towards
Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach,
and the helplefs city of Palmyra felt the irrefiftable
weight of his refentment. We have a letter of Aure¬
lian himfelf, in which he acknowledges, that old men, -
women, children, and peafants, had been involved in
that dreadful execution, which ffiould have been con¬
fined to armed rebellion : and although his principal
concern feems dire&ed to the re-eftabliflunent of a •
temple
PAL [ 71
Palmyra, temple of the fun, he difcovers fume pity for the rem-
“—v  nant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the per-
miffion of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it
is eafier to deftroy than to reftore. The feat of com¬
merce, of arts, and of Zenobia, gradually funk into
an obfcure town, a trifling fortrefs, and at length a mi-
ferable village.
Little is known concerning the fortunes of Palmyra
fince the time of Mahomet, except that it was confi-
dered as a place of ftrength : and that in the 12 th
century there were 2000 Jews in it. With refpedl
to the ruins, they appeared to be of two different and
diftin£t periods j the oldeft are fo far decayed as not to
admit of menfuration, and look as if they had been re¬
duced to that ftate by the hand of time •, the others ap¬
pear to have been broken into fragments by violence.
Of the infcriptions none are earlier than the birth of
Chrift, and none are later than the deftruftion of the
city by Aurelian, except one, which mentions Diocle-
fian.
Mr Wood is of opinion, that the face of the coun¬
try which furrounds Palmyra was always the fame }
but though Palmyra was always faid to be fltuated
in a wildernefs, it does not follow that the wildernefs
was always of the fame extent: It is perhaps more
probable, that when Palmyra was firft fettled, the
rich foil mentioned by Pliny extended much farther •,
for whatever wrere the reafons for making a fettlement
there, Palmyra can fcarcely be fuppofed to have in¬
vited a greater number of people than it could feed.
The palms and fig trees that wxre formerly found on
the hills, and in the borders of the defert, that are now
totally barren, confirm this opinion. Mr Wood ob-
ferves, that while he was there a whirlwind happened,
which took up fuch quantities of fand as quite darken¬
ed the Iky •, this fand therefore might by degrees en¬
croach upon the fertile environs of Palmyra, and re¬
duce the number of inhabitants as it reduced their fuf-
tenance, till the few wretched families only were left,
who found it difficult to furniifi food for Mr Wood and
his company, though they did not continue longer than
a fortnight among them. It will alfo appear from hi¬
lt ory, that what is fuppofed to have happened here has
happened at other places, where fuch an event w^as
* Memoirs much lefs probable. * On the fea coaft in the neigh-
of French bourhood of St Pol de Leon,, in Lower Bretagne, there
is a confiderable traft of land which before the year
1666 was inhabited, but which was rendered uninha¬
bitable by a fand, which encroaching every year, co¬
vered it to the depth of above 20 feet. In the year
1718 it had advanced more than fix leagues, and within
one league of St Pol 5 fo that it was then thought pro¬
bable that the town would of neceflity be abandoned.
This fand is raifed by the eaft or north-eafi: wind, which
drives it in clouds with great fwiftnefs, and in a pro¬
digious quantity. It was alfo attefted by the captain
of a {hip, and all on board, that in the year 1719 there
fell in the Atlantic ocean, at 15 degrees of north la¬
titude, and at the diftance of more than eight leagues
from any land, a {bower of fand, fome of which they
produced, and depofited in the academy at Paris -f.
The company "with whom Mr Wood, the publifher
of the Ruins of Palmyra, travelled, arrived at length
at the end of the plain, where a ridge of barren hills,
by which it was divided on the right and left, feexned
2
8 ]
PAL
Academy
for 1718,
i Hijl. of
the Acad.
177s.
to meet j between them there was a vale, through Palmyra,
which an aqueduft formerly conveyed water to Pa- v
myra. On each fide of this vale they remarked feve-
ral fepulchres of the ancient Palmyrenes, which they
had fcarce palled, when the hills opening on a hidden,
they difcovered fuch piles of ruin as they had never
feen. They were all of white marble j and beyond
them, towards the Euphrates, was a wide level, hretch-
ing farther than the eye could reach, totaddy dcfolate,
without variety, and without bounds. After having
gazed fome time upon this profpeft, which rather ex¬
ceeded than fell (hort of their expectations, they were
conducted to one of the huts of the Arabs, of which
there are about 30 in the court of the great temple.
The inhabitants of both fexes were well lhaped, and
the women, though very fwarthy, had good features.
They were veiled', but did not fo fcrupuloufly conceal
their faces as the eaftern women generally do. They
paint the ends of their fingers red, their lips blue, and
their eyebrows and eyclaflies black. I hey had large
rings of gold or brafs in their ears ahd noftrils, and ap¬
peared to be healthy and robufl:. The walls of the
city are flanked by fquare towyers, into which fome an¬
cient funeral monuments have been converted } but the
walls are in mofl: places level with the ground, and
fometimes not to be traced. It is, however, probable*
by their general dire&ion, that they included the great
temple, and are three miles in circumference. The
Arabs {bowed a traft which was near ten miles in cir¬
cumference, the foil of which was raifed a little above
the level of the defert : this, they faid, was the extent
of the old city j and that by digging in any part of it
ruins were difcovered.
Thefe ruins confift of temples, palaces, and porti¬
coes of Grecian architecture } and lie fcattered over
an extent of feveral miles. They were accidental]^
difcovered by fome Englifti travellers from Aleppo
fomewhat more than a century ago. By far the mofl.
remarkable of them is the Temple of the Sun, of which
the ruins are fpread over a fquare of 220 yards. It
was encompaffed with a {lately wall, built of large
fquare ftones, and adorned with pilafters within and
without, to the number of 62 on a fide. Within the
court are the remains of two rows of very noble marble
pillars 37 feet high, with their capitals of moft exqui-
fite workmanfhip. Of thefe only 58 remain entire ;
but there muft have been many more, for they appear
to have gone round the wdiole court, and to have fup-.
ported a double piazza. The walks on that fide of
the piazza which is oppofite to the front of the caftie
feem to have been the mofl fpacious and beautiful.
At each end of this line are two niches for ftatues,
with their pcdeftals, borders, fupporters, and canopies,
carved with the utmoft propriety and elegance. The
fpace wdthin this inclofure, which is now filled wdth
the dirty huts of the inhabitants, feems to have been
an open court, in the middle of which flood the temple,
encompaffed with another row of pillars of a different
order, and much taller, being co feet high ; but .of
thefe 16 only remain. The whole fpace contained
within thefe pillars is 59 yards in length, and near 28
in breadth. The temple is no more than 33 yards in
length, and 13 or 14 in breadth. It points north and
fouth ; and exaftly into the middle of the building, on
the wefl fide, is a moft magnificent entry, on the re¬
mains
Tlate C CC CI11.
PAL M TTKA. .
(rf’/Zu*
PAL r 7
Palmyra, mains of winch are fome vines and cinders of grapes,
-—v—- carved in the moil bold and maflerly imitation of na¬
ture that can be conceived. Juft over the door are
difcerned a pair of wings, which extend its whole
breadth : the body to which they belonged is totally
deftroyedj and it cannot now certainly be known
wdiether it was that of an eagle or a cherub, feveral
reprefentations of both being viftble on other frag¬
ments of the building. It is obferved of the windows
of this building, which were not large, that they were
narrower at the top than below. The north end of
the building is adorned with the moft curious fret-work
and bas-relief ; and in the middle there is a dome or
cupola about ten feet diameter, which appears to have
been either hewn out of the rock, or moulded to fome
compofition which by time is grown equally hard.
North of this place is an obelilk, conlifting of feven
large ftones, befides its capital and the wreathed work
about it. It is about 50 feet high ; and, juft above the
pedeftal, is 1 2 feet in circumference. There was pro¬
bably a ftatue upon it, which the Turks, in their zeal
again ft idolatry, deftroyed. At about the diftance of a
quarter of a mile from this pillar, to the eaft and weft,
are two others, befides the fragment of a third } fo that
perhaps they were originally a continued row.
About too paces from the middle obelifk, ftraight
forward, is a magnificent entry to a piazza, which is
40 feet broad, and more than half a mile in length,
inclofed with two rows of marble pillars 26 feet high,
and eight or nine feet in compafs. Of thefe there ftill
remain 129 •, and, by a moderate computation, there
could not originally have been lefs than 560. The
upper end of the piazza was Ihut in by a row of pil¬
lars, Handing fomewhat clofer than thofe on each fide.
A little to the left are the ruins of a ftately building,
which appears to have been a banqueting-houfe. It is
built of better marble, and is finiftred with yet greater
•elegance, than the piazza. The pillars which fup-
ported it were of one entire ftone, which is fo ftrong,
that one of them which is fallen down has received
no injury. It meafures 22 feet in length, and in com¬
pafs 8 feet 9 inches. In the weft fide of the piazza
are feveral apertures for gates into the court of the
palace. Each of thefe was adorned with four por¬
phyry pillars, not Handing in a line with thofe of the
wall, but placed by couples in the front of the gate
facing the palace, two on each fide. Two of thefe
only remain entire, and but one Handing in its place.
They are 30 feet long and 9 in circumference. On
the eaft fide of the piazza Hands a great number of
marble pillars, fome perfecf, but the greater part mu¬
tilated. In one place 11 are ranged together in a
fquare: the fpace which they inclofe is paved with
. broad flat ftones, but there are no remains of a roof.
At a little diftance are the remains of a fmall temple,
which is alfo without a roof, and the walls are much
defaced. Before the entry, which looks to the fouth,
is a piazza fupported by fix pillars, two on each fide
of the door, and one at each end. The pedeftals of,
thofe in front have been filled with infcriptions both
in the Greek and Palmyrene languages^ which are be¬
come totally illegible. Among thefe ruins are many
fcpulchres: they are ranged on each fide of a hollow
way, toward the north part of the city, and extend
more than a mile. They are all fquare towers, four
19 ] PAL
or five ftones high. But though they are alike in Palmyra,
form, yet they differ greatly in magnitude and fplen- ' ^ “
dour. The outfide is of common ftone, but the floors
and partitions of each-ftory are marble.' There is a
walk acrofs the whole building, juft in the middle ; and
the fpace on each hand is fubdivided into fix partitions
by thick walls. The fpace between the partitions is
wide enough to receive the largeft corpfe j and in thefe
niches there are fix or feven piled upon one another.
Many infcriptions have been found at Palmyra,
which have occupied much of the attention of the
learned j and if any thing certain could be derived
from them, there is no doubt but they would tend
very confiderably to the elucidation of ancient hiftory.
See Barthelemy’s Reflections on the Palmyrene Al¬
phabet, publiflied at Paris in 17545 and An Explica¬
tion of the Infcriptions at Palmyra hitherto publiftied,
by John Swinton of Chrift-church, Oxford. See alfo
Phil. Tranf. N° 217. and 218.5 the firft volume of the
Ancient Univerfal Hiftory 5 and, above all, confult the
Ruins of Palmyra, or Tadmor in the Defert, publiflied by
Mr R. Wood, who, with M. Bouverie and Mr Dawkins,
travelled thither in 1751. The refult of their obfer-
vations was publiflied in 1753, in the form, of an atlas.
The ruins of this once mighty and celebrated city are
reprefented in 57 copperplates, 16 by 12 inches, print¬
ed on imperial paper. They are admirably executed 5
the drawing is correft and mafterly 5 and the engraving gee pjate
highly finilhed: nor can they fail to give fatisfadlion CCCCIII.
to thofe who are connoiffeurs in the art, or to thofe who
delight in the labours of antiquity.
Palmyra was vifited by Mr Bruce before his journey
into Abyffinia; but, on account of tilt many publica¬
tions concerning thefe celebrated ruins, he has declined
faying much concerning them. He informs us, that,
before he came in fight of the ruins, he afcended a hill
of white gritty ftone, in a very narrow winding road,
fuch as is called a pafs 5 but on getting up to the top
his eyes were ftruck with the moft ftupendous fight
which, he believes, ever mortal faw. The whole plain
below, which is very extenfive, was fo covered with
magnificent buildings, that they feemed to touch one
another. All of them are finely proportioned, agree¬
ably fhaped, and compofed of white ftones, which at
that diftance appeared like marble. In taking a
draught of thefe ruins, Mr Bruce divided the whole
into fix angular views, for which the fituation of the
place is very convenient. The columns are all unco¬
vered to the very bafes, the ground on which they are
built being hard and folid. The views he took were
upon large paper 5 fome of the columns being repre¬
fented a foot long, and fome of the figures in the fore¬
ground of the Temple of the Sun (a magnificent build¬
ing which flood at one end of fhe town) being near
four inches. Before he left Palmyra he obferved its
latitude with a reflefting quadrant of Hadley 5 but as
the inftrument was out of order, he could not determine
it exaflly. In his opinion, however, 330 58' is not far
diftant from truth. From fuch obfervations as he could
make on the longitude, he conclude4 it to be- 370 9'
eaft from Greenwich. Mr R. Wood makes the latitude
340 north.
From Palmyra Mr Bruce proceeded to Baalbec, di¬
ftant about 130 miles, where he found ruins ftill more
magnificent. The interior part of the great temple
at
PAM [ 720 ] PAN
Palpable at this place, according to our author, furpafles any
pr Jjthing he had feen at Palmyra, or anywhere elfe. “ All
» ^ *' l‘_' thefe views of Palmyra and Baalbec .(fays he) are now
in the king’s collection. They are the molt magnifi¬
cent offering, in their line, that ever was made by one
fubjeCt to his fovereign.”—In the neighbourhood of
Palmyra are fome fait-marlhes j and to the adjacent
country a trade is carried on in kelp from Tripoli in
Syria. There are two Arab tribes, almoft equally
powerful *, one of them, called Annecy, remarkable for
the fineft horfes in the world. They poffefs the country
to the fouth-well, at the back of .Libanus, about Boz-
rah, and fouthward towards the borders of Arabia Pe-
traea and Mount Horeb. The other tribe, named
Mowalli, inhabit the plains eaft from Damafcus, to the
Euphrates, and north to near Aleppo. They are ferver
in number than the Annecy, but much better foldiers $
and their breed of horfes not greatly inferion
RefpeCting the latitude and longitude there are ftill
various opinions: that which appears to be nearelt the
truth is E. Long. 38. 50. N. Lat. 33. 20. It Hands
about 50 leagues fouth-eaft of Aleppo, as much from
Damafcus, and 20 leagues w7eft of the Euphrates.
PALPABLE, fomething perceivable by the fenfes,
particularly that of feeling.
PALPITATION of the Heart. See Medicine
Index.
PALSY. See Medicine Index.
PALUDAMENTUM, in Roman antiquity, a ha¬
bit that differed but little from the chlamys, except
that this lafl; belonged chiefly to the lower clafs of
people. It was worn by the officers and principal men
among the Romans in time of war, who are therefore
called Paludatif which diftingmfhed them from the
common foldiers, who, becaufe they wore the fagum,
were called the Sagati. The paludamentum came
down only to the navel, was open on the fides, had
fhort fleeves refembling angels wings, and was generally
white or red. It is fometimes ufed to lignify the com¬
mon foldier’s coat.
PALUS M EOT is, the ancient name of a gulf be¬
tween Europe and Afia, to the north of the Black fea,
now called the fea of Zabach, or Afoph.
PALY, or Pale, in Heraldry, is when the fhield is
divided into four or more equal parts, by perpendicular
lines falling from the top to the bottom.
PALT Bende, is when the efcutcheon is divided by
perpendicular lines? which is paly > and alfo by diago¬
nals, which is called bendy.
PAMBOUK, the Turkifh name of the ruined city
of Hierapolis. See Hierapolis.
PAMPELUNA, the capital of the kingdom of Na¬
varre in Spain, with a very ftrong citadel and rich bi-
fhopric. It is handfome and populous, and carries on a
great trade, feated in a very fertile plain, in E. Long.
I. 25. N. Lat. 42. 42.
Pampeluna, a town of New Granada in South A-
merica, famous for its gold mines and numerous flocks
of fheep. W. Long. 68. 30. N. Lat. 6. 30.
PAMPHILUS, a celebrated painter of Macedonia,
in the age of Philip. He was founder of the fchool
for painting at Sicyon ; and he made a law which was
obferved not only in Sicyon but all over Greece, that
none but children of noble and dignified perfons fliould
be permitted to learn painting. Apelles was one of his Pampli) Ira,
pupils. ^~n‘
PAMPHYLIiV, the ancient name of a country of ' v
Natolia, in Afia, now called Carimania and Cay-bay,
between Lycia and Cilicia, on the fouth coaft, to the
north of the Mediterranean fea.
PAN, the god of thepherds, hunters, and all coun¬
try exercifes. Such he is deferibed by the Greek and
Roman poets; but he bore a higher character among
the earliefi: Greeks, as well as among the Egyptians j
from whom his W’orlhip wras borrowed by that people.
In Egypt he was known by the name of Mendes,
which, according to Jablontki *, fignifies fecundity. f pantj}gon
Hence his fymbol was a living he-goat, the moft fala- ]?gypti0m
cious of all animals: “ Hircum Mendefium coluntrum.
iEgyptii, eo quod virtuti prolific* ac genitivae, con-
fecratus eft.—Nam animal hoc coitus valde cupidum
eft.” His principal temple was a magnificent build-
iag in a city of lower Egypt, called after his name.
It is well known (fee Polytheism) that from dedi¬
cating certain animals to certain gods, the Egyptians
proceeded to confider the animals themfelves as actuated
by the divinities to whom they were {acred. Hence
the origin of brute worftiip. In the temple of Mendes
was kept a he-goat, to whom lacrifices of a very mon-
ftrous kind were offered. Herodotus, fpeaking of the
praefe&ure of Mendes, fays-f-, Eyivllo 3 tv tiopu | Lib. if.
ITT tptv revro to T££«s yvvmtKt r^yog tfua-ytro ctv»<px^ov. ch. 26.
Tcvto ttr etvDg&Tr&v etTsnctTo. Our readeis, learned
and unlearned, will forgive us for not tranflating this
paffage, which contains, however, nothing that is not
confirmed by the teftimony of other Writers; particular¬
ly of Plutarch, and Pindar as he is quoted by Strabo.
The moft wonderful circumftance of this monftrous fa-
crifice is, that it was made publicly in the prefence of a
great concourfe of men ! But to what divinity wras it
made ? To a mere goat, or to fome fuperior principle
animating the goat ? Doubtlefs to the latter; for it is
faid that the fair worfliippers were of the firft rank, and
of unfpotted fame ; and that if they had borne a differ¬
ent char after, the deity would not have accepted of their
devotions.
The deity whom the Egyptians adored by the name
of Mendes, was no other than the Soul of the Uni-
verfe ; for he was their moft ancient god : and we are
told by Plutarch %, “ That they took the fivft God j De
and the Univerfe for one and the fame thing.” Hence et OJir.
his name Tlccv among the Greeks not that either
the Greeks or their mafters in theology worftiipped,
as the firft god, mere brute matter, but that fpirit
which they conceived to be coeternal with matter, and
to animate ^1 things, making them one. Thus Orpheus,
who imported the Egyptian doftrine into Greece, de¬
clares that all things are one : and after him Parmeni-
das, and other pMlofophers, taught, ev uvai ro tthv, that
“ one is the univerfe j” and that “ the univerfe is im¬
moveable.” That the ancient Grecian Pan, or the E-
gyptian Mendes, was not the corporeal world, as fenfe-
lefs and inanimate, but the whole fyftem of things, ani¬
mated and eternal, appears further from the following
teftimony of Macrobius. “ Hunc deum Arcades co¬
lunt, appellantes rev tjjj wAjjj kv^iov, non fylvarum domi-
num, fed univerf* fubftanti* materialis dominatorem •,
—The Arcadians worftiip this god, calling him the
.lord
4
PAN [ 721 ] PAN
Pan. lord of Hyle i. e. not the lord of the woods, but the
‘ v  lord of all material fubftance.” In the fame manner,
* Inter. Pharnutus * defcribes the Pan of the other Greeks, not
Tbom. Gale as tile mere corporeal world, but as the intellectual
CS Principle actuating it and preliding over it: and he adds,
rjt. ' ‘ that “ Pan was feigned to be lafeivious, becaufe of the
multitude of fper malic reafons in the world, and the
continual mixtures and generation of things.”
The Egyptians, as we learn from jablonfki, had
nearly the fame notion with the Greeks of the fpirit
which they worfhipped as the Soul of the Univerfe ;
only they gave to it both fexes. As the maker, go¬
vernor, and bountiful father of univerfal nature, they
confidered it as a male, whofe iymbol was the he-go at
of Mendes ; and as •a. female it was adored by the name
of Ifis, to whom the jhe-goat was confecrated, though
not held in fuch veneration as the male. From this
view of the Egyptian creed, the facrifice which we
have mentioned appears no longer unaccountable. It
was made to a god, believed to be the univerfal fource
of fecundity, and to whom, from the well-known
character of the animal, whom he was fuppofed to ac¬
tuate, they had reafon to believe it would be molt ac¬
ceptable.
The Greeks never worlhipped their Pan by the em¬
blem of a living goat} but they painted him with the
lower parts of a goat, for a reafon which lhall be af¬
terwards mentioned. How he came to degenerate a-
mong that people, from one of the Du majorum gentium,
or rather from the firft principle of all things, to the
rank of a daemon or demi-god, we cannot pretend to
fay : but that fuch was his fate, is certain \ for under
this lad character mention is made both of his birth and
his death.
Whofe fon he was, is not agreed among them. Ho¬
mer makes him the fon of Mercury, and fays he was call¬
ed Van from net'/, omne, becaufe he charmed all the gods
with his flute ; others fay that he W'as the fon of Demo-
gorgon, and firfl: invented the organ, of feven unequal
reeds, joined together in a particular manner: Having on
a time fought with Cupid, that god in fpite made him
fall in love with the coy nymph Syrinx, who, flying
from him to the banks of Ladon, a river of Arcadia,
at the inilant prayers of the Nymphs was turned into
a reed, as her name in Greek fignifies, which the god
grafpiug indead of her, made a pipe of it, and for his
mufic was adored by the Arcadians. The mod com¬
mon opinion was, that he was the fon of Mercury and
Penelope. But Nat. Comes, out of Duris Samius,
makes his birth fcandalous, by faying he was called ttccv,
becaufe begot by all Penelope’s fuitors. He was paint¬
ed half-man half-goat, having large goats horns, a chap¬
let of pine on his red face, a pleafant laughter, with
the feet and tail of a goat; a motley fkin covering his
body, with a cro’oked dick in one hand and his pipe
in the other. See him nicely deferibed by SiL Ital.
iy. ^26. et feq. •& fight enough to fright, women and
children, yea, armed men too ; for when Brennus the
Gaul was about to pillage the temple of Apollo at
Delphos, he by night ftruck fuch a terror into his army,
that he quitted his facrilegidus defign : hence Panici
terrorcs. Yet, as homely as he was, he pleafed the
goddefs Luna, turning himfelf eafily into a white ram,
Virgil, Georg, iii. 392. et deinceps; and the nymph
Dry ope alfo, almod putting ofi’his divinity, and turning
Vol. XV. Part II.
ftiepherd for her lake. Neither was he difpleifing to Pan-
other nymphs, who are generally made dancing round r
about him to hear the charms of his pipe. The ufual
offerings made him were milk and honey, in faepherds
wooden bowls *, alfo they facrificed to him a dog, the
wolf’s enemy ; whence his ufual epithet is Xvkccid; ; and
whence alfo his priefts were called Luperci.
His xeftival was celebrated on February 15th by the
Romans, brought into Italy by Evander the Arcadian,
and revived afterwards by Romulus, in memory of his
preferver. He was alfo called by the Romans Inuus, ab
ineundo. Vid. Liv. i. 5. Macrob. Sat. i. 21. and Serv.
in Virg. Ain. vi. 77 5. The ancients, by giving fo many
adjuncts and attributes to this idol as we have obferved
above, feem to have defigned him for the fymbol of the
univerfe 5 his upper parts being human, becaufe the up¬
per part of the world is fair, beautiful, fmiling, like bis
face ; his horns fymbolize the rays of the fun and of the
moon 5 his red face, the fplendor of the fky ; the fpot-
ted fldn wherewith, he is clothed, the ftars which be-
fpangle the firmament •, the roughnefs of his lower
parts, beafts and vegetables; his goat’s feet, the folidi-
ty of the earth ; his pipe, compact of feven reeds, the
feven planets, which they fay make the harmony of the
fpheres his crook, bending round at the top, the years
circling in one another. Serv. Interpr.
Having faid fo much of Pan, both as a felf-exiffent
god and as a generated daemon, we {ball conclude the
article with fome obfervations on Plutarch’s account
of the prodigy which happened at his death ; for in
the Pagan creed, daemons were not all believed immor¬
tal.—“ In the reign of Tiberius (fays our author*),* Lib. de
certain perfons on a voyage from Afia to Italy, and Oracul.
failing towards the evening by the Echinedes, were
there becalmed, and heard a loud voice from the fhore
calling on one Thamus an Egyptian pilot whom
they had on board. Thamus, as may be fuppofed,
liftened with attention; and the voice, after re¬
peating his name thrice, commanded him when he
came to the Pelodes, to declare that the Great Pan
was dead. The man, with the advice of his compa¬
nions, refolved, that if they fhould have a quick gale
off the Pelodes, he would pafs by in filence 5 but that
if they fhould be becalmed, be would perform what
the voice had commanded. Adhering to this refolu-
tion, they foon arrived off the deftined iflands, and were-
immediately becalmed, there being neither breath of
wind nor agitation of water. Upon this Thamus look¬
ing from the hinder part of the ihip towards the land,
pronounced with a loud voice 0 TJav nOvvxe, The
Great Pan is dead! and was inftantly anfwered from
the fhore by numberlefs bowlings and lamentations.”
This ftory, which has fo much the air of impof-
ture, has not only been admitted as truth by men of
the firft eminence for learning and acutenefs, but has
been applied to our Saviour, whofe death (fays Cud-
worth) the daemons mourned not from love, but from
a prefage that it would put a period to the tyranny
and domination which they had fo long exercifed over
the fouls and bodies of men. In fupport of this opi¬
nion, he quotes feveral paffages of Scripture, fuch as,
“ Now is the prince of this world judged and, “ Ha¬
ving fpoiled principalities and powers (by his death
upon the crofs), he triumphed over them in it.” He
affirms likewife, that “ Pan being taken for that rea-
4 Y fon
Pan.
PAN [72
fon or underftanding by wbicli all tilings were made,
* Tacit.
Annul-
cap. 72. S3,
ft lib. iii.
cap. f.
f Cud-
%vorth's
Intel. Syft.
cap. 4.
note 13;.
and by which thdy are all governed, or for that divine
wifdom which diffufeth itielf through all things, is a
name which might very well fignify God manijejled in
the jlejlj.'1''
The authority of Cudworth is great; but a ground-
lefs opinion has feldom been propped bv weaker rea-
foning than he makes uie of on this occafion. Plu¬
tarch indeed fays, and feems to believe, that this pro¬
digy fell out during the reign of Tiberius ; but as he
mentions not the year of that reign, there is no evi¬
dence that it wTas at the crucifixion of our Saviour.
The daemons who inhabited the Echinedes knew' what
had been traniacted at Jerufalem far diftant from their
illands-, they knew the name of the pilot of a ftrange
flnp j they knew that the mariners of that fliip had
refolved to difobey their command, unlefs becalmed off
the Pelodes 5 they had power over both the winds and
waves at the Pe/odes, and exerted that power to enforce
obedience to their command ; and yet thefe all-knowing
and powerful beings wrere under the neceffity of calling
in the aid of a man to deliver a meffage to their com¬
panions, inhabiting a place to which the very fame
ftory allures us that their own power and knowledge
reached. Should it be faid that the daemons were com¬
pelled by divine power thus publicly to make known to
man Ghrill’s triumph over the kingdom of darknefs, we
beg leave to atk why they were not likewife compelled
to give him another name, fmce it is certain, that at the
sera of J iberius, and long before, illiterate Pagans, fuch
as common feamen muff be fuppofed to have been, knew
no other Pan than the fabled fon of Penelope and Mer¬
cury ?—Pndeed the other Pan, taken for that reafon or
underftanding by which all things were made, could not
poftibly be the being here meant 5 for, erroneous as the
Pagan fyftem w^as, there is nothing in it fo completely
abfurd as the death of the foul of the univerfe, the
maker of all things: nor do we believe that any Pa¬
gan ever exifted, who dreamed that fuch a death was
poflible.
What then, it will be alked, are we to underftand
by this ftory > Plutarch rvas eminent for knowledge
and integrity, and he relates it without exprefling a
doubt of its truth. He does fo; but many a man of
worth has been credulous 5 and though that was not
his charafter, this prodigy may be accounted for by na¬
tural means. Germanicus was believed to have been
poifoned, at leaft with the knowledge, if not by the
command, of Tiberius \ and there was nothing which
the Romans fo deeply deplored as the untimely death
of that accomplilhed prince *. They fancied that his
body was animated, not by a human foul, but by a
fuperior daemon : and they decreed to him ftatues, re¬
ligious ceremonies, and even facrifices. His widow
was highly honoured, as having been nearly related to
a divinity, and his children w'ere adored as demi-gods.
i hefe fads being admitted, nothing appears to us
more probable than the opinion of the learned Mo-
fheimf, who thinks that fome flirewd ftatefman, in
order to excite the popular fury againft Tiberius to
the higheft pitch, invented this ftory, and bribed fo¬
reign mariners to fpread it among the people, who
would naturally believe, that by the great Pan was
meant their favourite Germanicus. This hypothefis is
st leaft countenanced by what Plutarch tells us of the
2 ] PAN
anxiety of the emperor to difcovcr what pcrfonage p,ln„,J
could be meant by the Pan whofe death was announ- ||
ced to the feamen : he confulted the learned men of Panama.
Rome, who, in order to reftore peace to the city, de- v'--"-
dared that they underftood it of none other than the
fon of Penelope and Mercury.
PANACEA, among phyficians, denotes an univer-
fal medicine, or a remedy for all difeafes j a thing im-
poffible to be obtained.
PANADA, a diet confifting of bread boiled in wa¬
ter to the confiftence of pulp, and fweetened with a lit¬
tle fugar.
PANAMA, the capital city of the province of Da¬
rien in South America, where the treafures of gold
and filver, and the other rich merchandifes of Peru, are
lodged in magazines till they are lent to Europe. W.
Long. 82. 15. N. Lat. 8. 57.
When Guzman firft touched at this place in 1514,
it confifted entirely of fii'hermen’s huts. Orius d’Avila
fettled a colony here in a few years after, and in 1521
it w'as conftituted a city by the emperor Charles V.
with the proper privileges. In 1670 it was facked and
burnt by John Morgan, an Englifh adventurer, who
had the preceding year taken Porto Hello. This mis¬
fortune induced the inhabitants to remove the city to
its prefent fituation, diftant about a league from the
place where it flood before. For the greater fecurity,
tbe rxw city was inclofed by a frce-ftone wall, and the
houles were built of ftone and brick. Since that time
feveral baftions have been added, and now there is al¬
ways a complete garrifon maintained, and the walls are
mounted with large cannon. Rut, all thefe precautions
cauld not fave this city from another misfortune ; it was
entirely confumed by fire in the year 1737. After this
accident it was again rebuilt, in the manner as it now
Hands, with neat elegant houfes, but not magnificent.
The inhabitants are rather independent in their fortunes
than rich ; there are few of them opulent, and fcarce
any in a ftate of poverty. As to the harbour, it is con¬
venient, and well {beared againft ftorms by a number of
lurrounding iflands, and is capable of containing the
largeft fleets. Here the royal audience is feated, at
which the governor of Panama refides \ for which rea¬
fon this city is commonly deemed the capital of the pro¬
vince.
This place, a little while after it was founded, be¬
came the capital of the kingdom of Terra Firma. Some
hopes were at firft entertained from the three provinces
of Panama, Darien, and Veragua, which compofed it j
but this profperity vanifhed inftantaneoufly. The fa-
vages of Darien recovered their independence ; and the
mines of the two other provinces were found to be
neither fufHciently abundant, nor of an alloy good
enough to make it worth while to work them. Five or
fix fmall boroughs, in which are feen fome Europeans
quite naked, and a very fmall number of Indians who
have come to refide there, form the whole of this ftate,
which the Spaniards are not afhamed of honouring with
the great name of kingdom. It is in general barren
and unwholefome, and contributes nothing to trade but
pearls.
The pearl fifhery is carried on in the iflands of the
gulf. The greateft part of the inhabitants employ
fuch of their negroes in it as are good fwimmers.
1 hefe Haves plunge and replunge in the fea in fearch
of
Panama
PAN [7
of pearls, till this exercife has exhaufted their ftrength
or their fpirits.
Every negro is obliged to deliver a certain number
of oylters. Thofe in which there are no pearls, or in
which the pearl is not entirely formed, are not reckoned.
What he is able to find beyond the ftipulated obligation,
is confidered as his indifputable property : he may iell it
to whom he pleafes; but commonly he cedes it to his
mafter at a moderate price.
Sea monfters, which abound more about the itlands
where pearls are found than on the neighbouring coafts,
render this fiihing dangerous. Some of thefe devour
the divers in an inftant. The manta filh, which de¬
rives its name from its figure, furrounds them, rolls
them under its body, and fuffocates them. In order
to defend themfelves againif fuch enemies, every diver
is armed with a poniard : the moment he perceives any
of thofe voracious filh, he attacks them with precau¬
tion, wounds them, and drives them away. Notwith-
Itanding this, there are always fome filhermen deftroyed
and a great number crippled.
The pearls of Panama are commonly of a very fine
water. Some of them are even remarkable for their
fize and figure : thefe -were formerly fold in Europe.
Since art has imitated them, and the paflion for diamonds
has entirely fuperfeded or prodigioully diminilhed the
ufe of them, they have found a new mart more advan¬
tageous than the firft. They are carried to Peru, where
they are in great eftimation.
This branch of trade has, however, infinitely lefs
contributed to give reputation to Panama, than the
advantage which it hath long enjoyed of being the
mart of all the productions of the country of the Incas
that are deftined for the old world. Thefe riches, which
are brought hither by a fmall fleet, were carried, fome
on mules, others by the river Chagre, to Porto Bello,
that is fituated on the northern coaft of the ifthmus
which feparates the two feas. See Darien.
PANAPiI, one of the Lipari illands, lying in the
Tufcan fea. It is only five miles in circumference,
and the foil is barren. E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 39. o.
PANARO, a river of Italy, wdrich rifes in the
Apennines, croffes the valley of Frignano, and running
on the confines of the Modenefe and Bolognefe, waters
Fenal, and falls into the Po at Bondeno, ten miles above
Ferrara.
PANATHENiEA, 7T0ivc&ryx,iot., in Grecian antiquity,
an ancient Athenian feflival, in honour of Minerva the
proteftrefs of Athens, and called Athencea. Harpo-
cration and Suidas refer the inftitution of this feftival
to Erichthonius IV. king of Athens, wRo lived before
Thefeus. Theodoret alone fays the feaft was efta-
blifhed by Orpheus. Be this as it will, till Thefeus it
was never a particular feaft of the city of Athens, and
was called fimply Athencea : but that prince, uniting all
the people of Attica into one republic, they afterwards
all afilfted at the feaft whence the name Panathencea,
i. e. the feaft of all Attica. In effeCt all Attica was
prefent *, and each people fent a bullock for the facri-
fices, and for the entertainment of the vaft multitude of
people afiembled.
There were two feftivals under this denomination, the
greater and the leffer. The greater panathenaea were exhi¬
bited every five years; the lefs every three, or, according
to fome writers, annually. Though the celebration of
3 1 PAN
neither, at firft, employed more than one day ; yet in Par.athe-
after-times they were protrafted for the fpace of many , naea- ,
days, and folemnized.with greater preparations and mag- ¥
nificence than at their firft inftitution.
The ceremonies were the fame in the great and the
little panathensea j excepting for a banner, wherein the
actions of the goddefs were reprefented in embroidery,
performed by maids, with the names of thofe who had
diftinguilhed themfelves in the fervice of the republic j
which was only borne at the greater.
Prizes were eftablithed there for three different kinds
of combat: the firft confifted of foot and horfe races }
the fecond, of athletic exercifes 5 and the third, of poe¬
tical and mufical contefts. Thefe laid are laid to have
been inftituted by Pericles. Singers of the firft clafs,
accompanied by performers on the flute and cithara, ex-
ercifed their talents here upon fubjefls preicribed by the
directors of thefe exhibitions.
The following is the order obferved in this feftival, Anacl:ctrjis^
according to M. Barthelemi, who quotes numerous au- vo1,1K
thorities on the occafion : “ The inhabitants of the dif-^'
ferent towns of Attica thronged to the capital, leading
with them a great number of victims deftined for facri-
fices to the goddefs. In the firft morning were the
horfe-races, in which the fons of the firft citizens of A-
thens contended for the honour of the victory. In the
Itadium were other young men ftruggling for the prize
at wreftling, and different exercifes of the body j and
in the odeum were feveral muficians engaged in gentler'
and lefs perilous contefts. Some executed pieces on the
flute or cithara; others fang, and accompanied their
voices with one of thefe inftruments. The fubjeef pro-
pofed to them was the eulogium of Harmodius, Ariftc-
giton, and Thrafybulus, who had refeued the republic
from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppreffed :
for, among the Athenians, public inftitutions are fo ma-#
ny monuments for the citizens who have ferved the ft ate,
and leffons for thofe who are called upon to render it
fervice. A crown of olive, and a veffel filled with oil,
were the prizes beftow7ed upon the viclors. Crowns
were afterwards conferred on individuals, who appeared
to the people to have merited that mark of honour by
their zeal in the fervice of their country.
“ At the Ceramicus paffed a prcceffion, formed with¬
out the walls, and which began at that place to file oft*.
It was compofed of different Gaffes of citizens crowned
with chaplets of flowers, and remarkable for their perfo-
nal beauty. Among the number were old men of a ma~
jeftic and venerable appearance, bearing branches of
olive j middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and
with bucklers, feemed only to refpire war 5 youth from 18
to 20, who fang hymns in honour of the goddefs; beau¬
tiful boys, clad in a fimple tunic, adorned only with
their native graces 5 and, laftly, girls, who were of the
firft families in Athens, and whofe features, fLape, and
deportment, attradfed every eye. With their hands
they held bafkets on their heads, which, under a rich
veil, contained facred utenfils, cakes, and every thing
neceffary for the facrifices. Female attendants, who fol¬
lowed them, with one hand held over them an umbrel¬
la, and carried in the other a folding chair. This is a
fpecies of fervitude impofed on the daughters of all fo¬
reigners fettled at Athens : a fervitude they {hare in
common with their fathers and mothers, who likewife
carried on their (boulders veffels filled with water and
4 Y 2 honey^
PAN [7
Fanatlic- honey, for the purpofe of libation9» They were foliow-
' ed by eight muficians j four of whom played on the
Pan ay. ^Llte anc^ ^our on ^le lyre- After them came rhapfo-
dilfs Tinging the poems of Homer; and dancers armed
at all points, who, attacking each other at intervals, re-
prefented, to the lound of the flute, the battle of Mi¬
nerva with the Titans. Next came a Ihip that appear¬
ed to glide over the ground by the power of the wind,
and the efforts of a great number of rowers, but which
really was put in motion by concealed machinery. The
veflel had a fail of light fluff, on which young girls had
reprefented in embroidery the victory of Minerva over
the Titans. On it alio tlrey had depicrted, by order of
the government, fome heroes whofe illuftrious deeds had
merited to be celebrated with thole of the gods. This
proceffion marched on with folemn fteps, under the di¬
rection of feveral magiftrates ; and traverfed the moft
frequented quarter of the city amid it a crowd of fpedta-
tors, moft of whom were placed on ic aft olds erected for
the occafion. When it had reached the temple of the
Pythian Apollo, the fail of the fhipwas taken down and
carried to the citadel, where it was deportted in the tem¬
ple of Minerva.
“ In the evening, at the academy, was the torch race.
The courfe is only fix or feven itadia in length. It ex¬
tends from the altar of Prometheus, which is at the gate
of this garden, to the walls of the city. Several young
men are rta\ioned in this interval at equal diftances.
When the fliouts of the multitude have given the fignal,
the firft lights his flambeau at the altar, and, running
with it, hands it to the fecond, who tranfmits it in the
fame manner to the third, and fo fuccefiively. He who
fuffers it to be extinguiflied can no more enter the lifts;
and they who ftacken their pace are expofed to the rail¬
leries, and even blows, of the populace. To gain the
prize, it is neceftary to have parted through the different
ftations with fuccefs. This trial of fkill was frequently
repeated, and is diverfified according to the nature of
the feftivals.
“ The candidates who had been crowned at the dif¬
ferent exercifes invited their friends to flipper. Sump¬
tuous repafts were given in the prytaneum and other
public places, which lafted till the following day. The
people among whom the immolated vidlims were diftri-
buted fpread tables on every fide, and gave a loofe to
their lively and tumultuous mirth.”
PANAX, Ginsengy a genus of plants belonging to
the polygamia clafs. See Botany and Materia Me-
piCA Index.
PANAY, an ifland of Alia, and one of the Philip¬
pines, lying between thofe of Paragoa and Negro. It
is 250 miles in circumference, and is the moft populous
Modem and fertile of them all. It is watered by a great num-
tAz. HjJL ^ 0£
rivers and brooks, and produces a great quantity
' ' ’ of rice. Its fhape is triangular. The names of its prin¬
cipal capes are Potol, Nafo, and Bulacabi. The coaft
from Bulacabi to Potol lies eaft and weft ; from Potol
to Nafo, north and fouth 5 from Bulacabi to Iloilo, an-
®ther cape, lefs than the great ones, is alfo north and
fouth \ from Iloilo to Cape Nafo, eaft and weft. The
middle of the ifland is in the latitude of ten degrees.
On the north fide, almoft in the middle between the two
capes of Potol and Bulacabi, the famous river Panay
falls into the fea ^ and the mouth of the harbour is co¬
hered by a fmall illand called Lutaya, in which port the
24 ] P .A N
Spaniards had a faie retreat betore they d: fee voted and
conquered Manilla and Gavite. The fertility of Panay
is cauied by the many rivers that water it, for there is
no travelling a league without meeting a river; but
more particularly by the Panay, which gives its name
to the ifland, and runs a couri'e of 40 leagues. The
ifland, for the better adminiftering of juftice, is divided
into jurifdidions : the firft, called Fanny, contains ail
that lies between Cape Potol and Bulacaui 5 the reft of
the iiland is {’object to the alcayde of Otton, who reiides
at Iloilo, a point of land running out into the fen, on
the fouth fide, between the two rivers of Tig Bavan and
Jaro, and, with the ifland Imaras, forms a flrait not
above halt a league over, or rather an open harbour.
On this point the governor Don Gonzalo Ronquillo
caufed a fort to be built in the year 1681. The iiland
contains about 16,360 tributary Indians, partly belong¬
ing to the king and partly to particular encomienderos
or lords ; but they all pay in rice, the ifland producing
ico,ooo bufliels, Spaniih meafure, and but little other
grain. The inhabitants are flout, lufiy, and induftri-
ous farmers, and expert huntfmen, the country being
full of wild boars and deer. The women make cloth
of feveral colours. There are in the ifland 14 parifhes,
belonging to the fathers of the order of St Auguftin,
three benefices of fecular priefts, and formerly one col¬
lege of the fociety of Jef’us, where they adminifter the
facraments to the garrifon of Iloilh. iiefides the tribu¬
tary Indians, there are here thofe blacks the Spaniards
call Negri Hoes, who were the firft inhabitants of the
iiland, and afterwards driven into the thick woods bv
the Bifayas who conquered it. Their hair is not f’o ftiif
curled, nor are they fo flout and ftrong as the Guinea
blacks. They live in the moil uncouth parts of the
mountains with their wives and children, all naked like
beafts. They are fo fwift that they often overtake wild
boars and deer. They flay about the dead beaff as long
as it lafts ; for they have no other fubfiftence but what
they acquire with their bow and arrows. They fly
from the Spaniards, not fo much through hatred as from
fear. Arfiong the iflands about Panay lies Imaras, op-
pofite to Iloilo, and about a quarter of a league diftant.
It is long and low, ten leagues in compafs and three in
length, the foil fertile, abounding in farfaparilla, and
exceeding good water. On the mountains there are
wild boars, deer, and good timber. It has alfo in it
the port of St Anne, three leagues from Iloilo.
PANCARPUS, in Roman antiquity, a kind of fhow
which the Roman emperors frequently exhibited to the
people. The word is formed from the Greek %-mv, all,
and fruit. Whence the name was alfo given by
the Athenians to a facrifice wherein all kinds of fruits
w^ere offered. In this fpeflacle, the circus being all
fet over with large trees, reprefented a foreft, into which
the beafts being let from the dens under ground, the
people, at a fign given by the emperor, purfued, fhot,
and killed all they could lay hold of, which they after¬
wards carried away, to regale upon at home. The
beafts ufually given on thefe occafions were boars, deer,
oxen, and fheep.
Cafaubon, Cujas, Pithou, &c. make the pancarpus
and fylva the fame thing ; Salmafius will have them dif¬
ferent. The fylva, according to him, was fuch a di-
verfion as that above deferibed : but the pancarpus a
combat, wherein robuft people, hired for that purpofe,
fought
Panav,
Pan car puS.
PAN
72
]
PAN
Par-eras
il
Pandeefts.
fought with wild beads: which opinion he confirms
from Cadi an, Juftinian, Claudian, Firmieus, Manilius,
and Caffiodorus.
v PANC11AS, a town of England, in the county of
Middlefex, on the north-weft fide of London, and in the
highway to Kentifti town. Its church is one of the pie-
bends of St Paul’s, of which cathedral fome call it the
mother, it being thought to be as oid as that church
evert in the reign of Oueen Elizabeth, when it is repre-
fented as weather-beaten and Handing alone, without
any company, though it had formerly many buildings
about it. A veterinary college wTas eftabliftied here in
1791, for the improvement of farriery, and the treat¬
ment of cattle in general.
PANCRATIUM (compounded of «//, and jcg«-
1 overcome'), among the ancients, a kind of inter¬
mixed exercife, confiding of the India or wreftling, and
the boxing or pugilate : but it differs in this, that as
the athletae are not to feize the body, their hands
are not armed with gauntlets, and give lefs dangerous
' blows.
The pancratium was the third gymnaftic exercife, and
was not introduced till long after the others. The peo¬
ple who were engaged in thefe exercifes were called/w/i-
cratiajl/.e ; which name was alfo given to fuch as did not
confine themfelves to one exercife, but fucceeded in ie-
veral different ones.
Barthelemi, in his Travels of Anacharfis, gives us. a
fliort account of one of thofc at which he fuppofes him
Jlmckarfu, to have been prefent, in theie words : “ The aclion w'as
vol. iii, foon terminated : a Sicyonian named Sq/lratus, a cham¬
pion celebrated for the number of prizes he. had won,
and the ftrength and fkill which had procured them,
had arrived the preceding day. The greater part of
the combatants yielded up all pretenfions to the crown
as ibon as he appeared, and the others on the firft trial •,
for in thofe preliminary effays, in which the athletae
try their ftrength by taking each others hands, he
fqueezed and twitted the fingers of his adverfaries .with
f'ueh violence as inftantly to decide the vi&ory in his fa¬
vour.”
PANCREAS. See Anatomy Index.
PANDA, in Mythology, a goddefs who was invoked
and honoured as the p rote iff refs of travellers and naviga¬
tors. The goddefs of peace -was alfo called Pandan, be-
caufe fhe opened the gates of cities which were fhut in
time of war. According to Varro, Panda is a furname
of Ceres, derived a pane dando, becaufe fhe gave bread
to mankind.
PANDA TAR IA (Suetonius, Pliny, Strabo); Pan-
BATERIA (Mela, Tacitus): An iftand in the.Tufcan
fea : a place of baniftiment for 'the more illuftrious ex¬
iles. Hither Julia, the daughter of Auguftu.s, was ba-
niflicd for her incontinence. To this ifland d iberius ba-
niftied Agrippina, his daughter-in-law (Suetonius.) It
was the place of confinement of Oftavia the daughter of
Clodius, married to Nero; a fight that affeaed every
eye (Tacitus). Now Santa Maria, fituated between
Pontia and Ifchia (Holftenius).
PANDECTS, Pandeqtte, in jurifprudence, the di-
geft or colleaion, made by Juftinian’s order, of 534 de-
cifions or judgements of the ancient lawyers, on fo ma¬
ny aueftions occurring In the civil law; to which that
emperor gave the force and authority of law, by the
epiftle prefixed to them.—The word is Greek^ UxdkxTxi,
compounded of vt#v, u all,” and capio, u I taAe;
i. e. a compilation, or a book containing all things.
Though others, as Bartoli, will have it formed from  
and hyspcci ; as if theie books contained the whole
dobtrine ol the civil lav.'.
The Pandects confift of 50 books, and make the firft
part of the body of the civil law.
They were denoted by two wtt ; but the copyifts tak¬
ing thofe toryf, the cuftom arofe of quoting them
by j}.
In the year 1137, the Pande6ts of Juftinian, which
had been brought by an Amalfitan merchant from the
eaft, fell into the hands of the Pifans. Angelas Politi-
anus believes this copy to be that which had. been com¬
piled by order of the emperor. However that be, it is
certain that all other copies are taken from it, as being
the moft ancient. The Pifans having obtained their re-
queft from the emperor, carried the volumes to Pifa, and
for near three centuries they were known by the name,
of the PandeBce Pijance. But, about the year 141b,
Pifa being taken by the Florentines, they were trani-
ported from thence to Florence, where they are now
preferved in the- library of the IVledici, and Knov. n by
the name of the Pandeclce Florentines. Some authors al¬
lege, that Lotharius ordained by an edift that the Pan¬
dects ftiould be publicly read and explained at Bologna,
and pleaded in the tribunals ; but Corringius and Lm-
denbrogius fully refute their opinion.
Papias extends the denomination of Pandedls to the
Old and New Teftament.
There are alfo PANDECTA Medicine, “ Punde&s or
Medicine ;” a kind of diaionary of things relating to
medicine, compiled by Mat. Sylvaticus of Mantua,.who
lived about the year 1297. Leunclavius has publiihed
PandeBs of Turkey ; and Biftiop Beveridge, PandeBa
canonum. ^
PANDICULATION, a ft retching ; or that violent
and extenfive motion of the folios, which ufually accom¬
panies the a£t of yawning.
PANDORA, in fabulous hiftcry, a woman formed
by Prometheus, to wdiom each of the gods gave fom?.
perfection. \ enus bellowed upon her beauty ; Palias,
wifdom; Juno, riches; Apollo, mufic ; and Meicur^
eloquence : but Jupiter being difpleafed at Prometheus
for having ftolen fire from heaven to animate the mats
he had formed, gave Pandora a box, which fhe was or¬
dered not to open ; and then fent her to the esrth witn
this box, in which were enclofed age, difeafes, pefti-
lence, war, famine, envy, difeord, and all the evils and
vices that could afRict mankind. Ihis fatal box was
opened by Epimetheus, Prometheus’s brother, when in¬
ftantly all the difeafes and mifehiefs with which, it was
filled fpread over the earth, and Hope only remained at
the bottom. Hefiod fays fhe was the firft woman.
PANDOURS, are Hungarian infantry : they wear
a loofe garment fixed tight to their bodies by a girdle,
with great fleeves, and large breeches hanging down to
their ankles. They ufe fire-arms, and are excellent
markfmen : they have alfo a kind of fabre near four feet
long, which they ufe with great dexterity.
PANDOSIA (Livy, Juftin, Strabo), an inland town
of the Bruttii, and a place of ftrength on the river A-
cheron, where Alexander of Epirus, deceived by the
oracle of Dodona, met his fate and periihed. Now
Mendicino (Holftenius). er of Epirus (S^iabo ■ ;
fituated
pandeAs
il
Pandoifa.
VAN [ -
Pan Jura, fityated on the river Acheron (Livy) j which Alexan-
Paoel. ^er was advifed to avoid as fatal, but which
—^le mct with in Italy. I his laft is faid to have been the
relidence of the Oenotrian kings (Strabo).
PANDURA, or Pandorox, a mufical inftrument,
ufed among the ancients, refembling the lute. The
word is faid to be formed from the Greek ttuv and
^?av> i-e- “ all gifts, all forts of gifts.” Ifidore derives
the name from its inventor Pandoras ; others Rom Pan,
to whom they attribute its invention, as well as that of
the flute. It has the fame number of it rings with the
lute } but they are of brafs, and of confequence give a
more agreeable found than thofe of the lute. Its frets
are of copper, like thofe of the ciltre j its back is flat,
like that of the guitar j and the rims of its table, as
well as its ribs, are cut in femicircles. Du Cange ob-
ferves, that Varro, Ifidore, and others of the ancients,
mention it as having only three firings 5 whence it is
fometimes alfo fpoken of under the denomination rpiy^o?-
eov, trichordum.
PANE AS (Pliny, Jofephus) : the apparent fpring
from which the Jordan nfes, on the extremity of the
well fide of the Trachonitis (Piinv).
Paneas (Coins, Pliny, Jofephus), the name of a di
hiifl adjoining to the fpring Paneas, with a cognomJnal
town, either enlarged and adorned, or originally built,
by I hilip fon of Herod, and called Ccefarea by Jofe¬
phus, and in St Matthew, Ccvfarea of Philip ; with a
temple eredled to Augullus his benefactor, who confer¬
red the Trachonitis upon him (Coin). It was afterwards
called Neromas, in honour of Nero (Jofephus).
PANEGYRIC, an oration in praife of fome extra¬
ordinary thing, perfori, or virtue.
'The name is Greek, j formed of Trav, “ all,”
and uyeigeo, u I aflemblebecaufe anciently held in
public and folemn affemblies of the Greeks, either at
their games, their feafts, fairs, or religious meetings.
lo make their panegyrics the more folemn, the
Greeks aifed to begin with the praifes of the deity in
whofe honour the games, &c. were celebrated ; then
they deicended to the praife of the people or country
where they 1 were celebrated j then to the princes or ma-
giftrates who prefided at them; and at length to the
champions, efpecially the conquerors, who had gained
the prizes in them.
PANEGN RICUM, m church hiftory, an ecclefiaf-
tical book, ufed by the Greek church, containing the
panegyrical orations of various authors, on the folemni-
ties of Jefus Chrifl and the faints. It is found in MS.
in moll churches, but it is not the fame in all; each
church having its particular faints ; and the compilers
of this kind of books ufually fuited their colleflions to
the talle of their own devotion. They are difpofed ac¬
cording to the order oi the months, and frequently con-
filf of x 2 volumes, anfwering to the 12 months of the
year.
Among the principal authors of this work are Atha-
nafius, Cyril, Bafil, Chryfoltom, &c.
PANi.L {Panella, Panellumf according to Sir Ed¬
ward Coke, denotes a little part but the learned
Spelman fays, that it lignifies fchedula velfuigma, “ a
fchedule or rollas a panel of parchment, or a coun¬
terpane of an indenture : but it is ufed more particularly
for a fchedule or roll, containing the names of fuch ju¬
rors as the flieriff return.no pafs upon any trial. And
3
’26 PAN
tite impanelling a jury is the entering their names in a Panel
panel or little fchedule of parchment. ||
Panel, in Scots Law, fignifies the prifoner at the PaninL
bar, or perfon who takes his trial before the court of v
jufticiary for forne crime.
PANGOLIN, a fpecies of the manis peculiar to
Hindoftan. See Manis, Mammalia Index.
PANIC, denotes an ill-grounded terror or fright.
Polyaenus fays, it originates from Pan, one of the cap-'
tains of Bacchus, who with a few men put a numerous
enemy to rout, by a noife which his foldiers raifed in a
rocky valley, favoured with a great number of echoes.
This ftratagem making their number appear far greater
than it was, the enemy quitted a very commodious en¬
campment, and fled. Hence all ill-grounded fears have
been called panics, or panic fears; and it was this that
gave occafion to the fable of the nymph Echo’s being
beloved by the god Pan. Others derive the origin of
it hence : that in the wars of the Titans againfl: the
gods, Pan was the firft who ftruck terror into the hearts
of the giants. 1 heon on Aratus fays, he did it by the
means of a fea fbell, which ferved him for a trumpet
whereof he was the inventor.
PANICLE, in Botany, denotes a foft woolly beard,
Pn which the feeds of fome plants hang pendulous j as
in millet, reeds, and hay.
PANICUM, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
PANINI, Paolo, a painter of perfpedlive and ar-
chitefture. He was born at Placentia in 1691, with a
mofl happy genius to painting, which he cultivated by
ftudying at Rome, where he defigned every veflige of
ancient magnificence, the ruins of ibperb Roman edifices,
cenotaphs, columns, baths, arches, and obelifks, as al¬
fo fome of the moil entire buildings, the ornaments of
modem Rome.
He flu died the works of Ghifolfi with peculiar plea-
furej he formed his talle, ftyle, and manner, by the
compofitions of that efleemed artifl; and his ftrongefl
ambition was to imitate him 5 fo that he fcon became
eminent in that flyle beyond all his cotemporaries. His
compofition is rich •, the truth of his perfpe&ive is criti¬
cally exatt ; and his paintings are univerfally efteemed
for the grandeur of the architeaure, for the clearnefs of
his colouring, for the beautiful figures which he gene¬
rally introduced, and alfo for the elegant tafte with
which he difpofed them. He always defigned them
correaiy, and fet them ofi with fuitable attitudes and
expreflion.
However, this defeription of his merit mull be fuppo-
fej to allude to his early and prime performances j for
in his latter time, his piaures were diftinguilhable by a
free and broad touch, but they are feeble in their colour¬
ing and effea. At all times, indeed, he w*as too apt to
defign his figures rather too large for the architeaure,
which diminifhed the grandeur of the moft magnificent
parts of his compofition, and was quite contrary to the
praaice of Ghiiolh 5 whole works mull perpetually af¬
ford a pleafing deception to the eye, by the perfpeaive
proportions obferved between the figures, buildings, and
diftances.
A.t Rivoli, a pleafure houfe belonging to the king of '
Sardinia, there are feveral of Panini’s paintings, which
are views of that fine retreat and its environ! They
are beautifully coloured, well handled, and with a touch
full
PAN [ 727 ] PAN
Pan'onia,
Pannaria.
full of fpirit; though in fome parts the yellow feems a
little too predgrainant, and the lights are not always di-
flributed in fuch a manner as to produce the molt link¬
ing eiTeft.
PANIONIA, in antiquity, a feftival celebrated in
honour of Neptune by a concourfe of people from all the
cities of Ionia. It is remarkable in this feftival, that if
the bull offered in facrifice happened to bellow, it was
accounted an omen of divine favour ; becaufe that found
was thought to be acceptable to Neptune.
P ANNARIA, one of the Lipari iflands. See Ll-
para and Lipari.—The ancients called it Thernifia,
from the hot waters which they found in it. It may be
about eight or nine miles in circumference. It bears
wheat, and grapes from which the inhabitants make wine.
Pannaria, like the other adjacent illands, appears to be
a volcano ; its original having been deftroyed by conti¬
nued eruptions. It is now no longer of a conical figure.
It contains about too inhabitants, reckoning every foul,
men, women, and children. It is, like Stromboli, go¬
verned by a curate, who depends on the prieft of the pa-
ilh of St Jofeph in Lipari} and when any couple in the
ifiand determine to marry, they muft crofs the fea to
Lipari to receive the nuptial benediction in the parifh of
St Jofeph, or pay a fum for a licenfe to empower the
curate of Pannaria to perform the ceremony. All the
other adjoining iflands are fubjeCl to the fame regula¬
tion.
The inhabitants of Pannaria live by fifhing, and by
taking fmall quantities of game on this and the little
contiguous illands. They bring up and tame thofe birds
known by the name of gulls, which are feen in tempef-
tuous weather flying near the furface of the fea. They
are here called corracio. The body of the bird and the
tips of its wings are white \ but the head, the tail, and
the reft of the wings, are gray : they are of the fize of
Indian hens; their wings are prodigioufly large : they
have their nefts on the fteep inacceffible cliffs of the le-
veral iflands. When the iflanders bring thefe birds up
tame, they feed them with filh, which, though of fuch
fize that you wmuld think it impoftible for their ftomachs
to receive them, they eagerly ftretch their necks and
fwallow rapacioufly. Thefe birds are thus brought up
to be as tame as pullets or pigeons j and fuch an attach¬
ment do they often acquire to the places in which they
are reared, that fome of them have been known to re¬
turn to thefe iflands after being conveyed to Mellazzo
and Meffina.
On the lummit of a hill in this ifland, which projects
over the tea, the inhabitants pretend to fliow a cattle
and an infeription. But their caftle is only an elevated
peak of the rock, which nature feems to have prepared
as a retreat for birds. It confifts of puzzoL * } and has
been aftually formed by the aClion of wands and rains,
for a long courfe of time, into a fantaftic figure, which
may appear, when carelefsly viewed from a diftance by
an undiftinguifliing eye, the remains of fome ancient
ftruClure. The good people of the ifland, not being
able to judge of it otherwife than from appearance, are
perfuaded, that it can be nothing but a caftle, which
muft have been reared for the defence of the ifland a-
gainft the Turks and the corfairs of Barbary, Thefe
ihey confider as the moft dreadful fcourge w?th which
mankind can poffibly be afflicted, and fear them much
more than the eruptions of the volcano. When they Par.na'ria
feel their ifland thaken, they embark with all their li
wealth, which a Angle floop eafily contains 5 and on
board they are fafe from both the fliaking of the
earth and the eruptions of the lava, but not from an ho-
ftile fleet.
In this ifland there appear various remains of ancient
buildings,-but very ruinous and very fcanty. In plough¬
ing the fields, many remains of iepulchres, in different
modes of conftruftion, are found ; fome of rough ftones,
tiles, or bricks j others confifting each of a Angle ftone.
Vales of various forts.and fizes are alfofaid to have been
■ found in the fame fields, utenfils of different kinds, mo¬
ney, chains, and medals of lead. But none of thefe re-
licks of antiquity have been preferved : the good peo¬
ple who found them were ignorant of their value, and
therefore neglected them as trifles. In places along the
fhore of the iiland, where the fea appears to have en¬
croached, there are fome hewn ftones to be feen : they
feem to be remains of walls, which muft have been ver}*'
ftrong and of elegant architecture. In other places far¬
ther diilant from the Ihore, there likewife appear frag¬
ments of walls funk in the ground, and apparently over¬
whelmed with mud, which the winds and rains have
brought down from the mountain above. Thefe remains
fhowg that Pannaria, either under the Greeks, or in
that period when all the elements were taxed for the
gratification of Roman luxury, muft have been adorned
with luperb buildings, as well as the adjacent illands of
Lipari, Stromboli, and Baliluzzo.
PANNELS of a Saddle, are two cufhions or hol¬
ders, filled with cows, deer, or horfes hair, and placed
under the faddie, on each fide, to prevent the bows and
bands from galling the horfe.
PANNICULUS carnosus, in Comparative Anato-
my, a robuft flelhy tunic, lituated in bealls between the
Ikin and the fat; by means of which they can move
their Ikin in whole or in part. It is altogether wanting
in mankind.
PANNONIA (Pliny, Strabo, Dio), an extenfive
country of Europe, having thfe Danube on the north,
Dalmatia on the fouth, Noricum on the weft, and Moe-
fia on the eaft. It is divided into Superior and Inferior
(Ptolemy, Dio). The common boundary between both
were the river Arabo and Mount Ceiius, having the.
Superior to the weft, and the Inferior on the eaft fide.
This divifion is thought to be no older than the times of
the Antonines. Fannonicus the epithet (Martial).
PANOMPHiEUS, in antiquity, a defignation giv¬
en to Jupiter, becaufe he was faid to be the original au¬
thor of all forts of divination, having the books of fate,
and out of them revealing either more or lefs, as he
pleafed, to inferior demons.
PANOPOLIS. See Achmim.
PANORMUS (Polybius, Paufanias), a town of A-
chaia, in Peloponnefus, near the promontory Rhium 
Another (Ptolemy, Pliny), a town on the north fide of
Crete.—A third (Ptolemy), in Macedonia, on the I±L-
gean fea, near Mount Athos.—A fourth, of Samos
(Livy).—A fifth, of Sicily ; an ancient city, built by
the Phoenicians (Thucydides) ; a principal town of the
Carthaginians (Polybius) ; fituated between Lilybceds
and Pelorus (Mela) ; a Roman colony. Now Palermo,
capital of the ifland, on the north fide. E. Lonv. 13.
N,
Bantalcx n.
PAN [7
Eanovmus N. Lat. 38. 30.—A fixtli Panormus of Loe Thracian
Cherfonefus, placed by Pliny on the weft fide of the pe-
ninfula, and mentioned by no other writer.
Panormus (Ptolemy), a port of Attica •, its name de¬
noting it to be capacious.—Another, of Epirus (Strabo,
Ptolemy) •, a large harbour in the heart of the Montes
Cerauni, below the citadel Chimoera.—A third of Ionia
(Strabo) j near Ephefus, with the temple of the Ephe-
fian Diana.
PANORPA, the Scorpion fly, a genus of infects
belonging to the order of neuroptera. See Entomolo¬
gy Index.
PANTALARI A, an ifland in the Mediterranean
fea, between Sicily and the main land of Africa, about
17 miles in circumference. It is near the coaft of Tu¬
nis, and abounds in cotton, fruits, and wind j but the
inhabitants are obliged to bring all their corn to Sicily,
as it belongs to the king of the two Sicilies. E. Long.
12. 25. N. Lat. 36. 55.
PANIVENUS, a Stoic philofopher, born in Sicily
(though fome have errOneoufiy fuppofed him to be a He¬
brew) about the beginning of the reign of Commodus.
He prefided over the celebrated fchool of Alexandria,
where, from the time of St Mark, the founder of that
church, they had always a divine that was eminent for
his learning and piety, to explain the Holy Scriptures,
and to inftruft them in human learning. This employ¬
ment he was obliged to leave •, for when the Indians re¬
quired of Demetrius bilhop of Alexandria to fend th,em
one to inftruft them in Chriftianity, he fent Pantcenus,
who undertook the miffion with joy, and behaved him-
felf very properly in it. We are told, that the Indians
had been tinctured with Chriftianity by St Bartholomew
the apoftle } and that Pantaenus met with the Hebrew
original of St Matthew’s gofpel, which the apoiile had
left there. St Jerome fays that Pantaenus brought it
with him ; and that it was, in his time, preferved in the
library of Alexandria. But we fu{]5e& St Jerome to be
miftaken in this refpeef. When Pantscnus returned to
Alexandria, he reaffumed the government of the fchool
of that city, which, it is probable, he had, during his
abfence, committed to the care of St Clement, a prefly-
ter of Alexandria. He explained the Scriptures pub¬
licly, under the reign of Severus Antoninus Caracalla •,
and" was, in St Jerome’s opinion, more ferviceable to the
church by his difeourfes than by his writings. He pub-
liftied fome commentaries upon the Bible, which are
loft. “ That the prophets often exprefs themfelves in
indifferent terms, and that they make ufe of the prefent
time inftead of the part and future,” is a rule of Pantae¬
nus, which has been followed by all fucceeding interpre¬
ters. Theodorus has related this rule •, but he fpeaks of
it as if Pantaenus had rather faid than written it.
We mav have fome notion of Pantaenus’s manner of
explaining the Scriptures by the like performances of
St Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and others who were
brought up in that fchool.
PANTALOON, a fort of garment confifting of
breeches and ftockings of one piece ; faid to have been
firft introduced by the Venetians.
Pantaloon, on the theatre, is a buffoon or mafked
perfon, who performs high and grotefque dances, and
ftrows violent and extravagant poftures and airs. The
word is likewife ufed for the habit or drefs tl.efe buf¬
foons dually wear} which is made precifely to the
their body, and all of a piece from head to Panthea,
Paritheil'm.
28 J PAN
form o
foot.
And hence thofe who wear a habit of this kind, for
conveniency, under their other clothes, are called pania~
loons or Venice.
PANTHEA, in antiquity, were fingle ftatues, com-
pofed of the figures, or fymbols, of feveral different di¬
vinities together. Father Joubert, who calls them pan-
thea-, and who has remarked them fometimes on medals,
fays their heads are moft commonly adorned with the
fymbols or attributes belonging to feveral gods. An iu-
ftance of this appears in a medal of Antoninus Pius ;
which reprefents Serapis by the bufnel it bears j the Sun
by the crown of rays1, Jupiter Ammon by the ram’s
horns ; Pluto by the large beartl j and TEfculapius by
the ferpent twifted in his hand. M. Baudelot, in a dif-
-fertation on the Lares, obferves, that the panthea had
their origin from the fuperftition of thofe, who, taking
feveral gods for the protectors of their houfes, united
them all in the fame ftatue, by adorning it with the fe¬
veral fymbols proper to each of thefe deities.
PANTHEISM, a philofophical fpecies of idolatry
leading to atheifm, in which the univerfe was confidered
as the fupreme God. Who was the inventor of this ab-
fard fyftem, Is, perhaps, not known 5 but it was of ear¬
ly origin, and differently modified by different philofo-
phers. Some held the univerfe to be one immenfe ani¬
mal, of which the incorporeal foul wTas properly their
God, and the heavens and earth the body of that God j
whilft others held but one fubftance, partly abtive and
partly paflive ; and therefore looked upon the vifible
univerfe as the only Numen. The earlieft Grecian Pan-
theift of whom wre read was Orpheus, wrho called the
world the bodij of God, and its feveral parts his mem¬
bers, making the whole univerfe one divine animal.
According to Cudworth, Orpheus and his followers be¬
lieved in the immaterial foul of the world •, therein a-
greeing with Ariftotle, who certainly held that God and
matter are coeternal j and that there is fome fuch union
between them as fubfifts between the fouls and bodies of
men. See Metaphysics, N° 264.
In the ancient Orphic theology, we are taught, that
“ this univerfe, and all things belonging to it, were
made within God ’, that all things are contained toge¬
ther in the womb of God j that God is the head and
middle of all things j that he is the bafts of the earth
and heaven ; that he is the depth of the fea, the air wre
breathe, the force of the untameablefire; that he is
the fun, moon, and fiars ; that there is one divine body ;
for,
Hafla yxQ iv ysyxXea rx 01. truudU y-iira.'.
“ all thefe ci. ngs lie in the great body of God.”—But
further, to prove that the moft ancient Greek philofo-
phers refolved all things into God, and made God all,
we (hall cite a moft remarkable paffage from Plutarch’s
Deleft of Oracles. “ Whereas there are two caufes of
all generations, the divine and the human, the moft an¬
cient theologers and poets attended only to the more ex¬
cellent of thefe two j refolving all things into God, and
pronouncing this of them uni verfolly ;
Zsvf Zskj A(o? d ir. xxhx TriXcvrxi
‘ that God is both the beginning and middle, and that
all things ate out of God 3’ infomuch, that they had no
regard
Pantheon.
PAN [ 729 ] PAN
regard at all to the other natural and necelTary caufes of
things : but on the contrary, their juniors, who were
called naturalifts, deviating from this molt excellent and
divine principle, placed all in bodies, their paflions, col-
lilions, mutations, and commixtures.”
That by the molt ancient theologers here mentioned,
Plutarch meant Orpheus and his immediate followers, is
plain from the Orphic verfe by which he proves their
antiquity. By their juniors, whom he calls naturalifts,
he could mean no other than the firft Grecian philofo-
phers, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Hippo, who were
followed by the atheiftical atomifts, Leucippus, Democri¬
tus, Protagoras, and Epicurus. But with refpeft to the
univerfe being God, and all things divine and human
being modifications of mere matter, the ftoics undoubt¬
edly agreed with Anaximander and his followers j for
the fchool of Zeno held but one fubftance. See Meta¬
physics, N° 265. This impious do.ffrine, that all
things are God, and that there is but one fubftance, was
revived in modern times by Spinoza, an apoftate Jew.
As we lhall give a life of him and a view of his princi¬
ples, we muft refer the reader for a fuller account of
Pantheifm to Spinoza. See alfo Pan.
PANTHEON, a beautiful edifice at Rome, ancient¬
ly a temple, dedicated to all the gods 5 but now con¬
verted into a church, and dedicated to the Virgin and
all the martyrs.
This edifice is generally thought to have been built
by Agrippa fon-in-law to Auguftus, becaufe it has the
following infcription on the frieze of the portico.
M. AGRIPPA L. F. COS. TERTIUM FECIT.
Several antiquarians and artifts, however, have fuppo-
fed that the pantheon exifted in the times of the com¬
monwealth ; and that it was only embelliftied by Agrip¬
pa, who added the portico. Be this as it will, however,
the pantheon, when perfected by Agrippa, was an ex¬
ceedingly magnificent building; the form of whofe bo¬
dy is round or cylindrical, and its roof or dome is fphe-
rical : it is 144 feet diameter within ; and the height of
it, from the pavement to the grand aperture on its top,
through which it receives the light, is juft as much. It
is of the Corinthian order. Thfe inner circumference is
divided into feyen grand niches, wrought in the thick-
nefs of the wall: fix of which are flat at the top j but
the feventh, oppofite to the entrance, i§ arched. Be¬
fore each niche are two columns of antique yellow mar¬
ble fluted, and of one entire block, making in all 14,
the fineft in Rome. The whole wall of the temple, as
high as the grand cornice inclufive, is cafed with divers
forts of precious marble in compartments. The frieze is
entirely of porphyry. Above the grand cornice arifes
an attic, in which were wrought, at equal diftances, 14
oblong fquare niches : between each niche were four
marble pilafters, and between the pilafters marble tables
of various kinds. This attic had a complete entabla¬
ture *, but the cornice projedled lefs than that of the
grand order below. Immediately from the cornice
Iprings the fpherical roof, divided by bands, which crofs
each other like the meridians and parallels of an artifi¬
cial terreftrial globe. The fpaces between the bands
decreafe in fize as they approach the top of the roof;
to which, however, they do not reach, there being a
eonfiderable plain fpace between them and the great
opening. That lb bold -a roof might be as light as pof-
VeL. XV. Part II.
Able, the architect formed the fubftance of the. fpaces Pantheon.
between the bands of nothing but lime and pumice- v~~~
ftones. The walls below were decorated with lead and
brafs, and works of carved filver over them j and the
roof was covered on the outfide with plates of gilded
bronze. There was an afeent from the fpringing of the
roof to the very fummit by a flight of feven flaks. And
if certain authors may be credited, thefe flairs were or¬
namented with pedeftrian ftatues ranged as an amphi¬
theatre. This notion was founded on a paffage of Pli¬
ny, who fays, “ That Diogenes the fculptor decorated
the pantheon of Agrippa with elegant ftatues } yet that
it was difficult to judge of their merit, upon account of
their elevated fituatioR.” The portico is compofed of
16 columns of granite, four feet in diameter, eight of
which ftand in front, with an equal intercolumniation
all along, contrary to the rule of Vitruvius, who is for
having the fpace anfwering to the door of a temple,
wider than the reft. Of thefe columns is a pediment,
whofe tympanum, or flat, was ornamented with bas-re¬
liefs in brafs ; the crofs beams which formed the cieling
of the portico were covered with the fame metal, and
fo were the doors. The afeent up to the portico was
by eight or nine fteps.
Such was the pantheon, the richnefs of which in¬
duced Pliny to rank it among the wonders of the
world.
The eruption of Vefuvius, in the reign of Tiberius,
damaged the Pantheon very confiderably : it was repair¬
ed by Domitian ; which occafioned fome writers to men¬
tion that prince as the founder of the building. The
emperor Adrian alfo did fomething to it. But it ap¬
pears, that the pantheon is more indebted to Septimius
Severus, than to any one fince its ereftion. The moft,
perhaps, that any of his predecefibrs had done, was the
adding fome ornament to it : Septimius beftowed efien-
tial reparations upon it. The following infcription ap¬
pears upon the architrave :
IMP. CAES. SEPTIMIVS. SEVER VS.
PIVS. PERTINAX.
ARABICVS. FARTHICVS. PONTIF.
MAX. TRIE- POT.
XI. COS. III. P. P. ET. IMP. CAES.
MARC VS.
AVRELIVS. ANTONINVS. PIVS.
FELIX. AVG. TRIB.
POT. V. COS. PROCOS. PANTHEVM.
VETVSTATE.
OBRVPTVM. CVM. OMNI. CVLTV.
RESTITVERVNT.
It is really a matter of aftoniffiment, that a ftruc-
ture, which, granting it to have been built by Agrippa,
was not more than 200 years old, ffiould have fallen in¬
to decay through age. This Angle confideration feems
fufficient to confirm the opinion of thofe who believe it to
have flood in the times of the commonwealth.
The temple fubfifted in all its grandeur till the in-
curfion of Alaric in the time of Honorius. Zozymus
relates, that the Romans having engaged to furniffi
this barbarian prince with 3000 pounds weight of gold
and 5000 pounds weight of filver, upon condition that
he fhould depart from their walls 5 and it proving im-
poffible to raife thofe Aims either out of the public trea-
fury or private purfes, they were obliged to ftrip the tem-
4 Z pies
PAN [ 730 ] PAN
Pantheon. ples of their ftatues and ornaments of gold and filver.
— - jt js pj-Q^^ig t]ie pantheon fupplied a good part,
as that of Jupiter Capitolinus was the only one in Rome
that could vie with it for riches.
• Alaric carried off nothing from the Romans befides
their precious metals. Thirty-nine years after this,
Genferic king of the Vandals took away part of their
marbles j and whether from a greedinefs of plunder,
or from a rclifh of the productions of art, loaded one
of his iliips with ftatues. It cannot be queftioncd,
but that on this occafion the pantheon was forced to
part with more of its ornaments, and that the inefti-
mable works of Diogenes became the prey of this
barbarian.
Before thefe unwelcome vilits of the Goths and Van¬
dals, the Chriftian emperors had iifued ediCts for demo-
lifhing the Pagan temples. But the Romans, what¬
ever were their motives, fpared the pantheon, which is
known to have fuffered no damage from the zeal of the
pontiffs, or the indignation of the faints, before the firit
liege of Rome by Alaric. It remained fo rich till about
the year 655, as to excite the avarice of Conftantine
II. who came from Conftantinople to pillage the pan¬
theon, *nd executed his purpofe fo far as to ft rip it both
of its infide and outfide brazen coverings, which he
tranfported to Syracufe, where they foon after fell into
the hands of the Saracens.
About fifty years befoi'e this, pope Boniface IV. had
obtained the pantheon of the emperor Phocas, to make
a church of it. The artifts of thefe days were totally
ignorant of the excellence of the Greek and Roman ar¬
chitecture, and fpoiled every thing they laid their
hands upon. To this period certain alterations are
to be referred, of which we ftiall fpeak by and by.
After the devaftations of the barbarians, Rome was
contracted within a narrow compafs : the feyen hill's
- were abandoned and the Campus Marthas, being an
even plain, and near the Tyber, became the ground-
plat of the whole city. The pantheon happening to
Hand at the entrance of the Campus Martius, was pre-
fently furrounded with houfes, which fpoiled the fine
profpeCt of it 5 and it was yet more deplorably difgra-
ced by fome of them which ftood clofe to its walls.
Pedlars {beds were built even within its portico, and
the intercolumniations were bricked up, to the irrepa¬
rable damage of the matchlefs pillars, of which fome
loft part of their capitals, fome of their bales, and
others were chiffeled out fix or feven inches deep,
and as many feet high, to let in polls. Which excava¬
tions are to this day half filled up with brick and mor¬
tar ; a fad monument of the licentioufnefs of the
vulgar, and of the ftupid avarice of thofe who fold
them the privilege to ruin the nobleft piece of art in
the world !
This diforder continued till the pontificate oF Eu¬
gene IV. whofe zeal for the decency of a confecra-
ted place, prevailed upon him to have all the houfes
cleared away that encumbered the pantheon, and fo
the miferable barracks in the portico were knocked
down.
From the time Conftantius carried off the brafs pla¬
ting of the external roof, that part wTas expofed to the
injuries of the weather, or at beft was but llightly tiled
in, till Benedict II. covered it with lead, which Nicho¬
las V. renewed in a better ftyle.
It does not appear that from this time to Urban Pantheon.
VIII. any pope did any thing remarkable to the pan-  v—■
thcon.
Raphael Urban, who had no equal as a painter, and
who as an architect had no fuperior, left a confiderable
fum by his will for the reparation of the pantheon,
where his tomb is placed. Perino de la Vagua, Jaco-
mo Udino, Hannibal Carracci, Flamingo Vacca, and
the celebrated Archangelo Corelli, did the fame. All
the ornaments within, that have any claim to be called
good, are of the later times : the paintings merit
efteem ; and the ftatues, though not mafterpieces, do
honour to fculpture, which alone is a proof that they
are pofterior to the 15 th century.
But, with all the refpeft due to a pontiff, who was
otherwife a protector, and even a pradlifer of the arts,
it were much to be wifiied that Urban VIII. had not
known that the pantheon exifted. The inferiptions cut
at the fide of the door infonn us, that he repaired it j
yet, at the fame time that he built up with one hand,
he pulled down with the other. He caufed two bel¬
fries of a wretched tafte to be eredted on the ancient
front work, and he diverted the portico'of all the re¬
mains of its ancient grandeur, viz. the brazen cover¬
ture of the crofs beams, which amounted to fuch a
prodigious quantity, that not only the vail baldaquin
or canopy of the confeflional in St Peter’s w’as call out
of it, but likewife a great number of cannon for the
caftle of St Angelo. This pope, who was of the fa¬
mily of Barberini, prefented alfo as much of thi$ ine-
tal to his nephew, as was fufficient for the decoration
of his new palace; on which occafion this remarkable
pafquinade was ftuck up :
■%W non fecerunt Barbari fccere Barberini.
If ever gingle added force to wit, it was certainly in
this inftance.
It is furprifing, that whilft all thefe operations were
carrying on in the portico, he never once thought of
repairing the damages which time had wrought in it!
Of the 16 pillars which fupported this magnificent pile,
there were no more than 13 left ; the three next the
temple of Minerva had difappeared •, with thefe the
entablature and an angle of the front had tumbled
down. There were not wanting in Rome fragments
enough of antique columns that might have been put
together, and fet up, to have prevented the downfall
of a pile which deferved to ftand as long as the world
endured.
Alexander VII. did what Urban VIII. had neglec¬
ted to do. At the fame time that Bernini was con-
ftrudting the colonnade of St Peter, this pontiff order¬
ed fearch to be made for pillars to match thofe of the
portico of the pantheon ; and fome were found not far
from the French church of St Lewis of the very fame
model. They were granite of the ifle of Ilva, or Elba, and
thofe of the portico were Egyptian granite ; the colour,
however, was the fame, fo that the effedt was equal.
The pope’s zeal did not flop here } he caufed all the
old houfes before the portico to be pulled down, and
the foil and rubbifti to be cleared away which covered
the fteps, and even the bafes of fome of the pillars.
He began covering the roof with marble, and raifed a
lantern over the aperture, to keep out rain ; but death
took him off before his projedl was completed. Cle¬
ment
PAN
Panther ment IX. his fucceffor, inclofed the portico within iron
II rails. Several later popes have added to its decorations,
Pant0' which were all in the tafte of the times they were
mime' done in ; and the body of the edifice and its architec¬
ture gained nothing from them, dhe main objeft of
their holinefies liberality was the embelliihment of the
grand altar. One gave purple curtains, another be¬
llowed filver tabernacles ; others again vales, and luperb
dreffes, fuited to the.folemn ceremonies of religion.
All thefe might be called rich ; but they had in no fenfe
a tendency to retrieve the ancient majelly or original
fplendor of the temple. The true gufto of the orna¬
ments was a little imitated at the revival of the arts.
Good Itatues took place of the Ikeletons and fquat
figures that ridiculoully difgraced the altars for tne
fpace of eight centuries. The paintings of Perugino,
Cozza, and Greffi, covered the dull mofaics with
which the Greeks of Conftantinople had loaded the
walls of moll of the churches in Rome. The porphy¬
ry and the green and yellow antique found among the
old ruins were employed to much advantage.
There was befides at Rome another pantheon, dedi¬
cated to Minerva as the goddefs of medicine. It was
in the form of a decagon, and the diltance from one
angle to another meafured about 2Z feet and a half.
Between the angles there were nine round chapels, each
of which was deligned for a deity ", and over the gate
there was a ftatue of Minerva. Phe pantheon of A-
thens was in many refpeffs little inferior to the Roman
one built by Agrippa. The Greek Chnftians. alfo con¬
verted it into a church, dedicated it to the Virgin, un¬
der the name of Panegia ; and the Turks changed it
into a mofque. The pantheon of Nifmes vras a temple
in that city, wherein were x 2 niches for ftatues, fuppoied
to have been deftined for the 12 great gods. In the
Efcurial is a moil magnificent chapel, called pantheon,
35 feet in diameter, and38 feet high from the pavement,
which is compofed of marble and jafper inlayed. I he
whole infide of the chapel is of black marble, except
the luthern, and fome ornaments of jafper and red marble.
In this chapel are depofited the bodies of the kings and
queens j there are only places for 26, and eight ol them
are already filled.
PANTHER. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
PANTING, confifts in a rapid fuccefiion of infpira-
tions and expirations, which happens when we run or
perform any violent motion.
PANTOMIME, among the ancients,
a perlon who could imitate all kind of aftions and cha-
rafters by figns and geltures without fpeaking.
The pantomimes made a part in the theatrical en¬
tertainments of the ancients \ their chief employment
was to exprefs, in geftures and aftion, whatever the
chorus fung, changing their countenance and behaviour
as the fubjeft of the fong varied. They were very an-
P A P
cient in Greece, being derived from the heroic times, Panuco
according to fome 5 but however this may be, they were II
certainly known in Plato’s time. In Rome, it was fo pa;’'ca e‘,
late as the time of Auguftus before they made their ap¬
pearance. As to their drefs, it was various, being al¬
ways fuited as near as poflible to that of the per-
fon they were to imitate. The crocota was much ufed
among the Roman pantomimes, in which and other fe¬
male drefies they perlbnated women.
We have this account of them in Gibbon’s hiflory :
“ The pantomimes (a), who maintained their reputa¬
tion from the age of Auguftus to the Ibuh century,
expreffed, without the ui’e cf words, the various fables
of the gods and heroes of antiquity } and the perfection
of their art, which fometimes dilhrmed the gravity of
the philofopher, always excited the applaujs and won¬
der of the people. The valt and magnificent theatres
of Rome were filled by 3000 female dancers, and by
3000 fingers, with the matters of the refpeclive cho-
ruffes. Such was the popular favour which they enjoy¬
ed, that in a time of Icarcity, when all iirangers were
banithed from the city, the merit of contributing to the
public pleafures exempted them from a law which was
ttri&ly executed againit the profeffors of the liberal
arts (b).”
Pantomimes are ftill very common in England : they
differ indeed in fome relpects from thofe of antiquity 5
but they retain the name, and like thefe they confiil in
the reprelentations of things merely by geftures,
PANUCO, a town and province of North America,
in New Spain, lying to the north of Mexico, with a
bi(hop’s lee. There are veins of gold, and fait works,
which are the principal revenue of the inhabitants.—
It is feated near the mouth of a river of the fame name,
at a fmall diftance from the gulf of Mexico. W.
Long. 100. 5. N. Lat. 24. o.
PAO-ting-FOU, in China, where the viceroy refides,
is the moft confiderable city in the province next to
Pekin. It has 20 others under its jurifdiclion, three of
the fecond and 17 cf the third clafs. The country
around it is pleafant, and inferior in fertility to no part
of China. It is neceffary to pafs this city in going from
Pekin to the province of Chan-fi.
PAOLO, Marco. See Paulo.
PAPA, a fmall but ftrong town of Lower Hungary,
in the county of Vefprin. It was taken from the Turks
in 1683, after raifing the fiege of Vienna, and is fubjedl
to the houfe of Auftria. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Marchaez, in E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat,
47. 20.
PAP-CASTLE, in England, in Bridekirk pariih, Cum¬
berland, Hood two miles from Cockermouth, on the other
fide of the Derwent, whofe Roman antiquity is proved
by feveral monuments 5 and a large green ftone veffel
found here, with little images upon it, is fuppofed to
4 Z 2 have
[ 73i 1
(a) “ See the dialogue of Lucian, entitled, De Saltatione^ tom. ii. p. 265—317- edIt* Reitz- 7he Pantomimes
obtained the honourable name of ^£<£»cra<pe< } and it was required that they ftiould be con\erfant with almoli e^ery
art and fcience. Burette (in the Memoires de PAcademic des Inferiptiom, tom. i. p. 127, &c.) has given a ftiort
hiftory of the art of pantomimes.  .....
(b) “ Ammianus, 1. xiv. c. 6. He complains, with decent indignation, that the ftreets ot Rome were filled
with crowds of females, who might have given children to the ftate, but whofe only occupation was to curl and
drefs their hair 5 and ja&ari volubilibus gyris, dvm exprimunt innumera fmiulacra, quee fnxere fabulce tkeatraiesP
PAP [7.
pap-ca t’e, have been formerly a Danifh font for dipping infants 5
, ‘i^gr~ and has been fince ufed at Bridekirk in the neighbour¬
hood for their fprinkling.
1'he name of Pap-cajile feems to be contracted from
Pipard its owner: it is faid to have been demolithed, and
the materials employed to build Cockermouth caftle.
Mr Routh, in a letter to Mr Gale, thus defcribes the
ruins difcovered at Pap-caftle, Jan. 16. 1741-
Camden s « j mac}e particular inquiry of the man in whofe
Gough’s™’ Srounds they were difcovered, and of fome of the iteigh-
tdit. hours prefent at the difcovery. The clofe in which
they lay is a little to the fouth of the fort, on the de¬
clivity of the hill to the river, and bounded on the well
by a narrow lane, probably the via militaris continued ;
and is ufually drown to ftrangers as the moil remarkable
here for finding Roman coins. They are the larged
ruins ever known to be difcovered in thefe parts : for
they met with three walls befides the pavement ; the
fird lay ead and wfed, and was covered with earth near
a foot high •, parallel to it at feven yards, they found a
fecond *, and between thefe two, about twTo yards deep
(the height of the w^alls, which were fix yards broad,
and drongly cemented), they came to a pavement cu-
noufly laid with large flags, three quarters of a yard
fquare, and twro or three inches thick, as I meafured
them : but imagining there mud be money under it,
they covered it up till night, and then tore it all up.
It was compofed of flags of different thicknefs: under
the thinner wTas a coarfe drong cement, which caufed
them to be broken in taking up •, but the thicker are
pretty entire. Part of the wrall dood on the floor, and
the edge was fecured by a fine red cement two inches
thick, fuppofed to be intended to keep the floor dry.
They imagined themfelves at the corner of the building,
the third wrall danding at right angles with the fird,
and the fecond parallel to the ilonv lane, on which was
an old hedge. On the floor they found a done trough,
or rather bafe of a pillar, about a foot high, and the
hollowed part fquare, and two inches deep. They like-
2 ] PAP
wife found a fmall earthen patera, which I procured, of Papawr,
the fine red clay, beautifully 1’mooth, with letters im- P»paw.
preffed on the bottom ; but fo defaced as not to be in-
telligible.—Some years ago, the man’s father w ho found
thefe ruins dug up a conduit. The owner had no
coins, nor knew of any. One of his neighbours fhowed
me a large brafs one defaced.”
Mr Routh, in another letter to Mr Gale, April 13.
1743, defcribes a fibula, a coin of Trajan, . . . IANO
AVG. . . . P. M. Rev. the emperor feated on a pile
of arms, a trophy before him, S. P. Q. R. OPTI . .
. . S. C. and tw^o oaken pieces of the adjoining timber
of a houfe which appeared to have been burnt, in the
gardens of Jerome Tully, Efq. of Carlitle. The earth
as far as they dug wTas artificial, and antiquities are only
found at a confiderable depth.
Dr Stukeley fays, the Roman cadrum lies on the top
of the hill above the village, and he traced its whole cir¬
cumference, a bit of the Roman wall by the river fide
going to Wigton, and there the ditch is plainly vifible,
though half filled up with the rubbifh of the wall. A
fubterraneous vault, floored with large flabs of free-
done, was found in the padure of the fouth-ead angle.
The name of Boroughs includes both clofes where it
dood 5 and they find ffones and Hates with iron pins in
them, coins, &c. on the whole fpot below’ it, towards the
wTatcr-fide. It was a beautiful and well chofen plan, on
the fouth-w’ed fide of a hill, a noble river running under,
and pretty good country about it. Coins of Claudius,
Adrian, and a filver Geta, PONT. rev. princeps ivven-
tvtis. He fuppofes its ancient name Derventio, de¬
rived from the Dement.
PAPAVER, the poppy j a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polyandria clafs, and in the nati *d method
ranking under the 27th order, Rhoecedce. See Botany
and Materia Medica Index.
PAPAW, or Papa-tree. See Carica, Botany
Index.
PAPER.
"OAPER is a word evidently derived from the Greek
■ TTu.'xvpfx; papyrus, the name of that celebrated Egyp¬
tian plant w’hich was fo much ufed by the ancients in
all kinds of waiting. It would be unneceffary particu¬
larly to defcribe the different expedients wBich men in
every age and country have employed for giving fla-
bility to their ideas, and for handing them down to
their children. When the art of writing was once dif¬
covered, Hones, bricks, leaves of trees, the exterior and
interior bark, plates of lead, wood, wrax, and ivory,
were employed. In the progrefs of fociety, men have
invented the Egyptian paper, paper of cotton, paper
manufactured from the bark of trees, and in our times
from old rags.
The inhabitants of Ceylon, before the Dutch made
fchemfelves mafters of the ifland, wnote on the leaves of
the talipot. The manufcript of the bramins, fent to
Oxford from Fort St George, is written on the leaves
of a palm of Malabar. Herman fpeaks of another palm
kx the mountains of that country which produces leaves
of feveral feet in breadth. Ray, in his Hiftory of Plants*
vol. ii. book xxxii. mentions fome trees both in India
and America, the leaves of which are proper for writing.
From the interior fubilance of thefe leaves they draw a
w’hitifh membrane, large, and fomewhat like the pellicle
of an egg •, but the paper made by art, even of the
coarfelt materials, is much more convenient in ufe than
any of thefe leaves.
The Siamefe, for example, make two kinds of paper,
the one black and the other white, from the bark of a
tree called P/iokkloi. Thefe are fabricated in the coarfell
manner •, but they can be ufed on both fides with a bod¬
kin of fullers earth.
The nations beyond the Ganges make their paper of
the bark of many trees. The other Afiatic nations
within the Ganges, excepting thofe toward the fouth,
make it of old rags of cotton cloth ; but from their
ignorance of the proper method, and the neceffary ma¬
chinery, their paper is coarfe. This, however, is by
no means the cafe with that made in China and Japan,
which
733
Hiftory. ^ .
whicli deferves attention from tire beauty, the regulari¬
ty, the ftrength, and finenefs of its texture. In Europe
they have diicovered, or rather carried to perfe£tion, the
ingenious art of making paper with old rags, Oiiginalxy
either from flax or hemp j and fmce this difcoyery the
paper produced from our manufactures is fufficient for
every purpofe. .A.nd though thefe materials have been
hitherto abundant, feveral philofophers have attempted
to fubftitute other vegetable fubftances in their place.
In the 6th volume of the Tran factions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, we have an account of
paper made by Mr Greeves near Warrington from the
bark of willow-twigs; and it has been oblerved by a fo-
ciety of able critics, that hop-buds would probably an-
fvver this purpofe better. The rags in common ufe for
paper-making are a texture of fupple and ftrong fibres
feparated by a lee from the bark of the plants. It would
be in vain to employ the whole body of the plant, as
this fubftance forms a very improper fluff for the opera¬
tions of the paper-mill. From thefe principles we are
directed in the choice of vegetable fubrtances fit for the
prefent purpofe. The greater or lefs degree oi purity
in the materials is not abfolutely neceffary *, for flax it-
felf, without any preparation, could be made into pa¬
per *, but it would be extremely coarfe, and the bark of
nettles or malloes would not bear the expence of labour.
Although cotton be ufed in the fabrication of paper in
the Levant, and perhaps in China, we are not to con¬
clude that the down of plants in Europe, without the
ftrength or fupplenefs of cotton, will anfwer the lame
purpofe.
History.
The chief kinds of paper which merit atterttion in
this work are, i. The Egyptian paper*, 2. The paper
made from cotton ; 3. Paper from the interior bark
of trees or liber $ 4. Chinefe paper ; 5. Japanefe paper ;
6. Paper made from afbeft; and, 7. Paper made from li-
i nen rags. <
Egyptian This is the famous paper ufed by the ancients, which
paFr* was made of a kind of reed called papyrus, growing in
Egypt on the banks of the Nile. According to Ifido-
rus, this paper was firft ufed at Memphis, and Lucan
feems to be of the fame opinion,
Non/him jlamineas Memphis connexere bihlos
Noverat. Pharsal. lib. iii. ver. 222.
Whatever truth may be in this, it is certain, that of
all the kinds of paper ufed by the ancients, the papyrus
was the moft convenient, both from its flexibility and
from the eale of fabrication. It was a prefent fiom na¬
ture, and required neither care nor culture.
It is not certain at what particular period the ancients
began to make paper of papyrus j but there are feveral
authorities which prove the ufe of it in Egypt long be¬
fore the time of Alexander the Great.
Pliny, lib. xiii. cap. 11. gives a full defcription of the
method of making this paper in Egypt. They divide,
fays he, with a kind of needle the Item of the papyrus
into thin plates or flender pellicles, each of them as large
as the plant will admit. Thefe are. the elements of
which the (beets of paper are compofed. The pellicles
in the centre are the belt; and they diminiih in value
as they depart from it. As they were feparated from
the reed, they were extended on a table, and Iqid acrofs
* E R.
each other at right angles. In this ftate they were
moiflened by the water of the Nile, and while wet were
put under a prefs, and afterwards expofed to the rays of
the fun. “ It was fuppofed that the water of the Nile * * Pliny,
had a gummy quality neceflary to glue thefe ftripes to-‘^*Ll!’
gather. This,'fays Mr Bruce, we may be aflured is with¬
out foundation, no fuch quality being found in the water of
the Nile j on the contrary, I found it of all others the
moft improper, till it had fettled and was abfolutely di¬
verted of all the earth gathered in its turbid ftate. I
made feveral pieces of this paper both in Abyflinia and
Egypt; and it appears to me, that the filgav or fweet-
nefs with which the whole juice of this plant is impreg¬
nated, is the matter that caufes the adhefion of thefe
ftripes together} and that the ufe of the water is no
more than to diflblve this, and put it perfeftly and equal¬
ly in fufion.” When there was not enough of fugar in
the plant, or when the water did not fufficiently diffolve
it, the pellicles were united by a pafte made of the (inert
wheat (lour, mixed with hot water and a little vinegar,
and when dried they were flattened and fmoothed by
the beating of a mallet.
The fize of this paper varied much; it feldom ex¬
ceeded two feet, but it was oftentimes fmaller.. It
had different names, according to its fize and quality :
The firft was called Imperial, which was of the fined
and largeft kind, and was ufed for writing letters by!
the great men among the Romans. The fecond lort
was called by the Romans the Livian paper, from Li-
via the wdfe of Auguftus 5 each leaf of this kind was
12 inches. The third fort was called the Sacerdotal pa¬
per, and was 11 inches in fize.
The paper ufed in the amphitheatres was of the di-
menfions of nine inches. But what was erteemed of
greateft value in it, was its ftrength, whitenefs, and po-
lifti. The ink, however, funk lefs in paper highly po-
liihed j and therefore the characters were more liable to
be effaced. When it was not carefully foaked in the firlb-
preparation, the paper brought a lefs price ; becaufe let¬
ters were with difficulty formed upon it, and it fent
forth a difagreeable fmell. To remedy this defeft, the
paper went through a new courfe of fizing and hammer¬
ing 5 and the fize ufed on that occafion was made of
light bread fteeped in boiling water, and paffed through
a filtering cloth. By this means the paper became in
the higheft degree united, and fmoother than the 'fineft
linen. It was this paper which gave fo long a duration
to the works of the Gracchi, Tiberius and Caius, in
their own hand-writing. “ I have feen them (fays
Pliny) in the library of Pomponius Secundus, a poet
and citizen of the firft rank, near 200 years, after they
were written.” We may add, that manufcripts of this
paper ftili remain, which have undoubtedly been writ¬
ten 1000 or 1200 years ago. It appears from Pliny,
that the Egyptians parted together the pellicles of the
papyrus by means of the water of the Nile} but that
the poliflung with ivory, and the operations of the ham¬
mer and the prefs, were added by the invention and in-
duftry of the Roman artifts. The Egyptians feem to
have known the ufe of fize ; but it is evident from the
fame author, that the Romans ufed a (Longer fize in the
making of paper. Notwithftanding the care which was
taken to give ftrength and confiftency to the paper of
Egypt, the leaves, although colledrted into a book* were
(00 weak to fupport themfelves j and for this reafon k
was*
34
P A P
Was a common practice, after every five leaves, to infert
a leaf of parchment. There Hill remains in the abbey
of St Germain de-pres a fragment of the epiltles of St
Auguftine written in this manner. The manufcript is
at leaft noo years old, and in a high ftate of prelerva-
tion.
This paper was an important branch of commerce to
the Egyptians, w'hich continued to increafe towards the
end of the Roman republic, and became ftill more ex-
tenlive in the reign of Auguftus. The demand from
foreign nations was often fo great, as to occafion a fear-
city at Rome 5 and we read in the reign of Tiberius of
a tumult among the people in confequence of this fear-
city. In a letter of the emperor Adrian, the preparing
of the papyrus is mentioned as one of the principal oc¬
cupations at Alexandria. “ In this rich and opulent
city (fays he) nobody is feen idle : Some are employed
in the manufaftory of cloth, feme in that of writing pa¬
per,” &.c. During the time of the Antonines, this
commerce continued equally to tlourilh. Apuleius fays,
that h,e wrote on the paper of Egypt with a reed of the
Nile prepared at Memphis.
The demand for this paper was fo great towards
the end of the third century, that when the tyrant Fir-
mus conquered Egypt, he boafted that he had, feized
as much paper and laze as would fupport his whole
army.
St Jerome informs us, that it was as much in ufe in
the fifth century when he tlourifhed. The duly on the
importation of this commodity had grown excefhve
towards the end of this or the beginning of the fixth
century •, and being abolilhed by Theodoric king of
Italy, Cafliodorus, in the 38th letter of his nth book,
congratulates the whole world on the difeharge of an
impoit on a merchandife fo effentially neceffary to man¬
kind.
The fathers Montfaucon and Mabillon mention fe-
veral fragments written on this paper in the fixth cen¬
tury. One of them was a charter of the emperor
Juftinian, entitled, Charta plenance Jecuritatis. Father
Montfaucon faw in 1698, in the library of Julio Juiti-
niani, three or four fragments of paper of Egypt of
the fame antiquity. And Mabillon fpeaks of fome
books of the Jewifh antiquities by Jofepbus tranflated
into Latin, which feemed to have been written in the
fame century, and which were preferved in the library
of St Ambrofe of Milan, but he had not feen the ma-
nuferipts. The fame father mentions to have feen in
the library of St Martin of Tours the remains of an
old Greek manufcript of the paper of Egypt, and which
appeared to him to be of the feventh century. He alfo
believes, that the cony of St Mark’s gofpel preferved in
the regirter-office of Venice is written on the fame pa¬
per, that it is the mort ancient of any of the evangelical
manuferipts, and may be fuppofed to be written at the
lateft in the fourth century.
According to the fame antiquarian, the paper of E-
gypt wms ufed in France, and Italy, and other European
countries, both for books of learning and public records;
and there hill remains, adds he, a great number of
thefe in the archives of the church at St Dennis, at
•Corbie, in the abbey de Gralfe, and in other con¬
vents.
It is probable, that the invention of paper made of
-cotton, of which we are afterwards to treat, infenfibly
Hiftory.
dertroyed the reputation and manufacture of the paper
or Egypt ; but it is Hill a quertion at what particular
period the fabrication of the latter totally ceafed. Eu-
ftachius, the learned commentator on Homer, affures us
that in his time in 1170 it was no longer in ufe • but
Father Mabillon maintains, that many of the popilh
bulls were written on the papyrus in the 11 th cen¬
tury.
i he Count Maffei, in his Ijlor. Diplomat, lib. ii,
Biblioth. Ital. tom ii. p. 251. is decidedly of opinion,
that the paper of Egypt was not in ufe in the fifth cen¬
tury. He confiders all records written on this paper-
dated porterior to this period as not authentic ; and the
popilh bulls mentioned by Father Mabillon appear to
this learned perfon, as w-ell as the copy of St Mark’s
gofpeg to be written on paper manufactured from cot¬
ton. To reconcile in fome meafure thefe contradictory
accounts, it may be obferved, that on fome particular
occafions, and by fome particular perfons, the paper of
Egypt might have been employed for feveral hundred
7 ears after it ceaied to be of general ufe. W hoever
w-kues for a fuller account of the paper of Egypt, may
confult among the ancients Pliny, lib. xiii. and Theo-
phraitus, lib. iv. chap. ix. and among the moderns,
Guilandinus, Scaliger, Saumaiie, Kerchmayer, Nigrifoli;
Father Hardouin in his edition of Pliny; Father Ma¬
billon in his work De re Diplomat.; Montfaucon in his
Paleography, and in his Colledions ; the iilurtrious
Maffei in his Ijlor. Diplomat, the count de Caylus in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Infcriptions ; and Mr
Bruce in his Travels to difeover the Source of the
Nile.
It is generally fuppofed that the invention of the pa-paper macie
pei, called chart a bombycina, fupplanted the Egyptian from cet-
paper in Greece. This paper is incomparably moret0n*
lading, and better calculated for all the purpofes of
writing. It is not precifely known at,what period this art,
which fuppofes a great variety of previous experiments’
was fir ft reduced to praaice. The application of cot¬
ton to the purpofes of paper-making requires as much
labour and ingenuity as the ufe of linen rags; and for
tins reafon, if we could determine the precife time when
paper wras made from cotton, we Ihould alfo fix the in¬
vention of the art of paper-making as it is prefently
pi aaffed m Europe. Father hlontfaucon proves, by
inconteftable authorities, that paper from cotton was in
ufe in xi00. I his paper in the Greek language is
called x.a.^rn /Zvp&vKivog, or (ZetftZctx.iv*;; for although
&<>(£>»% is the Greek w-ord for filk, yet in thofe times it
was applied, as well as (ZetufZa.^, to cotton; and hence the
Italians to this day call cotton bambaccio.
I he moft ancient manufcript of this paper which
Father Montfaucon faw with the date, w^as that in the
French king’s library, written A. D. 1050; but as
the manuferipts without date are infinitely more nume¬
rous than thofe which are dated, and as fome conjefture
can be formed concerning them from the manner of
writing, this father believes fome of thefe to have been
written in the 10th century.
The refearches of the fame learned antiquarian amount
almoft to a proof that this paper wxis difeovered towards
the end of the ninth century or beginning of the tenth ;
ior before the twelfth century it wras commonly ufed in
the eartern empire, and even in Sicily. Roger king of
Sicily fays, in a diploma wu-itten in 1145, that he had
renewed
Hiflory. P A
renewed on parchment a charter which had been written
on paper of cotton, in the year 1100, and another which
was dated in the year 1112. About the fame time the
emprefs Irene, in the ftaiutes for fome religious houfes at
Conllantinople, fays that the had left three copies of the
fame fcatutes, two in parchment and one in paper from
cotton. From that period this paper rvas ftill more in
ufe through all the eaftern empire *, and innumerable
Greek manufcripls are found written on it in all the
great libraries.
This difcovery happened at a time when there feems
to have been a great fcarcity of parchment; for it
was about this period that the Greeks erafed the
writings of Polybius, Diodorus of Sicily, and many
valuable ancient authors, for the fake of the parch¬
ment.
It was the invention of this paper of cotton which
deftroyed the manufacture of the paper of Egypt \
for, if ive' may believe Euftathius, who wrote towards
the end of the 12th centurv, the latter paper had
gone into difufe but a little before his time. We may
eafily believe, however, that this new invention, although
of great advantage to mankind, was introduced by de¬
grees.
The manufacture of this kind of paper has flourished
in the Levant for many ages, and is carried on with
great fuccefs even to this day. It is not ueceflary to
fay any thing farther, than that the paper produced
from cotton is extremely white, very ftrong, and of a
fine grain.
r, 3 This paper of the ancients was made from the white
a sptr iiom t• i • r* i • i i
the interior petucie or inner coat round in many trees between the
bark of bark and the wood. The treeg commonly in ufe were
trees or the maple, the plane tree, the elm, the beech, the mul-
berry, and moft frequently the lindin-tree. The ancients
wrote on this inner coat after they had feparated it from
the bark, beat, and dried it.
The fathers Mabillon and Montfaucon fpeak frequent-
. Jy of manuferipts and diplomas written on paper made
from bark; and pofitively diftinguifh it from the Egyp¬
tian paper, becaufe it was thicker, and compofed of parts
lefs adhering together.
There are many palm trees in India and America to
which botanitls have given the name papyraceous, be¬
caufe the natives have written with bodkins either on the
leaves or the bark. Such is the American palm, called
/tf/by the Indians; and of the fame kind is the guajara-
ba of New Spain. Every palm, the bark of which is
fmooth, and the leaves large and thick, may be ufed for
^ this purpofe.
Chinefe The art of making paper from vegetables reduced
paper. to fluff was known in China long before it was prac-
tifed in Europe; and the Chinefe have carried it to a
degree of perfection hitherto unknown to the European
artifls. The fine paper in China is fofter and finoother
than that of Europe } and thefe qualities are admirably
adapted to the pencil, which the Chinefe ufe in writiisg.
Several kinds of their paper difeover the greateft art and
ingenuity, and might be applied with much advantage
to many purpofes. They are capable of receiving, for
example, the impreflion of types \ and both maps and
prints have been executed with fuccefs on the Chinefe
paper.
I he different forts of paper vary in China according
to the materials of which they are compofed, and to
F E R.
the different manner of manufacturing thofe materials.
Every province has its peculiar paper. That of Se-
chwen is made of linen rags as in Europe ; that of
Fo-kien, of young bamboo; that of the northern pro-
i inces, of the interior bark of the mulberry j that of the
province of Kiang-nan, of the fkin which is found in the
wx-bs of the filk-worm : finally, in the province of Hu-
quang, the tree chu or ko-chu furniihes the materials
with which they make paper.
Ihe method of fabricating paper with the bark of
different trees is nearly the fame with that which is
followed in the bamboo. To give an idea, therefore,
of the manner of manufacturing the interior barks of
the mulberry, the elm, and the cotton-tree, it will be
fufficient to confine our obfervaiions to the bamboo.
J he bamboo is a kind ot cane or hollow reed, divided
by knots j but larger, more elaflic, and durable than
any other reed.
The whole fubftance of the bamboo, compofed of
filaments, and a great abundance of fibrous materials, is
employed in this operation. The flioots of one or two
years, nearly the thicknefs of a man’s leg, are preferred.
They flrip the leaves from the item, cut them into pieces
of four or five feet long, make them into parcels, and
put them into water to macerate. As foon as they are
foflened, which generally happens in five days, they
wafli them in pure water j put them into a dry ditch ;
cover them with lime for fome days, which they water
for the purpofe of flacking : they wafli them carefully a
fecond time ; cut every one of the pieces into filaments,
which they expofe to the rays of the fun to dry and to
bleach them. After this they are boiled in large kettles*,,
and then reduced to fluff in mortars of wood, by means
of a hammer with a long handle, which the workman
moves with his foot.
The fluff' being thus prepared, they take fome {hoots
of a plant named koieng, which, fteeped in water four
or five days, is reduced to an unftuous or glutinous
fubftance; and when they proceed to make the paper,
this is mixed with the fluff in certain exact quantities,
for on this mixture depends the goodnefs of the paper.
When the extract from the koteng is mixed with
fluff of the bamboo, the whole mixture is beat toge¬
ther in mortars till it becomes a thick and vifeous
liquor. This is poured into large tubs or refervoirs,
fo exactly framed as that no part of the liquor can
efcape.
The workmen after this plunge their forms into the
liquor j take out what is fufticient for a facet of paper j
which immediately, from the glutinous fubftance, be¬
comes firm and fhining ; and is detached from the form
by turning down the iheet on the heap of paper already
made, without the interpofttion of pieces of woollen cloth,
as in Europe.
In order to dry this paper, they have a hollow wall,
the two fronts of which are fmooth and extremely white.
At the extremity of this wall is placed a ftove, the pipes
of which are carried in a circular manner through the
whole empty fpace. The fheets of paper are laid on the
furface, to which they adhere till they come over them
with a foft brufh j and after they are dry, it is eafy to
diftinguffh the fide which received impreflions from
the brufh from that which adhered to the wall. Ey
means of this ftove the Chinefe dry their paper as faft as
they can make it; but it is only in cold feafons, or in
certain
735
736
certain provinces, tliat they find this expedient necef-
fary.
The Chinefe paper muft be dipped in a folution of
alum before it can take either ink or colours. They
call this operation faner, from the Chinefe word fan,
which fignifies alum. The following is the manner of
preparing this folution : Six ounces of ifinglafs cut
•very fmall is put into boiling water, and conllantly
ftirred, that it may diffolve equally. When the ifin¬
glafs is wholly dilfolved in the water, they throw in
twelve ounces of calcined alum, which is alfo flirred
till it is completely difiblved and mixed with the ifin¬
glafs. This compofition is afterwards poured into a
large and deep bafon, at the mouth of which is a little
round piece of wood $ the extremity of every fheet of
paper is fixed in another piece of wood, with a flit
made to receive it; by means of this equipage they
plunge the lheet «f paper into the compofition of alum
and ifinglafs j and when it is fully penetrated, they
draw it out, making it glide oyer the little round
piece of wood. The long piece of wood which holds
the fheet by one end, and keeps it from tearing, is
afterwards fufpended with it on a wall till it is fuffi-
ciently dry.
The Chinefe give the paper intended for different
purpofes different preparations. We fliall confine our
obfervations to the filver colour which they give to fome
paper. They take two fcruples of pafte made of cows
hide, one fcruple of alum, and a pint of water: the
whole is boiled on a flow fire till the water be evaporat¬
ed. The fheets of paper are then itretched on a fmooth
table, and covered over with two or three layers of this
pafte. They take afterwards a certain quantity of talc,
wafhed and boiled in water, with the proportion of one-
third of alum; this is dried, reduced to a powder, paffed
through a fieve, boiled a fecond time in water, dried in
the fun, and again paffed through the fieve. This pow¬
der is fpread equally over the fheets of paper, prepared
as we mentioned above j and then they are dried flowly
in the fhade.
The fheets of paper, covered in this manner with
talc, are laid upon a table, and rubbed with a little cot¬
ton j which fixes a certain quantity of the talc in the pa¬
per, and carries off the overplus to be ufed on another oc-
cafion. By means of this compofition the Chinefe draw
all manner of figures on their paper.
Formerly the Chinefe wrote with a bodkin of iron on
tablets of bamboo; afterwards on fatin with a pencil j and
during the dynafty of their tyrants, about 160 years
before Chrift, they difeovered the art of making paper.
The paper made from the bamboo is fufficiently
white, foft, clofely united, without the leaf! inequality
on the furface to interrupt the motion of the pencil, or
to occafion the riling of the materials which compofe it.
Meanwhile every kind of paper made from the bamboo
or the bark of trees, is readier to crack than that made
in Europe j befides, it is more fufceptible df moifture,
and fooner deftroyed with dull and worms. To obviate
this laft inconveniency, they are obliged frequently to
beat their books in China, and to expofe them to the
fun. It may be obferved, however, that the Chinefe
paper, employed for various purpofes in Europe, has
been preferved for a long time without receiving dam-
5 age either from moifture or infedts.
Japanefe According to Kempfer, the bark of the morns Papi-
paper.
Hiflory.
fera fativa, or true paper tree, is chiefly employed for
making paper in Japan. Every year after the fall of the
leaves, which happens in the tenth month, correfponding
to our December, the Japaneie cut the young fhoots of
this tree into pieces of about three feet, collect them
into parcels, which they boil in water into which they
have caft a certain quantity of alhes. If the wood is
dry, they take care to fteep it 23 hours in water before
it is boiled. The parcels are kept in a clofe copper till
the bark at the extremity of the fhoots is feparated from
the ftem about half an inch 5 they are then cooled 5 and
the bark alone is fit for making paper. They begin by
a preparation which confifts of cleaning the bark, and
feparating the good from the bad. For this purpofe
they fteep it in water three or four hours 5 and as toon
as it is foftened they ferape off with a knife whatever
is blackifh or green, and at the fame time feparate the-
ftrong bark of a year’s growth from the flender which
covers the young fhoots. The firft of thefe gives the
whiteft and beft paper. If there is any of the bark of
more than a year’s growth, it is laid afide for the coar-
feft.
After the bark has been culled and cleaned in this
manner, it is boiled in a clear ley till the matter is of
that confiftency, that, being touched gently with the
finger, it drawls off in the form of hairs, or like a collec¬
tion of fibres. During the time of boiling it is con-
ftantly ftirred with a ftrong reed, and the wafte by eva¬
poration fupplied from time to time with additional quan¬
tities of the clear ley. To make this ley, they put twro
pieces of wmod acrofs the mouth of a tub, cover them
with ftrawq on wdnch they lay a bed of afhes a little
moiftened ; and pouring boiling watfcr on the afhes, the
falts contained in them are carried down to the tub.
This is what is called a clear leij.
After the bark is in the condition we have juft now
ftated, it is wafhed with great care; for on this waffl¬
ing depends in a great meafure the goodnefs of the
paper. It is put into a kind of fieve through which
the water can flow freely ; and great care is taken to
turn it wdth the hand till it is fufficiently diluted, and
reduced to foft and tender fibres. For the fineft paper
a fecond wufhing is requifite, and a piece of cloth is ufed
inftead of a fieve.
When the bark is wafhed, it is laid on a ftrong and
fmooth table, and beat with a kind of baton of hard
wood till it is reduced to a proper confiftency. It be¬
comes indeed fo foft, that it refembles paper fteeped
in wTater.
The bark prepared in this manner is put into a nar¬
row tub, with a glutinous extract from rice and the root
oreni, which is very vifeous. Thefe three fubftances,
mixed together, are ftirred with the reed till they form
a liquor of an equal and uniform confiftency. This com¬
pofition is poured into tubs fimilar to thofe ufed for filling
the forms in our paper mills.
As foon as the fheets are made and detached from
the form, they are laid in a heap on a table covered
with a double mat. A fmall chip of cane is placed
betwixt every fheet. This piece of cane jutting out,
ferves to diftinguifh the fheets, and afterwards to raiie
them. Every one of the heaps is covered with a plate
or thin board of the exa£t fize of the paper. In pro¬
portion as the paper dries, or is able to bear it with¬
out danger of being compreffed into one iwafs, they lay
on
PAPER.
737
Hiftory. P A
on additional weights. This preiTure, intended to carry
off any unneceffary moiilure, is continued for 24 hours,
when the fh.eets are fufpended, by means of the little
pieces of reed, to long plants, in the open air, till they
are completely dried.
The extract from rice is made in an unvarnifhed
earthen pot. The pot is agitated at firft gently, then
more briikly : new water is poured in, ^d then it is
filtered through a linen cloth. The finifhing of the pro-
cefs is determined by the vifcofity of the fubftance.
The infufion of the root oreni is made in the follow¬
ing manner : The root, peeled and cut into fmall pieces,
is infufed into water for one night, during which time it
communicates a vifcofity fuihcient for the purpofe to
which it is applied.
The Japanefe paper is of fuch prodigious ftrength, that
the materials of which it is compofed might be manufac¬
tured into ropes. There is fold at Serige, the capital
city of the province of Japan of that name, a kind of it
fit for bed hangings and wearing apparel 5 refembling fo
much fluffs of wool and filk, that it is often taken for
them. The following is Kempfer’s catalogue of trees
ufed in Japan for the manufactory of paper. 1. The
true paper tree, called in the Japanefe language kaad/i,
Kempfer characterizes thus : Papyrus fruciu mori celfce,
Jive morus fativa folns urticte mortuce cortice papifera.
2. The falfe paper tree, called by the Japanefe hatfi,
kadjtre ; by Kempfer, papyrus procumbens ladiefcensfolio
longo lanceata cortice chartaceo. 3. The plant which the
Japanefe call oreni is named by Kempfer malva radice
vifcofa fore ephemera magno punico. 4. The fourth tree
ufed for paper is the futokadfura, named by Kempfiy
frutex vifcofus procumbens folio telephii vulgaris emulo
fruBu racemofo.
The defcription of thefe trees, given more particu¬
larly by Kempfer than the limits of this work will per¬
mit, may be of great fervice to lead botanifls to difcover
the European plants and fhrubs adapted, like the Japa¬
nefe, for the fabrication of paper.
Before finifhing our reflections on this part of the fub-
jeCt, it will be proper to give a juft idea of the attempts
which have been made to increafe the original materials
of paper in Europe.
A flight attention to the procefs in China in reducing
the bamboo to a pafte, by a careful and ingenious ana-
lyfis, and to the long and proper method of the Japanefe
of feparating the principal fibres of the bark of the mul¬
berry, will fhow the abfurdity not only of taking plants
without any kind of choice, but of giving them no pre¬
paration except that of pounding them with mallets.
With a proper feleClion, and good principles, it ap¬
pears not improbable that many of the European plants
might be ufed with great advantage in conftruCHng feve-
ral kinds of paper.
It is evident that the materials ufed by the Chinefe
require lefs labour and preparation than the fluff of
linen rags. The fheets of the Chinefe paper are eafily
detached from the form j they are laid in heaps with¬
out the interpofition of pieces of woollen cloth ; the
fuperfluous water is immediately difcharged; and they
require not, as in Europe, the vigorous aCtion of preffes
6 to unite the parts more clofely together.
Paper made The afheflos is^ a fibrous fubftance of little ftrength,
from afbe- the threads of which are eafily broken. See Minxra-
ftos* logy Index. This fubftance has the peculiar property of
Vol. XV. Part II.
> E R,
fupporting the aClion of fire without receiving any dam¬
age : whence pieces of cloth and garters made of it are
incombuftible. From the knowledge of this property
paper has been made of the afbeftos. Dr Brukman, pro-
feffor at Brunfwick, publifhed the natural hiftory of this
foflil; and four copies of his book, in the library of Wol-
fenbuttle, are on this paper.
The manner of fabricaLir.(||jiis paper is defcribed by
M. Lloyd in the Philofophical Tranfaclions, N° 166.
A certain quantity of the afbeftos is pounded in a mor¬
tar of ftone till it be i-educed to a fubftance like cot¬
ton. All the parts of earth or ftone remaining in the
albeftos are then taken off by means of a fine fieve, and
it is formed into ftieets of paper by an ordinary paper
mill. Mixing it with water reduces it to fluff; only,
as it is heavier than that from linen rags, it requires
to be continually ftirred when they are taking it up
with the frames. The only excellence of this paper
is, that the writing difappears when it is caft into the
fire. It mult be obferved. at the fame time, that as it
is of a {lender confiftency, and eafily torn, it is more
an objeft of curiofily than ufe. 7
This paper is manufactured through all Europe ofPaPerma^e
linen rags colleCled in the cities and in the country.irorn
This kind of paper was utterly unknown to the an¬
cients. The libn lintei mentioned by Livy, I, lib. iv.
Pliny, XIII. c. xi. and by other Roman writers, are
demonftrated by Guilandin, in his commentary on Pliny,
&c. to have been written on pieces of linen cloth, or can¬
vas prepared in the manner of painters.
But it is not fufficient to be certain that paper from
linen is a modern invention ; it is neceffary to know
by what nation, and at what period, it was difcovered. *
Polydore Virgil, De Invenloribus Rerum, C. II. c. viii.
confeffes his ignorance of thefe fads. Scaliger, with¬
out any kind of proof, gives the glory to the Ger¬
mans ; and Count Maffei to the Italians. Other wri¬
ters afcribe this honour to fome Greek refugees at Bafil,
to whom the manner of making paper from cotton in
their owrn country had fuggefted the idea. Du Halde is
perfuaded that Europe derived this invention from the
Chinefe, who, in feveral provinces, make paper of rags
nearly in the fame manner that we do. But this inven¬
tion w^as pradifed by the Europeans before they had any
communication wfith China, and before the taking of
Conftantinople, at which time the Greek refugees wrere
fuppofed to have retired to Bafil. The precife time of
this difcovery in Europe is not exadly known. Father
Mabillon believes that it w7as in the twelfth century ;
and cites a paffage of Pierre de Clugny, bom A. D.
1100, to prove it. The books which we read every
day, fays that abbe in his treatife againft the Jew’s, are
written on fhee^s and calves fkins; or on oriental plants;
or, finally, Ex rafuns veterum pannorum. If thefe laft
words fignify paper, fuch as wTe ufe, there were books of
it in the twelfth century. But this citation is the more
to be fufpeded, as Montfaucon himfelf, after the mi-
nuteft fearch in France and Italy, could find no book on
this paper antecedent to the death of St Louis, A. D.
1270.
The epocha of this invention was not determined till
1762, M. Mierman having propofed a reward to the
perfon wrho could procure the moft ancient manufcript
written on this kind of paper. The colledion of all the
memoirs fent to him along with the manufcripts was
5 A publifhed
738... p A
An °f Ma-publifticd at tlie Hague in 1767 ; and it appeared that
^Europef PaPer been ufed in Europe before the year
^ I30°‘
In 1782 the Abbe Andrez publiihed a work entitled
Bell' Origins, Progrejfi, c Slalo attuale d'Ogm letteratura ;
wherein he Ipeaks of the difcovery of many kinds
of paper, and particularly of that made of rags. The
Abbe Andrez maintains, that paper made from filk was
very anciently fabricated in China, and in the eaftern
parts of Afia ; that the art of making this paper was
carried from China to Perfia about the year 652, and to
Mecca in 706. I he Arabs fublfituted cotton, the com¬
modity of their own country, in place of filk or rather
bamboo. I his paper of cotton was carried into Africa
and Spain by the Arabs. The Spaniards, from the
quantity of linen to be found in the kingdom of Valen¬
cia, feem firif to have adopted the idea of ufing linen
rags ; and the moft ancient paper of this kind is of Va¬
lencia and Catalonia. From Spain it pafl'ed into France,
as may be learned from a letter of Joinville to St Louis
about the year 1 260. It is difcovered to have been in
Germany in 1312, and in England in 1320 and 1342.
In confequence of the paper made from cotton in the
Levant, the paper from linen was introduced much later
into Italy. See the work of Abbe Andrez, printed at
. Parma, 1782, in 8vo ; and Mierman’s Colleclion, pub-
lifhed at the Hague.
Sect. I. Art of Making Paper in Europe.
To give a concife view of this fubjecl, it will be ne-
ceffary to proceed with all the important parts of the
g operation in their order.
The felec- The fele&ion of the rags, is the arranging of them
tion of rags, into different lots, according to their quality and to the
demand of the paper mill. In general this feledtion is
very much neglefted : The degrees of nnenefs and white-
nefs, ditlinguifhed with little care, are thought to be the
only objeds of importance *, whereas the hardnefs and
foftnefs, the being more or lefs worn, are much more ef-
fential in this feleftion. It is certain, that a mixture of
foft and hard rags occafions much more lofs in the tritu¬
ration than a difference in point of finenefs or of colour.
This exaftnefs in the feleflion is ftill more neceffary
where cylinders are ufed inftead of mallets. We cannot
do better than to give the method praftifed in Holland
as worthy of imitation.
-They begin by a general feparation of the rags into
four lots ; fuperfnae, fine, middle, and coarfe. Thefe
lots are given to feleftors, who fubdivide each of them
into five chefts. They have befides a bench, on which
is fixed vertically a hook, and a piece of fcythe which
is terminated by a crooked point.
The perfon, for example, who has the charge of the
fine lot, puts into one of the chefts the hard rags, or
thofe which are little ufed, into another the foft, into a
third the dirty, into a fourth thofe which are ftitched or
hemmed, and, finally, into the fifth the fuperfine rags
which happen to be among the fine.
After this procefs, the women who have the charge
pf it are at extreme pains to pick out every kind of few-
ing, and efpecially the knots of thread and the hems, by
means of the hook or fcythe which they have under their
hands. They take care alfo by the fame means to cut and
reduce the rags exaftly by the warp and the wToof into
PE R- Sedt. I.
fmall pieces. It is of great advantage to cut or tear the Art o/Ma-
pieces of rags by a thread, whether it be by the warp or kin£ Paper
woof; becaufe if it is done obliquely, many of the ends in ■EuroPe•
are loft in the operation. Y 1
When they have felc&ed a certain quantity of each
of thefe fubdivifions, they are placed on an iron grate,
which covers a large cheft where they are beat, and
otherwife turned, till the filth and dull pafs through
the bars of the grate and fall into the cheft.
•The number of lots in the felection of rags muft be
proportioned to the mat’s from which the ieledfion is
made, and to the kinds of paper produced by the mill.
Some mills, the work of which is confiderable, make
nine lots of their rags, five of which refpeft the fine¬
nefs, and the reft the cleannefs and the colour. In or¬
dinary mills there are only four lots, and in lome twro.
We have already oblerved, that the leledlion which
regards the hardnefs of the materials is the moft effen-
tial; becaufe it is of great importance to obtain Huff
compofed of equal parts, and without any lols. But
it is neceffary to add, that the finenefs and beauty of
the paper depend in fome cafes on a leledtion not ri¬
gorous. Thus, for example, it is of great fervice to
allow the middling to retain fome part of the fine, and the
fine fome part of the fuperfine} for without this the in¬
ferior kinds of paper can never be of great value. The
moft common fault is to mix the rags of the inferior lots
with the fuperior ; which though it augments the quan¬
tity of paper-, is extremely injurious to the quality. It
does much better to mix part of the fuperior lots with
the inferior. It was the want of attention to this mix¬
ture which makes fome paper mills excel in the fuperior
forts of paper while the inferior kinds are of a very bad
quality.
The fele&ion of rags being made with exa&nefs,
however, and the lots being fermented and triturated
feparately, the mixture may be made with much great¬
er advantage when they are both reduced to fluff; al¬
ways taking care that it be in the fame proportion as
if it vrere in the ftate of rags, and only in the manner
which we juft now mentioned ; for the inferior forts
gain more in beauty and quality by this mixture than
is loft in fluff; whereas if the fine fluff receives a cer¬
tain quantity of the inferior, the paper is more dama¬
ged in its value than increafed in quantity. In this
manner the intereft of the manufafturer, as in all cafes,
is intimately connefted with the goodnefs of his commo¬
dities. p
In fome mills the place for fermentation is divided The wafTi-
into two parts, one of which ferves for walking away :n2 and fer¬
tile filth from the rags. After allowing them to fteepl”™^'011
for fome time in a large ftone vat, they ftir them, and ^ *
pour in frefh water till the impurities connecled with
the rags run over. When they are as clean as they
poflibly can be made by this kind of w^aftiing, they are
laid in a heap to putrefy. In this condition they expe¬
rience a degree of fermentation, which is firft difcovered
by a mouldinefs of the different pieces of cloth. After-
wards the mafs grcws wrarm ; and then it is of great con¬
fequence to attend to the progrefs of this heat, in order
to moderate its effects: for this purpofe, the middle of
the heap, where the fermentation is ftrongeft, is turned
out, and vice verfa. In mills where mallets are ufed, the
putrefaftion is carried to a great height, which is fre¬
quently attended with two inconveniences. The firft is,
that
PAPER.
Sea. I.
Art of Ma-tliat a pait of tlie rags is reduced to an earthy fubftance,
king Paper which is found in great abundance about the cutting
.i'1 1'^iro'je; table, as we fhall afterwards have occafion to fee. But
belides this waite, exceffive fermentation makes the fluff
incapable of furtaining the a£tion of the mallets till it is
equally pounded. A paper made from a fluff too hard
and too little fermented, is coarfe and ill compared >
that made from rags too much fermented is compofed of
fibres without foftnefs and without ftrength.
The fecond inconveniency is, that the rags turn greafy
by too much fermentation, and of confequence it is very
difficult to feparate and reduce them by all the wafhings
of the trituration.
We (hall not defcribe the form of the place for fer¬
mentation, becaufe in different paper works thefe places
are of different conffru&ions : it is fufhcient to fay, that
they are all placed in low fltuations and made very clofe.
The felefted rags are placed in them in heaps, and wa¬
tered from time to time to bring on the fermentation.
In different paper mills they pradlife different methods
in the putrefadlion of their rags.
In certain provinces in France, they lay in the place
for putrefaction a heap equivalent to wThat the mill can
triturate in a month. When this is equally and fuf-
ficiently moiftened by means of moveable pipes, they
cover it with an old heap, which has lain a month in a
ftate of fermentation. When this old heap is exhaufted
by the mill, the new one becomes a covering to another,
and fo on. From this detail it is eafy to perceive, that
there muft be near three-weeks difference of putrefaction
in the fame heap, and alfo that in this method there is
no allowance for thofe feafons in which the fermentation
advances more rapidly.
In general the putrefaffion goes on more flowly in
proportion to the finenefs of the rags. But when, on
any occalion, it advances more rapidly than the demand
from the mill, the rags are turned over and watered, to
Hop the fermentation and prevent the bad effects.
All the inconveniences attending the excefs of putre-
fadlion are remedied in Holland by machines which tri¬
turate the rags without having recourfe to it; and their
fuccefs in this manner of preparing the fluff has attrafted
the notice of the French artifts, fome of whom have a-
dopted with advantage the Dutch machinery.
Meanwhile, it is poflible to carry the method of pu-
trefaflion to much greater perfeiflion •, and feveral ma-
nufafturers have made attempts fo wrell concerted, as to
deferve the attention of thofe who ftudy the fubjeft.
In the neighbourhood of Bruffels fome paper manu-
facturers, who have conftrutfled their mills after the
Dutch plan, have ftill found it neceffary to putrefy their
rags •, but, at the fame time, they have an excellent me¬
thod for moderating the effe£ts of this putrefaftion. In
the great galleries conne£ted with the buildings of the
paper mill, they have conftrufted a continuation of chefts,
capable each of them of containing a certain quantity of
rags; for example, the quantity which the cylinder can
triturate in one day. The number of chefts is equal to
the number of days which the rags in any-fcafon require
for putrefraftion and the number adlually employed is
greater or lefs according to the feafon. In profecuting
this plan, they lay a heap of rags in one cheft, as often
as they take one from another. It ftiould alfo be obferv-
ed, that, for the fake of the fermentation, the rags are
firft moiftened in a large hollow ftone before they, are ar- Art of Ma-
ranged into the chefts.
The peculiar advantages of this method are, the in
equal fermentation of the rags, without any part of
them being weakened ; great eafe in walking them j
and it is even pretended, that a lefs degree of fermen¬
tation renders the impurities and the difcoloured parts
both of hemp and linen more foluble, and confequently
the fluff of a purer white. 10
When the rags are reduced to a proper ftate of pu- Cutting
trefaftion, they are carried to the cutting table, w hich table,
is placed on folid treffels, and enclofed on three fides
to contain the rags cut on it. Before the table is fix¬
ed vertically a part of the blade of a feythe, the edge
of wdiich is turned from the operator. This workman,
in a fituation rather elevated, takes from the left fide
a handful of the putrefied rags, and arranging them the
long wray, gives them a gentle twift, preffes the half-
formed rope againft the blade of the feythe, and, in
the manner of (awing, cuts it into three or four pieces,
which he throws to the right fide of the table. In
this operation the rags lofe part of their filth, and efpe-
cially of the earthy particles occafioned by too much
putrefaction. i r
When the rags have been fubmitted to all the fore- Mills for
going operations, they are in a condition to be reduced ^u^’n£
into a fibrous fluff, of which the paper is made. To "ne r‘'° ’
obtain this fluff, mills are conftructed on different prin¬
ciples. Thofe which have been ufed for a long time
over all Europe, and which by a ftatement in the Ency¬
clopedic Methodique, publiihed at Paris in 1789, are ftill
ufed in France, are mills with mallets. But the mills
invented by the Dutch, and ufed in the neighbouring
provinces, and, excepting one inftance, in every part of
Great Britain, are mills with cylinders or rollers, In
the former of thefe, the mallets are raifed by notches
fixed at convenient diftances in a large circular beam of
wood. The teeth fixed on the end of the mallet fall
into a correfponding gap made the whole breadth of the
plate, and the ftrokes are repeated till the rags are re¬
duced to a proper confiftency. On fupplying the vat
with water, and carrying off all the impurities, the-
operation is nearly fimilar to that in the mills with
cylinders.
Such is the nature of what may be called the old me¬
thod of makifig paper. It was proper to fpeak of this
old method, becaufe at one time, and that not very di-
ftant, it univerfally prevailed. That it was inferior to
that now in practice, feems very evident; and that the
rotting of the rags was peculiarly abfurd, cannot be de¬
nied, as the paper made of fermented fluff could neither
be fo ftrong nor fo durable as that which is made in the
common way without putrefaction. The only kind of
paper that, with any propriety, could be made from pu¬
trefied fluff, was pafteboard ; but we are informed by
the moft intelligent papermakers in Britain, that they
feldom or never even putrefy the rags or ropes of which
pafteboard is made. It will now be requifite to ftate
the method prefently in practice, with the improvements
lately made in the art. 13
The dufter is made in the form of a cylinder, four The duller,
and a half feet in diameter, jnd five feet in length. It
is altogether covered with a wire net, and put in motion
by its connexion with fome part of the machinery. A
^ A 2 convenient
74^ • P A f
lun^pSe conven'ent quantity of rags before the feledion are en-
in Europe, in duller, and the rapidity of its motion fepa-
» v—^ rates the dull from them, and forces it through the
wire. It is of confiderable advantage to ufe the duller
before feledlion, as it makes that operation lefs pernicious
to the 1'electors.
, The feledtion is performed much in the fame manner
as we have already defended j only it is found more
convenient to have the tables for cutting olf the knots
and Hitching, and for forming them into a proper
fhape, in the fame place with the cutting table. The
furlace both of thefe and of the cutting table is com-
pofed of a wire net, which in every part of the ope¬
ration allows the remaining dull and refufe of every kind
to efcape.
1 he rags, without any kind of putrefaction are again
earned from the cutting table back to the duller, and
from thence to the engine, where, in general, they are
in the Ipace of fix hours reduced to the Huff proper for
making paper. I he hard and foft of the fame quality
are placed in different lots ; but they can be reduced tq
Huff at the lame time, provided the foft be put fome-
j ^ what later into the engine.
Defcrjption The engine is that part of the mill which performs
null PapCr ^ whole aclion of reducing the rags to pafte, or, as
it may be termed, of trituration. The number of the
engines depends on the extent of the paper work, on
the force of water, or on the confiruciion of the ma¬
chinery.
It will afford a fufficient idea of the work, to give in
p;,^ detail a deferintion of*the different parts of the engine.
CCCCIV. figure i. reprefents the chapiter which covers the rol-
Fiy. i. ler. It is four feet three inches in length, and two feet
eight inches in breadth. The fuperior part is pierced
with two openings running crofswife, l, 2, 3, 4, into
which enter the cheffes, or wicker frames, figures 6. and
7.; the firft, made of wire cloth, enters into the opening
3 and 4 ; the fecond made of hair cloth, and ftrength-
ened with feveral crofs bars of wood, enters into the
opening 1, 2, ferves to retain the fmall pieces of rags
which efcape through the firft, and prevents them from
falling into the dalot or hole-fcupper, fig. 2. This hole-
feupper is placed acrofs the vat of the engine, parallel
to the axle of the roller; the part g enters into the
notch c of the chapiter j and the extremity /i enters in¬
to the opening t of the tunnel k/ (fig. 3.), by which
means the water dallied through the wicker frames by
every revolution of the roller is precipitated into the ca¬
nal y^, and lofes itfelf below the engine. The figures
4, 9, and 10, reprefent the roller in perfpedlive, in plane,
and in profile. It is two feet in diameter, and two feet
three inches in length. The trundle head A is 16
inches in diameter, about half as much in length, and
furnilhed with feven fpindles of iron, which are ferewed
to the end of the trundle head, made alfo of iron. The
teeth or blades of the roller are 27 in number, and fit¬
ted ftrongly into the wood which compofes its body,
parallel to its axis. They are of that thicknefs as to
leave as much empty fpace as they occupy. The exte¬
rior face of each of the blades Ihould be made round,
and divided into two parts, with a longitudinal motion,
as in the profile ti a a, fig. 10.
The axis A B of the roller (fig. 4. and 9.) has two
parts perfeflly rounded in A and in B, which perform
the office of pivots, Thefe pivots reft in the fockets A
’ E R- . Sea I.
and B (fig. _8.) in the middle of the levers OAII and Art of Ma-
QBH. It is by means of thefe levers that they raife atk:ng Paper
pleafure, or lower the axis of the roller, and fit it exadt- 111 Europe,
ly, and in a parallel manner, to the plate. The plates
(fee fig. 5.) are made of fteel cut into channels, in fuch
a manner as to correfpond with the blades of the roller.
Their channels are not perpendicular, but oblique ; and
there are two rows of them, b x, x d, confifting of feven
or eight blades each on one plate.—Thole in b xt for
the purpofe of changing the plate, lie in an oppofite di¬
rection to thofe in x d. The levers are kept in their po-
fition near the vat by bands of iron, MN and m n ; be¬
tween which they are made higher or lower by the cog- ,
ged wheel H, which fupports one of the extremities.
Wedges N n are likewife employed to fix the levers at
a convenient height above the plates. Finally, Every
vat is fupplied with a fmall Hide door, which is occafion-
ally railed to carry the prepared fluff' by means of the
feuppers of wood to the general repolitories.
Fig. is placed in the vat fig. S.y.the roller (fig. 4#)Wor^ng
is placed above it in fuch a manner that the pivots reft of the en-
in the fockets of the levers j the feupper (fig. 2.) and ffne-
the chapiter are difpofed in the manner above mention- ‘
ed. The vat is charged with a proper quantity of rags,
and frelh water is admitted by a fpigot placed at one of
the corners. In this fituation, when the engine is put
in motion, the roller turning upon its axis draws the wa¬
ter and the rags by the leaft inclined plane, and making
them pafs between its blades and the channels of the
plate, dallies them againft the chapiter and the wicker-
frames •, and, in Ihort, part of them falls back into
the vat, and returns into the circulation. The caufe
of this circulation is evidently the continual void oc-
cafioned by the movement of the roller on the one
fide, and the return of the water and the ftuffi on the
other.
As all the rags are not thrown towards the part Br/
of the chapiter, from whence they might fall back into
the vat, but a part of them to a greater diftance j it is
neceffary to have the wicker frames formerly deferibed,
not only to prevent their lofs, but to allow the dirty wa¬
ter to efcape. The fpigot at the corner of the vat con¬
tinually fupplies this wafte of water. This operation
would be fufficient to whiten the rags, although the rol¬
lers were raifed confiderably from the plate; and there¬
fore the force and aftion of the rollers reducing them
to ftuff mull be much more effedlual. It requires great
Ikill to condudl the engine, whether it be with regard
to the firft quantity, to the proper time for adding the
fofter rags, to the augmenting or diminilhing the wa¬
ter in proportion to the trituration j or, finally, to
knowing exadlly when the ftuff is reduced to a proper
confiftency.
In the paper manufaclory at Montargis, it was at¬
tempted to introduce rollers of the greateft ftrength and
the leaft weight poffible, in order to give them the great¬
er rapidity j but the experiment did not fucceed : the
rollers of prodigious rapidity were found to produce
ftuff neither in greater quantity nor of fuperior quality.
The moll experienced artifts have eftabliihed a propor¬
tion between the motion of the roller and the greater
or lefs refiftance of the rags. And the Dutch, who
have arrived at very great perfection in this art, have
followed a method totally different from that praClifed.
at Montargis. A roller in Holland complete in all its
parts
i
•*
\
>
;
Seel I. PAP
Art of Ma- parts weighs nearly 30 hundred weight 5 and they find
king Paper ^ neceffary for cutting the rags, efpecially if they
v - t . nave not been putrefied. In proportiomng the rapidity
to the refiftance, they have alfo difeovered, that a flow
motion is preferable to a rapid one. The rollers at
Saardom, by calculation made from the different parts of
the machinery, make about 68 revolutions in a minute ;
thofe at Montargis about 166.— In Holland, too, this
trituration of the rags is divided into two diftindt ope¬
rations, performed by rollers conftrufted on different
principles : the firft of them, for cutting the rags and
preparing for the other, is furnifhed with blades of fteel
without any moifture, and with a confiderable fpace be¬
tween them ; the fecond, intended to reduce the fluff
to the proper confiflency, has a greater number of
blades, compofed of a mixture of brafs and copper.
The mills with rollers are in every refpedt fuperior to
thofe formerly in ufe with mallets. Two Dutch rollers
of the conilruclion we have juft now deferibed will pre¬
pare as much fluff in the fame time as 24 mallets 5 they
require infinitely lefs room *, they do it without putre-
fadlion, and as they do it in lefs time, and with lefs wa¬
ter, they occafion much lefs wafte of the fluff.
When the fluff is brought to perfection, it is convey¬
ed into a general repofitory, which fupplies the vat from
which the fheets of paper are formed. This vat is made
of wood, and generally about five feet in diameter, and
two and a half an depth. It is kept in temperature by
means of a grate introduced by a hole, and furrounded
on the infide of the vat with a cafe of copper. For
fuel to this grate, they ufe charcoal or wood ; and, fre¬
quently, to prevent fmoke, the wall of the building
comes in contact with one part of the vat, and the fire
has no communication with the place where they make
the paper.
Every vat is fumifhed on the upper part with planks,
enclofed inwards, and even railed in with wood, to pre¬
vent any of the fluff from running over in the opera¬
tion. Acrofs the vat is a plank which is called the
trepan, pierced with holes at one of the extremities, and
refting on the planks which furround the vat.
The forms or moulds are compofed of wire-cloth, and
a moveable frame. It is with thefe that they fetch up
the fluff from the vat, in order to form the fheets of pa¬
per. The fides of the form are made of oak, which is
previoufly fteeped in water, and otherwife prepared to
prevent warping. The wire-cloth is made larger than
the flieet of paper, and the excefs of it on all fides
is covered -with a moveable frame. This frame is ne¬
ceffary to retain the fluff of which the paper is made
on the cloth ; and it muft be exa£lly adapted to the form,
otherwife the edges of the paper will be ragged and bad¬
ly finifhed. The wire-cloth of the form is varied in
proportion to the finenefs of the paper and the nature of
the fluff.
The felts are pieces of rvoollen cloth fpread over
every fheet of paper, and upon which the fheets are laid,
to detach them from the form, to prevent them from ad¬
hering together, to imbibe part of the water with which
the fluff is charged, and to tranfmit the whole #»f it
when placed under the aftion of the prefs. The two
fides of the felt are differently raifed : that of which the
hair is longeft is applied to the fheets which are laid
down ; and any alteration of this difpofition would pro¬
duce a change in the texture of the paper. The fluff
E It. 74,
of which the felts are made fhou'ld be fufficiently ftrong, Art of Ma¬
in order that it may be ftretched exadlly on the fheets PaPer
without forming into folds } and, at the fame time, fuf- 1H i:iJroPe-_
ficiently pliant to yield in every diredtion without inju¬
ry to the wTet paper. As the felts have to refill the rei¬
terated efforts of the prefs, it appears neceffary that the
warp be very ftrong, of combed wool, and w?ell twdfted.
On the other hand, as they have to imbibe a certain
quantity of water, and to return it, it is neceffary that
the woof be of carded wool, and drawn out into a flack
thread.—Thefe are the utenfils, together with the prefs,
which are ufed in the apartment w here the fheets of pa¬
per are formed. r -
dhe vat being furnifhed with a fufficient quantity of The fabri-
fluff and of wrater, two inftruments are employed to mix cat*on
them ; the one of which is a fimple pole, and the other PaPer‘
a pole armed wuth a piece of board, rounded and foil of
holes. This operation is repeated as often as the fluff
falls to the bottom. In the principal uniting mills in
England, they ufe for this purpofe what is called a hog,
wdrich is a machine within the vat, that, by means of a
fmall wdieel on the outfide, is made to turn conftantly
round, and keep the fluff in perpetual motion. When1
the fluff and wTater are properly mixed,••it is eafy to per¬
ceive whether the previous operations have been com¬
plete. When the fluff floats clofe, and in regular
flakes, it is a proof that it has been well triturated 5 and
the parts of the rags which have efcaped the rollers alfo
appear.
After this operation the wmrkman takes one of the
forms, fumifhed with its frame, by the middle of the
fhort fides, and fixing the frame round the wire-cloth
wuth his thumbs, he plunges it obliquely four or five
inches into the vat, beginning by the long fide, which is
neareft to him. After the immerfion he raifes it to a
level: by thefe movements he fetches up on the form a
fufficient quantity of fluff; and as foon as the form is
raifed the water efcapes through the wire-cloth, and the
fuperfluity of the fluff over the fides of the frame. The
fibrous parts of the fluff arrange themfelves regularly
on the wire-cloth of the form, not only in proportion as
the water efcapes, but alfo as the workman favours this
effect by gently fhakjng the form. Afterwards, having
placed the form on a piece of board, the wmrkman takes
off the frame or deckle, and glides this form towards
the coucher •, who, having previoufly laid his felt,
places it with his left hand in an inclined fituation,
on a plank fixed on the edge of the vat, and full of
boles. During this operation the workman applies his
frame, and begins a fecond fheet. The coucher feizes
this inflant, takes with his left hand the form, now-
fofficiently dry, and laying the fheet of paper upon the
felt, returns the form by gliding it along the trepan of
the vat.
They proceed in this manner, laying alternately a
fheet and a felt, till they have made fix quires of paper;
which is called a pojl; and this they do with fuch fwift-
nefs, that, in many forts of paper, two men make up¬
wards of 20 polls in a day. When the lafl fheet of the
poll is covered with the laft felt, the workmen about the
vat unite together, and fobmit the whole heap to the ac¬
tion of the prefs. They begin at firft to prefs it with a
middling lever, and afterwards with a lever about fif¬
teen feet in length. After this operation another perfon
feparates the fheets of paper from the felts, laying them
742
PAPER.
Art of Ma- In a heap ^ and feveral of thefe heaps collected together
nllS" are, asa!n Put the prefs.
The fluff which forms a fheet of paper is received,
as v:e have already faid, on a form made of wire-cloth,
which is more or lefs fine in proportion to the fluff, and
furrounded with a wooden frame, and fupported in the
middle by many crofs bars of wood. In confecjuence
of this conftruftion, it is eafy to perceive, that the ftieet
of paper will take and preferve the impreflions of all
the pieces which compofe the form, and of the empty
fpaces between them.
’I he traces of the wire-cloth are evidently perceived
on the fide of the fheet which was attached to the form,
and on the oppofite fide they form an affemblage of pa¬
rallel and rounded rifings. As in the paper which is
moft highly finifhed the regularity of thefe impreflions
is ftill vifible, it is evident that all the operations to
\vhkh it is fubmitted have chiefly in view to foften thefe
impreflions without deftroying them.—It is of confe-
quence, therefore, to attend to the combination of labour
which operates on thefe impreflions. The coucher, in
turning the form on the telt, flattens a little the round¬
ed eminences which are in relievo on one of the furfa-
ces, and occafions at the fame time the hollow places
made by the wire-cloth to be partly filled up. Mean¬
while the effort which is made in detaching the form,
produces an infinite number of fmall hairs on every pro¬
tuberant part of the fheet.
Under the acfion of the prefs, firft with the 'felts and
then without them, the perfe&ing of the grain of paper
flill goes. on. The veftiges of the protuberances made
by the wires are altogether flattened, and of confequence
the hollows oppofite to them difappear 4ilfo ; but the
traces formed by the interftices of the wire, in confe¬
quence of their thicknefs, appear on both fides, and are
rounded by the prefs.
The rifings traced on each fide of the paper, and
which can be difcovered by the eye on that which is
moft highly finifhed, form what is called the grain of
paper. The different operations ought to foften but not
deftroy it j which is effedtually done by employing the
hammer. This grain appears in the Dutch paper ;
which is a fufficient proof, that though they have brought
this part of the art to the greateft perfeftion, they have
not employed hammers, but more fimple and ingenious
means. 1 he grain of paper is often disfigured by the
felts when they are too much ufed, or when the wool
does, not coyer the thread. In this cafe, when the pa¬
per is fubmitted to the prefs^ it takes the additional tra¬
ces of the warp and the woof, and compofes a furface
extremely irregular.
The paper, the grain of which is highly foftened, is
much fitter for the purpofes of writing than that which
is fmoothed by the hammer : on the other hand, a coarfe
and unequal grain very much oppofes the movements of
the pen ; as that which is beat renders them very uncer¬
tain. The art of making paper, therefore, fhould con-
fifl in preferving, and at the fame time in highly foften-
ing, the grain: the Dutch have carried this to the high-
eft perfection.
The exchange fucceeds the operation laft defcribed.
It is conducted in a hall contiguous to the vat, fuppli»d
with feveral preffes, and with a long table. The work¬
man arranges on this table the paper, newly fabricated,
into heaps 3 each heap containing eight or ten, of thofe
Sea. I.
17
^Exchange.
laft under the prefs, kept fcparate by a woollen felt. Art of Ma-
The prefs is large enough to receive two of them at kin£ PaPer
once, placed the one at the other’s fide. When the in EuroPe-,
compreflion is judged fufficient, the heaps of paper ate '
carried back to the table, and the whole turned ftieet
by fheet, in fuch a manner that the furface of every
fheet is.expofed to a new one 3 and in this fituation they
are again brought under the prefs. It is in conducting
thefe two operations fometimes to four or five times, or
as often as the nature of the paper requires, that the
perfection of the Dutch plan confitts. If the fluff be
fine, or the paper flender, the exchange is lefs frequent¬
ly repeated. In this operation it is neceffary to alter the
fituation of the heaps, with regard to one another, eve¬
ry time they are put under the prefs 3 and alfo, as the
heaps are higheft toward the middle, to place fmall
pieces of felt at the extremities, in order to bring every
part of them under an equal preffure. A Angle man
with four or five preffes may exchange all the paper
produced by two vats, provided the previous prefling at
the vats be well performed. The work of the exchange
generally lafts about two days on a given quantity of
paper.
When the paper has -undergone thefe operations, it is
not only foftened in the furface, but better felted, and
rendered more pliant in the interior parts of the fluff.
In fti.ort, a great part of the water which it had imbi¬
bed in the operation of the vat is diffipated. By the
felting of paper is underftood the approximation of the
fibres of the fluff, and their adhering more clofely toge¬
ther. The paper is felted in proportion as the water e~
fcapes 3 and this effeCt is produced by the management
and reiterated aftion of the prefs. Were it not for the
gradual operation of the prefs, the paper would be po¬
rous and compofed of filaments adhering clofely together.
The fuperiority of the Dutch over the French paper de¬
pends almoft entirely on this operation.
If the ffieets of paper are found to adhere together,
it is a proof that the bufinefs of the prefs has been bad¬
ly conduCled. To avoid this inconveniency, it is necef¬
fary to bring down the prefs at firft gently, and by de¬
grees With greater force, and to raife it as fuddenly as
poflible. By this means the water, which is impelled
to the fides of the heaps, and which has not yet efcaped,
returns to the centre ; the flieets are equally dry, and>
the operation executed without difficulty.
According to the ftate of drynefs in which the paper
is found when it comes from the apartment of the vat,
it is either preffed before or after the firft exchange!
The operation of the prefs fliould be reiterated and ma¬
naged with great care 5 otherwife, in the foft ftate of
the paper, there is a danger that its grain and tranfpa-
rency be totally deftroyed. Another effential principle
to the fuccefs of the exchange is, that the grain of the
paper be originally well raifed. For this purpofe the
wire cloth of the Dutch forms is compofed of a rounder
wire than thofe ufed in France, by which they gain the
greateft degree of tranfparency, and are in no danger of
deftroying the grain. Befides this, the Dutch take care
to f portion the wires even where the forms are equal
to the thicknefs of the paper.
Almoft every kind of paper is confiderably improved
by the exchange, and receives a degree ot perfection
which renders it more agreeable in the ufe. But it is
neceffary to obferve at the fame time, that all papers
Sea. I. PAPE
Art of Mb-are not equally fufceptible of this melioration; on the fture.
R.
743
king contrary, if the fluff be unequal, dry, or weakened
.In ^ ‘ ^ by the deilruclion of the fine parts, it acquires no¬
thing of -that luftre and foftnefs, and appearance of
velvet, wThIch the exchange gives to fluffs properly pre-
iS pared.
Of the dry- A he fheds for drying the paper are in the neighbour¬
ing of pa- hood of the paper mill; and are furnilhed with a vail
per. number of cords, upon which they hang the flieets both
before and after the fixing. The iheds are furrounded
with moveable lattices, to admit a quantity of air fufli-
cient for drying the paper. The cords of the fired are
flretched as much as poflible ; and the paper, four or
five fheets of it together, is placed on them by means of
a wooden inflrument refembling a pickaxe. The prin¬
cipal difficulty in drying the paper, confifts in gradually
admitting the external air, and in preventing the cords
from imbibing moiilure. With regard to the firft of
thefe, the Dutch ufe very low ffieds, and conflruft their
lattices with great exaflnefs. By this means the Dutch
paper is dried equally, and is extremely fupple before
the fixing. They prevent the cords from imbibing the
water by covering them with wax. In ufing fuch cords,
the moifture does not continue in the line of contact be¬
tween the paper and the cord, which prevents the fiieet
from firetching in that particular place by its weight,
and from the folds which the moiflure in the fubfequent
operations might occafion. The Dutch alfo employ
cords of confiderable thicknefs, and place fewer^f them
under the fheets ; by which means they diminifii the
points of contact, and give a freer and more equal cir¬
culation to the air.
The fixe for paper is made of the fhreds and pairings
got from the tanners, curriers, and parchment makers.
All the putrified parts and the lime are carefully fepa-
xated from them, and they are enclofed into a kind of
bafket, and let down by a rope and pulley into the caul¬
dron. This is a late invention, and ferves two valuable
purpofes. It makes it eafy to draw out the pieces of
leather when the fixe is extracted from them by boiling,,
or eafy to return them into the boiler if the operation
be not complete. When the fubflance is fufficiently ex-
trafled, it is allowed to fettle for fome time; and it is
twice filtered before it is put into the veffel into which
they dip the paper.
Immediately before the operation, a certain quantity
of alum is added to the fixe. The workman takes a
handful of the (heels, fmoothed and rendered as fupple
as poffible, in his left hand, dips them into the veffel,
and holds them feparate with his right, that they may
equally imbibe the fixe. After holding them above the
veffel for a fhort fpace of time, he feizes on the ether
fide with his right hand, and again dips them into the
veffel. When he has finiffied ten or a dozen of thefe
handfuls, they are fubmitted to the aflion of the prefs.
The fuperfluous fixe is carried back to the veffel by
means of a final! pipe. The veffel in which the paper
is fixed is made of copper, and furniffied with a grate,
to give the fixe when neceffary a due temperature ;
and a piece of thin board or felt is placed between
every handful as they are laid on the table of the prefs.
The Dutch are very careful, in fixing their paper, to
have every fiieet in the fame handful of equal drynefs ;
becaufe it is found that the dry fheets imbibe the fiee
more flowly than thefe which retain fome degree of moi-
19
Of the
ruins’ of
paptr.
They begin by felecling the paclges in the dry- Art of Ma-
ing houfe ; and after having made them fupple,'find ha-kln?, 1>aPer
ving dellroyed the adherence between the iheets, they ln i:-l‘rol'e“
feparate them into handfuls in proportion to the drynefs,
each of them containing that number which they can
dip at one time. Befides this precaution, they take care
to apply two fheets of brown paper of an equal fixe to
every handful. This brown paper, firm, folid, and al¬
ready fixed, is of ufe to fupport the ftieets.
As foon as the paper is fixed, it is the praflice of fome
paper mills to carry it immediately to the drying houfe,
and hang it, before it cools, Iheet by fheet on the cords.
The paper, unlefs particular attention be paid to the lat¬
tices of the drying-houfe, is apt to dry too fall, whereby
a great part of the fixe goes off in evaporation ; or, if
too flow, it falls to the ground. The Dutch drying-
houfes are the bed to prevent thefe inconveniences :—
But the exchange after the fixing, which is generally
praflifed in Holland, is the belt remedy. They begin
this opera! ion on the handfuls of paper, either while
they are flill hot, or other wife as they find it conveni¬
ent. But, after the exchange, they are careful to allow
the heaps to be altogether cold before they are fubmit-
ted to the prefs. Without this precaution, the fixe
would either be wholly fqueezed out by the prefs of the
exchange, or the furface of the paper become very irre¬
gular. It is of confequence that the paper, ftill warm
from the fixing, grow gradually firm, under the opera¬
tion of the exchange, in proportion as it cools. By
this method it receives that varnilh which is afterwards
brought to perfection under the prefs, and in which the
excellency of the paper either for writing or drawing
chiefly contifts. It is in confequence of the exchanging
and preffing that the Dutch paper is fbft and equal, and
that the fixe penetrates into the body of it, and is ex¬
tended equally over its furface.
The exchange after the fixing ought to be conducted,
with the greatetl fkill and attention, becaufe the grain
of the paper then receives impreffions which can never
be eradicated. WThen the fixed paper is alfo exchanged,,
it is poffible to hang more fheets together on the cords
of the drying-houfe. The paper dries better in this con¬
dition, and the fixe is preferved without any fenfible
wafle, becaufe the fheets of paper mutually prevent the
rapid operation of the external air. And as the fixe has
already penetrated into the paper, and is fixed on the
furface, the infenfible progrefs of a well conducled dry¬
ing-houfe renders all the good effects more perfect in
proportion as it is flowly dried.
If to thefe confiderations be added the damage done
to the paper in drying it immediately after the prefs of
the fixing room, whether it be done in railing the hairs
by feparating the flieets, or in cracking the furface, it is
evident that the trouble of the fecond exchange is infi¬
nitely overpaid by the advantage. 20
When the paper is fufficiently dry, it is carried to the Of thf* fi-
finifliing room, where it is preffed, felefled, examined, ,u,1ling
folded, made up into quires, and finally into reams.—jtro alj
is here put twice under the prefs ; firfl, when it is at its
full fixe, and fecondly, after it is folded.
The principal labour of this place confifls in afforting
the paper into different lots, according to its quality and
faults ; after which it is made up into quires. The per-
fon who does this muff poffefs great fkill, and be capable
of great attention, becaufe he afts as a check on thofe
who
7'U ■ _ p A
Art of Ma-who feparated the paper into dilferent lots. He takes
king Paper t]le pieets vvith his right hand, folds them, examines
,in Europe. ]ayS them over his left arm till he has the number
v ' requilite for a quire, brings the Tides parallel to one ano¬
ther, and places them in heaps under the table. An
expert workman, if proper care has been taken in aflbrt-
ing the lots, will finilh in this manner near 600 quires
in a day.
The paper is afterwards collected into reams of 20
quires each, and for the laft time put under the prefs,
where it is continued for 10 or 12 hours, or as long as
2t the demand of the paper-mill will permit.
A new me- A method has lately been difcovered of bleaching
thodof the rags or fluff, which will undoubtedly be adopted
bleaching everywhere in the preparation of writing paper, pro-
the„ra|s vided the expence of the procefs be not too great.
This difcovery was made by Scheele, M. Berthollet,
and M. Chaptal. The firft of thefe illuftrious writers
communicated to the Swedilh Academy of Sciences an
Eflay on Manganefe, containing a numerous feries of
experiments, intended to invefligate the nature and
properties of that fubftance. Among thefe experi¬
ments were feveral which pointed out a new ftate of
the muriatic acid, or the acid diftilled from fea-falt,
otherwife known under the name of the acid or fpirit
of fea-falt. This ftate of the muriatic acid was pro¬
duced by Mr Scheele, in confequence of putting the
faid acid into a retort or diftilling veffel, along with
the above-mentioned fubftance called manganefe, and
diftilling over the acid into a proper receiver 5 it was
found to have changed its nature and properties in a
very remarkable manner, while at the fame time the
manganefe remaining in the retort had faffered a very
\ materiaLalteration.
> To the new ftate of the acid thus produced, in con¬
fequence of certain theoretic ideas which Mr Scheele
entertained refpedfting the mutual aftion of the original
muriatic acid and the manganefe on each other during
the prccefs of diftillation, he gave the name of depldo-
gi/hcated muriatic acid. Since the time of this original
difcovery, in confequence of certain changes which
have occurred in the theory or philofophy of chemi-
ftry, this new ftate of the acid of fea fait has been
called the oxygenated muriatic acid. Among many other
properties of it difcovered by Mr Scheele, the moft re¬
markable was, that it deftroyed the colour of every vege¬
table fubftance which was expofed to its adftion j or, in
other words, it bleached them 5 or, in the language of
the dyers, it difcharged their colours ; that is to fay,
whatever happened to be the colour of any vegetable
body that was fubmitted to the a£Hon of the oxyge¬
nated or dephlogifticated muriatic acid, it always be¬
came white, or loft its colouring matter.
In the year 1786, Dr Beddoes, then profelfor of che-
miftry in the univerfity of Oxford, publilhed an Eng-
lifti tranflation of the Chemical Eftays of Mr Scheele j
and thereby made known to the chemifts of Great
Britain the power of the oxygenated or dephlogiftica¬
ted muriatic acid, to bleach or whiten vegetable fub-
ftances, or to difcharge' or decompofe their colours.
But M. Berthollet, a celebrated chemift in France, and
one of the members of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris appears to have been the firfl: who thought of
rendering the above-recited difcovery fubfervient to the
purpofes of manufacture.
> E It. Sea. I.
In 1789, he publiihed in the Annales de Chimie anArtefMa-
efiay calculated entirely for the ufe of manufacturers, bykin§
being divefted of theoretic difcuflions \ of which the title in Europe..
is, Method of Bleaching Linen or Cotton Cloths, »“
Threads, and Yarns, by means of oxygenated Muriatic
Acid, and of feme other properties of that Liquor which
may be ufefi.il in Manufactures.”
In the fame wTork, and in the fame year, M. Chap¬
tal, another French chemift, publiihed an account of
fome experiments, in which, among many other appli¬
cations of the oxygenated muriatic acid to purpofes ufe-
ful in the economical arts, he gives information of ha¬
ving bleached or whitened coarfe rags ufed by the pa¬
per-makers, fo as greatly to improve the quality of the
paper into which they were afterwards manufactured.
His preparation of this bleaching liquor differs not
from Berthollet’s, which is as follows : “ Take fix
ounces of manganefe and fixteen ounces of fea-falt,
both reduced to a fine powder 5 mix thefe accurately,
and introduce them into a retort or diftilling vefiel:
Then take twelve ounces of oil of vitriol and eight
ounces of w ater, mixed together, and allowed to cool j
add thefe to the other ingredients in the retort, and
conneCt the retort with a calk or receiver capable of
holding twenty-feven gallons and a half of water, but
only containing twrenty-five gallons, which is to be im¬
pregnated with the gas or vapour of the oxygenated mu¬
riatic acid ; and proceed to diftillation, firft without
and afterwards with a fire gradually railed, till the whole
acid comes over.”
Experiments have been made with this liquor both
by fome of the principal paper-makers in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh and by Meflfis Clement and
George Taylors of Maidftone in Kent. By the form¬
er it was found, that paper made of rags and pulp
whitened in this manner, was fuperior to any other
made of fimilar materials, not only in colour but in
finenefs of texture. By the latter, the excellence of the
liquor was found to be fo great, that probably having
never heard of Scheele, Berthollet, and Chaptal, and
conceiving themfelves to be the firft; inventors of it,
they obtained a patent for its exclufive ufe, which other
manufacturers will doubtlefs difregard. It is not to be
concealed, however, that, even wdth all the precautions
which can poflibly be taken at firft, various circum-
ftances of imperfeCHon muft neceffarily remain to be re¬
moved by means of farther experience, both in the per¬
fection of the bleaching procefs and the economy of its
application to ufe ; but for the attaining of this experi¬
ence a fhort time will rarely be fufficient. The above
account, it muft appear, refers to the time when the
bleaching of rags by this procefs wTas firft introduced.
The praCtice, we find is ftill (1808) fuccefsfully conti¬
nued by fome of the manufacturers in the vicinity of E
dinburgh, and has been improved by ufing the bleach¬
ing fait (the hyperoxymuriate of lime), the right to the
preparation of which is exclufively veiled by patent in
Mefirs Tennant and Company of Glafg^W.
Sect. II. Of the different Kinds of Taper.
.21
The paper proper for writing fhould be w ithout Writing
knots^ without any parts of the fluff not trifura-paper,
ted, without folds, and without wrinkles, of a fupple
texture, its grain uniform and regular, foftened in the
exchange,
'3
^3
Fbr dura
sea. ii. a ^
exchange, and not deftroyed by fmootbdng.
ground of this paper mult be extremely white, or {had¬
ed with a very light blue, which adds to its natural
fplendcr. It is of great importance that it be fully
and equally fized, otherwife the writing cannot be well
finilhed, and the turnings of the letters will be very
imperfect. This paper Ihould be made from fluff not
putrefied, which takes a better grain, receives more
benefit from the exchange, is more equally fized, and,
finally, is lei's fubjedt to folds and wrinkles in the dif¬
ferent operations. To make paper peculiarly fit for
ble writing, durable writing, Dr Lewis recommends the impregna¬
tion of it with aftringent materials. “ It is obfervable
(fays he) that writings firft begin to fade or change their
colour on the back of the paper, where the larger
flrokes have funk in, or are vilible through it} as if part
of the irony matter of the vitriol was in a more lubtile
* or diffolved Hate than the reft, and funk further, on ac¬
count of its not being fully difengaged from the acid,
or fufficiently combined with the aftringent matter of
the galls. Hence, it Ihould feem probable, that if the
paper wras impregnated with aftringent matter, the co¬
lour of the ink would be more durable. To fee how far
this notion was well founded, I dipt fome paper in an
infufion of galls: and, when dry, repeated the dipping
a fecond and third time. On the paper thus prepared,
and fome that was unprepared, I wrote with different
inks •, feveral of which, that the effects might be more
fenfibfe, had an over-proportion of vitriol.' The wri¬
tings being expofed to the weather till the heft of the
inks on the unprepared paper had faded and changed
their colour, thofe on the prepared paper were all
found to retain their blacknefs. It is therefore recom¬
mended to the confideration of the paper-makers,
whether a particular kind of paper might not be pre¬
pared for thofe ufes where the long duration of the
writing is of principal importance, by impregnating it
with galls or other aftringents, in fome of the opera¬
tions it paffes through before it receives the glazing •,
as, for inftance, by ufing an aftringent infulion, inftead
of common water, in the laft operation, when the mat¬
ter is reduced into a pulp for being formed into {beets.
The brownifh hue which the paper receives from the
galling, would not perhaps be any great obftacle to
its ufe 5 and, if the propofal ftiould be thought worthy
of being carried into execution, further inquiries may
poftibiy difeover the means of obviating the imperfe&ion,
and communicating aftringency without colour.”
The paper ufed for drawing, or for coloured maps, is
in fome mills made from one kind of white fluff, either
fine or middling 5 in others, from a mixture of three or
four kinds of fluff of different colours. The Dutch
were not long ago almoft wholly in poffeflion of this
manufadlure. The fame qualities are neceflary in this
paper as in that for writing. The grain, however, mull
be a little more raifed, although foftened by the ex¬
change *, for, without this grain, the pencil -would leave
with dirficulty the traces of the objects. Great care
is alfo neceffary in the fizing of this paper, that the
drawing be neatly performed, and alfo that the finking
of the ink or colours into the irregularities of the fluff
be prevented.
This paper is alfo made in greateft perfefticn by fluffs
not rotted. Thefe take a more even glofs, and are in
. Yol. XV. Part II.
A P E K. j 745
The better condition to receive all the imprefilons of the Different
painter. It is alio neceffary that furniture paper be
kinds cf
Paper.
24
Paper lit
for draw¬
ing, or for
coloured
maps.
20
2S.
Of furni¬
ture paper.
well foftened, and fubmitted to the exchange, to take
more exactly the outlines of the. figures. The French
have carried this part of the manufacture of paper to the
higheft ftate of perfection.
The Briti111 and Dutch have had the greateft fuc-Pafteboard
cefs in manufacturing pafteboard, which they make ule(l ni the
either from a Angle mafs of fluff on the form, or from™^“^c
a collection of feveral ftieets palled together. In both w00nen
cafes, the ftieets of pafteboard are made of fluff not cloth,
rotted, and triturated with rollers furnilhed with blades
of well tempered fteel. By the operation of. the ex¬
change, and fmoothing continued lor a long time, the
Britifh and Dutch obtain folid and fnlooth fluffs, which
neither break under the folds of cloth nor adhere to
them. The fluffs not putrefied have another advantage
in this fpecies of pafteboard, namely, that of refilling the
aCtion of heat, which they experience between the folds
of cloth, without wafting or tarniftiing, and of confe-
quence they may be ufed for a long time. 27
In England they have at leaft equalled any other Printing
nation in the manufacture of this paper j and even in!aix'1’
Scotland they have arrived to iuch a degree of perfec¬
tion in this art, that great part of what they manu¬
facture is fent into England. It requires to be made of
a foft and equal fluff, without folds or wrinkles, of a
natural whitenefs, and with a fhade of blue. It muft be
fized lefs ftrongly than writing paper, but fufficiently
well to give neatnefs to the characters. The paper,
thus properly prepared, yields eafily to the printing
prefs, and takes a fufficient quantity of ink. The fluff
muft be without greafe, and wrought with that degree
of flownefs as to make it fpread equally over the .form,
and take a neat and regular grain ; without this the
characters will not be equally marked in every part of
the page ; and the fmalleft quantity of greafe renders
the fizing unequal and imperfeCt. Some artifts with
confiderable fuccefs, both to meliorate the grain, and
to reduce the inequalities of the furface, have fubmitted
this paper to the exchange. And it is proper to addr
that a moderate degree of exchanging and of prefling
may be of great fervice after the {beets are printed, to
dettroy the hollow places occafioned by the prefs, and
the relievo of the letters. 2g
Engraving requires a paper of the fame qualities Paper for
vrith the laft mentioned, with refpeCt to the fluff, which erigrav.ug.
muft be pure, without knots, and equally reduced ; the
grain uniform, and the {beets without folds or wrinkles.
To preferve the grain, it is neceffary that it be dried
flowly in the loweft place of the drying-houfe. If it is
fubmitted to the exchange, the effeCts of it muft be mo¬
derated with the greateft care, and the aCtion of the two
firft prefles muft be equally diftributed over the whole
mafs, otherwife the inequality of the moifture at the
middle and fides will expofe it to wrinkles in the drying.
The fizing of this paper muft alfo be moderate. Thefe
circumftances are neceffary to make it receive with neat¬
nefs all the foft and delicate touches of the plate.—
The foft and yielding paper of Auvergne poffeffes all
thofe advantages; and accordingly a great quantity
of this and of printing paper were formerly imported
into Britain and Holland from France, where they ftill
continue to rot the materials from which they make en-
5 B graving
746
PAPER.
vations on
Paper.
29
Paper for
cards or
^ r Ob^5 8r^v'n£ PaPer- The wife wove frame, though but late-
vations on" ^ hwented, is, we are told, peculiarly adapted to this
kind of paper.
Paper for cards mull be manufactured from a pretty
firm llult, in order to take that degree of fmoothnefs
which makes the cards glide eafiiy over one another i;i
any kind ufmg- For this reafon the cardmakers rejeCt every
of painting kind of paper which is foft and without ftrength. This
on a fmootli paper requires to be very much fized, fince the fixing
Surface. holds the place of varnilh, to which the fmoothing gives
a glazed and ihining lurface. To anfwer all thele pur-
pofes, the rags require to be a little rotted, and the
mallets ftrongly armed with iron ftuds. Formerly
Angoumois was almoll the only province in France
which fold card-paper to the Dutch and the other nor¬
thern nations. The rags of Angoumois have the pecu¬
liar quality of not turning too foft in the putrefaction,
and the mills of that province reduce them to .fluff
though they be not much putrefied. The French, we
believe, excel every other nation in this branch of the
manufacture of paper.
Sect. III.
Sect. III. Mifcellaneous Obfervations on Paper.
3°
To preferve To hinder paper from finking, take about the fize
finkin fr°m a nut roc^ a^unb diffolve it in a glafs of clear wa-
' 1 lnS‘ ter, and apply it to the paper, which has not been fuf-
ficiently fized, with a fine fponge. It is in this man¬
ner that the paper-manufaCturers of Paris prepare the
paper for drawing called papiers laves. When there is
occafion to write on a printed book, or on paper too
frelh, it is lufficient to mix a little gum with ordinary
31 ink.
Paper var- 'Jo glve to writing paper a brilliant varnifh, take
wrdri f°r which is °f an ordinary finenefs, very fmooth,
without any kind of ftain or hairs on its furface ; flretch
it on a fmooth plank, and by means of a hare’s foot
cover it with a thin and equal layer of fandarac finely
powdered. Afterwards, if a whole ream is to be var-
nilhed, take eight ounces of rock alum and one ounce
of white fugarcandy ; bring them to boil in fix pints
of water j and when the liquor is lukewarm, wet that
fide of the flieet wrhich has been covered with the fan¬
darac with a fine fponge 5 lay the facets in a heap, one
iheet exaftly above another; and fubmit the ream to
the prefs for the fpace of twelve hours : hang them
afterwards flieet by flieet on the cords of the drying-
lioufe -y put them again under the prefs for fome days
to flretch them ; and, finally, beat them with a book¬
binder’s mallet. This paper can only be ufed for three
n i or four months after it is prepared.
Paper pre- Painters prepare their paper for drawing, and give
pared for it a dark ground, which fpares them much labour of
drawing, the pencil afterwards in thofe places where {hade is
neceffary. For this purpcfe, they take white paper
and pafs a fponge over it, which has imbibed water
impregnated with foot, leaving the light places to be
formed afterwards. They ufe alfo a kind of paper for
drawing, which is called tainted paper. A light colour
is paired over the whole ground, which deprives the
33 paper of its original brightnefs, and makes the light
Paper pre- plaCes of the print appear more in relievo, and more
cotTin'Mi luminous.
print.S The method moll common and moft convenient for
copying a print, is to ufe oiled paper. The manner Mifcellar.e-
of preparing this paper is to take that which is. thin °us Obfer-
and fmooth, known commonly by the name of ferpent v;t*‘ons 011
paper, and moiften it with a compofition, two parts of J<'^er' •
the oil of walnuts and one part of the oil of turpen¬
tine mixed well together. A Iheet of pafteboard and
a Iheet of paper are laid on a fmooth table j above
them are placed two Iheets of paper to be prepared ;
and a layer of the oil applied to the uppermofl is fuf-
ficient to penetrate both. This may be done to any
number of Iheets, and a ftrong flieet of pafteboard is
placed over the wdiole. J he heap is afterwards fub-
mitted to the prefs, under which it remains for two or
three days till the oil be completely dry. Paper pre¬
pared in this manner ferves to copy very readily and
exaCtly all kinds of figures and plans j becaufe being al- .
together tranfparent, all the parts of the drawing,
whether of light or (hade, are eafiiy diftinguifhed. 34
Befides the paper made from the afbeftos, it is ne- Incombufti.
ceffary for wrapping up gunpowder and valuable wri- ble Par¬
tings, to. have a paper that will not eafiiy take fire. The
manner in which this is prepared is extremely fimple.
Ordinary paper is dipped into boiling liquid, confift-
ing of three-fourths of water and one-fourth of diffolved
alum. This fait, which is not inflammable, covers the
furface of the paper, and renders it in fome meafure in-
combuftible. - -
In the feafon of verjuice, a little of it diluted with A method
water is fufficient for obliterating any frefii fpot of0*.er^in£
ink. The fait of the verjuice diffolved in water anfwers
the purpofe equally well, and the fait of forrel or oxalic ■
acid is alfo employed with this view. If the fpots be
dry, and the above acids are infufticient to eradicate
them, a little aquafortis diluted in water, and applied
with the feather of a quill or a fine hair pencil, will
make them entirely difappear. ^
Books and manufcripts are fometimes defaced by A method
accidental ftains with oil. To remove fuch blemiflies,fbr taking
burn ftieeps bones and reduce them to a fine powder j 0l! kuis
lay a quantity of this powder on each fide of the ftain ; p^° pa'
place it between two fheets of white paper, and fub¬
mit it for twelve hours to the prefs. If the ftains have
not diiappcared, it will be neceffary to reiterate the pro-
Cdh . 37
I o make oiled papers take colours 5 mix with the A method
colours a very fmall quantity either of the gall of a pike of makm£
or carp 5 and as thefe fubftances are of the nature of take
foap, they diflblve the greafe that ie in the paper, and lours™*
permit the colours to be fpread over the furface. 33
Emery paper, which is employed for taking the ruft To make
from iron without wTafting it, is made by impregnatingemery Pa*
coarfe paper with gummed water or any other tenaei- per‘
ous fubftance, and then covering it over with the fineft
emery.
The colours proper for paper are not different from staining or
thofe ufed for other fubftances, and are enumerated colouring *
under the article Co LOU E-Making. They are applied paper,
with foft brufhes, after being tempered to a due de¬
gree with fize or gum-water. If the paper on which
they are to be laid is foft, fo that the colours are apt
to go through, it muft alfo be fized before they are laid
on, or a proportionably larger quantity muft be ufed
along with the colours themfelves. If a confiderablu
extent of the paper is to be done over with one colour,
it;
Paper.
41
To filver
Sea. in. pap
Mitcellane- it muft receive feveral coatings, as thin as poflible, let-
ous Obfer- ting each coat dry before another is put on, otherwife
val*'°™ 011 the colour will be unequal.
Take yellow ochre, grind it with rain-water, and
lay a ground with it upon the paper all over •, when
dry, take the wdrite of eggs, beat it clear with white
fugarcandy, and Itrike it all over : then lay on the leaf-
gold y and wrhen dry, polifh it with a tooth. Some
take faffron, boil it in water, and diffolve a little gum
with it j then they ftrike it over the paper, lay on the
gold } and, when dry, they polilh it.
Take two fcruples of clear glue made of neats lea-
paper after one fcruple of white alum, and half a pint of
^c^ear water '•> farmer the whole over a flow fire, till the
without fil-water is confumed, or the fleam ceafes : Then, your
ver. fheets of paper being laid on a fmooth table, you dip
a pretty large pencil into that glue, and daub it over
as even as you can, repeating this two or three times :
then fift the powder of talc through a fine fieve, made
of horfe-hair or gauze, over it; and then hang it up
to dry j and, when dry, rub off the fuperfluous talc,
which ferves again for the fame purpofe. The talc
you prepare in the following manner: Take fine white
tranfparent Mufcovy talc •, boil it in clear water for
four hours ; then take it off the fire, and let it Hand
fo for two days : then take it out, walh it well, and put
it into a linen rag, and beat it to pieces with a mallet:
to i o pounds of talc add 3 pounds of white alum, and
grind them together in a little hand-mill} fift it
through a gauze-fieve; and being thus reduced to a
powder, put it into water, and juft boil it up : then let
it fink to the bottom, pour off the water from it, place
the powder in the fun to dry, and it will become of a
hard confiftence. Beat this in a mortar to an impal¬
pable powder, and keep it, for the ufe above mentioned,
free from dull.
The common grounds laid in water are made by
mixing waiting with the common glovers fize, and
grounds for laying it on the paper with a proper brufti in the moft
paper hang-ev£n manner. This is all that is required, where the
ingS' ground is to be left white ; and the paper being then
hung on a proper frame till it be dry, is fit to be paint¬
ed. When coloured grounds are required, the fame
methoil muft be purfued, and the ground of whiting firft
laid; except in pale-colours, fuch as ftraw-colours or
pink, where a fecond coating may fometimes be fpared,
by mixing fome ftrong colour with the whiting.
Method of There" are three methods by which paper hangings
painting are painted; the firft by printing on the colours ; the
the paper fecond by ufing the Jlencil; and the third by laying
bangings, ^em on with ^pencil, as in other kinds of painting. _
When the colours are laid on by printing, the im-
preftion is made by wrooden prints ; wThich are cut in
fuch manner, that the figure to be expreffed is made
to project from the furface by cutting away all the
other part; and this, being charged with the colours
tempered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gent¬
ly down on a block on which the colour is previoufly
fpread, conveys it from thence to the ground of the pa¬
per, on which it is made to fall more forcibly by means
of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the perfon
who ufes the print. It is eafy to conclude, that there
muft be as many feparate prints as there are colours to
be printed. But where there are more than one, great
42 ,
White and
coloured
E R. 747
care muft be taken, after the firft, to let the print Mifcellant-
fall exactly in the fame part of the paper as that which
went before ; otherwife the figure of the defign would paper.
be brought into irregularity and confufion. In common — —
paper of low price, it is ufual, therefore, to print only
the outlines, and lay on the reft of the colours by ften-
cilling ; which both faves the expence of cutting more
prints, and can be pra£lifed by common workmen, not
requiring the great care and dexterity neceffary to the
ufing feveral prints.
The manner of Jlencilling the colours is this. 1 he
figure, which all the parts of any particular colour make
in the defign to be painted, is to be cut out, in a piece
of thin leather or oil-cloth, which pieces of leather or
oil-cloth are calledJlencils; and being laid fiat on the
fheets of paper to be printed, fpread on a table or floor,
are to be rubbed over with the colour, properly tem¬
pered, by means of a large brufti. The colour pafiing
over the whole is confequently fpread on thofe parts of
the paper where the cloth or leather is cut away, and
give the fame effedl as if laid on by a print. I his is
neverthelefs only practicable in parts where there are
only detached maffes or fpots of colours: for where
there are fmall continued lines, or parts that run one
into another, it is difficult to preferve the connexion
or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to keep the
fmaller corners clofe down to the paper : and therefore,
in fuch cafes, prints are preferable. Stencilling is in¬
deed a cheaper method of ridding coarfe ivork than
printing: but without fuch extraordinary attention and
trouble as render it equally difficult with printing, it
is far lefs beautiful and exaft in the effe£l. For the
outlines of the fpots of colour want that fharpnefs and
regularity that are given by prints, befides the fre¬
quent extralineations, or deviations from the juft figure,
which happen by the original mifplacing of the ften-
cils, or the ftiifting the place of them during the opera¬
tion.
Pencilling is only ufed in the cafe of nicer work, fuch
as the better imitations of the India paper. It is per¬
formed in the fame manner as other paintings in water
or vamifti. It is fometimes ufed only to fill the out¬
lines already formed by printing, where the price of
the colour, or the exaftnefs of the manner in which it
is required to be laid on, render the ftencilling or
printing it lefs proper; at other times, it is ufed for
forming or delineating fome parts of the defign, where a
fpirit of freedom and variety, not to be had in printed
outlines, are defired to be had in the work.
The paper defigned for receiving the flock is firft Manage-
prepared with a vamith-ground with fome proper co-
lour, or by that of the paper itfelf. It is frequently ^per< L
praftifed to print fome mofaic, or other fmall running
figure in colours, on the ground, before the flock be
laid on; and it may be done with any pigment of the
colour defired, tempered with varnifti, and laid on by a
print cut correfpondently to that end.
The method of laying on the flock is this. A wooden
print being cut, as is above defcribed, for laying on
the colour in fuch manner that the part of the defign
which is intended for the flock may projedl beyond
the reft of the furface, the varniffi is put on a block
covered with the leather or oil-cloth, and the print is to
be ufed alfo in the fame manner, to lay the varniffi on
5 B 2 all
748 PAP
Mifcellanc- all the parts where the flock Is to be fixed. The fheet,
vat ions on ^lus PrePareci hy the varnifhed impreflion, is then to
Paper. be removed to another block or table, and to be ftrew-
i v  ed over with flock ; which is afterwards to be gently
comprefled by a board, or fome other flat body, to
make the varnifh take fthe better hold of it: and then
the fheet is to be hung on a frame till the varnifh be
perfeaiy dry ; at which time the fuperfluous part of
.flock is to be brufhed off by a foft camel’s-hair brufh j
and the proper flock will be found to adhere in a very
ilrong manner. . .
The method of preparing the flock is, by cutting
. woollen-rags or pieces of cloth with the hand, by means
E R.
Sea. III.
of a large bill or chopping knife 5 or by means of a ma- MifceHar.e-
chine worked by a horfe-mill. " ous Obi'er-
There is a kind of counterfeit flock-paper, which, vation-s un
when well managed, has very much the fame effect to Paiier' .
the eye as the real, though done with lefs expence.
The manner of making this fort is, by laying a ground
of varnifh on the paper ; and having afterwards printed
the defign of the flock in varnifh, in the fame manner as
for the true} inltead of the flock, fome pigment, or dry
colour, of the fame hue with the flock required by the
defign, but fomewhat of a darker fiiade, being well
powdered, is tire wed on the printed varnifh, and pro¬
duces nearly the lame appearance.
*
PAP
PAPEIi-Money is a term frequently made ufe of for
bank-bills, which pafs currently in trade inftead of
gold and filver.
Concerning this fpecies of currency, the national u-
tility of which has been controverted by fome, we have
the following obfervations in Dr Smith’s Treatife on
the Wealth of Nations': “ The fubftitution of paper in
the room of gold and filver money replaces a very ex-
penfive inftrument of commerce with one much lefs coit-
ly, and fometimes equally convenient. Circulation comes
to be carried on hy a new wheel, which it coils lefs
both to ereft and maintain than the old one.
“ When the people of any particular country have
fuch confidence in the fortune, probity, and prudence
of a particular banker, as to believe that he is always
ready to pay upon demand fuch of his promiffory notes
as are likely at any time to be prefented to him, thofe
notes come to have the fame currency as gold and fllver
money, from the confidence that fuch money can at any
time be bad for them.
“ A particular banker lends among Ids cuflomers
his own promiffory notes, to the amount, we fhall fup-
pofe, of 100,000b As thofe notes ferve all the pur-
pofes of money, his debtors pay Kim the fame intereft
as if he had lent them To much money. This intereft
is the fource of his gain. Though fome of thofe notes
are continually coming back upon him for payment,
part of them continue to circulate for months and years
together. Though he has generally in circulation,
therefore, notes to the amount of ioo,oobl. 2C,oool.
in gold and filver may frequently be a fufficient pro-
vifion for anfwering occafional demands. By this ope¬
ration, therefore, 20,000!. in gold and filver perform
all the funftions which ioo,oool. could otherwife have
performed. Eighty theufand pounds of gold and fil¬
ver can therefore, in this manner, be fpared from the
circulation of the country; and if different operations
of the fame kind fhould at the fame time be carried on
by many different banks and bankers, the whole circu¬
lation may be thus conduced with a fifth part only of
the gold and filver.
“ Let us fuppofe, for example, that the w'hole cir¬
culating money of fome particular country amounted,
at a particular time, to i,ooo,oool. fterling, that fum
being then fufficient for circulating the whole annual
produce of their land and labour. Let us fuppofe too,
P A P
that, fome time thereafter, different banks and bankers
iffued promiffory notes, payable to the bearer, to the
extent of 1 ,ooo,oool. referving in their different coffers
200,oocl. for anfwering occafional demands. There
would remain, therefore, in circulation 800,cool, in
gold and filver, and 1,000,000!. of bank-notes, or
1,800,cool, of paper and mpney together. But the
annual produce of the land and labour of the country
had before required only i,ooo,oool. to circulate and
diftribute it to its proper confirmers, and that annual
produce cannot be immediately augmented by thofe"
operations of banking. One million, therefore, will
be fufficient to circulate it after them. The goods to
be bought and fold being precifely the fame as before,
the fame quantity of money wall be fufficient for buy¬
ing and felling them. The channel of circulation, if
I may be allowed fuch an expreftion, will remain pre¬
cifely the fame as before. One million we have iup-
pofed fufficient to fill that channel. Whatever, there¬
fore, is poured into it beyond this fum, cannot run irt
it, but mpft overflow. One million eight hundred
thoufand pounds are poured into it. Eight hundred
thoufand pounds, therefore, muft overflow, that fum
being over and above what can be employed in the cir¬
culation of the country. But though this fum cannot
be employed at home, it is too valuable to be allowed
to lie idle. It will therefore be fent-abroad, in order
to feek that profitable employment which it cannot
find at home. But the paper cannot go abroad ; be-
caufe, at a diftance from the banks which iffue it, and
from the country in which payment of it can be ex¬
acted by law, it will not be received in common pay¬
ments. Gold and filver, therefore, to the amount of
8oo,OOol. will be fent abroad, and tbe channel of home
circulation ftill remain filled with i,ooc,oool. of paper
inftead of i,ooo,oool. of thofe metals which filled it be¬
fore.
“ But though fo great a quantity of gold and fil-,
ver is thus fent abroad, we muft not imagine that it is
fent abroad for nothing, or that its proprietors make a
prefent of it to foreign nations. They -will exchange
it for foreign goods of fome kind or another, in order
to fupply the confumption either of fome other foreign
country or their own.
“ If they employ it in purchafing goods in one fo¬
reign country in order to fupply the confumption of
another,
PAP [?4
paper another, or in what is called the carrying trade, wnat-
M y ever profit they make will be an addition to the neat
—~v revenue of their ov,rn country. It is like a new fund,
created for carrying on a new trade : dome ft ic bufine.s
being norv tranfacled by paper, and the gold and filver
beino- converted into a fund for this new trade.
“ If they employ it in purchafing foreign goods .or
home confumption, they may either firft purchafe fuch
'roods as. are likely to be confumed by idle people who
, produce nothing, fuch as foreign wines, foreign filks,
&c. •, or, fecondly, they may purchafe an additional
Hock of materials, tools, and provifions, in oicei to
employ an additional number of induftrious. people,
who reproduce, with a profit, the vame 01 their annual
confumption.
“ So far as it is employed in the firft way, it pro¬
motes prodigality, increafes expence and confumption
' without increafing production, or eftabliihing any per¬
manent fund for fupporting that expence, and is in
everv rcfpeift hurtful to the fociety. >
“ So far as it is employed in the fecond way, it
prqmotes induftiyand though it incieafts tue con¬
fumption of the fociety, it provides a permanent fund
for fupporting that confumption, the people who con-
fume, 1 reproducing, with a profit, the whole value of
their annual coniumption. I he grofs revenue of the
fociety. the annual produce of their land and labour, is
increafed by the whole value which the labour of thofe
workmen adds to the materials upon which they are em¬
ployed : and their neat revenue by what remains of this
value, after deducYing what is neceffary for fupporting
the tools and inftruments of their trade.
“ That the greater part of the gold and filver
which, being forced abroad by thofe operations o
banking, is employed in purchafing foreign goods for
home confumption, is and muft be employed for pur-
chafing thofe of this fecond kind, feems not only pro¬
bable,"’but almoft unavoidable. Though fome parti¬
cular men may fometimes increafe their expence very
confiderablv, though their revenue does not increafe at
all, we may be affured tbat no clafs or order of men
ever does fo •, becaufe, though the principles ot com¬
mon prudence do not always govern tne conduct cf
every individual, they always influence that of the ma¬
jority of everv clafs or order. But the revenue of idle
people, confidered as a clafs or order, cannot in the
fmalleft degree be increafed by thofe operations of
banking. Their expence m general, therefore, cannot
be much increafed by them, though that of a few in¬
dividuals among them may, and in reality fometimes is.
The demand of idle people, therefore, for foreign goods,
being the fame, or very nearly the fame, as before,
a very fmall part of the money, which being forced
abroad by thofe operations of banking, is employed in
purchafing foreign goods for home confumption, is like¬
ly to be employed in purchafing thole for their ufe.
The greater part of it will naturally be deftined tor the
employment of induftry, and not for the maintenance of
idlenefs. _
« When we compute the quantity cf induftry which
the circulating capital of any fociety can employ^ we
mu ft always have regard to thofe parts of it only which
con lift in provifions, materials, and finiftie 1 work : the
other, which conafts in money, and which ferves only
ta circulate thofe three, muft always be dedubted. In
5 ] P A P
order to put iuuufhy into motion, taree things a.e rt- ' ‘ yy
quill te j materials to work upon, tools to vvoik wllh, _ — v‘—■
and the wages or recompence for the fake of which tne
work is done. Money is neither a material to work
upon, nor a tool to work with j and though the wages
of the workman are commonly paid to him in mone\,
his real revenue, like that of all other men, conlifts, not
in the money, but in the money’s worth •, not in the
metal pieces, but in what can be got for them.
“ The quantity of induftry which any capital can
employ, muft evidently be equal _ to the number of
workmen whom it can fupply with materials, tco.s,
and a maintenance luitable to the nature of the work.
Money may be requifite for purchafing the materials
and tools of- the work, as well as the maintenance of
the workmen. But the quantity of induftry whicn tl. 1.
whole capital can employ, is certainly not equal both
to the money which purchafes, and to the materials,
tools, and maintenance, which are purchafed with it j
but only to one or other of thofe two values, and to the.
latter more properly than to the former.
“ When paper is fubftituted in the room of gold and
filver money, the quantity of the materials, tools, and
maintenance, which the whole circulating capital can
fupply, maybe increafed by the whole value of gold
and filver which ufed to be employed in purchafing
them. The whole value of the great wheel of circula¬
tion and diftrlbution is added to the goods ^which ars
circulated and diftributed by means of it. The opera¬
tion, in fome meaiure, refembles that of the undertaker
of fome great work, who, in confequencn of fome im¬
provement in mechanics, takes down Ins Oid machi¬
nery, and adds the difference between its price and
that of the new to his circulating capital, to the fund
from which he* furniflaes materials and wages to Ins
workmen. _ _ .
“ What the proportion is which the circulating mo¬
ney of any country bears to the whole value 01 the an¬
nual produce circulated by means of it, it is perhaps
impofiible to determine. It has been computed by dif¬
ferent authors at a fifth, at a tenth, at a twentieth, and
at a thirtieth part of that value. But how fmall foever
the proportion which the circulating money may beat
to the whole value of the annual produce, as but a part,
and frequently but a fmall part, of that produce, is ever
deftined for the maintenance of induftry, it muft always
bear a very confiderable proportion to that part. Vv hen,
therefore, by the fubftitution of paper, the gold and
filver neceffary for circulation is reduced to p cr haps a
fifth part of the former quantity, if the value of only
the greater part of the other four filths be added to t‘ie
funds which are defiined for the maintenance of induftry,
it muft make a very confiderable addition to the quan¬
tity of that induftry, and confequently to the value of
the annual produce of land and labour.
“ That part of his capital which a dealer is obliged
to keep Wf him unemployed, for anfwering occafional
demands, is fo much dead flock, producing nothing ei¬
ther to him or to his country. The judicious opera¬
tions of banking enable him to make it aflive and
productive. The gold' and filver money which circu¬
lates in any country, and by means of which the pro¬
duce of its land and labour is annually circulated and
diftributed to the proper confumers, is, in the fame man¬
ner as the ready money of the dealer, all dead flock. It
is..'
Taper
Money
I!
Papier.
p A p [75
is a very valuable part of the capital of the country,
which produces nothing to the country. The judicious
operations of banking, by fubftituting paper in the room
of a great part of it, enables the country to make a great
part of this dead flock a£tive and produdfive. The
gold and filver money which circulates in any country,
may very properly be compared to a highway, which,
while it circulates and carries to market all the grafs
■and corn of the country, produces itfelf not a Angle pile
of either. The judicious operations of banking, by pro-
viding, if I may be allowed fo violent a metaphor, a
fort of waggon-way through the air, enable the country
to convert, as it were, a great part of its highways into
good paflures and corn fields, and thereby to increafe
very considerably the annual produce of its land and la¬
bour. Ihe commerce and induftry of the country,
however, it mull be acknowledged, though they may
be fomewhat augmented, cannot be altogether fo fe-
cure, when they are thus, as it w’ere, fufpended upon the
Daedalian wings of paper money, as when they travel
about upon the folid ground of gold and filver.
“ The whole paper money of every kind which can
eafily circulate in any country, never can exceed the
value of the gold and filver, of which it fupplies the
place, or which (the commerce being fuppofed the
fame) would circulate there if there was no paper mo¬
ney. If twenty fhilling notes, for example, are the
lowed; paper money current in Scotland, the whole of
that currency, which can eafily circulate there, cannot
exceed the fum of gold and filver which would be ne~
cefiary for tranfa&ing the annual exchanges of twenty
nullings value and upwards, ufually tranfafted within
that country. Should the circulating paper at any
time exceed that fum, as the excefs could neither be
fent abroad, nor be employed in the c>julation of the
country, it mufl immediately return upon the banks to
be exchanged for gold and filver. Many people would
immediately perceive that they had more of this paper
than was neceflary for tranfa£ling their bufinefs at
home, and as they could not fend it abroad, they would
immediately demand payment of it from the banks.
\\ hen this fuperfluous paper was converted into gold
and filver, they could eafily find a ufe for it by fend¬
ing^ it. abroad $ but they could find none while it re¬
mained in the lhape of paper. There would immedi¬
ately, therefore, be a run upon the banks to the whole
extent of this fuperfluous paper, and if they fhowed any
difficulty or backwardnefs in payment, to a much
greater extent : the alarm which this would occa-
iion neceffkrily increafing the run.” See Bank and
Trade.
PjFr.R Office^ an office in the palace of Whitehall, in
which all the public writings, matters of ftate and coun¬
cil, proclamations, letters, intelligences, negotiations
abroad, and generally all defpatches that pafs through
the offices of the fecrctaries of date, are lodged, by -way
of library.
PAPIER mache. This is a fubftance made of cut¬
tings of white or brown paper, boiled in water, and
beaten in a mortar, till they are reduced to a kind of
pafle, and then boiled with a folulion of gum arabic or
of fize, to give tenacity to the pafte, which is afterwards
formed into different toys, &c. by preffing it into oiled
moulds. When dry, it is done over with a mixture of
iize and lamp black, and afterwards varnifhed. The
4
o ] PAP
“±Lar":!hfu.!.herel0yS> to Dr Lewis, is Papilla^
rTT? aS fnlmv? : fome coloPhon°A or turpentine
boiled down till it becomes black and friable, is meffed
in a glazed earthen veffel, and thrice as much amber in
fine powder fpnnkied in by degrees, with the addition
ot a little fpmt or oil of turpentine now and then • when
the amber is melted, fprinkle in the fame quantity of
larcocolla, continuing to ftir them, and to add more
Ipint of turpentine, till the whole becomes fluid : then
Itrain out the clear through a coarfe hair bag, preflii^
it gently between hot boards. This varnifli, mixed with
ivory black m fine powder, is applied, in a hot room, on
the dried paper pafte j which is then fet in a gentlv
heated oven, next day in a hotter oven, and the third
day in a very hot one, and let ftand each time till the
oven grows cold. The pafte thus varnifhed is hard, du¬
rable, gloffy, and bears liquors hot or cold.
PAPKE AG ONIA, in Ancient Geography, a coun-
7T50-Yhe-Hlther Aria’ beginning at Parthenius, a river
o Bitnyma, on the weft, and extending in length to the
Halys eaftward, with the Euxine to the north, and Ga¬
latia to the fouth. Pliny enlarges the limits on the weft
fide to the river Billis, on this fide the Parthenius. It
is called PyUvniema by fome (Pliny). Paphlagones, the
people, mentioned by Homer, and therefore of no fmall
antiquity. A fuperftitious and filly people (Lucian) y a
brave people (Homer) ; taking their name from PhaW
(Bocchart). 6
PAPHOS, in Ancient Geography, two adjoining
iflands on the weft fide of the ifland of Cyprus 5 the one
called llallcr Paphos (Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny) • the
other bea Paphos; and when mentioned without an ad¬
junct, this latter is always underftood. Both dedicated
to Venus, and left undiftinguifhed by the poets (Virgil
Horace). Hence Venus is furnamed Paphia. Paphii
the people, (Coins, Stephanus). It was reftored by Au-
guftus, after a ffiock of an earthquake, and called Amutla
(Dio). a
. be abbe Mariti, in his Travels through Cyprus*
gives the following account of the ifland of Paphos. “ It
is fituated (fays he) on the fouthern fide : it contained
the celebrated temple of Venus 5 which, together with
the city, ^ was deftroyed by an earthquake, fo that the
leaft veftige of it is not now to be feen. A lake in the
neighbourhood, which even in fummer overflows with
ftagnant and corrupted water, renders the air in fome
degree unwholefcme. On the w&lem coaft is the new
Paphos, called by fome of the modem geographers Baf-
fos; a name which is unknown in the ifland of Cyprus.
I hat \\ e may not pofitively afenbe to the latter every
thing that hiftory tells us of Paphos in general, it may
not be here improper to mention that it has been feveral
times deftroyed. This city had a port, where veffels
trading upon that coaft ftill caft anchor : but this hap¬
pens only in fummer ; for, being expofed to every wind,
it is extremely dangerous. The bottom of it is "full of
fharp rocks j which fometimes deftroy the cables fo
much, that mariners are obliged to keep them afloat on
the furface of the water, by means of empty calks fixed
to them at certain diftances. In the neighbourhood
there are tw o caftles; one on the borders cf the fea, and
the other on the fummit of a little hill: but the latter
is at pnefent in ruins. The.government of Paphos con-
fifts of a digdaban or commiffary 5 a cadi j and an aga,
who prefides ever the cuftomhoufe. Of all the Chriflian
edifices.
ma,
Paphos.
PAP [ 751 ] PAP
Paphos, edifices, there is none remaining but the church cf St
'' George, in which fervice is performed by the Greek
minifters. The produftions of this part of the illand,
which are all of an excellent quality, are lilk, barley,
and other kinds of grain. To difeover the origin of the
Old and New Paphos, would be carrying light into the
midfl of the thickeft darknefs. When we have added
conjecture to conjecture, we are itill in the fame fixa¬
tion. As this is an attempt fuperior to my abilities, I
ihall leave it to the divining, though uncertain, know¬
ledge of our antiquaries. I mult, however, obferve, that
there was here formerly a temple dedicated to Venus,
which was entirely deftroyed by an earthquake. In this
bland St Paul by his eloquence converted Sergius, a
Homan proconful. He here likewife conferred the dea-
conthip on his difciple and colleague Titus, who foon
after fuffered martyrdom. Paphos was an epifcopal
city in the time of the Lufignans ; and it is Hill the
feat of a bilhop, who is a fuffragan to the archbilhop
of Nicofia. On the weftern tide of the illand there
are a great number of fcattered villages ; but they are
not worthy of notice, being either abandoned or in
ruins.”
Mr Bruce informs us, that in the neighbourhood of
this place many filver medals of excellent workmanlhip
are dug up 5 they are, however, but of little eftimation
among the antiquarians, being chiefly of towns, of the
lize of thofe found art Crete and Rhodes, and in all the
itlands of the Archipelago. There are feme excellent
Greek intaglios; generally upon better Hones than ufual
in the iilands. This illuflrious traveller informs us, that
he has feen fame heads of Jupiter, remarkable for bulky
hair and a beard, which were of excellent workmanlhip,
and wrorthy of any price. All the inhabitants of the
illand are fubjedt to fevers, but efpecially thofe in the
neighbourhood of Paphos. The fame traveller obferves,
that Cyprus wTas very long undifeovered 5 for though
Ihips had been failing on the Mediterranean 1700 years
before ChriH, and though the bland is only a day’s fail¬
ing from the continent of Alia on the north and eafl,
and little more from that of Africa on the fouth, it wTas
not known at the building of Tyre, a little before the
Trojan w’ar, that is, 500 years after the neighbouring
leas had been navigated. It was covered with wTood at
its firfl difeovery j and our author is of opinion, that it
was not well known even at the time of building of So¬
lomon’s temple; becaufe we do not find that Hiram
king of Tyre, though juH in its neighbourhood, -ever
had recourfe to it for wood: though the carriage would
undoubtedly have been ealier from thence, than to have
brought it down from the top of Mount Lebanon. Era-
toflhenes informs us, that in ancient times the illand w'as
lb overgrown with wood, that it could not to be tilled j
fo that they firH cut down the timber to be ufed in the
furnaces for melting lilver and copper 5 that after this-
they built fleets with it : but finding even this infufli-
cient, they gave liberty to all flrangers to cut it down
for whatever purpofe they pleafed \ and not only fo, but
they gave them afterwards the property of the ground
they had cleared. Matters are mwv quite altered j and
the want of wood is a principal complaint in moH parts
of the ifland. About Acamas, howTever, on the weH
fide of the ifland, the wrood is Hill thick and impervious,
inhabited by large flags and wild boars of a monflrous
fize. Mr Bruce was informed, that a live elephant had
lately been feen there, but gave no credit to the ac- Papias
count. p II
PAPIAS, bifhop of Hieropolis, a city of Phrygia, , ■‘P>rt‘y-
wras the difciple of St John the Evangelifl, and the
companion of Polycarp, as St Jerome obferves, and
not of John the Ancient, as fome other authors have
maintained. He compofed a wTork in five books,
entitled Expeditions of the Difcourfes of our Lord, of
which there are only fome fragments now remaining.
He it was wflio introduced the opinion of the Millena-
rians.
PAPILIO, the BUTTERFLY, a genus of infefls be¬
longing to the order of lepidoptera. See Entomology
Index. 1
PAPILIONACEOUS, among Botanifls, an appel¬
lation given to the flowers of plants belonging to va¬
rious olafies, from their refembling the wings of a but¬
terfly.
PAPINIAN, a celebrated Roman lawyer of the
third century, under the emperor Severus j who had
fo high an opinion of his worth, that he recommended
liis fons Caracalla and Geta to his care. Caracalla-
having firfl murdered his brother, ordered Papinian to
compofe a difeourfe to excufe this murder to the fenate
and people 5 which when he refufed to undertake, the
brutal emperor ordered him to be beheaded ; and his
body was dragged through the ftreets of Rome. Pa¬
pinian wrote leveral treatifes in the line of his profef-
fion.
PAPISTS, aie thofe who believe the pope or bifhop
of Rome to be the fupreme pallor of the univerfal
church, wdio profefs to believe all the articles of Pope
Pius’s creed, and wflio promife implicit obedience to the
edidfls of the church, efpecially the decrees of the coun¬
cil of Trent. See Pope and Trent.
PAPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and capital of a county of the fame
name, with a caftle, where the counts refide. It is
feated near the river Altmal, 17 miles north-wTeft of
Neuburg, and 32 fouth of Nuremburg ; and is fubjebt to¬
ils ow-n count. E. Long. 10. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58. The
count of Pappenheim is hereditary marlhal of the em¬
pire, and performs his office at the coronation of the-
emperor.
PAPPUS, an eminent philofopher of Alexandria,
faid by Suidas to have flouriffied under the emperor
Theodofius the Great, who reigned from A. D. 379 to
395. His writings ffiow him to have been a coni’um-
mate mathematician : Many of them are loft ; the reft
continued long in manufeript, detached parts having
only been occafionally publiflied in the laft century, un¬
til Cafrolus Manoleffius publiflied his remains entire at
Bologna, in 1660, in folio.
Pappus, in Botany, a foft downy fubftance that
grows on the feeds of certain plants, as thiftles, hawk-
wreed, &c. ferving to fcatter and buoy them up in the
air.
PAPYRUS, the famous reed from which was made
the far-famed paper of Egypt. Before entering on
the defeription of the papyrus, it is natural to fay a
word or two on the opinion generally received in Eu¬
rope concerning the lofs of this plant. Suppofing this
lofs poffible, the date of it mull be fixed at no diftant
period ; for it is not 200 years fince Guilandin and
Profper Alpin obferved the papyrus on the banks o£
the
P A P [ 7;
tlie Nile. Guilandin faw the inhabitants of the coun¬
try eating the inferior and fucculcnt part of the ftem in
the manner of the ancients ; a fact which alone Ihows it
to be the papyrus, and of which other travellers feem
not to have availed themfelves. This pradtice, toge¬
ther with thofe related by Profper Alpin, are fufficient
to convince us, that this plant is not wholly ufelefs, al¬
though it is not now employed in the fabrication of pa¬
per. The alteration on the foil of Egypt, and on the
methods of agriculture, have in all probability rendered
this plant lefs common; but caufes altogether local
could not occafion the dell ruction of the papyrus, efpe-
cially as its relidence in the marfhes would prevent their
operation. But it is needlefs to reafon from probabili¬
ties or analogy : Mr Bruce not only faw the papyrus
growing both in Egypt and Abyffinia, but actually
made paper of it in the manner in which it was made
by the ancients. Ele tells us likewife, that, fo far from
any part of it being ufelefs, the whole plant is at this
day ufed in Abyffinia for making boats, a piece of the
acacia tree being put in the bottom to ferve as a keel.
That fuch were the boats of ancient Egypt, we know
from the telllmony of Pliny, who informs us, that the
plants were firft fewed together, and then gathered up
at ftem and ftern, and tied fall to the keel: “ Conferitur
bibula Memphitis cymba papyro.”
“ The bottom, root, or woody part of this plant was
likewife of feveral ufes before it turned abfolutely hard $
it was chewed in the manner of liquorice, having a
confiderable quantity of fweet juice in it. This we
learn from Diofcorides ; it was, I fuppofe, chewed, and
the fweetnefs fucked out in the fame manner as is done
with fugar cane. This is ftill praclifed in Abyffinia,
where they likewife chew the root of the Indian corn,
and of every kind of cyperus: and Herodotus tells us,
that about a cubit of the lower part of the ftalk was cut
off, and roafted over the fire, and eaten.
“ From the fcarcity of wood, which was very great
in Egypt, this lower part was likewife ufed in making
cups, moulds, and other neceffary utenfils : v/e need not~
doubt, too, one ufe of the woody part of this plant was,
to ferve for what we call boards or covers for binding
the leaves, which were made of the bark; we know that;
this was anciently one ufe of it, both from Alcaeus and
Anacreon.”
The papyrus, fays Pliny, grows in the marfnes of
Egypt, or in the ftagnant places of the Nile, made by
the flowing of that river, provided they are not beyond
the depth of two cubits. Its roots are tortuous, and
in thicknefs about four or five inches : its ftem is tri¬
angular, rifing to the height of ten cubits. Profper
Alpin gives it about fix or feven cubits above the wa¬
ter ; the ftem tapers from the bottom, and terminates
in a point. Theophraftus adds, that the papyrus car¬
ries a top or plume of fmall hairs, which is the thyrfus
of Pliny. Guilandin informs us, that its roots throw
to the right and left a great number of fmall fibres,
which, fup-port the plant againft the violence of the -wind,
and againft the waters of the Nile. According to him,
the leaves of the plant are obtufe, and like the typha of
the marffies. Mr Bruce, on the other hand, allures us,
that it never could have exifted in the Nile. “ Its head
(fays he) is too heavy ; and in a plain country the wind
Kiuft have had too violent a hold of it. The ftalk is
2 ] PAP
fmall and feeble, and withal too tall; the root too fhort Pa
and fiender to ftay it againft the violent preffure of the —
wind and current ; therefore I do coniiantly believe it
never could be a plant growing in the river Nile itlelf,
or in any very deep or rapid riverbut in the califhes
or places where the Nile had overflowed and was ftag¬
nant.
I he Egyptians made of this plant paper fit for
veiling (fee Paper), which they call p&Us or phiiurui,
and aho kx^tyu, and hence the Latin c/iarta; for in
general the word charta is ufed for the paper of E-
gypt-
The papyrus was produced in fo great quantities
on the banks of the Nile, that Caffiodorus (lib. xi. 38.)
compares it to a foreft. There, fays he, rifes to the
view, this foreft without branches, this thicket without
leaves, this harveft of the -waters, this ornament of the
marffies. Profper Alpin is the firft who gives us a plate
of the papyrus, which the Egyptians call berdi. This
correfponds in fome degree ivith the cfefcription of the
plant mentioned by 'J heophraftus; but the beft drawing
of it 1 las been given by Mr Bruce.
The ancient botanifts placed the papyrus among the
graminous plants or dog grafs ; ignorant of the particu¬
lar kind to which it belonged, they were contented to
fpecify it under the name of papyrus, of which there
were two kinds, that of Egypt, and that of Sicily. The
moderns have endeavoured to ffiow, that thefe two plants
are one and the fame fpecies of cyperus. It is under
this genus that they are found in the catalogues and de-
feriptions of plants publiffied fince the edition of Morrl-
fon’s work, where the papyrus is called cyperus niloticus
vel Syriacus maximus papijraccus.
In the manuferipts of the letters and obfervations of
M. Lippi phyfician at Paris, who accompanied the en¬
voy of Louis XIV. to the emperor of Abyffinia, we find
the defeription of a cyperus which he had obferved on
the banks of the Nile in 1704. After having deferib-
ed the flow'ers, he fays that many ears covered with
young leaves are fupported by a pretty long pedicle ;
and that many of thofe pedicles, equally loaded and
coming from one joint, form a kind of parafol. The
difk of this parafol is furrounded with a quantity of
leaves which form a crown to the ftem which fup-
ports it. The ftem is a pretty long prifm, the cor¬
ners of which are a little rounded ; and the leaves, not
at the top but at the fide, are formed like the blade of
a fword ; the roots are black and full of fibres ; and
this plant is called cyperus Ndiacus major, umbella mul-
tiplici.
The fame Lippi deferibes another kind wdiich rifes
not fo high : the ftem and leaves correfpond with the
former, but the ears form rather a kind of head than
any thing like the fpreading of an umbrella ; this head
wras very foft, ffiining, and gilded, rich and airy, much
loaded, fupported 6y pedicles which were joined to¬
gether at the bottom like the knitting- of a parafol.
It is called by him cyperus Ndiacus major aurea, divija
panicula. Thefe twro kinds of cyperus have a marked
refemblance in their leaves, their ftem, their foliage,
and the marfliy places where they grown The only
diflerence confifts in their fixe, and in the pofition of
the ears, which ferve to diftinguiflr them ; and they
feem to bear a rcfemblance to the papyrus and the fari,
deferibed
Papyrus.
PAP
defcribed by ancient authors. Th _
• papyrus, and the fecond the fari} but this is only con-
je£ture.
The papyrus, which grew in the waters, is faid to
have produced no feed ; but this Mr Bruce very pro¬
perly calls an abfurdity. “ The form of the flower
(fays he) fufficiently indicates, that it was made to re-
folve itfelf into the covering of one, which is certainly
very fmall, and by its exalted lituation and thicknefs of
the head of the flower, feems to have needed the extra¬
ordinary covering it has had to proteft it from the vio¬
lent hold the wind mull have had upon it. For the
fame reafon, the bottom of the filaments compofing the
head are fheathed in four concave leaves, which keep
them clofe together, and prevent injury from the wind
getting in between them.” Its plume was compol-
ed of {lender pedicles, very long, and fomewhat like
hair, according to Theophraftus. 1 he fame peculiarity
exifts in the papyrus of Sicily ; and the fame is found
to exift in another kind of papyrus fent from Madagaf-
car by M. Poivre, correfpondent of the Academy of
Sciences.
It is impoflible to determine whether the papyrus of
Sicily was ufed in any way by the Romans. In Italy
it is called papero, and, according to Cefalpin, pipero.
This papyrus of Sicily has been cultivated in the gar¬
den of Pifa } and if we can depend on the authority of
Cefalpin, who himfelf examined the plant, it is differ¬
ent from the papyrus of Egypt.
The papyrus, fays he, which is commonly called
pipero in Sicily, has a longer and thicker ftem than the
plant cyperus. It rifes fometimes to four cubits ; the
angles are obtule, and the Hem at the bafe is fur-
rounded with leaves growing from the root \ there are
no leaves on the ftem even wrhen the plant is at the
greateft perfection, but it carries at the top a large
plume wrhich refembles a great tuft of dilhevelled hairs j
this is compofed of a great number of triangular pedi¬
cles, in the form of reeds j at the extremity of which
are placed the flowers, between twTo fmall leaves of a
reddilh colour like the cyperus. The roots, are wmody,
about the thicknefs of reeds, jointed, and they throw
out a great number of branches which extend them-
felves in an oblique direftion. Thefe are fcented fome¬
what like the cyperus, but their colour is a lighter
brown ; from the lower part iffue many fmall fibres,
and from the higher a number of ftems fhoot up,
which in proportion as they are tender contain a fweet
juice.
The plume of the papyrus of Sicily is pretty well de¬
fcribed in a fhort account of it in the fecond part of the
Mufeeum dc Boccone. This plume is a tuft @r affemblaga-
of a great number of long {lender pedicles, which grow
from the fame point of divifion, are difpofed in the man¬
ner of a parafol, and which carry at the top three long
and narrow leaves, from which iflue other pedicles,
Ihorter than the former, and terminating in feveral knots
of flowers. Micheli, in his Nova Plantarum Genera,
printed at Florence 172!?, has given an engraving of
one of the long pedicles in its natural length : it is iur-
rounded at the bafe with a cafe of about one inch and a
half in height*, towards the extremity it carries three
long and narrow leaves, and four pedicles, to which are
fixed the knots of flowers. Every pedicle has alfo a
lu.all cafe furrounding its bafe. In ftidrt, we find in
Vol. XV. Part IL
[ 753 1 PAP
firft is perhaps the the Grojlo Grciplua of Scheuchzer a very paiticinai de-
fcription of the plume of a kind of cyperus, which ap¬
pears to be the Sicilian plant. From this account it ap¬
pears that the papyrus of Sicily is well known to bota-
nifts. It were to be wifhed that we had as particular a
defcription of the papyrus of Egypt ; but meanwhile it
may be obferved, that thefe tw*o plants have a near affi¬
nity to one another; they are confounded together by
many authors ; and according to Theophraftus, \\\<z fan
and the papyrus mlotica have a decided character of re-
femblance, and only differ in this, that the papyrus
fends forth thick and tall ftems, which being divided in- <
to flender plates, are fit for the fabrication of paper 5
whereas the fari has fmall ftems, confdcrably Ihorter,
and altogether ufelefs for any kind of paper.
The papyrus, which ferved anciently to make paper,
muff not "be confounded with the papyrus of Sicily,
found alfo in Calabria j for, according to Strabo, the
papyrus wras to be found in no place excepting Egy pt
and India. The greateft part of botanifts have believed
that the Sicilian plant is the fame with the fari of Theo¬
phraftus j others have advanced that the papyrus of E-
gypt and the fari wTere the fame plant in twro different
ilages of its exiftence, or confidered with refpedl to the,
greater or lefs height, which, according to them, might
depend on the qualities of the foil, the difference of the
climate, or other accidental caufes. In proof of this,
it is maintained, that there is an effential difference be¬
tween the papyrus growing in the waters and the fame
plant growing on the banks of rivers and in marlhes.
The firft of thefe has thick and tall ftems, and a plume
in the form of a tuft of hair very long and (lender, and
without any feed : the fecond differs from the firft in all
thefe particulars j it has a Ihorter and more flender
ftem, its plume is loaded with flowrers, and of confe-
quence it produces feed. In wffiatever w*ay w*e confider
thefe faclsj it is fufficient for us to know, that the dif¬
ference betwreen the papyrus and the fari neither de¬
pends on climate, nor foil, nor on fituation. d he plants
wffiofe difference depended on thefe circumftances, both
grew in Egypt, and were both employed in the manu-
fafture of paper. But it is an eftablilhed^fadt, that the
fari cannot be employed for this purpofe.
Finally, The papyrus of Sicily began to be known
by botanifts in 1570, 1572, 1583, at which periods the
works of Lobel, of Guilandin, and of Cefalpin, firft ap¬
peared. The ancients had no manner of knowledge of
this plant. Pliny makes no mention of it in his Natu¬
ral Hiftory *, from which it is evident that it w^as neither
ufed in Rome nor in Sicily. If he had feen this plant,
he mull have been ftruck with its refcmblance to the
papyrus and the fari, as they were defcribed by Theo¬
phraftus ; and fince he gives a particular defcrip¬
tion of thefe laft mentioned, he would have moft
naturally hinted at their conformity to the Sicilian
papyrus.
Among many dried plants collefted in the Eaft In¬
dies by M. Poivre, there is a kind of papyrus very dif¬
ferent from that of Sicily. It carries a plume compofed
of a confiderable tuft of pedicles, very long, weak, flen¬
der, and delicate, like Angle threads, terminating moft
frequently in two or three fmall narrow leaves, without
any knot of flowers between them ; hence this plume
mull be altogether barren. Thofe pedicles or threads
are furnilhed with a pretty long membranous Cafe,, in
5 C which
Papyri::
PAP [ 7
£lp)HS' w^‘c^ they are inferted j and they iffue from the fame
v point of direcHon, in the manner of a parafol. The
plume, at its nrft appearance, is furrounded with leaves
like the radii of a crown. The item which fupports
it is, according to 1\I. Poivre, about ten feet in height,
where there is two feet under water ; it is of a trian¬
gular form, but the angles are rounded 5 its thicknefs
is about the iize of a walking ftaff which fills the
hand.
( due interior fubftance, although foft and full of
fibres, is folid, and of a white colour. By this means
i lie item poflefles a certain degree of ftrength, and is
capable of red dance. It bends without breaking ; and
h it is extremely light, it ferves in forne fort for a cane:
Phe fame M. Poivre ufed no other dining a refidence
of feveral months at Madagascar. This Item is not of
equal tlncknefs in its whole length 5 it tapers infen-
nbly from the thickeft part towards the top. It is
without knots, and extremely fmooth. When this
plant grows out of the waters, in places limply moift,
?t is much fmaller, the Items are lower, and the plume
is competed of Ihorter pedicles or threads, terminating
at the top in three narrow leaves, a little longer than
thofe at the plume, when the plant grows in the water.
From the bale of thefe leaves iiTue fmall knots of flowers,
arranged as they are in the cyperus 3 but thefe knots
are not elevated above the pedicles, they occupy the
centre of the three leaves, between which they are
placed, and form themfelves into a fmall head. The
leaves which fpring from the root and the lower part of
the Item referable exactly thofe in the cyperus." This
plant, which the inhabitants callfanga-fanga, grows in
great abundance in their rivers and on their banks, but
particularly in the nver Tartas, near the Foule-point in
Madagafcar. Thewnhabitants of thefe cantons ufe the
barK. of this plant for mats 3 they make it alfo into fails,
into cordage for their fiihing houfes, and into cords for
their nets.
Ihis kind of papyrus, fo lately difeovered, and difirer-
ent from the papyrus of Sicily by the difpofition of its
flowers, (hows, that there are two kinds of the cyperus
which might eafily be confounded with the papyrus of
Egypt 3 whether we confider, on the one hand, to what
purpofes the inhabitants of the places where they grow
have made them fubfervient 3 or, on the other compare
their form, their manner of growth, and the points in
which they referable each other. This comparifon can
be eafily made from the accounts which Pliny and
Theophraftus gave of the papyrus of Egypt, and by the
figure and_ defeription given by Profper Alpin, after
having obierved the plant on the banks of the Nile.
But if we can depend on the teftimony of Strabo, who
affirms that the papyrus is found nowhere but in Epypt
and in India, it is perhaps poffible that the papyrus
of the ifle of Madagafcar is the fame with that cf
Egypt.
_ Whatever truth may be in this conje&ure, the inha¬
bitants of this ifland have never derived from it thofe
advantages wvhich have immortalized the papyrus of
Egypt. They have not made that celebrated paper,
quo ufu maxima humanitas, vita, conjlat et memoria.
This remarkable expreffion of Pliny not only charac¬
terizes the Egyptian paper, but every kind which art
and induftry have fubfHtuted in its place.
4 ] P A R
PAR, in Commerce, fignifies any two things equal in Par
value. See Exchange. a 1)
PARABLE, a fable or allegorical inftru&ion, founded P"radilt;'
on fomething i-eal or apparent in nature or hifiory, from
which a moral is drawn by comparing it with fomething
in which the people are more immediately concerned 3
fuch are the parables of Dives and Lazarus, of the Pro¬
digal Son, of the Ten Virgins, &c. Dr Blair obferves,
that “ of parables, which forma part of allegory, the
prophetical writings are full 3 and if to us they ibme-
times appear obfeure, we mult remember, that in thofe
early.times it was univerfally the mode throughout all
the eaftern nations to convey facred truths under myiie-
rious figure and reprefentations.”
PARABOLA. See Conic Sections.
PARABOLE. See Oratory, N° 84.
PARACELSUS, Aurelius Philip Theophras¬
tus Bombastus de Hohenheim, a famous phyfician,
born at Einfidlen, a town in the canton of Schweitz in
Swiderland. He was educated with great care by his
father, who was the natural fon of a prince, and in a
little time made a great progrefs in the Rudy of phyfic.
He arterwards travelled into France, Spain, Italy, and
Germany, in order to become acquainted with the moll
celebrated phylicians. At his return to Swifferland, he
flopped at Baiil, where he read le&ures on phyfic in the
German tongue. He was one of the firit who made ufe
of chemical remedies with fuccefs, by which he acquir¬
ed a very great reputation. Paracelfus gloried in de-
itroying the method eftablillied by Galen, which he be-
lieved to be very uncertain 3 and by this means drew
upon himlelf the hatred of the other phyficians. It is
laid, that he boafted of being able, by his remedies, to
preferve the life of man for feveral ages : but he him¬
lelf experienced the vanity of his promifes, by bis dying
at Saltzburg, in 1504, at 37 years of age according
to fome, and at 48 according to others. The belt edi¬
tion of his works is that of Geneva in 1658, in 3 vols.
folio.
PARACENTESIS, an operation in forgery, com¬
monly called tapping. See SURGERY.
PAR AC LET, the Co mfqrter, a name given to
the Holy Ghoft.
PARADE, in a military fenfe, the place where
troops affiemble or draw together, to mount guard, or
for any other purpofe.
Parade, in fencing, implies the aftion of parrying
or turning off any thru ft.
PARADISE, a term principally ufed for the garden
of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed imme¬
diately upon their creation.
As to this terreftrial paradife, there have been many
inquiries about its fituation. It has been placed in the
third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon ilfelf,
in the middle region of the air, above the earth, under
the earth, in the place poffeffed by the Cafpian fea, and
under the ar&ic pole. The learned Huetius places it
upon the river that is produced by the conjundlion of
the Tigris and Euphrates, now called the river of the
Arabs, between this conjunction and the divifion made
by the fame river before it falls into the Perfian fea.
Other geographers have placed it in Armenia, between
the fources of the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Araxes,
and the Phafis, which they fuppole to be the four livers
deferibed
X
Fhyfico-
Iheol
Lectures.
PAR [75
ParacJife. defciibcd by Mofes. But concerning the txafl ^ place
■""'“v we niufl r.eceffarily be very uncertain, if indeed it can
be thought at all to exift at prefent, confidering the
many changes which have taken place cn the lurface of
the earth flnce the creation.
“ Learned men (fays Mr Miln *)_ have laboured to
find cut the fituation of Paradile, which feems to be but
a vague and uncertain inquiry j for the Mofaic deicrip-
tion of it will not fuit any place on^ the prefent globe.
He mentions two rivers in its vicinity, viz. Pi Ion and
Gihon, of which no vefliges can now be found. The
other two ftill remain, viz. the Hiddekel, fuppofed to be
the Tigris, and the Euphrates, whofe ftreams uniie to¬
gether at a confiderable diftance above the Perfian gulfj
in fonie part of which, it is highly probable the happy
garden once lay (a). This gulf is eaftward both of the
land of Midian and the wdldernefs of Sinai} in one of
which places Mofes wrote his hiftory. But fince the
formation of this earth, it has undergone great changes
from earthquakes, inundations, and many other caufes.
The garden, however, feems to have been a peninlu-
la, for the way or entrance into it is afterwards men¬
tioned. We are told that a ‘ river went out of it
which, according to fome, fliould be rendered £ run on
the outfide of it,’ and thus gave it the form of a horfe-
fhoe : for had the Euphrates run through the middle
of the garden, one half of it would have oeen ufelefs to
Adam, without a bridge or boat wherewith to have
crofied it.”
The learned authors of the Univerfal Hiflory, in their
account of rarities natural and artificial m Syria, men¬
tion “ a fpot which is ftill fhown as the place wheie
once flood the garden of Eden, or 1 erreftrial Paradife.
And indeed it is in all refpefts fo beautiful and rich,
and yields fo delightful a profpect ficm the adjacent
hills, that there is hardly another place in the world
that has a fairer tilJe to the name it bears. Its proxi¬
mity to Damafcus, the capital of Syria, near the foun¬
tain head of the Jordan j its fituation'between the li-
gris or Hiddekel, the Euphrates, the Phafis or Phifon,
the Araxes or Gihon (which laft has thofe names from
its vail rapidity above all other known rivers), its bor¬
dering upon the land of Chus, famed for its fine gold.;
all thefe and many other marks fpecified by Mofes, to¬
gether W'ith its charming and furprifing fruitfulnefs, and
con ft ant verdure, have induced a great number of com¬
mentators to fettle that celebrated and fo much fought-
after fpot here, and to deem it the moft valuable of ail
the natural rarities of this country.
Chriflians, we prefuroc, need not be told, that however
curious or amufing this inquiry may be, the determina¬
tion of it is of no importance, fince w7e are all well af-
5 1 PAR
fared that the celeflial paradife is that place of pure and Par
refined delight in which the fouls of the blefied enjoy ,
everlafling happinefs.
It may not be improper, however, in this place to
give a defeription of the paradife of the Mohamme¬
dans. The fenfuality and abiurdity of that impoftor muff
be apparent to all men. rI heir religion has no confiffen-
cy in its parts, and the deferiptions of the future enjoy-
menis of the faithful are miferable inftances of human
-weaknefs and folly.
“ The paradife of the Mohammedans is faid by them
to be fituated above the feven heavens, or in the fe-
venth, and next under the throne of God; and to ex-
prefs the amenity of the place, they tell us that the
earth of it is of the fined: wheat flour, or of the purdt
mntie, or of faffron ; and that its Hones are pearls and
jacinths, the walls of its buildings enriched with gold
and filver, and the trunks of all its trees ot gold, arnongft
which the moft remarkable is the tree tuba, or tree of
happinefs. They pretend that this tree Hands in the
palace of Mohammed, though a branch of it will reach
to the houfe 01 every true believer, loaded with pome¬
granates, dates, grapes, and other fruits of furprifing
bignefs, and delicious tades, unknown to mortals. If
a man defires to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it
will immediately be prefented to him ; or if he choofcs
fleih, birds ready dreded will be fet before him, and
fuch as he may veifh for. They add, that this tree
will fupply the bleffed, not only with fruit, but with
filk garments alfo, and beads to ride on, adorned with
rich trappings, all which will buid forth from the
fruit; and that the tree is fo large, that a perfon mount¬
ed on the Heeled horfe would not be able to gallop from
one end of its diade to the other in 100 years. Plenty
of water being one of the greated addition', '■o the piea-
fantnefs of any place, the Alcoran often fpeaks of the
rivers of paradife as the principal ornament. Some of
thefe rivers are faid to flow7 with water, fome with milk,
fome w ith wrine, and others with honey : all of them have
their fources in the root of this tree of happinefs ; and,
as if thefe rivers w7ere not fufficient, w7e are told that the
garden of this paradife is alfo watered by a great number
of Idler fprings and fountains, whofe pebbles are rubies
and emeralds, their earth of camphor, their beds ofmufk,
and their fides of faffron. But all thefe glories will be
eclipfed by the refplendent and exquifite beauty of the.
girls of paradife, the enjoyment of whofe company wall
conditute the principal felicity of the faithful. Thefe
(they fay) are not formed of clay, as mortal women,
but of pure mufk; and are, as their prophet often affirms
in his Alcoran, free from all the natural defefts and in¬
conveniences incident to the fex. Being alfo of the
5 C 2 dricted;
(a) “ God (w7e are told) placed at the eaft of the garden of Eden cherubims ami a flaming fword, which turned
even/ way, to hep the way of the tree of life. In Scripture, the extraordinary judgements of God are faid to be
executed by his angels, who are fometime.s compared to flames of fire. .1 herefore the cnernbim and the naming
fw7ord may probably mean nothing more than that a large portion of ground on tne eadward of Pa. ad he was fet on
fire during the above awful occafion, and continued burning with fuch violence, that the flame t.ieieof at a didance
appeared like a brandifhed fword, turning every way with the wind. Now7 if the foil of Eden was bituminous, like
that of Gomorrah (which w7as once fo fertile as to be compared to the “garden of the Lord”), tee me w’ouid con¬
tinue burning till it produced the fame effecl in the one place as it did in the other, and turned a great part o tiat
tradt into fea: which feems to countenance the opinion of thofe who place the lituation ot P^radi.e in feme pait o.
the Perfian gulf.”
PAR
Pf.;: due ftriftefi modefty, they keep themfelves fecluded from
Paradox Pu^^c v^ew pavilions of hollow pearls, fo large, that,
——y—«_ as fome tradiiions have it, one of them will be no lefs
than 16, or, as others fay, 60 miles long, and as many
broad. With thefe the inhabitants of paradife may tafte
pleafures in their height; and for this purpofe will be
endowed with extraordinary abilities, and enjoy a per¬
petual youth.”
PARADISE Loft, the name of a modern epic poem,
the firlt and finell of thofe compofed by Milton.
I he fubjefl of this poem is extraordinary j it had
never before been attempted, and feemed to be above
the efforts of human genius. Angels and devils are
not the machinery, but the principal aftors in it; fo
that what would appear marvellous in any other com-
pofition, is in this only the natural courfe of events.—
The poet’s intention was, as he expreffes it himfelf, to
vindicate the ways of Ged to men. How far Milton
was happy in the choice of his fubjeft, may be
queftioned. It has led him into difficult ground,
though it certainly fuited the daring fujolimity of his
genius, it is a fubjeiff for which he alone was fitted •,
and, in the conduct of it, he has Ihown a ftretch both
of imagination and invention which is perfeflly won¬
derful.
Bird of PARADISE. See the following article.
PAIiADISEA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
PARADOX, in philofophy, a propofition
feemingly abfurd, as being contrary to fome received
opinions, but yet true, in fa<R.
The vulgar and illiterate take almoff every thing,
even the moft important, upon the authority of others,
without ever examining it themfelves. Although this
implicit corrudence is feldom attended with any bad
confequences in the common affairs of life, it has never-
thelefs, in other things, been much abufed ; and in poli¬
tical and religious matters has produced fatal effecls.
On the other hand, knowing and learned men, to avoid
tins weaknefs, have fallen into the contrary extreme :
lome of them believe every thing to be unreafonable or
impoffible, that appears 'fo to their firft apprehenfion 5
not averting to the narrow limits of the human under-
ffanding, and the infinite variety of objefts, with their
mutual operations, combinations, and affeftions, that may
be prefented to it.
It muff be owned, that credulity has done much more
imfchief in the world than incredulity has done, or ever
will do 5 becaufe the influences of the latter extend only
to luch as have fome ffiare of literature, or affedf the re¬
putation thereof. And fince the human mind is not ne-
cefiarily impelled, rvithout evidence, either to belief or
unbelief, but may fufpend its affent to, or diffent from,
any proposition, till after a thorough examination; it is
to be wifhsd that men of learning, efpecially philofophers,
would not naftily, and by the firff: appearances, determine
themfelves with refpeft to the truth or falfehood, pofli-
bility or impoflibility of things:
A perfon who has made but little progrefs in the ma¬
thematics, though in other refpefts learned and judi¬
cious, would be apt to pronounce it impoflible that two
lines, which wrere nowhere two inches afunder, may
continually approach towards one another, and yet never
meet though continued to infinity; and yet the truth of
this propofition may be eafily demonftrated. And many,
[ 756 1
PAR
who are good mechanics, would be as apt to pronounce Paradox
the fame, if they were told, that though the teeth of II
one wheel fhould take equally deep into the teeth 0f Paiaguay-
tmee others, it ftiould ailecl them in fuch a manner, ’
that, in turning it any way round its axis, it fhould
turn one of them the fame way, another the contrary
WTay, and the third no way at all.
No fcience abounds more with paradoxes than geo¬
metry : thus, that a right line fhould continually ap¬
proach to the hyperbola, and yet never reach it, is a
true paradqx j and in the fame manner afpiral may con¬
tinually approach to a point, and yet not reach it in
any number of revolutions, however great.
I he Copernican fyftem is a paradox to the common
people j but the learned are all agreed as to its truth.
Geometricians have of late been accufed of maintain-
ing paradoxes j and lome do indeed ufe very myfterious
term sin. exprefiing themfelves about afymptotes, the
fums of infinite progreffions, the areas comprehended
between curves and their afymptotes, and the folids
generated from thefe areas, the length of fome fpirals,
&c. Eut all thefe paradoxes and myfteries amount to
no more than this ^ that the line or number may be
continually aoquring increments, and thofe increments
may decreafe in fuch a manner, that the whole line or
number fhall never amount to a given line or number,
iheneceffity of admitting it is obvious from the na¬
ture of the moff: common geoitietireal figures : thus,
while the tangent of a circle increafes, the area of the
correfponding feblor increafes, but never amounts to a
quadrant. Neither is it difficult to conceive, that if a
figme be concave towards a bale, and have an afymp-
tote parallel to the bafe (as it happens when we take *
a parallel to the afymptote of the logarithmic curve,
or of the hyperbola, for a bafe), that the ordinate
in this cafe always increafes while the bafe is produced,
but never amounts to thediftance between the afymptote
and the bafe. In like manner, a curvilinear area may
incieafe while the bale is produced, and approach conti¬
nually to a certain finite fpace, but never amount to it j
and a foiid may increafe in the lame manner, and yet
nei er amount to a given fohd. See MiLcurvi1 s Fluxions.
See Logarithmic Curve.
PARADOX I, a fort of mimes or buffoons among
the ancients, who entertained the people with extem¬
pore effufions of drollery. They wx:re alfo called Pa-
radoxologi, Ordonarii, Ncanicologi, and Aretalcgi. See
Mimi.
PARAGAUDJE, among the Romans, were wreaths
of gold, or filk and gold, interwoven in, not fewed to their
garments. The garment was fometimes of one colour
with one paragaudae ; fometimes of two colours, with
two paragaudae; of three colours, with three para¬
gaudae, &c. They w’ere worn both by men and wro-
men.
PARAGOGE, in Grammar, a figure whereby a let¬
ter or fyllable is added to the end of a wTord , as medi
for me ; dicier, for did, &c.
PARAGRAPH, in general, denotes a feftion or
divifion of a chapter \ and in references is marked
thus, ^[.
PARAGUAY or La Plata, a province of Spa-
nifli America, bounded on the north by the river of
the Amazons 5 on the eaff, by Brazil; on the fouth,
by Patagonia; and on the weft, by Chili and Peru*
This
PAR [ 757
Paraguay. This country was firft difcovered by Sebadian Cabot, for
'     who, in i 526, paffed from Rio de la Plata to the river
Parana in fmall barks, and thence entered the river call¬
ed Uruguay. It was not, however, thoroughly reduced
till the Jefuits obtained pofleflion of it. A few of thele
went to Paraguay foon after the city of _ Aflumption
was founded, and converted about 50 Indian families,
who foon induced many others to follow their example,
on account of the peace and ranquillity they enjoyed
under the fathers. They had long refilled the Spa¬
niards and Portuguefe} but the Jefuits, by learning
their language, conforming to their manners &c. loon
acquired great authority among them j till at lull, by
fleadily purfuing the fame artful meafures, tney anived
at the higheft degree of power and influence, being in a
manner the abfolute fovereigns of a great part of this ex-
tenfive country ; for above 350,000 families are faid to
have been fubjetl to them, living in obedience and ar^e
• bordering on adoration, yet procured without the leall
violence or conftraint. _
Gent. Mug. We have the following particular account 01 the mi
]
PAR
I753* fions of Paraguay, in the words of Don Jorge Juan, &c.
“ The territories of the miflions of Paraguay compre¬
hended not only the province -of that name, but alfo
a great part of the provinces of Santa Cruz de la Siena,
Tucuman, and Buenos Ayres. I he temperature (a)
of the air is good, though fomewdiat moift, and in fome
parts rather cold: the foil in many places is rertile (Bj }
and produces in great abundance not only the fruits and
vegetables peculiar to America, but alio thofe of Europe
which have been introduced there. 1 he chief articles of
their commerce are cotton, tobacco, fome fugar, and the
herb called Paraguay. Every town gathers annually
more than 2000 arrobas of cotton, of a quarter of an
hundred weight each, which the Indians manufadure
into Huffs. There are alfo great quantities of tobacco
produced. But the chief article is the herb Paraguay :
it grows only in the dlfiricts of the millions ; and
there is a vaft confumption of this herb in all the pro- ~
vinces of Cliili and Peru, efpecially of that called c a mini,
which is the pure leaf \ the infufion of which is called
male, and is drank by the inhabitants of Lima twice a
day in lieu of tea or chocolate. I he mate which is made
by the infufion of the Italk is not lo much elleemed.
" “ ’Tis now almolt two centuries fince thele millions
were firlt fet on foot by the Jefuits. Ihe bad ma¬
nagement of the Portuguefe greatly favoured the views
of thefe fathers. There w:as a nation of Indians called^
Guaranies, fome whereof were fettled upon the banks ot
the rivers Uruguay and Parana, and others a hundred^
leagues higher up in the country to the north-wTeil ot
Guayra. The PcrLuguefo frequently came upon them,
and by force carried away as many as they thought pro¬
per to their plantations, and made Haves of them. Ofo
fended by fuch treatment, the Guaranies refolved to quit
their fettlements in the neighbourhood of the Portuguefe,
and to remove into the province of Paraguay. Accord¬
ingly a migration of 12,000 perfons great and fmail, en-
fued. Thefe the Jefuits foon converted-, and having had
the like fuccefs in converting about an equal number ot
the natives of Tape, a diltrfot in Paraguay, they united
the two nations, and laid the foundation of their future
dominion. Thefe fathers feem to have trode in the Heps
of the firll Incas, and to have civilized nations and con¬
verted fouls in order to acquire fubjedts. According to
a very exadl account taken in the year I734> tl'-ere were
then 32 towns of the Guaranies, which w ere reckoned to
contain above 30,000 families-, and as the new converts
were continually increafing, they rvere then about laying
the foundations of three new towns. I here w ere ado
then feven very populous towns inhabited by the con¬
verted Chiquito Indians, and they were preparing to
build others for the reception of the new converts ot
that nation ivhich were daily made.
“ The
Paraininv
The climate of Paraguay differs but little from that of Spain 5 and the diftmaions between the kafons^
me much the fame. In winter, indeed, violent tempeils of wind and ram are very frequent,_ accompanied with
fuch dreadful claps of thunder and lightning as fill the inhabitants, though ufed to them, with terror and con-
fternation. In fummer, the exceffive heats are mitigated by gentle breezes, which conixantly begin at eight or
nnm in the^moimmg^aize, manloc? and potatoes, befides many fruits and fimples unknown in Europe. Vines
however, do not thrive, except in fome particular places. Wheat has alfo been tried ; but it is only u e
cakes and other things of that kind. There are great numbers of poifonous ferpents, and others 01 enormoi >
fize many of which live on fifii. It produces alfo abundance of fugar, indigo, pimento, ipecacuanha, and
variety o/other drugs 5 and above all the herb Paraguay, which it exports to Pie value of 100,coca, annum y,
to the provinces of Chili and Peru. It is the leaf of a middle-fized tree, refemolmg an orange tree m taffe
not unlike mallows. There are three gatherings : firft, the buds before it unfolds its leaves, winch is the be ,
but fooneft fubiect to decay, the fecond gathering is the full grown leaves at the firft expanfion, the thud
whenthe leaved have remain’ed „„ fome time after ,hey are full blown. The leaves are roafted, and then kept
in pits dug in the ground to be ready for fale. Thefe trees grow principally m the moraffes on the eaft fide
of Paraguay, but Sow are diftributed all over the country. The manner of ufing it is to dry and reduce it
almoft to powder, then put it into a cup with lemon juice and fugai;; boiling water is then poured on it, and
the liquor drank as foon as may be. It is fuppofod to be forviceable m all diforders of the head, breaft, and
ftomach, it preferves the miners from the noxious mineral fleams with which they would otherwife be lufto-
cated ; is a fovereign remedy in. putrid fevers and the fcurvy ; allays hunger; and purifies ail kind ot water,
by infufing it therein. The country is diverfified with forefts, mountains, low lands (great part ot the year
under water), fertile meadows, and moraffes. Almoft every foreft abounds with bees, which have their hives
in hollow trees. Befides cotton, the country produces hemp, flax, corn, rice, and wool y and there ^ fucrf h.1™'
bers of wild cattle, that they are killed only for their hides. The natives differ not materially irom thofe deicn oe.
under the article America.
Farasiuv,
PAR
, J ^le m!nions Paraguay are furrouncled on all
aides with wild or unconverted Indians ; fome of whom
iivejn f'riendihip with the towns, but others harafs them
oy frequent incurfions. The father mituonaries frequent¬
ly yifit thofe Indians, and preach to them ; and from
ihe;e expeditions they feldom return without briaoincT
along with them tome new converts to incorporate with
tneir civilized fubjech. In the performance of this duty
they fometimes penetrate 100 leagues into thofe uncul¬
tivated trafts where wild Indians range ; and it is ob-
lerved that they meet with the lead fuccefs amono il
1 758 1
PAR
- —<-ainiy wuruiv me nnuation ot the
i rotefrant clergx'.
“ Ever.v town has its curate, who is affifted by one
and very often by two prieds of the fame order, ac-
cordmg to hue largenefs and extent of the town and its
didnch. Thefe two or three priefts, together with fix
boys who afiid them in the lervice of the church, form
a fmali college in every town, wherein the hours and
other exercifes are regulated with the fame formality
and exactnefs as in the large colleges in the cities of
I eru and^Chili. i he mod troublefome part of the duty
of the aflldant prieds are the perfonal vifitations which
the} are obliged to make to the Indians to prevent their
giving themfelves up to idlenefs 5 for fuch is the flothful-
neis of the Guaranies, that if they were not very care¬
fully looked after, the fecietv would receive no benefit
or advantage from them. They alfo attend the public
fharnbles, where the cattle neceiTary for the fudenance
of the Indians are daily fiaughtered, and didribute the
ficlh amongd ah the families m the town, m proportion
to the number of perfons whereof each family confids 5
lo that all may have what is neceflary, none what is fu-
perftuous. They alfo vifit the fick, and fee that they are
properly taken care of. They are generally employed
the whole day in thefe affairs, fo that they have feldom
time to a did the curate in his fpiritual funciions. All
the boys and girls in the parifli go to church every day
111 ^le we^ (except on fedivals aud Sundays), where
tney are indruffed by the curate. On Sundays the
whole parilli goes to church to be indrufted. The cu¬
rate is befides obliged to go to confefs the fick, and to
adm'nider the viaticum to thofe who define it, and alfo
to perform all the other functians peculiar to this office.
In diidtnefs tire curate fhould be appointed in this man-
nei. I he freiety ffiould nominate, three perfons to the
governor of Buenos Ayres (in v.hofe government the
iniffions of Paraguay are included), as being vice patron
of the miffions, that he may choofe one of them for cu¬
rate 5 and the curates fhould he indru&ed in the duties
of tl.eii office by the bdhop : but as the provincials of
the order can bed judge who are properly qualified for
the office, the governor and bifliop have ceded their
lights to them, and byr them the curates are always ap¬
pointed. }J'he. miffions of the Guaranies and the miffions
Ox the Ghiquitos, into which the miffions of Paraguay
are divided, have each their didinfr father-fuperior, by
whom the coadjutors or affidant curates of the feveral
towns in the refpeaive divifions are appointed. Thefe Paraguay.
iupenors are continually vifiting the towns, to fee that' v~—
they be well governed, and to endeavour to improve and
augment them. They like wife from time to time take
care to lend out fome fathers of the order into the cour.-
ines of the wild Indians to make new converts. The
better to enable him to difeharge thefe duties, the laue-
riur of the Guaranies is affided by two vice fuperiors •
one of whom refides in Parana, the other upon the
banks of the river Uruguay, and the fuperior himfelf
refides in the town of Candelaria. The pod of fuperior
of tne Cniquitos is not near fo troublefome as that of the.
upenor of the Guaranies; for the Chiquitos are not only
leA numerous, but much more docile and indudrious than
t.ie Guaranies, fo that they need not be continually watch-
ed. and attended in order to prevent their idlenefs.
a he king allows an annual dipend of 300 pezas to each
curate of the Guaranies, for the maintenance of himfelf
and his affidants. The money is paid to the fuperior,
who iliues out monthly to each curate as much as is ne¬
ceiTary lor his fubfidence; and when they want any
thing extraordinary, their wants are fupplied upon ap¬
plication lo him. But the Chiquitos maintain their own
curates. In every town there is a plantation fet apart
for the maintenance of the curate, which is cultivated
by the joint labour of all the inhabitants. The produce
of thefe plantations is generally more than fufficient for
the fubfidence of the curates and the furplus is fold to
buy ornaments for the churches. Nor are the curates
the fpmtual reftors of the towns only ; they are alio in
cheer the civil governors. It is true there are in every
town of the millions a governor, regidores, and alcaldes,
as there are in the other towns and cities under the Spa-
inih government. But though the governor is elected
fy the Indians, he mud be approved by the curate be¬
fore he enters upon his office ; nor can he chadife or pu-
niffi delinquents without the curate’s permiffion. The
curate examines thofe who. are accufed of offences; and
if he finds them guilty, delivers them to the governor to
be pumthed, according to the nature and quality of the
offence committed. Ke fometimes orders them to be im-
pi;toned for a few days, fometimes to faff, and, when the
fauj t is confiderable, to be whipped, which is the fevered
punjfliment that is ever inflieffed ; for the regulations and
indruGions of the curates have been fo efficacious, that
murder and fuch like heinous crimes are never here com¬
mitted. And even before they undergo theie gentle cor-
reclicns, ine curate difeourfes the offenders in a mild
friendly manner ; and endeavours to excite in them a
due fenfe of thed crime, and of the ill confequences that
might How from it, and to convince them that they me¬
rit a much greater punifliment than is inflifted. ' This
mild^ treatment prevents tumults and infurreftions, and
acquires the curates univerfal veneration and edeem. The
alcaldes are chofen annually by the regidores. The go¬
vernor, regidores, and alcaldes are all Indians of the bed
capacities ; and are in eftefl only fo many overfeers ap¬
pointed by the curate, and dignified with thefe empty
titles (c). r 7
Urery town has its armory or magazine, in which are
lodged
(c) V,e call them titles; becaufe in all caufes the Jefuit or curate of the parifli was a kind of fovereien re
cp, aim obeyed as an oracle. Whatever forms might take place in the choice of the chiefs o
garded as a petty princj
of
the
Paraguay.
PAR [ 759 ] PAR
lodged the fire-arms or other weapons wherew ith the mi¬
litia are armed wdien they take the field to repel the ir¬
ruptions of the Portuguefe and wild Indians. The mili¬
tia are very dexterous and expert in the management of
their arms ; and arc exercifed on the eves of fellivals in
the fquares or public places of the towns. The militia
is compoled of ail thofew hoare able to bear arms : they
are formed into companies, which have each a proper
number of officers chofen from amongfl thofe who are
mod diilinguiihed for judgement and conduct. The
drefs of the officers is rich, adorned with gold and filver,
and the device of the town to which they belong : they
always appear in their uniforms on feftivals, and on the
days of military exercife. The governor, alcaldes, and
regidores have alfo proper robes and drefies fuitable to
their refpeflive offices, in which they appear on public
occafions. There are fchcols in every town, in which
the common people are taught reading and waiting, and
alfomufic and dancing •, in which arts they become very
Ikilful. The Jefuits are very careful in confulting the
natural bent and genius of their fcholars, and in direct¬
ing their ftudies and application accordingly. The lads
of the molt premising genius are taught the Latin tongue
with great fuccefs. In one of the court-yards of every
curate’s houfe are various {hops or workheufes of pain¬
ters, carvers, gilders, filverfmiths, carpenters, weavers,
and clockmakers, and of feveral other mechanics and ar-
tizans, who daily work for the public under the direc¬
tion of the coadjutors, and at the fame time Ltacli the
youth their refpeclive arts and occupations.
The churches are large, well built, finely decorated
and enlightened, and not inferior to the richeft in Peru.
Each church has a choir of mufic, compoied of inftru-
ments of all forts, and very good voices; fo that divine
fervice is celebrated here with as much pomp and f'okm-
riily as in cathedrals : nor are the public proceffions lefs
fplendid, efpecially that of the hoft ; which, whenever
it is carried abroad, is attended by the governor, alcal¬
des, and regidores, in their robes, and alfo by the mili¬
tia in a body. The hottfes cf the Indians are as well
built and as well furnifhed as moff of the Spanifh houfes
in Peru. The greatell part indeed have mud walls,
others are built with brick, and fome with ffone, but all
are covered with tiles. In every town thqre is a houfe
where gunpowder is made, that they mayTievcr want It
when they are obliged to take arms, and always have it
ready to make artificial fire works on rejoicing days : for
all fellivals are here obferved with as great ceremony and
exa£lnefs as in the greatell cities. Upon the proclama¬
tion of a new king of Spain, the governors, alcaldes, re¬
gidores, and officers of the militia, appear drefied in new
robes and uniforms of a different fafhion from thofe they
wore before. There is a fort of convent in every town ;
in one part whereof are confined women of an ill life, and
the oilier part is deftined for the reception of married
women v, ho have no family, and who "retire thither
when ihc’r hv{hands are abfent. For the maintenance
of this houfe, and for the fupport of orphans, and of old
and infirm people, all the inhabitants of the town work Pdiaguay.
two days in every week j and the profits of their labour,' *
which is called the labour of the community, are fet
apart for the purpofe. If the produce of this labour be
more than is neceffary for their fubfifter.ee, the furplus is
laid out to buy ornaments for the churches, and clothes
for the orphans and aged and infirm people; fo that here
are no beggars, nor any who wTant the neceffaries of life.
In fhort, by the wile policy and prudent regulations of
the Jefuits, the whole community enjoys peace and hap-
pinefs.
“ The Guaranies are fo profufe and negligent, that
the curates are obliged to take into their hands all their
goods and fluffs as foon as they are manufactured and
made ready for fale } othervvife they w’ould wafte and
deitroy them, and not be able to maintain themfelves.
The Chiquitos, on the contrary, are diligent and frugal;
fo that the curates have no other trouble with them than
the affifting them in the difpofal of their goods, and pro¬
curing returns for them. For this purpofe the fociety
keeps a factor or procurator at Santa Fe and Buenos
Ayres, to whom the merchandife of the millions is fent
to be difpoied of; and thefe factors return the value to
the fathers in fuch forts ol European commodities as are
ivanted. The goods of every town are kept feparate ;
and the royal taxes are taken out of them without any
other discounts or allowances, fave the fiipends of the
curates of the Guaranies and the penfions of the caciques.
The fathers choofe to manage the commerce cf their
fubjedts themfelves, left they ihould contract vices by
their communication with other people. In this refpect
the fathers are fo careful, that they will not fuffer any of
the people of Peru, whether they be Spaniards, Mefti-
zos, or Indians, to enter into the territories of the mif-
fions. They fay that the Indians are but juft recovered
from a barbarous and diffolute way of life, and that their
manners are now pure and innocent; but that if Itrangers,
were fuffered to come among them, the Indians would
foon get acquainted with people of loofe lives : and as
the Guaranies efpecially are very prone to vice, ivicked-
nefs, diforder, and rebellion wTould foon be introduced ;
the fociety would lofe all the fouls they have converted ;
and their little republic -would be utterly fubverted.
However, there are fome who fufpeft that thefe are all
fpecious pretences: and that the fociety’s real motive for
prohibiting all intercourfe with itrangers, is the fear of.
rivals in the beneficial commerce of Paraguay, which is-
now entirely in their hands.”
Such is the account they themfelves have given us of
their own conduct: but others have treated their charac¬
ters with more feverity ; accufing them of pride, haugh-
tinefs, and abufing their authority to the greateft degree ;
infomuch that they would have caufed the magiivrates to -
be whipped in their prefence, and obliged perfons of the
higheft diftinftion within their juiiidiction to kifs the
hem of their garment, as the greateft honour at which
they could poffibly arrive. To this might be added, the
utter abolition oi all ideas of property; which indeed was
rendered
the lb'"'era! departments, their fuccefs ultimately depended on him. The cacique held of him ; the general received
Lis conmoTou 'me! inftruQions from him ; and all his decifions were without appeal. There were, we are informed,
not left than coco parilhes on the banks of the rivers Uruguay and Parana, not exceeding the diftauc.^ of 30 miles
from each other ; in each of which was a Jefuit or curate.
PAR [ 760
Paraguay rendered ufelefs by the general magazines and florehoufes
Paraiepfis which the7 eftabliflied, and from which, together with
V—herds of cattle kept for the public ufe, they fupplied
the wants of individuals as occafion required; yet dill it
was objedled to the charafter of the fraternity, that they
pofleffed large property themfelves, and claimed the ab-
folute difpofal of the meaneft effedts in Paraguay. All
manufactures belonged to them ; every natural commo¬
dity was brought to them ; and the treafures annually
remitted to the fuperior of the order were thought to be
a proof that zeal for religion was not the only motive by
which they were influenced.
Eefides the parochial or provincial governments, there
was a kind of fupreme council, compofed of an annual
meeting of all the fathers, wrho concerted the meafures
neceffary for promoting the common concerns of the
miflion, framed new laws, corredled or abolifhed old
ones, and, in a word, adapted every thing to circum-
itances. It is faid to have been one of the great objedts
of the annual councils to take fuch meafures as fhould
effedfually deprive ftrangers of all intelligence concern¬
ing the date of the miflion. Hence the natives Avere re-
drained from learning the Spanifh tongue, and were
taught, that it was dangerous for their falvation to hold
any converfation with a fubjedf of Spain or Portugal.
But the circumflance that rendered their defigns mod
fufpicious, was the edabliihment of a military force.
Every parifti had its corps of horfe and foot, who were
duly exercifed every Sunday ; and it was faid, that the
whole amounted to a body of 70,000 or 80,000 troops,
well difciplined.
'['he city of Buenos Ayres, the metropolis of this vad
province, was taken by the naval and military forces of
his Britannic majedy, under the command of Sir Home
Popham and Major-general Beresford, on the 26th of
June 1806. It was attacked on the 9th of Augud the
fame year, by a detachment of Spanifli troops from
Monte \ ideo, and obliged to furrender on the 12th
under a capitulation, the terms of winch were not after¬
wards obferved ; and General Beresford, the officers,
troops, marines of the fquadron, and a few feamen, re¬
mained prifoners of war. A more confiderable force,
under the command of Lieutenant-general Whitelocke,
■was afterwards fent to reduce it. That officer, after a
number of fldrmifties and partial engagements with the
enemy, in Asfliich the officers and troops under his
command exhibited abundant proofs of great bravery s
thought proper to abandon the idea of reducing the
towm. The reafon affigned by him for this myfte-
rious conduft, the dread that all the prifoners would be
maflacred by an exafperated mob, might have done
honour to his humanity, but it is extremely doubtful
whether or not that was founded on fact. The Britilh
government certainly thought otherwife, and the degrad¬
ing fentence of the court martial by which he was tried,
gives us reafon to conclude that his anxiety for the life
of General Beresford and the reft of the Britifli prifoners
was nothing more than a pretext.—The reader wall find
fome interefting information Asith regard to this country
in Davie’s Letters from Paraguay in 1803.
PARALIPOMENA, in matters of literature, de¬
notes a fupplement of things omitted in a preceding
work.
PARALEPSIS. See Oratory, N° 87.
] .PAR
PARALLACTIC, in general, fomething relatingParallaA'c,
to the parallax of heavenly bodies. See Parallax. ' Parallax.
PARALLAX, in AJironomy, is the difference be-' w—'
tween the places of any celeftial objedt as feen from the
furface, and from the centre of the earth at the fame
inftant.
Let E in figure of parallax, reprefent the centre ofUluftLtion
the earth, Q the place of an obferver on its furface,
wdtofe viiible horizon is OH, and true horizon EF: Notv Plate
let ZDT be a portion of a great circle in the hea-. cns, fkXXTV,
and A the place of any object in the vifible horizon ;
join EA, and produce it to C ; then C is the true place
of the objedl, and H is its apparent place, and the angle
CAH is the parallax •, or, becaufe the objedt* is in the
horizon, it is called the horizontal parallax. But OAE,
the angle which the earth’s radius fubtends-at the objedh,
is equal to CAH : Hence the horizontal parallax of an
object may be defined to be the angle which the earth’s
femidiameter fubtends at that objedt. For the various
methods hitherto propofed to find the quantity of the
horizontal parallax of an objedl, fee ASTRONOMY.
The Avhole effedt of parallax is in a vertical diredlion :
For the paralladtic angle is in the plane palling through
the obferver and the earth’s centre j which plane is ne-
ceffarily perpendicular to the horizon, the earth being con-
lidered a fphere. 2 '
The more elevated an objedl is above the horizon, the The paral¬
lels is the parallax, its diftance from the earth’s centre !-aK dec/'e;C
continuing the fame. When the objedl is in the zenith, dTftance !/'
it has no parallax ; but when in the horizon, its parallax the objedt
is greateft. The horizontal parallax being given, thepa-fr°mthe
rallax at any given altitude may be found by the follow- zenith-
ing rule: _ _ 3
To the logarithmic coline of the given altitude, addT^e^neof
the log. fine of the horizontal parallax, the fum, rejfedl-
ing 10 from the index, will be the log. fine of the paral-1theafineSof
lax in altitude. the hor. par.
Demonjlration. Let B be the place of an objedl ; pro-as the co-
duce OB, ED to F and D 5 then the angle BOZ willfine ot af‘
be the apparent altitude of the objedl, BEZ the true tude^s to
altitude, and OBE the parallax in altitude. Now in the radius,
the triangle AOE,
R : fine OAE : : EA : EO.
And in the triangle OBE
BE (=EA) : EO : : fine BOE : fine OBE.
Hence R : cofine BOA : : fine OAE : fine OBE.
As the two laft terms are generally fmall quantities,
the arch may be fiibftituted in place of its fine without
any fenfible error.
Example. Let the apparent altitude of the moon’s
centre be 390 25', and the moon’s horizontal parallax
56' 54". Required the parallax in altitude.
Moon’s apparent alt. 390 25' cofine 9.8879260
Moon’s horizontal par. 56' 54" fine 8.2x88186
Moon’s par. in altitude 43' 57'/ fine 8.1067446
Or, to the fecant of the moon’s apparent altitude,
add the proportional logarithms of the parallax in alti¬
tude.
As the apparent place of an objedl is nearer the hori¬
zon than its true place, the parallax is therefore to be
added to the apparent altitude, to obtain the true alti¬
tude. Hence alfo an objedl will appear to rife later and
fet fooner.
The
4
I
Parallax.
4
The line of
the parallax
of an ob-
iect in the
inverfe ra¬
tio of its
diftance
from the
earth’s
centre.
5 ..
Parallax in-
creafes the
apparent
diftance of
an objedt
from the
meridian.
6
Parallax in
longitude,
latitude,
right afcen
fion, and
declination
PAR [7
Tire fine of the parallax of an objeO Is inverfely as its
diftance from the earth’s centre.
Demonjlration. Let A be the place of an obje61 and
H the place of the fame objeft at another time, or that
of another objeft at the fame inftant; join EH, then in
the triangles AOE, HOE,
R : fine OAE : : AE : OE
fine OHE : R : : OE : EH
Hence fine OHE : fine OAE : : Ad. Eli.
The parallax of an object makes it appear more di-
ftant from the meridian than it really is.
Demonjiration. The true and apparent places Oi an
'object are in the fame vertical, the apparent place be-
ing lower than the true \ and all verticals meet at the
zenith : Hence the apparent place of an object is more
diftant from the plane of the meridian than the true
plaee. _ .
The longitude, latitude, right afeenfion, and dec i-
nation of an objedt are afiedted by a parallax. I he dif¬
ference be veen the true and apparent longitudes is cal¬
led the parallax in longitude; in like manner, the dif¬
ference between the true and apparent latitudes, light
. afeenfions, and declinations, are called the parallax in
latitude, right afcenjton, and declination, re'pectively.—
When the objedt is in the nonagefimal, the paiallax in
longitude is nothing, but that in latitude is greateft .
and when the objedt is in the meridian, the parallax in
right afeenfion vanifties, and that in declination is a
maximum. The apparent longitude is greater than the
true longitude, when the object is eaft of the nonagefi¬
mal, otherwife lefs *, and when the object is in the eaft-
ern hemifphere, the apparent right afeenfion exceeds the
true, .but is lefs than the true right afeenfion when the
objedt is in the weftern hemifphere. I he apparent place
of an object is more diftant from the elevated poles of
the ecliptic and equator than the true place : hence,
when the latitude of the place and elevated pole of the
ecliptic are of the fame name, the apparent latitude is
lefs than the true latitude, otherwife greater 5 and the
apparent declination will be lefs or greater than the true
declination, according as the latitude of the place, and
declination of the objedl, are of the fame or of a contra¬
ry denomination.
The parallaxes in longitude, latitude, right afeenfion,
and declination, in the ipheroidal hypothefis, may be
found by the following formulae ; in which L reprefents
the latitude of the place, diminiftied by the angle con¬
tained between the vertical and radius of the given place 5
P the horizontal parallax for that place } a the altitude
of the nonagefimal at the given inftant } d the apparent
diftance of the object from the nonagefimal ; /a the true
and apparent latitudes of the object $ Z) ^ the true and
apparent declinations refpeftively 5 and m its apparent
diftance from the meridian.
Then par. in long. — P. fine a. line d. fecant /, to ra¬
dius unity, and par. in lat. “ P. cofine a, cofine
A p. cofine d. fine a. fine A.
The fign — is ufed when the apparent diftance of
the object from the nonagefimal and from the elevated
pole of the ecliptic are of the fame affedticn, and the
fign -j- if of different afleftion. If the greateft precifion
be required, the following quantity 0.00000121216.
par. long. ”, fine 2 /, is to be applied to the parallax m
latitude found as above, by addition or fubtraction, ac-
Vol. XV. Part II.
Si ] P A R
cording as the true diftance of the obje£! from the ele¬
vated pole of the ecliptic is greater or lefs than 90°.
Again, par. in right afcen. rr P. cofine L. fine zv.
fecant D, to radius unity *, and par. in declination
— P. fine cofine SzpP. cofine L. fine c, co¬
fine m. .
The upper or lower fign is to be ufed, according a -
Parallax-
the diftance of the object from the meridian and iron’,
the elevated pole of the equator are of the lame or dif¬
ferent affection. Part 2d of par. in declination =
0.00000x2x216 par. in right afcen. 4, fine 2D •, which
is additive to, or fubtradtive from, part firft ot parallax'
in declination, according as the true diftance ot the ob¬
ject from the elevated pole of the equator is greater or
lefs than 90°. For the moon’s parallax, iee Astrono¬
my. There is alfo a curious paper in the firft volume ol
Afialic Refearches, p. 320, Sec. on the fame lubject, to
which we refer our readers. 1
PARALLAX of the Earth's annual Orbit, is the de¬
ference between the places of a planet as leen from the
fun and earth at the lame inftant. 1 he difterence be¬
tween the longitudes of the planet as been from the
fun and earth is called the parallax in longitude, and
the difference between its latitudes is the par at lex in la¬
titude. .
Parallax of the Fixed Stars, fee Astronomy,
art. 268. which contains an account of the method ufed
by Dr Herfchel, to afefertain the parallax of a ftar
which appears to be double, from obiervaliens made at
oppofite points of the orbit of the eartn. 1M. Piazzi,
the difeoverer of the planet Ceres, has made many ob-
fervations of the zenith diftances ot x Lyrse, Ascturus,
Procyon, and Aquilse, S>£c. at thofe times when the ef-
fedls of parallax ought to be the gi'cateft. His obler-
vations are publiihed in the loth volume of the Italian
Society. Let p be the abfolute parallax, ccniequently,
r!lf, h —  1 , : then the pa-
m e p — jifl-ariCe 0f tiie ftar from the earth’
rallax of Ardlurus in declination will be 0.595/>, and
that in right afeenfion, 1.005/>; hence, he obferves,
that obfervations of the right afeenfion of this ftar are
preferable to thofe of the declination, for determining
the parallax of this ftar.
M. Calendrelli, in a work printed at Rome in 1806,
has given the relult of his oblervations of the zenith di¬
ftances of Lyrse, made with the feftor of Meff. Maire
and Bofcovich. By comparing five obfervations in June,
with four in December 1805, and five in March with
the fame number in June, he deduced the parallax of *
Lyrse in declination to be q/'y, and that in right afeen¬
fion 6."8 5.—According to M. Piazzi, the parallax is
lefs than half of thefe quantities •, and, hence, the re¬
quired quantity not exceeding the unavoidable differen¬
ces attending obfervations, it appears difficult to deter-,
mine it, fo as to be free from doubt.
Meff. Delambre and Mechain have made many ob¬
fervations of the pole ftar, and /3 Urfse minoris, being
thofe ftars which ought to have the greateft parallax in
declination, at the times moft proper to difeover their
parallax j but from the comparifon, which M. De¬
lambre -made, of the zenith diftances of thefe ftars, he
difeovered nothing that could give the leaft fufpicion of
a parallax and the imad anomalies w inch he obfeived
are often in a contrary direction. M. Delambre adds,
5 D that
PAR
Parallax
!!
Paranymph
that thefe ftars being of the fecond magnitude, may be
too far diftant from us to have a paraliax j however, al¬
though this may be the cafe, yet it appears to him that
the fixed liars have no parallax.
1 he parallax of Venus affords the moft correfl me¬
thod, hitherto propofed, of finding the diftance of the
earth from the fun; and, hence the diftances of the
other planets, and alfo their magnitudes. For this dif-
covery we are indebted to the celebrated Dr Halley.
From obfervations of the tranfits of this planet, in 1761
and 17^9? parallax of the fun has been more accu¬
rately determined than previous thereto. The parallax
of Mars has alfo been employed for the fame purpole.
Parallax, is alfo ufed to denote the change of
place in any objefl ariling from viewing it obliquely
with refpeft to another objefl. Thus the minute hand
of a watch is faid to have a parallax when it is viewed
obliquely ; and the difference between the inftants fhown
by it, when viewed dweflly and obliquely, is the quan¬
tity of parallax in time.
PARALLEL, in Geometry, an appellation given to
lines, fin-faces, and bodies, everywhere equidiftant from
each other. See Geometry.
PARALLEL sphere, that fituation of the fphere where¬
in the equator coincides with the horizon, and the poles
with the zenith and nadir.
Parallel Sailing. See Navigation, book i.
chap. iv.
PARALLELS of Latitude, in Afronomi/, are leffer cir¬
cles of the fphere parallel to the ecliptic, imagined to
pafs through every degree and minute of the colures.
PARALLELS of Altitude, or Almucantars, are circles
parallel to the horizon, imagined to pafs through every
degree and minute of the meridian between the horizon
and zenith, having their poles in the zenith.
PARALLELS of Declination, in Afronomy, are the
fame with parallels of latitude in geography.
PARALLELOPIPED, in Geometry, a regular fo-
lid comprehended under fix parallelograms, the oppofite
ones whereof are fimilar, parallel, and equal to each
other.
PARALOGISM, in Logic, a falfe reafoning, or a
fault committed in demonflration, when a confequence
is drawn from principles that are falfe or, though true,
are not proved ; or when a propofition is paffed over that
fhould have been proved by the way.
PARALYSIS, the Palsy. See Medicine Index.
PARAMARIBO, the capital of the former Dutch
fettlement of Surinam, fituated about 18 miles from the
mouth of a river of the fame name. See Surinam.
PARAMOUNT, (compounded of two French words,
par, i. e. per, and monter, afcenderef fignifies in our
law the “ highefl lord of the fee, of lands, tenements,
and hereditaments.” As there may be a lord mefne
where lands are held of an inferior lord, who holds
them of a fuperior under certain fervices 5 fo this fupe-
rior lord is lord paramount. Alfo the king is the chief
lord, or lord paramount of all the lands in the kingdom.
Co. Lit. 1.
PARANYMPH, among the ancients, the perfon
who waited on the bridegroom, and direfted the nuptial
folemnities called alfo pronubus and aufpex, becaufe
the ceremonies began by taking aufpicia. As the para¬
nymph officiated only on the part of the bridegroom,
[ 762 j
PAR
Pawfue.
a woman called pronuba officiated on the part of the Parapet
bride. n
PARAPET, in Tortifcation, an elevation of earth
defigned for covering the foldiers from the enemy’s can¬
non or fmall fhot. See Fortification.
PARAPHERNALIA, or Parapherna, in the ci¬
vil law, thofe goods which a wife brings her hufband be-
fides her dower, and which are Hill to remain at her difi
polal exclufi v e of her huiband, unlefs there is fome pro-
vifion made to the contrary in the marriage contradl.
Some of our Engliih civilians define the paraphernalia to
be iuch goods as a wife challengeth over and above her
dower or jointure, after her huiband’s death ; as furni¬
ture for her chamber, wearing apparel, and jewels,
which are not to be put into the inventory of her huf-
band’s goods; and a French civilian calls paraphernalia
the moveables, linen, and other female neceffaries, which
are adjudged to a wife in prejudice of the creditors,
when the renounces the fucceffion of her hufband.
i ARAPHIMOSIS, a diforder of the penis, where¬
in the prepuce is fhrunk, and withdrawn behind the
glans, fo as not to be capable of being brought to coyer
the fame 5 which generally happens in venereal diforders.
See Surgery.
PARAPHRASE, an explanation of fome text in
clearer and more ample terms, whereby is fupplied what
the author might have faid or thought on the fubject.
Such are efleemed Erafmus’s Paraphrafe on the New
I ellament, the Chaldee Paraphrafe on the Pentateuch,
&c.
PARAPHRENITIS, an inflammation of the dia¬
phragm. See Diaphragm, Medicine Index.
PARAPHROSYNE, a word ufed by medical writ¬
ers to denote a delirium, or an alienation of mind in fe¬
vers, or from whatever other caufe.
PARAPLEGIA, a fpecies of palfy. See Medicine
Index.
PARAS ANG, an ancient Perfian meafure, different
at different times, and in different places ; being ufually
30, fometimes 40, and fometimes 50 fladia, or furlongs.
—The word, according to Littleton, has its rife from
parafch angarius, q. d. the fpace a poftman rides from
one flation, angaria, to another.
PARASCENIUM, in the Grecian and Roman
theatres, was a place behind the fcenes whither the
adlors withdrew to drefs and undrefs themfelves. The
Romans more frequently called it Pojfcenium. See
Theatre.
PARASELENE, in Natural Philofophy, a mock
moon j a meteor or phenomenon encompaffing or adja¬
cent to the moon, in form of a luminous ring j wherein
are obferved fometimes one and fometimes tvTo or more
images of the moon.
PARASEMON, among the Greeks, was the figure
carved on the prow- of the {hips to dillinguifh them from
each other. This figure was generally that of a bull,
lion, or other animal; fometimes the reprefentation of a
mountain, tree, flowTer, &c.
PARASITE, among the Greeks, was originally a
very reputable title ; the parafites being a kind of priefts,
at leaft miniflers, of the gods, in the fame manner as
the epulones were at Rome. They took care of the fa-
cred corn, or the corn deftined for the fervice of the
temples and the gods, viz. facrifices, feafts, &c. They
had
PAR [ 7'
Parr.fites had even the intendance over facrifices 5 and took care
11 that they were duly performed. At Athens there was
Parchment. a cf coi]ege of twelve parafites •, each people of
Attica furniihing one, who was always chofen out of
the bell families. Polybius adds, that a parafite w as
alfo an honourable title among the ancient Gauls, and
was given to their poets. But of late it has been made
a term of reproach, and ufed for a flatterer or mean de¬
pendent.
PARASITES, or PARASITICAL Plants, in Botany,
fuch plants as are produced out of the trunk or branches
of other plants, from whence they receive their nourifh-
ment, and will not grow on the ground. Such are the
mifletoe, &c.
PARASTATiE, in Anatomy. See Prostate.
PAR AT ALA SSI A. See Primorie.
PARE UNCLE, in a (hip, the name of a rope al-
xnofl like a pair of flings : it is feized both ends toge¬
ther, and then put almofl double about any heavy
thing that is to be hoifted in or out of the fhip hav¬
ing the hook of the runner hitched into it, to hoift it
up by.
PARC At,, in heathen mythology, goddeffes who were
fuppofed to prefide over the accidents and events, and to
determine the date or period, of human life.
The Parcoc were three, Clotho, Lachefis, and Atro-
pos •, becaufe, forfoolb, all things have their beginning,
progrefs, and end. Hence the poets tell us, the Parcae
fpun the thread of men’s lives $ that Clotho held the di-
ftaff, and drew the thread •, Lachefis twirled the fpindle,
and fpun it j and Atropps cut it. Clotho colum retinet,
Lachcfis net, Atropos fee at.
The ancients reprefent the Parcae divers ways : Lu¬
cian, in the fhape of three poor old women, having large
locks of wool, mixed with daffodils on their heads} one
of which holds a diflaff, the other awheel, and the third
a pair of feiffars, wherewith to cut the thread of life.
Others reprefent them otherwife : Clotho appearing in a
long robe of divers colours, wearing a crown upon her
head adorned with feven flars, and holding a diflaff in
her hand •, Lachefis in a robe befet with ftars, with fe-
veral fpindles in her hand ; and Atropos, clad in black,
cutting the thread with a pair of large feiffars.
The ancients imagined that the Parcae ufed white wool
for a long and happy life, and black for a fhort and un¬
fortunate one. See Necejfty, in Mythology.
PARCHMENT, the fkins of fheep or goats prepa¬
red after fuch a manner as to render it proper for writing
upon, covering books, &c.
The word comes from the Latin pergamena, the an¬
cient name of this manufacture 5 which is faid to have
been taken from the city Pergamps, to Eumenes king
whereof its invention is ufually aferibed ■, though, in rea¬
lity, that prince appears rather to have been the impro¬
ver than the inventor of parchment. For the Perfians
of old, according to Diodorus, wrote all their records
on fkins •, and the ancient lonians, as we are told by
Herodotus, made ufe of fheep fkins and goat fkins in
writing, many ages before Eumenes’s time. Nor need
we doubt that fuch fkins were prepared and dreffed for
that purpofe, after a manner not unlike that of our parch¬
ment ; though probably not fo artificially.—The manu-
faClure of parchment is begun by the fkinner, and fi-
nifhed by the parchment maker.
The fkin having been flapped of its wool, and placed
>3 ] PAR
in the lime pit, in the manner deferibed under the arli- Parcliirenf
cle Shammy, the fkinner flretches it on a kind of frame, par‘{on>
and pares off the flefh with an iron inftrument; this done,
it is moiftened with a rag } and powdered chalk being
fpread over it, the fkinner takes a large pumice ftone*
flat at bottom, and rubs over the fkin, and thus fcours
off the flefh 5 he then goes over it again with an iron in¬
ftrument, moiftens it as before, and rubs it again with
the pumice ftone without any chalk underneath : this
fmooths and foftens the flefh fide very confiderably. He
then drains it again, by palling over it the iron inftru¬
ment as before. The ’flefh fide being thus drained, by
feraping off the moifture, he in the fame manner paffes
the iron over the wool or hair fide : then ftretches it on
a frame, and ferapes the flefh fide again : this finifhes
its draining; and the more it is drained the whiter it
becomes. fkinner now throws on more chalk,
fweeping it over with a piece of lamb fkin that has the
wool on ) and this fmooths it ftill farther. It is now
left to dry, and when dried, taken off the frame by cut¬
ting it all round. The fkin thus far prepared by the
fkinner, is taken out of his hands by the parchment ma¬
ker, who firft, while it is dry, pares it on a fummer,
(which is a calf fkin flretched in a frame), with a fharp-
er inftrument than that ufed by the fkinner •, and work¬
ing with the arm from the top to the bottom of the
fkin, takes away about one half of its thiclmefs. The
fkin thus equally pared on the flefh fide, is again render¬
ed fmooth, by being rubbed with the pumice ftone, on
a bench covered with a fack fluffed with, flocks ; which
leaves the parchment in a condition fit for writing up¬
on. The parings thus taken off the leather, are ufed in
making glue, fize, &c. See the article Glue, &c.
What is called vellum is only parchment made of the
fkins of abortives, or at leaft fucking calves. This has
a much finer grain, and is whiter and fmoother than
parchment; but is prepared in the fame manner, except
its not being paffed through the lime pit.
PARDALIS. Ses Felis, Mammalia Index.
PARDIES, Ignatius Gascon, an ingenious and
learned French Jefuit, bom at Paris in 1636. He taught
polite literature for feveral years 5 during which time he
compofed feveral fmall pieces, both in prole and verfe,
with peculiar delicacy of thought and ftyle. At length
he devoted himfelf entirely to mathematics and natural
philofophy, and read all authors, ancient as well as mo¬
dern, in thofe branches ofkpowledge. He died in 1673,
of an infectious diforder contrafted by confefling and
preaching to the prifoners in the Bicetre during the
Eafter holidays. Father Pardies publifhed feveral works j
of which his Elements of Geometry are well known in
this country, where a tranflation of them has gone
through feveral editions. In 1672 he had a difputewith
Sir Uaac Newton refpeCling his Theory of Light and
Colours •, which may be feen in the Philofophical Tranf-
actions for that year.
PARDON, in Criminal Laiv, is the remitting or for¬
giving an offence committed againft the king.
Law (fays an able writer), cannot be framed on prin- Beecariaon
ciples of compaflion to guilt-, yet juftice, by the confti- and
tution of England, is bound to be adminiftered in mer-
cy : this is promifed by the king in his coronation oath;
and it is that aft of his government which is the moft
perfonal and moft entirely his own. The king con¬
demns no man 5 that rugged talk he leaves to his courts
5 D 3 of
PAR
Pardon
or juftice : the great operation of his fceptre is mercy.
His power of pardoning was {'aid by our Saxon anceitors
to be derived a lege fuce dignitatis: and it is declared in
parliament, by Hat. 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24* that no other
perfon hath power to pardon or remit any treafon or fe¬
lonies whatfoever ; but that the king hath the whole and
foie power thereof, united and knit to the imperial crown
of this realm.
I his is indeed one of the great advantages of mo¬
narchy in general above any other form of government,
that there is a magiftrate who has it in his power to ex¬
tend mercy wherever he thinks it is deferved; holding
a court of equity in his own breail, to foften the rigour
of the general law, in fuch criminal cafes as merit an
exemption from punifhment. Pardons (according to
fome theorifts) Ihouid be excluded in a perfea le£ifla-
tion, where punithments are mild, but certain ; for that
the clemency of the prince feems a tacit difapprobation
of the laws. But the exclulion of pardons mull necefia-
rily introduce a very dangerous power in the judge or
jury; that of conftruing the criminal law by the i'pirit
inltead of the letter 5 or elfe it mull be holden, what no
man will ferioully avow, that the fituation and circum-
Hances of the offender (though they alter not the effence
of the crime) ought to make no dillinaionin thepunilh-
ment. In democracies, however, this power of pardon
can never fublill 5 for there nothing higher is acknow¬
ledged than the magiftrate who adminiilers the law's :
and it would be impolitic for the power of judging and
of pardoning to centre in one and the fame perfon. This
(as the prelident Montefquieu obferves) would oblige
mm very often to contradnfl Inmfelf, to make and to
unmake his decifions : it would tend to confound all
ideas of right among the mafs of people ; as they would
find it difficult to tell, whether a prifoner were difchar-
ged by his innocence, or obtained a pardon through fa¬
vour. . In Holland, therefore, if there be no lladtholder,
there is no power of pardoning lodged in any other
member of the Hate. But in monarchies the king acls
in a fuperior fphere 5 and though he regulates the whole
government as the firll mover, yet he does not appear
in any of the difagreeable or invidious parts of it. When¬
ever the nation fee him perfonally engaged, it is only
in works of legillature, munificence, or compaffion.
To him therefore the people look up as the fountain of
nothing but bounty and grace ; and thefe repeated afts
of goodnefs, coming immediately from his own hand,
endear the fovereign to his fubje&s, and contribute 010^
than any thing to root in their hearts that filial affeflion
^nd perianal loyalty which are the fure eltablilhment of
a prince.
I he king may pardon all offences merely'againll the
crown or the public ; excepting, 1. That, to preferve
the liberty of the fubjefl, the committing any man to
pnion out of the realm, is, by the habeas corpus a6l,
31 Car. II. c. 2. made a praemunire, unpardonable even
by the king. Nor, 2. can the king pardon, wffiere pri¬
vate juftice is principally concerned in the profecution of
offenders:^ Non potejl rex gratiam facere cum injuria et
damno aliorum. Therefore, in appeals of all kinds
(which are the fuit, not of the king, but of the party
injured), the profecutor may releafe ; but the king can¬
not pardon. Neither can he pardon a common nuifance,
while it remains unredreffed, or fo as to prevent an a-
1 764 j
PAR
biltemcnt of it; though afterwards he may remit tile Pardon,
nne : became though the profecution is veiled in the
king to avoid the multiplicity of fuits, yet (during its
continuance) this offence favours more of the nature of
<i private injury to each individual in the neighbourhood
than of a public wrong. Neither, laitly, can the king’
pardon an offence againll a popular or penal llatute, al¬
ter information brought: for thereby the informer hath
acquired a private property in his part of the penalty.
Ihere is alfo a reitriction of a peculiar nature, that
affecls the prerogative of pardoning, in cafe of parlia¬
mentary impeachments, viz. that the king’s pardon can¬
not be pleaded to any fuch impeachment, lb as to im¬
pede the inquiry, and Hop the profecution of great and
notorious offenders. Therefore, when, in the reign of
Chailes II. the earl of Han by wras impeached by the
houie of commons of high treafon and other mifdemean-
ors, and pleaded the king’s pardon in bar of the fame
the commons alleged, “ That there was no precedent
that ever any pardon wras granted to any perfon im¬
peached by the commons of high treafon, or other high
crimes, depending the impeachment and thereupon
refolved, “ That the pardon fo pleaded was illegal and
void, and ought not to be allowed in bar of the im¬
peachment of the commons of England forwffiich re-
lolution they affigned this reafon to the houfe of lords,
“ That the letting up a pardon to be a bar of an im¬
peachment defeats the whole ufe and effebl of impeach¬
ments : for Ihould this point be admitted, or Hand
doubted, it would totally difcourage the exhibiting any
for the future ; w hereby the chief inflitution for the pre-
fervation of the government would be dellroyed.” Soon
after the Revolution, the commons renewed the fame
claim, and voted, “ That a pardon is not pleadable in
bar of an impeachment.” And at length, it was enabl¬
ed^ by the a£l of fettlement, 12 and 13 W. III. c. 2.
“ d hat no pardon under the great feal of England lhall
be pleadable to an impeachment by the commons in par¬
liament.” But, after the impeachment has been folemn-
ly heard and determined, it is not underllood that the
king’s royal grace is farther reffrained or abridged : for,
after the impeachment and attainder of the fix rebel
lords in 1715, three of them were from time to time re¬
prieved by the crown ; and at length received the benefit
of the king’s moll gracious pardon.
The effect of fuch pardon by the king, is to make
the offender a new man ; to acquit him of all corporal
penalties and forfeitures annexed to that offence for
which he obtains his pardon ; and not fo much to reffore
his former, as to give him a new credit and capacity.
But nothing can reltore or purify the blood when once
corrupted, if the pardon be not allowed till after attain¬
der, but the high and tranfcendant power of parlia¬
ment. Yet if a perfon attainted receive the king’s par¬
don, and afterwards hath a fon, that fon may be°heir to
his father ; becaufe the father being made a new man
might tranfmit new inheritable blood ; though, had he
been born before the pardon, he could never have inhe¬
rited at all.
Such is the nature of pardons in this kingdom.
Thefe, like other good things, may doubtlefs be abu-
fed ; and if they are in any inilance, their abufe deferves
cenfure : but that in their nature they Ihould be counted
abfurd, arbitrary, and deffru£live of morality, can, w’e
fufped.
P A R
[ 765 ]
PAR
Panic®, fufiiea, proceed from nothing but from the prcfumptive
 v   petulance of modern reformers, or from the new lylfem
of civil equality. , • r *1
We are told, however, by a late champion for the
Rights of Man, that “ the very word to a reflecting
• J r Up ...UU oKfnrflitv. ‘ What is the rule that
Surely
Godwin's
Inquiry   , .
concerning min(1 js fraught with abfurdity.
Pohticn1 ou vt in all cafes to prefcribe to my conduct .
jUj lattice : underltanding by juftice the greatelt utility of
the whole mafs of things that may be influenced by my
conduct. ‘ What then is clemency V It can be nothing
but the pitiable egotifm of him who imagines he can do
fomethmg better than juftice. ‘ Is it right that I Ihould
fuffer conitraint for a certain offence ?’ Ihe reflitude of
rny fuffering mutt be founded in its tendency to promote
the general welfare. He therefore that pardons me,ini-
quitoufly prefers the imaginary interefl of an individual,
and utterly neglects what he owes to the whole. He
beftows that which I ought not to receive and which
he has no right to give. ‘ Is it right,_ on the contrary,
that I Ihould not undergo the fuffering m queftion .
Will he, by refcuing me from fuffering, do a benefit to
me, and no injury to others ?’ He will then be a noto¬
rious delinquent, if he. allow me to luffer. I here is in¬
deed a confiderable defeft in this lad fuppofition It,
while he benefits me, he do no injury to others, he is
infallibly performing a public fervice. If I Offered m
the arbitrary manner which the fuppofition includes, the
whole would fuftain an unqueftionable injury in the m-
iuftice that w^as perpetrated. And yet the man who pre¬
vents this odious injuftice, has been accuftomed to arro¬
gate to himfelf the attribute of clement, and the appa¬
rently fublime, but in reality tyrannical, name of ior-
givenefs. For, if he do more than has been here de-
fcribed, in [lead of glory he ought to take fhame to him-
felf, as an enemy to the intereft of human kind. I* eve¬
ry aClion, and efpecially every aclion m which the Jiap-
pinefs of a rational being is concerned, be fufceptible of
a certain rule, then caprice muft*be m all cafes exclud¬
ed : there can be no adion, which if I negled, 1 ihall
have difcharged my duty 5 and, if I perform, I fiiall be
entitled to applaufe.” „ , . „
Such is the reafoning of this lingular writer; rea-
foning which, in our opinion, betrays want of feeling or
ignorance of human nature. That human nature is iuch
as, in the aggregate, to need controul, no one who is
acquainted with it will deny; and there appears to be
no other method of controulmg mankind out by general
laws; and thefe laws may, through the natural imper-
* fe&ion of human affairs, be cruel m one cale, where
they are juft in another. Cafes may hkewife occur
where the fentence of the law, without its execution,
will anfwer every purpofe which could be expected from
it • and where the execution of it would be extreme
cruelty, though it might in ft rid unfeeling language be
called juftice, becaufe in conformity with tne letter ot
the law : Yet though fuch cafes may and do otten oc¬
cur it would indeed he abfurd to abolifh any of thofe
laws which the fecurity of civil fociety has required ;
and therefore the only natural remedy agamit legal in¬
juftice is the fystem of pardons. . . r
Our author next goes on to trace the origin ot par¬
dons ; and inftead of a definite fyftem of law, we are
told that it is neceffary to have a court of reafon, to
which the decifions of a court of law (hall be brought
for revifal: a remedy apparently too vague and indeter¬
minate to produce any lafting or good effed ; and the ( 
propofal of which refults from fuppofing mankind more
virtuous and more knowing than they really are. We
are next led to confider the abufes of pardons : from
whence our author would draw an argument tor their
abolition ; a fpecies of reafoning unfair and unphilofophi-
cal. He tells us, that the authority in this cafe is pla¬
ced firft in the judge, and next in the king and council.
“ Now (fays he), laying afide the propriety or impro¬
priety ol this particular ieledi on, there is one. grievous
abide which ought to ftrike the molt , fuperficial obfer -
ver. Thefe perlbns with whom the principal truft is re-
pofed, confider their fundions in this refped as a mat¬
ter purely incidental, exercife them with fupinenefs, and
in many inftances with the moft fcanty materials to guide
.their judgement, it his grows in a confidcrable degree
out of the very name of pardon, which implies a work
of fupererogatory benevolence.”
Now it is obvious to remark, that pardons are m ge¬
neral granted in contequence of an application from peo¬
ple who have more than fcanty materials to guide, their
judgements, and onwhofe fidelity in relating the ciicum-
ftances of the cafe, confidence is placed or not accord¬
ing to their feveral charaders. Our author next pro¬
ceeds to the arbitrary charader of pardons. “ Such a
fyftem (he fays), to fpeak it truly, is a lottery of death,
in which each man draws his ticket for reprieve or exe¬
cution, as undefinable accidents ftiall decide.” The
allufion here to a lottery ticket is peculiarly unfortunate
and indelicate, nor does the whole fentence ftiow any
great degree of candour. It is pofiible to define a par¬
ticular crime, and to annex a particular punithment to
the commiffion of it ; but the nature of morality confifts
not in the external adion, but in the motives which
prompted to it. Definite law cannot, however, always
make this diftindion ; and after the fentence of the law
is pronounced, it comes to be confidered whether theie
are any alleviating circumftances in the cafe ; and
whether there are or not, mtift depend on . the parti¬
culars or accidents of the cafe : and it is indeed im-
poflible to fuppofe that thefe accidents could, be pr.e-
vioufly defined ; their nature does not admit of. it.
To particularize and define every mode, of an adion
which imagination can conceive, or which experience
has fhown us may happen, would indeed be an Hercu¬
lean labour; and we might literally fay with the apoftle,
that, the world could not contain the hooks that might, be
written. We are, howTever, told, that. “ reafon^ is a
thoufand times more explicit and intelligible than law ;
and when wTe are accuftomed to confult her, the cer¬
tainty of her decifions would be fuch, as men p radii fed
in our prefent courts are totally unable to conceive..’
Were reafon, however, appointed to be appealed to m
all cafes, and to be the final critericn, it w ouid leave
far greater room for villany than any mode at prefent in
practice. Reafon is a very uncertain and indefinite term,
and may be made any thing, according to the circum¬
ftances or paffions of men. Our reforming.neighbours
the French have raifed a ftatue to reafon and to. truth,
but what claim they . have , to either, Mr Godwin muft
himfelf decide.
We are next told that pardons are deftructive to mo¬
rality. “ Another very important confequence (fays our
author) grows out of the fyftem of pardons. A fyftem
of pardons is a fyftem of unmitigated flavery. I am
' " taught
partial.
PAR
Favilon
[
taught to expeft a certain defirable event 5 from what ?
Parenchy- -^rom clemency, the uncontrouled, unmerited kind-
ma. ne^s a fellow mortal. Can any leiTon be more de-
'--nr-w grading ? The pufillanimous fervility of the man, who
devotes himfelf with everlafting oblequioufnefs to an¬
other, becaufe that other having begun to be unjuft, re¬
lents in his career j the ardour with which he confeiTcs
the redlitude of his fentence and the enormity of his de-
ferts, will conftitute a tale that future ages will find it
difficult to underftand. What aie the fentiments in this
relpedl that are alone worthy of a rational being ? Give
me that, and that only, which without injuftice you can¬
not refufe. More than juftice it would be difgraceful
for me to alk, and for you to beftow. I Hand upon the
foundation of right. This is a title which brute force
may refufe to acknowledge, but wfttich all the force in
the world cannot annihilate. By refilling this plea you
may prove yourfelf unjuft, but in yielding to it you
grant me but my due. -If, all things confidered, I be
the fit fubjedl of a benefit, the benefit is merited : merit
in any other fenfe is contradictory and abfurd. If you
beftow upon me unmerited advantage, you are a recreant
from the general good. I may be bafe enough to thank
you; but if I were virtuous, I Ihould condemn you.
1 hefe fentiments alone are confiftent with true indepen¬
dence of mind. He that is accuftomed to regard virtue
as an affair of favour and grace, cannot be eminently
virtuous. If he occafionally perform an aftion of appa¬
rent kindnefs, he will applaud the generofity of Ins fen¬
timents and if he abftain, he will acquit himfelf with
the queftion, ‘ May I not do what I will with my own?’
In the fame manner, when he is treated benevolently
by another, he will in the firft place be unwilling to ex¬
amine ftriClly into the reafonablenefs of this treatment,
becaufe benevolence, as he imagines, is not fubjeft to
any inflexibility of rule ; and, in the fecond place, he
will not regard his benefactor with that ere ft and unem-
barraffed mien, that complete fenfe of equality, which is
the only immoveable bafis of virtue and happinefs.”
Such is Mr Godwin’s conclufion on this fubjeft; and
we leave it with our readers to determine, whether his
fyftem or that which we at prefent enjoy would be the
more rigorous or unjuft 5 or whether mankind have indeed
arrived at that eminent pitch of virtue, as to difdain eve¬
ry favour which they do not abfolutely merit. The
Chriftian religion fpeaks a very different language.
PAREGORICS, in Pharmacy, medicines that af-
iuage pain, otherwife called Anodynes.
< PAREIRA FLAVA, in the Materia Medico, a kind of
oblong and large root brought from the Brafils.—It is cer¬
tainly a diuretic of no mean charafter, and is faid to have
done great fervice in nephritic cafes, pleurifies, andquinfies.
PARELCON, in Grammar, a figure by which a
word or fyllable is added to the end of another.
P4.REMBOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure wherein fome-
thing relating to the fubjeft is inferted in the middle of
a period. All the difference between theparembole andpa-
renthefis, according to Voflius, is, that the former relates
to the fabjeft in hand, whereas the latter is foreign to it.
PARENCHYMA, in Anatomy, a term introduced
by Erafiftratus, fignifying all that fubftance which is
contained in the imerftices betwixt the blood veffels of
the vifcera, which he imagined to be extravafated and
concreted blood.
PARENCHYMA of Plants. Grew applies the term
] PAR
parenchyma to the pith or pulp, or that inner part of a Parent.
fruit or plant through which the juice is fuppofed to be  v 
diftributed. See Plants.
PARENT, a term of relation applicable to thofe
from whom we immediately derive our being. See MO¬
RAL Philofophy, N° 129. and 13 7.
lo this article belongs an inquiry into, 1. The legal
duties of parents to their legitimate children. 2. Their
power over them.
I. The duties of parents to legitimate children confift
in three particulars ; their maintenance, their protection
and their education.
1. The duty of parents to provide for the maintenance R!
of their children, is a principle of natural law; an obli-Comm't
gation, fays Puffendorff, laid on them not only by na- ;*
ture herfelf, but by their own proper aft, in bringino-
them into the world ; for they would be in the higheft
manner injurious to their iffue, if they only gave "their
children life, that they might afterwards lee them pe-
rifti. By begetting them, therefore, they have entered
into a voluntary obligation, to endeavour, as far as in
them lies, that the life wdiich they have bellowed fliall
be fupported and preferved. And thus the children will
have a perfect right of receiving maintenance from their
parents. And the prefident Montefquieu has a very juft:
obfervation upon this head, that the eftablilhment of
marriage, in all civilized ftates, is built on this natural
obligation of the father to provide for his children ; for
that afcertains and makes known the perfon who is
bound to fulfil this obligation ; whereas, in promifcuous
and illicit conjunftions, the father is unknown ; and the
mother finds a thoufand obftacles in her wray; ftiame,
remorfe, the conftraint of her fex, and the rigour of
laws, that ftifle her inclinations to perform this duty ;
and befides, flie generally w-ants ability.
The municipal laws of all w-ell regulated ftates have
taken care to enforce this duty : though Providence has
done it more effeftually than any law's, by implanting
in the breaft of every parent that natural va^yj), or in-
fuperable degree of affeftion, wdiich not even the defor¬
mity of perfon or mind, not even the wdckednefs, ingra¬
titude, and rebellion of children, can totally fupprefs or
extinguilh.
The civil law obliges the parent to provide main¬
tenance for his child; and if he refufe, judex de ea re
cognofcet. Nay, it carries this matter fo far, that it
will not fuffer a parent at his death totally to difinhe-
rit his child, without exprefsly giving his reafon for fo
doing; and there are 14 fuch reafons reckoned up, 9
which may juftify fuch difinherifon. If the parent al¬
leged no reafon, or a bad, or a falfe one, the child
might fet the will afide, tanquatn tef amentum incfjicio-
fum, a teftament contrary to the natural duty of the
parent. And it is remarkable under what colour the
children w-ere to move for relief in fuch a cafe ; by fug-
gefting, that the parent had loft the ufe of his reafon
when he made the inofficious teftament. And this, as
Puffendorff obferves, was not to bring into difpute the
teftator’s power of difinheriting his own offspring ; but
to examine the motives upon which he did it; and if
they were found defeftive in reafon, then to fet them
afide. But perhaps this is going rather too far: every
man has, or ought to have, by the law's of fociety, a
power.over his own property: and, as Grotius very
well diftinguifhes, natural right obliges to give a ne-
cejfary
Parent.
Parent.
PAR [76
ccJJanj maintenance to children ; but what is more than
that they have no right to, than as it is given by the
favour of their parents, or the pofitive conftitutions of
the municipal law.
Let us next fee what provilion our own laws have
made for this natural duty. It is a principle of law,
that there is an obligation on every man to provide for
thofe defcended from his loins j and the manner in
which this obligation (hall be performed, is thus point¬
ed out. The father and mother, grandfather and
grandmother, of poor impotent perfons, lhall maintain
them at their own charges, if of fufficient ability, ac¬
cording as the quarter fedions {hall direfl ; and, if a
parent runs away, and leaves his children, the church
wardens and overfeers of the parifh {hall feize his rents,
goods, and chattels, and difpofe of them towards their
relief. By the interpretations which the courts of law
have made upon thefe ftatutes, if a mother or grand¬
mother marries again, and was before fuch fecond mar¬
riage of fudicient ability to keep the child, the huf-
band ihall be charged to maintain it; for this being
a debt of her’s, when fmgle, Ihall, like others, extend
to charge the hulband. But, at her death, the relation
being diffolved, the hulband is under no farther obliga¬
tion.
No perfon is bound to provide a maintenance for his
ifl'ue, unlefs where the children are impotent and unable
to work, either though infancy, difeafe, or accident;
and then is only obliged to find them with neceffaries,
the penalty on refufal being no more than 20s. a month.
For the policy of our laws; which are ever watchful to
promote induftry, did not mean to compel a father ti*
maintain his idle and lazy children in eafe and indo¬
lence ; but thought it unjuft to oblige the parent againft
his will, to provide them with fuperfiuities, and other
indulgences of fortune ; imagining they might truft to
the impulfe of nature, if the children ’were deferving of
fuch favours. Yet, as nothing is fo -apt to Hide the
calls of nature as religious bigotry, it is enabled, that
if any Popifh parent fhall refufc to allow his Protellant
child a fitting maintenance, with a view to compel him
to change his religion, the lord chancellor {hall by order
of court conftrain him to do what is juft and reafonable.
But this did not extend to perfons of another religion,
of no lefs bitternefs and bigotry than the Popifh : and
therefore, in the very next year, w’e find an inftance
of a Jew of >immenfe riches, whofe only daughter ha¬
ving embraced Chrxftianity, he turned her out of doors ;
and on her application for relief, it wras held file wras
entitled to none. But this gave occafion to another
ftatute, which ordains, that if Jewiih parents refufe to
allow their Proteftant children a fitting maintenance,
fui table to the fortune of the parent, the lord chancellor,
on complaint, may make fuch order therein as he {hall
fee proper.
Our law has made no provifion to prevent the difin-
heriting of children by will *, leaving every man’s pro¬
perty in bis own difpofal, upon a principle of liberty in
this as well as every other aftion; though perhaps
it had not been amifs if the parent had been bound
to leave them at the leaft a neceffary fubfiftence. In¬
deed, among-perfons of any rank or fortune, a compe¬
tence is generally provided for younger children, and
the bulk of the eftate fettled upon the eldeft by the
marriage articles. Heirs alfo, and children, are £a-
7 ] PAR
vourites of our courts of juftice, and cajmot be dihn- ^
herited by any dubious or ambiguous wTords ; there be¬
ing required the utmoft certainty of the teftator’s inten¬
tions to take away the right of an heir.
2. From the duty of maintenance we may eafily
pafs to that of protection ; which is alfo a natural du¬
ty, but rather permitted than enjoinod by any muni¬
cipal laws ; nature, in this refpeft, working io ftrong-
ly as to need rather a check than a fpur. A parent
may, by our laws, maintain and uphold his children
in their law-fuits, without being guilty of the legal
crime of maintaining quarrels. A parent may alfo ju-
ftify an afiault and battery in defence of the perfons o-
his children; nay, where a man’s fon was beaten by
another boy, and the father went near a mile to find
him, and there revenged his fon’s quarrel by beating
the other boy, of which beating he afterwards unfor¬
tunately died ; it was not held to be murder, but man-
flaughter merely. Such indulgence does the law ftlow
to the frailty of human nature, and the workings of
parental affection.
3. The laft duty of parents to'their children is that
of giving them an education fuitable to their ftation in
life: a duty pointed out by reafon and of far the
greateft importance of any. For, as Puffendorft very
well obferves, it is not eafy to imagine or allow, that
a parent has conferrsd any confiderabie benefit upon
his child by bringing him into the world, it he af¬
terwards entirely neglefts his culture and education,
and fuffers him to grow up like a mere beaft, to lead a
life ufelefs to others, and ihameful to himlelf. \ et tht.
municipal laws of moft countries feem to be defective
in this point by not conftraining the parent to bellow
a proper education upon Ids children. Perhaps they
thought it punifhment 'enough to leave the parent who
negledls the inftrudlion of his family, to labour under'
thofe griefs and inconveniences which his family, 10
uninftrudted, will be fare to bring upon him. Our
laws, though their defefts in this particular cannot be
denied, have in one inftance made a wife provifion for
breeding up the riling generation; fince the. poor and
laborious part of the community, when pall the age of
nurture, are taken out of the hands of their parents,
by the ftatutes for apprenticing poor children ; and
are placed out by the public in fuch a manner as may
render their abilities, in their feveral ftations, of the
greateft advantage to the commonwealth. .1 he rich
indeed are left at their own option, whether they will
breed up their children to be ornaments or difgraces
to their family. Yet in one cafe, that of religion, they
are under peculiar reftriclions ; for it is provided that
if any perfon fends any child under his government be¬
yond the Teas, either to prevent its good education in
England, or in order to enter into, or refide in, any
Popiftr college, or to be inftrudled, perfuaded, or
{Lengthened in the Popifh religion p in fuch cafe, be-
fides the difabilities incurred by the child fo fent, the
parent or perfon fending {hall forfeit tool, which {ball
go to the foie ufe and benefit of him that {ball difeover
the offence. And if any parent, or other, {hall fend
or convey any perfon beyond fea, to enter into, or be
refident in, or trained up in, any priory, abbey, nun¬
nery, Popifti univerfity, college or fchool, or houfe of
Jefuits or priefts, or in any private Popifti family, in
order to be inftrufled, perfuaded or confirmed, in the
PopTiY
PAR [ 76S ] PAR
Popiili religion j or lhall contribute any thing towards
their maintenance when abroad by any pretext what¬
ever, the perfon both fending and fent fhall be difabled
to fue in lawT or equity, or to be executor or adminiftra-
tor to any perfon, or to enjoy any legacy or deed of
gift, or to bear any office in the realm, and fhall forfeit
all his goods and chattels, and likewife all his real eilate
for life. See Nonconformists.
II. The power of parents over their children is de¬
rived from the former confideration, their duty; this
authority being given them, partly to enable the pa¬
rent more effeclually to perform his duty, and partly
as a recompenfe for his care and trouble in the faith¬
ful difcharge of it. And upon thq, fcore the munici¬
pal laws of fome nations have given a much larger au¬
thority to the parents than others. The ancient Ro¬
man laws gave the father a power of life and death
over his children 5 upon this principle, that he who
gave had alfo the power of Taking away. But the ri¬
gour of thefe laws was foftened by fubfequent conftitu-
'tions : fo that we find a father baniffied by the empe¬
ror Hadrian for killing his fon, though he had commit¬
ted a very heinous crime 5 upon this maxim, that pa-
■irls potejlas in pietate debet. non in atrocitate, conjiflcre.
But Itill they maintained to the lalt a very large and
abfolute authority : for a fon could not acquire any pro¬
perty of his own during the life of his father ; but all
his acquifitions belonged to the father, or at leaf! the
profits of them for his life.
The power of a parent by the Engliffi law is much
more moderate ; but Hill fufficient to keep the child in
order and obedience. He may lawfully corredt his
child, being under age, in a reafonable manner: for
this is for the benefit of his education. The confent
or concurrence of the parent to the marriage of his
child under age, was alfo direfled by our ancient law
to be obtained : but now it is abfolutely neceffary ; for
without it the contra ft is void. And this alfo is an¬
other means which the law has put into the parent’s
hands, in order the better to difcharge his duty } firlt,
of protefting his children from the fnares of artful and
defigning perfons *, and next of fettling them properly
in life, by preventing the ill confequences of too early
and precipitate marriages. A father has no other
porver over his fon’s eflate, than as his truftee or guar¬
dian : for though he may receive the profits during
the child’s minority, yet he muft account for them
when he comes of age. He may indeed have the be¬
nefit of his children’s labour while they live with him
and are maintained by him ; but this is no more than
he is entitled to from his apprentices or fervants. The
legal power of a father (for a mother, as fuch, is en¬
titled to no power, but only to reverence and refpeft),
the power of a father, we fay, over the perfons of his
children ceafes at the age of 21 5 for they are then en-
franchifed by arriving at years of difcretion, or that
point which the law has eftabliffied (as fome mull
neceffarily be eftabliffied) when the empire of the fa¬
ther, or other guardian, gives place to the empire of
reafon. Yet, till that age arrives, this empire of the
father continues even after his death •, for he may by
his will appoint a guardian to his children. He may
.alfo delegate part of his parental authority, during his
life, to the tutor or fchoolmafter of his child } who is
then in loco parentis, and has fuch a portion of the
3
power of the parent committed to his charge, viz. Parent,
that of reftraint and correftion, as may be neceffary to "~*' v
anfvver the purpofes for which he is employed.
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1750, we have the
following cafe of confidence. “ A perfon has his own
parents and his own children living, both parties equally
indigent, both equally incapable of affifting themfelves,
and both equally earneft in calling upon him for relief.
Things are fo circumftanced that • he can poffibly affift
but one party, and not both. Query, \Vhich party has
the greateft claim to his affiftance, and to which is he
obliged, by all ties human and divine, to give the pre¬
ference ?” One folves this difficulty, by informing us
of a pretty print done at Rome, reprefenting a young
woman fuckling her aged father, on which the following
lines are quoted.
My child and father vital nurture crave,
Parental, filial, fondnefs both would fave,
But if a nurfling only one can live,
I choofe to fave the life I cannot give.
Here we find the preference given to the parent;
and another correfpondent gives the fame decilion in
thefe words. “ The obligations arifing from nature,
and natural affeftion, feem to be in this cafe recipro¬
cal and equipollent; the child is as ftrongly attrafted
to the parent, as the parent to the child. But will
not filial gratitude operate and decide in favour of the
parents ? Does not the perfon, either mediately or im¬
mediately owe his prefent pow’er and abilities to re¬
lieve, to his parents ? and are not they on that ac¬
count heft entitled to relief? Does not the fifth com¬
mandment declare more ftrongly in favour of the parents,
than any other divine precept does in favour of the
children ? If a perfon had an opportunity given him of
delivering either his parent or his child (but not both)
from certain death, I dare fay the voice of nature and
of mankind would applaud him that faved his parent,
and condemn him that ftrould prefer his child. There
is more of felfiflmefs in preferring the child } and to
fave 1 he parent feems to me to be much the more ge¬
nerous, noble, and exalted conduft. It is indeed, upon
the wheh , 1 melancholy alternative *, but if both parties
continue importunate, and neither will relinquilh their
claims in favour of the other, I fay relieve the pa¬
rent.” There are twTo correfpondents, however* who
think differently, and their reafons are as follow' r
“ A perfon’s children have the greateft claim to his
affiftance, and he is obliged by all ties to prefer them, v
in that refpeft, to his parents. It is true, when a
man’s parents are in want, they have a claim to his
affiftance ; but that claim is not equal to that which
his children have. His parents he has of neceffity :
his children, of choice. It is- his duty, before he be¬
get children, to confider howr he is to provide for
them : and by being wilfully the caufe of their exift-
ence, he comes under fuch an obligation to provide
for their comfortable fubfiftence, as muft be ftronger
than any obligation of that kind he can be under to
perfons with whom his connexion is involuntary. But
nature and reafon point it. out as the duty of all pa¬
rents to provide for their children ; but not vice verfa.
If a man’s parents happen to be indigent, and he himfelf
able, he is bound to maintain them out of refpeft and
gratitude : but his obligation to provide for his children
PAR
C
is a debt of ftria juftice j and therefore ought to be
preferred. Neverthelefs the defcription of the cafe to
which the query is fubjoined, is fo general, that it js
eafy to figure a Cafe according to that defcription^ in
which the perfon ought to prefer his parents. This
obligation to provide for his children may have been
diffolved by monftrous ingratitude, fuch as their plotting
againft his life ; or he may have given them proper edu¬
cation, and ample provifions, which they have notoufly
fquandered away : in either of which cales it is thought
he is undoubtedly difcharged from his obligation. But
if they have loll their portion purely by misfortunes,
without their fault, it is thought his obligation to affift
them is not wholly extinguifhed ; and in that cafe their
claim to his affiftance, or that of his parents, is prefer¬
able.” “ I find (fays the author of the laft anfwer)
that all your correfpondents agree, that the life of the
parent is to be preferved. It is very certain, that the
relation between me and my child is exactly equal vO
that which is between me and my parentand there¬
fore relation cannot decide in favour of the one or the
other : I muff then be determined by a different conn-
deration •, and I know of none more weighty than the
following. If I preferve the life of my child, I am m-
Itrumental in giving life to #11 his defcendants, which
may, perhaps, be very numerous *, but. i f I preferve the
life of my parent, I preferve a Angle life omy, and t rat
afhort one. I therefore fay, re/icve the child. But it
is thought that the voice of nature wall applaud the
perfon who preferves the parent : if fo, nature muff ap¬
plaud a rule which (he herfelf does not obferve : it is
natural for old men to die before young ones. Le-
fides, the command, Be fruitful and multiply, and 1 c-
plenilh the earth, may be oppofed to the fifth command¬
ment.” Still, however, it is doubtlefs difficult to de¬
termine in fuch cafes when they occur, as there are no
fixed rules whereby to decide. With refpeft to the
power of parents and the duty of children, much may
be faid. There are, however, fcarcely any mftances
where both are oftener abufed than with refpect to
marriage. This, as it is the moft important event m
the civil life either of a man or woman, lo it is often
rendered peculiarly unfortunate, by precipitate folly
and wTant of duty in children ; and as often through the
unreafonable feverity ®f parents. As a child is bound
not to give unreafonable offence to a parent in the
choice of a partner j fo neither ought the parent to rni-
pofe any improper or arbitrary reftramt upon the child.
The power of a parent in China is very great 5 for
a father, while living, has the power of an ablolute
defpotic tyrant, and after his death is worflnpped as a
eod Let a fon become ever fo rich, and a lather
ever fo poor, there is no fubmiffion, no point of obe¬
dience, that the latter cannot command, or that the
former can refufe. The father is abfolute mafter, not
only of his ffin’s eftate, but alfo of his concubines and
children, who, whenever they difpleafe. him, he may
fell -to ftrangers. If a father accufes. his fon before a
mandarin, there needs no proof of his guilt •, for they
cannot believe that any father can be fo unnatural as
to bring a falfe accufation againft his own fon. But
ffiould a fon be fo infolent as to mock his father,. or
arrive at fuch a pitch of wickednefs as to ftrike him,
all the province where this fhameful a£I of violence is
Vol. XV. Part II.
69 ] PAR
committed is alarmed ; it even becomes the concern of Parent,
the whole empire ; the emperor himfelf judges the cri- '
xninal. All the mandarins near the place ape turned
out of their polls, efpecially thofe of the town where he
lived, for having been fo negligent in their inftruc-
tions ; and all the neighbours are reprimanded for ne-
glecling, by former punilhments, to put a flop to the
wickednefs of the criminal before it arrived at fuch fta-
gitioufnefs. As to the unhappy wretch himfelf, they
cut him into a thoufand pieces, burn his bones, level
his houfe to the ground, and even thofe houfes that Hand
near it, and fet" up monuments and memorials of the
horrid deed.
The emperor of China, who is one of the moft
powerful and defpolic monarchs upon earth, pays the
greateft attention to his mother. An inftance of this
Pere Amyot relates as having happened at Pekin,
A. I). 1752, when the emperor’s mother entered her
60th year, which, among the Chinefe, is accounted a
very remarkable period. Grofier likewne particulaily
deferibes the homage the emperor pays his mother eveiy
new-year’s day in the palace, at which ceremony all the
great officers of his court alhft. bee CHILDREN, FILI¬
AL Piety, PARENTAL Affection, b'c.'
Parent, Anthony, a mathematician, was born at
Paris in 1666. hie {bowed an .early propensity to
mathematics. Lie accuftomed himfelf to write re¬
marks upon the margins of the books which he read 5
and he had filled a variety or books with a kind o. com¬
mentary at the early age ol thirteen. At fourteen he
was put under a mafter, who taught rhetoric at Chartres.
It was here that he happened to- lee a dodecaedron,
upon every face of which was delineated a fun dial, ex¬
cept the loweft, whereon it flood. Struck as it vveie
inftantaneoufiy with the curiofity of thele dials, he at¬
tempted drawing one himfelf: but having a book which
only fhowed the praaical part without the. theory, it
was not till after his mafter came to explain the doc¬
trine of the fphere to him that he began to underhand
how the projection of the circles of the fphere formed
fun dials. Lie then undertook to write a lieatne upon
Gnomomcs. The piece was indeed rude and unpobth-
ed ; but it was entirely his own, and not borrowed.
About the fame time he wrote a book of Geometry, in
the fame tafte, at Beauvois. His friends tnen lent .or
him to Paris to ftudy the law } and, in obedience to
them, he ftudied a courfe in that faculty 5 which was
no fooner finifhed, than, urged by his paflion for mathe¬
matics, he Unit himfelf up in the college of Dormans,
that no avocation might take him from his beloved ftudy :
and, with an allow-ance of lefs than 200 livres a-year,
he lived content in this retreat, from which he never
ftirred but to the Royal College, in order to hear the
leaures of M. de la Hire or M. de Sauveur. When
he found himfelf capable of teaching others, he took
pupils : and fortification being a branch of mathema¬
tics which the war had brought into particular, notice,
he turned his attention to it } but after fome time be¬
gan to entertain fcruples about teaching what he had
never leen, and knew only by the force of imagination.
He imparted this fcruple to M. Sauveur, who recom¬
mended him to the marquis d’Aligre,. who luckily, at
that time w-anted to have a mathematician with him.
Parent made two campaigns with the marquis, by which
5 E he
PAR
^Parental, he intruded himfelf fufficiently m viewing   
v places 5 of which he drew a number of plans, though he
had never learned the art of drawing. From this pe¬
riod he fpent his time in a continual application to the
itudy of natural philofophy, and mathematics in all its
branches, both fpeculative and practical; to which he
joined anatomy, botany, and chemiitry. His genius
managed every thing, and yet he was inceffant and in¬
defatigable in his application. M. de Billettes, who
was admitted into the Academy of Sciences at Paris in
1690*7 with the title of their mechanician, nominated
for his difciple Parent, who excelled chiefly in this
branch. It was foon difcovered in this fociety, that
he engaged in all the various fubjedts which were
brought before them ; and indeed that he had a hand
in every thing. But this extent of knowledge, joined
to a natural impetuofliy of temper, raifed in him a
fpirit of contradidlion, which he indulged on all occa-
lions^ fometimes to a degree of precipitancy highly cul¬
pable, and often with but little regard to decency. In¬
deed the fame behaviour w'as fliown to him, and the
papers which he brought to the academy were often
treated with much feverity. He was charged wdth ob-
Icurity in his produdlions 5 and he wras indeed fo no¬
torious for this fault, that he perceived it himfelf, and
could not avoid correfting it. The king had, by a
regulation in 1716, fupprefled the clafs of fcholars of
the academy, which feemed to put too great an inequa¬
lity betwixt the members. Parent wTas made a joint
or affiflant member for geometry : but he enjoyed this
promotion but a fhort time ; for he wras taken off by
the ffnallpox the fame year, at the age of 50. He was
author of a great many pieces, chiefly on mechanics and
geometry.
PARENTAL, fomething belonging to the relation
of parent. See Parent.
PABENTAL Affection, the endearing attachment of
parents to their children, including in it love ; a defire
of doing good to thofe who by an a cl of our own de¬
pend upon us for all that they enjoy. Nature even ex¬
cites this affedlion in brutes: but in them it continues
only fo long as it is neceflary for the prefervation of their
ouspring j for when thefe are able to provide for them-
felves, it ceafes, and the relation is forgotten. In man,
however, though it leflens, or at leaf! becomes lei's
anxious as the dependence of the child becomes lefs,
it never entirely ceafes, except in fome few inftances
of extreme depravity. Authors, however, have ima-
* Sketches gined, and Lord Karnes* among the reft, that after
the child is provided for, and no more depends on the
tory of
Mem.
parent, all affection w?ou!d ceafe, were it not artificially
preferved and confirmed by habit. Whether his lord-
ftiip, in this opinion, be right or wrong, we ftiall not
pretend to fay. One thing, however, is certain, that
be it natural or not, it is one of the greateft comforts
of life, even when all dependence has ceafed. It
matters not that there are many inftances where this
comfort , is not felt. Human depravity has often obli¬
terated the fineft feelings of the mind •, and it is not to
be wrondered at if in fome inftances it do fo in the cafe
before us. . A good heart certainly can enjoy no great¬
er fatisTa&ion than that arifing from grateful returns of
kindnefs and affeftion to an aged parent. As the vexa-
t 77° 1 PAR
fortified fo the comforts which they reap from them are balm to Parer,tal
all other forrows, and difappoint the injuries of time. 11
Parents repeat their lives in their offsprings; and their pareiiza
concern for them is fo near, that they feel all their fuf- v
ferings, and talte all their enjoyments, as much as if
they regarded their own perfons. However ftrong we
may fuppofe the fondnefs of a father for his children,
yet they will find more lively marks of tendernefs in
the bolom of a mother. There are no ties in nature to
compare wuth thofe wdiich unite an affedlionate mother
to her children, when they repay her tendernefs with
obedience and love.
We have a remarkable inftance of parental affedion
in Zaleucusf prince of the Locrines; who made a de-j. am¬
erce, that whoever was convided of adultery ihould hb. xaiT’
be pumfhed with the lofs of both his eyes. Soon
after this eftablifhment, the legillator’s own fbn was
apprehended in the very fadf, and brought to a public
trial. How could the father acquit himfelf in fo
tender and delicate a conjuncture ? Should he execute
tne law in all its rigour, this would be worfe than
death to the unhappy youth : ftiould he pardon fo noto¬
rious a delinquent, this would defeat the defign of his
falutary inftitution. 1 o avoid both thefe inconveniences,
he ordered one of his own eyes to be pulled out and one
of his fun’s.
Diodorus Siculus alfo, lib. 34. relates a furprifing in¬
ftance of the fame warm affedlion. Cambalus, a young
gentleman of character and fortune in the city of Mul-
geatum, being one day out courfing, was way-laid, and
very near being robbed and murdered by the banditti
who infefted that part of the country. Gorgus, the
young gentleman’s father, happened to come by at the
very inllant, to whom Cambalus related the danger he
was in. 1 he Ion was on foot, the father on horfeback j
but no fooner had he heard the melancholy tale, than
he leapt from his horfe, defired his fon to mount, and
make the belt of his way into the city : but Cambalus,
preferring his father’s fafety to his own, would by no
means confent to it; on the contrary, conjured his
father to leave him, and take care of himfelf. The
father, ftruck with the gencrofity and afleCtion of his
fon, added tears to entreaties, but all to no purpofe.
The conteft between them is better conceived than de-
feribed—while bathed in tears, and befeeching each other
to preftrve his own life, the banditti approached and
ftabbed them both.
Amongft the ancient Greeks, the fentiments of pa¬
rental afteClion were exceedingly ftror.g and ardent.
The mutual, tendernefs of the hufband and the wife
was communicated to their offspring j while the father
viewed in his child the charms of its mother, and the
mother perceived in it the manly graces of its father.
As paternal kindnefs is the moft Ample and natural ex-
panfion of felf-love, fo there are innumerable inftances
of it in all countries favage and civilized.
PAREN TALIA, in antiquity, funeral obfequies,
or the laft duties paid by children to their deceafed pa¬
rents.
PARENTHESIS, in grammar, certain intercalary
words inferted in a difeourfe, which interrupt the fenfe
or thread, but feem neceffary for the better underftand-
ing of the fubjedb
tions which parents receive from their children haften PARENZO, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy, and
the approach of age, and double the force of years j in Iftria, with a bifliop’s fee and a good harbour; feat-
P A R [ 771 ] PAR
Parefis ed on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 13. 46. N. Lat.
it 39. 28. It fubmitted to the Venetians in 1267.
Parheuon PARESIS, in Medicine, a palfy of the bladder,
wherein the urine is either fuppreiled or difcharged in¬
voluntarily.
PARGETING, in building, is ufed for the plaller-
ing of walls, and fometimes for plafter itfelf.
Pargeting is of various kinds: as, x. White lime and
hair mortar laid on bare walls. 2. On bare laths, as
in partitioning and plain ceiling. 3. Rendering the in-
fides of walls, or doubling partition walls. 4. Rough-
cafting on heart laths. 5. Plaftering on brick work,
with finifhing mortar, in imitation of Hone work , and
the like upon heart laths.
PARHELION, or PARHEI.XUM, formed from
near, and fun, in 'Natural Philofophy, a mock fun
or meteor, in form of a very bright light, appearing on
the one fide of the fun.
Appearances of this kind have been made mention
of both by the ancients and moderns. Ariftotle ob-
ferves, that in general they are feen only when the fun
is near the horizon, though he takes notice of two
that were feen in Bofphorus from morning to evening-,
and Pliny has related the times when Rich phenomena
were obferved at Rome. Gaffendi fays, that in 1635
' and 1636 he often faw one mock fun. Two were ob¬
ferved by M. de la Hire in 1689-, and the fame num¬
ber by CafTmi in 1693, Mr Grey in 1700, and Dr
Halley in 1702: but the moft celebrated appearances
of this kind were feen at Rome by Schemer, by Muf-
chenbrock at Utrecht, and by Hevelius at Sedan. By
the two former, four mock funs were obferved, and by
the latter feven.
Parhelia are apparently of the fame frze with the
fun, though not always of the fame brightnefs, nor
even of the fame lhape 5 and when a number appear
at once, there is fome difference in both thefe refpecls
among them. Externally they are tinged with colours
like the rainbow and many have a long fiery tail op-
pofite to the fun, but paler towards the extremity. Par¬
helia are generally accompanied with coronas, fbme of
which are tinged with rainbow colours, but others are
white. They differ in number and fize } but all agree
in breadth, which is that of the apparent diameter of the
fun.
A very large white circle, parallel to the horizon,
generally paffes through all the parhelia j and, if it
were entire, it would go through the centre of the
fun. Sometimes there are arcs of leffer circles con¬
centric to this, touching thofe coloured circles which
furround the fun. They are alfo tinged with colours,
and contain other parhelia. There are alfo faid to have
been other circles obliquely fituated with refpeft to all
thofe we have mentioned -, but of this we have met with
no authentic account. The order of the colours in thefe
circles is the fame as in the rainbow -, but on the infide,
with refpecl to the fun, they are red, as is alfo obferved
in many other coronas.
Parhelia have been vifible for I, 2, 3, and 4 hours
together 5 and in North America they are faid to
continue fome days, and to be vifible from funrife to
funfet.
When the parhelia difappear, it fometimes rains, or
there falls fnow in the form of oblong fpiculae, as Ma-
raldi, Weidler, Krafft, and others, have obferved ; and
becaufe the air in North America abounds with fuch Parhefcit.
frozen fpiculae, which are even vifible to the eye, ac- * 'n'
cording to Ellis and Middleton, fuch particles have
been thought to be the caufe of all coronas and parhe¬
lia.
Mr Ellis fays, that, at Churchill in Hudfon’s Bay,
the rifing of the fun is always preceded by two long
ftreams of red light, one on each fide of him, and about
20° diftant from him. Thefe rife as the fun rifes j and
as they grow longer begin to bend towards each other,
till they meet diredlly over the fun, juft as he rifes,
forming there a kind of parhelion or mock fun. Thefe
two ftreams of light, he fays, feem to have their fource
in two other parhelia, which rife with the true fun j and
in the winter feafon, when the fun never rifes above the
haze or fog, which he fays is conftantly found near the
horizon, all thefe accompany him the whole day, and let
with him in the fame manner as they rife. Once or
twice he faw a fourth parhelion direftly under the true
fun ; but this, he fays is not common. Thefe fadls be¬
ing conftant, are very valuable, and may throw great
light on the theory of thefe remarkable phenomena.
Sometimes parhelia appear in a different manner 5
as when three funs have been feen in the fame vertical
circle, well defined, and touching one another. The
true fun was in the middle, and the loweft touched
the horizon 5 and they fet one after the other. This
appearance was feen by M. Maleziew in 1722. Other
appearances fimilar to this are recited by M. Mufchen-
broeck.
Sometimes the fun has rifen or fet with a luminous
tail projefting from him, of the fame breadth with
his diameter, and perpendicular to the horizon. Such
an appearance was feen by Caflini in 1672 and 1692,
by De la Hire in 1702, and by Mr Ellis in Hudfon’s
Bay.
As M. Feuillee was walking on the banks of the ri¬
ver La Plata, he faw the fun rifing over the river with
a luminous tail projecting downwards, which continued
till he was fix degrees high.
Parafelenae, or mock moons, have alfo been feen,
accompanied with tails and coloured circles, like thofe
which accompany the parhelia. An account of feveral,
and a particular defeription of a fine appearance of this
kind, may be feen in Mufchenbroeck.
The Roman phenomenon, obferved by Schemer, is
famous on account of its having been the firft appear¬
ance of the kind that engaged the attention of philofo-
phers. It is reprefented in fig. 1. in which A is the Plate
place of the obferver, B his zenith, C the true fun, AB ^CCClVi,
a plane palling through the oblerver’s eye, the true fun, 4-
and the zenith. About the fun C, there appeared two
concentric rings, not complete, but diverfified with co¬
lours. The leffer of them, DEE, was fuller, and more
perfect 5 and though it was open from D to F, yet thofe
ends were perpetually endeavouring to unite 5 and fome¬
times they did fo. The outer of thefe rings was much
fainter, fo as fcarcely to be difcernible. It had, how¬
ever, a variety of colours but w-as very inconftant.
The third circle, KLMN, was very large, and all over
white, palling through the middle of the fun, and every¬
where parallel to the horizon. At firft this circle was
entire j but towards the end of the appearance it was
weak and ragged, fo as hardly to be perceived from, M
towards N. ' ,
In
5 E 2
PAR [ 7>
Parhelion. In the interfecHoR of this circle, ana the outward iris
GKI, there broke out two parhelia or mock funs N and
K, not quite perfeft j K being rather weak, but N (hone
brighter and itronger. The brightnei's of the middle of
them was fomething like that/of the fun •, but towards
the edges they were tinged with colours like thofe of
the rainbow 5 and they were uneven and ragged. The
parhelion N was a little wavering, and lent out a fpiked
tail, NP, of a colour fomewhat fiery, the length of
which was continually changing.
The parhelia at L abd M in the horizontal ring
were not fo bright as the former ; but were rounder,
and white, like the circle in which they were placed.
The parhelion N difappeared before K j and while M
grew fainter, K grew brighter, and vanilhed the latl
of all.
It is to be obferved farther, that the order of the co¬
lours in the circles DEF, GKN, was the fame as in the
common halos, namely, red next the fun ; and the dia¬
meter of the inner circle was alfo about 45 degrees j
which is the ufual fize of a halo.
The reverend Dr Hamilton fent the following ac¬
count of parhelia, feen at Cookftown, to the Royal Irifh
Academy.
“ Wednefday, Septerhber 24th, 1783, as I was pre¬
paring to obferve the fun paffing the meridian, before
the frit limb touched the centre wire, it was obfcured
by a dark well defined cloud, about io° in diameter.
Upon going to the door of the tranfit room, to fee if
it was likely foon to pafs off the difk of the fun, I ob¬
ferved die following phenomena : From the weftern edge
of the cloud iffued a luminous arc parallel to the hori¬
zon, perfeddy well defined, extending exadtly to the
northern meridian •, it was about 30' broad, white, and
ended in a blunted termination. On it were two par¬
helia 5 the nearell: to the fun difplaying the prifmatic co¬
lours ; the remote one white, and both ill defined. In
a dicrt time the cloud had pafled off, and fhowed the lu¬
minous almucantar, reaching perfedt to the true fun.
While things wTere thus fituated, I meafured with an ac¬
curate fextant the didances of the parhelia ; I found the
coloured one 26°, the remoter one 90°, from the true
fun. Jud as I had done this, a new and prifmatic circle
furrounded the fun immediately with the prifmatic par¬
helion. And now another coloured parhelion appeared
on the eadern board.—The fextant wdth its face up and
down, exadlly meafured this and the former at the origi¬
nal didance of 26°; the luminous almucantar dill re¬
maining perfedt. In about 10 or 12 minutes. whitifh
hazy clouds came on, and obfcured all thefe.uncommon
appearances.—I did not obferve that the atmofpherical
phenomena before or after were at all uncommon. The
wind a light breeze at SSW. Bar. 29.6 rifing. Ther¬
mometer 530.
Vig. 2. In fig. 2. SM reprefents the fouth meridian ; NM
the north meridian ; PP the prifmatic circle, with two
prifmatic funs or parhelia, at 26° didance on each fide
the true fun ; W the white parhelion, at 90° didance
from the true fun } LA the luminous almucantar ; and
HO the horizon.
Various hypothefes have been framed by philofophers
to account for this phenomenon, particularly by M.
Marriotte, Defcartes, and Huygens. None of them,
however, are fatisfadlory : but thofe readers who wilh
to becoKMJ acquainted with them may confult Huy-
2 l PAR
gens’s Differtaticn on this fubjedt, in Smith’s Optics, Pari a
Book I. ch. xi. Mufchenbroeck’s Introdudlion, &c. I)
Vol. XI. p. 1038, &c. 410. 5 but efpecially Dr Pried- Pai^aS* f
ley’s Hidory of Vifion, Light, and Colours, Vol. II. p.
6*3’ &-c>
PARI A, or New Andalusia, a country of Terra
Firma in South America 5 bounded on the north by the
north fea; on the ead by Surinam ; on the wed by
New Granada and the Caraccas : and on the fouth
by Guiana. It produces colouring drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, Brazil wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
valuable timber; the inland parts being woody and
mountainous, but interlperfed with fine valleys that
yield corn and pafiurage. Comana is the capital
town.
PARIAN Chronicle. See Arundelian Mar¬
bles, and Parian CHRONICLE.
Under the article Parian CHRONICLE, we have been
as full as the fubjeef feemed to require, or as the nature
of our work wTould admit. It is unneceffary, therefore,
to refume it in this place. Such of our readers, how¬
ever, as wfilh for further information on this (ubjedl
(wTich is equally intereding to the fcholar and to the
antiquarian) wTe mud refer to Robertfon’s attack upon
their authenticity, and to Gough’s learned and judicious
vindication of the authenticity, publiihed in Arcficeo/ogia
for 1789. The extent of his learning, and the folidity
of his arguments, appear upon the whole to outweigh
the objeftions of his fenfible and plaufible opponent.
Hewlett’s book upon the fame fide of the queflion may
command fome degree of attention. It is ingenious.
See Sandwich Marble.
PARIAN Marble, among the ancients, the white mar¬
ble ufed by them, and to this day, for carving datues,
&c. and called by us at this time Jlatuary marble.
Too many of the later writers have confounded all
the white marbles under the name of the Parian ; ar,d
among the wmrkmen, this and all the other wdffte
marbles have the common name of alabajlers; fo that
it is in general forgotten among them, that there is fuch
a thing as alabader different from marble ; which, how¬
ever, is truly the cafe. Almod all the world alfo have
confounded the Carrara marble with this, though they
are really very different \ the Carrara kind being of a
finer texture and clearer white than the Parian 3 but lefs
bright aud fplendid, harder to cut, and not capable of
fo glittering a polifli.
The true Parian marble has ufually femewhat of a
faint bluiih tinge among the white, and often has blue
veins in different parts of it. It is fuppofed by fome to
have had its name from the ifland Paros f, one of the j see pfl..
Cyclades in the Afgean fea, where it was fird found; res.
but others will have it to have been fo called from A-
goraentus Parius, a famous datuary, who ennobled it by
cutting a datue of Venus in it.
PARIAS, or Perreas, a tribe of Hindoos, fo pe¬
culiarly didinguilhed from all others, that they live by
themfelves in the outlkirts of towms j and, in the coun¬
try, build their houfes apart from the villages, or rather
have villages of their owm, furnifhed with wells j for Mod. Univ.
they dare not fo much as fetch water from thofe which v> 5*
other families make ufe of; and, led thefe latter fhould
inadvertently go to one of theirs, they are obliged to
fcatter the bones of dead cattle about their wells, that
they may be known. They dare not in cities pafs,
through
PAH
Parias. tlirough the ftreets where the Bramins live ;
-—r~~~ in the villages where they dwell.— they are likewife
forbidden to enter a temple, either of their god Wift-
now or Efwara j becaufe they are held impure. .Lhey
get their bread by lowing, digging, and building the
walls of mud houfes ; moil of thole inhabited by the
common people being railed by thefe Parias •, who alfo
do fuch kinds of dirty ♦rk as other people do not care
to meddle with. Nor is their diet much more cleanly 5
for they do not fcruple to eat cows, horfes, fowl, or other
carrion, which die of themfelves, and are even putrid.
One would fcarce imagine, that contentions for prece¬
dency fhould ever enter into the thoughts of a peopie
who have renounced all cleanlinefs, and, like fwine, wal¬
low in filth } and yet pride has divided the Parias into
two claffes: the firft are fimply called Parias, the other
Seripcres. The employment of thefe latter is to go
about felling leather, which they drefs : alio to make
bridles, and' fuch kind of things •, fome of them like-
wife ferve for foldiers. The Parias, who reckon them¬
felves the better family, will not eat in the houfe of the
Seriperes ; but the Seriperes will readily eat with the
Parias. For this reafon they are obliged to pay them
refpeft, by lifting their hands aloft, and Handing up¬
right before them. Thefe Seriperes, when they marry,
cannot fet up a pandel, a kind of garland, before their
doors, made with more than three flakes or trees •, ihould
they exceed that number, the whole city would be in
motion. The Seviperes are likewife fubjecl to fome fort
of flavery ; for when any perfon of credit or authority
dies in the families of the Komitis, Sittis, Palis, farriers,
or goldfmiths, and the friends have a mind to be at the
expence of fome clothes to give the Seriperes, thefe lat¬
ter muft fuffer their beards to be lhaven ; and when the
corpfe is carried out of town to be burned or interred,
they muft do that office ; for which each receives a fa-
num, or one piece and a half of filver, worth three fous
and a half. Thefe are the fame fort of people who are
called at Surat Halalchors ; that is, in the Perfian lan¬
guage, “ eat-alls, or eaters at large.” Nothing can of¬
fend an Hindoo more than to be called a Halalchor : yet
thefe poor people are not offended, cringe and bow to
all they pafs, and go through their drudgery without
noife or concern.
The Parias are very vicious, ftupid, and ignorant, oc-
cafioned by their wretched way of life : I he Bramins
and nobility ffiun them as if they had the plague, and
look on the meeting a Parias as the greateft misfortune.
To come near one of them is a fin, to touch them a Sa¬
crilege. If a Parias were dying, it is infamy to vifit
him, or to give him the leaft affiftance, in the utmoft
danger or diftrefs. A Bramin who unavoidably ihould
touch a Parias, immediately waffies himfelf from the im¬
purity. Even their fliadow and breath being reckon¬
ed contagious, they are obliged to live on the eaft fide
of their towns, that the wefterly winds which prevail in
this country may keep back their breath. And it is
lawful for a Bramin to kill one of thefe unhappy crea¬
tures, if he does not avoid it by getting out of his way :
In ffiort, they think them reprobated by God, and be¬
lieve the fouls of the damned enter into the Parias, to be
puniffied for their crimes.—Yet the miffion have found
among thefe dregs of the people very aftive zealous ca-
techifts, who by their labours have very much contribu¬
ted to the converfion of their countrymen, particularly
1 773 1 p. A K .
nor fet foot one Rajanaiken a Paria foldier, who, of all the inferior
miffianarxes, has diftinguilhed himfelf moft by his labours
and fufferings.
PARIETALIA ossa. See Anatomy Index.
PARIETARIA, Pellitort of the Wall: A
r/enus of plants belonging to the polygamia clals j and
in the natural method ranking under the 53d order,
Scabridee. See Botany Index.
PARIETEiS, in Anatomy, a term ufed for the enclo¬
sures or membranes that flop up or clofe the hollow parts
of the body ; efpecially thole of the heart, the thorax,
&c. The parietes of the two ventricles of the heart
are of unequal flrength and thicknefs ; the left exceed¬
ing the right, becaufe of its office, which is to force the
blood through all parts of the body ; whereas the right
only drives it through the lungs.
PARIS, Mattht.w, one of our beft hiftorians from
William the Conqueror to the latter end of the reign of-
Henry ill. but of his life few particulars have been
tranfmitted to us. Leland his original biographer, with¬
out determining whether he was born in France or Eng¬
land, informs us, that he was a monk of St Alban's,
and that he was Sent by Pope Innocent to reform the
monks of the convent at Holm in Norway. Bilhop
Bale, the next in point of time, adds to the above rela¬
tion, that, on account of his extraordinary gifts of body
and mind, he was much efteemed, particularly by King
Henry III. who commanded him to write the hiftory
of his reign. Fuller makes him a native of Cambridge-
ffiire, becaufe there was an ancient family of his name
in that county. He alfo mentions his being fent by the
pope to vifit the monks in the diocefe of Norwich,
Biffiop Tanner, Biffiop Nicholfon, Dodtor Du Pin, and
the Nouveau DiBionnaire Hijlorique, add not a Angle
fad! to thofe above related. Matthew Paris died in the
monaftery of St Alban’s in the year 1259. was
doubtlefs a man of extraordinary knowledge for the 13th
century ; of an excellent moral character, and, as an hi-
ftorian, of ftrift integrity. His ftyle is unpoliihed 5 but
that defect is fufficiently atoned for by the honeft free-:
dom with which he relates the truth, regardlefs of the,-
dignity or fanftity of the perfons concerned. His works
are, I. Hijloria ab Ada mo ad Conquejlum Ang/Ie, Lib.
I. manufeript, col. C. C. Cantab, c. ix. Moft of this
book is tranferibed, by Matthew of Weftminfter, into
the firft part of his Plorilegium. 2. Hijloria major, feu
rerum Anglicanarum hijloria a Gul. Conquejioris adven-
tu ad annum 43 Henrici III. &c. feveral times printed.
The firft part of this hiftory, viz. to the year 123.5, 1’s'
tranferibed almoft verbatim from the Chronicle of Ro¬
ger Wendover •, and the Appendix, from the year 1260,
in the work of William Raftiinger, who was alfo a
monk of St Alban’s. 3. Vita; duorum 0far urn. Mer¬
rier return, S. Albani fundatorum. 4. Gc/la 22 abba-
turn S. Albani. 5. Additamenta chronicorum ad hijl.
majorem ; printed. 6. Hijloria minor, five epitome ma-'
joris hijiorice; manufeript. Befides many other things
in manufeript.
Paris, Ion of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba, al¬
fo named Alexander. He was decreed, even before his
birth, to become the ruin of his country ; and when his
mother, in the firft months of her pregnancy, had dream¬
ed that Ihe ffiould bring forth a torch which would fet
fire to her palace, the foothfayers foretold the calamities
which were to be expected from the imprudence of her,
future^
PAR [7
Iia^. future fon, and which would end in the min of Troy.
' v Priam, to prevent fo great and fo alarming an evil, or¬
dered his Have Archelaus to dellroy the child as foon as
he was born. The Have, either touched with humanity,
or influenced by Hecuba, did notvobey, but was f.itisfied
to expofe the child on Mount Ida, where the fhepherds
of the place found him, and educated him as their own.
Some attribute the prefervation of his life, before he was
found by the Ihepherds, to the motherly tendernefs of a
the bear who fuckled him. Young Paris, though edu¬
cated among fhepherds and peafants, gave very early
proofs of courage and intrepidity 5 and from his care in
protedling the flocks of Mount Ida from the rapacity of
the wild beafls, he was named Alexander, “ helper or
defender.” He gained the efteem of all the fhepherds,
and his graceful countenance and manly deportment
recommended him to the favours of Oenone, a nymph
of Ida, whom he married, and with whom he lived
with the moft perfect tendernefs. Their conjugal peace
■was, however, of no long duration. At the marriage
of Peleus and Thetis, the goddefs of difcord, who had
not been invited to partake of the entertainment, fhowred
her difpleafure, by throwing into the affembly of the
gods who were at the celebration of the nuptials, a gol¬
den apple, on which were written the words Detur pul-
chricn. All the goddeffes claimed it as their own 5 the
contention at firfl became general; but at laft only
three, Juno, Venus, and Minerva, wilhed to difpute their
refpeftive right to beauty. The gods, unwilling to be¬
come arbiters in an affair fo tender and fo delicate in its
nature, appointed Paris to adjudge the prize of beauty
to the fairefl of the goddeffes; and indeed the fhepherd
feemed fufficiently qualified to decide fo great a conteft,
as his wflfdom was fo well eflablifhed, and his prudence
and fagacity fo well known. The goddeffes appeared
before their judge without any covering or ornament,
and each endeavoured by promifes and entreaties to gain
the attention of Paris, and to influence his judgement.
Juno promifed him a kingdom \ Minerva military glory j
and Venus the faireft woman in the w orld for his wdfe,
as Ovid expreffes it, Hejiod 17. v. 118.
Unaque cum regnum ; belli daret altera laudem ;
Tyndaridis conjux, tertia dixit, eris.
After he had heard their feveral claims and promifes,
Paris adjudged the prize to Venus, and gave her the
golden apple, to wdiich perhaps fire feemed entitled as
the goddefs of beauty. This decifion of Paris drew up¬
on the judge and his family the refentment of the two
other goddeffes. Soon after, Priam propofed a conteft
among his fons and other princes, and promifed to re¬
ward the conqueror with one of the fineft bulls of Mount
Ida. His emiffaries wrere fent to procure the animal,
and it was found in the poffeflion of Paris, who reluc¬
tantly yielded it. The fhepherd was anxious to regain
his favourite, and he went to Troy and entered the lifts
of the combatants. He wras received with the greateft
applaufe, and obtained the vidtory over his rivals, Neftor-
the fon of Neleus, Cyenus fon of Neptune, Polites, He-
lenus, and Deiphobus, fons of Priam. He likewflfe ob¬
tained a fuperiority over Heftor himfelf •, which prince,
enraged to fee himfelf conquered by an unknowm ftran-
ger, purfued him clofely \ and Paris muft have fallen a
viflira to his brother’s rage, had he not fled to the altar
pf Jupiter. This facred retreat preferved his life ; and
4
74 ] PAR
CafTandra the daughter of Priam, ftruck wflth the fimi- Paris.
larily of the features of Paris with thofe of her brothers, ^
enquired his birth and age. From thefe circumftances
fire foon difcovered that he w’as her brother, and as fuch
fire introduced him to her father and to her brothers.
1 riam acknowledged Paris as his fon, forgetful of the
alarming dreams which had caufed him to meditate his
death, and all jealoufy ceafed among the brothers. Paris
did not long fuffer himfelf fo remain inactive *, he equip-
2Jed a fleet, as if willing to redeem Hefione his father’s
After, whom Hercules had carried away and obliged to
marry Telamon the fon of Abacus. This was the pre¬
tended motive of his voyage, but the caufes were far-
different. Paris remembered that he was to be the huf-
band of the faireft of w-omen 5 and, if he had been led
to form thofe expectations while lie was an obfcure thep-
herd of Ida, he had now every plaufible reafon to fee
them realized, fince he was the acknowledged fon of the
king of Troy. Helen was the faireft woman of the
age, and Venus had promifed her to him. On thefe
grounds, therefore, he went to Sparta, the refidence of
Helen, who had married Menelaus. He was received
with great refpeA; but he abufed the hofpitality of
Menelaus, and while the huihand w-as abfent in Crete,
Paris perfuaded Helen to elope wdth him, and to fly to
Afia. Helen confented •, and Priam received her into
his palace without difficulty, as his filler w-as then de¬
tained in a foreign country, and as he wilhed to fiiow
himfelf as hoftile as poflible to the Greeks. This affair
was foon produftive of ferious confequences. When
Menelaus had married Helen, all her fuitors had bound
themfelves by a folemn oath to proteCl her perfon, and
therefore the injured hufband reminded them of their
engagements, and called upon them to recover her.
Upon this all Greece took up arms in the caufe of
Menelaus; Agamemnon was chofen general of all
the combined forces, and a regular war wras begun.
Paris, meanwhile, w-ho had refufed Helen to the peti¬
tions and embalfies of the Greeks, armed himfelf, with
his brothers and fubjefts, to oppofe the enemy ; but the
fuccefs of the war w-as neither hindered nor accelerated
by his means. He fought with little courage, and at
the very fight of Menelaus, wdiom he had fo recently
injured, all his refolution vanilhed, and he retired from
the front of the army, where he walked before like a
conqueror. In a combat with Menelaus, wdiich he un¬
dertook by means of his brother HeClor, Paris muft
have perifhed, had not Venus interfered, and ftolen him
from the refentment of his antagonift. He wounded,
how'ever, in another battle, Machaon, Euryphilus, and
Diomedes ; and, according to fome opinions, he killed
with one of his arrows the great Achilles.
The death of Paris is differently related : fome fay
that he w-as mortally wounded by one of the arrow's of
Philoftetes, which had been once in the poffeflion of
Hercules ; and that -when he found himfelf languid on
account of his wrounds, he ordered himfelf to be carried
to the feet of Oenone, whom he had bafely abandoned,
and wdio in the years of his obfcurity had foretold him
that he would folicit her aftiftance in his dying moments.
He expired before he came into the prefence of Oeno¬
ne -, and the nymph, ftill mindful of their former loves,
threw herfelf upon his body, and ftabbed herfelf to the
heart, after fire had plentifully bathed it with her tears.
According to others, Paris did not immediately go to
Troy
PAR [ 775 ] PAR
Troy when he left the Peloponnefus, but he was driven
on the coafts of Egypt, where Proteus, who was king
of the country, detained him j and when he heard of
the violence which had been offered to the king of Spar¬
ta, he kept Helen at his court, and permitted Paris to
retire. Whatever was the mode of his death, it took
place, we are told about 1188 B. C. See Troy, &c.
Paris, the capital of the kingdom of France j is
Situated on the river Seine, in the Me of France, being
one of the largefl and fined cities in Europe. It deri¬
ved its modern name from the ancient Parifii; and is
fuppofed by fome to have had the Latin name of Lute-
tia, from Luturn, “ mud,” the place where it now Hands
having been anciently very marfhy and muddy. Ever
fince the reign of Hugh Capet, that is, for near 800
years, this city has been the ufual refidence of the kings
of France j it is of a circular form, and, including the
fuburbs, about five French leagues, or 15 Englifh miles,
in circumference. The number of its inhabitants is
computed at about 800,000 ; that of its ftreets 912 ;
and that of its houfes upwards of 20,000, exclufive of
the public ftruftures of all forts. Its greatefl defedl,
according to fome, is the want of good drinking water j
but others tell us, that very fine water is brought by an
aqueduft from the village of Arcueil, not far from Pa¬
ris, but own that the water of the Seine, and the city,
is not good. The ftreets are of a proper breadth, well
built, paved, and lighted. There is a great number of
tribunals, and offices here ; moft of which are kept in
the Palais, fituated on an ifland, to which it gives name.
The number of churches, convents, hofpitals, market
places, fountains, gates, and bridges, in this city is very
great j befides the univerfity, feveiitl academies, public
libraries, royal palaces and caftles, and above 100 hotels,
fome of them very (lately. But to be more particular,
that part called la Cite, lies in the centre, and confifts of
three iflands formed by the Seine, viz. L’lffe de Palais,
L’Me de Notre Dame, and L’lfle Louviers. It is the
principal of the three parts into which the city is divi¬
ded, and contains the following remarkable ftruflures :
1. Several bridges 5 of which fome are of wood and
others of ftone, and have moft of them a row of houfes
on each fide. The chief of thefe are the Pont-neuf and
Pont-royal: the firft confifts of 12 arches, which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, make twro bridges, the one leading from
the fuburb of St Germain to the city, and the other
from thence to that part called la Ville : there is a car¬
riage way in the middle 30 feet broad, and footwalks on
each fide, railed two feet high ; and in the centre Hands
a brafs rtatue of King Henry IV. on horfeback. On
this bridge is alfo the building called La Samaritaine,
from a group of figures upon it reprefenting our Saviour
and the Samaritan woman, Handing near Jacob’s well.
Here is a pump to raife the water, which through feve-
ral pipes fupplies the quarter of the Louvre, and fome
other parts of the town. The Pont-royal, which leads
to the Thuilleries, was built by order of Lewis XIV.
in the room of a wooden bridge that vras carried away
by the current in 1684. 2. The cathedral of Notre
Dame, or our Lady, being dedicated to the Holy Vir¬
gin, which is a large (lately Gothic ftruflure, faid to
have been founded by King Childeric, and built in the
form of a crofs. Here, befides other great perfonages,
are interred the cardinals de Retz and Noailles. From
the two fquare towers belonging to it, is a noble profpefl
of the city and neighbouring country. Here is a vaft
quantity of gold and filver plate, rich tapeftry, and fine
paintings j and the number of the canons is no lefs than
50. Near it (lands the palace of the archbiftiop, in
which is the advocates library : the revenue of the arch¬
biftiop amounts to about 180,000 livres ; and his taxa¬
tion to the court of Rome is 4283 guilders. 3. The
priory and parifti church of St Bartholomew j the lad
of which is the moft beautiful in all this part of the ci¬
ty, and (lands near the Palais. 4. The Palais, which
gives name to an ifland, and in wLich the parliament,
with a great many other courts, are held. It was an¬
ciently the refidence of the kings 5 but was given to the
officers of juilice by Philip the Fair, who alfo fettled the
parliament here in 1302. The parliament, comfifting of
feveral chambers, each of which has its department, is
opened the day after Martinmas with a folemn mafs, ce¬
lebrated by a bilhop, and continues fitting till the 8th
of September, when a vacation chamber is appointed
during the interval, for criminal caufes, and others which
require defpatch. The jurifdiftion of this court is of
great extent. There is a beautiful chapel belonging to
the Palais : in which is alfo the prifon, or jail, for
the jurifdidlion of the parliament, called in French
La Conciergerie. 5. The Hotel Dieu, the moft ancient
and larged hofpital in Paris, in which 8000 fick and
infirm poor are taken care of, and attended by the nuns
of the order of St Auguftine. 6. The hofpital of St
Catharine, where poor women and maidens are enter¬
tained three days, and attended by the above-mentioned
nuns. 7. The Grande Chatelet, where fome of the in¬
ferior courts of juftice hold their feflions. 8. Fort PE-
veque, in which is the mint and a prifon. It (lands in
or near the llreet La Ferroniere, in which Henry IV.
was dabbed by Ravilliac. 9. St Germain PAuxerrois,
which is called the royal palace church; becaufe the
palaces of the Louvre and Thuilleries (land in its pa-
rifh. 10. The Louvre, an ancient royal palace, of
wftiich a part was rebuilt by Lewis XIV. Had it been
completed on the fame plan, it would have been a mod
magnificent ftrufture. On one of its gates is the fol¬
lowing infeription, Dum totum impleat orbejn: the
meaning of which is, “ May it laft till the owner of
it hath extended his fway over the whole world which
implies what the French kings have conllantly aimed
at. Another infeription (hows, at the fame time, the
vanity of the nation, and their abje£! flattery of their
grand monarque. It may be rendered in Englilh
thus :
Louvre is a palace for great Louis fit:
God him alone exceeds, as heaven does it.
This palace is joined to the Thuilleries by a gallery,
in which are 180 models of fortreffes, fome fituated in
France, and fome in other countries, executed with
the utmoft accuracy. Here is a valuable collection
of paintings, the king’s printing houfe, the mint where
the king’s medals are (truck, together with a prodi¬
gious quantity of rich tapeftry hangings, and a col¬
lection of ancient arms, among which are thofe worn
by Francis I. at the famous battle of Pavia. Here
alfo the French academy, the academy of inferiptions
and belles lettres, the royal academy of fciences, the
academy of painting and fculpture, and the royal aca-r.
demy of architecture, have their meetings. The firft-
rP A R • [ r
Paiis. of tliefe was founded for the improvement of the French
y —■ language j and as for the others, their names explain
the defign of their inftitution. n. Le Palais Royal,
which was built by Cardinal Richelieu, in the year
1636, and belongs to the duke of Orleans. It is faid
to contain pidlures to the value of four millions of
livres, which were purchafed by the regent of that
title, and of which a part belonged to Chriftina queen
of Sweden. 12. The palace of the Thuilleries, fo called
from a tile or brick kiln which flood there formerly.
This palace, as we obferved above, communicates with
the Louvre by a gallery. Behind it are exceeding
pleafant gardens, adorned with fine walks, planted with
evergreens and ether trees, and with beautiful par¬
terres, where are to be feen, ail the year round, every
flower according to its feafon. There are alfo three
fine fountains in the garden, and a canal. Behind the
Thuilleries, on the bank of the river, are pleafant walks,
compofed of four rows of lofty elms, to which vaft
crowds of people refort in the fine wreather, as well as
to the gardens. In the palace is a fpacious and mag¬
nificent theatre •, and hard by it are the Elyfian fields,
where a furprifing number of coaches are to be feen in
fair weather 5 not far oft' is the church of St Roche,
where the celebrated poet Corneille is interred. 13* La
place de Louis le Grand, a very beautiful fquare, in
the centre of which is an equeftrian ftatue of that
king, which is juftly accounted a mafterpiece. 14. The
Place or Square des Viftoires, which is round, and
contains a ftatue of Louis XIV. of gilt brafs, erefted
to him by the duke de la Feyillade, with this inferip-
tion, Viro immortali. 15. The Royal Library in the
Rue Vivien, which contains 94,000 printed books,
30,000 manuferipts, and a prodigious collection of cop¬
perplates and-medals. Near this, in the churchyard of
St Jofeph, lies the famous comic poet Moliere. 16. The
parifh church of St Euftace, which ftands in the quar¬
ter of the fame name, and contains the tomb of the great
minifter Colbert. 17. The gate of St Dennis, which
was erefted as a triumphal arch in honour of Louis XIV.
18. The gate of St Martin, erefted alfo inform of a trium¬
phal arch, in honour of the fame king. Not far from
hence, in the churchyard of St Nicholas des Champs,
Peter Gafiendi, and other learned men, are buried. 19. La
Greve, an open place, where all public rejoicings are
celebrated, and malefaftors executed. 2C. The Hotel de
Ville, which is a large building of Gothic architecture,
though adorned with columns of the Corinthian order.
21. The arfenal in the quarter of St Paul, confifting of
many fpacious buildings, among which are a foundery,
and a heufe for making faltpetre. Here is a mufque-
toon of twro barrels, wEich it is faid will pierce a thick
board at the diftance of fix miles \ and for difeerning
an objeft at that diftance, has a telefcope fixed to the
barrel. 22. The Baftile, now demoliftied, wTasa kind of for-
trefs like the Tower of London, and ufed as a prifon for
ftate criminals, and for fuch as wyere taken up by lettres de
cachet, i. e. by warrants figned by the king, and fealed.
23. Le Temple, a commandery of the knights of Malta,
which gives name to a quarter, wherein, being a pri¬
vileged place, artificers that are not freemen may carry
on their bufinefs without moleftation. The temple is
the refidence of the grand prior of the French nation.
24. That formerly called La Maifon profejje des Jefuites,
in the quarter of St Anthony, in the church of which
- ’ 3
6 ) PAR
the hearts of Louis XIII. and XIV» are preferved, Paris,
each in a catket of gold, fupported by two angels of
maffy filver, and as big as the life, hovering wdth ex¬
panded wings. In the fame quarter is a fine looking
glafs manufacture, where above 500 perfons are employ¬
ed in poliftsing plates caft at St Gobin j wdth a convent
of Francifcans, the monks of which are called Pique
puces, for- Prick fleas.
In that part of the city called the Pniverfity, the
principal places are,
1. The univerfity, which gives name to it, and which
was firft founded, as it is laid, by Charles the Great:
all the arts and fciences are taught here, particularly
law, phytic, and divinity. There are above 40 col¬
leges } of which the chief are thofe of Sorbonne, of
Navarre, of the faculty of phylic, and of the four na¬
tions \ but leCtures are read only in eleven of them.
The head of the univerfity is the rector, who is cho-
fen every three months, but fometimes is continued fe-
veral years. All the profellbrs have fettled falaries j
the wEole annual income of the univerfity amounting,
it is faid, to about 50,000 livres. 2. The Gobelins
a houfe or palace, where a great number of ingenious
artifts, in various manufactures and handicrafts, are
employed by the government. The moft curious ta-
peltry of all forts is made here. 3. The General Hof-
pital, a moft noble foundation for the poor of the fe¬
male fex, near 7000 objeCts being taken care of and
provided for. The lick are carefully tended 5 and thofe
that are in health are obliged to wTork ; different wards
being allotted for foundlings, for girls who few or knit,
proftitutes, idiots, and pooj women : of the laft, fome
are kept gratis, a;Ad others pay a fmall matter. In
the cattle of Bicetre, belonging to this hofpital, and
confifting of many large buildings, are near 4000 per¬
fons of the other fex, among wdiich are perfons difor-
dered in their fenfes, and fuch as are afflicted with the
veneieal difeafe. To this hofpital are alfo fent child¬
ren who abufe their parents, and lead difiblute lives.
The fund for the maintenance of it, and the hofpital
de la Pitie, where poor children are brought up, to¬
gether with the Hotel Dieu, amounts to about two
millions of livres per annmn. 4. The King’s Phyfic
Garden, in which are an infinite variety of plants and
trees, a certain fum being allotted by the king for
keeping the garden in order, and improving it, and
for leCtures on botany, anatomy, qhemiftry, and the
materia medica. A curious collection of natural cu-
riofities is kept here. 5. The abbey of St Victor, in
which is a public library, containing fome very an¬
cient and fcarce books, feveral curious manuferipts,
and a prodigious collection of maps and copperplates.
6. The College of Phyficians, to which belong five
profeflbrs. 7. The Little Chatelet, an old fortrefs,
nowy ufed for a prifon. 8. The Rue St Jacques, chief¬
ly inhabited by bookfellers. 9. The Royal College,
and that of Louis the Great : to the former belong
twelve profeflbrs. 10. The Abbey of St Genevieve,
in which is the marble monument of King Clovis, the
ftirint of St Genevieve, a large library, with a cabi¬
net of antiquities and natural curiofities. 11. rFhe
Royal Obfervatory, a moft ftately edifice, built on the
higheft part of the city. Several aftronomers are main¬
tained hexe by the king. 1 2. The Royal Academy of
Surgery, inftituted in 17 21. 13. The Convent of Fran¬
cifcans.
PAR
[ 777 1
P ' A R
Paris,
Parifli.
cifcans, in the quarter of St Andrew, the richeft in
France. In the fame quarter are fome remains of the
palace of Julian the Apoftate, in which Childebert, and
fome other kings of the Franks, afterwards refided.
The Playhoufe. 15. The Convent of Carthufians,
in the quarter of Luxemburgh, containing fine paintings.
16. The palace of Luxemburgh or Orleans, a magnifi¬
cent ftrudlure, containing alfo fome fine paintings by Ru¬
bens, and embellifhed with a noble garden.. In the Ho¬
tel des AmbalTadeurs, ambaffadors extraordinary are en¬
tertained for three days, and thofe of remote countries all
the time they flay at Paris. 17. The Abbey of St Ger¬
main des Prez, which contains a Very valuable libra¬
ry, the manufcripts alone making 8000 volumes:
here alfo is a cabinet of antiquities. 18. The Hotel
Royal des Invalides, erected by Louis XIV. in which
lame and fuperannuated officers and foldiers are main¬
tained. The buildings take up no lefs than 17 acres.
The number of common ^foldiers here amount to about
3000, and of officers to about 500. The chapel is
very magnificent. Hard by is a military academy, in
which 500 young gentlemen are inftrufted in the art
of war.
Our readers from the above account will be able to
conceive what Paris was. For an account of the changes
which have taken place in that city during the progrefs
of the revolution, fee France ; and for a more par¬
ticular detail of thofe events we mull refer to the nume¬
rous works which have appeared fince the peace of A-
miens, in the form of tours and defcriptions, fome of which
are in the hands of every reader.
Paris, Herb Paris, or Truelove, a genus of plants
belonging to the o&andria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacecr. See
Botany Index.
Hei'b Paris of Canada, a genus of plants belonging
to the hexandria clafs. See Trillium, Botany Index.
Plajler of PARIS, or Stucco, or Parget of Mont¬
martre, the firft and the laft name being derived from
the place where it is found in great abundance, is a fub-
ftance compofed of lime atid fulphuric acid, which on
account of its property of rapidly abforbing water, after
being calcined, is much employed in making caffs and mo¬
dels. See Gypsum, Mineralogy and Geology Index.
PARISH, the precintt of a parochial church, or a
circuit 'of ground inhabited by people wrho belong to
one church, and are under the particular charge of its
miniffer.
The word comes from the Latin parochia, the Greek
5r*£e<x»<* habitation ; compounded of near, and <xx#5
houfe.—Accordingly Du Cange obferves, that the name
was anciently given to the whole territory of
a bifhop, and derives it from neighbourhood; becaufe
the primitive Chriftians, not daring to aflemble open¬
ly in cities, were forced to meet fecretly in neighbour¬
ing houfes.
In the ancient church there was one large edifice in
each city for the people to meet in; and this they
called parochia, “ Parifh.” But the fignification of the
•word was afterwards enlarged, and by a parifh w7as
meant a diocefe, or the extent of the jurifdiftion of a
bifhop, confifling of feveral churches, unlefs we will
fuppofe, as fome do, that thofe bifhops were only paf-
tors of Angle churches. Du Pin obferves, that country
Vol. XV. Part II.
parifhes had not their origin before the 4th century;
but thofe of cities are more ancient. The city of Al- “
exandria is faid to have been the firft that was divided
into parifhes.
Of the firft divifion of parifhes there is no certain
information 5 for in the early ages of Chriftianity in
this ifland, parifhes were unknown, or at leaf! figniiitd
the fame that a diocefe now does. There was then no
appropriation of ecclefiaftical dues to any particular
church ; but every man was at liberty to contribute
his tithes to any prieft or church he pleafed, but he
was obliged to do it to fome •, or if he made no fpe-
cial appropriation thereof, they were paid to the bifhop,
whofe duty it was to diftribute them among the clergy,
and for other pious purpofes, according to his owm dif-
cretion. Camden fays England wras divided into pa-
rifhes by Archbifliop Honorius about the year 630. Sir
Henry Hobart maintains that parifhes were firft erefted
by the council of Lateran, held A. D. 1179. But Mr
Selden proves, that the clergy lived in common wdthout
any divifion of parifhes, long after the time mentioned
by Cdmden 5 and it appears from the Saxon laws, that
parifhes wrere in being long before the council of Late¬
ran in 1179. The diftin&ion of parifhes occurs in the
laws of King Edgar, about the year 970. It feems
pretty clear and certain, fays Judge Blackftone (Com.
vol. i. p. 11 2.) that the boundaries of parifhes wrere firft
afcertained by thofe of a manor or manors 5 becaufe it
very feldom happens that a manor extends itfelf over
more than one parifh, though there are often many ma¬
nors in one parifh. The lords, he adds, as Chriftianity
fpread, began to build churches upon their own de-
mefnes or waftes, in order to accommodate their tenants
in one or two adjoining lordfhips 5 and that they might
have divine fervice regularly performed therein, obliged
all their tenants to appropriate their tithes to the main¬
tenance of the one officiating minifter, inftead of leaving
them at liberty to diftribute them among the clergy of
the diocefe in general; and this trad! of land, the tithes
of which were fo appropriated, formed a diftind! parifh j
and this accounts for the frequent intermixture of pa¬
rifhes one wTith another. For if a lord had a parcel of
land detached from the main of his eftate, but not fuf-
ficient to form a parifli of itfelf, it was natural for him
to endow' his newly eredled church with the tithes of
fuch lands. Extra-parochial waftes and marfli lands,
when improved and drained, are by 17 Geo. II. cap.
37. to be affeffed to all parochial rates in the parifh next
adjoining. Camden reckons 9284 parifhes in Englandj
and Chamberlayne makes 9913. They are now gene¬
rally reckoned about io,oco.
PARISH Clerk. In every parifh the parfon, vicar, &c.
hath a parifh clerk under him, who is the loweft officer
of the church. Thefe were formerly clerks in orders,
and their bufinefs at firft w7as to officiate at the altar j
for which they had a competent maintenance by offer¬
ings ; but they are now laymen, and have certain fees
with the parfon on chriftenings, marriages, burials,
&c. befides wages for their maintenance. The law
looks upon them as officers for life : and they are cho-
fen by the minifter of the parifh, unlefs there is a cu-
ftom for the parifhioners or churchwardens to choofe
them ; in which cafe the canon cannot abrogate fuch
cuftom ; and when chofen it is to be fignified, and
c F they
Parifh.
* See Farm
and Gar-
dening.
PAR [ 778
they are to be fworn into their office by the archdea¬
con, for which the court of king’s bench will grant a
mandamus.
PARISH, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Celtica, inhabiting the country about the Sequana and
Matrona. Now a great part of the Ifle of France.—
Parijii (Ptolemy), a people of Britain, having the Bri¬
gades to the north and weft, the German lea to the weft,
and the Coritani to the fouth, from whom they were fe-
parated by the Humber. Now Holdemejfe, a peninfula
of the eaft riding of Yorklhire.
PARISIOIILJM civitas. See Lutetia.
PARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a noble city of
Myfia Minor, with a port on the Propontis ; called
Adrajlia by Homer, according to Pliny; but Strabo di-
ftinguilhes them : according to others, the Paejios of
Homer. Pariani, the people (Strabo). The birthplace
of Neoptolemus furnamed GloJJbgraphus (Strabo). Here
flood a Cupid equal in exquiftte workmanlhip to the
Cnidian Venus.
PARK (French parque, i. e. locus indufus'), is a large
quantity of ground enclcfed and privileged i •» wild
beads of chafe, by the king’s grant or prefeription. See
Chase and Forest.
Manwood defines a chafe to be “ a privileged place,
for beafts of venery, and other wild beads of the fa¬
red and chafe, tam fylvejlres, quam campcftresand
differs from a chafe or warren, in that it mult be en-
clofed : for if it lies open, it is good caule of feizure
into the king’s hands, as a thing forfeited ; as a free
chafe is, if it be enclofed : befides, the owner cannot
have an aflion againft fuch as hunt in his park, if it
lies open. No man can ereft a park without licenfe
under the broad feal ; for the common law does not
encourage matter of pleafure, which brings no profit
to the commonw’ealth. But there may be a park in
reputation erefted without any lawful warrant ; and
the owner may bring his afdion againft perfons killing
Fis deer.
To a park three things are required. 1. A grant
thereof. 2. Enclofures by pale, wall, or hedge. 3.
Beafts of a park; fuch as the buck, doe, &c. And
where all the deer are deftroyed, it ftiall no more be ac¬
counted a park ; for a part confifts of vert, venifon, and
enclofure : and if it is determined in any of them, it is a
total difparking.
Parks as well as chafes are fubjeft to the common
law, and are not to be governed by the foreft laws.
Park, as connefled with gardening. See Garden¬
ing.
A park and a garden are more nearly allied than a
farm and a garden *, and can therefore be accommoda¬
ted to each other without any difparagement to either.
A farm lofes fome of its characteriftic properties by the
connexion, and the advantage is on the part of the gar¬
den : but a park thus bordered retains all its own excel¬
lencies; they are only enriched, not counterafted, by
the intermixture. The moft perfefl compofition of a
place that can be imagined, confifts of a garden opening
into a park, wfith a ftiort walk through the latter to a
farm, and ways along its glades to ridings in the coun-
] par
try ; but to the farm and the ridings the park is no more
than a paffage ; and its woods and its buildings are but
circumftances in their views; its feenes can be communi¬
cated only to the garden.
The affinity of the two objecls is fo clofe, that it
would be difficult to draw the exact line of (eparation
between them. Gardens have lately encroached very
much both in extent and in ftyle on the chara&er of a
park ; but ftill there are feenes in the one which are
out ot the reach oi the other. The fmall fequeftrated
fpots which are agreeable in a garden would be trivial
in a park ; and the fpacious lawns which are among the
nobieft fctiiuies ol tue latter, would m the former fa¬
tigue by their want of variety; even fuch as, being of
a moderate extent, may be admitted into either, 'will
feem bare and naked, if not broken in the one ; and
lofe much oi their greatnefs, if broken in the other.
I he proportion of apart to the whole is a meafure of
its dimenfions : it often determines the proper fize for
an objedi, as well as the fpace fit to be allotted to a
feene ; and regulates the ftyle which cught to be affien-
ed to either.
But whatever diftindtions the extent may occafion be¬
tween a park and a garden, a ftate of highly cultivated
nature is confiftent with each of their characters ; and
may in both Le of the fame kind, though in difterent
degrees.
The excellencies both of a park and of a garden are
happily blended at Hagley (a), where the icenes are
equally elegant and noble. It is fituated in the midrt
of a fertile and lovely country, between the Clent and
the Witchberry hills ; neither of which are within the
pale, but both belong to the place. The latter rbe *n
three beautiful fwelis. One of them is covered with
wood ; another is an open theep walk, with an obeliik
on the fummit; on the third, the portico of the temple
of Thefeus, exadlly on the model of that of Athens,
and little lefs in the dimenfions, Hands boldly out upon
the brow, backed by the dark ground of a fir planta¬
tion, and has a moft majeftic appearance above the
fteeps which fall before a:*! befide it. The houfe is
feen to the greateft advantage from thefe eminences,
and every point of them commands fome beautiful
profpedi. The bufy town of Stourbridge is juft be¬
low' them; the ruins of Dudley caftle rife in the off-
Ikip ; the country is full of induftry and inhabitants ;
and a fmall portion of the moor, where the minerals,
manufadlured in the neighbourhood, are dug, breaking
in upon the horizon, accounts for the richnefs, without
derogating from the beauty, of the landfcape. From
the Clent hills the views are ftill greater : they extend
on one fide to the black mountains in Wales, a long
ridge which appears, at 60 miles diftance, in the inter¬
val between the unwieldy heap of the Malvern hills and
the folitary peak of the Wrekin, each 30 miles off, and
as many afunder. The fmoke of Worceftef, the churches
in Birmingham, and the houfes in Stourbridge, are di-
ftinftly vifible. The country is a mixture of hill and
dale, and ftrongly enclofed ; except in one part, where
a heath, varied by rifing grounds, pieces of water, and
feveral objefts, forms an agreeable contrail to the culti¬
vation
Park
(a) Near Stourbridge, in V orcefterffiire, the feat of Lord Lyttleton.
PAR [779
vatton which furrounds it. From the other extremity
of the Clent hills, the profpett is lefs extenfive j but the
ground is more rude and broken } it is often overfpread
with large and beautiful woods •, and the view is digni¬
fied with numerous feats. The hills alfo being very ir¬
regular, large advanced promontories frequently inter¬
rupt the fight, and vary the fcene : in other parts, deep
valleys (helving down towards the country below, exhi¬
bit the objeflts there in different lights. In one of
thefe hollows is built a neat cottage, under a deep
defcent, fhellered befidcs by plantations, and prefenting
ideas of retirement in the mid ft of fo much open ex¬
po fure : from the heights above it, is feen all that view
which before was commanded from the Witchberry
hills, but which is feen here over Hagley park 5 a noble
fore ground, beautiful in itfelf, and completing the land-
fcape.
The houfe, though low in the park, is yet above the
adjacent country, which it overlooks to a very diftant
horizon. It is furrounded by a lawn of fine uneven
ground, and diverfified with large clumps, little groups,
and fingle trees. It is open in front, but covered on one
fide by the Witchberry hills 5 on the other fide, and
behind, by the eminences in the park, which are high
and fteep, and all overfpread with a lofty hanging wood.
The lawn preffing to the foot, or creeping up the (lopes
of thefe hills, and fometimes winding along glades into
the depth of the wood, traces a beautiful outline to a
fylvan fcene, already rich to luxuriance in maffinefs of
foliage and ftatelinefs of growth.
But though the wood appears to be entire, it in rea¬
lity opens frequently into lawns, which occupy much
of the fpace within it. In the number, the variety,
and the beauty of thefe lawns, in the fnades of the re¬
paration between them, in their beauties alfo, and their
varieties, the glory of Hagley confifts. No two of the
ouenings are alike in dimenfions, in fhape, or in charac¬
ter. One is of ro more than five or fix acres •, another
of not lefs than fifty 5 and others are of all the interme¬
diate fizes. Some ftretch out into lengthened glades j
feme widen every way : they are again diftinguifhed by
buildings, by profpecls, and often by the ftyle only of
the plantations around them. The boundary of one is
defcjibed by a few careiefs lines •, that of another is com-
pofed of many parts, very different, and very irregular :
and the ground is never fiat; but falls fometimes in
fteep defeents, (bmetimes in gentle declivities, waves
along eafy fwells, or is thrown into broken inequalities,
with endlefs variety.
An oflagon feat, faded to the memory of Thomfon,
and erefled on his favourite fpot, (lands on the brow
of a fteep ; a mead winds along the valley beneath, till
it is loft on either hand behind lome trees. Oppofite to
the feat, a noble wood crowns the top, and feathers
down to the bottom of a large oval fvvelling hill.
At it defeends on one fide, the diftant country becomes
the offskip. Over the fall, on the other fide, the Clent
hills appear. A duiky antique tower (lands juft below7
them, at the extremity of 1(he wmod ; and in the midft
of it is feen a Doric portico, called Pope's Build¬
ing, with part of the lawn before it. The fcene is very
fimple : the principal features are great-, they ,prevail
over all the reft, and are intimately connected with each
other.
The next opening is fmall, circling about a rotunda
] PAR
on a knoll, to the foot of which the ground rifes every
way. The trees which furround it are large but their
foliage is not very thick ; and their (lems appearing be-
 - _ l I— xI-. ,^-      . PL 4-« ..r* V"\t" tvtt to /2k V'vex11 prV»C Q f*1T1
Park.
neatb, their ramifications between the boughs are, in fo
confined a fpot, very diitinguilhed and agreeable cir-
cumftances. It is retired has no profpect} no yifible
outlet but one, and that is fivort and narrow, to a bridge
with a portico upon it, which terminates a piece or
water.
The grove behind the rotunda feparates this from a
large, airy, foreft glade, thinly (kirted with wood, care¬
iefs of drefs, and much overgrown with fern. The wild-
nefs is an acceptable relief in the midft. of fo much ele¬
gance and improvement as reign in the neighbouring
lawns : and the place is in itfelf pleafant j in no part
confined ; and from a Gothic feat at the end is a per-
fpective view of that wood and tower which were feen
before in front, together with the Witchberry hills, and
a wide range of country.
The tower, which in profpecl is always connecled.
with wood, Hands however, on a piece of down, which
ftretches along the broad ridge of a hill, and fpreads
on each hand for fome way down the fides. I hick
groves catch the falls. The defcent on the right is foon
loft under the trees ; but that on the left being deeper
and (horter, it may be followed to the bottom. A wood
hangs on the declivity, which is continued in the val¬
ley beneath. The tower overlooks the whole : it feems
the remains of a caftle, partly entire, partly in ruins,
and partly overgrown with bufties. A finer fituation
cannot be imagined : It is placed in an expofed unfre¬
quented fpot j commands an extenfive profpecl ; and
is everywhere an intereiting objeft.
At the end of the valley below it in an obfeure cor¬
ner, and (hut out from all view, is a hermitage, com-
pofed of roots and of mofs : high‘banks, and a thick
covert darkened with horfe chefnuts, confine the fe-
queftered fpot: a little rill trickles through it, and two
fmall pieces of water occupy the bottom. They are
feen on one fide through groups of trees ; the other is
open, but covered with fern. This valley is the extre¬
mity of the park : and the Clent hills rife in all their
irregularity immediately above it.
The other defcent from the caftle is a long declivi¬
ty, covered like the reft with noble woods, in which
fine lawns are again embofomed, differing dill from
the former, and from each other. In one, the ground
is very rough, the boundary is much broken, and
marked only by the trunks of the trees which (hoot up
high before the branches begin. The next is more
fimple and the ground falls from an even brow into
one large hollow, which (lops towards the glen, where
it (inks into the covert. This has a communication
through a fiiort glade, and between two groves, with
another called the Tinian lawn, from the refemblance
which it is faid to bear to thofe of that celebrated
ifland : it is encompaffed with the (latelieft trees, all
frefh and vigorous, and fo full of leaf, that not a ilem,
not a branch, appears, but large maffes of foliage only
deferibe an undulating outline the effedl, however, is
not produced by the boughs feathering down to the bot¬
tom they in appearance (hoot out horizontally, a few
feet above the ground, to a furprifing diftance, and from
underneath an edging of (hade, into which the retreat is
immediate at every hour of the day. The verdure of
5 F 2 the
PAR
the turf is as luxuriant there as in the open fpace : the
ground gently waves in both over eafy iwells and little
dips, juft vatying, not breaking, the furface. No ftrong
lines are drawn ; no linking obje<fts are admitted j but
all is of an even temper, all mild, placid, and ferene 5 in
the gayeft feafon of the day not more than cheerful, in
the ftilleft watch of night not gloomy. The fcene is in¬
deed peculiarly adapted to the tranquillity of the latter,
when the moon feems to repofe her light on the thick
foliage of the grove, and fteadily marks the lhade of
every bough. It is delightful then to'faunter here, and
fee the grafs, and the goflamer which entwines it, gli-
ftening with dew ; to liften and hear nothing ftir, ex¬
cept perhaps a withered leaf dropping gently through a
tree ; and, Iheltered from the chill, to catch the frelh-
nefs of the evening air : a folitary urn, chofen by Mr
Pope for the fpot, and now infcribed to his memory,
■when fhown by a gleam of moonlight through the trees,
fixes that thoughtfulnefs and compofure to which the
mind is infenfibly led by the reft of this elegant
fcene.
The Doric portico, which alfo bears his flame, though
not within fight, is near : it is placed on the declivity of
a hill; and Thomfon’s feat, -with its groves and appen¬
dages, are agreeable circumftances in the profpeft before
it. In the valley beneath is fixed a bench, which com¬
mands a variety of ftiort views 5 one is up the afcent to
the portico, and others through openings in the wood to
the bridge and the rotunda.
The next lawn is large : the ground is fteep and ir¬
regular, but inclines to one direftion, and falls from
every fide into the general declivity : the outline is di-
verfified by many groups of trees on the Hopes; and
frequent glimpfes of the country are feen in perfpec-
tive through openings between them. In the brow is
a feat, in the proudeft fituation of all Hagley 5 it com¬
mands a view down the bold fweep of the lawn, and
over a valley filled writh the nobleft trees, up to the
heights beyond. One of thofe heights is covered with
a hanging wood 5 which opens only to fhow Thom¬
fon’s feat, and the groves and the fteeps about it; the
others are the Witchberry hills, which feem to prefs
forward into the landfcape j and the malfy heads of
the trees in the vale, uniting into a continued furface,
form a broad bafe to the temple of Thefeus, hide the
fwell on which it is built, and crowd up to the very
foundation. Farther back Hands the obelilk ; before it
is the Iheep walk; behind it the Witchberry wrood.
The temple is backed by the firs; and both thefe plan¬
tations are connefted with that vaft fylvan fcene which
overfpreads the other hill and all the intermediate
valley. Such extent of wood ; fuch variety in the dif-
pofition of it } objedls fo illuftrious in themfelves, and
ennobled by their fituations, each contrafted to each,
every one diftintft, and all happily united 5 the parts
fo beautiful of a wdiole fo great, feen from a charm¬
ing lawn, and furrounded by a delightful country,
compofe all together a fcene of real magnificence and
grandeur.
The feveral lawms are feparated by the fineft trees;
which fometimes grow in airy groves, chequered with
gleams of light, and open to every breeze } but more
frequently, whofe great branches meeting or crofting
each other, call a deep impenetrable lhade. Large
boughs feathering down often intercept the fight j or a
PAR
vacant fpace is filled with coppice wood, nut, hawthorn,
and hornbeam, whofe tufted heads mixing with the foli¬
age, and whofe little Hems cluftering about the trunks
of the trees, thicken and darken the plantation. Here
and there the divifion is of fuch coppice w'ood only,
which then being lefs conftrained and oppreffed, fprings
up ftronger, fpreads further, and joins in a low vaulted
covering : in other places the lhade is high, overarched
by the tailed: alh, or fpreads under the branches of the
molt venerable oaks. They rife in every lhape, they are
difpofed in every form in which trees can grow. The
ground beneath them is fometimes almoft level ; fome¬
times a gentle fwell; but generally very irregular and
broken. In feveral places, large hollows wind down
the fides of the hills, worn in the ftormy months by w'a-
ter courfes, but wmrn many ages ago. Very old oaks in
the midll of the channels prove their antiquity : fome
of them are perfectly dry moll part of the year 5 and
fome are watered by little rills all the fummer : they are
deep and broad j the fides are commonly fteep ; often
abrupt and hollow ; and the trees on the bank fometimes
extend their roots, all covered with mofs, over the chan¬
nels of the wTater. Low down in one of thefe glens,
under a thick lhade of horfe chefnuts, is a plain bench,
in the midi! of feveral little currents and w^ater falls,
running among large loofe Hones, and the Humps of dead
trees, with which the ground is broken. On the brink
of another glen, which is diftinguilhed by a numerous
rookery, is a feat in a Hill wilder lituation, near a deeper
hollow, and in a darker gloom : the falls are nearly per¬
pendicular j the roots of fome of the trees are almoft
bare, from the earth having crumbled aw7ay j large
boughs of others, finking wdth their orvn wreight, feem
ready to break from the trunks they belong to ; and the
fineft alh, Hill growing, lie all aflant the water courfe
below, which, though the ftream runs in winter only,
yet conftantly retains the black tinge of damp, and calls
a chill all around.
Gravel wralks are conducted acrofs the glens, through
the woods, the groves, or the thickets, and along the
fides of the lawns, concealed generally from the fight,
but always ready for the communication, and leading to
the principal fcenes. The frequency of thefe walks, the
number and the ftyle of the buildings, and the high pre-
fervation in w-hich all the place is kept, give to the whole
park the air of a garden. There is, however, one fpot
more peculiarly adapted to that purpofe, and more arti¬
ficially difpofed than the reft 5 it is a narrow vale, divi¬
ded into three parts: one of them is quite filled with
wrater, which leaves no room for a path, but thick trees
on either fide come down quite to the brink 5 and be¬
tween them the fight is condudled to the bridge with
a portico upon it, which clofes the view : another part of
this vale is a deep gloom, overhung with large aftr and
oaks, and darkened below by a number of yews : thefe
are fcattered over very uneven ground, and open under¬
neath ; but they are encompaffed by a thick covert, un¬
der which a ftream falls, from a ftony channel, down a
rock 5 other rills drop into the current, which after¬
wards pours over a fecond cafcade into the third divifion
of the vale, wdrere it forms a piece of w7ater, and is loft
under the bridge. The view from this bridge is a per-
fedl opera fcene, through all the divifions of the vale up
to the rotunda. Both thefe buildings, and the other de¬
corations of the fpot, are of the fpecies generally confi¬
ned
[ 780 ]
Park,
Pai ker.
PAR [ 78t 3 Pr A .R . . ,• ,
The hermitage alfo, which has been archbithops and abbots in former times ^ par icu ar.
Parker.
ned to a garden.   o . ^
defcribed, and its appendages, are in a ityle which does
not belong to a park } but through all the relt of the
place, the two charafters are intimately blended. The
whole is one fubjedl •, and it was a Vild idea to conceive
that one to be capable of fo much variety j it required
the moil vigorous efforts of a fertile fancy to carry that
idea into execution. See Gardening.
Park of Artillery. See Artillery. .
PARK of Provifons, in military affairs, the place
where the fullers pitch their tents in the rear, and fell
their provifions to the foldiers. Likewife that place
where the bread waggons are drawn up, and where the
troops receive their ammunition bread, being the ilore of
the army.
PARKER, Matthew, the fecond Proteftant arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, was born at Norwich in the year
1504, the 19th of Henry VII. His father, who was a
man in trade, died when our author was about twelve
years old 5 but his mother took fpecial care of his edu¬
cation, and at the age of 17 fent him to Corpus Chrifti
college in Cambridge, where, in 1523, he took his
bachelor’s degree. In 1527 he was ordained, created
mafter of arts, and chofen fellow of the college. Ha-
vino- obtained a licenfe to preach, he frequently held
forth at St Paul’s crofs in London, and in other parts
of the kingdom. In 1533 or 1534 he was made cliap-
at the nuptial feafts of King Edward I. in 1290 } at the
inftallation of the abbot of St. Aulfin’s 111 1309 ; at
the enthronization of George Nevill, archbiihop o
York, in 1464; and of Archbifhop Warham in 1504,
when Edward duke of Buckingham afted as lord high
Reward of his houfehold j and laftly, for the enteitain-
ment given by that archbifhop in 1519 to the emperor
Charles V. Henry VIII. Queen Catherine, &c. In
ir6c Archbifhop Parker gave three entertainments in
this hall at Whitfuntide (which lafted three days), on
Trinity Sunday, and in affize time. At the two firit ot
thefe the archbiihop himielf fat in the midit of the up-
permoft table j on his left hand the mayor, &c. and io
on one fide of the hall a continued row of men accord¬
ing to their rank filled the other tables j and on his
right hand fat only fome noble women arid ladies or
quality, the whole length of the hall, correfpondmg to
the row of men on the other fide : which order ot pla¬
cin'? the women was obferved in honour of the queen.
The firfl rank of guetls being rifen, and the tables clear¬
ed, they were furnifhed again,,and filled the fecond time.
At the laft feaft, which was grander than all the relt,.
the archbifhop entertained the two judges who went
that circuit (B), the attorney-general, the high-flientt,..
with all who met at thefe affizes, as juflices ot the
peace, advocates, and common lawyers, and all the reft
of the kingdom. In 1533 or t534 he tvas mMe cm.p- peace, . ^ . ;f
Iain to Queen Anne Boleyn, who obtamed for h.m the of proflor. and attom^ys who aU (w u ^p ^ ^
deanery of Stoke Clare in Suffolk, where he foundedan’d gold> adorned with much
.. -  . >1 i • ,! T ^11 •turo.-re*
grammar fchool. After the death of the queen, King
Henry made him his own chaplain, and in 1541 preben¬
dary of Ely. In 1544, he was, by the king’s command,
elected mafter of Corpus Chrifti college, and the follow¬
ing year vice chancellor of the univerfity. In 1 547 he
loft the deanery of Stoke, by the diffolution of that col¬
lege. In the fame year he married the daughter of Ro¬
bert Harleftone, a Norfolk gentleman.
In the year 15 52 he was nominated, by Edward VI.
to the deanery of Lincoln, which, with his olhei pre¬
ferments, enabled him to live in great affluence : but
the papift Mary was hardly feated on the throne before
he was deprived of every thing he held in the church,
and obliged to live in obfcurity, frequently changing
his place of abode to avoid the fate of the other re¬
formers. . Q ,
Queen Elizabeth afcended the throne m 155a ; and
in the following year Dr Parker, from indigence and
obfcurity, w^as at once raifed to the fee of Canterbury *,
an honour which he neither foliated nor defired. In
this high Ration he acted with fpirit and propriety. He
vifited his cathedral and diocefe in 1560, 1565, and
x c 7 3. He repaired and beautified his palace at Lam¬
beth at a vafl expence. The fum which the repairs o
the palace and great hall at Canterbury coR him was
upwards of 1400I. Rerling, which is at leaR equal to ten
times the fum now-a-days. Both the palace, and great
hall were in decay, partly through the injuries of time,
and partly through that of fire. 1 he hall, built by
Archbifhop Huber in the I 2th century, was famous m
hiRory for the great feaRs that had been given there by
tapeftry of Flanders j and dainties of all forts were ier-
ved in excellent order by none but the archbifhop s fer-
vants, the table being often the fame day furnifhed a-
frefh with new guefls •, while the ladies were nobly en¬
tertained in inner parlours by Mrs Parker, the hall be-
ing now filled with gentlemen. Other wife, at theie
feaRs, it was the archbifhop’s cuflom, in honour of ma¬
trimony, to entertain both men and their wives. Ot
this noble hall and palace, now within 200 years, there
is little or nothing left except a few ruins. On Whit-
funday, 1C70, and the two following days, this.archbi¬
fhop feaRed the citizens of Canterbury and their wives
in the fame manner as he had done before : and on
Trinity Sunday (after confecrating Bifhop Curteis ot
Chichefler) he made another moil archiepifcopal ieaR,
inviting another archbifhop (viz. Grindal of York, who
came thither for confirmation) to be his gueR : befides
whom were prefent Horn bifhop of WmcheRer, and
Curteis bifflop of ChicheRer. At the lower tables
fat all the miniRers and fervants whatfoever, even the
children, who belonged to that church 4 and at the re
moteR tables, but in the fame hall, m fight, fat the poor
of both fexes of the hofpitals of St John’s and Harble-
down. On July nth, being affizes time, the judges*
high-fheriff, gentlemen, and the common fort, were all
feafled by the archbifhop in a fplendid manner as be¬
fore. Soon after Bifhop Sandys of Worcefter, eleft ot
London, came to Canterbury to be confirmed. The
archbifhop, on his return, lodged the firfl.night at bit-
tingboum, and the next night (after dining at Grave-
(b) This proves that the judges of afflze then came to Canterbury, though it was then a county m itfeif,.being
fo made in 1461.
rke r.
PAR [ 7s
j %K0 came to Lambeth in barges by Thames, with all
his family. . Sept. 7. 1573, being Q. Elizabeth’s birth-
day, Archbilhop Parker entertained her majefty, and as
many noblemen, &c. as were prefent at Archbiikop
"W arham’s entertainment in the fame hall 54 years be¬
fore. 1 he archbithop (to ufe his own words, in a letter
to Archbithop Grindal of York) “ met her highnefs,
as tire was coming to Dover, upon Folkttone Down. I
left her at Dover, and came home to Bekethorn that
night j and after that went to Canterbury to receive her
majefty there. Which I did, with the bithops of Lin¬
coln and Rochefter, and my fuffragan (of Dover), at
the weft door j where, after the grammarian had made
his oration to her upon her horfe-back, the alighted.
We then kneeled down, and faid the pfalm Deus mifere-
atur,\rx EngHth, with certain other colkas briefly j and
that in our chimers and rochets. The quire, with the
dean and prebendaries, flood on either fide of the church,
and brought her majefty up with a long j the going un¬
der a fquare canopy, borne by four of her temporal
knights, to her traverfe, placed by the communion
board, where the heard evening fong ; and after depart¬
ed to her lodging at St Auftin’s, whither I waited upon
her. From thence I brought certain of the council, and
divers of the court, to my houfe to fupper, and gave
them 14 or 15 diflies, furnilhed with two mefs, at my
long table, whereat fat about 20 j and in the fame cham¬
ber a third mefs, at a fquare table, whereat fat io or
my lefs hall having three long ' tables furnilhed
]
PAR
^   — 6 iw.ig Louies rurminea
with my officers, and with the guard, and others of the
court: and fo her majefty came every Sunday to church
to hear the fermon. And upon one Monday it pleafed
her highnefs to dine in my great hall, thoroughly fur¬
nilhed with the council, Frenchmen, ladies, gentlemen,
and the mayor of the town, wuth his brethren, &c ■
her highnefs fitting in the midft, having two French
ambaffadors (Gondius and Mothe-Fenelon) at the end
of the table, and four ladies of honour at the other
end. And fo three mefs were ferved by her nobility
at walking, her gentlemen and guard bringing her
dilhes, &c.” On which the archbifhop of York, in
his an flyer, made this reflection : “ Your grace’s large
defcnption of the entertainment at Canterbury did fo
lively fet forth the matter, that in reading thereof I
almoft thought myfelf to be one of your guefts there
and as it were beholding the whole order of all things’
done there. Sir, I think it fliall be hard for any of
our coat to do the like for one hundred years, and how
long after God knoweth.” In this progrefs Lord
Treafurer Burleigh was lodged with Mr Pearfon, the
eleventh prebendary, who, the archbifhop fays, “ had a
fine houfe.”
^ He founded feveral fcholarihips in Bennet or Corpus-
Chiifti college in Cambridge, and gave large prefents
of plate to that and to other colleges in this univerfity.
He gave 100 volumes to the public library. He like-
wife founded a free fchool at Rochdale in Lancafhire.
He took care to have the fees filled with pious and
learned men ; and, confidering the great -want of Bibles
in many places, he, with the affiftance of other learned
men, improved the Englifh tranflation, had it printed
on a large paper, and difperfed through the kingdom.
This worthy prelate died in the year'1375, aged 72
and was buried in Ins own chapel at Lambeth. He
was pious without affe&ation or aufterity, cheerful and
2
heHft'of um-vf1*-0 ^ adverfity, moderate in theParkinfonia
ei ht ot power, and beneficent beyond example. He I!
wrote leveral books j and alfo publifhed four of our Parliament.
beft hiftonansj MavAru, ofWeJlnunJier, Matthew Pan'
Wer s Life of Kmg^lfred, and Tho. Walfmgham. The
learned archbifliop alfo tranflated the Pfalter. This
a tHbut IdM Pnnled’but wIthout a name 5 and has been
attributed to an obfeure poet of the name of Keeper
I his tvas \\ ood s opinion j but it is more than T,ro-
™ "I °f the Atken« was
w.ong See Gentleman’s Magazine for 1781, p. r66
^Pfa^ 1S t0 be th£ aUthor of a verfion of
PARKINSONfA, a genus of plants, belonging to
the decandna ciafs 5 and m the natural method ranking
unuei die 33d order, Lomentacecc. See Botany in-
PARLEY a conference with an enemy. Hence to
fuch a°r a iSrt0 ^ a %IUli for holding
piRTnT AMFM^r136? °f drum’ °r foUnd of r
ftates^fdfifk^?1’ f '^ ^rand affembly of the three Definition,
tates ol this kingdom, fummoned together by the kino-’s
authority, to confider of matters relating to the public
welfare, and particularly to enafi and repeal laws
of,,!”18;"31 or, .fir“ .in«“ion of parliament is one Origil not
or thole matters which he fo far hidden in the dark ages cert'ainly
o antiquity that tlie tracing of it out is a thing equally knovvn-
difficult and uncertain. The word parliament itfelf (or
colloquium, as fome of our hiftorians tranflate it) is com¬
paratively, of modern date •, derived from the French
and fignftymg “ the place where they met and conferred
together. It was firft applied to general aifemblies of
tue ftates under Lewis VII. in France, about the middle
o the 1 2th century But it is certain, that long before
tl e mtroduftion of the Norman language into England,
all matters ot importance were debated and fettled in the
great councils of the realm. A praftice which feems to
have been umverfal among the northern nations, particu-
ayly the Germans; and carried by them into all the coun¬
tries ot Europe, which they overran at the diffolulion of
the Roman empire. Relicks of which conftitution, under
various modifications and changes, are ftill to be met with
m the diets ox Poland, Germany, and Sweden, .and late¬
ly m the affembly of the eftates in France : for what is
there now called the parliament, is only the fupreme
court of juflice confifting of the peers, certain dignified
ecclefiafhcs, and judges j which neither is in practice, noi¬
ls luppoled to be in theory, a general council of the
realm.
In England, however, this general council hath been Antiquity
field immemonally, under the feveral names of michelP"'in £ng-
fynoth, or “ great council michel-gemote or “ great Iand‘
meeting”’ and more frequently tuittena-gemote or “ the
meeting of wife men.” It was alfo ftyled in Latin
commune concilium regni, magnum concilium, rep, curia
magna, conyentus magnatum velprocerum, qffifa peneralis
and fometimes communitas regni Anglue. ' We have in-
flnnces of its meeting to order the affairs of the king-
dom, to make new laws, and to amend the old, or, as
rleta expreffes it, novis injuriis emerfis nova conjlituere
remedia, fo early as the reign of Ina king of the Weft
Saxons, Offa king of the Mercians, and Ethelbert kina
of Kent, m the feveral realms of the heptarchy. And
after their union, the Mirrour informs us, that King
Alfred ordained for a perpetual ufage, that thefe coun¬
cils
PAR [ 783
Parliament, ells (hould meet twice in the year, or oftener, if need
w—-y- ^-0 treat of the government of God’s people 5 how
they (hould keep themfelves from fin, Ihould live in
quiet, and {hould receive right. Our fucceeding Saxon
and l)ani!h monarchs held frequent councils of this fort,
as appears from their refpeclive codes of laws } the titles
whereof ufually {peak them to be enacted, either by the
king with the advice of his wittena-gemote, or wife men,
as, ITcccfunt injlituta, qua Edgar us rex conjilio fapien-
tiuui fnorum injhtuit; or to be enacted by thofe fages
with the advice of the king : as, Hac funt judicia, qua
fapientes conftlio regis Etheljiam wfituerunt; or, laitly,
To be enacted by them both together, as Ha funt wfi-
tutiones, quas rex Edmundus et ep fcopi fin cum fapienti-
busfiis inftituerunt.
There is alfo no doubt but thefe great councils were
occafionaliy held under the firft princes of the Norman
line. Glanvil, who wrote in the reign of Henry II.
{peaking of the particular amount of an amercement in-
the {heriff’s court, fays, it had never yet been alcertain-
ed by the general affiv.e or affembly, but was left to the
cufiom of particular counties. Here the general affize is
fpoken of as a meeting well known, and its ftatutes or de-
cifions are put in a manifeft con tradiflinch on to cuftom,
or to the common law. And in Edward Ill’s time, an
adl of parliament, made in the reign of William the Con¬
queror, was pleaded in the cafe of the abbey of St Ed-
A mund’s Eury, and judicially allowed by the court.
Hence it indifpulably appears, that parliaments, or
general councils, are coeval with the kingdom itfelf.
How thole parliaments were conftiLuted and ccmpofed,
is another queffion, which has been matter of great dif-
pute among our learned antiquarians •, and particularly,
whether the commons were fummoned at all; or, if fum-
rroned, at what period they began to form a dulindf af¬
fembly. But without entering into controverfies of this
fort, it may be fufficient to obferve, that it is generally
agreed, that in the mam the conftitution of parliament,
as it now Hands, was marked outfo long ago as the 17th
year of King John, A. D. 1215, in the great charter
granted by that prince j wherein he promifes to fummon
all archbilhops, bifhops, abbots, earls, and greater ba¬
rons, perfonally •, and all other tenants in chief under
the crown, by the flieriff and bailiffs *, tc meet at a cer¬
tain place, with 40 days notice, to affefs aids and Ou¬
tages when neceffary. And this conftitution has fubfift-
ed in fad at leaft from the year 1266, 49 Henry III.
there being ftill extant writs of that date, to fummon
knights, citizens, and burgeffes, to parliament.^ We
proceed therefore to inquire wherein confifts this con¬
ftitution of parliament, as it now Hands, and has Hood,
for the fpace of at leaft 500 years. And in the pro-
fecution of this inquiry, we {hall confider, firft, The
manner and time of its affembling : Secondly, Its con-
flituent parts : Thirdly, The laws and cuftoms relating
to parliament : Fourthly, The methods of proceeding,
and of making ftatutes, in both houfes : And, laftly,
The manner of the parliament’s adjournment : proroga¬
tion, and diffolution.
Parli-urerst I- t0 t^ie manner an^ ^me °f offembling. d he par-
rummoiied liament is regularly to be fummoned by the king’s writ
only by the or letter, iffued out of chancery by advice of_ the jarivy
The nature
of thefe
ear ’y par¬
liaments
not eatily
known*
] PAR
any except the king alone. And this prerogative is Parliaments
founded upon very good reafon. For, fuppofing it had ’
a right to meet fpontaneoufiy, without being called to¬
gether, it is impoffible to conceive that all the members,
and each of the houfes, would agree unanimoufly upon
the proper time and place of meeting : and if hall of the
members met, and half abfented themfelves, who lhall
determine which is really the legiflative body, the part
affembled, or that which flays away > It is therefore ne¬
ceffary, that the parliament fliould be called together at
a determinate time and place ; and, highly becoming its
dignity and independence, that it {hould be called toge¬
ther by none but one of its own eonftituent parts : and,
of the three conftituent parts, this office can only apper¬
tain to the king ; as he is a fingle perfon, whofe-will
may be uniform and Heady ; the firft perfon in the na¬
tion, being fuperior to both houfes in dignity } and the
only branch of the iegifiature that lias a feparate exift-
pi-h-^ and is capable of performing any aft at a time
king- council, at leaft 40 days "before it begins to fit. It is a
branch of tjie royal prerogative, that no parliament can
be convened by its own authority, or by the authority of
when no parliament is in being. Nor is it an excep¬
tion to this rule, that, by fome modern ftatutes, on the
demife of a king or queen, if there be then no parlia¬
ment in being, the laft parliament revives, and is to fit
again for fix months, unlefs diflolved by the fuccelior :
for this revived parliament muft have been originally
fummoned by the crown. _ 6
It is true, that the convention parliament which re-The con-
ftored King Charles II. met above a month before his
return ; the lords by their own authority, and the com- j'lTex-
mons in puriuance of writs ifiued in the name of the CCption to
keepers of the liberty of England by authority of par-this;
liament; and that the faid parliament fat till the 29th
of December, full feven months after the Reftoration 5
and enabled many laws, leveral or which are ftill in
force. But this was for the necefflty of the thing,
which fuperfedes all law ; for if they had not fo met,
it was morally impoftible that the kingdom fliould have
been fettled in peace. And the firft thing done after
the king’s return was, to pafs an a<T declaring this to
be a good parliament, notwithftanding the deleft of the
king’s writ. So that as the royal prerogative was chiefly
wounded by their fo meeting, and as the king hinifelf,
who alone had a right to objeft, confented to wave the
objeftion, this cannot be drawn into an example in pre¬
judice of the rights of the crown. Befides, we {hould
alfo remember,C that it was at that time a great doubt
among the lawyers, whether even this healing aft made
it a good parliament, and held by very many in the ne¬
gative ; though it feems to have been too nice a fcruple.
And yet, out of abundant caution, it was thought necef¬
fary to confirm its afts in the next parliament, byftatute
13 Car. II. c. 7. and c. 14. ^
It is likewife true, at the time of the Revolution nor that of
A. D. 1688, the lords and commons by their own au-16SS, be-
thority, and upon the fummons of the prince of Grange
(afterwards King William), met in a convention, and ^"eceji-
therein difpofed of the crown and kingdom. But it muft fa*e re2".
be remembered, that this affembling was upon a like
principle of neceftity as at the Reftoration ; that is, upon
a full conviftion that King James II. bad abdicated the
government, and that the throne was thereby vacant :
which fuppofition of the individual members was con¬
firmed by their concurrent refolution, when they aftually
came together. And in fuch a cafe as the palpable va¬
cancy of a throne, it follows, ex necejjitate rei, that the
form.'.
PAR
•Parliament, form of the royal writs muft be laid afide, otberwifc^no
parliament can ever meet again. For let us put ano¬
ther ffoflible cafe, and fuppofe, for the fake of argument,
that the whole royal line Ihould at any time fail, and
become extinft, which would indifputably vacate the
throne : in this fituation it feems reafonable to prefume,
that the body of the nation, confiding of lords and com¬
mons, would have a right to meet and fettle the govern¬
ment at all. And upon this and no other principle did
the convention in 1688 affemble. The vacancy of the
throne was precedent to their meeting without any royal
fummons, not a confequence of it. They did not af¬
femble without writ, and then make the throne vacant $
but, the throne being previoufly vacant by the king’s
abdication, they aflembled without writ, as they muft do
if they aflembled at all. Had the throne been full, their
meeting would not have been regular: but, as it was
really empty, fuch meeting became abfolutely neceflary.
And accordingly, it is declared by ftatute 1 W. & M.
flat. 1. c. 1. that this convention was really the two
houfes of parliament, notwithftanding the want of
writs or other defeds of form. So that, notwith¬
ftanding thefe two capital exceptions, which were
juftifiable only on a principle of neceflity (and each of
which, by the way, induced a revolution in the govern¬
ment), the rule laid down is in general certain, that
8 the king only can convoke a parliament.
The king is And this, by the ancient ftatutes of the realm, he is
obliged to bound to do every year, or oftener if need be. Not
Parliament ^s’ or ever was’ °h%ed by thefe ftatutes to
aTofterTas cal1 a new parliament every year; but only to permit
circum'tan- a parliament to fit annually for the redrefs of griev-
ces require, ances, and defpatch of bufinefs, if need be. Thefe laft
words are fo loofe and vague, that fuch of our monarchs
as were inclined to govern without parliaments, negled-
. ed the convoking them, fometimes for a very coniider-
able period, under pretence that there was no need of
them. But, to remedy this, by the ftatute 16 Car. II.
c. x. it is ena&ed, that the fitting and holding of parlia¬
ments ftiall not be intermitted above three years at the
moft. And by the ftatute 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 2. it is
declared to be one of the rights of the people, that for
redrefs of all grievances, and for the amending, ftrength-
ening, and preferving, the laws, parliaments ought to be
held frequently. And this indefinite frequency is again
reduced to a certainty by ftatute 6 W. & M. c. 2. which
enafts, as the ftatute of Charles II. has done before, that
a new parliament {hall be called within three years after
the determination of the former.
II. The conjlituent parts of a parliament are, the king’s
majefty, fitting there in his royal political capacity, and
the three eftates of the realm ; the lords fpiritual, the
anu com- ^or(^s temporal (who fit together with the king in one
mons, make houfe), and the commons, who fit by themfelves in ano-
the parlia- ther. And the king and thefe three eftates together
cient. form the greater corporation or body politic of the
kingdom, of which the king is faid to be caput, prin-
cipium, et finis. For upon their coming together the
king meets them, either in perfon or by reprefenta-
tion ; without which there can be no beginning of a par¬
liament ; and he alfo has alone the power of diflblving
them.
It is highly neceffary for preferving the balance of
the conftitution, that the executive power ftiould be a
r 7B4 ]
PAR
legiila-
ture.
9.
The king,
lords fpiri¬
tual and
temporal,
and com-
branch, though not the whole, of the legiflature. The Parliament.
total union of them, we have leen, would be productive  v—'
of tyranny : the total disjunction of them, for the prefent . 10
would in the end produce the fame effeCts, by caufing .1,“^ pro~
that union againlt which it feems to provide. The le- neeeffit^of
giflature would foon become tyrannical, by making con- the king’s
tinual encroachments, and gradually afluming to itfelfbeinSa
the rights of the executive power. Thus the long par-!c anch.of’
liament of Charles I. while it aCted in a conftitutional
manner, with the royal concurrence, redrefl’ed many
heavy grievances and eftablifl.ed many falutary laws.
But when the two houfes a {fumed the power of legitla-
tion, in exclufion of the royal authority, they foon after
aflumed likewife the reins of adminiftration j and, in
confequence of thefe united powers, overturned both
church and ftate, and eftablifhed a worfe opprefiion than
any they pretende^ to remedy. To hinder therefore any
fuch encroachments, the king is himfelf a part of the par¬
liament ; and as this is the reafon of his being fo, very
properly therefore the {hare of legiflation which the con¬
ftitution has placed in the crown, conlifts in the power
of rejecting, rather than refolving; this being fufticient
to anfwer the end propofed. For we may apply to the
royal negative, in this inftance, what Cicero obferves of
the negative of the Roman tribunes, that the crown has
not any power of doing wrong, but merely of prevent¬
ing wrong from being done. The crown cannot begin
of itfelf any alterations in the prefent eftablifhed law •,
but it may approve or difapprove of the alterations fug-
gefted aud confented to by the two hpufes. The legi¬
flature therefore cannot abridge the executive power of
any rights wdiich it now has by law, without its own
confent ; fince the law muft perpetually ftand as it now
does, unlefs all the powers will agree to alter it. And
herein indeed confifts the true excellence of the Britilh
government, that all the parts of it form a mutual check
upon each other. In the legiflature, the people are a
check upon the nobility, and the nobility a check upon
the people, by the mutual privilege of rejecting what
the other has refolved ; while the king is a check upon
both, which preferves the executive power from en¬
croachments. And this very executive power is again
checked and kept within due bounds by the two houfes,
through the privilege they have of inquiring into, im¬
peaching, and punifhing the conduCt (not indeed of the
king, w’hich would deftroy his conftitutional independ¬
ence $ but which is more beneficial to the public) of his
evil and pernicious counfellors. Thus every branch of
our civil polity fupports and is fupported, regulates and
is regulated, by the reft : for the two houfes naturally
arawing in two directions of oppofite intereft, and the
prerogative in another ftill different from them both,
they mutually keep each other from exceeding their
proper limits ; while the whole is prevented from fepa-
ration, and artificially connected together by the mixed
nature of the crown, which is a part of the legifiative,
and the foie executive magiftrate. Like three diftinCt
powers in mechanics, they jointly impel the machine of
government in a direction different from what either,
aCting by itfelf, would have done ; but at the fame time
in a direction partaking of each, and formed out of all ;
a direction which conftitutes the true line of the liberty
and happinefs of the community,
Having already confidered thefe conftituent parts of
the
4
PAR
[
11
The power
of parlia¬
ment.
Parliament, the fovereign power, or parliament, each in a fepaiat
—v view, under the articles King, Lords, and Commons,
to which the reader is referred, we proceed,
III. To examine the laws and cuftoms relating t
parliament, united together and confidered ^ one ag¬
gregate body. The power and junfdiaion of parha
ment, fays Sir Edward Coke, is fo tranfcendent and
abfolute/that it cannot be confined either for caufes
or perfons within any bounds. And of this high cou t
he adds, it may be truly faid, Si antiqmtatemfpeRes, ej
vetujlijjhna ; ft dignitatem, ejl honoratifiima ; fi jurifdic-
tionem, ej} capacijfima. It hath foyereign and uncontroul-
able authority in making, confirming, enlarging, reclam¬
ing, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding laws,
concerning matters of all poffible denominations, ec-
clefiaftical or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or cri¬
minal : this being the place where that abfolute defpotic
power, which mult in all governments refide fomewhere,
is intrufted by the conftitution of thefe kingdoms. A1
mifehiefs and grievances, operations and remedies, that
tranfeend the ordinary courfe of the laws, are within the
reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or
new-model the fucceflion to the crown; as was done m
the reign of Henry VIII. and William III. It can al¬
ter the eftablilhed religion of the land i as was don® in a
variety of inftances in the reigns of King Henry V 111.
and his three children. It can change and create afrelh
even the conftitution of the kingdom and of parliaments
themfelves; as was done by the a£l of Union, and the fe-
veral ftatutes for triennial and feptenmal eleftions. It can,
in ihort, do every thing that is not naturally impoffible ;
and therefore feme have not fcrupled to call its power,
by a figure rather too bold, the omnipotence of parlia¬
ment. True it is, that what the parliament doth, no au¬
thority upon earth can undo. So that it is a matter mo
effential to the liberties of this kingdom, that fuch mem¬
bers be delegated to this important trull as are moll emi¬
nent for their probity, their fortitude, and their know¬
ledge ; for it was a known apophthegm of the great lord
treafurer Burleigh, “That England could never be
ruined butbv a parliament-, and, as Sir ^Matthew Hale ob-
ferves, this being the highell and greateft court, over
which none other can have pnfdiftion in the king¬
dom, if by any means a mifgovernment Ihould anyway
fall upon it, the fubjefts of this kingdom are lelt with¬
out all manner of remedy. To the fame purpofe the
Prefident Montefquieu, though we trull too ha h y,
prefages, that as Rome, Sparta, and Carthage have
loft their liberty and penlhed > fo the conftitution of
England will in time lofe its liberty, will penlh : it Will
perilh whenever the legillative power lliall become more
corrupt than the executive. . , ,
.,2. . It mull be owned, that Mr Locke, and other theo-
te. retical writers, have held, that “ there remams ft.ll m-
tpedting herein in the people a fupreme power to remove or ah
this power. ter Willature, when they find the legilla ur
contrary to the trull repofed in them : for when fuc i
trull is abufed, it is thereby forfeited, and devolves
to thofe who gave it.” But however julUhis conclu-
fion may be in theory, we cannot adopt it, or argue
from it, under any difpenfation of government at pre-
fent actually exifting. For this devolution of power
to the people at large, includes m it a diffolution ot
the whole form of government eftablilhed by that peo¬
ple reduces all the members to their original Hate ot
Vol. XV. Part II.
85 ] PAR
equality and by annihilating the fovereign power, re-Paruament.
peals all pofitive laws whatfoever before enafted. Xo "
human laws will therefore fuppofe a cale, which at
once mull deftroy all law, and compel men to build a-
frelh upon a new foundation nor will they make pro-
vifion for fo defperate an event, as mull render all le¬
gal provifions ineffeaual. So long therefore as the
Englilh conftitution lafts, we may venture to alhrm,
that the power of parliament is abfolute and without
In order to prevent the mifehiefs that might arife,
by placing this extenfive authority in hands'that are
either incapable or elfe improper to manage it it i* e ^
provided by the cullom and law of parliament, fit at!0ns 0f
no one lhall fit or vote in either houfe, unleis he bemembers.
2i years of age. This is aifo exprefsly declared by
ftatute 7 & 8 W. HI. c. 25.: with regard to the houie
of commons, doubts have arifen, from fome contra-
diflory adjudications, whether or not a minor was in¬
capacitated from fitting in that houfe. It is alfo en-
afted by ftatute 7 Jac. I. c. 6 that no member be
permitted to enter the houfe of commons till he hath
taken the oath of allegiance before the lord fteward or
his deputy: and by 30 Car. II. ft. 2. and x Geo I.
c. 15. that no member fliall vote or fit m either houie,
till he hath, in the prefence of the houfe, taken the
oaths of allegiance, fupremacy, aad abjuration, and
fubferibed and repeated the declaration againft tran-
fubftantiation, -and invocation of faints, and the iacri-
fice of the mafs. Aliens, unlefs naturalized, were hke-
wife by the lav/ of parliament incapable to ferve there¬
in : and now it is enafted, by ftatute 12 & 13 W. III.
c. 2. that no alien, even though he be naturalized, lhall
be capable of being a member of either houfe of parlia¬
ment. And there are not only thefe Handing incapaci¬
ties ; but if any perfon is made a peer by the king, or
eledled to ferve in the houfe of commons by the people,
yet may the refpeaive houfes, upon complaint ot any
crime in fuch perfon, and proof thereof, adjudge him
difabled and incapable to fit as a member : and this by
the law and cuftom of parliament. 14
For as every court of jullice hath law-s and cuftoms The cu-
for its dire&ion, fome the civil and canon, feme
common law, others their own peculiar laws and cu.P»l,»»»«
ftoms; fo the high court of parliament hath aRo itsnotfanc_
own peculiar law, called the /ex et confuetudo parka- tionea by
menti; a law which Sir Edward Coke obferves is ah egrets
omnibus queer end a, a multis ignorata d panas cognitaM™-
It will not therefore be expe&ed that we fhould enter
into the examination of this law with any degree ot
minutenefs; fince, as the fame learned author allures us,
it is much better to be learned out of the rolls ot parlia¬
ment and other records, and by precedents and conti¬
nual experience, than can be expreffed by any one man.
It will be fufficient to obferve, that the whole of the law
and cuftom of parliament has its original from this one .
maxim, “ That whatever matter arifes concerning either
houfe of parliament, ought to be examined, difculfed,
and adjudged in that houfe to which it relates, and not
elfewhete.” Hence, for inftance, the lords will not lut-
fer the commons to interfere in the fettling the election
of a peer in Scotland the commons will not allow the
lords to judge of the eleftion of a burgefs nor will ei¬
ther houfe permit the fubordinate courts of law. to
examine the merits of either cafe. But the maxims
5 G upon
P A R
llP°n ^iey proceed, together with the method of
proceeding, reft entirely in the bread of the parliament
melt- and are not defined and afcertained by anv parti-
caiar Rated laws. " 1
Its exfcnfive The privileges of parliament are likewife very larae
pnvi.eges. ana mdeomte ; and therefore, when in 31ft Hen VI
the home of lords propounded a queftion to the indues
concerning them the chief juftice, Sir John Fortefcue,
M \hc name ^ brethren, declared, “ That they
ought not to make anfwer to that queftion 5 for it hath
r.ot been wed aforetime, that the juftices fhould in any-
wlle detrermin5 tbe privileges of the high court of parlia¬
ment ; for it is fo liigh and mighty in its nature, that it
may ma.ce law 3 and that which is law, it may make no
law 3 and the determination and knowledge of that pri¬
vilege belong to the lords of parliament, and not to the
juihcesd’ Privilege of parliament was principally eftab-
. . ea’ in order to protect its members not only from
being molefted by their fellow-fubjefts, but alio more
tipeciaily from being oppreffed by the power of the
crown, ri therefore all the privileges of parliament were
once to be fet down and aicertained, and no priviiene to
be abowed but what was fo defined and determined, it
•veie ea,y for the executive power to devife fome new
caie, not within the line of privilege, and under pretence
thereof to harais any refradfory member, and violate the
reedom of parliament. The dignity and independence
C 7S6 J PAR
?i,0rc5“ed f'?Vnore So d^ys at a dme.IWi*,*.
r 1 r ,  ^ aiiLLcpcuucHCC
<n the two houfes are therefore in great meafure preferv-
ed by keeping their privileges indefinite. Some, how¬
ever, ot the more notorious privileges of the members of
either houie are, privileges of fpeech, of perfcn, of their
uomeitics, and of their lands and goods. As to the fir ft
privilege of fpeech, it is declared by the ftatute 1 w!
ft/ 2VC- 2- as ^e of the liberties of the people,
J hat the freedom of fpeech, and debates, and pro-
cee mgs in parliament, ought not to be impeached or
quelboned in any court or place out of parliament.”
.And this freedom of fpeech is particularly demanded of
the king in perfon, by the fpeaker of the houfe of com¬
mons, at the opening of every new parliament. So like-
Wlfe arc the other privileges, of perfon, fervants, lands,
nnd goods 3 which are immunities as ancient as Edward
tup Confeftbr : in whofe laws we find this precept,
Jijmdos vententibus, five futninonitifitit, five per Je qu d
agendum habitertnt, Jit fumma pax ; and fo too in the
old Gothic conftitutions, Extenditur inec pax et fecuritas
ad quatuordecim dies, convocato regnifenatu. This in-
duded formerly not only privilege from illegal violence,
but alio from legal arrefts and feizures by procefs from
me courts of law. And ftill to affault by violence a
member of either houfe, or his menial fervants, is a high
contempt of parliament,_ and there punifhed with the ut-
uioft fcverity. It has likewife peculiar penalties annex¬
ed to it in the courts of law by the fta lutes 5 Hen. IV.
Cf ^ - 11 ^cn* v c- 11 • Neither can any member
of either houfe be anefted and taken into cuflody with¬
out a breach of the privilege of parliament.
Ssme pri- 'but ild 0^ier privileges rvhich derogate from the
viiejes abo-^omrnon iaw are now at an end, fave only as to the
Ifthed. freedom of the member’s perfon ; which in a peer (by
the privilege of peerage) is for ever facred and invio¬
lable ; and in a commoner (by the privilege of parlia¬
ment) for forty days after every prorogation, and forty
days before the next appointed meeting 3 which is now
in efteft as long ,as the parUamept fubfifts, it feldom
16
Ac A n   m a time.
As to all oftier privileges which obflruft the ordinary
i?W 0ir-U aCC’ the7JWerf rdlra’r'ed b>' the ftatutS
12 . 111. c. 3. 2 and 3 Ann. c. 18. and 11 Geo. II.
c. 24. and are now totally abolifhed by ftaiute 10 G.
LU. c. 50.3 wluclp enacfs, that any fuit may at any
tlme be bf0ught againft any peer or member of parlia¬
ment, their fervants, or any other perfon entitled to pri¬
vilege of parliament 3 which fhall not be impeached or
delayed by pretence of any fuch privilege, except that
t m perfon of a member of the houfe of commons fhail
IT, Lae;5 e fubjecled to any arreft or imprifonmentv
Tiketvne for the benefit of commerce, it is provided by
tamte 4 Geo. III. c. 33. that any trader, having privi¬
lege of parliament, may be ferved with legal procefs for
any juft debt (to the amount of icol.) : and unlefs he
makes fansfadion within two months, it fhall be deemed
an ac of bankruptcy 3 and that commiflions of bankruptcy
may be ifllied againft fuch privileged traders in like man¬
ner as againft any other.
. T1;e oaIy v-a-V by which courts of juftice cculd an-M T
ciently take cognizance of privilege of parliament wasjytear-
Er fl I PllvIie§e> m lae nature of a fuperfedeas, to retted; but
deliver the party out of cuftody when arrefted in a civilparliament
,‘t-. f 0T when a letter was written by the fpeaker to ?U'ft T in’
the judges, to flay proceedings againft a privileged per-Srf
I, ’ . ry reJec'ed it as contrary to thjir oath of office, the ca„le.
Tut fince_ the ftatute 12 Will. III. c. 3. which enacls &c-
tnat no privileged perfon fhall be fubjeft to arreft orirn!
pnfonment, it hath been held, that fuch arreft is irremi-
ar ab initio, and that the party may be difeharged up¬
on motion. It is to be obferved, that there is no pre¬
cedent of anj fuch writ of privilege, but only in civil
hnts, and that the ftatute of 1 Jac. I. c. 13. and that of
King \\ iiham (which remedy fome inconveniences ari-
Img from privilege of parliament), fpeak only of civil
acaons. And therefore the claim of privilege hath
bC?-V ,Uf i}r-gUardcd with an exception as to the cafe of
indictable crimes 3 or, as it hath been frequently expref-
led, of treafon, felony, and breach (or furety) of the
peace. \v hereby it feems to have been underftood, that
no privilege was allowable to the members, their fami¬
lies, or fervants, m any crime, whatfoever 3 for all crimes
are treated by the law as being contra pacem domini re-
SLS/ And mdances have not been wanting, wherein
privileged perfens have been convifted of mifdemeanors
and committed, or profecuted to outlawry, even in the
middle of a fefiion 3 which proceeding has afterwards re¬
ceived the fanfhon and approbation of parliament. To
winch may be added, that a few years ago, the cafe of
writing and publifhing feditious libels was refolved by
oth houfes not to be entitled to privilege ; and that the
realons upon which that cafe proceeded, extended equal¬
ly to every mdiftable offence. So that the chief, if not
the only, privilege of parliament, in fuch cafes, feems
to be the right of receiving immediate information of
the impnfonment or detention of any member, with the
reafon for which he is detained : a pra&ice that is daily
med upon the flighted military accufations, preparatory
to a trial by a court martial 5 and which is recognifed
by the feveral temporary ftatutes for fufpending the ha¬
beas corpus aft : whereby it is provided, that no mem¬
ber of either houfe fhall be detained, till the matter of
which he ftands fufpefted be firft communicated to the
houfe of which he is a member, and the confent of the
faid
PAR
[ 787 1
PAR
of the houfe
of com¬
mons.
Parliament, faid lioufe obtained for his commitment ox detaining.
'* "’"v 1 But yet the ufage has uniformly been, ever fince the Re¬
volution, that the communication has been fubfequent to
the arreft.
Thefe are the general heads of the laws and cuftoms
relating to parliament, conlidered as one aggregate bo¬
dy. The laws and cuitoms relating to each branch in
particular being explained under the articles already re¬
ferred to, viz. King, Lords, and CoT'IMons, we ihould
proceed, IV. To the method of making laws •, which is
much the fame in both houfes. But tor this, too, we
have to refer the reader to the article Bill •, and (hall
g only obferve in this place, that, for defpatch of butinefs.
Of the lord each houfe of parliament has its fpeaker. The fpeaker
chancellor of the houfe of lords, whofe office it is to prefide there,
and fpeaker aild manage the formality of bulinefs, is the lord chan¬
cellor, or keeper of the king’s great feal, or any other
appointed by the king’s commiffion : and if none be io
appointed, the houfe of lords (dt is faid) may elect.—
The fpeaker of the houfe of commons is chofen by the
houfe ; but muft be approved by the king. And here¬
in the ufage of the two houfes differs, that tire Ipeaker
of the houfe of commons cannot give his opinion or ar¬
gue any queltion in the houfe ; but the fpeaker of the
houfe of lords, if a lord of parliament, may. In each
houfe the a6t of the majority binds the whole •, and this
majority is declared by votes openly and publicly given ;
not, as at Venice, and many other fenatorial aflcrnblies,
privately, or by ballot. This latter method may be
ferviceable, to prevent intrigues and unconftitutional
combinations ; but it is impoitlble to be practiled with
us, at lead in the houfe of commons, where every mem¬
ber’s conduft is fubjeft to the future cenfure of his con-
frituents, and therefore Ihould be openly fubmitted to
their infpe£tion.
V. There remains only, in the lad place, to add a
joumment word or two concerning the manner in which parliament
of parlia- may be adjourned, prorogued, or diffblved.
meat. An adjournment is no more than a continuance ot the
feffion from one day to another \ as the word itfelf fig-
nifies •, and this is done by the authority of each houfe
feparately every day •, and fometimes for a fortnight or
a month together, as at Chriftmas or Eader, or upon
other particular occafions. But the adjournment of one
houfe is no adjournment of the other. It hath alfo been
ufual, when his majedy bath fignified bis pleafure, that
both or either of the houfes fliould adjourn themfelves to
a certain day, to obey the king’s pleafure fo fignified,
and to adjourn accordingly.—Otherwife, befides the inde¬
corum of a refufal, a prorogation would aflfuredly fol¬
low } which would often be very inconvenient to both
public and private bufinefs. For prorogation puts an
end to the feffion 5 and then fucb bills as are only be¬
gun, and not perfe&ed, mud be refumed de novo (if at
all) in a fubfequent feffion •, whereas, after an adjourn¬
ment, all things continue in the fame date as at the
time of the adjournment made, and may be proceeded
on without any fredi commencement.
A prorogation is the continuance of the parliament
from one feffion to another j as an adjournment is a con¬
tinuation of the feffion from day to day. 'Ibis is done
by the royal authority, expreffed either by the lord chan¬
cellor in his majedy’s prefence, or by commiffion from
the crown, or frequently by proclamation. Both houfes
are neceffarily prorogued at the fame time ; it not being
19
Of the ad-
Of proro¬
gation of
parliament.
a prorogation of the houfe of lords or commons, but of Parliament,
the parliament. The feffion is never underdood to be ^
at an end until a prorogation j though, unlefs lome act
be paffe^l, or fome judgement given in parliament, it is
in truth no feffion at all. And formerly the ufage was,
for the king to give the royal affent to all fuch bills as
he approved at the end of every feffion, and then to pro¬
rogue the parliament, though fometimes only for a day
or two } after which all bufinefs then depending in the
houfes was to be begun again. Which cudom obtained
fo drongly, that it once became a quedion, Whether
giving the royal affent to a fingle bill did not of courfe
put an end to the feffion ? And though it was then re -
iolved in the negative, yet the notion was fo deeply
rooted, that the datute 1 Car. I. c. 7. was paffed to de
clare, that the king’s affent to that and fome other a&s
diould not put an end to the feilion } and even fo late a >
the reign of Charles II. we find a provifo frequently
tacked to a bill, that bis majedy’s affent thereto fiiould
not determine the feffion oi parliament. But it now
feems to be allowed, that a prorogation mud be exprefs.-
ly made, in order to determine the fedion. And it at
the time of an actual rebellion, or imminent danger of
invafion, the parliament fhall be feparated by adjourn¬
ment or prorogation, the king is empowered to call them '
together by proclamation, with 14 days notice of the
time appointed for their reaffembling. 21
A dijjblution is the civil death of the parliament •, and Parliament
this may be effected three ways: 1. By the king’s will,^^^%ec^
expreffed either in perfon or by reprefentation. For as kfng>s WUJ,
the king has the foie right of convening the parliament,
fo alfo it is a branch of the royal prerogative, that he
may (whenever he pleafes) prorogue the parliament for
a lime, or put a final period to its exidence. If nothing
had a right to prorogue or diffolve a parliament but it¬
felf, it might happen to become perpetual. And this
would be extremely dangerous, if at any time it fliould
attempt to encroach upon the executive power j as was
fatally experienced by the unfortunate King Charles I. •,
who, having unadvifedly paffed an aft to continue the
parliament then in being till fuch time as it Ihould pleafe
to diffolve itfelf, at lad fell a facrifice to that inordinate
power which he himfelf had contented to give them.
It is therefore extremely neceffiry that the crown
diould be empowered to regulate the duration of thefe
affemblies, under the limitations which the Englidi con-
ditutien has preferibed : fo that, on the one hand, they
may frequently and regularly come together for the
defpatch of bufinefs and redrefs of grievances ; and may
not, on the other, even with the confent of the crown,
be continued to an inconvenient or unconftitutional
length. 22
2. A parliament may be diffolved by the demife ofor in con-
the crown. This diffolution formerly happened imme-j^ff^^01
diately upon the death of the reigning fovereign : for he m ca l*
being confidered in law as the head of the parliament,
(caput, principium, et Jinisj, that failing, the whole bo¬
dy was held to be extinct. But the calling a new par¬
liament immediately on the inauguration of the fucceffor
being found inconvenient, and dangers being apprehend¬
ed from having no parliament in being in cafe of a dif-
puted fucceflion, it was enafted by the ftatutes j and 8
\Vm. III. c. 15. and 6 Ann, c. 7. that the parliament
in being lhall continue for fix months after the death of
any king or queen, unlefs fooner prorogued or diffol-
5 G 2 ved
PAR [ 7
Parliament, ved by the fucceffor; that if the parliament be, at the
v time of the king’s death, feparated, by adjournment or
prorogation, it ihall notwithftanding ailemble immedi¬
ately : and that if no parliament is then in being, the
members of the laft parliament fhall affemble and be
again a parliament.
or through 3- Laftly, A parliament may be diffblved or expire by
length of length of time. For if either the legillative body were
time. perpetual, or might laft for the life of the prince who
convened them as formerly, and were fo to be fupplied,
by occafionally filling the vacancies with new reprefen-
tatives ; in thefe cafes, if it were once corrupted, the
evil would be paft all remedy ; but when different bo¬
dies fucceed each other, if the people fee caufe to difap-
prove of the.prefent, they may reftify its faults in the
next. A legillative affembly alfo, which is fare to be
feparated again, (whereby its members will themfelves
become private men, and fubjeft to the full extent of
the laws which they have enabled for others), will think
themfelves bound, in intereft as well as duty, to make
only fuch laws as are good. The utmoft extent of time
that the fame parliament wTas allowed to fit, by the fta-
tute 6 W. and M. c. 3. was three years : after the expi¬
ration of which, reckoning from the return of the firft
fummons, the parliament was to have no longer conti¬
nuance. But by the ftatute 1 Geo. I. flat. 2. c. 38.
(in order, profelfedly, to prevent the great and conti¬
nued expences of frequent eleftions, and the violent
heats and animofities confequent thereupon, and for the
peace and fecurity of the government then juft recover¬
ing from the late rebellion), this term was prolonged to
/even years; and, what alone is an inftance of the vaft
authority of parliament, the very fame houfe that was
chofen for three years, enabled its own continuance for
feven. So that, as our conftitution now Hands, the par¬
liament muft expire, or die a natural death, at the end
of every feventh year, if not fooner diffolved by the royal
prerogative.
We fhall conclude this article with an account of fome
general forms not taken notice of under any of the above
„, heads.
General In the houfe of lords, the princes of the blood fit by
forms ob- themfelves on the fides of the throne \ at the wall, on
ferved in king*s right hand, the two archbilhops fit by them-
ot peers.C ^e^ves on a f°rm- Below them, the bifhops of London,
Durham, and Winchefter, and all the other bifhops, fit
according to the priority of their confecration. On the
king’s left hand the lord treafurer, lord prefident, and
lord privy feal, fit upon forms above all dukes, except
the royal blood •, then the dukes, marquifes, and earls,
according to their creation. Acrofs the room are wool
facks, continued from an ancient cuftom; and the chan¬
cellor, or keeper, being of courfe the fpeaker of the
houfe of lords, fits on the firft wool fack before the
throne, with the great feal or mace lying by him j be¬
low thefe are forms for the vifcounts and barons. On
the other wool facks are feated the judges, mailers ih
chancery, and king’s council, who are only to give their
advice in points of law 5 but they all Hand up till the
25 gives them leave to fit.
In the The commons fit promifcuoufly 5 only the fpeaker
houfe of has a chair at the upper end of the houfe, and the clerk
commons. an(j his a{fiftant at a table near him.
When a member of the houfe of commons fpeaks,
he Hands up uncovered, and directs his fpeech to the
88 ] PAR
fpeaker only. If what he fays be anfwered by ano-Parliament,
ther, he is not allowed to reply the fame day, unlefs —w—-w
perfonal refledtions have been call upon him : but
when the commons, in order to have a greater freedom
of debate, have refolved themfelves into a committee of
the whole houfe, every member may fpeak to a quell ion
as often as he thinks neceffary. In the houfe of lords
they vote, beginning at the puifne or loweft baron, and
fo up orderly to the higheft, every one anlwering, Cov-
tent or Not content. In the houfe of commons they vote
by yeas and nays; and if it be dubious which are the
greater number, the houfe divides. If the queliion be
about bringing any thing into the houfe, the yeas go
out, but if it be about any thing the houle already has,
the nays go out. In all divifions the fpeaker appoints
four tellers, two of each opinion. In a committee of the
whole houfe, they divide by changing fides, the year
taking the right and the nays the left of the chair •, and
then there are but twTo tellers. If a bill pafs one houfe,
and the other demur to it, a conference is demanded in
the painted chamber, where certain members are depu¬
ted from each houfe ; and here the lords fit covered, and
the commons Hand bare, and debate the cafe. If they
difagree, the affair is null : but if they agree, this, with
the other bills that have paffed both houles, is brought
down to the king in the houfe of lords, who comes thi¬
ther clothed in his royal robes; before him the clerk of
the parliament reads the title of each bill, and as he
reads, the clerk of the crow-n pronounces the royal af- 26
fent or diffent. If it be a public bill, the royal affent is Manner of
given in thefe words, Le roy le vent, “ The king will PXpreiTmg
have it fo j” if private, Soil fait comme il ejl defire, afrAn'Ir
“ Let the requeft be complied with if the king refu-diffent to
fes the bill, the anfwer is, Le roy s^avifera, “ The king bills.
wrill think of it 5” and if it be a money bill, the anfwrer
is, Le roy remercie fes loyaux fujets, accepte leur bene¬
volence, et aujji leveut; “ The king thanks his loyal fub-
jefls, accepts their benevolence, and therefore grants his
confent.”
High Court of PARLIAMENT, is the fupreme court
in the kingdom, not only for the making, but alfo for
the execution of laws ; by the trial of great and enor¬
mous offenders, whether lords or commoners, in the me¬
thod of parliamentary impeachment. As for adls of
parliament to attaint particular perfons of treafon or fe¬
lony, or to inflidl pains and penalties, beyond or contra¬
ry to the common law, to ferve a fpecial purpofe, w e
fpeak not of them ; being to all intents and purpofes
new laws, made pro re nata, and by no means an exe¬
cution of fuch as are already in being. But an impeach*,
ment before the lords by the commons of Great Britain,
in parliament, is a profecution of the already known and
eftablilhed law, and has been frequently put in praflice $
being a prefentment to the moft high and fupreme court
of criminal jurifdidlion by the moft folemn grand inqueft
of the “whole kingdom. A commoner cannot, however,
be impeached before the lords for any capital offence,
but only for high mifdemeanors j a peer may be im¬
peached for any crime. And they ufually (in cafe of
an impeachment of a peer for treafon) addrefs the crowm
to appoint a lord high fteward, for the greater dignity
and regularity of their proceedings which high fteward
was formerly defied by the peers themfelves, though he
was generally commiffioned by the king \ but it hath of
late years been ftrenuoufly maintained, that the appoint¬
ment
PAR
[ 789 3
PAR
Parliam-’ nt. fnsnt of a high fteward in fuch cafes is not indifpenlably
'   neceffary, but that the houfe may proceed without one.
The articles of impeachment are a kind of bills of in¬
dictment, found by the houfe of commons, and after¬
wards tried by the lords} who are in cafes of mifde-
meanors confidered not only as their own peers, but as
the peers of the whole nation. this is a cuftom derived
to us from the ccnftitution of the ancient Germans 5
who in their great councils fometimes tried capital ac-
cufations relating to the public : Licet apud concilium
accufara quoque, et difcrimen capitis intendere. And it
has a peculiar propriety in the Engliih conftitution 5
which has much improved upon the ancient model im¬
ported hither from the continent. For though in gene¬
ral the union of the legiflative and judicial powers ought
to be moll carefully avoided, yet it may happen that a
fubiecf, intruded with the adminiftration of public af¬
fairs, may infringe the rights of the people, and be
guilty of iuch crimes as the ordinary magiftrate either
dares not or cannot punifh. Of thefe the reprefentatives
of the people, or houfe of commons, cannot properly
judge ; becaufe their conftituents are the parties injured,
and can therefore only impeach. But before what court
ihall this impeachment be tried ? Not before the ordina¬
ry tribunals, which would naturally be iwayed by the
authority of fo powerful an accufer. Reafon therefore
will fugged, that this branch of the legidature, which
reprefents the people, mud bring its charge before the
other branch, which confids of the nobility, who have
neither the fame intereds, nor the fame paflions, as po¬
pular affemblies. This is a vad fuperiority which the
conditution of this idand enjoys over thofe of the Gre¬
cian or Roman republics •, where the people wrere at the
fame time both judges and accufers.. It is proper that
the nobility diould judge, to enfure judice to the accu-
fed '■) as it is proper that the people diould accvueg to en¬
fure judice to the commonwealth. And therefore, a-
mong other extraordinary circumdances attending the
authority of this court, there is one of a very dngulai
nature, which wras infided on by the houfe of commons
in the cafe of the earl of Danby in the reign of Chas. II.
and is now enafled by datute 12 and 13 W. HI. c. 2.
that no pardon under the great feal fhall be pleadable to
an impeachment by the commons of Great Biitain m
parliament. . # .
Such is the nature 01 a Britilh parliament, and in
theory at lead we ftiould prefume it were nearly perfeft 5
but fome of our fellow countrymen, more zealous per¬
haps than wife, fee prodigious faults in it, luch indeed
as they think mud inevitably prove fatal. The conie-
quence uf this perfuadon has been a loud and incenant
call for parliamentary reform. That abufes ought to
be reformed, is certain •, and that few inditutions are
fo perfect as not to need amendment, is a fact equally
indifputable. We fliall even fuppofe that there are ma¬
ny abufes in our parliament which wTould require to be
amended ; but, granting all this, and fomething more
if it were neceflary, we would recommend m the mean
time to the ferious condderation of thofe w’ho. call them-
felves the Triends of the People, whofe dncerity in theii
profedions it would be impolite to quedion, the ex¬
ample of France, and that they would allow- it to be a
warning to Britain. France wanted reform indeed, and
that which was drd propofed had the countenance of the
cooled and the bed of men j but the conferences have
been dreadful 5 and if ever a free and liable government Pantam-nt,
take place in it, which we dncerely wilh may be foon,
it will have been purchafed at an immenfe price, by
enormities which will difgrace it whild the remembrance
of them lads.
The former PARLIAMENTS of France w-ere lovereign
courts edablidied by the king, dually to determine all
difputes between particular perfons, and to pronounce
on appeals from fentences given by inferior judges.
There were ten of thefe parliaments in France, of which
that of Paris was the chief, its privileges and jurifdiclion
being of the greated extent. It confided of eight cham¬
bers : the grand chamber, where caufes of audience were
pleaded ; the chamber of written law ; the chamber ot
counfel j the Tournelle criminelle, forjudging criminal
affairs ; the Tournelle civile, in aid of the grand cham¬
ber •, and three chambers of inqueds, where proceffes
were adiudged in writing : beddes thefe, there w as alfo
the chamber of vacations, and thofe ©r requeds. In
1771 the king thought fit to branch the parliament of
Paris into fix different parliaments, under the denomma-
tion of fuperior courts, each parliament^ having flmilai
jurifdielion. Under their fecond race of kings, this par¬
liament, like that of England, was the king’s conncil y
it gave audience to ambaffadors, and confultcd of the ai-
fairs of war and government. The king, like ours, at
that time prefided in them, without being at all mader
of their refolutions. But in after times their authority
was abridged •, as the kings referved the decidon of the
grand affairs of the public to their own councils*, leav¬
ing none but private ones to the parliaments. The par¬
liament of Paris alfo enjoyed the privileges of verifying
and reglftering the king’s arrets or edifts, without w hich
thofe eciifts were of little or no value.
PARLIAMENT of Sweden, confids of four edates, with
the king at their head. Thefe edates are,_ 1. The nobi¬
lity and reprefentatives of the gentry } wTith whom the
colonels, lieutenant colonels, majors, and captains of
every regiment, fit and vote. 2. The clergy *, one of
which body is elefted from every rural deanery of ten
paridies; who, with the bidrops and fuperintendents,
amount to about 200. 3. The burghers,_elefted by the
magidrates and council of every corporation as their re¬
prefentatives, of wThom there are four for Stockholm,
and two for every other town, amounting in the whole
to about 150. 4. The peafants, chofen by the peafants
out of every didricl} who choofe one of their owm rank,
and not a gentleman, to reprefent them : thefe amount
to about 250.
All thefe generally meet at Stockholm : and after the
date affairs have been reprefen ted to them from the
throne, they feparate, and fit in four feveral chambers
or houfes, in each of which affairs are carried on by ma¬
jority of votes; and every chamber has a negative in
the paffing any law. _ , , ,r
PARMA, an ancient, rich, populous, and handiome
town of Italy, capital of the duchy of the fame name,
with a citadel, a bifhop’s fee, and an univeiffity. It has
a magnificent cathedral, and the larged opera houfe in
Europe, which has feats for 8000 people j but as it re¬
quired a vad number of candles, which occafioned great
expence, they have contrived another which has room
for 2000 fpeftators. The dome and the church of St
John are painted by the famous Corregio, who was a na¬
tive of this place. Don Carlos, king of the two Sicilies,
PAR ’ [ 7
P.rma carried away the library to Naples, which contained
Parmigi. I8’000 volumes, and a very valuable cabinet of curiofi-
ano. ties, as alfo the rich colleftion of medals. The citadel,
 ' which is very near the city, is built in the fame tafte as
that^at Antwerp. In 1734 there was a bloody battle
fou'pit here j and in I74I> by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle, the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Gua-
llalla, were given to Don Philip, brother to Don Car-
los above mentioned. It is 30 miles fouth-eail of Cre¬
mona, and 60 fouth-eail of Milan. E. Loim. I0 a
N. Lat. 44. 50. & o •
Parma, the duchy of, a province of Italy, bounded
on the north by the Po ; on the norih-eail bv the Man¬
tuan j on the call by the duchy of Modena j on the
muth by Tufcany j and on the weft by the duchy of
Placentia. I he air is very wholefome, on which account
. e inhabitants live to a great age. T he foil is very fer¬
tile in corn, wine, oil, and hemp j the paftures feed a
great number of cattle, and the cheefe is in very high
efteem. Ireie are confiderable mines of copper and filver.
PARMESAN cheese, a fort of cheefe much efteem-
ed among the. Italians •, lo named from the duchy of
Parma where it is made, and whence it is conveyed to
varior ‘ parts of Europe.
J be excellent pafture grounds of this country are wa¬
tered by the Po j and the cows from whofe milk this
cheefe is made yield a great quantity of it. Of this
o.heefe there are three forts j the fromaggio rli forma,
about two palms in diameter, and feven or eight inches
thick j and the fromaggia cli ribiole and di ribolini,
which are not fo large. This cheefe is of a laffron co¬
lour •, and the belt is kept three or four years. See
Cheese.
PARMIGIANO, a celebrated painter, wdiofe true
name was Francefco Mazzuoh j but lie received the for-
mei horn the city of Parma, where he was born, in
1504. He was brought up under his two uncles, and
was an eminent painter when but 16 years of age. He
was famous all over Italy at 19 ; and at 23 performed
fucii wonders, that w-hen the general of the emperor
Charles V. took Rome by ftorm, fome of the common
.0Idlers having, in . facking the town broke into his
apartments, found him intent upon his work, and were
inftantly fo ftruck with the beauty of his pieces, that in-
ftead of involving him in the plunder and deftruaion in
which they were then employed, they revived to pro-
teft him from all manner of violence j which they ac-
tually performed. Elis works are diftinguiftied by the
beauty of the colouring, the invention, and drawing.
His f gmes aie fpinted and graceful, particularly wdth
reipeA to the choice of attitude, and in their dreffes.
He alfo excelled in mulic, in which he much de¬
lighted.
In large compofitions Parmigiano did not alwravs
reach a high degree of excellence j but ip his holy fami¬
lies, and other fimilar fubjeds, the gracefulnefs of his
heads, and the elegance of his attitudes, are peculiarly
delightful.. For the celebrity of his name he feems to
be chiefly indebted to his numerous drawings and etch¬
ings •, for his life being fliort, and a great part of it con-
famed in the idle ftudy of alchemy, in purfuit of the phi-
lofopner s ftcne, and in the feducing avocations of mufic
and gambling, there was but little time left for applica¬
tion, to the laborious part of his bufmefs. His paintings
yi oil aie few in number, and held m high efteem, as
3
9° 1 PAR
are atfo his drawings and etchings; good imprefliom of Para,
theie laft being very rarely to be found. He was the an
firft that praAiled the art of etching in Italy • and pro 11
bably he did not at firft know, that it had been for n*™
tome years praAiled in Germany. When he fet out for ”
Rome, he was advifed to take ibme of his piAures wdth
him, as a means of getting himfelf introduced into the
acquaintance of the nobility and artifts in that celebrat¬
ed city. One of them is mentioned by his biographers
as a Aiafterpiece. It was his own portrait painted upon
a piece of wood of a convex form, in imitation of a con¬
vex mirror. The furface is laid to have been lb won-
derfuliy executed, that it had the appearance of real
glals, and the head, as wHl as every part of the furni¬
ture of the chamber in which he was fuppofed to fit,
was lo artfully managed, that the whole formed a very
complete piece of deception. At Rome he was employ ¬
ed by Pope Clement VII. who was highly pleafed with
his performances, and rewarded him liberally. A cir-
cumcifion which.he painted for him was particularly
efteemed as a capital work. In it Parmigiano was fuc-
cefsful in introducing a variety of lights, without de-
ftroying the general harmony. When Charles V. came
to. Bologna to be crowned emperor of the Romans, Par¬
migiano failed not to be prefent at that fingular ceremo¬
ny ; and lb accurately marked the countenance of the
emperor, that at his return home, he was enabled from
memory to make out a furprifing likenefs. In the fame
piece he introduced the figure of Fame placing a crown
of laurel on the head, of the emperor, whit ft" a young
Hercules preferred him with a globe of the world. Be-
fore it was quite finilhed, the painter and his piece were
introduced to Charles by the Pope, but .to little pur-
pofe j for the emperor left Bologna a few days after,
without ordering him any recompenfe for his labour. In
the church of Madona della Stercato at Parma are ftill
to be feen feveral of the works of this artift ; among
whicn one of tibvls, and two others of Motes, and of
Adam and Eve, are much admired. So alfo is a Dead
Chrift,.with the Virgin in forrow, in the church of the
Dominicans at Cremona. In the Houghton colleAion
of piAures, now. in poffeflion of the emprefs of Ruflia, is
one of his belt piAures, reprefenting Chrift laid in the
fepulchre, for which he is faid to have been knighted
by the duke of Parma. His principal works are at Par¬
ma, w here he died poor in 154c.
PARNASSIA, grafs of Parnaffus j a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs. See Botany
Indix.
PARNASSUS (Strabo, Pindar, Virgil), a mountain
of Phocis, near Delphi, and the mounts Cithaeron and
Helicon, with twTo tops (Ovid, Lucan)- the one call¬
ed Cirrha, facred to Apollo ; and the other Nifa, fa¬
ded to Bacchus, (Juvenal). It was covered with bay
trees (Virgil) ; and originally called LartmJTus, from
Deucalion’s larnax or ark, thither conveyed bv the
flood, (Stephanus, Scholiaft on Apollonius) ; after the
flood, Parnajfus; from Har Nahas, changing the h in-
to^6, the hill of aivination or augury (Peucerus) j the
oracle of Delphi Handing at its foot.
Chandler *, who vifited it, thus defcribesAt :—“ Par- * Travels
naffus was the weftern boundary of Phccis, and ftretch- in Greece
ing northward from about Delphi toward the Oetman
mountains, feparated tbo weftern Locri from thofe who
poffeffed the lea coaft before Euboea. It was a place of
refuge
PAR
FarnafTaJ. refuge to the Delphians in times of danger.
■■■■v'"'’1'1 luge, which happened under Deucalion, the natives were
faved on it by following the cry of wolves. On the in-
vafion by Xerxes, fome tranfportcd their families over
to Achaia, but many concealed them in the mountain,
and in Corycium, a grotto of the Nymphs. All Par-
naffus was renowned for fanchty, but Corycium was the
moil noted among the hallowed caves and places. ‘ On
the way to the iummit of Parnatfus, fays Paufanias, as
much as 60 fladia beyond Delphi, is a brazen image ;
and from thence the afcent to Corycium is eafier for a
man on foot, and for mules and hordes. Of all the caves
in which I have be^n, this appeared to me the beft
worth feeing. • On the coafts, and by the fea fide, are
more than can be numbered 5 but fome are very famous
both in Greece and in other countries. The Corycian
cave exceeds in magnitude thole I have mentioned, and
for the moil; part may be paiTed through without a light.
It is fufficiently high : and has water, fome fpringing
up, and yet more from the roof, which petrifies 5 fo that
the bottom of the whole cave is covered with [parry ici¬
cles. The inhabitants of Parnaffus efteem it facred to
the Corycian Nymphs, and particularly to Pan.—From
the cave to reach the fummits of the mountain is diffi¬
cult even to a man on foot. The fummits are above the
clouds, and the women called Thyades madden on them
in the rites of Bacchus and Apollo.’ Their frantic or¬
gies were performed yearly. Wheler and his company
afeended Parnaffus from Delphi, fome on horfes, by a
track between the ftadium and the clefts of the moun¬
tain. Stairs were cut in the rock, with aflrait channel,
perhaps a water dud.—In a long hour, after many tra-
verles, they gained the top, and entering a plain turned
to the right, towards the iummits oi Caftaha, which are
divided by deep precipices. From this eminence they
had a fine profped of the gulf of Corinth, and of the
coalt; Mount Cirphis appearing beneath them as a
plain, bounded on the eafl: by the bay of Afprofpitia,
and on the weft by that of Salona. A few Ihepherds
had huts there. 'I'hey returned to the way which they
had quitted, and croffed a hill covered with pines and
fnow. On their left was a lake, and beyond it a peak,
exceedingly high, white with fnow. They travelled to
the foot of it through a valley, four or five miles in
compafs j and refted by a plentiful fountain called Dro-
fonig'j, the ftream boiling up a foot in diameter, and
nearly as much above the furiace of the ground. It
runs into the lake, which is about a quarter of a mile
diftant to the fouth-eaft. They did not difeover Cory¬
cium, or proceed farther on, but keeping the lake on
their right, came again to the brink of the mountain,
and descended by a deep and dangerous track to Raco-
vi, a village four or five miles eaftvvard from Delphi.
It was the opinion of Wheler, that no mountain in
Greece was higher than Pamaffus ; that it was not infe¬
rior to Mount Cenis among the Alps •, and that, if de¬
tached, it would be feen at a greater diftance than even
Mount Athos. The fummits are perpetually increafing,
every new fall of fnow adding to the perennial heap,
while the fun has power only to thaw the fuperficies.
Caftalis Ple’.ftus and innumerable fprings are fed, fome
invifibly, from the lakes and refervoirs, which, without
thefe drains and fubterraneous vents, would fwell, efpe-
cially after heavy rain and the melting of fnow, fo as
to fill the valleys, and run over the tops of the rocks
[ 7_91 ] PAR
In the de- down upon Delphi, fpreading wide an inundation, fi-
milar, as has been fmmifed, to the Deucalonian de-
luge.”
PARNFLL, Dr Thomas, a very ingenious divine
and poet in the early part of the 18th century. Pie was
archdeacon of Clogher, and the intimate friend of Mr
Pope ; who published his works, with an elegant copy
of recommendatory verfes prefixed. He died in 1718,
aged 39
Parnell,
Parodv.
Johnfon f fays, “ The life of Dr Parnell is a
talk'f
which I Ihould very willingly decline, fince it has been'
lately written by Goldfmith, a man of fuch variety of
powers, and fuch facility of performance, that he always
feemed to do beft that which he was doing j a man who
had the art of being minute without tedioufnefs, and ge¬
neral without confufion j whofe language was copious
without exuberance, exact without conltraint, and eafy
without weaknefs.
“ What fuch an .author has told, who would tell a-
gain ? I have made an extraft from his larger narrative,
and ftiall have this gratification from my attempt, that
it gives me an opportunity of paying due tribute to the
memory of a departed genius.
‘ Ta yx? yipxs
“ The general character of Parnell is not great ex¬
tent of comprehenfion, or fertility of mind. Of the lit¬
tle that appears ftiil lefs is his own. His praife muft be
derived from the eafy fweetnefs of his diclion : in his
verfes there is more happinefs than pains ; he is fpright-
ly without effort, and always delights though he never
ravifhes ; every thing is proper, yet every thing feems.
cafual. If there is fome appearance of elaboration in
the Hermit, the narrative, as it is lefs airy, is lefs plea¬
ting. Of his other compofitions, it is impoftible to fay
whether they are the produftions of Nature fo excellent
as not to want the help of Art, or of Art fo refined as
to refemble Nature.”
PARODICAL DEGREES, in an equation, a term
fometimes ufed to denote the feveral regular terms in a
quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, Sec. equation,, when the
indices of the powers afeend or defeend orderly in an
arithmetical pregreffion. Thus, x*-\-mx*-\-nx—f> is a-
cubic equation where no term is wanting, but having all
its parodic degrees •, the indices of the terms regularly
defeending thus, 3, 2, 1, o.
PARODY, a popular maxim, adage, or proverb.
Parody, is alfo a poetical pleafantry, confiding iu
applying the verfes w ritten on one fubjeci, by way oi ri¬
dicule, to another ; or in turning a ferious work into a
burlefque, by affefling to obferve as near as pofiible the
fame rhimds, words, and cadences.
The parody was firft fet on foot by the Greeks ; from
whom we borrow the name. It comes near to what
fome of our late writers call tvavejhj. Others have ■
more accurately diftinguifhed between a parody and bur¬
lefque *, and they obferve, that the change, of a fingle
word may parody a verfe ■, or of a fingle letter a word.
Thus, in the laft cafe, Cato expofed the inconftant dif-
pofition of Marcus Fulvius Nobifior, by changing No-
bilior into Mobilior. Another kind of parody confifts
in the mere application of fome known verfe, or part of
a verfe of a writer, without making any change in it,
with a view to expofe it. A fourth inftance is that of
writing verfes in the tafte and File of authors little ap¬
proved,.
Lives of
if Poets*
PAR [ 792 ] PAR
proved. The rules of parody regard the choice of a
fubjedl, and the manner of treating it. The fubjeft
fhould be a known and celebrated work : as to the man¬
ner, it Ihould be by an exa£t imitation, and an intermix¬
ture of good-natured pleafantry.
PAROLE, in a military fenfe, the promife made
by a prifoner of war, when he has leave to go any¬
where, of returning at a time appointed, if not ex¬
changed.
Parole, means alfo a word given out every day in
orders by the commanding officer, both in camp and
garrifon, in order to know friends from enemies.
PARONOMASIA, in Rhetoric, a pun j or a figure
wffiereby words nearly alike in found, but of very differ¬
ent meanings, are affedfedly or defignedly ufed. See
Oratory, N° 76.
PARONYCHIA, the Whitlow, in Surgery, is an
abfcefs at the end of the fingers. According as it is fi-
tuated more or lefs deep, it is differently denominated,
and divided into fpecies. See Surgery Index.
PAROS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Ae¬
gean fea, one of the Cyclades, with a ftrong cognomi-
nal town, 38 miles diftant from Delos (Pliny, Nepos).
Anciently called PaElye and Minoa (Pliny) ; alfo De¬
metrius, Zacynthus, Hyria, Hylcejfa, and Cab arms (Ni-
canor). The country of Archilochus the iambic poet
(Strabo). An ifland famous for its white marble (Vir¬
gil, Horace, Ovid), called lychnites, becaufe dug with
lamps (Pliny). The name of Cabarnis is borrowed, ac¬
cording to Stephanus, from one Cabarnus, who firft in¬
formed Ceres of the rape of her daughter Proferpine ;
or, according to Hefychius, from the Cabami, the
priefts of Ceres being fo called by the inhabitants of this
ifland. The name of Minoa is borrowed from Minos
king of Crete, who fubdued this, as he did moft of the
other illands of the Algean fea. It was called Paros,
wffiich name it retains to this day, from Paros the fon of
Parrhafius, or, as Stephanus will have it, of Jafon the
Argonaut. Paros, according to Pliny’s computation,
is diftant from Naxos feven miles and a half, and 28
from Delos. Some modern travellers fuppofe that it
is 80, others only 50 miles in compafs. Pliny fays it
is half as large as Naxos, that is, between 36 and 37
miles in compafs. It was a rich and powerful ifland,
being termed the moft wealthy and happy of the Cy¬
clades, and by Cornelius Nepos an ifland elated with its
riches. The city of Paros, the metropolis, is ftyled by
Stephanus a potent city, and one of the largeft in the
Archipelago : the prefent city of Paros, now Parichia,
is fuppofed to have been built upon its ruins, the coun¬
try abounding with valuable monuments of antiquity.
The very walls of the prefent city are built with co¬
lumns, architraves, pedeftals, mingled with pieces of
ancient marble of a furprifing magnitude, which were
once employed in more noble edifices. Paros was indeed
formerly famous for its marble, which was of an extra¬
ordinary whitenefs, and in fuch requeft among the an¬
cients that the beft ftatuaries ufed no other (a). The
ifland is provided with feveral capacious and fafe har¬
bours, and was anciently much reforted to by traders.
It was, according to Thucydides, originally peopled by
the Phoenicians, wffio were the firft mafters of the fea.
Afterwards the Carians fettled here, as wre are told by
Thucydides and Diodorus. But thefe twro authors dif¬
fer as to the time when the Carians came firft into the
ifland ; for Thucydides tells us, that the Carians were
driven out by the Cretans under the conduct of Minos;
and Diodorus writes, that the Carians did not fettle here
till after the Trojan war, when they found the Cretans
in poffeffion of the ifland. Stephanus thinks that the
Cretans, mixed wdth feme Arcadians, were the only
people that ever poffeffed this ifland. Minos himfelf if
wre believe Pliny, refided fome time in the ifland of Pa¬
ros, and received here the melancholy news of the death
of his fon Androgeus, who was killed in Attica after
he had diftinguiftied himfelf at the public games. We
find the inhabitants of this ifland chofen from among all
the Greeks by the Milefians to compofe the differences
which had for tw7© generations rent that unhappy ftate
into parties and fadlions. They acquitted themfelves
wdth great prudence, and reformed the government.
They affifted Darius in his expedition againft Greece
with a confiderable fquadron •, but after the viftory ob¬
tained by Miltiades at Marathon, they were reduced to
great ftraits by that general. However, after blocking
up the city for 26 days, he was obliged to quit the en-
terprife, and return to Athens with difgrace. Upon his
departure, the Parians vrere informed that Timo, a
prieftefs of the national gods, and then his prifoner, had
advifed him to perform fome fee ret ceremony in the
temple of Ceres, near the city ; affuring him that he
wrould thereby gain the place. Upon this information
they lent deputies to confult the oracle of Delphi, whe¬
ther they ffiould punifh her with death, for endeavour¬
ing to betray the city to the enemy, and difeovering the
facred myfteries to Miltiades. The Pythian anfwered,
that Timo was not the advifer ; but that the gods, hav¬
ing refolved to deftroy Miltiades, had only made her
the inftrument of his death. After the battle of Sala-
mis, Themiftocles fubjefted Paros and moft of the other
neighbouring iflands to Athens, exaAing large fums
from them by way of punifhment for having favoured
the Perfians. It appears from the famous monument of
Adulas, which Cofmos of Egypt has deferibed with
great exaelnefs, that Paros and the other Cyclades were
once fubjeft to the Ptolemies of Egypt. However, Pa¬
ros fell again under the power of the Athenians, who
continued mafters of it till they were driven out by Mi-
thridates
(a) Sutherland fays, “ that while its marble quarries continued to be worked, Paros was one of the moft fiou-
riffiing of the Cyclades •, but on the decline of the eaftern empire they were entirely neglefted, and are now con¬
verted into caves, in which the ffiepherds ffielter their flocks. We have been in feveral of thefe fabterraneous
Bolds, which put me much in mind of Homer’s defeription of Polyphemus. The common walls are almoft entirely
compofed of marble ; and in examining a very fmall part of one, we found feveral pieces of cornice and baffo re¬
lievo. Several fine blocks of marble (fragments of columns) are lying clofe to the water’s edge; and feem to
have been brought there by travellers, who for wa'nt of a proper purchafe to get them on board, have not been
able to carry them further.”
Paros
II
Parr.
PAH C7931 PAR
thridates the Great. But .hat prince beittg ob%ed to jelly,
yield to Sylla, to Lucullus, and to Pompey, this and
•7. -a \ r A r.tKmntpf! to the
Parr.
the other iflands of the Archipelago fubmitted to the
Romans, who reduced them to a province with Lydia,
Phrygia, and Cana.
Mr Sutherland, who lately vifited Paros, _ lays, that
“ the water in it is excellent ; and as that which w e got
at Medina has been complained of, as being too hard
to make proper peafe foup for the people,^ all the calks
are ordered to be emptied and refilled. . I he Kuflians
made this place their grand arftnal; their powder ma¬
gazines, and feveral other buildings, are Hill Handing ;
and the ifland is confiderably indebted to them for im¬
proving the convenience for water, and for the trade
which the calh they expended introduced among the
inhabitants.”
PAROTIDES, or Parotids, are glands fituated on
each fide of the head. See Anatomy Index.
PAROXYSM, in Medicine, the fevere fit of a dii-
eafe, under which it grows higher or exafperated 5 as
of the gout, &c.
PARR, Catharine, queen of England, was the el-
deft daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendall. She wTas
firft married to John Nevil, Lord Latymer 5 after whole
death, by her marriage with Henry VIII. fhe was railed to
the throne. The royal nuptials were folemnized at Hamp¬
ton Court on the 12th of July 1543. Being religioufly
difpofed, ftie was, in the early part of her life, a zealous
obferver of the Romilh rites and ceremonies ; but m the
dawning of the Reformation, Ihe became as zealous a
promoter of the Lutheran doclrine •, yet with fuch pru¬
dence and circumfpeftion as her perilous fituation requu-
ed. Neverthelefs, we are told, that Ihe was in- great,
danger of falling a facrifice to the Popifti fa&ion, the
chief of whom was Biftiop Gardiner : he drew up arti¬
cles againft her, and prevailed on the king to fign a
warrant to remove her to the Tower. This warrant
howrever, accidentally dropped, and immediately
conveyed to her majefty! What her apprehensions
muft have been on this occafion may be eafily imagined.
She knew the monarch, and ftie could not help recol-
le&ing the fate of his former queens. A hidden illnefs
was the natural confequence. The news of her indif-
pofition brought the king to her apartment. He was
lavifti in exprefhons of affedftion, and fent her a phyfi-
cian. His maiefty being loon after alfo fomewhat indif-
pofed ftie prudently returned the vifit; with which the
Ling feemed pleafed, and began to talk with her on re¬
ligious fubjecb, propofing certain queftions, concerning
which he wanted her opinion. She anfwered, that inch
profound fpeculations w^ere not Anted to her fex; that
it belonged to the hufband to choofe principles for his
wnfe; the wife’s duty was, in all cafes, to adopt im¬
plicitly the fentiments of her hufband : and as to her-
felf it was doubly her duty, being bleffed with a
hufband who was qualified, by his judgement and learn¬
ing not only to choofe principles for his own family,
but for the' moft wife and knowing of every nation.
“ Not fo, by St Mary,” replied the king ; “ you are
now become a doftor, Kate, and better fitted to give
than receive inftruaion.” She meekly replied, that
{he was fenfible how little fhe was _ entitled to the.e
praifes •, that though ftie ufually declined not any con-
vcrfation, however fuhlime, when propofed by his ma-
Voe. XV. Part II.
to no other purpofe than to give him a little momeniary
amufement; that fhe found the converfation a little
apt to languifh when not revived by fome oppoiition,
and flie had ventured fometimes to feign a contrariety
of fentiments, in order to give him the pleafure of re¬
futing her j and that fhe alfo propofed, by this inno¬
cent artifice, to engage him into topics whence fhe
had obferved, by frequent experience, that fhe ieaF^
profit and irfftru&ion. “ And is it fo, fweetneart.
replied the king ^ “ then we are perfeft friends again.
He embraced her with great affedlion, and fent her ana)
with affurances of his prote&ion and kindnefs.
The time being now come when fhe was to be lent
to the Tower, the king, walking in the garden, tut
for the queen, and met her with great good humour ;
when lo the chancellor, with forty of the guards, ap¬
proached. He fell upon his knees, and fpoke fo.tly
with the king, who called him knave, arrant knave,
beaft, fool, and commanded him inftantly to depart.
Henry then returned to the queen, who ventured to
intercede for the chancellor : “ Ah, poor foul,” laid
the king, “ thou little knoweft how evil he defervetu
this grace at thy hands. Of my word, fweetheart,
he hath been toward thee an arrant knave j and fo let
him go.” The king died in January 1547, juft three
years and a half after his marriage with this fecond
Catharine : who in a fhort time w-as again efpouied to
Sir Thomas Seymour lord-admiral of England *, for m
September 1548 fhe died in childbed. The hiftonans
of this period generally infinuate that ftie was poiloneu
by her hufband, to make way for his marriage with tne
lady Elizabeth. ... ,
That Catharine Parr was beautiful, is beyond a
doubt: that ftie was pious and learned is evident from
her writings : and that her prudence, and fagacity were
not inferior to her other accomplifhments, may be
concluded from her holding up the paftion of a capri¬
cious tyrant as a ftiield againft her enemies 5 an t .at
at the latter end of his days, when his paftions were
enfeebled by age, and his peevifh auftenty mcrea.ed
by difeafe. She wrote, 1. Queen Catharine Parrs
lamentation of a finner, bewailing the ignorance 01
her blind life 5 Lond. 8vo. 1548, .1563. 2. Prayers
or meditations, wherein the mynd is ftirred patiently
to fuffre all afflictions here, to fet at nought the vame
profperitee of this worlde, and always to long for the
everlaftynge felicitee. CoMed out. of holy workes,
by the moft virtuous and gracious prmceffe Katherine,
Queen of Englande, France, and Irelande. Printed
by John Way land, 1545, 4to>—I56lb i2mo. 3. Other
Meditations, Prayers, Letters, &c. unpublifhed.
Parr, Thomas, or Old Parr, a remarkable Lng-
lifhman, who lived in the. reigns of ten kings and
queens; married a fecond wife when he was 120, and
had a child by her. He was the fon. ofJohn Parr, a
bufbandman of Winnington, in the parfth of Alderoury,
in the county of Salop., where he was borh m the year
1482. Though he lived to the vaft age of upwards
n Cl*! - ■« IT l'. 1 •• -f /nr
of
1; 2 years, yet fhe tenor of his life admitted but of
little variety’; nor can the detail, of it.be confidered of
importance, further than what will ?arife fiom the gia-
tification of that curiofity which naturally inquires after'
the mode of living which could lengthen life to luca
5 H extreme
PAR [ -
^ exi:rei^e aSs‘ Following the profeffion of his fa.
ther, he laboured hard, and lived on coarfe fare. Tav.
lor the water poet fays of him :
L.-ood wholeforne labour was his exercife,
Donm with the lamb, and with the lark would rife;
In mire and toiling fweat he fpent the day,
't;d lo liis team he whiilied time arvay ;
: he cork his night-ciock, and till day was done,
Ths watch and chief fun-dial was the fun.
l ie was of old Pythagoras’ opinion,
I hat green cheele was mod wholefome with an onion :
*; «ar‘re mefliu bread, and for Ids daily fwig,
jvrirk, butter m lk, and water, whey and whig :
oometimes metheglin, and by fortune happy,
He fometimes Tipp’d a cup of ale moil nappy,
Cyder or perry, when he did repair
i a V/lntfun ale, wake, wedding, or a fair,
(' i u iien in Chridmas time he was a gued
At lus good landlord’s lioufe amongd the red :
Pile he had little leifure time to wade.
Or at the alehoufe huff-cap ale to tade.
Nor did he ever hunt a tavern fox ;
Ne er knew a coach, tobacco, or the .
His phyfic was good butter, which the foil
Of Salop yields, more fweet than Candy oil;
And garlic he edeem'd above the rate
Oi Venice treacle, or bed mithridate.
lie entertain’d no gout, no ache he felt,
i he air was good and temperate where he dwelt;
O hiSe maviffes and fweet-tongu’d nightingales
Hid chant him roundelays and madrigals.
1 !Il!® hving within bounds of Nature’s laws,
Of his long lading life may be fome caufe.
And the fame writer deferibes him in the following two
fines: &
From head to heel, his body had all over
A quick fet, thick fet, natural hairy cover.
1 he manner of nis being conduced to London is
auo noticed in the following terms: “The right hon¬
ourable I nomas earl of Arundel and Surrey, earl mar-
thal of England, on being lately in Shropdiire to vifit
iOme lands and manors which his lordthip holds in that
county, or for lome other occafions of importance
which caufed his lorddnp to be there, the report of this
aged man was iignified to his honour, who hearing of
fo remarkably a _ piece of antiquity, his lorddiip was
pleafcd to fee him ; and in his innate, noble, and
Chridian piety, he took him into his charitable tuition
and protethon, commanding that a litter and two
horfes (for the more eafy carriage of a man fo feeble
and worn with age) to be provided for him ; alfo, that
a daughter of his, named Lucy, {hould likewife at¬
tend him, and have a herfe for her own riding with
him . and to cheer up the old man, and make him
merry, there wras an antique-faced fellow, with a high
and _ mighty no-beard, that had alfo a hoife for his
carriage. Ihefe were all to be brought out of the
'94 ] PAR
country to London by eafy journeys, the eharce bein?
a Lowed by h;s lordthip; likewife one of his lordlhip’s
own lervants, named Bryan Kelly, to ride on horfe-
back with them, and to attend and defray all manner
of reckonings and expences. All which was done ac¬
cordingly as follows :—
“ yVi;nii'A1f,is a of Alderbury, near a place
caked the Welch Pool, eight miles from Shrewfbury :
from whence he was carried to Wem, a town of the
ear! s arorefaid; and the next day to Shiffnall, a manor-
imule or his lordflnp’s, where they likewife Payed one
night : from Shiffnall they came to Wolverhampton,
and the next day to Birmingham, and from thence to
Coventry. Although Mailer Kelly had much to do
to keep the people off, that preffed upon him in all
placeswhexe he came, yet at Coventry he was moft
Opprened, tor they came in fuch multitudes to fee the
ola man, that thofe that defended him were almoft
quite tired and fpent, and the aged man in danger of
being Pitied; and, in a word, the rabble were fo un¬
ruly, that Bryan was in doubt he Piould bring his
-charge no farther; fo greedy are the vulgar to hearken
to or gaze after novelties. The trouble being over
l re next dky they paffed to Daintree, to Stony Strat¬
ton , to Hadburne, and fo to London ; where he was
well entertained and accommodated with all things
having all the aforefaid attendance at the foie charge'
and coP of his lordPPp.” When brought before the
kmg, his majefty, with more acutenefs than good
manners, faid to him, “ You have lived longer than
other men, what have you done more than other men ?”
He amwered, “ I did penance when I was a hundred
years old.” This journey, however, proved fatal to
him ; owing to the alteration in his diet, to the change
of the air, and his general mode of life, he lived but°a
very thort time, dying the yth of November 161 c (a) •
and ^ was buried in WePminPer Abbey. After his
death, his body was opened ; and an account was drawn
up by the celebrated Dr Harvey, part of which we ftiall
law before our readers.
“ Thomas Par was a poor country man of Shrop-
Pure, whence he was brought up to London by the
right honourable Thomas earl of Arundel and Surry •
and died aiter he had outlived nine princes, in the tenth
year of the tenth of them, at the age of 152 years and
nine months.
He had a large breaft, lungs not fungous, but
Picking to his ribs, and diPended with blood; a livid-
nets in his face, as he had a difficulty of breathing a
httle before his death, and a long laPing warmth in
his armpits and breaft after it; which fign, together
with others, were fo evident in his body,'as they ufe
lo be on thofe that die by faffocation. His heart was
great, thick, fibrous, and fat. The blood in the heart
bkckifii and diluted. The cartilages of the Pernum
not more bony than in others, but flexile and foft.
His vifcera were found and Prong, efpecially the fio-
mach ; and it was obferved of him, that he ufed -to
eat often by night and day, though contented with
old
Parr.
^ JhK author ^ a bo?k en^tled Long Livers, 8vo. 1722, which Oldys in his MS. notes on Fuller aferibes
lo one Robert Samher, agamP all evidence favs, p. 80, that Pan: died fixtecn vears Htf-r Lp Tq-I k r f j
*he king, 24th of November 1651, ^ ~ ttr he had b€en Hinted to.
BAR [7
Parr old clieefe, milk, coarfe bread, fmall beer, and whey;
II and, which is more remarkable, lhat he ate at midnight a
Pa. ret. little before he died. His kidneys were covered with fat,
‘ v and pretty found ; only on the interior furface of them
were found lome aqueous or ferous abfcefies, whereoi
o.ie was near the bignefs of a hen egg, with a yellowilh
water in it, having made a roundiih cavity, iraprefled
on that kidney j whence fome thought it came that a
little before his death a fuppreltion of urine had befal¬
len him; though others were of opinion, that his
urine was fuppreiled upon tne regurgitation of all the
ferolity into his lungs. Not the leaf! appearance there
was of any flony matter either in the kidneys, or blad-
• der. His bowels were alfo found, a little wbitiih with¬
out. His fpleen very little, hardly equalling the big¬
nefs of one kidney. In fliort, all his inward parts ap¬
peared fo healthy, that if he had not changed his diet
and air, he might perhaps have lived a good while
longer. The caufe of his death was imputed chiefly
to the change of food and air} forafmuch as coming
out of a clear, thin, and free air, he came into the
thick air of London ; and after a conftant plain and
homely country diet, he was taken into a fplendid
family, where he fed high and drank plentifully of the
beft wines, whereupon the natural functions of the parts
of his body were overcharged, bis lungs obflrucled,
and the habit of the whole body quite diiordered ; upon
which there could not but enfue a difl'olutioh. His
brain was found, entire, and firm ; and though be nad
not the ufe of his eyes, nor much of his memory, feveral
years before he died, yet he had his hearing and appre-
henfion very well-, and was able, even.to the 130th
year of his age, to do any hufbandman s work, even
thralhing of corn.” ... . , r
The following fummary of his life is copied uom
OldyS’s MS. notes on Fuller’s Worthies : Old Parr was
born 14835 lived at home until ij00? 8et* I7’ w^en
he wfent out to fervice. 1518, set. 35, returned home
from his mafter. 1522, mt. 39, fpent four years on die
reminder of his father’s leafe. T543> 96ended
the firft leafe he renewed of Mr Lewis Porter. 1J^ 3 >
set. 80, married Jane, daughter of John d ay lor, a
maiden 5 by whom he had a fon and a daughter, who
both died very young. 1564, set. 81, ended the fe-
cond leafe which he renewed of Mr John Porter.
1 <189, set. 102, ended the third leafe he had renewed
of Mr Hugh Porter. 1588, set. 105, did penance in
Alderbury church, for lying with Katharine Milton,
and getting her with child. 1595, set. 1x2, he buried
his wife Jane, after they had lived 32 years together.
160 if, set. 122, having lived 10 years a widower, he
married Jane, v/idow of Anthony Adda,, daughter of
John Lloyd of Gilfells, in Montgomery {hire, who fur-
vived him. 1635, set. 152, he died 5 after they had
lived together 30 years, and after 50 years poueftion ox
his laft leafe. See Longevity.
PARRA, a genus of birds belonging to the order 01
grallfe. See ORNITHOLOGY Int/ex.
PARRELS, in a {hip, are’frames made of trucks,
ribs, and ropes, which having both their ends faftened
to the yards, are fo contrived as to go round about
the marts, that the yards by their means may go up and
down upon the mart. Thefe alfo, with the bteaft ropes,
fallen the yards to the marts.
PARRET, or Pedred river, has its rife in the
5 1 . p A. R , . ,.
fouthern part of Scmerletflure in England, and Demg
joined by feveral other i'mall rivers, the Evel 5 and 5‘ulALl.l
about four miles from this junction, it is joined by the
Tone or Thone a pretty large river, riling among the
hills in the weftern parts of this county. About two
miles below- the junction of the paffes by the town of
Bridgew-ater, and falls into the Liikol channel in
Bridgewater bay. # v
PARRHASIUS, a famous ancient painter of Ephe-
fus, or, as lome fay, of Athens : he iiouniiied about the
time of Socrates, according to Xenophon, who hath in¬
troduced him into a dialogue difeourfing with that phi-
lofopher. He was one of the beii painteis in his time.
Pliny fays, that it was he who firft gave fymmetry and
juft proportions in that art 5 that be was Lkewiie tne
firil w ho knew how to exprefs the truth and life of cha-
radlers, and the different airs of the lace 5 that we d4-
covered a beautiful diipoiition of the hair, and heighten¬
ed the grace of the vifage. It is allowed even by the
mafters in the art, that he far cutfhone them in the
glory of fucceeding in the outlines, in which ccnfifts
the grand fecret of painting. But it is alio remarked,
by Plinv, that Parrhalius became infupportable with
pride 5 and rvas lo very vain as to give himlelf the molt
flattering epithets 5 Inch as, the tenderert, the fufteft,
the grandert, the moft delicate, and tne pei fcdler of his
art. ^ Pie boafted that he was fprung from Apollo, and
that he w-as bom to paint the gods 5 that he had actual¬
ly drawm Hercules touch by touch, that hero having
often appeared to him in dreams. VS hen the plurality
of voices w-as agamll him at Samos 111 favour oi 1 iman-
tlies, in the opinion of a piclure of Ajax provoked
againft the Greeks, for adjudging to iJlylies the arms 01
Achilles, he anfwered a perfon who condoled him on
his check, “ For my part I don’t trouble myfelf at the
fentence 5 but I am forry that the fon of Telamon, hath
received a oreater outrage than that which was former¬
ly put upon him fo unjuftly.” JElian relates this flory,
and tells us that Parrhalius affeefed to wear a crown of
gold upon'his head, and to carry in his hand a batoon,
ft added with nails of the lame metal. He worked at
his art with pleafantry, often indeed fmging. He w-as
very licentious and loole in his picluresj and lie is
faid, by way of amufement, to have reprefented the
moft infamous objecls. His Atalantis, with her fpoufe
Mel*ager, w-as of this kind. This piece was afterwards
deviled" as a legacy to the emperor Tiberius, upon con¬
dition that, if he was difpleafed with the fubjeft, he
Ihould receive a million fefterces inftead of it. The em¬
peror, covetous as he was, not only preferred the piclure
to that fum, but even placed it in his moft favourite
apartment. It is alfo faid, that, though Parrhalius
w-as excelled by Timanthes, yet be excelled Zeuxis.
Among his pictures is a celebrated one of Thefeus 5 and
another reprefenting Meleager, Hercules, and Perfeus
in a group together 5 as alfo /Eneas, with Caftor and
Pollux, in a third.
Parrhasius, Janus, a famous grammarian in tialy,
who w-as born at Cofenza in the kingdom of Naples,
1470. He w-as intended for the law-, the profeflion of
bis anceftors 5 but he refufed it, and cultivated claftical
learning. His real name w-as Johannes Paulus Parirtus 5
but according to the humour of the grammarians of the
age, he took inftead of it Parrhafius. He taught at
Milan with much reputation, being admired for a grace-
5 H 2 ful
\
PAR
I .oihr.f-t.s ful delivery, in ivnich he chiefly excelled other profef-
Parnckle ^°rS‘ ^ vvas t^is charm hi his voice, which brought a
^ v   vaft concourfe of people to his lectures ; and among
Others he had the plealure to fee General Trimoles, who
vvas then threefcore years old. He went to Rome
when Alexander VI. was pope ; and was like to be in-
volved in the misfortunes of Bemardini Cajetan and
bilius Savello, with whom he had fome correfpondenefe j
but he elcaped the danger, by the information of Tho¬
mas 1 hoedrus, profeffbr of rhetoric, and canon of St
John Lateran, v.hofe advice he followed in retiring from
Rome. Soon alter, he was appointed public profeflor
oi rnetoric at Milan ; but the liberty he took to cenfure
the teachers there as arrant blockheads, provoked them
m return to afperfe his morals. They faid he had a cri¬
minal converfe with his fcholars: which being a crime
extremely abhorred by the Milanefe, our profeffor was
obliged to leave Milan. Pie went to Vicenza, w'here he
obtained a larger falary } and he held this profelTorlhip
till tlie Hates ot the \ enetians were laid wafte by the
troops of the League : upon which he went to his na¬
tive country, having made his efcape through the army
of the enemy. Pie was at Cofenza, when his old
wiend Phoedrus perfuaded Julius to fend for him to
Rome 5 and, though that defign proved abortive by the
death of the pope, yet, by the recommendation'of John
Lafcaris, he was called thither under his fucceffor Leo
X. Leo vvas before favourably inclined to him } and
on his arrival at Rome, appointed him profeflbr of po¬
lk e literature. He had been nmv fome time married to
a daughter or Demetrius Chalcondylas ; and he took
with him to Rome, Bafll Chalcondylas, his wife’s bro-
tner, and brother of Demetrius Clialcondylas, profeflbr
of the Greek Longue at Milan. He did not long enjoy
this office conferred upon him by the pope 5 for, worn
out b} his ftudies and labours, he became fo affliftedwuth
the gout, that for fome years he had no part of his body
free, except his tongue : having almoft loft the ufe of
bodi his legs and both his arms. He laboured befldes
under fo great a degree of poverty, as put him out of
ail hopes of being ever in a better fituation ; fo that he
Icit Rome, and returned into Calabria, his native coun-
try, where he w^as tormented a long wftiile with a fever,
and at laft died in the greateft mifery. He left his li¬
brary to his friend Seripandus, brother to Cardinal Je¬
rome Seripandus, who built him a tomb in the convent
of the Auftin friars at Naples. P'here are feveral
books aferibed to him ; and in the dedication of one of
them, his charafter is drawn to great advantage by Hen¬
ry Stephens.
PARRHESIA. See Oratory, N° 88.
I ARKICIDE, the raurdfcr of one’s parents or chil-
uiui. By the Roman lavy, it was punjfhed in a unuch
iei erer manner than any other kind of homicide. Af¬
ter being fcourged, the delinquents were fewed up in a
leathern fack, with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an
ape, and fo call into the fea. Solon, it is true, in his
laws* made none a , ainft parricide j apprehending it im-
poffible that one ftiould be guilty of fo unnatural a bar¬
barity. And the Perfians, according to Herodotus, en-
tertamed the fame notion, when they adjudged all per-
fons. who killed their reputed parents to be baftards.
And upon fome fuch reafon as this muft we account for
the ojniflion of an exemplary punifhment for this crime
ai our ixiigUli laws*; which Real it no oilier wife than
[ 7^6 ]
PAR
Ample murder, Uruefs the child was alfo the fervant of Parricide
the parent. jt
For though the breach of natural relation is unob- Parfon-
ferved, yet the breach of civil or ecclefiaftic connexions, ~”"V
'vi-'di coupled with murder, denominates it a new of¬
fence ; no Ids than a fpecies of treafon, called f>arva
proditio, or petit treafon; which, however, is nothing
elie but an aggravated degree of murder; although
on account of the violation of private allegiance, it
is ftigmatized as an inferior fpecies of trealon. And
thus, m the ancient Gothic conilitution, we find
the breach both of natural and civil relations ranked
m the fame clafs with crimes againft the ftate and fove-
reign.
y O
PARROT. See Psittacus, Ornithology In-
aex.
PARSHORE, a town of England in Worcefterfhire
feven miles from Worcefter, and 10 2 from London, fi-
tuated on the north fide of the Avon, near its jundion
witli the river Bow, being a confiderable thoroughfare
m the lower road from Worcefter to London. A reli¬
gious houfe was founded here in 604, a fmall part of
which now remains, and is uied as the parifli church of
Holy Crofs, the whole of which contained above 10
acres. The abbey church w^as 250 feet long, and 1 20
broad. . 1 he parilh of Parfhore is of great extent, and
hath within its limits many manors and chapelries. At
prefent it has two parifhes, Holy Crofs and St Andrew.
In Holy Crofs|church are feveral very antique monu¬
ments. Its chief manufadure is ftockings. It contains
about 300 houfes.
PARSLEY. See Apium, Botany Index.
PARSNEP. See Pastinaca, Botany Index.
. P Ah SON and ViqAR. A parfon, perform eedefice.
is one that hath full poffeffion of all the rights of a' pa¬
rochial church. He is called parfon, perform, becaufe
by Ins perfon the church, which is an invifible tody, is
repielented ; and he is in himfelf a body corporate, in
order to proted and defend the rights of the church Blackji.
(which he perfonates) by a perpetual fucceffion. He is Comment.
fometimes called the recior or governor of the church ;
but tae appellation oi parfon (however it may be dc-
preciated by familiar, clownifh, and indiferiminate ufe)
is the moft legal, moft beneficial, and moft honourable
tit le that a parifli prieft can enjoy; becaufe fuch a one.
(Sir Edward Coke obferves), and he only, is faid vicem
feu perfonam eedefee gerere. A parfon "has, during his
ne, the weehold in himfelf of the parfonage heufe, the
glebe, the tithes, and other dues. But thefe are
fometimes appropriated; that is to fay, the benefice
is perpetually annexed to fome fpiritual corporation,
either foie or aggregate, being the patron of the li-
ving ; whom the law efteems equally capable of provi¬
ding for the fervice of the church as any fingle private
clergyman f. _ _ _ f See Ap-
1 he appropriating corporations, or religious h oufes, prop nation
were wont to depute one of their own body to perform
divine fervice, and adminifter the facraments, in thofe
pari flies of which the fociety was thus the parfon. This
officiating mmifter was in reality no more than a curate,
deputy, or vicegerent of the appropriator, and therefore
called vicar ms, or i' vicar-.” His flipend was at the
cufcreticn of the appropriator, who was, however, bound
of common right to find fomebody, qm ilh de temporaii-
hus} epifeopo de fpiritualibuS) debeat refpondcre. But
ibis
P A IV [ 7
Parfon. tills was done in fo fcandalous a manner, and live pariili-
 p-—' es fuftered fo mucli by the negleft of the appropriators,
that the legiflature was forced to interpofe : and accord-
ingly it is enafted, by ftatute 15 Idich. II. c. 6. that m
all appropriations of churches the diocefan biihop lliall
ordain (in proportion to the value of the church) a com¬
petent fum to be diftributed among the poor pariflitoneis
annually 5 and that the vicarage lhall be fufficiently en¬
dowed. It feems the pari ill were frequently fufterers,
not only by the want of divine fervice, but alfo by with¬
holding thofe alms for which, among other purpofes, the
payment of tithes was originally impofed : and therefore
in'this aft a pen {ion is direfted to be diilributed among
the poor parochians, as well as a fufficient flip end to the
vicar. But he, being liable to be removed at the plea-
fure of the appropriator, was not likely to infill too ri¬
gidly on the legal furliciency of the ftipend } and there¬
fore, by ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 12. it is ordained, that
the vicar {hall be a fecular perfon, not a member of any
religious houfe } that he lhall be vicar perpetual, not
removeable at the caprice of the monaftery } and that
he ftiould be canonically inftituted and indufted, and be
fufficiently endowed, at the difcrelion of the ordinary •,
for thefe three exprefs purpofes, to do divine fervice, to
inform the people, and to keep hofpitality. 1 he en¬
dowments, .in confequence of thefe ftatutes, have ufually
been by a portion of the glebe or land belonging to the
parfonage, and a particular {hare of the tithes, which
the appropriators found it moft troubleiome to colleft,
and which are therefore generally called petty or finall
tithes ; the greater, or predial tithes, being ftill referved
to their own ule. But one and the fame rule was not
obferved in the endowment of all vicarages. Hence
fome are more liberally,, and fome more fcantily, endou-
ed : and hence the tithes of many things, as wood in
particular, are in fome pariffies reftorial, and in fome
vicarial tithes.
The diftinftion therefore of a parfon and vicar is
this : The parfon has for the moft part the whole right
to all the ecclefiaftical dues in his pariffi } but a vicar
* has generally an appropriator over him, entitled to the
beft°part of the profits, to whom he is in effeft perpetual
curate, with a {landing falary. Though in fome places
the vicarage has been confiderably augmented by a large
fhare of the great tithes ; which augmentations were
greatly affifted by the ftatute 27 Car. II. c. S. enafted
in favour of poor vicars and curates, which rendeied
fuch temporary augmentations (when made by the ap¬
propriators) perpetual. . ...
The method of becoming a parfon or vicar is much
the fame. To both there are four requifites neceffary 5
holy orders, prefentation, inftitutbn, and induftion.
The method of conferring the holy orders of deacon
and prieft, according to the liturgy and canons, is fo*
reiom to the prefent purpofeany farther than as they
are’neceffary requifites to make a complete parfon or vi¬
car. By common law, a deacon, of any age, might be
inftituted and indufted to a parfonage or vicarage ; but
it was ordained, by ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 12. that no per¬
fon under twenty-three years of age, and in _ deacon’s
orders,'fhould be prefented to any benefice with cure 7
and if he were not ordained prieft within one year af¬
ter his induftion, he ftiould he ipfo facia deprived and
now, by ftatute 13 and 14 Car. II. c. 4. no perfon is ca¬
pable to be admitted to any benefice, unlefs he hath
97 ] P A Px
been firft ordained a prieft } and then he is, in the lan¬
guage of the law, a clerk in orders. But if he obtains
orders, or a licenfe to preach, by money or corrupt prac¬
tices, (which feems to be the true, though not the
common, notion of fimony), the perion giving fuch or¬
ders forfeits 40I. and the perfon receiving, 1 ol. and is
incapable of' any ecclefiaftical preferment for fevtn
years after.
Any clerk may be prefented to a parfonage or vi¬
carage j that is, the patron, to whom the advowfon of
the church belongs, may offer his clerk to the biihop oi
the diocefe to be inftituted. But when he is prefented,
the biffiop may refufe him upon many accounts. As, 1.
If the patron is excommunicated, and remains in con¬
tempt 40 days ; or, 2. If the clerk be unfit: which un-
fitnefs is of feveral kinds. Firft, With regard to his
perfon; as if he be a baftard, an outlaw, an excommu¬
nicate, an alien, under age, or the like. Next, With
regard to his faith or morals : as for any particular he-
■refy, or vice that is malam in fe ; but if the biftiop al¬
leges only in generals, as that he is fchifnwticus invete-
ratus, or objefts a fault that is malum prohibitum mere¬
ly, as haunting taverns, playing at unlawful games, or
the like, it is not good caufe of refufal. Or, laftly,
The clerk may be unfit to difcharge the paftoral office
for want of learning. In any of which cafes, the bi¬
ftiop may refufe the clerk. In cafe the refufal is for
herefy, fchifm, inability of learning, or other matter
of ecclefiaftical cognizance, there the biffiop muft
give notice to the patron of fuch his caufe of refufal,
who being ufually a layman, is not fuppofed to have
knowledge of it; elfe he cannot prefent by lapfe ; but
if the caufe be temporal, there he is not bound to give
notice.
If an aftion at lav/ be brought by the patron againft
the biffiop for refufing his clerk, the biffiop muft affign
the caufe. if the caufe be of a temporal nature, and
the faft admitted, (as, for inftance, outlawry), the jud¬
ges of the king’s courts muft determine its validity, or
whether it be fufficient caufe of refufal: but if the faft:
be denied, it muft be determined by a jury. If the
caufe be of a fpiritual nature, (as herefy, particularly al¬
leged), the faft, if denied, ffiall alfo be determined by a
jury : and if the faft be admitted or found, the court,
upon confultation and advice of learned divines, ffiall
decide its fufficiency. If the caufe be want of learning,
the biffiop need not fpecify in what points the clerk is
deficient, but only allege that he is deficient; for the fta¬
tute 9 Edw. II. ft. 1. c. i 3. is exprefs, that the exami¬
nation of the fitnefs of a perfon prefented to a benefice
belongs to the ecclefiaftical judge. But becaufe it
would be nugatory in this cafe to demand the reafon of
refufal from the ordinary, if the patron were bound to
abide by his determination, who has already pronounced
his clerk unfit; therefore if the biihop return the clerk
to be minus fuff dens in Hteratura, the court ffiall write
to the metropolitan to re-examine him, and certify his
qunifications 5 which certificate of the archbilhop is
final.
If the biffiop hath no objeftions, hut admits the pa^
tron’s prefentation, the clerk fo admitted is next to be
nllituted by him •, which is a kind of inveftiture of the
fpiritual part of the benefice 5 for by inftitution,' the care
of the fouls of the pariffi is committed to the charge of
the clerk. When a vicar is inftituted, he (befides- the
4^ ufuai
P A R [ 7
ri' uff.tal forms) takes, if required by the biiliop, an oath
of perpetual refidence j for the maxim of law is, that
■vicarius non habct vicar in m ; and as the non-refidence
ot the appropriators was the caufe of the perpetual elta-
buln.aeiit of vicarages, the law judges it very improper
for them to defeat the end of their confutation, and by
rr ence to create the very mifchief which they were ap¬
pointed to remedy j efpecially as, if any profits are to
anfe from putting in a curate and living at a didance
from the parith, the appropriator, who is'the real parfon,
has undoubtedly the elder title to them. When the or¬
dinary is alfo the patron, and confers the living, the pre-
feutation and inftitution are one and the fame aft, and
are called a collation to a benefice. By inftitution or col¬
lation the church is full, fo that there can be no frefl*
prefentation tnl another vacancy, at leait in the cafe of
a common patron ; but the church is not full againft the
king till induction : nay, even if a clerk is inftituted
upon the kmg’s prefentation, the crown may revoke it
before induction and prefent another clerk. Upon in¬
ftitution aim the clerk may enter on the parfonage houfe
and glebe, and take the tithes: but he cannot grant or
let them, or bring an action for them, till induction.
See Induction.
tor the rights.of a parfon or vicar, in his tithes and
ecclefiaftical dues, fee Tithes. As to his duties, they
are fo numerous, that it is impracticable to recite them
nere with any tolerable concifenefs or accuracy •, but the
reader who has occa icifi may confult liijhon Gibfon's
Codex, Johnfion s Clergjrnads Vade M-cum, and Burn's
Ecc/efiafiical Law. vVe fliall therefore only juft men¬
tion the article of refidence, upon the fuppofition of
which the law doth ftyle every parochial minifter an in-
cum lent. By ftatute 21 Henry VIII. c. 1^. perlons
willingly abfenting themielves from their benefices, for
one month together, or two months in the year, incur
a penalty of 5I. to the king, and 5;!. to any nerfon that
wdl hie tor the fame ; except chaplains to the king, or
others therein mentioned, during their attendance in the
houfehold of fueh as retain them j and alfo except all
heads of houfts, nmgiftrates, and profeflbrs in the uiii-
verfities, and ail Undents under forty years of rwe refi-
dmg there, bona fide, tor Itudy. Legal refidence is not
only in the parith, but alfo in the parfonage houfe-, for
it hath been refolved, that the ftatute intended relidence,
not only for ferving the cure and for hofpitality, but alfo
for maintaining the houfe, that the fucceffo/alfo may
keep hofpitality there.
vVe have leen that there is but one way whereby one
may become a parfon or vicar : there are many ways by
which one may ceafe to be fo. 1. By death. 2. By
ceiuon, m taking another benefice -, for by ftatute 21
Hen. VIII. c. 13. if any one having a benefice of 81.
per annum, or upwards, in the king’s books, (according
to the prefent valuation), accepts any other, the firft
thall be adjudged void, unlefs he obtains a difpenfation •
which no one is entitled to have but the chaplains of the
king and others therein mentioned, the brethren and
fens of lords and knights, and doftors and bachelors of
divinity and law, admitted by the univerfities of this
realm.. And a vacance thus made for want of a difpen-
fation, is called ceffion. 3. By confecration ; for, as was
mentioned before, when a clerk is promoted to a bifliop-
ric, all his other preferments are void the inftant that he
is confecrated. But there is a method, by the favour
98 1 par
or the crown, cf holding fuch livings in commenJant.
Lommenda, or ecclefiia commendata, is a living commend¬
ed by the crown to the care cf a clerk, to hold till a
proper pallor is provided for it. This may be tempora-
ry for one, two, or three years, or perpetual, being a kind
oi uilpenfation to avoid the vacancy of the living, and
L callen a commenda retinere. There is alfo a commen-
da recipere, which is to take a benefice de novo, in the
biinop’s own gift, or the gift of fome other patron con-
entmg to the lame and this is the fame to him as in-
flitution and induction are to another clerk. 4. By xefig-
nation. . But this is ot no avail till accepted by the or¬
dinary, into whofe hands the refignation muft be made.
5. By deprivation, either by. canonical cenfures, or in
puriuance of divers penal ftatutes, which declare the
benefice void, for fome nonfeafance or negledl, or elfe
iome malefeaiance or crime : as for fimony ; for main¬
taining any doeftrine in derogation of the king’s fupre-
macy, or of the thiity-mne articles, or cf the book of
common prayer j for neglecting after inftitution to read
tre liturgy and articles in the church, or make the de-
clarations againft Popery, or take the abjuration oath 5
for ufing any other form of prayer than the liturgy of
the church of England \ or for ableuting himfiftf 60
da^s in one year from a benefice belonging to a Popifh
patron, to which the clerk yvas prelented by either of
the univerfities : in all which, and fimilar cafes, the be¬
nefice is^ ipfio faclo void, without any formal fentence of
deprivation.
PA ihS ON AGE, a reclory, or parifh church, endow¬
ed with a glebe, houfe, lands, tithes, &c. for the main¬
tenance of a minifter, with cure of fouls within fuch
parilh. See Parson.
1 AH I , a portion ot fome whole, confidered as divi¬
ded or divifible.
Logical PART, is a divition for which we are indebt¬
ed to the fchoolmen. It refers to fome univerfal as
its whole in which fen fie the fipecies are parts of a
genus, and individuals or fingulars are parts of the
fpecies.
Physical Part, is that which, though it enter the
compofition of a whole, may yet be confidered apart,
and under its own diitmcl idea} in which fenie, a conti¬
nuum is find to confilt of parts. Pliyflcal parts, again,
are of two kinds, homogeneous and heterogeneous; the
firft are thofe of the fame denomination with fome other •
the fecond of a different one : See Homogeneous, &c!
Parts, again, are diftinguiflied into fubjeCtive, effential,
and integrant. The fchoolmen were alfo the authors of
this divifion.
Aliquot PART, is a quantity which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes equal to an integer.
Thus 6 is an aliquot part of 24, and 5 an aliquot part
of 30, Sec.
Aliquant PART, is a quantity, which, being repeated
any number of times, becomes always either greater or
lets than the whole. Thus 5 is an aliquant part of 17,
and 9 an aliquant part of 10, Sec.
The aliquant part is refolvable into aliquot parts.
Thus 15, an aliquant part of 20, is refolvable into 104,
and 5 a fourth part of the fame.
Parts of Speech, in Grammar, are all the forts of
words which can enter the compofition of a difeourfe.
See Grammar.
PAli 1 ERilE, in Gardening, a level divifion of
groqpd,.
Parfou
li
Parterre.
r
Parterre.
PAR [799
ground, which for the moft part faces the fouth, or befl
front of a houfe, and is generally furnilhed with ever¬
greens, flowers, &c. There are two kinds of thefe, the
plain ones and the parterres of embroidery.
Plain parterres are mod valuable in England
of the firmnefs of the Englifh grafs turS Anlc‘1 1S fhpe-
rior to that of any other part of ^ world •, and the par¬
terres of embroidery are cut '“t0 hrell and fcroll work,
with alleys between th^“. An oblong, or long fquare,
is accounted the proper figure for a parterre ; and
a parterre diou^ indeed be always twice as long as it is
broad, becaui'e, according to the known laws of perfpec-
tive, a long fquare always finks to a fquare ; and an
exaft fquare always appears lefs than it really is. As
A **
it is to be proportionable
1
to the breadthf ]10upe. jefs than 100 feet in
to tne XT' . 7
is too little.
There-fliould be on each fide the parterre a terrace
walk raifed for a view*, and the flat of the parterre be¬
tween the terraces fhould never be more than 300 feet,
at the utmod, in breadth •, and about 140 feet in width,
with twice am| a half that in length, is efteemed a very
good fize and proportion.
PARTHENIUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the monoecia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 49th order, Compofitce. See Botany
Index.
Parterre,
Partheni-
. u 4
END OF THE FIFTHTEENTH VOLUME.
»
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XV,
Part I.
Plate CCCLXX. to face - - page 38
CCCLXXI.—CCCLXXIV. - - 164
CCCLXXV.—CCCLXXXIX. - - 288
Part II.
CCCXC. ... . 4io
CCCXCI. - - -45a
CCCXCII.—CCCCII. - - 562
CCCCIII. - - - 718
PCCCIV. ' - - - 740
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