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Encyclopedia Britannica
N I C
Nicander ICANDER of Colophon, a celebrated gramma-
Nice. -L ^ rian> P°ct, and phyfician, who lived about the
i——Y——; 160th Olympiad, 140 years before Chrift, in the reign
of Attains king of Pergamus, who overcame the Gallo-
Greeks. Pie lived many years in Etoliar of which
country he wrote a hiftory. He wrote alfo many other
works, of which only two are now remaining. The
one is entitled Theriaca, deferibing in verfe the acci¬
dents attending wounds made by venomous beads, with
the proper remedies 5 the other bearing the title of
Alexipha r mac a, wherein he treats poetically of poifons
and their antidotes. This Nicander is not to be con¬
founded with Nicander of Thyatira.
* NICANDRA, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs } and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 30th order, Contortce. See Botany Index.
NICARAGUA, a large river of South America,
in a province of the fame name, whofe wellern extremi¬
ty lies within five miles of the South fea. It is full of
'dreadful cataracts, and falls at length into the North
fea.
Nicaragua, a maritime province of South Ameri¬
ca, in Mexico, bounded on the north by Honduras, on
the eait by the North fea, on the fouth-eaft by Coda
Rica, and on the fouth-wed by the South fea; being
400 miles in length from ead to wed, and 120 in
breadth from north to fouth. It is one of the mod fruit¬
ful and agreeable provinces in Mexico, and is well wa-
teied with lakes and rivers. The air is wholefome and
temperate ; and the country produces plenty of fugar,
cochineal, and fine chocolate. One of the lakes is 200
miles in circumference, has an ifland in the middle, and,
as feme fay, has a tide. Leon de Nicaragua is the ca¬
pital town.
N ICARIA, an illand of the Archipelago, between
Samos and line, about 50 miles in circumference. A
chain of high mountains runs through the middle, co¬
vered with wood, and fupplies the country with fprings.
The inhabitants are very poor, and of the Greek com¬
munion ; however, they have a little wheat, and a good
deal of barley, figs, honey, and wax.
. NICAS I RO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Calabria *, 16
miles fouth of Cofen?a. E. Long. 16. 21. N. Lat
39- PC
NICE, an ancient, handfome, and confidsrable town
on the confines of France and Italy, and capital of a
county of the fame name, with a llrong citadel, a bi-
Vol. XV. Part I. & > "
N I C
fhop s .ee, and a fenate, which is a kind of a democra- Nice,
cy. It has been feveral times taken by the French,
and laft of all in 1792, but reftored after the treaty
of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is very agreeably fituated, four
miles from the mouth of the river Var, 83 miles S. by
W. of Purin, and 83 E. of Aix. E. Long. 6. 22.
N. Lat. 43. 42.
Nice, a county and province in the dominions of
the duke of Savoy. The inhabitants fupply Genoa
with a great deal of timber for building fliips j and car¬
ry on a great trade in linen cloth, paper, oil, wine, and
honey—“ Although the county of Nice be on this fide Hiftorical
or the mountains, geographers have always confidered it and Pitlu-
as a province of Italy, fince they have given to this rreJque ■De-
beautiful part of Italy the river Var for a weftern limit'A ^ °f
which is alfo the boundary of the county, and flow's in- of Nice!^
to the fea at a league diflance from the capital. This
province is partly covered by the maritime Alps; and
is bordered on the call by Piedmont, and the Rates of
Genoa j on the fouth by the Mediterranean j on the
weft by the Var ; and on the north by Dauphiny. Its
length is about 20 leagues of the country, which make
about 36 Englifli miles ; its breadth is 10 leagues; and
its population is about 120,000 fouls.
“ The city of Nice is the capital, and the feat of the
fenate, the bifliopric, and government. It has become,
within thefe few years, a delightful abode, by the num¬
ber of ftrangers who alfemble there in the winter, either
to re-eftablifli their health, or to enjoy the mildnefs of
the climate, and the beauty of the country, where an
unceafing verdure prefents eternal fpring.
The town is fituated on the fea ftiore, and is back¬
ed by a rock entirely infulated, on which was formerly
a caftle,. much efteemed for its pofition ; but it was de-
ftroyed in the year 1706 by Marechal Berwick, the
garrifon being too thin to defend the extent of the
works. There is a diftinclion between the old and the
new town 5 this laft is regular, the houfes are well built,
and the ftreets are wide. Its pofition is by the fide of
the fea, and it is terminated, on one fide, by a chartA-
ing terrace, which ferves for a promenade.
“ Any perfon may live peaceably in this province,
without fear of being troubled on points of faith, pro¬
vided he condufls himfelf with decorum. The town has
three fuburbs. ill, That of St John, which conducts
to Cimier, about three leagues north from Nice, &c.
I he promenades this way are veiy delightful, and may
be enjpyed in a carriage. 2d, That of the Poudriere.
A 3d,
NIC [2
Nice, 3d, That of the Croix de Marbre, or Marble Crofs,
Nicephqrus. This fuburb is new; and the Englifh almofc all lodge
jn being very near the town. The houfes are com¬
modious, facing on one fide the great road which .leads
to France, and on the other a fine garden, with a pro-
Ipedt of the fea. All the houfes are feparate from each
other: the company hire them for the leaforr, i. e. from
October till May. Apartments may be had from 15
to 250 louis. The proprietors commonly furnifh linen,
plate, &c. There are alfo in the town very large and
commodious houfes •, as well as the new road, which is
opened from the town to the port, by cutting that part
of the rock which inclined toward the fea. The fitua-
tion is delightful, and warmeft in winter, being entire¬
ly covered from the north wind, and quite open to the
fouth.
“ The company is brilliant at Nice, and the amufe-
ments of the Carnival are, in proportion to the fize of
the town, as lively as in any of the great ones in
France. There is always an Italian opera, a concert
and maiked ball, alternately j and the company play ra¬
ther high.
“ It is impefiible to find a happier climate than Nice,
both for fummer and winter. Reaumur’s thermometer,
in 1781, never fell more than three degrees below the
freezing point, and that only for two days ; while at
Geneva it fell ten : and in the courfe of the winter of
1785 it fell only two degrees \ while at Geneva it fell
15. The month of May is rarely fo fine in France as
February at Nice. The fummer is not fo hot as might
be expected. The thermometer never rifes more than
24 degrees (86°Fahren.) above temperate in the {hade }
and there is always an agreeable fea breeze from ten in
the-morning till funfet, when the land breeze comes
on. There are three chains of graduated mountains,
. the lafi of which confound their fummits with the Alps j
and to-this triple rampart is owing the mild tempera¬
ture fo fenfibly different from that of the neighbouring
parts.
“ The cultivation of the ground is as rich as can be
defired. There are alternately rows of corn and beans,
feparated by vines attached to different fruit-trees, the
almond and the fig j fo that the earth being inceffantly
cultivated, and covered with trees, olive, orange, ce¬
dar, pomegranate, laurel, and myrtle, caufes the con-
ftant appearance of fpring, and forms a fine contrail:
with the fummits of the Alps, in the back ground, co¬
vered with fnow.”
Nice, an ancient town of Alia, in Natolia, now cal¬
led 1ft/ic, with a Greek archbifhop’s fee. It is famous
for the general council affembled here in 325, which
endeavoured to fupprefs the doctrines of Arius. It was
formerly a large, populous, and well built place, and
even now is not inconfiderable. See ISNIC.
NlCENE Creed, was compofed and eftablifhed, as a
proper fummary of the Chri Ilian faith, by the council at
Nice in 325, againft the Arlans.—It is alfo called the
Conjlantinopolitan creed, becaufe it was confirmed, with
fome few alterations, by the council of Conftantinople
in 381. See Creed.
NICEPHORUS, Gregoras, a Greek hiftorian,
was born about the clofe of the 13th century, and flou-
liftied in the 14th, under the emperors Andronlcus,
John Palaeologus, and John Cantacuzenus. He was a
great favouri'.e of the elder Andxonicus, who made him
] XT I . C
librarian of the church of Conftantinople, and lent him N ic
ambaffador to the prince of Servia. He accompanied ^
this emperor in his misfortunes, and a lb tied at his '~~
death ; after which he repaired to the court of the
younger Andronicus, where he feems to have been well
received 5 and it is certain that, by his influence over
the Greeks, that church was prevailed on to refufe en¬
tering into any conference with the legates of Pope
John XXII. But in the difpute which arofe between
Barlaam and Palamos, taking the part of the former,
he maintained it zeaioufly in the council that was held
at Conftantinople in 1351, for which he was caft into
prifon, and continued there till the return of John Pa-
Iceologus, who releafed him } after which he held a de¬
putation with Palamos, in the prefence of that emperor.
Fie compiled a hiftory, winch in 11 books contains all
that paffed from 1204, when Conftanlinople was taken
by the French, to the death of Andronicus Palaeologus
the younger, in 1341.—The bell edition of this work
is that of the Louvre, in Greek and Latin, in 1702.
Nicephorus, Ca/i/Iu.i, a Greek hiftorian, who fiou-
rifhed in the 14th century under the emperor Androni¬
cus Palceologus the elder, wrote an ecclefiaftical hiftory
in 23 Looks j 18 of which are ftill extant, containing
the tranfaetions of the church from the birth of Chrift
to the death of the emperor Phocas in 610.—We have
nothing elfe but the arguments of the other five books,
from the commencement of the reign of the emperor
Heraclius, to the end of that of Leo the Philofopber,
who died in the year 911. Nicephorus dedicated his
hiftory to Andronicus Palaeologus the elder. It was
tranflated into Latin by John Langius 5 and has gone
through feveral editions, the bell of which is that of
Paris, in 163-0.
NICERON, John Francis, a French philofopher,
was born at Paris in 1613. Having finifhed his acade¬
mical ftudies, with a fuccefs which railed the greateft
hopes of him, he entered into the order of the Minims,
and took the habit in 1632 ; and, as is ufual, he chan¬
ged the name given him at his baptifm for that of
Francis, the name of his paternal uncle, who was alfo
a Minim, or Francifcan. The inclination and tafte
which he had for mathematics appeared early. He be¬
gan to apply himfelf to that fcience in his philofophical
ftudies, and devoted to it all the time he could fpare
from his other employments,, after lie had completed his
ftudies in theology. All the branches of the mathema¬
tics, however, did not equally engage his attention ; he
confined himfelf particularly to optics, and only learned
of the reft as much as was neceffary for rendering him
perfect in this. There remain ftill, in feveral houfes
wherein he dwelt, efpecially at Paris, feme excellent
performances, which difeover his {kill in this way, and
which make us regret that a longer life did not fuffer
him to carry it to that perfection which he defired j
fince one cannot help being furprifed that he proceeded
fo far as he did, in the midft of thofe occupations and
travels by which he was forced from it, during the
fliort fpace of time which he lived. He hath himfeit
obferved, in the preface to his Thaumaturgus Opticus,
that he went twice to Rome •, and that, on his return
home, he wras appointed teacher of theology. He was
afterwards chofen to accompany Father Francis de la
Noue, vicar general of the order, in his vifitation of
the convents throughout all France. But the eagemefs
NIC [
of his pafTion for ftudy put him upon making the beft of
J all the moments he had to fpare for books ; and that
wife economy furniihed him with as much as fatisfied
him. Being taken fick at Aix in Provence, he died
there Sept. 22. 1646, aged 33. He was an intimate
acquaintance of Des Cartes. The following are his
principal works : 1. I?Interpretation des chijffres, ou re¬
gies pour bien entendre et expliquer facilement toutes
fortes des chiffres fmples, &c. 2. La perfpeBive cu-
neufe, ou magie artificielle des effets merveilleux de
I'optique, catoptrique, et dioptrique. This is only an ef-
fay to the following work: 3, Thaumaturgus opticus;
fve, Admiranda optices, catoptrices, et dioptrices, pars
prinWy &c. Two other parts were intended to com¬
plete the latter work, but were unfiniihed at his death.
Niceron, John Peter, fo much celebrated on ac¬
count of his Memoirs of Men illullrious in the Republic
of Letters, was born at Paris, March 11. 1685. He
was of an ancient and noble family, who were in very
high repute about 1540. He ftudied with fuccefs in
the Mazarine college at Paris, and afterwards at the
college Du Pleflis. In a firort time, refolving to for-
lake the world, he confulted one of his uncles, who be¬
longed to the order of Barnabite Jefuits. This uncle
examined him j and, not diffident of his eleftion, intro¬
duced him as a probationer to that fociety at Paris 
He was received there in 1702, took the habit in 1703,
and made his vows in 1704, at the age of 19.
After he had profeffed himfelf, he was fent to Mont¬
arges, to go through a courfe of philofophy and theo-
l°gy r thence he went to Loches in Touraine to teach
"thofe fciences. He received the priefthood at Poitiers
in 1708. As he was not arrived at the age to affume
this order, a difpenfation, which his uncommon piety
had merited, wTas obtained in his favour. The college
of Montarges having recalled him, he was their profef-
for of rhetoric two years, and of philofophy four.—In
fpite of all thefe avocations, he was humanely attentive
to every call and work of charity, and to the inftruc-
tion of his fellow creatures, many of whom heard him
deliver out fit rules of condudl for them, not only from
the pulpits of moft of the churches within the province,
but even from thole of Paris.—In 1716, his fuperiors
invited him to that city, that he might have an oppor¬
tunity of following, with the more convenience, thofe
I Indies for which he always had expreffed the greateft
inclination. He not only underftood the ancient but
tae modern languages ; a circumftance of infinite advan¬
tage in the compofition of thofe works which he has
given to the puolic, and which he carried on with great
affiduity to the time of his death, which happened, after
a fhort illnefs, July 8. 1738, at the age of ^ His
works are, 1. Legrand Febrifuge; or, a Differtaiion to
prove that common water is the bell remedy in fevers,
and even in the plague, tranflated from the Engliffi of
John Hancock minifter of St Margaret’s, London; in
12mo. Phis little treatife made its appearance, aniongft
other pieces relating to this fubject, in 1720 5 and was
attended with a fuccefs which carried it through three
editions j the lad came out in 1730, in 2 vols. i2mo,
entitled, A Treatife on Common Water-, Paris, print¬
ed by Cavelier. 2. The Voyages of John Ouvington to
uirat, and divers parts of Alia and A frica, containing
the hillory of the revolution in the kingdom of Gol-
conda, and fome obfervations upon lilk worms p Paris,
3 1 NIC
1725, 2 vols. i2mo. 3. The Converfion of England
t<y Chriftianity, compared with its pretended Reforma¬
tion, a w-ork tranflated from the Engliffi 5 Paris 1729,
8vo. 4. The Natural Hiftory of the Earth, tranflated
from the Engliih of Mr Woodward, by M. Nogues,
doctor in phyfic j with an anfwer to the objections of
Dr Camerarius ; containing alfb feveral letters written
on the fame fubjedt, and a methodical dffi ribution of
foffiis, tranfiated from the Engliffi by Niceron j Paris,
1735, qto. 5. Memoirs of Men illultrious in the Re¬
public of Letters, with a critical account of their works
Paris, 12mo. The firft volume of this great work ap¬
peared in 1727 j the others were given to the public in
fucceffion, as far as the 39th, which appeared in 1738.
The 40th volume was publiffied after the death of the
author, in 1739. .
NICETAS, David, a Greek hiftorian, a native, as
fome relate, of Paphlagonia, who lived about the end
of the 9th century. He wrote The Life of St Ignatius,
patriarch of Conftantinople, which was tranflated into
Latin by Frederic Mutius, biffiop of Termoli : he com-
pofed alfo feveral panegyrics in honour of the apoftles
and other faints, which are inferted in the laft continua¬
tion of the Bibliotheca Patrum by Combefis.
Nicetas, furnamed Serron, deacon of the church
of Conftantinople, cotemporary with TheophylaCt in the
nth century, and afterwards bifhop of Heraclea, wrote
a Catena upon the book of Job, compiled from pafi'ages
of feveral of the fathers, which was printed at London
in folio, 1637. We have alfo, by the fame writer,
feveral catence upon the Pfalms and Canticles, Bafil,
15525 together with a Commentary on the poems of
Gregory Nazianzen.
Nicetas, Arhominates, a Greek hiftorian of the
13 th century, called Coniates, as being born at Chone,
or Coloffus, in Phrygia. Fie was employed in feveral
confiderable affairs at the court of Conftantinople 5 and
when that city was taken by the French in 1204, he
withdrew, with a young girl taken from the enemy, to
Nice in Bithynia, where he married his captive, and
died in 1206. He wrote a Hiltory, or Annals, from
the death of Alexius Comnenus in the year 1118, to
that of Badouin in 1205 5 of which work we have a
Latin tranflation by Jerome Wolfius, printed at Bafil in
1557 j and it has been inferted in the body of the By¬
zantine Hiftorians, printed in France at the Louvre.
NICHE, in ArchiteEiure, a hollow funk into a wall,
for the commodious and agreeable placing of a ftatue.
The word comes from the Italian nechia, “ fea-ffiell 5”
in regard the ftatue is here enclofed in a ffiell, or per¬
haps on account of the ffiell wherewith the tops of fome
of them are adorned.
NICHQLLS, Dr Frank, phyfician and anatomift,
wxis bom in London in the year 1699. His father was
a barrifter at Jaw 5 and both his parents were of good
families in Cornwall. After receiving the firft rudi¬
ments of his education at a private fchool in the coun¬
try, where his docility andfweetnefs of temper endeared
him equally to his mafter and his fchool fellows, Frank
was in a few years removed to Weftminfter, and from'
thence to Oxford, where he was admitted a commoner
(or fojoumer) of Exeter college, under the tuition of
Mr John Haviland, on March 4. 1714. There he ap¬
plied himfelf diligently to all the ufual academical ftu-
dies, but particularly to natural philofophy and polite
A 2 literature.
Nicetas
II ,
NicholK
NIC [
Nicholls literature, of which the fruits were moll confpicuous in
" v his fubfequent lectures on phyliology. After reading a
few books on anatomy, in order to perfect himfelf in the
nomenclature of the animal parts then adopted, he en¬
gaged in diffections, and then devoted himfelf to the
liudyof nature, perfectly free and unbiaffed by the opi¬
nions of others.
On his Oeing chofen reader of anatomy in that uni-
verfity, he employed his utmolt attention to elevate and
illuftrate a fcience which had there been long depreffed
and negledted 5 and by quitting the beaten track of
former lecturers, and minutely inveftigating the texture
of every bowel, the nature and order of every veffel,
&c. he gained a high and juft reputation. He did not
then reftde at Oxford *, but, when he had finithed his
ledtures, ufed to repair to London, the place of his
abode, where he had determined to fettle. He had
■once an intention of fixing in Cornwall, and for a ftiort
time practifed there with great reputation ; but being
foon tired of the fatigues attendant on that profefticn in
the country, he returned to London, bringing back
with him a great infight, acquired by diligent obferva-
tion, into the nature of the miliary fever, which was
attended with the moft falutary effedts in his fubfequent
practice at London.
About this time he refolved to vifit the continent,
partly with a view of acquiring the knowledge of men,
manners, and languages; but chiefly to acquaint him¬
felf with the opinions of foreign naturalifts on his favou¬
rite ftudy. At Paris, by converfing freely with the
learned, he foon recommended himfelf to their notice
and efteem. Window’s was the only good fyftem of
phyfiology at that time known in France, and Morgag¬
ni’s and Santorini’s of Venice in Italy, which Dr Ni-
cholls likewife foon after vifited. On his return to
England, he repeated his phyfiological le&ures in Lon¬
don, which wTere much frequented, not only by Un¬
dents from both the univerfities, but alfo by many fur-
geons, apothecaries, and others. Soon after, his new
and fuccefsful treatment of the miliary fever, then very
prevalent in the fouthern parts of England, added much
to his reputation. In 1725, at a meeting of the Royal
Society, he gave his opinion on the nature of aneurifms,
in which he diffented from Dr Freind in his Hiftory of
Phyfic.
At the beginning of the year 1728, he was chofen a
fellow of the Royal Society, to which he afterwards
communicated the defcription of an uncommon diforder
(publifhed in the Tranfaftions), viz. a polypus, refem-
bling a branch of the pulmonary vein (for which Tul-
pius has ftrangely miftaken it), coughed up by an afth-
matic perfon. He alfo made obfervations (in the fame
volume of the Tranfadlions) on a treatife, by M. Helve-
tius of Paris, on the Lungs. Towards the end of the
year 1729, he took the degree of doftor of phyfic at
Oxford. At his return to London, he underwent an
examination by the prefident and cenfors of the College
of Phyficians, previous to his being admitted a candi¬
date, which every praftitioner muft be a year before he
can apply to be chofen a fellow. Dr Nicholls was cho¬
fen into the college on June 26. 17325 and two years
after, being chofen Gulftonian reader of Pathology, he
made the ftrufture of the heart, and the circulation of
the blood, the fubjeft of his lectures. In 1736, at the
requeft of the prefident, he again read the. Gulftonian
r ] nic
le£ture ; taking for his fubjedl thofe parts of the human Nicholk
body which ferve for the fecretion and difcharge of the ' vr——
urine 5 and the caufes, fymptoms, and cure of the dif-
eafes occafioned by the ftone. In 1739, he delivered
the anniverfary Harveian oration. In 1743, he mar¬
ried Elizabeth, youngeft daughter of the celebrated Dr
Mead, by whom he had five children, two of whcm
died young. Two fons and a daughter lurvived him.
In 1748, Dr Nichclls undertook the office of cliirurgi-
cal lecturer, beginning with a learned and elegant dif-
fertation on the Anima Medico. About this time, on
the death of Dr John Cuningham, one of the elects of
tlie college, Dr Abraham Hall w as choien to fucceed
him in preference to our author, who was his fenior,
without any apparent reafon. With a juft refentment, he
immediately refigned the office of chirurgical lecturer,
and never after attended the meetings of the fellows,
except when bufinefs of the utmoft importance was iu
agitation.
In J75D I16 took fome revenge in an anonymous
pamphlet, entitled “ The petition of the Unborn Babes
to the Cenfors of the Royal College of Phyficians of
London in which Dr Nefbit (Focus), Dr Maine
(Mouliar), Dr Barrowby (Barehonc), principally, and
Sir William Brown, Sir Edward Hull’e, and the Scots
incidentally, are the obi eels of his fatire.
In 1753, on the death of Sir Hans Sloane, Bart, in
his 94th year, Dr Nicholls was appointed to fucceed
him as one of the king’s phyficians, and held that office
till the death of his royal mafter in 1760} when this
moft fkiiful phyfician was fuperfeded with fom filing
like the offer of a penfion, which he rejected with dif-
dain.
The caufes, &c. of the uncommon diforder of which
the late king died, viz. a rupture of the right ventricle
of the heart, our author explained in a letter to the
earl of Macclesfield, prefident of the Royal Society,
which was publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfadlions,
vol. 1.
In 1772, to a fecond edition of his treatife Dc Anima
Medico, he added a differtation De motu cordis et fan-
guinis in homine nato et non noto, inferibed to his learn¬
ed friend and coadjutor the late Dr Lawrence.
Tired at length of London, and alfo defirous of fu-
perintending the education of his fon, he removed to
Oxford, where he had fpent moft agreeably fome years
in his youth. But when the ftudy of the law' recalled
Mr Nicholls to London, he took a houfe at Epfem,
wffiere he paffed the remainder of his life in a literary
retirement, not inattentive to natural philofophy, efpe-
cially the cultivation of grain, and the improvement of
barren foils, and contemplating alfo with admiration the
internal nature of plants, as taught by Linnaeus.
His conftitution never was robuft. In his youth,
at Oxford, he was wnth difficulty recovered from a
dangerous fever by the (kill of Doctors Frampton and
Frew'en 5 and afterwards at London he had, frequently
been afflicted with a catarrh, and an inveterate afth-
matic cough, which, returning with great violence at
the beginning of the year 1770, depiived the world of
this valuable man on January 7th, in the 80th year of
his age.
Dr Lawrence, formerly prefident of the college of
phyficians, who gratefully aferibed all his phyfiological
and medical knowledge to his precepts, and who, while
he...
NIC [
Nicias he lived, loved him as a brother, and revered him as a
U parent, two years after printed, and gave to his friends,
Nicobar. a pew copies of an elegant Latin Life of Dr Nicholls
“~'v (with his head prefixed, a finking likenefs, engraved
by Hall from a model of Goflet, 1779) } from which,
through the medium of the Gentleman’s Magazine, the
above particulars are chiefly extracted.
NICIAS, a celebrated painter of Athens, flourifhed
about 322 years before the Chriftian era $ and was uni-
verfally extolled for the great variety and noble choice of
his fubjecis, the force and relievo of his figures, his Ikill in
the diiiribution of the lights and fliades, and his dex¬
terity in reprefenting all forts of four-footed animals, be¬
yond any mafter of his time. His moft celebrated piece
was that of Tartarus or Hell, as it is defcribed by Ho¬
mer, for which King Ptolemy the fon of Lagus offered
him 60 talents, or 11,250! which he refufed, and ge-
neroufly prefented it to his owm country. He was much
efteemed likewife by all his cotemporaries for his excel¬
lent talent in fculpture.
NICKEL, a metallic fubftance 3 for the nature of
which, fee Chemistry Index; and for an account of
its ores, fee Mineralogy Index.
NICOBAR islands, the name of feveral illands in
Afia, lying at the entrance of the gulf of Bengal. The
largeft of thefe iflands is about 40 miles long and 15
broad, and the inhabitants are faid to be a harmlefs fort
of people, ready to fupply the fhips that flop there with
provifions. The fouth end of the great Nicobar is pla¬
ced in eaft longitude 940 23' 50" 3 and we collect from
Mr Rennel’s Memoir, that it is within the 12th degree
of. north latitude.
Of the northemmofl ifland, which is called Carnico-
bm\ wTe have, in th$ fecond volume of the Afiatic Re-
fearches, fome interefting information refpecting both
the produce and natural hiftory of the country, and the
manners of its inhabitants. The author of the memoir
is Mr G. Hamilton, who, in his account of this ifland,
fays, “ It is low, of a round figure, about 40 miles in
circumference, and appears at a diftance as if entirely
covered with trees: however, there are feveral well
cleared and delightful fpots upon it. The foil is a blacl^
land of clay, and marfhy. It produces in great abun¬
dance, and with little care, moft of the tropical fruits,
fuch as pine apples, plantains, papayes, cocoa-nuts, and
areca-nuts 3 alfo excellent yams, and a root called cachu.
The only four-footed animals upon the ifland are, hogs,
dogs, 'large rats, and an animal of the lizard kind, but
large, called by the natives tolonqui; thefe frequently
carry off fowls and chickens. The only kind of poul¬
try are hens, and thofe not in great plenty. There are
abundance of fnakes of many different kinds, and the
inhabitants frequently die of their bites. The timber
upon the ifland is of many forts, in great plenty, and
fome of it remarkably large, affording excellent mate¬
rials for building or repairing fhips.
“ The natives are low in ftature, but very well made,
and furprifingly a&ive and ftrong 3 they are copper-co¬
loured, and their features have a caft of the Malay,
quite the reverfe of elegant. The women in particular
are extremely ugly. The men cut their hair fhort, and
the women have their heads fhaved quite bare, and wear
no covering but a fhort petticoat, made of a fort of rufh
er dry grafs, which reaches half way down the thigh.
This grafs is not interwoven, but hangs round the per-
5 1 NIC
fon fomething like the thatching of a houfe. Such of
them as have received prefents of cloth petticoats from
the fhips, commonly tie them round immediately under
the arms. The men wear nothing but a narrow ftrip of
cloth about the middle, in which they wrap up their pri¬
vities fo tight that there hardly is any appearance of
them. The ears of both fexes are pierced when young 3
and by fqueezing into the holes large plugs of wood, or
hanging heavy weights of ftiells, they contrive to ren¬
der them wide, and difagreeable to look at. They are
naturally difpofed to be good humoured and gay, and
are very fond of fitting at table with Europeans, where
they eat every thing that is fet before them 3 and they
eat moft enormoufly. They do not care much for wine,
but will drink bumpers of arach as long as they can fee.
A great part of their time is fpent in feafting and dan¬
cing. When a feaft is held at any village, every one
that choofes goes uninvited, for they are utter ftrangers
to ceremony. At thofe feafts they eat immenfe quanti¬
ties of pork, which is their favourite food. Their hogs
are remarkably fat, being fed upon the cocoa-nut ker¬
nel and fea water 3 indeed all their domeftic animals,
fowls, dogs, &c. are fed upon the fame. They have
likewife plenty of fmall fea fifh, which they ftrike very
dexteroufiy with lances, wading into the fea about knee
deep. They are fure of killing a very fmall fifh at 10
or 12 yards diftance. They eat the pork almoft raw,
giving it only a hafty grill over a quick fire. They
roaft a fowl, by running a piece of wood through it, by
way of fpit, and holding it over a brifk fire until the
feathers are burnt off, when it is ready for eating, in
their tafte. They never drink water 3 only cocoa-nut
milk, and a liquor called four a which oozes from the
cocoa-nut tree after cutting off the young fprouts or
flowers. This they fufrer to ferment before it be ufed,
and then it is intoxicating 3 to which quality they add
much by their method of drinking it, by fucking it1
flowly through a fmall ftraw. After eating, the young
men and women, who are fancifully dreffed with leaves,
go to dancing, and the old people furround them fmok-
ing tobacco and t\vm\Cmgfmra. The dancers, while
performing, ling fome of their tunes, which are far
from wanting harmony, and to which they keep exaft"
time. Of mufical inftruments they have only one kind, .
and that the fimpleft. It is a hollow bamboo about two
feet and a half long and three inches in diameter, along
the outfide of which there is ftretched from end to end
a fingle firing made of the threads of a fplit cane, and
the place under the firing is hollowed a little to prevent
it from touching. This inftrument is played upon in
the fame manner as a guitar. It is capable of produ¬
cing but few notes 3 the performer, however, makes it
fpeak harmonioufly, and generally accompanies it with
the voice.
“ Their houfes are generally built upon the beach,'
in villages of 15 or 20 houfes each; and each houfe
contains a family of 20 perfons and upwards. Thefe
habitations are raifed upon wooden pillars about 10 feet
from the ground 3 they are round, and, having no win¬
dows, are like bee-hives, covered with thatch. The
entry is through a trap door below, where the family
mount by a ladder, which is drawn up at night. This
manner of building is intended to fecure the houfes from
being infefted with fnakes and rats; and for that pur-
pofe the pillars are bound round with a fmooth kind of
leaf,
NIC [6
leaf, wlaicli prevents animals from being able to mount;
beiides which, each pillar has a broad round flat piece
of wood near the top of it, the projecting of which ef-
feclualiy prevents the further progrefs of fuch vermine
as may have paij^d the leaf. The flooring is made
with thin Itrips of bamboos, laid at fuch diltances from
one another as to leave free admiffion for light and air;
and the iniide is neatly finifhed and decorated with fifli-
ing lances, nets, &c.
“ The art of making cloth of any kind is quite un¬
known to the inhabitants of this ifland j what they
have is got from the (hips that come to trade in cocoa-
nuts.
“ They purchafe a much larger quantity of cloth
than is confumed upon their own ifland. This is in¬
tended for the Choury market. Choury is a fmall ifland
to the fouthward of theirs, to which a large fleet of
their boats fails every year about the month of Novem¬
ber, to exchange cloth for canoes j for they cannot
make thefe themfelves. This voyage they perform by
the help of the fun and liars, for they know nothing of
the compafs.
“ In their difpolition there are two remarkable qua¬
lities. One is their entire negleft of compliment and
ceremony } and the other, their averlion to dilhonefty.
A Camicobarian travelling to a diltant village, upon
buflnels or amufement, paffes through many towns in
his way without fpeaking to any one } if he is hungry
or tired, he goes into the nearelt houfe, and helps him-
felf to what he wants, and fits till he is relied, without
taking the fmallell notice of any of the family unlefs
he has bufinefs or news to communicate. Theft or
robbery is fo very rare amonglt them, that a man going
out of his houfe never takes away his ladder or Ihuts
his door, but leaves it open for any body to enter that
pleafes without the leall apprehenfion of having any
thing llolen from him.
“ Their intercourfe with llrangers is fo frequent, that
they have acquired in general the barbarous Portuguefe
fo common over India •, their own language has a found
quite different from moll others, their words being pro¬
nounced with a kind of Hop, or catch in the throat, at
every fyllable.
“ They have no notion of a God, but they believe
firmly in the devil, and worlhip him from fear. In
every village there is a high pole erecled with long
itrings of ground rattans hanging from it, which, it
is faid, has the virtue to keep him at a dillance. When
they fee any figns of an approaching llorm, they ima¬
gine that the devil intends them a vifit, upon which
many fuperllitious ceremonies are performed. The
people of every village march round their own boun¬
daries, and fix up at different diftances fmall Hicks
iplit at the top, into which fplit they put a piece of
cocoa-nut, a whifp of tobacco, and the leaf of a cer¬
tain plant} whether this is meant as a peace offering
to the devil or a fcarecrow to frighten him away, does
not appear.
“ When a man dies, all his live Hock, cloth, hatchets,
fifhing lances, and in Ihort every moveable tiling he
poffeffed, is buried with him, and his death is mourn¬
ed by the whole village. In one view this is an excel¬
lent cuftom, feeing it prevents all difputes about the
property of the deceafed amongll his relations. His w ife
#iufl conform to cuilcm by having a joint cut off from
4
] NIC
one of her fingers ; and if the refufes this, flie muff Nicobar
fubmit to have a deep notch cut in one of the pillars —
of her houfe.
“ I was once nrefent at the funeral of an old woman.
When wTe went into the houfe which had belonged
to the deceafed, we found it full of her female rela¬
tions •, fome of them were employed in wuapping up
the corpfe in leaves and cloth, and others tearing to
pieces all the cloth udrich had belonged to her. In
another horde hard by, the men of the village with
a great many others from the neighbouring towns,
were fitting drinking foura and fmoking tobacco. In
the mean time two ilout young fellows' were bufy
digging a grave in the fand near the houfe. When
the wTomen had done with the corpfe, they fet up a
moll hideous howl, upon whicli the people began to
affemble round the grave, and four men wTent up into
the houfe to bring down the body ; in doing this
they were much interrupted by a young man, fon to
the deceafed, who endeavoured with all his might to
prevent them ; but finding it in vain, he clung round
the body, and was carried to the grave along with
it : there, after a violent ftruggle, he was turned
awTay and conducted back to the houfe. The corpfe
being now7 put into the grave, and the lafhings which
bound the legs and arms cut, all the live Hock which
had been the property of the deceafed, confiiling of
about half a dozen hogs, and as many fowls, was
killed, and flung in above it •, a man then approached
with a bunch of leaves ftuck upon the end of a pole,
which he fwept twTo or three times gently along the
corpfe, and then the grave was filled up. During
the ceremony, the wTomen continued to make the
moll horrible vocal concert imaginable : the men faid
nothing. A few days * afterwards, a kind of monu¬
ment was eredled over the grave, with a pole upon it,
to wdiich long llrips of cloth of different colours w'ere
hung.
“ Polygamy is not known among them ; and their
puniftiment of adultery is not Ids fevere than effectual.
They cut, from the man’s offending member, a piece
of the forefkin proportioned to the frequent commif-
fion or enormity of the crime.
“ There {hems to fubfift among them a perfehl equa¬
lity. A few perfons, from their age, have a little
more rerpect paid to them ; but there is no appear¬
ance of authority one over another. Their fociety
feems bound rather by mutual obligations continually
conferred and received ; the fimpleft and beft of all
ties.”
It is our wifti to take ail opportunities of laying
before our readers every authentic fa6l which can
throw light upon the philofophy of the human mind.
In this narrative of Mr Hamilton’s refpectir.g the na¬
tives of Carnicobar, there is however one circumftance
at which we ftumble. It is known to the learned,
that the philofophers of Greece and Rome, as well as
the magi of Perfia, admitted two felf-exiftent beings, a
good and an evil (fee. Polytheism) 5 but we never
before read of any people who had no notion of a
God, and yet firmly believed in the devil. We could
give inffances of men worflupping the evil principle
from fear, and negle&ing the worfhip of the benevo¬
lent principle from a perfuafion that he would do them
all the good in his power without being bribed by fa-
crifices
NIC [ '
r<KcotIeraas. critices and oblations $ but this is the only infiance of
'——Y—' which we have ever heard, of a people, under the in¬
fluence of religion, who had no notion of a God l As
good is at leaft as apparent in the world as evil, it ap¬
pears to us fo very unnatural to admit an evil and de¬
ny a good principle, that we cannot help thinking that
Mr Hamilton, from his ignorance of the language of
Carnicobar, (which he acknowledges to be different
from molt others), has not a perfect acquaintance with
the religious creed of the natives : and that they be¬
lieve in a good as well as in an evil principle, though
they worfliip only the latter, from a perfuafion, that to
adore the former could be of no advantage either to him
or to thenafelves.
Naucowry or Souiy, and Comerty, two other of
the Nicobar iflands, are faid to be the beft peopled,
containing not lefs than 800 inhabitants. Between
thefe iflands there is a fafe and fpacious harbour. On
the north point of Nan cowry, within the harbour, the
Hanes have long retained a {mail fettlement, proteiled.
by a fergeant and a few foldiers and flaves.
NICODEMUS, a difciple of Jefus Chriff, a Jew
by nation, and by feff a Pharifee (John iii. 1. &c.)
The Scripture calls him a ruler of the Jews, and our
Saviour gives him the name of a mafter of Ifrael.
When our Saviour began to manifeft himfelf by his
miracles at Jerufalem, at the firft paflbver that he ce¬
lebrated there after his baptifm, Nicodemus made no
doubt but that he wras the Mefliah, and came to him
by night, that he might learn of him the way of ial-
vation. Jems told him, that no one could fee the
kingdom of heaven except he fhould be born again.
Nicodemus taking this in the literal fenfe, made an-
fwer, “ How can a man that is old be born again ? Can
he enter the fecond time into his mother’s womb ?” To
which Jefas replied, “ If a man be not born of -water
and of the fpirit, be cannot enter into the kingdom of
God. That which is born of the flelh is flefh, and
that which is born of the fpirit is fpirit.” Nicodemus
afks him, “ How can thefe things be r” Jefus an-
fwered, “ Are you a mafler of Ifrael, and are you ig¬
norant of thefe things ? We tell you what w-e knmv,
and you receive not our teftimony. If you believe
not common things, and which may be called earthly,
how w ill you believe me if I fpeak to you of heavenly
things ? Nobody has afcended into heaven but the Son
of God, -who came down from thence. And juft as
Mofes lifted up the brazen ferpent in the wildemefs, fo
muff the Son of Man be lifted up on high. For God
fo loved the world that he has given his only Son, fo
that no man who believes in him ihall perifti, but fliall
have eternal life.”
After this ccnverfation Nicodemus became a difci¬
ple of Jefus Chrift; and there is no doubt to be made,
but he came to hear him as often as our Saviour came
to Jerufalem. It happened on a time, that the priefts
and Pharifees had fent officers to feize Jefus (John vii.
45. &c.), who returning to them, made their report,
that never man fpoke as he did •, to which the Pharifees
replied, “ Are you alio of his difciples ? Is there any
one of the elders or Pharifees that have believed in
him ?” Then Nicodemus thought himfelf obliged to
make anfwer, faying, “ Does the law permit us to con¬
demn any one before he is heard '” To which they re¬
plied, “ Are you alro a Grlikan ? Bead the Scrip-
] N I C
fares, and you will find that never any prophet came Nicclai-
cut of Galilee.” After this the council was difmhTed.
At laft Nicodemus declared himfelf openly a dilciple cf ,-‘K;(iec
Jefus Chrift (/</. xix. 39, 40.), when he came with Jo- ^-—*0
feph of Arimathea to pay the laft duties to the body of
Chrift, which they took down from the crofs, embalmed,
and laid in a fepulchre.
We are told, that Nicodemus received baptifm from
the difciples of Chrift ; but it is not mentioned -whe¬
ther before or after the paffion of our Lord. It is
added, that the .1 ews being informed of this, depofed
him from his dignity of fenator, excommunicated him,
and drove him from Jerufalem : but that Gamaliel,
who wars his coufin-german, took him to his country
houfe, and maintained him there till his death, when
he had him buried honourably near St Stepben. There
is ftill extant an apocryphal gofpel under the name of
Nicodemus, which in fome manufcripts bears the title of
the A fir of Pilate,
NICOL AIT AN'S, in church hiftory, Chriftian he¬
retics, wdro affirmed this name from Nicholas of An¬
tioch ; who, being a Gentile by birth, firft embraced
Judaifm and then Chriftianity 5 when his zeal and de¬
votion recommended him to the church of Jerufalem,
by whom he was chofen one of the firft deacons. Many
of the primitive writers believe that Nicholas wTas ra¬
ther the occafion than the author of the infamous prac¬
tices of thofe who affumed his name, who wrere exprefsly
condemned by the Spirit of God himfelf, Rev. it. 6.
And indeed their opinions and actions tvere Jrighly ex¬
travagant and criminal. They allowed a community
of waves, and made no difunction between ordinary
meats and thofe offered to idols. According to Eule-
bius, they fubfifted but a fhort time } but Tertullian fays,
that they only changed their name, and that their here-
fies pafled into the fe<ft of the Cainites.
NICOLAS, St, an ifland of the Atlantic ocean, and
one of the moft confiderable of thofe of Cape Verd, ly¬
ing between Santa Lucia and St Jago. It is of a trian¬
gular figure, and about 75 miles in length. The land is
ftony, mountainous, and barren} their are a great many
goats in a valley inhabited by the Portugufe. W. Long.
33. 35. N. Lat. 17. o.
NICOLO, St, the moft confiderable, ftrongeft, and
beft peopled of the ifles of Tremeti in the gulf of Ve¬
nice, to the eaft of St Domino, and to the fouth of Cap-
parata. It has a harbour defended by feveral towers j
and a fortrefs, in which is an abbey, with a very hand-
fome church. E. Long. 15. 37. N. Lat. 42. 10.
N1COMEDES, the name ol feveral kings of the
ancient Bithynia. See Bithynia.
Nicomedes I. had no fooner taken poffeffion of his
father’s throne, before Chrift 270, than, according to
the cuftom which has in all ages been too prevaTentr"
among the defpots of the eaft, he caufed two of his
brothers to be put to death. The youngeft, Zibceas,
having laved himfelf by timely flight, feized on the
coaft of Bithynia, which was then known by the names
of Thracia Tkyniccia, and Thracia AJialica, and there
maintained a long war with his brother. Nicomedes
being informed that Amtiochus Soter, king of Syria,
was making great preparations to attack him at the
{ame time, called in the Gauls to his afliftancej and
on this occafion that people firft pafled into Alia.—-
Nicomedes having with their afliftance repulfed Antio-
• chus,
NIC [8
clius, overcome his brother, and acquired the poffef-
iion of all his father’s dominions, bellowed upon them
that part of Afia Minor which from them was called
Gallo-Graria, and Gallatia. Having now no enemies
to contend with, he applied himfelf to the enlarging
and adorning of the city of Altacus, which he called
after his own 'name Nicomedia. He had two wives,
and by one of them he was perfuaded _ to leave his
kingdom to her fon, in preference to_ his elder bro¬
thers } but when or how he died is not certainly
known.
Nicomedes II. the grandfon of the former, began
his reign like him, by facrificmg his biothers to his
iealouly, after having Waded to the throne in the blood
of Prulias his father. He alfumed the name of hpi~
phones, or “ the Illuftrious,” though he performed no¬
thing worthy of this title, or even of notice, during
the whole time of his long reign. He was fucceeded by
his fon  #
Nicomedes III. furnamed, by antiphralis, Philopo-
ter, becaufe he had murdered his father to get pojlef-
lion of his crown. This monarch having entered into
alliance with Mithridates the Great king of Pontus,
invaded Paphlagonia •, and having feized on that coun¬
try, he attempted likewife to make himfelf mailer of
Cappadocia. This country, however, was at that time
fubjefl to his powerful ally, who thereupon marching
into Bithynia at the head of an army, drove Nico¬
medes from the throne, and raifed his brother Socrates
to it in his room. The dethroned prince had recourfe
to the Romans, who expelled the ufurper, and reftor-
ed him to his hereditary dominions. For this favour
they prelfed him, and at length prevailed upon him,
contrary to his own inclination, and the opinion of his
friends, to make inroads into the territories of Mithri¬
dates, with whom Rome wanted a fubjeft of difpute.
The king of Pontus bore for fome time the devalla-
tions committed by Nicomedes with great patience,
that he might not feem to be the aggrelfor •, but at
Jail he routed his army on the banks of the Am-
nius, drove him a fecond time from his dominions,
and obliged him to feek for Ihelter in Paphlagonia,
where he led a private life till the time of Sylla, who
/replaced him on the throne. He was fucceeded by
his fon  
Nicomedes IV. .who performed nothing which the
manv writers who flouridied in his time have thought
worth tranfmitting to pollerity. As he died without
iffue male, he left his kingdom by his laid will to the
Romans, who reduced it to the form of a province.
Sallull, difagreeing with the ancients, tells us, that Ni¬
comedes left a fon named Mnfa or Mysa ; and introdu¬
ces Mithridates as complaining of the Romans to Ar-
faces king of Parthia, for feizing on the kingdom of
Bithynia, and excluding the fen of a prince who had
on all occaftons fhown himfelf a Heady friend to their
republic. But this Mufa was the daughter and not the
fon of Nicomedes, as we are told in exprefs terms by
Suetonius, Velleius Paterculus, and Appian. All we
know of her is, that upon the death of her father fhe
claimed the kingdom of Bithynia for her fon, as the
next male heir to the crown, but without fuccefs} no
motives of juftice being of fuch weight with the
ambitious Romans as to make them pjut with a king¬
dom..
] NIC
NICOMEDIA, in Ancient Geography, a metropolis Nicomedia
of Bithynia, built by Nicomedes the grandfather of Pru- ^
has. It is iituated on a point of the Sinus Allacenus, ' ,
(Pliny) j furnamed the Beautiful, (Athenaeus) : the
largeit city of Bithynia, (Paufanias), who lays it was
formerly called Ajlacus; though Pliny diltinguilhes
Allacum and Nicomedia as different cities. Nicome¬
dia was very famous, not only under its own kings, but
under the Romans: it was the. royal refxdence of Dio-
clefian, and of Conftantine while Conllantinople was
building, if we may credit Nicephorus. It is itill called
Nicomedia, at the bottom of a bay of the Propontis in.
the Hither Afia. E. Long. 30. c. N. Lat. 41. 20.
It is a place of confequence ; carries on a trade in fiik,
cotton, glafs, and earthen ware, and is the lee of a Greek
archbilhop.
NICOMEDUS, a geometrician, famous on ac¬
count of the invention of the curve called conchoid,
which is equally ufeful in refolving the two problems
of doubling the cube and trifedling the angle. It
appears that he lived foon after Eratoilhenes, for he
rallied that philofopher on the mechanifm of his mtfo-
labe. Geminus, who lived in the fecond century before
Jefus Chrift, has written on the conchoid, though
Nicomedus was always efteemed the inventor of it.
Thofe who place him four or five centuries after Jefus
Chrilt muff be ignorant of thefe fadls, by which we are
enabled to afeertain pretty nearly the time in which he
lived.
NICON, a native of Ruffia, was born in 1613, in
a village of the government of Nilhnei Novogorod, of
fuch obfeure parents, that their names and llation are
not tranfmitted to pollerity. He received at the bap-
tiimal font the name of Nikita, which afterwards, when
he became monk, he changed to Nicon, the appella¬
tion by which he is more generally known. He was
educated in the convent of St Macarius, under the
care of a monk. From the ccurih of his Itudies,
which were almoll folely dire&ed to the Holy Scrip¬
tures, and the exhortations of his preceptor, he im¬
bibed at a very early period the llrongell attachment
to a monallic life and was only prevented from fol¬
lowing the bent of his mind by the perfuafions and
authority of his father. In conformity, however, to
the willies of his family, though contrary to his own
inclination, he entered into matrimony •, and, as that
Hate precluded him from being admitted into a con¬
vent, he was ordained a fecular prieft. Vv ith his wife
he continued ten years, partly in the country a.nd
partly at Mofcow, officiating as a pariffi priell. The
lofs of three children, however, gave him a total dil-
gull to the World j in confequence of which, his wife
was perfuaded to take the veil, and he became a monk }
his retreat was in an illand of the \v bite fea, and a
kind of ecclefialtical ellablilhment was formed, as re¬
markable for the aullerities of its rules as the fituation
was f> its folitude. There were about 12 monks, but
they all lived in different cells. Such a fyllem, com¬
bined with the moll gloomy ideas, occafioned fo much
cloillered pride as tarnilhed his character, when he
was afterwards called up to fulfil the duties of a pub¬
lic And exalted ftation. Our limits do not peimit us
to be minute in our account of his life, we mull there¬
fore be contented with barely reciting general tack.
Within lefs than the fnace of five years, Nicon was
fucceffively
NIC" [
Nicon fucceffively created archimandrite, or abbot of the No-
II vofpatfkoi convent, archbifhop of Novogorod, and
1C0t patriarch of Ruflia. That he was worthy of thefe rapid
promotions, few wall doubt who are acquainted with
his charadter ; for he was poffefled of very extraordi¬
nary qualities, fuch as even his enemies allow and ad¬
mire. His courage was undaunted, his morals irre¬
proachable, his charity extenfive and exalted, his learn¬
ing deep and compreheniive, and his eloquence com¬
manding. When archbifhop, he obtained the refpedt
of the inhabitants by his unwearied affiduity in the dif-
charge of his truft •, and conciliated their affections by
acts of unbounded charity : Nor was he lefs confpicuous
in the difcharge of the office of patriarch, to which
dignity he was appointed in 1652, in the 39th year of
Ins age. «
Nor was he only diflinguiffied in his own profeffion,
for he (hone even as a ftatefman. At length, however,
he fell a victim to popular difcontents •, which misfor¬
tune, though he was far from deferving it, was certainly
the effedt of imprudence. He abdicated the office of
patriarch, which would otherwife have been taken from
him, in July 1658, and bore his reverie of fortune
with heroic magnanimity : he returned to a cell, and
commenced his former aufterities. His innocence,
however, could not protect him from further malice: his
enemies obtained him to be formally depofed in 1666.
This degradation was followed by imprifonment, which
was for fome time very rigorous, becaufe he, confcious
of his own innocence, refufed to accept pardon for
crimes of which he was not guilty. In 1676, how¬
ever, he was removed to the convent of St Cyril, and
enjoyed perfedt liberty.
Nicon furvived his depofitiort 15 years. In 1681,
he requefted and obtained permiffion to return to the
convent of Jerufalem, that he might end his days in
that favourite fpot ; but he expired upon the road
near Yaroflaf, in the 66th year of his age. His re¬
mains were tranfported to that convent, and buried
with all the ceremonies ufed at the interment of pa-
* triarchs. »
NICOPOLI, a towm of Turkey in Europe, and in
Bulgaria, famous for being the place where the firft
battle was fought between the Turks and Chriftians
in 1396 ; and where the latter were defeated with
the lofs of 20,000 men. E. Long. 25. 33. N. Lat.
43. 46.
NICOSIA, the capital of the idand of Cyprus,
where a Turkiffi baffiaw relides. It is delightfully
fituated between the mountains of Olympus and a
chain of others, and was formerly wTell fortified by the
Venetians \ but the works are now in ruins. It is
about 31 miles in circumference \ and there are plan¬
tations of olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, mulber¬
ries, and cyprefs trees, interfperfed among the houfes,
which give the town a delightful appearance. The
church of Sandta Sophia is an old Gothic ftrufture,
which the Turks have turned into a mofque, and de-
Ilroyed the ornaments. It is 100 miles weft of Tri¬
poli, and 160 fouth-weft of Aleppo. E. Long. 34.
45. N. Lat. 34. 54.
NICOT, joRNT, lord of Villemain, and mafter of
requefts of the French king’s houfehold, wras born at
Nifmes, and was fent ambaffador to Portugal in 1599 ;
whence he brought the plant which, from his name,
Vol. XV. Part I.
9 ] N I C
was called Nicotiana, but is now more generally known Nicutiana/
by the name of Tobacco. He died at Paris in 1603. * 1
He wrote a French and Latin dictionary in folio ; a
treat ife on navigation ; and other works.
NICOTIANA, tobacco, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 28th order, Luridce. See Botany
Index.—There are feven fpecies, of which the moft re¬
markable is the tabacum, or common tobacco plant.
This was firft difcovered in America by the Spaniards
about the year 1560, and by them imported into Eu¬
rope. It had^been ufed by the inhabitants of America
long before ; and was called by thofe of the iilands yoli,
and pcctun by the inhabitants of the continent. It ww>
fent into Spain from Tabaco, aprovince of Yucatan, where
it was firft difcovered, and from whence it takes its com¬
mon name. Sir Walter Raleigh is generally faid to have
been the firft that introduced it into England about the year
rj'85, and who taught his countrymen how to fmoke it.
Dr Cotton Mather, however, (in his Chriftian Philofo-
pher) fays, that in the above year one Mr Lane car¬
ried over fome of it from Virginia, which was the firft
time it had ever been feen in Europe. Tobacco is com¬
monly ufed among the oriental nations, though it is
uncertain by whom it was introduced among them.
Confiderable quantities of it are cultivated in the Le¬
vant, on the coafts of Greece and the Archipelago, in
Italy, and in the ifland of Malta.
There are two varieties of that fpecies of nicotiana
which is cultivated for common ufe, and rvhich are
diftinguiffied by the names of Oronohoe, and fweet-
fcented tobacco. They differ from each other only- in
the figure of their leaves j thofe of the former being
longer and narrower than the latter. They are tall
herbaceous plants, growing erect with fine foliage,
and rifing with a ftrcng ftem from fix to nine feet high..
The ftalk near the root is upward of an inch - dia¬
meter, and furrounded with a kind of hairy or velvet
clammy fubftance, of a yellowiffi green colour. The
leaves are rather of a deeper green, and growr alternately
at the diftance of twro or three inches from each other.
They are oblong, of a fpear-fhaped oval, and fimple 5
the larger! about 20 inches long, but decreafing in
fize as they afcend, till they come to be only 10 inches
long, and about half as broad. The face of the leaves
is much corrugated, like thofe of fpinage when
ripe. Before they come to maturity, when th*/ are
about five or fix inches long, the leaves ar^ generally
of a full green, and rather fmooth j as they in-
creafe in fize, they become roug^ri aud acquire a
yellowiffi caft. The ftem and tranches are terminated
by large bunches of flower* collected intq clufters, of
a delicate red 3 the edges, when full blown, inclining
to a pale purple. They continue in fucceffion till the
end of the fummer 3 wiren they are fucceeded by feeds
of a brown colour, and kidney-ftiaped. Thefe are very
fmall, each capfule containing about loco ; and the
wffiole produce of a fingle plant is reckoned at about
350,000. The feeds ripen in the month of September.
Mr Carver informs us, that the Oronokoe, or, as
it is called, the long Virginian tobacco, is the kind belt
failed for bearing the rigour of a northern climate, the
ftrength as well as the fcent of the leaves being greater
than that of the other. The fvheet-fcented fort flou-
riffies moft in a fandy foil, and in a wrarm climate,
B • where
NIC [i
Nicotiana where it greatly exceeds the former in the celerity of
' its growth ) and is likewife, as its name intimates,
much more mild and plealant.
Culture.—Tobacco thrives beft in a warm, kindly,
rich foil, that is not fubjedt to be overrun by weeds. In
Virginia, the foil in which it thrives beft is warm, light,
and inclining to be fandy ; and therefore, if the plant
is to be cultivated in Britain, it ought to be planted
in a foil as nearly of the fame kind as poflible. Other
kinds of foil might probably be brought to fuit it, by
a mixture of proper manure j but we muft remember,
that whatever manure is made ufe of, muft be tho¬
roughly incorporated with the foil. The beft fitua-
a jn for a tobacco plantation is the fouthern declivity
of a hill, rather gradual than abrupt, or a fpot that is
iheltered from the north winds : but at the fame time
it is necefiary that the plants enjoy a free air } for
without that they will not profper.
As tobacco is an annual plant, thofe who intend to
cultivate it ought to be as carelul as poftible in the
choice of tho feeds j in which, however, wit ti all their
care, they may be fometimes deceived. The feeds
are to be fown about the middle of April, or rather
fooner in a forward feafon, in a bed prepared for this
purpofe of fuch foil as has been already defcribed,
mixed with fome wmrm rich manure. In a cold fpring,
hot beds are moft eligible for this purpofe, and gar-
Treatife on deners imagine that they are always neceffary : but
the Culture Mr Carver tells us, that he is convinced, when the
of Tobacco, weather is not very fevere, the tobacco feeds may be
raifed without doors; and for this purpofe gives us the
following directions.
“ Having fown the feed in the manner above di-
reCled, on the leaft apprehenfton of a froft after the
plants appear, it will be neceffary to fpread mats over
the beds, a little elevated from the ground by poles
laid acrofs, that they may not be cruftied. Thefe,
however, muft be removed in the morning, foon after
the fun appears, that they may receive as much benefit
as poftible from its warmth and from the am. In this
manner proceed till the leaves have attained about
two inches in length and one in breadth ; which they
will do in about a month after they are fown, or near
the middle of May, when the frofts are ufually at an
end. One invariable rule for their being able to bear
rCl'oval is, when the fourth leaf is fprouted, and the
fifth juo appears, Then take the opportunity of the
~ gentle {bowers to tranfplant them into
ana (ftuation as before defcribed 5 which
done in IV^. following manner.—The land
muft be ploughed, or Occr Up with fpades, and made
as mellow and light as poifiVle. When the plants are
to be placed, raife with the hoe final] hillocks at the
diftance of two feet or a little more from each other,
taking care that no hard fods or lumps are in it 5 and
then ju-ft indent the middle of each, without drilling
holes, as for fome other plants.
“ When your ground is thus prepared, dig in a
gentle- manner from their native bed fuch plants as
have attained the proper growth for tranfplanting
above-mentioned } and drop, as you pafs, one on every
hillock. Infert a plant gently into each centre, prefting
the foil around gently with your fingers ; and taking
the greateft care, during the operation, that you do
not break off any of the leaves, which are at lifts
fir ft rains
fuch a foil
muft be
o ] NIC
time exquisitely tender. If the weather proves dry Nicotiana.
after they are thus tranfplanted, they muft be watered ' v~“-
with foft water, in the fame manner as is ufually done
to coleworts, or plants of a ftmilar kind. But though
you now feexn to have a fufficient quantity of plants
for the fpace you intend to cultivate, it is yet neceffary
that you continue to attend to your bed of feedlings,
that you may have enough to fupply any deficiencies
which through accident may arife. From this time
great care muft be taken to keep the ground foft and
free from weeds, by often ftirring with your hoe the
mould round the roots *, and to prune off the dead
leaves that fometimes are found near the bottom of
the ftalk.
“ The difference of this climate from that in -which
I have been accuftomed to oblerve the progrefs of this
plant, will not permit me to direft with certainty the
time which is moft proper to take off the top of it, to
prevent it from running to feed. This knowledge can
only be acquired by experience. When it has rifen
to the height of more than two feet, it commonly be¬
gins to put forth the branches on which the lowers
and feeds are produced ; but as this expanfion, if fuf-
fered to take place, would drain the nutriment from
the leaves, which are the moft valuable part, and there¬
by leffen their fize and efficacy, it becomes needful at
this ftage to nip off the extremity of the ftalk to pre¬
vent its growing higher. In fome other climates,
the top is commonly cut off when the plant has 15
leaves $ but if the tobacco is intended to be a little
ftrongtr than ufual, this is done when it has only 13 -
and ibmetimes, when it is defigned to be remarkably
powerful, 11 or 12 are only allowed to expand. On
the contrary, if the planter is defirous of having his
crop very mild, he fuffers it to put forth 18 or 20 : but
in this calculation, the three or four lower leaves next
the ground, which do not grow fo large and fine as
the others, are not to be reckoned.
“ This operation, denominated topping the tobacco,
is much better performed by the finger and thumb
than with any inlirument} becaufe the grafp of the fin¬
gers clofes the pores of the plant ; whereas, when it is
done by inftruments, the juices are in fome degree ex-
haufted. Care muft alfo be taken to nip off the fprouts
that will be continually fpringing up at the junction
of the leaves with the ftalks. This is termed fuccour-
ing^ or fuckering, the tobacco ; and ought to be re¬
peated as often as occafion requires.
“ As it is impoflible to afeertain the due time for
topping the plant, fo it is equally impoffible, without
experiment, to afeertain the time it will take to ripen
in this country. The apparent figns of its maturity
are thefe : The leaves, as they approach a ftate of ripe-
nefs, become more corrugated or rough } and when fully
ripe, appear mottled rvith yellovvifh fpots on the raifed
parts; whilft the cavities retain their ufual green colour.
They are at this time alfo thicker than they have been
before \ and are covered with a downy velvet, like
that formerly mentioned, on the ftalks. If heavy rains
happen at this critical period, they will wafh off this
excrefcent fubftance, and thereby damage the plants.
In this cafe, if the frofty nights are not begun, it is
proper to let them ftand a few days longer 5 when, if
the weather be moderate, they will recover this fub¬
ftance again. But if a froft unexpe&edly happens' du-
ring-
N 1C [ ;
?- ring tlie night, they mufl be carefully examined in the
morning, before the fun has any influence upon them;
and thofe which are found to be covered with frolly
particles, whether thoroughly ripe or not, mull be cut
up ; for though they may not all appear to be arrived
at a date of maturity, yet they cannot be far front it,
and will differ but little in goodnefs from thofe that
are perfeflly fo.”
Tobacco is fubject to be dellroyed by a worm • and
without proper care to exterminate this enemy, a
whole field of plants may foon be loft. This animal
is of the horned fpecies, and appears to be peculiar to
♦he tobacco plant; fo that in many parts of America
it is diftinguifhed by the name of the tobacco %vor?n. In
what manner it is firft produced, or how propagated,
is unknown : but it is not difcemible till the plants
have attained about half their height 5 and then ap¬
pears to be nearly as large as a gnat. Soon after this
it lengthens into a worm \ and by degrees increafes in
magnitude to the bignefs of a man’s finger. In fliape
it is regular from its head to its tail, without any di¬
minution at either extremity. It is indented or ribbed
round at equal diftances, nearly a quarter of an inch
from each other ; and having at every one of thefe di-
vifions a pair of feet or claws, by which it faftens itfelf
to the plant. Its mouth, like that of the caterpillar,
is placed under the fore part of the head. On the top
of the head, between the eyes, grows a horn about half
an inch long, and greatly refembling a thorn 5 the ex¬
treme part of which is of a brown colour, a firm tex¬
ture, and the extremity fharp pointed. It is eafily
crulhed ^ being only, to appearance, a colledlion of
green juice enclofed in a membranaceous covering,
without the internal parts of an animated being. The
colour of its fkin is in general green, interfperfed with
feveral fpots of a yellowifli white ; and the whole co¬
vered with a fhort hair fcareely to be difcemed. Thefe
"worms are found the moft predominant during the lat¬
ter end of July and the beginning of Auguft j at which
time the plants muft be particularly attended to, and
every leaf carefully fearched. As foon as a wound is
difoovered, and it will not be long before it is percep¬
tible, care muft be taken to deftroy the caufe of it,
which will be found near it, and from its unfubftantial
texture may eafily be cruftied : but the beft method is
to pull it away by the horn, and then crulh it.
When the tobacco is fit for being gathered, as will
appear from an attention to the foregoing directions,
on the firft morning that promifes a fair day, before
the fun is rifen, take an axe or a long knife, and holding
the ftalk nea* the top with one hand, fever it from its
root with the other, as low as poffible. Lay it
gently on the ground, taking care not to break off the
leaves, and there let it remain expofed to the rays of
the fun throughout the day, or until the leaves, accord¬
ing to the American expreflion, are entirely wilted:
that is,, till they become limber, and will bend any
way without breaking. But if the weather fhoul’d
prove rainy without any intervals of funfhine, and the
plants appear to be fully ripe, they muft be houfed
immediately. I his muft be done, however, with great
care, that the leaves, which are in this ftate verv
brittle, may not be broken. They are next to be placed
under proper ftielter, either in a barn or covered hovel,
■where they cannot be affefted by rain or too much air'
NIC
thinly, foattered on the floor j and if the fun does hotNicotl
appear tor feveral days, they muft be left to wilt in that
manner ; but in this cafe the quality of the tobacco
will not be quite fo good.
\\ hen the leaves have acquired the above-mentioned
flexibility, the plants muft be laid in heaps, or rather
in one heap if the quantity is not too great, and hf
about 24 hours they will be found to fweat. But
during this time, when they have lain for a little while,
and begin to ferment, it will be neceffary to turn
them -y bringing thofe which are in the middle to the
furface, and placing thofe which are at the furface in
the middle. The longer they lie in this fituation, the
darker coloured is the tobacco j and this is termed
fweating the tobacco. After they have lain in this
manner for three or four days, (for a longer con¬
tinuance might make the plants turn mouldy), they
may be fattened together in pairs with cords or wrood-
en pegs, near the bottom of the ftalk, and hung acrofs
a pole, with the leaves fufpended in the fame covered
place, a proper interval being left between each
pair. . In about a month the leaves will be thorough¬
ly dried, and of a proper temperature to be taken
down, lifts ftate may be afoertained by their appear¬
ing of the fame colour with thofe imported from Ame¬
rica. But this can be done only in wet v/eather. The
tobacco is exceedingly apt to attrabl the humidity of
the atmofphere, vfoich gives it a pliability that is ab-
folutely neceffary for its prefervation ; for if the plants
are removed in a very dry foafon, the external parts of
the leaves wall crumble into dull, and a conftderable
wafte will enfue.
Cure. As foon as the plants are taken down, they
muft again be laid in a heap, and preffed with heavy logs
of wood for about a week ; but this climate may
poflibly require a longer time. While they remain in
this ftatc, it wall be neceffary to introduce your hand
frequently into the heap, to difcover whether the heat
be not too intenfe; for in large quantities this will
fometimes be the cafe, and conftderable damage will
be occafloned by it. When they are found to heat
too much, that is, when the heat exceeds a moderate
glowing warmth, part of the weight by which they
are preffed muft be taken away ; and the caufe being
removed, the effedl will ceafe. This is called the fe-
cond or laf/wealing; and, when completed, which it
generally will be about the time juft mentioned, the
leaves muft be ftripped from the ftalks for ufe. Many
omit this laft {wealing \ but Mr Carver thinks that it
takes away any remaining harftmefs, and renders the to¬
bacco more mellow. The ftrength of the ftalk alfo is
diffufed by it through the leaves, and the whole mafs be¬
comes equally meliorated.—When the leaves are ftrip¬
ped from the ftalks, they are to be tied up in bunches
or handsy and kept in a cellar or other damp place}
though if not handled , in dry weather but only during
a rainy feafon, it is of little confequence in what part of
the houfe or barn they are laid up. At this period the
tobacco is thoroughly cured, and as proper for manu-
faciuring as that imported from the colonies.
.Our author advifes the tobacco planter, in his firft
trials, not to be too avaricious, but to top his plants
before they have gained their utmoft height : leaving
only, about the middle quantity of leaves direfted before
to give it a tolerable degree of ftrength. For though
^ 2 this.
Nicotiar.a
NIC [i
tliis, if esceflive, might be abated during the cur.- by an
increafe of fweating, or be remedied the next feafon by
buffering more leaves to grow, it can never be added 5
and, without a certain degree of ftrength, the tobacco
will always be taftelefs and of little value. On the
contrary, though it 'be ever fo much weakened by
fweating, and thereby rendered mild, yet it will never
lofe the aromatic flavour, which accompanied that
ilrength, and which greatly adds to its value. A Iquare
yard of land, he tells us, will rear about 500 plants,
and allow proper fpace for their nurture till they are fit
for tranfplanting.
The following extract:, which is copied from a ma-
nufcript of Dr Barham (a), for directing the raifing,
cultivating, and curing tobacco in Jamaica, is perhaps
worthy of the attention of thofe who wifh to be further
acquainted with this fubjeft.
“ Let the ground or woodland wherein you intend
planting tobacco be well burned, as the greater the
quantity of wood afhes the better. rlhe fpot you in¬
tend raifing your plants on muft: be well ftrewed with
afhes, laid fmooth and light: then blow the feed from
the palm of your hand gently on the bed, and cover
it over with palm or plantain leaves.
“ When your plants are about four inches high,
draw them and plant them out about three feet afun-
der ; and when they become as high as your knee, cut
or pluck off the top ; and if there are more than 12
leaves on the plant, take off the overplus, and leave the
reft entire.
“ The plant fhould now be 4aily attended to, in or¬
der to deftroy the caterpillars that are liable to infeft it •,
as alfo to take off every fprout or fucker that puts out at
the joints, in order to throw the whole vegetable nouriih-
ment into the large leaves.
“ When the edges and points of the leaves begin to
turn a little yellow, cut down the ftalks about ten
o’clock in the morning, taking the opportunity of a
fine day, and be careful the dew is fully off the plant,
and do not continue this work after two in the after¬
noon. As faft as it is cut let it be carried into your
tobacco houfe, which muft be fo clofe as to fhut out
all air, (on this much depends), and hung up on lines
tied acrofs, for the purpofe of drying.
“ When the ftalks begin to turn brownifh, take
them off the lines, and put them in a large binn, and
lay on them heavy weights for 12 days j then take
them out, and ftrip off the leaves, and put them again
into the binn, and let them be well preffed, and fo as
no air gains admiflion for a month. Take them out;
tie them in bundles about 60 leaves in each, which are
called monocoes ; and are ready for fale. But obferve to
let them always be kept clofe till you have occafion to
difpofe of them.
“ Let your curing houfe be well built, and very
clofe and warm; if a boarded building, it will not be
amifs, in a wet fituation, to cover the whole outfide
with thatch and plantain trafh, to keep off the damps 5
for by this. care, you preferve the fine volatile oil in the
2 ] ~ NIC
leaves. Obferve, no fmoke is to be made ufe of or ad-Nlcotiana,.
mitted into your curing houfe.” " .Nidbtating
For an account of the medical effects of tobacco. See membraiu •
Materia Medica Index. i
The moft common ufes of this plant, are either as a
fternutalory when taken by way of fnuft, as a maifica-
tory by chewing it in the mouth, or as effluvia by fmok-
ing it} and when taken in moderation, it is not an un¬
healthful amufement. Before pipes were invented, it
was ufually fmoked in fegars, and they are iiill in ufe
among feme of the fouthern nations. The method of
preparing thefe is at once fimple and expeditious. A
leaf of tobacco being formed into a fmall twilled roil,
fomewhat larger than the ftem of a pipe, and about
eight inches long, the fmoke is conveyed through the
nunding folds which prevent it from expanding, as
through a tube 5 fo that one end of it being lighted,
and the other applied to the mouth, it is in this form
ufed without much inconvenience. But, in procefs of
time, pipes being invented, they were found more com¬
modious vehicles for the imoke, and are now in general
ufe.
Among all the productions of foreign climes intro¬
duced into thefe kingdoms, fcarce any has been held,
in higher eftimation by perfons of every rank than to¬
bacco. In the countries of which it is a native, it is
confidered by the Indians as the moft valuable offer¬
ing that can be made to the beings they worftiip. They
ufe it in all their civil and religious ceremonies. When
once the fpiral wreaths of its fmoke afeend from the
feathered pipe of peace, the compaCt that has been
juft made is confidered as facred and inviolable. Like-
wife, when they addrefs their great Father, or his
guardian fpirits, refiding, as they believe, in every ex¬
traordinary produclion of nature, they make liberal of¬
ferings to them of this valuable plant, not doubting but
that they are thus fecured of protection.
Tobacco is made up into rolls by the inhabitants of
the interior parts of America, by means of a machine
called a tobacco wheel. With this machine they fpin
the leaves after they are cured, into a twift of any fize
they think fit j and having folded it into rolls of about
20 pounds each, they lay it by for ufe. In this ftate
it will keep for feveral years, and be continually im¬
proving, as it always grows milder. The Illinois ufual¬
ly form it into carrots 5 which is done by laying a num¬
ber of leaves, when cured, on each other after the ribs
have been taken out, and rolling them round with pack¬
thread, till they become cemented together. Thefe rolls
commonly meafure about 18 or 20 inches in length,
and nine round in the middle part.
Tobacco forms a very confiderable article in com¬
merce j for an account of which fee the articles Glas¬
gow and Virginia.
NICTITATING membrane, a thin membrane
chiefly found in the bird and filh kind, which covers the
eyes of thefe animals, fheltering them from the dull or
too much light 5 yet is fo thin and pellucid, that they
can fee pretty well through it.
NIDDUJ,
(a) This gentleman was cotemporary with Sir Hans Sloane. He was a man of great probity, an able phyfi-
cian, and a fldlful naturalift. He collefted and arranged a number of the plants of Jamaica, which he prefented
to Dr Sloane, and made feveral communications to the Royal Society.
N I E [i
NicMui NIDDUI, in the Jewiih cuftoms, is ufed to fignify
II “ feparated or excommunicated.'” This, according to
defter. fome, was to be underftood of the lefler fort of excom-
munication in ufe among the Hebrews. He that had
incurred it was to withdraw himfelf from his relations,
at lead to the di dance of four cubits : it commonly
continued a month. If it was not taken off in that
time, it might be prolonged for 60 or even 90 days :
but if, within this term, the excommunicated perfon
did not give fatisfaclion, he fell into the cherctn, which
was a fecond fort of excommunication 5 and thence
into the third fort, called Jhammata or Jhematta, the
moft terrible of all. But Selden has proved that there
were only two kinds of excommunication, the great¬
er and lefs ; and that thefe three terms were ufed indif¬
ferently.
NIDUS, among naturalifts, fignifies a neft or proper
repolitory for the eggs of birds, infefts, &c. where the
young of thefe animals are hatched and nurfed.
NIDIFICATION, a term generally applied to the
formation of a bird’s neft, and its hatching or bring¬
ing forth its young. See Ornithology.
NIECE, a brother’s or lifter’s daughter, which in
the civil law is reckoned the third degree of confan-
guinity.
NIEMEN, a large river of Poland, which rifes in
Lithuania, where it paffes by Bielica, Grodno, and
Konno : it afterwards runs through part of Samogitia
and Ducal Pruflia, where it falls into the lake called
the Curifch-haff, by feveral mouths, of which the moft
northern is called the Rufs, being the name of a town it
paffes by.
NIENBURGH, a rich and ftrong town of Germany,
in the duchy of Brunfwic-Lunenburg, with a ftrong
caftle. It carries on a confiderable trade in com and
wool, and is feated in a fertile foil on the river Wefer.
E. Long. 9. 26. N. Lat. 52. 44.
NIEPER, or Dnieper, a large river of Europe, and
one of the moft confiderable of the North, formerly call¬
ed the Borifthenes. Its fource is in the middle of Muf-
covy, running weft by Smolenlko, as far as Orfa j and
then turns fouth, palling by Mohilow, Bohaczo, JGow,
Czyrkaffy, the fortrefs of Kudak, Deffau, and Oczakow,
falling into the Black fea 5 as alfo in its courfe it divides
Little Tartary from Budziac Tartary.
NIESS, a mountain in the environs of Berne in
Switzerland. It is the laft mountain in a high calca¬
reous chain of hills, of which the Stockhom, the
Neuneren, and the Ganterilh, have been illuftrated by
the botanical labours of the celebrated Haller. Niefs
Hands on the borders of the lake Thun, and feparates
the valley of Frutingen from that of Simme. It is
very interefting to the curious traveller, on account of
the fine view from its top ; and to naturalifts, becaufe
it joins the Alps. Towards its foot, beds of Hate
have been difeovered } it is of calcareous Hone higher
up *, and near its top is found a fpecies of pudding-
ftone, filled with fmall fragments of broken petrifac¬
tions.
NIESTER, a large river of Poland, which has its
fource in the lake Niefter, in the palatinate of Lem-
burg, where it paffes by Plalicz. Then it feparates
Podolia and Oczakow Tartary from Moldavia and
Budziac Tartary; and falls into the Black fea at
3 1 N 1 G ..
Belgorod, between the mouths of the Nieper and the Nigei.a
Danube. _ _ Not*
NIGELLA, FENNEL-FLOWER, or Devil in a Bujh, 
a genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs. bee
Botany Index.
NIGER, C. Pescennius Justus, a celebrated gover¬
nor in Syria, well known by his valour in the Roman
armies while in a private ftation. At the death of Per-
tinax he was declared emperor of Rome ; and his claims
to that elevated ftation were fupported by a found
underftanding, prudence of mind, moderation, courage,
and virtue. He propofed to imitate the aftions of the
venerable Antoninus, of Trajan, of Titus, and M. Au¬
relius. He was remarkable for his fondnefs of ancient
difeipline. He never fuffered his foldiers to drink wine,
but obliged them when thirfty to ufe water and vinegar.
He forbade the ufe of filver or gold utenfils in his camp.
All the bakers and cooks were driven away, and the
foldiers were ordered to live during the expedition they
undertook merely upon bifeuits. In his punilhments
Niger was inexorable : he condemned ten of his foldiers
to be beheaded in the prefence of the army becaufe they
had ftolen and eaten a fowl. The fentence was heard
with groans. The army interfered •, and when Niger
confented to diminilh the punifhment, for fear of
kindling rebellion, he yet ordered the criminals to make
each a reftoration of ten fowls to the perfon whofe pro¬
perty they had ftolen. They were befides ordered not
to light a fire the reft of the campaign, but to live upon
cold aliments and to drink nothing but water. Such
great qualifications in a general feemed to promife the
reftoration of ancient difeipline in the Roman armies \
but the death of Niger fruftrated every hope of reform.
Severus, who had alfo been invefted with the imperial
purple, marched againft him : fome battles were
fought, and Niger wras at laft defeated, A. D. 195. His
head wras cut off and fixed to a long fpear, and carried
in triumph through the ftreets of Rome. He reigned
about a year.
Niger, a large river in Africa, of wdfich many er¬
roneous opinions have been entertained. According to
Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy, and many of the ancients,
this river runs from weft to eaft, an opinion which was
long forgotten, and in more modern times it was be¬
lieved to flow from eaft to weft} but from the recent
difeoveries of the indefatigable Mr Park, who himfelf
faw this majeftic river, the opinion of the ancients is
now fully eftablifhed, that its courfe is from weft to
eaft. The fource of the Niger is fuppofed to be in
that mountainous region in weftern Africa, which gives
origin to the rivers Gambia and Senegal, which dif-
charge their waters into the Weftern ocean, while the
Niger rifing from the oppofite fide of the mountains,
takes an eafterly di reef ion. See Africa, p. 264. and
272. The Niger is called Joliba by the natives.
NIGHT, that part of the natural day during which
the fun is underneath the horizon y or that fpace where¬
in it is dufky.
Night was originally divided by the Hebrew's and
other eaftem nations into three parts or watches.
The Romans, and after them the Jews, divided the
night into four parts or watches } the firft of which be¬
gan at funfet, and lafted till nine at night, according
to our way of reckoning j the fecond lafted till mid¬
night
NIG [ H ] NIG
Might night the third till three in the morning j and the
fourth ended at funrife. The ancient Gauls and Ger-
WrJchmo- mans divided their time not by days but by nights; and
l ^—0 the people of Iceland and the Arabs do the fame at this
day. The Hke is obferved of the Anglo-Saxons.—The
length and ftiortnefs of night or of darknefs is according
to the feafon of the year and petition of the place ; and
the caufes of this variety are now well known. See A-
STRONONY, &C.
Night, in feripture language, is ufed for the times
of heathenifl\ ignorance and profanenefs (Rom. xiii.
12.) 5 for adverlity and affliction (If. xxi. 12.) j and,
laftly, for death (John ix. 4.).
NlGHT-Angling, a method of catching large and fhy
fifti in the night-time. Trout, and many other of the
better forts of fith, are naturally fay and fearful j they
therefore prey in the night as the fecureft time.—The
method of taking them on this plan is as follows :
The tackle muft be itrong, and need not be fo fine as
for day fifhing, when every thing is feen ; the hook
muft be baited with a large earth worm, or a black
fnail, and thrown out into the river ; there muft be no
lead to the line, fo that the bait may not fink, but be
kept drawding along, upon or near the furface. What¬
ever trout is near the place will be brought thither by
the motion of the water, and will feize the worm or
fnail. The angler will be alarmed by the noife which
the fifh makes in rifing, and muft give him line, and
time to fwallowr the hook } then a flight touch fecures
him. The beft and largeft trouts are found to bile thus
in the night 5 and they rife moftly in the ftill and clear
deeps, not in the fwift and fhailow currents. Some¬
times, though there are fiih about the place, they wall
not rife at the bait : in this cafe the angler muft put on
fome lead to his line, and fink it to the bottom.
NiGHT-Mare, ox Incubus. See Medicine, N° 329.
NlGHT-Walkers. See Medicine, N° 329, and Noc-
TAMBULI.
NlGHT-JVaikers, in Law, are fuch perfons as fieep by
day and walk by night, being oftentimes pilferers or
difturbers of the public peace. Conftables are authori¬
zed by the common lav/ to arreft night-wTalkers and fu-
fpicious perfons, &c. Watchmen may alfo arreft night-
walkers, and hold them until the morning : and it is
laid, that a private perfon may arreft any fufpicious
night-walker, and detain him till he give a good ac¬
count of himfelf. One may be bound to the good be¬
haviour for being a night-walker ; and common night-
walkers, or haunters of bawdy-houfes, are to be indidl-
ed before juftices of peace, &c. But it is not held law¬
ful for a conftable, &c. to take up any wroman as a
night-walker on bare fufpicion only of being of ill fame,
unlefs (lie be guilty of a breach of the peace, or fome
unlawful aft, and ought to be found mifdoing.
NIGHTINGALE, a fpecies of motacilla. See Or¬
nithology Index.
NIGHTSHADE. See Solanum, Botany Index.
Dead!/ Nightshade. See Atropa, Botany In¬
dex.—The berries of this plant are of a malignant poi-
fonous nature } and, being of a fweet lafte, have fre¬
quently proved deicruftive to children. It is faid, that
a large glafs of w arm vinegar, taken as foon as pofli-
ble after eating the berries, will prevent their bad ef-
Mfts.
Vi AHT- Watching, a praftice of very remote antiquity,
3 ♦
which belongs to the oldeft regulations of police. So Might-
early as the time of Solomon we find mention made of VVatohing'.
it, and likewife in the Pfalms of David f. Sentinels (’
w-ere ftationed in different places in Athens and other Solomon
cities of Greece, and they were kept to their duty bythap. iii.’
the vifitations of the 1 hejmothetce. There w ere aliover. o Pfal,
triumviri notturni in the city of Rome, as appears fromcxxvii- K
the commentaries of Heubach on the police of the Ro¬
mans. It appears, however, that the defign of thefe
inftitutions was rather the prevention of fires, than the
guarding againft alarms or dangers by night, although
attention was likewife paid to thefe in ptocefs of time.
The apprehenfion of fires was the pretext of Auguftus,
when he wilhed to ftrengthen the night-watch for fup-
preffing nocturnal commotions.
It does not appear that calling out the hours became
an eftablifhed praftice before the erection of city gates,
and probably had its rife in Germany j yet it would
have been attended with advantages in ancient Rome,
where there were no public clocks, nor any thing in
private houfes to indicate the hours. The periods for
foldiers to mount guard were determined by water-
clocks ; at the end of each hour they blew a horn, and
by means of this fignal each individual might afeertain
the hour of the night. It feems evident, however, that
thefe regulations were only attended to in time of
WTar.
In the city of Paris, night-w atching was eftablilhed,
as at Rome, in the very commencement of its monarchy 5
and Be la Mare quotes the ordinances of Clothaire II.
upon this fubjeft, in the year 595. The citizens at firft
kept watch in rotation ; but this praftice was after¬
wards fet afide, and, by the payment of a certain fum
of money, a permanent watch was eftabliihed. In the
opinion of the learned and indefatigable Beckmann, the
eftabliftiment of fingle watchmen, to call out the hours
through the ftreets, is peculiar to Germany, and only
copied by furrounding nations in more modern times.
The eleftor, John George, in 1588, appointed watch-,
men at Berlin and Mabillon deferibes it as a praftice
peculiar to that country. Horns are made ufe of by
watchmen in fome places, and rattles in others, the for¬
mer being moft proper for villages, and the latter for
cities.
The Chinefe, fo early as the ninth century, had
watchmen polled on their towers, who announced the
hours both by day and night, by ftriking forcibly on a
fufpended board, which in that country is faid to be in
ufe to the prefent period ; and at Peterlburgh, in Ruf-
fia, the watchmen employ a fufpended plate of iron for
a fimilar purpofe. In this manner alfo Chriftians are
affembled together in the Levant, for the purpofe of at¬
tending divine fervice} and monks were thus awakened
in monafteries at the moft early periods, to attend to
the proper hours of prayer.
We find mention made of fteeple-watchmen in Ger¬
many in the 14th century. In the year 1563, a church-
fteeple was erefted in Leifnig, and an apartment built
in it for a permanent watchman, who was obliged to
proclaim the hours every time the clock ftruck. Per¬
manent watchmen were kept in many of the fteeples at
Ulm in the 15th century. The fame thing was prac-
tifed at Frankfort on the Mayne, at Oettingen, and
many other places •, and Montaigne was aftoniftied at
finding a man on the fteeple of Conftance, who kept
watch
N I L
Nfciiuiius watch upon it continually, and who on no pretext what
ever was permitted to come down. Beckmann's Hijl. of
, Inventions, iii. 425.
NiGIDIUS Figulus, Publius, one of the moft
learned men of ancient Rome, flouriftied at the fame
time with Cicero. He wrote on various fu'ojefts ; but
his pieces appeared fb refined and difficult that they
were not regarded. He affifted Cicero, with great
prudence, in defeating Catiline’s confpiracy, and did
him many fervices in the time of his adverfity. He ad¬
hered to Pompey in oppofition to Caefar 5 which occa-
fioned his exile, he dying in baniffiment. Cicero, who
had always entertained the higheft eileem for him, wrote
a beautiful confolatory letter to him (the 13th of lib. iv.
ad Famdiares').
NIGR1NA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs. See Botany Index.
NIGRINE, an ore of titanium. See Mineralogy
Index.
NIGRITIA. See Negroland.
NIGUA. See Chegoe.
NILE, a large and celebrated river of Africa, to
which the country of Egypt owes its fertility ; and the
exploring the fources of which has, from the remoteft
ages, been accounted an impracticable undertaking,
t his problem has been folved by James Bruce, Efq. of
Kinnaird, in Scotland; who fpent feveral years at the
court of Abyffinia, and by the favour of the emperor
and great people of the country was enabled to accom-
pliffi the arduous talk.
In the account of his travels, this gentleman has been
at particular pains to ffiow, that none of thofe who under¬
took this talk ever fucceeded in it but himfelf. The in¬
quiry concerning its fprings, he fays, began either be¬
fore hiftory or tradition, and is by feme fuppofed to be
the origin of hieroglyphics. Though Egypt was the
country which received the greatefl benefit from this
river, ifWTas not there that the inquiries concerning its
inundation began : it being probable that every thing
relative to the extent and periodical lime of that inunda¬
tion would be accurately fettled (which could not be
done but by a long feries of obfervations) before any
perion would venture to build houfes within its reach.
The philofophers of Meroe, in our author’s opinion,
( ere the firll who undertook to make a number of ob-
lervations fufficient to determine thefe points; their
country being fo lituated, that they could perceive every
thing relative to the increafe or decreafe of the river
without any danger from its overflowing. Being much
addiCted to aftronomy, it could not long efcape’ them,
that the heliacal riling of the dog-ltar was a lignal
for Egypt to prepare for the inundation ; without which
it was vain to expeCt any crop. The connection of this
celeftial lign with the annual riling of the liver would
undoubtedly foon become a matter of curiolity j and as
this could not ealily be difeovered, it was natural for an
ignorant and fuperltitious people to aferibe the whole to
the aCtion of the dog-ltar as a deity. Still, however,
by thofe who were more enlightened, the phenomenon
would be aferibed to natural caufes ; and a great Itep to¬
wards the difeovery. of thefe, undoubtedly was that of
the lources of the river itlelf. In the early ages, when
travelling into foreign countries was impracticable by
private perfons, the inquiry into the fources of the Nile
[ us ]
N I L
became an object to the greateft monarchs. Sefollris is
faid to have preferred the honour of difeovering them
almolt to all the victories he obtained. Alexander the
Great is well known to have had a great curiolity to
difeover thefe fountains. On his arrival at the temple
of Jupiter Ammon, he is faid to have made inquiry con¬
cerning Ae fountains of the Nile, even before he afked
about his own defeent from Jupiter. The priefls are
faid to have given him proper directions for finding
them : and Alexander took the moft ready means of
accomplilhing his purpofe*, by employing natives of E-
thiopia to make the fearch. Thefe diicoverers, in the
opinion of Mr Bruce, miffed their aim, by reafon of
the turn which the Nile takes to the eaft in the latitude
of 90 where it begins to furround the kingdom of Go-
jam ; but which they might imagine to be only a wind¬
ing of the river foon to be ccmpenfated by an equal
turn to the weft. “ They therefore (fays he) continued
their journey fouth till near the line, and never faw it
more 5 as they could have no poffible notion it had
turned back behind them, and that they had left it as
far north as latitude 90. They reported then to Alex¬
ander, what was truth, that they had afeended the Nile,
as xar fouth as latitude 90; where it unexpectedly took
its courfe to the eaft, and was leen no more. The ri¬
ver was not known, nor to be heard of near the line,
or farther fouthward, nor was it diminifhed in fize, nor
had it given any fymptom that they were near its
fource 5 they had found the Nile calentem (warm),
while they expected its rife among melting fnows.
Mr Bruce is of opinion that this turn of the Nile
to the eaftward was the occafion of Alexander’s ex¬
travagant miftake, in fuppofing that he had difeevered
the fountains of the Nile when he was near the fource
of the Indus 5 and which he wrote to his mother,
though he afterwards caufed it to be erafed from his
books.
Ptolemy Philadelphus fticceeded Alexander in his at¬
tempts to difeover the fource of the Nile 5 but he like-
wife proving unfuccefsful, the talk was next undertaken
by Ptolemy Euergetes, the moft powerful of the Greek
princes who fat on the throne of Egypt. “ In this
(fays Mr Bruce) he had probably fucceeded, had he
not miftaken the river itfelf. He fuppofed the Siris,
now the Tacazze, to be the Nile and afeending in the
direClion of its ftream, he came to A-xum, the capital
of Sire and of Ethiopia. But the ftory he tells of the
fiiow which he found knee-deep on the mountains of
Samen, makes me queftion whether he ever croffed the
Siris, or was himfelf an ocular witnefs of what he faps
he obferved there.”
Caefar had the fame curiofity with other conquerors
to vifit the fprings of the Nile, though his fituation did'
not allow him to make any attempt for that purpofe.
Nero,, however, was more aClive. He lent two centu¬
rions into Ethiopia,with orders to explore the unknown
fountains of this river ; but they returned without ha¬
ving accomplithed their errand. They reported, that,
after having gone a long way, they came to a king of
Ethiopia, who furnifhed them with neceffaries, and re¬
commendations to feme other kingdoms adjacent; paf-
fing which, they came to immenfe lakes, of which no¬
body knew the end, nor could they ever hope to find it.
Their ftory, however, is by Mr Bruce fuppofed to be a
fictions.
Nile,
nil r
Nile, fiftion j as the Nile forms no lakes throughout its courfe,
v excepting that of Tzana or Dembea, the limits of which
are ealily perceived.
No other attempt was made by the ancients to difco-
ver the fources of this celebrated river j and the matter
Was looked upon to be an impoflibility, infomuch that
caput Ni/i queerere became a proverb, denoting the im-
poflibility of any undertaking. The firft who, in more
modern ages, made any attempt of this kind, was a monk
fent into Abyflinia in the year 522, by Nonnofus, am-
baffador from the emperor Juftin. Ihis monk is called
Cojmas the Hermit, and like wife Indoplaufies, from his
fuppofed travels into India. He proceeded as far as the
city of Axum, but did not vifit that part of the coun¬
try where the head ol the Nile lies 5 nor, in Mr Bruce’s
opinion, would it have been practicable for him to do
fo. The difeovery, however, is faid to have been made
at laft by Peter Paez the mi f lion ary. But the truth of
this account is denied by Mr Bruce, for the following
reafons : 1. “ No relation of this kind (fays he) was
to be found in three copies of Peter Paez’s hiftory,
to which I had accefs when in Italy, on my return
home. One of thefe copies I faw at Milan ; and, by
the intereft of friends, had an opportunity of perufing
it at my leifure. The other two were at Bologna and
Rome. I ran through them rapidly ; attending only to
the place where the defeription ought to have been, and
where I did not find it : but having copied the firlt and
laft page of the Milan manufeript, and comparing them
with the two laft mentioned, I found that all the three
were, word for word, the fame, and none of them con¬
tained one fyllable of the difeovery of the fource. 2.
Alphonfo Mendez came into Abyflinia about a year af¬
ter Paez’s death. New and defirable as that difeovery
muft have been to himfelf, to the pope, king of Spain,
and all his great patrons in Portugal and Italy j though
lie wrote the hiftory of the country, artd of the parti¬
culars concerning the million in great detail and with
good judgement, yet he never mentions this journey of
Peter Paez, though it probably muft have been convey¬
ed to Rome and Portugal after his infperiion and under
his authority. 3* Balthazar Tellez, a learned Jefuit,
has wrote two volumes in folio, with great candour and
impartiality, confidering the fpirit of thofe times •, and
he declares his work to be compiled from thofe of Al¬
phonfo Mendez the patriarch, from the two volumes of
Peter Paez, as well as from the regular reports made by
the individuals of the company in fome places, and by
the provincial letters in others ; to all which he had
complete accefs, as alfo to the annual reports of Peter
Paez, among the reft from 1598 to 1622} yet Tellez
makes no mention of fuch a difeovery, though he is
very particular as to the merit of each miflionary during
the long reign of Facilidas, which occupies more than
half the two volumes.”
The firft, and indeed the only account of the foun¬
tains of the Nile, publilhed before that of Mr Bruce,
was Kircher’s *, who fays that he took it from the writ¬
ings of Peter Paez. The time when the difeovery is
faid to have been made was the 21ft of April 1618 ; at
which feafon fhe rains are begun, and therefore very un-
wholefome •, fo that the Abyffinian armies are not with¬
out extreme neceflity in the field j between September
and February at fartheft is the time they are ^abroad
from the capital and in adlioh.
]
N I L
The river (fays Kircher) at this day, by the Ethio¬
pians, is called Ahavy ; it rifes in the kingdom of Go- ~
jam, in a territory called Sab ala, whofe inhabitants are
called Agows. The fource of the Nile is fituated in
the weft part of Gojam, in the higheft part of a valley,
which refembles a great plain on every fide furrounded
by high mountains. On the 21ft of April 1618, being
here, together with the king and his army, I afeended
the place, and obferved every thing with great atten¬
tion : I difeovered firft two round fountains each about
four palms in diameter, and faw, with the greateft delight,
what neither Gyrus the Perfian, nor Cambyfes, nor
Alexander the Great, nor the famous Julius Caefar,
could ever difeover. The two openings of thefe foun¬
tains have no iffue in the plain on the top of the moun¬
tain, but flow from the root of it. The fecond fountain
lies about a ftone-caft wreft from the former : the inhabi¬
tants fay that this whole mountain is full of water } and
add, that the whole plain about the fountain is floating
and unfteady, a certain mark that there is water con¬
cealed under it; for which reafon the water does not
overflow at the fountain, but forces itfelf with great
violence oiit at the foot of the mountain. The inhabi¬
tants together with the emperor, who was then prefent
with his army, maintain, that that year it trembled very
little on account of the drought; but in other years,
that it trembled and overflowed fo that it could fcarce
be approached without danger. The breadth of the
circumference may be about the call of a fling : be¬
low the top of this mountain the people live about a
league diftant from the fountain to the wreft j and this
place is called Geejh; and the fountain feems to be
about a cannon-fhot diftant from Geefli j moreover the
field wiiere the fountain is, is on all fides difficult of ac¬
cefs, except on the north fide, where it may be afeended
with eafe.”
On this relation Mr Bruce dbferves, that there is no
fuch place as Saba/a ; it ought to have been named Sa-
cala, fignifying the higheft ridge of land, where the wn-
ter falls equally down on both fides, from eaft and weft,
or from north and fouth. So the fliarp roofs of our
houfes, where the water runs down equally on the op-
pofite fides, are called by the fame name. Other objec¬
tions are drawn from the fituation of places, and from
the number and fituation of the fountains themfelves,
every one of which Mr Bruce found by a final menfu-
ration to be different from Kircher’s account. The fol¬
lowing, however, he looks upon to be decifive that Paez
never was on the fpot. He fays, “ the field in which
the fountains of the Nile are, is of very difficult accefs;
the afeent to it being very fteep, excepting on the north,
where it is plain and eafy. Nowt, if wre look at the be¬
ginning of this defeription, we ffiould think it would be
the defeent, not the afeent, that would be troublefome j
for the fountains were placed in a valley, and people ra¬
ther defeend into valleys than afeend into them 5 but
fuppofing it was a valley in which there was a field up¬
on which there was a mountain, and on the mountain
theie fountains ; ftill, I fay, that thefe mountains are
nearly inacceffible on the three fides *, but that the moft
difficult of them all is the north, the way we afeend
from the plain of Goutto. From the eaft, by Sacala,
the afeent is made from the valley of Litchambara, and
from the plain of Affoa to the fouth ycu have tile al-
moft perpendicular craggy cliff of Geefln, covered with
A, thorny
Nile*
r7
4
NIL [i
Kile. thorny bullies, trees, and bamboos, which cover the
mouths of the caverns 5 and on the north you have the
mountains of Aformalha, thick fet with all forts of
thorny trees and llirubs, efpecially with the kantuft'a :
thefe thickets are, moreover, filled with wild beads,
efpecially huge, long-haired baboons, which we fre¬
quently met walking upright. Through thefe high and
difficult mountains we have only narrow paths, like
thofe of iheep, made by the goats, or the wild beads we
are fpeaking of, which, after we had walked on them
for a long {pace, landed us frequently at the edge of
fome valley or precipice, and forced us to go back again
to feek a new road. From towards Zeegam to the
weltward, and from the plain where the river winds fo
much, is the only eafy accefs to the fountains of the
Nile : and they that afcend to them by this way will
not even think that approach too eafy.”
Peter Heiling, a Protedant of Lubec, redded feveral
years in the country of Gojam, and was even governor
of it, but be never made any attempt to difcover the
fource of the Nile; dedicating himfelf entirely to a du¬
bious and folitary life. The mod extraordinary at¬
tempt, however, that ever was made to difcover the
fource of this or any other river, was that of a German
nobleman named Peter Jofepk de Roux, comte de JJpfre-
val. He had been in the Daniffi navy from the year
1721 5 and, in 1739* was made rear-admiral. That
fame year he redgned his commiffion, and began his at¬
tempt to difcover the fource of the Nile in Egypt. To
this country he took his wife along with him \ and had
no fooner reached Cairo, than he quarrelled with a Tur-
kiffi mob on a point of etiquette j which indantly
brought upon them the janizaries and guards of police,
to take them into cudody. The countefs exerted her-
felf in an extraordinary manner ; and armed only with
a pair of fciiTars, put all the janizaries to flight, and
even wounded feveral of them } fo that her hulhand was
left at liberty to purfue his plan of difcovery. To ac-
compliffi this, he provided a barge with fmall cannon,
and furniffied with all necefiary providons for himfelf
and his wife, who was dill to accompany him. Before
he fet out, however, it was fuggeded to him, that, fup-
podng government might protect him fo far as to allow
his barge to pafs the condnes of Egypt fafely, and to
the drd cataract;; fuppodng alfo that die was arrived at
Ibrim, or Deir, the lad garrifons depending on Cairo j
yet dill fome days journey above the garrifons of Deir
and Ibrim began the dreadful deferts of Nubia ; and
:arther fouth, at the great cataradb of Jan Adel, the
Nile falls 20 feet down a perpendicular rock—fo that
nere his voyage mud undoubtedly end. The count,
however, flattered himfelf with being able to obtain fuch
affidance from the garrifons of Ibrim and Deir as would
enable him to take the veffel to pieces, and to carry it
above the catarahf, where it could again be launched in¬
to the river. To facilitate this fcheme he had even en¬
tered into a treaty with fome of the barbarians named
Kennoufs, who redde near the cataraft, and employ
themfelves in gathering fena, which abounds in their
country. Thefe promifed to affid him in this ex¬
traordinary adventure ; but, luckily for the count, he
fufFered himfelf at lad to be perfuaded by fome Venetian
merchants at Cairo not to proceed in perfon on fuch a
dangerous and unheard-of navigation, but rather to de¬
pute Mr Norden, his lieutenant, who was likewife to
Vol. XV. Part I.
7 ] N I L
ferve as his draughtfman, to reconnoitre the forts of Kile.
Ibrim and Deir, as well as the cataraft of Jan Adel,
and renew his treaty with the Kennoufs. This gentle¬
man accordingly embarked upon one of the veffels com¬
mon on the Nile, but met with a great many difficulties
and difaders before he could reach Syene and the firft
cataract ; after which having with dill greater difficulty-
reached Ibrim, indead of meeting with any encourage¬
ment for the count to proceed on his voyage, he was
robbed of all lie had by the governor of the fort, and
narrowly efcaped with his life ; it having been for fome
time determined by him and his foldiers that Mr Nor¬
den fliould be put to death. By thefe difficulties the
count was fo much difheartened, that he determined to
make no more attempts on the Nubian fide. He now
refolved to enter Abyffinia by the ifland of Mafuah.
With this view he undertook a voyage round the Cape
of Good Hope, in order to reach the Red fea by the
draits of Babelmandel: but having begun to ufe his
Spaniffi commiffion, and taken two Englilh ffiips, he was
met by Commodore Barnet, who made prizes of all the
vefiels he had with him, and fent home the count him¬
felf paffenger in a Portuguefe Hup to Liflion.
I hus Mr Bruce confiders himfelf as the firfl Euro-
ropean who reached the fources of this river. He in¬
forms us that they are in the country of the Agows, as
Kircher had faid j fo that the latter mud either have
vifited them himfelf, or have had very good information
concerning them. The name of the place through
■which is the paffage to the territory of the Agows, is
Abala ; a plain or rather valley, generally about half a
mile, and never exceeding a whole mile, in breadth.
The mountains which furround it are at fird of an in-
confiderable height, covered to the very top with herb¬
age and acacia trees 5 but as they proceed to the fouth-
Ward they become more rugged and woody.—On the
top of thefe mountains are delightful plains producing
excellent paflure, Thofe to the wed join a mountain
called Aformojka, where, from a direction nearly fouth-
ead, they turn fouth, and enclofe the villages and terri¬
tory of Sacala, which lie at the foot of them ; and dill
lower, that is, more to the wedward, is the {mall village
of Geefli, where the fountains of the Nile are fituated.
Here the mountains are in the form of a crefcent 5 and
along thefe the river takes its courfe. Thofe which en¬
clofe the ead fide of the plain run parallel to the former
in their whole courfe, making part of the mountains of
Lechtambara, or at lead joining with them, and thefe
two, when behind Aformalka, turn to the fouth, and
then to the fouth-wed, taking the fame form as they do 5
only making a greater curve, and enclofing them like-
wile in the form of a crefcent, the extremity of which
terminates immediately above a fmall lake named Goo-
deroo in the plain of Afiba, below Geedr, and diredlly
at the fountains of the Nile.
Having pafled feveral confiderable dreams, all of
which empty themfelves into the Nile, our traveller
found himfelf at lad obliged to afcend a very deep and
rugged mountain, where no other path was to be found
but a very narrow one made by the flreep or goats, and
which in fome places was broken, and full of holes ; in
others, he wTas obdrudled with large dones, which feem-
ed to have remained there fince the creation. The
whole was covered with thick wood ; and he was every*’
where flopped by the kantuffa, as well as by feveral ether
C thornv
NIL [ 18 j NIL
thorny plants almolt as troublefome as that. Having
at lari, however, reached the top, he had a fight of the
Nile immediately below him j but fo diminiihed in fize,
that it now appeared only a brook fcarcely fufficient to
turn a mill. The village of Geefh is not within fight
of the fountains of the river, though not more than 600
yards diftant from them. The country about that place
terminates in a cliff of about 300 yards high, which
reaches down to the plain of Affoa, continuing in the
fame degree of elevation till it meets the Nile again
about 17 miles to the fouthward, after having made the
circuit of the provinces of Gojam and Damot. In the
middle of this cliff is a valt cave running ftraight north¬
ward, with many bye-paths forming a natural labyrinth,
of fufficient bignefs to contain the inhabitants of the
whole village with their cattle. Into this Mr Bruce
advanced about 100 yards j but he did not choofe to go
farther, as the candle he carried with him feemed ready
to go out 5 and the people affured him that there was
nothing remarkable to be feen at the end. The face of
this cliff, fronting the louth, affords a very piclurefque
view from the plain of Affba below j parts of the houfes
appearing at every ffage through the bulhes and thick¬
ets of trees. The mouths of the cavern above mention¬
ed, as well as of feveral others which Mr Bruce did not
fee, are hid by almolt impenetrable fences of the wcrft
kind of thorn 5 nor is there any other communication
betwixt the upper part and the houfes but by narrow
winding flieep paths, very difficult to be difcovered •, all
of them being allowed to be overgrown, as a part of the
natural defence of the people. T he edge of the cliff is
covered with lofty and high trees, w hich feem to form a
natural fence to prevent people from falling down j and
the beauty of the flowers which the Abyliinian thorns
bear, feems to make feme amends for their bad qualities.
From the edge of the cliff of Geeffi, above where the
village is fituated, the ground flopes with a defeent due
north, till we come to a triangular marlh upwards of 86
yards broad, and 286 from the edge of the cliff, and
from a prieft’s houfe where Bruce refided. On the eaft,
the ground defeends with a very gentle Hope from the
large village of Sacala, which gives its name to the
territory, and is about fix miles diilant from the
fource, though to appearance not above twro. About
the middle of this marffi, and not quite 40 yards from
the foot of the mountain of Geeffi, riles a circular hil¬
lock about three feet from the furface of the marlh it-
felf, though founded apparently much deeper in it. The
diameter of this hillock is not quite 1 2 feet, and it is
furrounded'by a Ihallow trench which colledls the wrater,
and fends it off to the eallward. This is firmly built
of fod brought from the fides, and kept conllantly in
repair by the Agows, who wmrlhip the river, and per¬
form their religious ceremonies upon this as an altar. In
the midll of it is a circular hole, in the formation or
enlargement of which the work of art is evidently dif-
cernible. It is always kept clear of grafs and aquatic
plants, and the water in it is perfeclly pure and lim¬
pid, but without any ebullition or motion difceinible on
its furface. The mouth is fome parts of an inch lefs than
three feet diameter, and at the time our author firft vi.
fi'ted it (Nov. 5. 1770), the water Hood about two inches
from the brim, nor did it either increafe or diminilh du¬
ring ail the time of his refidence at Geeffi. On putting
down the (haft of a lance, he found a very feeble refi-
ffance at fix feet four inches, as if fi cm.weak mlhes and
grafs j and, about fix inches deeper, he found his lance
had entered into foft earth, but met with no ob ft ruction
from Hones or gravel: and the fame wras confirmed Ly
ufing a heavy plummet, w ith a line befmeared with foap.
—This is the lirlt fountain of the Nile.
The fecond fountain is fituated at about ten feet di¬
ilant from the former, a little to the welt of fouth j and
is only 11 inches in diameter, but eight feet three inches
deep. The third is about 20 feet 3SW from the firlt j
the mouth being fomewbat more than tw o feet in dia¬
meter, and five feet eight inches in depth. Thefe foun¬
tains are made ufe of as altars, and from the foot of each
iffues a brilk running rill, which, uniting with the wa¬
ter of the firll trench, goes off at the call fide in a ftream
which, our author conjectures, would fill a pipe about
twm inches diameter. The water of thefe fountains is
extremely light and good, and intenfely cold, though
expofed to the fcorching heat of the fun, without any
Ihelter j there being no trees nearer than the cliff of
Geeffi. The longitude of the principal fountain was
found by Mr Bruce to be 36° 55' 30" E. from Green¬
wich. The elevation of the ground, according to his
account, muff be very great, as the barometer Hood on¬
ly at 2 2 Englilb inches. “ Neither (fays he) did
vary fenfibly from that height any of the following days,
I liaid at Geeffi 5 and thence 1 inferred, that at the
fources of the Nile I was then more than two miles
above the level of the fea j a prodigious height, to enjoy
a iky perpetually clear, as alfo a hot fun never overcait
for a moment with clouds from riling to letting.” In
the morning of Nov. 6. the thermometer ffoqd at 440,
at noon 96°, and at funfet 46°. It^was fenfibly cold at
night, and Hill more fo about an hour before funrife.
The Nile thus formed by the union of ffreams from
thefe three fountains, runs eaftvard through the marlh
for about 30 yards, with very little increale of its w ater,
b*t Hill dillinftly vifible, till it is met by the graff’y
brink of the land defcending from Sacala. By thi$ it
is turned gradually NE, and then due north •, and in the
twro miles in which it flow's in that direflion it receives
many fmall ftreams from fprings on each fide j fo that
about this diftance from the fountains it becomes a
ftream capable of turning a common mill. Gur travel¬
ler was much taken with the beauty of this fpot. “ The
fmall riling hills about us (fays he) were all thick co¬
vered wfith verdure, efpecially with clover the largeft
and fineft I ever faw j the tops of the heights covered
with trees of a prodigious fize : the ftream, at the banks
of which wre were fitting, was limpid, and pure as the
fineft cryftal; the fod covered thick with a kind of
bulky tree, that feemed to affect to grow.’ to no height,
but, thick wTith foliage and young branches, rather to
affift the furface oi the water j whilft it bore, in prodi¬
gious quantities, a beautiful yellow7 flower, not unlike a
fingle rofe of that colour, but wdthout thorns ; and in¬
deed, upon examination, we found that it w:as not a fpe-
cies of the rofe, but of the hypericum.”
Here Mr Bruce exults greatly in his fuccefs •, as ha¬
ving not only feen the fountains of the Nile, but the ri¬
ver itfelf running in a fmall ftream j fo that the ancient
faying of the poet,
Air licuit populis parvum te Nile videre,
could not be applied to him. Here he Jlepped over it, .
be fays, more than 50 times, though he had told us, in
the preceding page, that it w'as three yards over. From
this ford, however, the Nile turns to the weftwaid j and,
* ' after.
NIL [
after running over loofe (tones occaSonaUy in that di¬
rection about four miles farther, there is a fmall cata¬
ract of about fix feet in height j after which it leaves
the mountainous country, and takes its courfe through
the plains of Goutto. Here it flows fo gently that its
motion is fcarcely to be perceived, but turns and winds
in its direction more than any river he ever faw ; form¬
ing nlore than 20 (harp angular peninfulas in the fpace
of hve miles. Here the foil is compofed of a marlhy
clay, quite deftitute of trees, and very difficult to travel
through ; and where its dream receives no confiderable
addition. Iffuing out from thence, however, it is joined
by feveral rivulets which fall from the mountains on
each tide, fo that it becomes a conliderable dream, with
high and broken banks covered with old timber trees
for three miles. In its courfe it inclines to the north-
ead, and winds very much, till it receives fird a fmall
river named Diwn, and then another named Dee-ohha,
or the river Dee. Turning then fharply to the ead, it
falls down another cataraft, and about three miles be¬
low receives the Jemma, a pure and limpid dream, not
inferior in fize to itfelf. Proceeding dill to the north¬
ward, it receives a number of other dreams, and at lad
erodes the fouthem part of the lake Tzana or Dembea,
preferving the colour of its dream during its paffage,
and ifiuing out at the wed fide of it in the territory of
Data. „
There is a ford, though very deep and dangerous, at
the place where the Nile fird aflumes the name of a ri¬
ver, after emerging from the lake Dembea } but the
dream in other places is exceedingly rapid : the banks
in the courfe of a few miles become very high, and are
covered with the mod beautiful and variegated verdure
that can be conceived. It is now confined by the
mountains of Begemder, till it reaches Alata, where is
the third cataract This, we are informed by Mr
Bruce, is the mod magnificent fight he ever beheld}
but he thinks that the height has rather been exagger¬
ated by the miflionaries, who make it 50 feet; and after
many attempts to meafure it, he is of opinion that it is
nearly 40 feet high. At the time he vifited it, the ri¬
ver had been pretty much fwelled by rains, and fell in
one (beet of water, without any interval, for the fpace
of half an Englidi mile in breadth, with fuch a noife
as dunned and made him giddy for fome time. The ri¬
ver, for fome fpace both above and below the fall, was
covered with a thick mid, owing to the fmall particles
of the water dalhed up into the air by the violence of
the (hock. The river, though fwelled beyond its ufual
fize, retained its clearnefs, and fell into a natural bafon
of rock •, the dream appearing to run back againd the
foot of the precipice over which it falls with great vio¬
lence •, forming innumerable eddies, waves, and beifig in
exceffiive commotion, as may eafily be imagined. Je¬
rome Lobo pretends that he was able to reach the foot
of the rock, and fit under the prodigious arch of water
fpouting over it •, but Mr Bruce does not hefitate to
pronounce this to be an abfolute falfehood. The noife
of the cataraft, which, he fays, is like the louded thun¬
der, could not but confound and dedroy his fenfe of
hearing •, while the rapid motion of the water before his
eyes would dazzle the fight, make him giddy, and utter¬
ly deprive him of all his intellectual powers. “ It
was a mod magnificent fight, (fays Mr Bruce), that
ages, added to the greated length of human life, would
9 ] NIL
not deface or eradicate from my memory : it druck me
with a kind of dupor, and a total oblivion of where I
was, and of every other fublunary concern.”
About half a mile below the cataraft, the Nile is
confined between two rocks, where it runs in a narrow
channel with impetuous velocity and great noife. At
the village of Alata there is a bridge over it, confiding
of one arch, and that no more than 25 feet wide.
This bridge is drongly fixed into the folid rock on both
fides, and fome part of the parapet dill remains. No
crocodiles ever come to Alata, nor are any ever feen be¬
yond the cataract.
Below this tremendous water-fall the Nile takes a
fouth-ead direflion, along the wedem fide • of Begem¬
der and Amhara on the right, enclofing the province of
Gojam. It receives a great number of dreams from
both fides, and after feveral turns takes at lad a direc¬
tion almod due north, and approaches within 62 miles
of its fource. Notwithdanding the vad increafe of its
waters, however, it is dill fordable at fome feafons of
the year 5 and the Galla crofs it at all times without
any difficulty, either by fmmming, or on goats-fidns
blown up like bladders. It is likewife eroded on fmall
rafts, placed on two (kins filled with wind : or by twid-
ing their hands round the tails of the horfes who fwim
over 5 a method always ufed by the women who follow
the Abyffinian armies, and are obliged to crofs unford-
able rivers. In this part of the river crocodiles are met
with in great numbers ; but the (uperditious people pre¬
tend they have charms fufficiently powerful to defend
themfelves againd their voracity.—The Nile now feems
to have forced its pafifage through a gap in fome very
high mountains which bound the country of the Gongas,
and falls down a catarafl of 280 feet high ; and im¬
mediately below this are two others, both of very con¬
fiderable height. Thefe mountains run a great way to
the wedward, where they are called Dyre or Teg/a, the
eadern end of them joining the mountains of Kuara,
where they have the name of Fa%uclo. Thefe moun¬
tains, our author informs us, are all inhabited by Pagan
nations ; but the country is lefs known than any other
on the African continent. There is plenty of gold
wafiied down from the mountains by the torrents in the
rainy feafon 5 which is the fine gold of Sennaar named
Ttbbar.
The Nile, now running clofe by Sennaar in a direc¬
tion nearly north and fouth, makes afterwards a diarp
turn to the ead ; affording a pleafant view in the fair
feafon, when it is brim-full, and indeed the only orna¬
ment. of that bare and inhofpitable country. Leaving
Sennaar, it pafles by many large towns inhabited by
Arabs, all of them of a white complexion ; then paffing
Gerri, and turning to the north-ead, it joins the Ta-
cazze, paffmg, during its courfe through this country, a
large and populous town named Chendi, probably the
Candace of the ancients. Here Mr Bruce fuppofes the
ancient ifiand or peninfula of Meroe to have been fitu-
ated. Having at length received the great river Atba-
ra, the Adaboras of the ancients, it turns dire&ly north
for about two degrees ; then making a very unexpected
turn wed by fouth for more than two degrees in longi¬
tude, and winding very little, it arrives at Korti, the fird
town in Barabra, or kingdom of Dongola. From Kor¬
ti it runs almod fouthwed till it paffes Dongola, called
alfo Beja, the capital of Barabra •, after which it comes
C 2
N I N
Nile.
to Mofcho, a confiderable town and place of refrefhment
W to the caravans when they were allowed to pafs from
Egypt to Ethiopia. From thence turning to the
north-eaft it meets with a chain of mountains in about
22° 15' of N. latitude, wrhere is the feventh cataradl
named Jan Add. This is likewife very tremendous,
though not above half as high as that of A lata. This
courle is now' continued till it falls into the Mediterra¬
nean j there being only one other cataraft in the whole
fpace, which is much inferior to any of thofe already
defcribed.
This very particular and elaborate account of the
fources of the Nile and of the courfe of the river given
by Mr Bruce, hath not efcaped criticilm. We find him
accufed by the reviewers, not only of having brought
nothing to light that was not previoufly known to the
learned, but even of having revealed nothing w hich was
not previoully publiihed in Guthrie’s Geographical
Grammar. This, however, feems by no means a fair
and candid criticifm. If the fources of the Nile, as
delcribed by Mr Bruce, were known to the author of
Guthrie’s Grammar, they muft likewife have been fo
to every retailer of geography fince the time of the
miffionaries 5 which, as the reviewers have particu¬
larized that book, would not feem to have been the
cafe. If any thing new wTas publifhed there previous
to the appearance of Mr Bruce’s work, it muft pro¬
bably have been derived indirectly from himfelf 5 of
which clandeftine method of proceeding that gentleman
has had frequent occafion to complain in other cafes.
It is alleged, however, that he has given the name of
Nile to a llream which does not deferve it. This, like
all other large rivers, is compofed of innumerable
branches •, to vifit the top of every one of which would
be indeed an Herculean talk. The fource of the largeft
branch therefore, and that which has the longeft
courfe, is undoubtedly to be accounted the fource of
the^ river ; but here it is denied that Mr Bruce had
fufficient information. “ Of the innumerable ftreams
(fay they) that feed the lake of Tzana, there is one
that ends in a bog, to which Mr Bruce was condudled
by Woldo, a lying guide, who told him it was the
fource ot the Nile. Mr Bruce, in a matter of far
lefs importance, would not have taken Woldo’s word 5
but he is perfuaded, that in this cafe he fpoke truth ;
becaufe the credulous barbarians of the neighbouring
diftrict paid fomething like worftiip to this brook,
which, at the diftance of -14 miles from its fource, is
not 20 feet broad, and nowhere one foot deep. Now
it is almoft unneceffary to obferve, that the natives of
that country being, according to Mr Bruce’s report,
pagans, might be expected to worfhip the pure and falu-
tary ftream, to which, with other extraordinary quali¬
ties, their fuperftition afcribed the power of curing the
bite of a mad dog. Had he traced to its fource any
of the other rivulets which run into the lake Tzana
it is not unlikely that lie might have met with fimilar
inftances of credulity among the ignorant inhabitants
of its banns. Yet this would not prove any one of
them in particular to be the head of the Nile. It
would be trifling with the patience of our readers to
fay one word more on the queftion, whether the Por-
tuguefe Jefuits or Mr Bruce difcovered what they er-
roneoufly call the head of the Nile. Before either
they or he had indulged themfelves in a vain triumph
[ 20 ]
N I L
over the labours of antiquity, they ought to have been Nile,
fare that they had eilected what antiquity was unable
to accomphih. Now the river defcribed by the Jefuit
Kircher, who collccled the information of his brethren,
as well as by Mr Bruce, is not the Nile of which the
ancients were in quell. This is amply proved by the
prince of modern geographers, the incomparable D’An-
ville (at leaft till our own Rennel appeared), in a See
copious memoir publilhed in the 26th volume of the nel’s Mnp
Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, p. 45. 
To this learned difl'ertation we refer cur readers 5 add- P'44 ’
ing only what feems probable from the writings of
Diodorus Siculus and Herodotus, that the ancients
had two meanings when they fpoke of the head or
fource of the Nile . Firft, Literany, the head or fource
of that great weftern llream now called the White
River, which contains a much greater weight of
waters, and has a much longer ccurfe than the river
defcribed by the jefuits and by Mr Bruce : and, idly,
Metaphorically, the caufe of the Nile’s inundation.—
This caufe they had difcovered to be the tropical rains,
which fall in the extent of 16 degrees on each fide of
the line ; which made the facriftan of Minerva’s temple
of Sais in Egypt tell that inqurfitive traveller Elero-
dotus,. that the waters of the Nile run in two oppolite
directions from its fource j the one north into Egypt,
the other fouth into Ethiopia ; and the reports of all
travellers into Africa ferve to explain and confirm this
oblervation. The tropical rains, they acknowledge,
give rife to the IJile and all its tributary ftreams which
flow northward into the kingdom of Sennaar, as wrell
as to the Zebee, and fo many large rivers which flow
fouth into Ethiopia ; and then, according to the incli¬
nation of the ground, fall into the Indian or Atlantic
ocean. Such then, according to the Egyptian priefts,
is the true and philofophicai fource of the Nile ; a
fource dilcowred above 3000 years ago, and not, as
Mr Bruce and the Jefuits have luppofed, the head of a
paltry rivulet, one of the innumerable ftreams that
feed the lake Tzana.”
On this fevere cnlicifm, however, it is obvious to re-
maiK, that if the fcurce of the Nile has been difco-
vered fo many years ago, there is not the leaft proba¬
bility that the finding of it fhould have been deemed
an impoffible undertaking, which it moft certainly was,
by the ancients.—That the finding out the fountains
ot the river itfelf was an object of their inquiry, can¬
not be doubted 5 and from the accounts given by Mr
Bruce, it appears very evident that none of the an¬
cients had equal fuccefs with himfelf; though indeed
the Jefuits, as has already been obferved, feem to have
a right to difpute it with him. From the corre-
fpondence of his accounts with that of the Jefuits, it
appears certain that the moft confiderable ftream rvhich
flow's into the lake Tzana takes its rife from the foun¬
tains at Geelh already defcribed ; and that it is the moft
confiderable plainly appears from its ftream being vifible
through the whole breadth of the lake, which is not the
cafe wnth any of the reft. The preference given to this
ftream by the Agows, who w'orftiip it, feems alfo an in-
conteftable proof that they look upon it to be the great
river which pafles through Ethiopia and Egypt j nor
will the argument of the reviewers hold good in Jiippqfing
that other ftreams are worlhipped, unlefs they could prove
that they are fo, As little can it be any objection or
difparagement
diiparagement to Mr Bruce’s labours, tkat he did not
di (cover the fources of the weftern branch of the Nile
called the White River. Had he done fo, it might
next have been objected that he did not vifit the fprings
of the Tacazze, or any other branch* That the ori¬
gin of the White river was unknown to the ancients
may readily be allowed } but fo were the fountains of
Geefh, as evidently appears from the erroneous pofition
of the fources of the ealtem branch of the Nile laid down
by Ptolemy. Our traveller, therefore, certainly has the
merit, if not of difcovering the fources, at lead of con¬
firming the accounts which the .1 efuits have given of the
fources, of the river called the Nile; and of which the
White river, whether greater or fmaller, feems to be
accounted only a branch. The fuperior veneration paid
to the eaftern branch of this celebrated river will alfo ap¬
pear from the variety of names given to it, as well as
from the import of thefe names ; of which Mr Bruce
gives the following account.
By the Agows it is named G‘zeir, Geefa, or Seir;
the firfl: of which terms fignifies a god. It is like-
wife named Ah, father ; and has many other names,
all of them implying the mod profound veneration.
Having defcended into Gojam it is named Abay;
which, according to Mr Bruce, lignifies the river that
fuddenly fwells and overflows periodically with rain.
By the Gongas'on the fouth fide of the mountains
Dyre and Tegla, it is called Dahli, and by thofe on
the north fide Kowafs; both of which names fignify a
watching dog, the latrator anubis, or dog-Jlar. In the
plain country between Fazuclo and Sennaar it is called
Nile which fignifies blue; and the Arabs interpret
this name by the word At&ergue; wduch name it re¬
tains till it reaches Halfaia, where it receives the
White river.
Formerly the Nile had the name of Sir is, both be¬
fore and after it enters Beja, which the Greeks ima¬
gined was given to it on account of its black colour
during, the inundation ; but Mr Bruce affures us that
the river has no fuch colour. He affirms, with great
probability, that this name in the country of Beja
imports the river of the dog-Jlar, on whofe vertical ap¬
pearance this river overflows ; “ and this idolatrous
worffiip (fays he) was probably part of the reafon of
the quedion the prophet Jeremiah aiks : And what
had thou to do in Egypt to drink the water of Seir,
or the water profaned by idolatrous rites ?” As for
the fird, it is only the tranflation of the word bahar
applied to the Nile. The inhabitants of the Barabra
to this day call it Bahar el Nil, or the fea of the Nile,
in contradidinftion to the Red fea, for which they
have no other name than B a liar el Molech, or the
Salt fea. The jun&ion of the three great rivers, the
Nile flowing on the weft fide of Me roe ; the Tacazze,
which walhes the eaft fide, and joins the Nile at Mag-
giran in N. Lat. 170 ; and the Mareb, which falls into
this lad fomething above the junction, gives the name
of Triton to the Nile.
The name /Egyptus, which it has in Homer, and
which our author fuppofes to have been a very an¬
cient name even in Ethiopia, is more difficult to ac¬
count for. This has been almoft univerfally fuppof-
ed to be derived from the black colour of the inun¬
dation ; but Mr Bruce, for the reafons already given,
will not admit of this. “ Egypt (fays he) hr the
] NIL
Ethiopic is called y Gipt, Agar j and an inhabitant of
the country, Gypi, for precifely fo it is pronounced ;
which means the country of ditches or canals, drawn
from the Nile on both lides at right angles with the
river : nothing furely is more obvious than to write
y Gipt, fo pronounced, Egypt; and, with its termina¬
tion us or os, Egyptus. The Nile is alfo called Kro-
nides, Jupiter \ and has had feveral other appellations
beftowed upon it by the poets } though theie are ra¬
ther of a tranfitory nature than to be ranked among
the ancient names of the river. By fome of the an¬
cient fathers it has been named Geon; and by a
ftrange train of miracles they would have it to be one
of the rivers of the terreftrial paradife } the fame which
is faid to have encompafled the whole land of Cufli or
Ethiopia. To effect this, they are obliged to bring the
river a great number of miles, not only under the earth,
but under the fea alfo 5 but fuch reveries need no refu¬
tation.
Under the article Egypt we have fo fully explained,
the caufe of the annual inundation of the Nile, that,
with regard to the phenomenon itfelf, nothing farther
feems neceffary to be added. We (hall therefore only
extract from Mr Bruce’s work what he has faid con¬
cerning the mode of natural operation by which the
tropical rains are produced 5 which are now univerfally
allowed to be the caufe of the annual overflowing of ibis
and other rivers.
According to this gentleman, the air is fo much ra¬
refied by the fun during the time that he remains al¬
moft ftationary over the tropic of Capricorn, that the
other winds loaded with vapours rufh in upon the lan,d
from the Atlantic ocean on the weft, the Indian ocean
on the eaft, and the cqld Southern ocean beyond the
Cape. Thus a great quantity of vapour is gathered,
as it were, into a focus •, and as the fame caufes con¬
tinue to operate during the progrefs of the fun north¬
ward, a vaft train of clouds proceed from fouth to
north, winch, Mr Bruce informs us, are fometimes ex¬
tended much farther than at other times. Thus he tells
us, that for twm years fome white dappled clouds were
feen at Gondar, on the yth of January 5 the fun being
then 340 diftant from the zenith, and not the leaft
cloudy fpeck having been feen for feveral months
before. About the firft of March, however, it begins
to rain at Gondar, but only for a few minutes at a time,
in large drops ; the fun being then about 50 diftant
from the zenith. The rainy feafon commences with
violence at every place when the fun comes diretlly
over it ; and before it commences at Gondar, green
boughs and leaves appear floating in the Bahar el Abiad,
or White river, which, according to the accounts given
by the Gallo, our author fuppofes to take its rife in about
50 north latitude.
The rains therefore precede the fun only about 50 ■
but they continue and increafe after he has paffed it.
In April all the rivers in the fouthern parts of Abyf-
finia begin to fwell, and greatly augment the Nile,
which is now alfo farther augmented by the vaft quan¬
tity of wTater poured into the lake Tzana. On the
firft days of May, the fun paffes the village of Gerri,
which is the limit of the tropical rains ; and it is very
remarkable, that, though the fun ftill continues to
operate with unabated vigour, all his influence cannot
bring the clouds farther northw ard than this village 3
NIL [ 22 ] N I L
die reafon of which Mr Bruce, with great reafon, fup-
' pofes, to be the want of mountains to the northward.
In confirmation of this opinion, he obferves, that the
tropical rains Hop at the latitude of 140 inftead of 160
in the wTetlern part of the continent. All this time,
however, they continue violent in Abyflinia } and in
the beginning of June the rivers are all full, and conti¬
nue fo while the fun remains flationary in the tropic of
Cancer.
This exceffive rain, which would fweep off the whole
foil of Egypt into the fea wrere it to continue with¬
out intermiffion, begins to abate as the fun turns fouth-
ward j and on his arrival at the zenith of each place,
on his paffage towards that quarter, they ceafe entire¬
ly : the reafon of w'hich is no lefs difficult to be dif-
covered than that of their coming on when he arrives
at the zenith in his paffage northward. Be the rea¬
fon what it will, however, the faff is certain j and not
only fo, but the time of the rains ceafmg is exaff to a
fingle day ; infomuch, that on the 25th of September
the Nile is generally found to be at its higheft at Cairo,
and begins to diminiffi every day after. Immediately af¬
ter the fun has paffed the line, he begins the rainy fea-
fon to the fouthwTard; the rains conftantly coming on
with violence as he approaches the zenith of each place •,
but the inundation is now promoted in a different man¬
ner, according to the difference of circumftances in the
lituation of the places. From about 6° S. Lat. a chain
of high mountains runs all the w?ay along the middle of
the continent towards the Cape of Good Hope, and in-
terfefts the fouthern part of the peninfula nearly in the
fame manner that the Nile does the northern. A ftrong
wind from the fouth, flopping the progrefs of the con-
denfed vapours, daffies them againft the cold fummits of
this ridge of mountains, and forms many rivers, which
- efcape in the direffion either of eaft or weft as the level
prefents itfelf. If this is towards the weft, they fall
dowrn the fides of the mountains into the Atlantic, and
if on the eaft into the Indian ocean.—“ The clouds
(fays Mr Bruce), drawn by the violent affion of the
fun, are condenfed, then broken, and fall as rain on the
top of this high ridge, and fwell every river while a
wind from the ocean on the eaft blows like a monfoon
up each of thefe ftreams, in a direffion contrary to their
current during the whole time of the inundation ; and
this enables boats to afeend into the we (tern parts of So-
fala, and the interior country, to the mountains where
lies the gold. The fame effeff, from the fame caufe, is
produced on the weftern fide towards the Atlantic 5 the
high ridge of mountains being placed between the dif¬
ferent countries weft and eaft, is at once the fource of
their riches, and of thofe rivers wffiich conduff to the
treafures, wffiich would be otherwife inacceffible, in the
eaftern parts of the kingdoms of Benin, Congo, and An¬
gola.
“ There are three remarkable appearances attending
the inundation of the Nile. Every morning in Abyffi-
nia is clear, and the fun ffiines. About nine, a fmall
cloud not above four feet broad, appears in thfe eaft,
whirling violently round as if upon an axis} but arriv¬
ed near the Zenith, it firft abates its motion, then lofes
its form, and extends itfelf greatly, and feems to call
up vapours from all the oppoiite quarters. Thefe clouds
having attained nearly the lame height, ruffi againft each
other with great violence, and put me always in mind
of Elilha foretelling rain on Mount Carmel. The air,
impelled before the heavieft raafs, or fwifteft mover,
makes an impreffion of its form on the colleffion of
clouds oppofite ; and the moment it has taken poffeffion
of the fpace made to receive it, the moft violent thun¬
der poffible to be conceived inftanlly follows, with rain :
after lome hours the Iky again clears, with a wind at
north : and it is always dilagreeably cold when the ther¬
mometer is below 63°.
The fecond thing remarkable is the variation of the
thermometer. When the fun is in the fouthem tropic,
36° diftant from the zenith of Gondar, it is feldom low¬
er than 720; but it falls to 6o°, and 63°, when the
fun is immediately vertical} fo happily does the ap¬
proach of rain compenfate the heat of a too fcorching
fun.
The third is that remarkable ftop in the extent of
the rain northward, when the fun that has conduffe'd
the vapours from the line, and ffiould feem now more
than ever to be in the pcffeffion of them, is here over¬
ruled fuddenly ; till, on his return to Gerri, again it re¬
fumes the abfolute command over the rain, and recon-
duffs it to the line, to fumiffi diftant deluges to the
fouthward.”
With regard to the Nile itfelf, it has been faid that
the quantity of earth brought down by it from Abyffi-
nia is fo great, that the wffiole land of Egypt is produ¬
ced from it. This queftion, however, is difeuffed under
the article Egypt, wffiere it is ftiown that this cannot
poffibly be the cafe.— Among other authorities there
quoted wTas that of Mr Volney, wffio ftrenuoufly argues
againft the opinion of Mr Savary and others, who have
maintained that Egypt is the gift of the Nile. Not-
withftanding this, however, wTe find him afferting that
the foil of Egypt has undoubtedly been augmented by
the Nile, in wffiich cafe it is not unreafonable to fup-
pofe that it has been produced by it altogether.—“ The
reader (fays he) will conclude, doubtlefs, from what I
have faid, that writers have flattered themfelves too
much in fuppofing they could fix the precife limits of
the enlargement and rife of the Delta. But, though I
would rejeff all illufory circumftances, I am far from
denying the faff to be well founded ; it is plain from
reafon, and an examination of the country. The rife
of the ground appears to me demonftrated by an obfer-
vation on which little ftrefs has been laid. In going
from Rofetta to Cairo, when the waters are low, as in
the month of March, wTe may remark, as we go up the
river, that the ffiore rifes gradually above the water ; fo
that if overflowed two feet at Rofetta, it overflows from
three to four at Faona, and upwards of twelve at Cairo
(a). Now by reafoning from this faff, wt may deduce
the proof of an increafe by fediment; for the layer of
mud being in proportion to the thicknefs of the fheets
of wrater by which it is depofited, muft be more or lefs
conftderable
Nile.
(a) “ It would be curious to afeertam in wffiat proportion it continues up to Afouan. Some Copts, wffiom I
have interrogated on the fubjeff, affured me fliat it was much higher through all the Said than at Cairo,*’
2
NIL [ 23 ] NIL
Nilr. conliderable as thefe are of a greater or lefs depth 3 and
* we have feen that the like gradation is obfervable from
Afouan to the fea.
“ On the other hand, the increafe of the Delta ma-
nifefts itfelf in a finking manner, by the form of Egypt
along the Mediterranean. When we coniider its figure
on the map, we perceive that the country which is in
the line of the river, and evidently formed of foreign
materials, has affumed a femicircular lhape, and that the
(hores of Arabia and Africa, on each fide, have a direc¬
tion towards the bottom of the Delta 3 which manifeltly
difcovers that this country was formerly a gulf, that in
time has been filled up.
“ This accumulation is common to all rivers, and is
accounted for in the fame manner in all: the rain wa¬
ter and the fnow defcending from the mountains into
the valleys, hurry inceffantly along with them the
earth they walh away in their defcent. The heavier
parts, fuch as pebbles and fands, foon flop, unlefs for¬
ced along by a rapid current. But when the waters
meet only with a fine and light earth, they carry away
large quantities with the greatell facility. The Nile,
meeting with fuch a kind of earth in Abyffinia and
the interior parts of Africa, its waters are loaded and
its bed filled with it 3 nay, it is frequently fo embar-
rafied with this fediment as to be ftraitened in its
courfe. But when the inundation reftores to it its
natural energy, it drives the mud that has accumu¬
lated towards the fea, at the fame time that it brings
down more for the enfuing feafon 3 and this, arrived
at its mouth, heaps up, and forms fhoals, where the
declivity does not allow fufficient action to the cur¬
rent, and where the fea produces an equilibrium of
refiltance. The ftagnation which follows occafions
the gruffer particles, which till then had floated, to
fink 3 and this takes place more particularly in thofe
places where there is leafi: motion, as towards the
fliores, till the fides become gradually enriched by the
i'poiis of the upper country and of the Delta itfelf 3
for if the Nile takes from, Abyflinia to give to the
Thebais, it likewile takes from the Thebais to give
to the Delta, and from the Delta to carry to the fea.
Wherever its waters have a current, it "defpoils the
fame territory that it enriches. As we afcend towards
Cairo, when the river is low, we may obferve the banks
worn fteep on each fide and crumbling in large flakes.
The Nile, which undermines them, depriving their
light earth of fupport, it falls into the bed of the ri-
>er 3 for when the water is high, the earth imbibes it;
and when the fun and drought return, it cracks and moul¬
ders away in great flakes, which are hurried along by
the Nile.'”
Thus does Mr Volney argue for the increafe of the
Delta in the very fame manner that others have ar¬
gued for the produftion of the whole country of
Egypt 3 an opinion which he is at great pains to refute.
Under the article Egypt, however, it is fhown that the
Nile does not bring down any quantity of mud fufticient
for the purpofes afligned 3 and with regard to the argu¬
ment drawn from the fliallownefs of the inundation
when near the fea, this does not prove any rife of the
land 3 but as Mr Rennel has judlcioufly obferved in his
remarks on the inundation of the Ganges, arifes from the
nature of the fluid itfelf. The reafon, in fliort, is
this : I he iurface ot the fea is the lowed: point to, which
the waters of every inundation have a tendency 3 and Nile,
when they arrive there, they fpread themfelves over it
with more eafe than anywhere elfe, becaufe they meet
with lefs refiftance. Their motion, however, by reafon
of the fmall declivity, is lefs fwift than that of the
waters-farther up the river, where the declivity is greater 3
and conl’equently the latter being feme what impeded
in their motion, are in fome degree accumulated. The
furface of the inundation, therefore, does not form a
perfeblly level plain, but one gradually Hoping from the
interior parts of the country towards the lea 3 fo that
at the greateff diffance from the ocean the water will
always be deepeft, even if we fliould fuppofe the whole
country to be perfeflly fmocth, and compofed of the
moft folid materials.—This theory is eafily underftood
from obferving a quantity of water running along a
wooden fpeut, which is abvays more fhaflyw at the
end of the fpout where it runs off than at the others.--
With regard to Mr Volney’s other arguments, they
are without doubt contradictory 3 for if, as he fays,
the river takes from Abyflinia to give to the Thebais,
from Thebais to give to the Delta, and from Delta to
the fea, it undoubtedly follows, that it gives nothing to
any part of the land whatever, but that aitogether
is fwept into the Mediterranean fea 3 wdiich, indeed,
fome very trifling quantities excepted, is moft probably
the eafe.
It has been remarked by Mr Pococke, a very judi¬
cious traveller, that, in the beginning of the inunda¬
tion, the w-aters of the Nile run red, and fometimes
green 3 and while they remain of that colour, they are
unvvholefome. He explains this phenomenon by fup-
pofing, that the inundation at firft brings away that red
or green filth which may be about the lakes where it
takes its rife 3 or about the fources of the fmall rivers
wrhich flow into it, near its principal fource 3 “ for, fays
he, although there is fo little water in the Nile when at
lowed, that there is hardly any current in many parts
of it, yet it cannot be fuppoled that the w^aier ftiould
ftagnate in the bed of the Nile fo as to becotne green.
Afterwards the water begins to be red and ftill more
turbid, and then it begins to be wholefome.” This cir-
cumftance is explained by, Mr Bruce in the following -■
manner: The country about Narea and Caffa, wEere
the river Abiad takes its rife, is full of immenfe marlhes,
where, during the dry feafon, the water ftagnates, and
becomes impregnated with every kind of corrupted mat¬
ter. Thefe, on the commencement of the rains, over¬
flow into the river Abiad, wdiich takes its rife there.
The overflowing of thefe vaft marflies firft carries the
difcolcured water into Egypt 3 after which follows that
of the great lake Tzana, through which the Nile paffes 3
which having been ftagnated, and without rain, under a
fcorcking fun for fix months, joins its putrid waters to
the former. In Abyflinia alio, there are very few ri¬
vers that run after November, but all of them (land in
prodigious pools, which, by the heat of the fun, likewife
turn putrid, and on the commencement of the rains
throw off their ftagnaut water into the Nile 3 but at
laft, the rains becoming conftant, all this putrid matter
is carried off, and the lources of the inundation become
fwreet and wholefome. The river then palling through
the kingdom of Sennaar, die foil of which is this red
bole, becomes coloured with that earth 3 and a mixture,
along with the moving fands of the deferts, of which it
receives
NIL [ 24 1 NIL
receives a great quantity when raifed by the wind, pre-
' clpitates all the vifcous and putrid matters which float
in the waters j whence Mr Pococke judicioufly obferves,
that the Nile is not wbolefome when the water is clear
and green, but when fo red and turbid that it ftains the
water of the Mediterranean.
The rains in Abyflinia, which ceafe about the 8th
of September, generally leave a iickly feafon in the low
country •, but the difeafes produced by thefe rains are re¬
moved by others which come on about the end of Oc¬
tober, and ceafe about the 8th of November. On thefe
rains depend the latter crops of the Abyflinians} and for
•thefe the Agowrs pray to the river, or the genius or
fpirit refiding in it. In Egypt, however, the effect
of them is feldom perceived •, but in fome years they
prove exceiTive •, and it has been obferved that the Nile,
after it has fallen, has again rifen in fuch a manner as
to alarm the whole country. This is faid to have hap¬
pened in the time of Cleopatra, when it was.fuppofed to
prefage the extinction of the government of the Ptole¬
mies ; and in 1737 it wTas likewife imagined to portend
fome dreadful calamity.
The quantity of rain, by which all this inundation
is occafioned, varies confiderably in different years,
at lead at Gondar, where Mr Bruce had an opportu¬
nity of meafuring it. In 1770 it amounted to 354-
inches-, but in 1771 it amounted to no lefs than
41,355 inches from the vernal equinox to the 8 th of
September. What our author adds concerning the
variation of the rainy months feems totally irrecon¬
cilable with wdiat he had before advanced concerning
the extreme regularity of the natural caufes by which
the tropical rains are produced. “ In 177° (feys he)
Auguft wTas the rainy month ; in 1771, July. When
July is the rainy month, the rains generally ceafe for
fome days in the beginning of Auguft, and then a
prodigious deal falls in the latter end of that month
and iirft wreek of September. In other years July and
Auguft are the violent rainy months, while June is
fair. And laftly, in others, May, June, July, Auguft,
and the firft week of September.” If this is the cafe,
what becomes of the regular attraction of the clouds
by the fun as he advances northwards; of the coming
-on of the rains vftien he arrives at the zenith of any
place, in his paffage to the tropic of Cancer; and of
their ceafing vdien he comes to the fame point in his re¬
turn fouthward ?
Under Abyssinia we have mentioned a threat of
one of the Abyflinian moharctis, that he would direfl
the courfe of the Nile and prevent it from fertilizing
the land of Egypt and it has likewife been related,
that confiderable progrefs was made in this under¬
taking by another emperor. Mr Bruce has beftow-
ed an entire chapter on the fubject •, and is of opinion,
that “ there feems to be no doubt that it is peffible
to diminilh or divert the courfe of the Nile, that it
fhould be infufficient to fertilize the country of Egypt j
becaufe the Nile, and all the rivers that run into it,
and all the rains that fwell thefe rivers, fall in a coun¬
try two miles above the level of the fea j therefore it
cannot be denied, that there is level enough to divert
many of the rivers into the Red fea, or perhaps ftill
eafiet by turning the courfe of the river Abiad till
it meets the level of the Niger, or pafs through the
defert into the Mediterranean. Alphonfo Albuquerque
4
is faid to have written frequently to the king of Por¬
tugal to fend him pioneers from Madeira, with people
accuftomed to level grounds, and prepare them for fu-
gar canes 5 by whole aifiitance he meant to turn the
Nile into the Red fea. This undertaking, however,
if it really had been projefled, was never accomplifhed 3
nor indeed is there any probability that ever fuch a mad
attempt was propofed. Indeed, though we cannot deny
that there is a pofiibility in nature of accomplifhing it,
yet the vaft difficulty of turning the courfe of fo many
large rivers may juftly ftigmatize it as imprafticable 3
not to mention the obftacles which muft naturally be
fuggeiled from the apparent inutility -of the undertak¬
ing, and thofe which would arife from the oppofition of
the Egyptians.
It has already been obferved in a quotation from
the reviewers, that Herodotus was informed by the
facriftan or fecretary of the treafury of Minerva, that
one half of the waters of the Nile run north and the
other fouth. This is alfo taken notice of by Mr
Bruce 3 who gives the following explanation of it.
“ The fecretary was probably of that country himfelf,
and feems by his obfervation to have known more of it
than all the ancients together. In iaft we have feen,
that between 130 and 140 north latitude, the Nile,
with all its tributary ftreams, which have their rife
and courfe within the tropical rains, falls down into
the flat country (the kingdom of Sennaar), which is
more than a mile lower than the high country in Abyl-
finia 3 and thence, with a little inclination, it runs into
Egypt. Again, In latitude 90, in the kingdom of Gin-
giro, the Zebee runs fouth or fouth-eaft, into the Inner
Ethiopia, as do alfo many other rivers, and, as I have,
heard from the natives of that country empty themfelves
into a lake, as thofe on the north fide of the line do into
the lake Tzana, thence diftributing their waters to the
eaft and weft. Thefe become the heads of great rivers,
that run through the interior countries of Ethiopia (cor*
refponding to the fea coaft of Melinda and Mombaza)
into the Indian ocean 3 whilft, on the weftward, they
are the origin of the vaft ftreams that fall into the At¬
lantic, paffing through Benin and Congo, fouthward of
the river Gambia and the Sierra Leona. In ftiort, the
periodical rains from the tropic of Capricorn to the
line, being in equal quantity with thofe that rail be¬
tween the line pnd the tropic of Cancer, it is plain,
that if the land of Ethiopia floped equally from the
line fouthward and northward, the rains that fall would
go, the one half north and the other half iouth 3 but as
the ground from 50 north declines all fouthward, it fol¬
lows, that the rivers which run to tne fouthward muft be
equal to thofe that run northward, p/us the rain that
falls in the 50 north latitude, where the ground begins
to flope to the fouthward 3 and there can be little
doubt that is at leaf! one of the reafons wffiy tlieie are
in the fouthern continent fo many rivers larger^ than
the Nile, that run both into the Indian and Atlantic
oceans.”
From this account given to Flerodotus, it has been
fuppofed, by fome writers on geography, that the
Nile divides itfelf into two branches, one cl which
runs northward into Egypt, and one through the
country of the Negroes weftward into tne Atlantic
ocean. This opinion was firft broached by Pliny.—
It has been adopted by the Nubian geographer, wffio
urges
N I L
Nile
[
urges in fupport of it, that if the Nile, carried down
all the rains which fall into it from Abyffinia, the
people of Egypt would not be fate in their houfes.
But. to this Mr Bruce anfwers, that the wafte of wa¬
ter in. the burning deferts through which the Nile
palfes is fo great, that unlels it was fupplied by ano¬
ther dream, the White River, equal m magnitude to
itfelf, and which, rifing in a country of perpetual
rains, is thus always kept full, it never could reach
Egypt at all, but would be lod in the lands, as is the
cafe with many' other very confiderable rivers in A-
frica. “ The rains (fays he) are collefted by the four
great rivers in Abyffinia; the Mareb, the Bowiha,
the. Tacazze, and the Nile. All thefe principal, and
their tributary dreams, would, however, be abforbed,
nor be able to pafs the burning deferts, or find their
way into Egypt, were it not for the White River,
which having its fource in a country of almod perpe¬
tual rains, joins to it a never-failing dream equal to the
Nile itfelf.”
We fliall conclude this article with fome account
of the Agows who inhabit the country about the
fources of the Nile. Thefe, according to Mr Bruce,
are one of the mod confiderable nations in Abyflinia,
and can bring into the field about 4000 horfe and a
great number of foot j but were once much more
powerful than they are now, having been greatly re¬
duced by the invafions of the Galla. Their province
is nowhere more than 60 miles in length, or than 30
in breadth; notwithdanding which they fupply the
capital and all the neighbouring country with cattle,
honey, butter, wax, hides, and a number of other ne-
cefiary articles j whence it has been cudomary for the
Abydinian princes to exaft a tribute rather than mili¬
tary fervice from them. The butter is kept from pu-
trefaction during the long carriage, by mixing it with
a fmall quantity of a root fomewhat like a carrot, which
they call mormoco. It is of a yellow colour, and an-
iwers the purpofe perfectly well; which in that climate
it is very doubtful if fait could do. The latter is be-
fides ufed as money 5 being circulated indead of diver
coin, and ufed as change for gold. Brides paint their
feet, hands, and nails, with this root. A large quan¬
tity of the feed of the plant was brought into Europe by
Mr Bruce. J
Ehe Agows carry on a confiderable trade with the
Shangalla and other black favages in the neighbour¬
hood 5. exchanging the produce of their country for
gold, ivory, horns of the rhinoceros, and fome fine cot¬
ton. The barbarity and thievilh difpofition of both
nations, however, render this trade much inferior to
what it might be.
. religion the Agows are grofs idolaters, pay¬
ing divpie honours to the Nile, as has already been ob-
ferved. Mr. Bruce, who lodged in the houfe of the
pneft of the river, had an opportunity of becoming ac-
quainted with many particulars of their devotion. He
heard him addrefs a prayer to the Nile, in which he
fiyled it the “.Moll High God, the Saviour of the
world. In this prayer he petitioned for feafonable
ram, p.enty of grafs, and the prefervation of a kind of
ferpents^ deprecating thunder very pathetically. The
moft fublime and lofty titles are given by them to the
fpmt which they fuppofe to refide in the river Nile •
calling it everlafting God, Light of the World, Eye of
VOL. XV. Part I.
Nile, /
Nilorn iter.
5 1 NIL
the World, God of Peace, their Saviour, and Father of
the Univerfe.
Pile Agows are all clothed in hides, which they ma¬
nufacture in a manner peculiar to themfelves. Thefe
hides are maue m the form of a fhirt reaching doivn to
their feet, and tied about the middle with a kind of falh
or girdle. The lower part of it refembles a large
double petticoat, one fold of which they turn back
over their Ihoulders, faftening it with a broach or Ik ew¬
er acrofs. their bread before, and the married women
carry their children in it behind. The younger lort
generally go. naked. The women are marriageable at
nine years of age, though they commonly do not marry
till eleven.5 and they continue to bear children till 30,
and iometimes longer. T hey are generally thin and be¬
low the middle fize, as well as the men. Barrennefs is
quite unknown among them.
. he country of the Agows has a very elevated fitua-
tion, and is of courfe fo temperate that the heat may
eafily be borne, though little more than io° from the
equator. The people, however, are but ihort lived 1
which may in part be owing to the oppreffion they la-
bour under This, according to Mr Bruce, is exceffive.
1 hough their country (fays he) abounds with all the
neceffaries of life, their taxes, tributes, and fervices, efpe-
cially at prefent, are fo multiplied upon them, whilft
their dillrefies of late have been fo great and frequent
that they are only the manufacturers of the commodities
they fell, to fatisfy thefe conftant exorbitant demands, and
cannot enjoy any part of their own produce themfelves
but live m penury and mifery fcarcely to be conceived!
V\e law a number of women wrinkled and fun-burnt fo
as Icarcely to appear human, wandering about under a'
burning fun, with one and fometimes two children upon
their backs ; gathering the feeds of bent grafs to make
a kind of bread.
NILOMETER, or Niloscope, an inftrument ufed
among the ancients to meafure the height of the water
of the river Nile in its overflowings.
The word comes from NuX0; Nile (and that from
vs* “ new mud,” or as fome others would have it
trom vs&i, “ I flow,” and (Xv5, “mud,”) and ^srfov!
mealure. 1 he Greeks more ordinarily calPlt, Ne<-
?i0<r-iio7nov.
1 he nilometer is faid, by feveral Arabian writers to
have been firft fet up, for this purpofe, by Jofeph during
his regency m Egypt : the meafure of it ivas 16 cubits
this being the height of the increafe of the Nile, which
was neceffary to the fruitfulnefs of Egypt.
From the meafure of this column, I>r Cumberland * * Scripture
deduces an argument, in order to prove that the Jewilh WeiShts
and Egyptian cubits were of the fame length ' T1 Mea\
In the French king’s library is an Arabic treatife ok' P'
nilometers, entitled Neil Ji alnal al Nil; wherein are
delcnbed all the overflowings of the Nile, from the firfl
year of the Hegira to the 87 i;th.
Herodotus mentions a column ere£led in a point
of the ifland Delta, to ferve as a nilometer; and there
is. flnl one of the fame kind in a moique of the fame
place.
As all the riches of Egypt arife from the inundations
°u r inhabitants ufed to lupplicate them at
the hands of their Serapis ; and committed the moll
execrable crimes, as addons, fotfooih, of religion to obi
tam the favour. This occafioned Conftautine exprefsly
E>. t0
/
f Bruce's
Travels,
N I M [ 26
Nile meter to prohibit tlicx lacrifices, &.c. and to order the nilome-
») ter to be removed into the church 5 whereas, till that
Nmaeguen. jj- ]ia(j been [n the temple of Serapis. Julian .the
-v Apoftate had it replaced in the temple, where it conti¬
nued till the time of Theodofius the Great.
The following is Mr Brace’s account of the nilome-
ter. “ On the point -f- of the ifland Rhode, between
Geeza and Cairo, near the middle of the river, is a
round tower encloling a neat well or ciifern lined with
marble. The bottom of this well is on the fame level
with the bottom of the Nile, w’hich has free accefs to it
through a large opening like an embrafure. In the
middle of the well rifes a thin column of eight faces of
blue and white marble ; of which the foot is on the fame
plane with the bottom of the river. This pillar is di¬
vided into 20 peeks, of 22 inches each. Of thefe peeks
the two lowermoft are left, without any divifion, to Hand
for the quantity of fludge which the water depofits
there. Two peeks are then divided, on the fight nand,
into 24 digits each ; then on the left, four peeks are di¬
vided into 24 digits ; then on the right, four 5 and on
the left another four : again, four on the right, which
completes the number of 18 peeks from the find diyifion
marked on the pillar, each peek being 22 inches. Thus
Tie wdiole marked and unmarked amounts to lomething
more than 36 feet Englilh.
On the night of St John, when, by the railing of the
dew, they perceive the rain water from Ethiopia mixed
with the Nile at Cairo, they begin to announce the ele¬
vation of the river, having then five peeks of water
marked on the nilometer, and two unmarked mr the
fludge, of which they take no notice. Their firft_ pro¬
clamation, fuppofing the Nile to have rifen 1 2 digits is
12 from 6, or it wants 12 digits to be fix peeks. \V ken
it has rifen three more, it is nine from fix •, and fo on,
till the whole 18 be filled, when all the land of Egypt
is fit for cultivation. Several canals are then opened,
which convey the wrater into the^defert, and hinder any
further jfagnation on the fields. ihere is indeed a
great deal of more water to come from Ethiopia; but
were the inundation fuffered to go on, it would not dram
loon enough to fit the land for tillage : and to guard
a<rainft this mifehief is the principal ufe of tne nnome-
ter, though the Turkifh government makes it an engine
of taxation. From time immemorial the Egyptians
paid, as tribute to the king, a certain proportion of the
fruit of the ground j and this was anciently afeertamed
by the elevation of the water on the nilometer, and by
the menfuration of the land actually overflowed. But
the Saracen government, and afterwards the Turkifh,
lias taxed the people by the elevation alone of the wa¬
ter, without attending to its courfe over the country, or
the extent of the land actually overflowed j and this
tax is fometimes cruelly oppreflive.
NIMBUS, in antiquity, a circle obferved on certain
medals, or round the heads of feme emperors ; anfwering
to the circles of light drawn round the images of faints.
NIMEGUEN, a large, handfome, and ftrong town
of the Netherlands, and capital of Dutch Guelderland,
with a citadel, an ancient palace, and feveral forts. It
is noted for the peace concluded there in 1605. It has
a magnificent towm-houfe, and the inhabitants are great¬
ly given to trade. It is fieated on the Vahal or Wahal,
between the Rhine and the Maefe. It is the utmoft:
eaftern boundary of the Netherlands. It contains two
1
N 1 M
Dutch churches, a French Calviniif and a Lutheran Nimetula-
church, five Popifh, and feveral hofpitals. It was once
a Hans-town and an imperial city. It was once the
feat of government, has a canal to Arnheim, and confi-1
derable trade to fome parts of Germany : it trades alfo
in fine beer brewing, fattening of cattle, and exporting
of its butter, which is extremely good, into all the other
provinces. It was taken by the h rench in 1794’ ^
in E. Long. 5. 45. N. Lat. 51. 55.
NIMETULAHITES, a kind of Turkifh monks, fo
called from their founder Niroetulahi, famous for his
doftrines and the auilerity of his life.
NIMPO, a city and fea-port tow n of China, in the
province of Chekiang. It is feated on the eaitern fea
of China over againft Japan. It is a city of the fir it 1 ank,
and Hands at the confluence of twro fmall rivers, which,
after their union, form a channel that reaches to the fea,
and is deep enough to bear veflels of 2CO tons burden.
The walls of Nimpo are 5000 paces in circumference,
and are built with freeflone. Iheic are five gams, be-
fides twT0 water gates for the paflage of barks into the
city } a tower feveral Hones high, built of bricks j and
a long bridge of boats, faftened together with iren
chains, over a very bread canal. 1 Iris city is command¬
ed by a citadel built on a very high rock, by the foot
of which all veffels mufl necefiarily pafk The Chinefe
merchants of Siam and Batavia go to this place yearly
to buy filks, which are the fineft in the empire. They
have alfo a great trade with Japan, it being but^ two
days fail from hence : thither they carry filks, fiufis, fir-
gar, drugs, and wine j and bring back copper, gold, and
filver. E. Long. 122. o. N. Lat. 30. o.
NIMROD, the fixth fon of Culh, and in all appear¬
ance much younger than any of his brothers . for Moles,
mentions the fons of Raamah, his fourth brother, before,
he fpeaks of him. W hat the facred hiflorian fays of
him is flrort •, and yet he fays more of him than of any
other of the poflerity of Noah, till he comes to Abra¬
ham. He tells us, that “ Nimrod began to be a mighty
one in the earth that he wras a “ mighty hunter be¬
fore the Lord,” even to a proverb } and that “ the be¬
ginning of his kingdom was Babel, and nnech, and Ac-
cad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar.”
From this account he is iuppofed to have been a man
of extraordinary Hrength and valour. Seme reprefent
him as a giant *, all confider him as a great w arrior. It
is generally thought, that by the words a mighty hunter,
is to be underflood, that he was a great tyrant} but
fome of the rabbins interpret thofe words favourably,
faying, that Nimrod was qualified by a peculiar dexte¬
rity and ftrength for the chafe, and that he offered to
God the game which he took \ and feveral of the mo¬
derns are of opinion, that this paffage is not to be under-
Hood of his tyrannical oppreflions, or of hunting of
men, but of beafls. It muff be owned, that the phrafe
before the Lord may be taken in a favourable feme, and
as a commendation of a perfon’s good qualities j but in
this place the generality of expofitors urdefftand it
Hunting muff have been one of the moft ufeful cm -
ployments'in the times juft after the difperfion, when
all countries w^ere over-run wflth wild beafts, of which
it was neceffary they fhould be cleared, in order to make
them habitable ; and therefore nothing feemed more
proper to procure a man efteem and honour m thole
r r ages>
N I M [ 27
■Nimrod, acres, than his being an expert hunter. By that exer-
 ' ciie, we are told, the ancient Perfians fitted their kings
for war and government •, and hunting is ftill, in many
countries, confidered as one part of a royal education.
There is nothing in the fnort hiftory of Nimrod which
carries the lead air of reproach, except his name, which
fignifies a rebel; and that is the circumftance which
feems to have occafioned the injurious opinions which
have been entertained of him in all ages. Commenta¬
tors, being prepoffeffed in general that the curfe of Noah
fell upon the pofterity of Ham, and finding this prince
ftigmatized by his name, have interpreted every paffage
relating to him to his difadvantage. They reprefent
him as a rebel againft God, in perfuading the defcendants
of Noah to difobey the divine command to difperfe, and
in fetting them to build the tower of Babel, with an
impious defign of fcaling heaven. Ihey brand him as
an ambitious ufurper, and an infolent oppreffor ; and make
him the author of the adoration of fire, of idolatrous
worfliip given to men, and the firlt perfecutor on the
(core of religion. On the other hand, fome account
him a virtuous prince, who, far from advifing the build¬
ing of Babel, left the country, and went into Aflyria,
becaufe he would not give his confent to that projeft.
Nimrod is generally thought to have been the firft
king after the flood } though fome authors, fuppofing a
, plantation or difperfion prior to that of Babel, have
made kings in feveral countries before his time. Miz-
raim is thought, by many who contend for the antiquity
of the Egyptian monarchy, to have begun his reign
much earlier than Nimrod •, and others, from the uni¬
formity of the languages fpoken in'Aflyria, Babylonia,
Syria, and Canaan, affirm thofe countries to have been
peopled before the confufion of tongues.
The four cities Mofes gives to Nimrod conftituted a
large kingdom in thofe early times, when few kings had
more than one •, only it muft be oblerved, that poflef-
fions might at firft have been large, and afterwards divi¬
ded into feveral parcels 5 and Nimrod being the leader
of a nation, we may fuppofe his fubjecls fettled within
thofe limits : whether he became poflefled of thole ci¬
ties by conqueft or otberwife, does not appear ; it is
moft probable he did not build Babel, all the pofterity
of Noah feeming to have been equally concerned in
that affair 5 nor does it appear that he built the other
three, though the founding of them, and many more,
with other works, are attributed to bim by fome authors.
It may feem alfo a little ftrange, that Nimrod ihould be
preferred to the regal dignity, and enjoy the molt culti¬
vated part of the earth then known, rather than any
other of the elder chiefs or heads of nations, even of the
branch of Ham. Perhaps it was conferred on him for
his dexterity in hunting •, or, it may be, he did not af-
fume the title of king till after bis father Cuffi’s death,
who might have been fettled there before him, and left
him the fovereignty *, but we incline to think, that he
feized Shinar from the defcendants of Shem, driving out
Afhutjj who from thence went and founded Nineveh, and
other cities in Aflyria.
The Scripture does not inform us when Nimrod be¬
gan bis reign : Some date it before the difperfion •, but
fiich a conje&ure does not feem to fuit with the Mofai-
cal hiftory 5 for before the difperffon we read of no city
but Babel •, nor could there well be more, while all
mankind were yet in a body together; but when Nim-
] N I N
rod affumed the regal title, there feem to hare been
other cities) a circumftance which ffi nvs it was a good
while after the difperfion. The learned writers ox the
Univerfal Hiftory place the beginning of his reign 30
years from that event, and in all likelihood it ftiould be
placed rather later than earlier.
Authors have taken a great deal of pains to. find
Nimrod in profane hiftory : fome have imagined him to
be the fame with Belus, the founder of the Babylon) fh
empire ; others take him to be Ninus, the firft Aflyrian
monarch. Some believe him to have been Evechous,
the firft Chaldean king after the deluge ; and others
perceive a great refemblance between him and Bacchus,
both in aclions and name. Some of the Mohammedan
writers fuppofe Nimrod to have been Zohak, a Perfian
king of the firft dynafty : others contend for his being
Cay Caus, the fecond king of the fecond race j and
fome of the Jews fay he is the fame with Amraphel the
king of Shinar, mentioned by Mofes. But there is no
certainty in tliefe conjecimes, nor have wTe any know¬
ledge of his immediate fucceffbrs.
The Scripture mentions nothing as to the death of
Nimrod j but authors have taken care that fuch an el-
fential circumftance in his hiftory ihould not be want¬
ing. Some of the rabbins pretend he was {lain by
Eiau, whom they make his contemporary. There is a
tradition that he was killed by the fall of the towTer of
Babel, wffiich was overthrown by tempeftuous winds.
Others fay, that as he led an army againft Abraham,
God fent a fquadron of gnats, which deftroyed moft oi
them, and particularly Nimrod, whofe brain wras pier¬
ced by one of tbofe infecls.
NINE, the laft of the radical numbers or char afters;
from the combination of which any definite number,
however large, may be produced. “ It is obferved by
arithmeticians (fays Hume), that the produfts of 9
compofe always either 9 or fome Idler produfts of 9, if
you add together all the charafters of which any of the
former produfts is compofed : thus of 18, 27, 36, which
are produfts of 9, you make 9, by adding 1 to 8, 2 to
7, 3 to 6. Thus 369 is a produft alfo of 9 ; and if
you add 3, 6, and 9, you make 18, a lefler produft of
9.” See Hume's Dialogues on Nat. Rel/g. p. 167, 168,
&c. 2d. edit.
NINEVEH, in Ancient Geography, the capital city
of Aflyria, founded by Affair the fon of Shem (Gen.
x. 11.) •> or, as others read the text, by Nimrod the fon
of Cufli.
However this be, yet it muft be owned, that Nineveh
was one of the moft ancient, the moft famous, the moft
potent, and largeft cities of the wrorld. It is very dif¬
ficult exaftly to affign the time of its foundation 5 but
it cannot be long after the building of Babel. It was
fituated upon the banks of the Tigris *, and in the time
of the prophet Jonas, who was fent thither under Jero¬
boam II. king of Ifrael, and, as Calmet thinks, under
the reign of Pul, father of Sardanapalus, king of Afly¬
ria, Nineveh was a very great city, its circuit being three
days journey (Jonah hi. 3.) Diodorus Siculus, who has
given us the dimenflons of it, fays it ivas 480 ftadia in,
circumference, or 47 miles ; and that it was furrounded
with lofty walls and towers ; the former being 200 feet
in height, and fo very broad that three chariots might
drive on them abreaft ; and the latter 200 feet in height,
and 1500 in number •, and Strabo allows it to have been
D 2 much
Nimrod
. i!
Nineveh.
N I N ' t 28 ] N I N
Nineveh, much greater than Babylon. Diodorus Siculus was,
:Nl"la' however, certainly miftaken, or rather his tranfcribers,
ns the authors of the Univerfal Hiftory think, in placing
Nineveh on the Euphrates, fince all hiftorians as well
as geographers who fpeak of that city, tell us in exprefs
terms that it flood on the Tigris. At the time of Jo¬
nah’s million thither, it was fo populous, that it was rec¬
koned to contain more than fix Icore thoufand perfons,
Avho could not diltinguilh their right hand from their
left (Jonah iv. 11.), which is generally explained of
young children that had not yet attained to the ufe of
reafon 3 lb that upon this principle it is computed that
the inhabitants of Nineveh were then above 600,000
perfons.
Nineveh was taken by Arbaces and Belefis, in the
year of the world 3257, under the reign of Sardanapa-
lus, in the time of Ahaz king of Judah, and about the
time of the foundation of Rome. It was taken a fecond
time by Aftyages and Nabopolaflar from Chynaladanus
king of Allyria in the year 3378. After this time,
Nineveh no more recovered its former fplendour. It
was fo entirely ruined in the time of Lucianus Samofa-
tenfis, who lived under the emperor Adrian, that no
footfteps of it could be found, nor fo much as the place
where it Hood. However, it was rebuilt under the Per-
fians, and deltroyed again by the Saracens about the
feventh age.
Modem travellers fay (a), that the ruins of ancient
Nineveh may Hill be feen on the eaftern banks of the
Tigris, oppofite to the city Moful or Mouful: (See
Mousul). Profane hiftorians tell us, that Ninus firft
founded Nineveh 5 but the Scripture allures us, that it
was Alhur or Nimrod.
'The facred authors make frequent mention of this
city 3 and Nahum and Zephaniah foretold its ruin in a
very particular and pathetic manner.
NINIA, or NIXIAN, commonly called St Ninitin, a
holy man among the ancient Britons. He refided at
or near a place called by Ptolemy Lcucopibia, and by
Bede Candida Cafa ; but the Englilh and Scotch called
it Whithorne. We mention him, becaufe he is faid to
have been the firft wrho converted the Scots and Pidts
to the Chriftian faith 3 which he did during the reign
of 'Iheodofius the Younger. Bede informs us, that
he built a church dedicated to St Martin, in a Ityle
unknown to the Britons of that time 3 and adds, that
during his time the Saxons held this province {Gailo-
vidia, now Galloway'), and that, as in confequence of
the labours of this faint the converts to Chriftianity
increafed, an epifcopal fee was eftablilhed there. Dr
Henry, confidering that “ few or none of the writings
of the moft ancient fathers of the Britifn church are Ning-pe-
now extant, and fince little being faid of them by 1pu>
their cotemporaries, we can know little of their per- Ninon-
fonal hiftory and of the extent of their erudition,” v
gives a Ihort account of feme of them. Of St Ninian
he fays, “ he was a Briton of noble birth and excel¬
lent genius. After he had received as good an edu¬
cation at home as his own country could afford, he
travelled for his further improvement, and fpent feve-
ral years at Rome, which was then the chief feat of
learning as well as of empire. From thence he return¬
ed into Britain, and fpent his life in preaching the gofpel
in the moft uncultivated parts of it, with equal zeal and
fuccefs.”
There is a fmall town called St Ninian, about a mile
fouth of Stirling. Its church had been occupied by the
rebels in 1745 as a powder magazine 3 who on their re¬
turn blew it up in fuch hafte, as to deftroy fome of their
own people and about fifteen fpe&ators.
NING-po-FOU, called by the Europeans Liampo, is
an excellent port, on the eaftem coaft of China, oppo¬
fite to Japan. Eighteen or twenty leagues from this
place is an ifland called Tcheou-chan, where the Engliftr
firft landed on their arrival at China.
The filks manufaclured at Ning-po are much efteem-
ed in foreign countries, efpecialiy in Japan, where the
Chinefe exchange them for copper, gold, and filver.
This city has four others under its jurifdiftion, befides
a great number of fortreffes.
NINON L’Enclos, a celebrated lady in the court
of France, was of a noble family, and born at Paris in
the year 1615 ; but rendered herfelf famous by her
wit and gallantries. Her mother was a lady of exem¬
plary piety 3 but her father early infpired her with
the love of pleafure. Having loft her parents at 14
years of age, and finding herfelf miftrefs of her own
atftions, fhe refolved never to marry : Ihe had an in¬
come of 10,000 livres a-year 3 and, according to the
leffons fhe had received from her father, drewT up a
plan of life and gallantry, which Ihe purfued till'her
death. Never delicate with refpecl to the number,
but always in the choice, of her pleafures, ftie facrificed
nothing to intereft 3 but loved only while her tafte for
it continued ; and had among her admirers the greateft
lords of the court. But notwithftanding the levity of
her conduct, Ihe had many virtues.—She was conftant
in her friendlhip, faithful to what are called the laws of
honour, of ft riot veracity, difinterefted, and more parti¬
cularly remarkable for perfect probity. Women of the
moft refpectable characters were proud of the honour
of having her for their friend 3 at her houfe was an af-
femblage
(a) This affertion, however, is far from feeming probable 3 for every trace of it feems to have fo totally difap-
peared, even fo early as A. D. 627, that the vacant fpace afforded a fpacious field for the celebrated battle between
the emperor Heraclius and the Perfians. There are few things in ancient hiftory W'hich have more puzzled the
learned world, than to determine the fpot where this city flood. Mr Ives informs us, that fome have imagined it
flood near Jonah’s tomb 3 others, however, place it at another place, fome hours journey up the Tigris. Thefe-
different opinions, however, feem perfectly reconcilable 3 for it appears at leaft probable, that ancient Nineveh took
in the whole of the ground which lies between thefe two ruined places. Mr Ives adds, that “ what confirms this
conjedure is, that much of this ground is now hilly, owing no doubt to the rubbifti of the ancient buildings.
There is one mount of 200 or 300 yards fquare, winch hands fome yards north-eaft of Jonah’s tomb, whereon it
is likely a fortification once flood. It feems to have been made by nature, or perhaps both by nature and art, for
fuch an ufe.”
N I O [ 29 ] N I O
Ninth femblagc of every thing moft agreeable in the city and
II, the court 5 and mothers were extremely defirous of
1*'loe' fending their fons to that fchool of politenefs and good
tafte, that they might learn fentiments of honour and
probity, and thofe other virtues that render men ami¬
able in fociety. But the illullrious Madame de Sevig-
ne with great juftnefs remarks in her letters, that this
fchool was dangerous to religion and the Chriftian vir¬
tues 5 becaufe Ninon L’Enclos made ufe of feducing
maxims, capable of depriving the mind of thofe invalu¬
able treafures. Ninon was efteemed beautiful even in
old age } and is faid to have infpired violent paffions at
80. She died at Paris in 1705. This lady had feveral
children \ one of whom, named Chevalier de Vi/liers,
excited much attention by the tragical manner in which
he ended his life. He became in love with Ninon,
without knowing that fhe was his mother 5 and when
he difcovered fhe fecret of his birth, ftabbed himfelf
in a fit of defpair. There have been publifhed the pre¬
tended Letters of Ninon L’Enclos to the Marquis de
Sevigne.
NINTH, in Muftc. See Interval.
NINUS, the firft king of the Affyrians, was, it is
faid, the fon of Belus. It is added, that he enlarged
Nineveh and Babylon 5 conquered Zoroafter king of
the Baflrians j married Semiramis of Afcalon j fub-
dued almoft all Afia \ and died after a glorious reign
of 52 years, about 1150 B. C. j but all thefe fa£ls are
uncertain. See Semiramis.
NIO, an ifland of the Archipelago, between Naxi
to the north, Armago to the eaft, Santerino to the
fouth, and Sikino to the weft, and is about 35 miles
in circumference. It is remarkable for nothing but
Homer’s tomb, v/hich they pretend is in this ifland j
for they affirm that he died here in his paflage from
Samos to Athens. The ifland is well cultivated, and
not fo fteep as the other iflands, and the wheat which
it produces'is excellent} but oil and wood are fcarce.
It is fubjefl to the Turks. E. Long. 25. 35. N. Lat.
36> 43-
NIOBE, in fabulous hiftory, according to the fiflions
of the poets, was the daughter of Tantalus, and wife of
Amphion king of Thebes; by whom fhe had feven fons
and as many daughters. Having become fo proud of
her fertility and high birth, as to prefer herfelf before
Latona, and to flight the facrifices offered up by the
Theban matrons to that goddefs, Apollo and Diana,
the children of Latona, refented this contempt. The-
former flew the male children and the latter the fe¬
male \ upon which Niobe was ftruck dumb with grief,
and remained without fenfation. Cicero is of opinion,
that on this account the poets feigned her to be turned
into ftone.
The ftory of Niobe is beautifully related in the fixth
book of the Metamorphofes of Ovid. That poet thus
defcribes her transformation into ftone.
Her cheek ftill redd’ning, but its colour dead,
Faded her eyes, and fet within her head.
No more her pliant tongue its motion keeps,
But ftands congeal’d within her frozen lips.
Stagnate and dull, within her purple veins,
Its current flopp’d, the lifelefs blood remains.
Her feet their ufual offices refufe,
Her arms and neck their graceful geftures lofe :
Aftion and life from every part are gone,
And ev’n her entrails turn to folid ftone.
Y et ftill ftie weeps 5 and whirl’d by ftormy winds,
Borne thro’ the air, her native country finds ;
There fix’d, flie ftands upon a bleaky hill;
There yet her marble cheeks eternal tears diftil.
Niobe in this ftatue is reprefented as in an ecftacy
of grief for the lofs of her offspring, and about to be
converted into ftone herfelf. She appears as if de¬
prived of all fenfation by the excels of her forrow, and
incapable either of {bedding tears or of uttering any
lamentations, as has been remarked by Cicero in the
third book of his Tufculan (hieitions. With her right
hand the clafps one of her little daughters, who throws
herfelf into her bofom} which attitude equally ftiows
the ardent afteflion of the mother, and expreffes that
natural confidence which children have in the pro-
teftion of a parent. The whole is executed in fuch
a wonderful manner, that this, with the other ftatues
of her children, is reckoned by Pliny among the moft
beautiful works of antiquity : but he doubts to whom
of the Grecian artifts he ought to afcribe the honour
of them (a). We have no certain information at what
period this celebrated work w’as tranfported from Greece
to Rome, nor do we know w7here it was firft erefted.
Flaminius Vacca only fays, that all thefe ftatues were
found in his time not far from the gate of St John,
and that they were afterwards placed by the grand
duke Ferdinand in the gardens of the Villa de Medici
near Rome.—An ingenious and entertaining traveller
(Dr Moore), fpeaking of the ftatue of Niobe, lays,
“ The author of Niobe has had the judgement not to
exhibit all the diftrefs which he might have placed in
her countenance. This confummate artift wras afraid of
difturbing her features too much, knowing full well that
the point where he was to expeft moft fympathy was
there, where diftrefs co-operated with beauty, and where
our pity met our love. Had he fought it one ftep farther
in exprejjion, he had loft it.”
In the following epigram this ftatue is afcribed to
Praxiteles :
Ex. &101 6iv trctvMSov. Ex <St h[6<HQ
Zanv ng«;|<T£Ai)5 1y.7ra.Aiv t^yxe-aro.
While for my children’s fate I vainly mourn’d,
The angry gods to maffy ftone me turn’d j
Praxiteles a nobler feat has done,
He made me live again from being ftone.
Widow’d and childlefs, lamentable ftate !
A doleful fight, among the dead {he fat;
Harden’d with woes, a ftatue of defpair,
To ev’ry breath of wind unmov’d her hair 3
The author of this epigram, which is to be found in the
4th book of the Anthology, is unknown. Scaliger the
father, in his Farrago Epigrammatum, p. 172. afcribes
it to Callimachus, but this appears to be only conjecture.
CecIIus
(a) Par hsefitatio in templo Apollinis Soft aid, Niob«m cum liberis morientem, Scopas an Praxiteles fecerit.
Niphon
II.
Nilibis.
. N 1 S [3
Cselius Calcagninus has made a happy tranflation of it
into Latin.
Vivam ohm in lapidem verterunt numina ; fed me
Praxiteles vivam reddidit ex lapide.
And perhaps the following French verfion of it will ap¬
pear no lefs happy:
De vive que fetois, les Dieux
M'ont changee cn pierre mafive ;
Praxite/e a fait heaucoup mieux,
De pierre il m'a feu rendre vive.
NIPHON, the largeft of the Japan iflands, being
600 miles long and xoo broad. See Japan.
NIPPERS, in the manege, are four teeth in the fore
part of a horfe’s mouth, two in the upper, and two in
the lower jaw. A horfe puts them forth between the
fecond and third year.
NIPPLES, in Anatomy. See Mamma:, Anatomy
Index.
NIPPLE-vvort. See Lapsana, Botany Index.
NISAN, a month of the Hebrews, anfwerihg to our
March, and wdiich fometimes takes from February or
April, according to the courfe of the moon. It was
the firft month of the facred year, at the coming out
of Egypt (Exod. xii. 2.), and it was the feventh month
of the civil year. By Mofes it is called Abib. The
name Nifan is only fmee the time of Ezra, and the re¬
turn from the captivity of Babylon.
On the firft day of this month the Jews faded for
the death of the children of Aaron (J_.ev. x. 1, 2, 3.)
On the tenth day was celebrated a fall for the death
of Miriam the filler of Mofes ; and every one pro¬
vided himfelf with a lamb for the paffover. On
this day the Ifraelites paded over Jordan under the
conduct of Jofhua (iv. 19.) On the fourteenth day
in the evening they facrificed the pafeal lamb ; and
the day following, being the fifteenth, was held the
fblemn paffover (Exod. xii. 18. &c.) The fixteenth
they offered the fheaf of the ears of barley as the firft
fruits of t:ie_ harveft of that year (Levit. xxiii. 9. &c.)
The twenty-firft was the octave of the paffover, which
wras folemnized with particular ceremonies. The twenty-
fixth the Jews fafted in memory of the death of Jofhua.
On this day they began their prayers to obtain the rains
of the fpring. On the4 twenty-ninth they called to
mind the fall of the walls of Jericho.
NISI prius, in Law, a judicial writ which lies in
cafes where the jury being impannelled and returned
before the juftices of the bank, one of the parties re-
quefts to have fuch a writ for the eafe of the country,
in order that the trial may come before the juftices in
the fame county on their coming thither. The pur¬
port of a writ of nifiprius is, that the fheriff is thereby
commanded to bring to Weftminfter the men impan¬
nelled, at a certain day, before the juftices, “ nip
prius juficiarii domini regis ad afifas capiendas venerint”
NISIBIS, in Ancient Geography, a city both very an¬
cient, very noble, and of very confiderable flrength, fi-
tuated in a diftrict called Mygdonia, in the north of
Mefopotamia, towards the Tigris, from which it is di-
ftant two days journey. Some aferihe its origin to
Nimrod, and fuppofe it to be the Achad of Mofes. The
Macedonians called it Antiochia of Mygdonia (Plutarch);
fituated at the foot of Mount Mafius (Strabo). It was
o ] N I S
the Roman bulwark againft the Parthians and Perfians.
It fuftained three memorable fieges againft the power
of Sapor, A. D. 338, 346, and 350 ; but the emperor
Jovianus, by an ignominious peace, delivered it up to
the Perfians, A. D. 363. A colony called Septimia
Nifibitana. Another Nijibis, of Aria, (Ptolemy)
near the lake Arias.
Mr Ives, who paffed through this place in 1758,
tells us, that “ it looked pretty at a diftance, being
fqated on a confiderable eminence, at the foot of which
runs a river, formerly called the Mygdoniu r, with a ftone
bridge of eleven arches built over it. Juft by the ri¬
ver, at the foot of the hill, or hills (for the town is
feated on two), begin the ruins of a once more flourilh-
ing place, which reach quite up to the prefent town.
From every part of this place the mold delightful pro-
fpeeds would appear, w7ere the foil but properly culti¬
vated and planted ; but inftead of thpfe extenfive woods
of fruit trees, which Rawolf fpeaks of as growing near
the town, not above thirty or forty ftraggling trees of
any kind can be perceived ; and inftead of that great
extent of arable land on which he dwells fo much, a
very inconfiderable number of acres are now remaining.
The town itfelf is defpicable, and ftreets extremely
narrow, and the houfes, even thofe which are of ftone,
are mean. It fuffered grievoufty by the famine of 1737,
lofing almoft all its inhabitants either by death or de-
fertion. The ftreets prefented many miferable objects,
who greedily devoured rinds of cucumbers, and every
other refufe article of food thrown out into the highway.
Here the price of bread had rifen near 4000 per cent,
within the laft 14 years.
NISMES, an ancient, large, and flourifhing town or
France, in the department of Garde, with a biftiop’s fee,
and an academy. The manufactures of cloth both of gold
and filk, and of ftuffs formerly known by the name of ferge
of Nifmes, exceed that of all the reft of the province.
There are feveral monuments of antiquity, of which the
amphitheatre is the principal built by the Romans. The
maifon quarre’e, or the fquare houfe, is a piece of archi¬
tecture of the Corinthian order, and one of the fineft in
the world. The temple of Diana is in part gone to
ruin. It was taken by Ihe Englilh in 1417. The in¬
habitants were all Calvinifts ; but Louis XIV. demc-
lilhed their church in 1685, and built a caftle to keep
them in awe. It is feated in a delightful plain, abound¬
ing in wine, oil, game and cattle. It contains a great
number of venerable reli.cks of Roman antiquity and
grandeur, which it is not our bufinefs to defipribe, though
it is chiefly remarkable for thefe and its delightful fitu-
ation. It owed much to M. de Becdelievre, a late
biftiop there : “ A prelate (fays Mr Townfend) equally
diftinguilhed for wifdom, benevolence, and piety ; who,
by his wifdom and beneficence, in the fpace of 45 years,
much more than doubled the number of inhabitants of
Nifmes : for, having found only 20,000, he had the
happinefs before his death of feeing 50,000 rife up to
call him bleffed.” Mr Wraxal fays “ it is an ill built
place, containing in itfelf nothing extraordinary or re¬
markable.” A hundred fables are related concerning
its origin* which is carried into times anterior by many
centuries to the Roman conquefts. It probably does
not occupy at prefent the fourth part of the ground
on which it formerly ftood. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat.
43- 5r*
Nifibis,
N limes.
NISROCH,
N I T [5
Niirach NISROC^H, a god of tlie Affyilans. Sennache-
II . rib was killed by two of Ills fons while he was pay-
Nttocns ;ng adoration to his god Nifroch in his temple
( 2 Kings xix. 37.) It is not known who this god Nif¬
roch was. The Septuagint calls him Mefrach, Jofe-
phus calls him Aralkes. The Hebrew of Tobit pub-
liihed by Munfter calls him I)agon. The Jewrs have
a ftrange notion concerning this deity, and fancy him
to have been a plank of Noah’s ark. Some think the
word figmfxes a dove ; and others underftand by it an
eagle, which has given occafion to an opinion, that
Jupiter Belus, from whom the Aflyrian -kings pretend¬
ed to be derived, was v/or[hipped by them under the
form of an eagle, and called Nifroch. Our poet
Milton gives this name to one of the rebel angels.
  In the affembly next up [food v
Nifroch, of principalities the prince.
Par. Loft, book vi. 447.
NISSQLIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
diadelphia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 3 2d order, Papihonaccie. See Botany In¬
dex.
NITHSDALE, NiTHISDALE, or Niddifdale, a dif-
trl6l of Dumfricsfhire in Scotland, lying to the *wefl-
ward of Annandale. It is a large and mountainous traft,
deriving its name from the river Nid, which rifes on
the borders of Ayrfliire, and running by Sanquhar and
Dumfries, difcharges itfelf into the Solway frith. This
country was formerly [haded with noble forefts, ivhxch
are now almoft deftroyed ; fo that at prefent, nothing
can be more naked, wild, and favage. Yet the bowels
of the earth yield lead, and, as is faid, fiver and gold :
the mountains are covered with fheep and black cattle •,
and here are ftill lome confiderable remains of the an¬
cient woods, particularly that of Holywood, three miles
from Dumfries, noted for a handfome church, built
out of the ruins of an ancient abbey ; and alfo for
being the birthplace of the famous aifrologer, hence
called Joannes de Sacro Bofco. Mr Pennant calls it
a - beautiful vale, improved in appearance by the bold
curvatures of the meandering ftream, and for fome
fpace, he fays, it is adorned with groves and gentlemen’s
feats.
NITOCRIS, the mother of Relthazz-ar (whole fa¬
ther wTas Evil Merodach and his grandfather Nebu¬
chadnezzar), was a woman of extraordinary abilities :
[he took the burden of all public affairs upon herfelf;
and, while her fon followed his pleafures, did all that
could be done by human prudence to fuftain the tot¬
tering empire. She perfefled the works which Ne¬
buchadnezzar had begun for the defence of Babylon ^
raifed ilrong fortifications on the fide of the river,
and caufed a wonderful vault to be made under it, -lead¬
ing from the old palace to the new, 12 feet high and
17 wide. She likewife built a bridge acrofs the Eu¬
phrates, and accomplifhed feveral other works, which
were afterwards afcribed to Nebuchadnezzar. Philo-
ffrates, in defcribing this bridge, tells us, that it was
built by a queen, who was a native of Media j whence
we may conclude this illuftrious queen to have been
by birth a Mede. Nitocris is faid to have placed her
tomb over one of the moll remarkable gates of the ci¬
ty, with an infcription to the following effefl :
If any king of Babylon after me 'jhc.ll be in diftrefs
i ] N I V
for money, he may open this fepulchre, and take out as Nithraria
much as may ferve him ; but if he be in no real neceffity, j^jvJ|ncj3
let him forbear, or he Jhall have caufe to repent of his ..
prefumption.
This monument and infcription are faid to have re¬
main untouched till the reign of Darius, who, con-
fidering the gate was ufelels, no man caring to pafs
under a dead body, and being invited by the hopes
of an immenfe treafure, broke it open j but, inftead
of what he fought, is faid to have found nothing but
a corpfe } and another infcription, to the following
effe£l.
Hadji thou not been mojl infatiably avaricious and
greedy of the mojl fordid gain, thou wouldf never have
violated the abode of the dead.
NITHRARIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
NITRE, or Saltpetre. See Chemistry, N° 938,
et fey.
Calcareous NlTRE. See Lime, Nitrate of, Chemis¬
try Index.
NITROUS, any thing impregnated with nitrous
air.
Nitrous Air. See Chemistry Index.
NIVELLE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
m the province of Brabant, remarkable for its abbey
of canoneffes. Here is a manufacture of cambrics,
and the town enjoys great privileges. The abbey juft
mentioned is inhabited by young ladies of the firft
quality, xvho are not confined therein as in nunneries,
but may go out and marry whenever they fee conve¬
nient, or a proper match offers. E. Long. 4. 36. N.
Lat. 50. 35. .
NlVELLE de la Chaujfee (Peter Claude), a comic
poet, bom in Paris 5 acquired great reputation by in¬
venting a new kind of entertainment, which was call¬
ed the Weeping Comedy. Inftead of imitating Arifto-
phanes, Terence, Moliere, and the other celebrated
1 comic poets who had preceded him ; and inftead of
exciiing laughter by painting the different ridiculous
characters, giving ftrokes of humour and abfurdities in
conduct j he applied himfelf to reprefent the weak-
neffes of the heart, and to touch and foften it. In
this manner he wrote five comedies : I. La faujfe An¬
tipathic. 2. Le Prejuge ii la Mode ; this piece met with
great fuccefs. 3. Melanide. 4. Amour pour Amour;
and, 5. VEcole des Meres. He was received into the
French academy in 1736 5 and died at Paris in 1754,
at 63 years of age. He alfo wrote a tragedy, entitled,
Maximianusand an epiftle to Clio, an ingenious di-
daftic poem.
NIVERNOIS, an inland province of France, with
the title of a duchy, lying on the weft fide of Burgundy,
and between it, Bourbonnois, and Barri. It is pretty
fertile in wine, fruit, and corn ; except the part called
Morvant, which is a mountainous country, and bar¬
ren. There is a great deal of wood, and feveral iron
mines •, as alfo mines of pit coal, which ferves to work
their forges. This province is watered by a great
number of rivers ■, of which the Allier, the Loire,
and the Yonne, are navigable. It now forms the de¬
partment of Nevers, which is alfo the name of the capi¬
tal city.
NIWEGAL,
N O A
NIWEGAL, a village lying on the coalt in Pem-
brokelhire, South Wales, remarkable only for the dif-
covery of an immenfe quantity of the Humps of trees
appearing below low water mark, after and during a
florin in the year 1590, notwithftanding the country all
round is now entirely barren of wood.
NIXAPA, a rich and coniiderable town in New
Spain, with a rich convent of Dominicans. The coun¬
try about it abounds in cochineal, indigo, and fugar.
E. Long. 97. 15. N. Lat. 16. 42.
NIZAM (fays Gibbon), one of the moll illuftrious
minifters of the eaft, was honoured by the caliph as an
oracle of religion and fcience; he was trufted by the
fultan as the faithful vicegerant of his power and ju-
flice. After an adminiftraticn of 30 years, the fame of
the vizier, his wealth, and even his fervices, were tranf-
fortned into crimes. He was overthrown by the in-
fidious arts of a woman and a rival; and his fail was
haftened by a rafli declaration, that his cap and ink
horn, the badges of his office, were connected by the
divine decree with the throne and diadem of the ful¬
tan. At. the age of 93 years, the venerable ftatefman
was difmiffed by his mailer, accufed by his enemies,
.and murdered by a fanatic : the laft words of Nizam
attefted his innocence, and the remainder of Malek’s
life was ffiort and inglorious.
NO, (Jeremiah, Ezekiel), No-Ammon, (Nahum) ;
a confiderable city of Egypt, thought to be the name
of an idol which agrees with Jupiter Ammon. The
Septuagint tranflate the name in Ezekiel, Diofpo/is,
“ the city of Jupiter.” Bcchart takes it to be Thebes of
Egypt; which, according to Strabo and Ptolemy, was
called Diofpolis. Jerome, after the Chaldee paraphraft
Jonathan, fuppofes it to be Alexandria, named by way
of anticipation j or an ancient city of that name is fup-
pofed to have flood on the fpot where Alexandria was
built.
No-Man"’s-Land, a fpace between the after part of
the belfrey and the fore part of a ffiip’s boat, when the
faid boat is llowed upon the booms, as in a deep waifl-
ed veffel. Thefe booms are laid from the forecaftle
nearly to the quarter-deck, where their after ends are
ufually fuflained by a frame called the gallows, which
confifts of two flrong polls, about fix feet high, with
a crofs piece reaching from one to the other, athwart
hhps, and ferving to fupport the ends of thofe booms,
malls, and yards, which lie in referve to fupply the
place of others carried away, &c. The fpace called
No-Man's Land is ufed to contain any blocks, ropes,
tackles, &c. which may be neceffary on the fore-
caflle. It probably derives this name from its fitua-
tion, as being neither on the ftarboard nor larboard fide
of the ffiip, nor on the wTafle or forecaftle j but, being
fituated in the middle, partakes equally of all thofe
places.
NOAH, or Noe, the fon of Lamech, was born in
the year of the world 1056. Amidll the general cor¬
ruption into which all mankind were fallen at this
time, Noah alone was found to be juft and perfect in
his. generation, walking with God (Gen. vi. 9.).
This extraordinary perfon having therefore found fa¬
vour in the eyes of the Lord, and Gcd feeing that all
belli had corrupted their ways, told Noah, that he was
refolved to deltroy mankind from the face of the earth,
by a flood of waters ; and not them alone, but all the
1 32 1
N o A
bealts or the earth, and every creeping thing, as well
as the fowls of the air (Id. ib. 7. ). The Lord there¬
fore directed Noah, as a means of prelerving him and
his family (for he had three fons, Shem, Ham, and
.lapheth, who were all married before the flood), to
build an ark or veflel, of a certain form and lize fitted
to that end, and which might betides accommodate
fuch numbers of animals of all forts, that were liable
to perilh in the flood, as would be fufficient to preferve
the feveral fpecies, and again replenifh the earth ; to¬
gether with all necefiary provifions for them 5 all which
Noah performed, as may be leen more particularly un¬
der the article Ark.
In the year of the wmrid 1656, and in the 600th year
of his age, Noah, by God’s appointment, entered the
ark, together with his wife, his three fons, their wives,
and all the animals which God caufed to come to
Noah ; and being all entered, and the door of the ark
being (hut upon the outfide, the waters of the deluge
began to fall upon the earth, and increafed in fuch°a
manner,, that they were fifteen cubits above the tops
of the highefl mountains, and continued thus upon the
earth for 150 days ;. fo that whatever had life upon
the earth, or in the air, w'as deflroyed, except fuch as
were with Noah in the ark. But the Lord remember¬
ing Noah, fent a wind upon the earth, which caufed
the waters to lubfide j fo that upon the feventeenth day
of the feventh month the ark refted on the mountains
of Ararat 5 and Noah having uncovered the roof of the
ark, and obferving the earth was dry, he received or¬
ders from the Lord to come out of it, with all the ani¬
mals that w7ere therein ; and this he did in the fix hun¬
dred and firfl year of his age, on the 27th day of the
fecond month. But the hiflory of the deluge is more
circumflantially related already under the article De¬
luge.
Then he offered as a burnt facrifice to the Lord one
of all the pure animals that were in the ark 5 and the
Lord accepted his facrifice, and faid to him, that he
wrculd no more pour out his curfe upon the whole
earth, nor any more deilroy all the animals as he had
now done. He gave Noah pow7er over all the brute
creation, and permitted him to eat of them, as of the
herbs and fruits of the earth; except only the blood,
the ufe of which God did not allow them. He bid him
increafe and multiply, made a covenant with him, and
God engaged himfelf to fend no more an univerfal de¬
luge upon the earth ; and as a memorial of his promife,
he fet his bow7 in the clouds, to be as a pledge of the
covenant he made with Noah (Gen. ix.).
Noah, being an hufbandman, began now to cultivate
the vine 5 and having made wine and drank thereof, he
unwarily made himfelf drunk, and fell alleep in his tent,
and happened to uncover himfelf in an indecent poflure.
Ham, the father of Canaan, having obferved him in
this condition, made himfelf fport with him, and ac¬
quainted his two brothers with it, w'ho were without.
But they, inflead of making it a matter of fport, turned
aw’ay from it, and going backwards they covered
their father’s nakedneis, by throwing a mant’e over
him. Noah awaking, and knowing what Ham had
done, faid, that Canaan the fon of Ham flrould be
accurfed, that he fhould be a flave of flaves in refpedl
of his brethren. It is thought he had a mind to fpare
the perfon of his fon Ham, for fear the curfe might light
upon
Noah.
N O A [
Kuah. upon the other children of Ham, who had no part in
”this acfion. He curied C-anaan by a fpirit of prophe¬
cy , becaufe the Canaamtes his defcendants were after
this to be rooted out by the Ifraelites. Noah added,
Let the Lord, the God of Shem, be bleffed, and let
Canaan be the lervant of Shem. And he wras lo in
effeft, in the perfon of the Canaanites fubdued by the
Hebrews. Laftly, ivoah faid, Let God extend the
poffedion of Japhellij let Japheth dw’ell in the tents
ot Shem, and let Canaan be his fervant. This pro¬
priety had its accomplifhment, when the Grecians, and
afterwards the Romans, being defcended from Japheth,
made a conqueR ot Alia, which was the portion of
Shem.
But I\oah lived yet after the deluge three hundred
and fifty years j and the whole time of his life having
been nine hundred and fifty years, he died in the year
of the world 2006. He left three fons, Shem, Ham,
and Japheth, of whom mention is made under their
fcveral names; and according to the common opinion,
he divided the whole world amonglt them, in order to
repeople it. To Shem he gave Afia, to Ham Africa,
and Europe to Japheth. ^ome will have it, that be-
fides thefe three fons he had feveral others. The
Ipurious Beioius gives him thirty, called Titans, from
the name ol tneir mother Titaea. They pretend that
the 1 eutons or Germans are derived from a fon of
Noah caded ’Inuifcon. Lhe falfe Methodius allb
makes mention of Jonithus or Jonicus, a pretended fon
of Noah.
St 1 eter calls Noah a preacher of righteoufnefs
( 2 r eter ii. 5.), becaufe before the deluge lie was in-
ceflantly preaching and declaring to men, not only by
his difcourfes, but by his unblameable life, and by the
building of the ark, in which he was employed fix
k.oie yeais, that the wrath of God w7as ready to pour
upon them. But his preaching had no effea, fince,
when ^the deluge came, it found mankind plunged in
their iormer enormities (Mat. xxiv. 37.).
Several learned men have obferved, that the Hea-
Ihens confounded Saturn, Deucalion, Ogyges, the god
Coelus or Uranus, Janus, Proteus, Prometheus,
6:c. with Noah. The wife of Noah is called Noriah
by the Gnollics; and the fable of Deucalion and his
wife Pyrrha is manifefily invented from the hi dory of
Noah. J
* he Rabbins pretend, that God gave Noah and his
Ions (all who are not of the chofen race of Abra-
t^ey call Noachidae) certain general precepts,
which contain, according to them, the natural right
which is common to all men indifferently, and the
obfervation of which alone will be fufficient to fave
f lem; „ ^ er ^aw °f Mofes, the Hebrew's wmuld
not luffer any fthanger to dwell in their country, un-
lels he would conform to the precepts of the Noachidse.
in w7ar they put to death, without quarter, all that
were ignorant of them. Thefe precepts are feven in
number.
The JjrJ direfts, that obedience be paid to mdses
magiftrates, and princes. 6 ’
By the fecond, the worfliip of falfe gods, fuperftition,
and iacrilege, are ablblutely forbidden.
The ifu'rd forbids curfing the name of God, blaf-
phemies, and-falfe oaths.
1 he fourth forbids all incefluous and unlawful con-
Vol. XV. Part I.
33 1 NOB
junftichs, as fodomy, belHality, and crimes againft na- ■
ture. .
Theffth forbids the effufion of blood of ail forts of, NobiiiV-
animals, murder, wounds, and mutilations. —
They£v//i forbids thefts, cheats, lying,-&c.
. /eventh forbids tofeat the parts of an animal ftill
alive, as w'as praftifed by feme Pagans.
Jo theie the Raboins have added lome others j but
what inclines us to doubt the antiquity of thefe’ pre¬
cepts is, that no mention is made of them in Scripture
or in the writings of Jofephus or Philo 5 and that none
of the ancient fathers knew any thing of them.
NOB, a facerdotal city of the tribe of Benjamin or
Ephraim. St Jerome fays, that in his time it was en¬
tirely deftroyed, and that the ruins of it might be feen
not tar from Diofpolis. When David was driven away
by Saul, he went to Nob, and afking the high prieff
Ahimelech for fome provifions and arms, the prieft
gave him the fhew bread which had been lately taken
off the holy table, and the fword of Goliath. Saul be-
mg informed of this by Doeg, caufed all the priefts of
Nob to. be flam, and the city to be deftroyed, 1 Sam
xxi. XXII. '
, a cIty( be-yond Jordan- ^ took the name
of Nobah from an Ifraelite of this name who had made
a conqueft of it, (Numb xxxii. 42.). Gideon purfued
the Midiamtes as far as this city, (Judg. viii. 2.). Eufe-
bms fays, that there is a defolate place of this name
about eight miles from Heftibon towards the fouth.
But this could not be the Nobah now mentioned be¬
caufe it v/as much farther to the north. ’
NOBILIARY, in literary hiftory, a book con¬
taining the hiftory of the noble families of a nation
or province : fuch are Choriere’s Nobiliary of Dau-
phme, and Caumartin’s Nobiliary of Provence. The
Germans are faid to be particularly careful of their
Nobihanes, in order to keep up the dignity of their
lamilies.
NOBILITY, in general, fignifies dignity, grandeur,
or greatnefs.; more particularly, it fignifies antiquitv
of family joined with riches: in the common accepta¬
tion of the word, it means that quality or dignity
which raifes a man above the rank of a peafant or 'a
commoner.
At a time when the public mind is fo much agita¬
ted on this fubjecl,. or fubjefts nearly allied to it per¬
haps the lefs that is faid on it the better. We fliould
therefore (as far as concerns the queftion about its ex¬
pediency m civil life, or the contrary) moft cheerfhlly
pais. it over m filence, did we not efteem it our duty
to give our readers at leaft fome idea of it, and were
it not our bufinefs to lay before them a few of thofe
arguments which of late have been fo copioufly retail¬
ed, both for and againft this illuftrious order of civil
lociety: leaving them, however, that liberty which
every man unqueftionably ought to be allowed of iudo--.
mg for themfelves as they ftiall fee moft proper. 6
Whether that equality of rank and condition which
has ot late been fo loudly contended for would be more
agreeable to the order of nature, or more conducive
to the happmefs and profperity of mankind, may in¬
deed be made a queftion j but it is a queftion, we ap¬
prehend, which cannot, receive different anfwers from
men capable of retfeaing without prejudice and par¬
tiality. A ftate of perfea equality can fubfift only
among
NOB
Nobility, among beings polTefling equal talents and
' tues } but liicb beings are not men. Were all man¬
kind under the conftant influence of the laws of vir¬
tue, a diitinflion of ranks would be unneceffary } but
in that cafe civil government itfelf would likewife be
unneceffary, becauie men would have attained all that
perfeffion to which it is the object of civil govern¬
ment as well as of religion to guide them : every man
then would be a law unto himfelf. But whilft, in fo
many breafts, the felfilh padions predominate over
thofe which are focial, violence muft be reftrained by
authority j and there can be no authority without a
diftinftion of ranks, fuch as may influence the public
opinion.
It is well obferved by Hume, that government is
founded only on opinion j and that this opinion is of
two kinds, opinion of intereft, and opinion of right.
When a people are perfuaded that it is their intereft
to fupport the government under which they live, that
government muft be very liable. But among the
worthlefs and unthinking part of the community, this
perfuafion has feldom place. All men, however, have
a notion of rights—of a right to property and a right
to pow*er : and when the majority of a nation confi-
ders a certain order of men as having a right to that
eminence in which they are placed, this opinion, call
it prejudice or what we will, contributes much to the
peace and happinefs of civil fociety. There are many,
however, who think btherwife, and imagine that “ the
fbciety in which the greateft equality prevails muft al¬
ways be the moft fecure. Thefe men conceive it to be
the bufinefs of a good government to diftribute as equal¬
ly as poflible thole blellings which bounteous nature of¬
fers to all.” It may readily be allowed that this rea-
foning is conclufive 5 but the great queftion returns,
“ How far can equality prevail in a fociety which is
fecure ? and what is poffible to be done in the equal
diftribution of the blefhngs of nature ?” Till thefe
queftions be anfwered, we gain nothing by declaim¬
ing on the rights and equality of men •, and tire an-
fwers which have fometimes been given to them fup-
pofe a degree of perfect inn in human nature, which,
if it were real, would make all civil inftitutions ufelefs,
as well as the reveries of thofe reformers. The conduct
of the democratic ftates of Pagan antiquity, together
with the oppreflive anarchy and (hameful violences which
we have feen and ftill fee in a neighbouring kingdom,
will be confidered by many as a full and fatisfadlory an-
fwer, deduced from experience, to all the fchemes of
the vifionary theorift : fuch fa£ts at leaft render the a-
bolition of the order of nobility a matter of more im¬
portance, and of infinitely greater difficulty, than thofe
who plead for it are difpofed to allow.
It is an opinion not uncommon, and at leaft plaufi-
ble, that the nobility of a well regulated ftate is the
beft fecurity againft monarchical defpotifm or lawlefs
ufurpation on the one hand, and the confufion of de¬
mocratic infolenee on the other. Self intereft is the
moft powerful principle in the human breaft ; and it
is obvioufiy the intereft of fuch men to preferve that
balance of power in fociety upon which the very ex-'
iftence of their order depends. Corrupted as the pre-
fent age confeffedly is, a very recent inftance could be
given, in which the Britilh Houfe of Peers refcued at
[ 34 1 NOB
equal vir- once the fovereign and the people from the threaten¬
ed tyranny of a faflious junto. As it is our bufinefs, ~—
however, to exhibit ail opinions of any celebrity, we
fhall lay before our readers a ftiort extra£l from Tu-
laure’s Critical Hiftory of the French Nobility, which
contains, in few but forcible words, fome of the com¬
mon arguments againft this diftinclion of ranks.
“ Nobility (fays he), a diilincrion equally impo¬
litic and immoral, and worthy of the times of igno¬
rance and of rapine, which gave it birth, is a violation
of the rights of that part of the nation that is depriv¬
ed of it \ and as equality becomes a Jiimulus towards
diitinclion, fo on the other hand this is the radical
vice of a government and the fource of a variety of
evils. It is almoft impoffible that there fiiould be any
uncommon inftances of virtue in a ftate, wffien recom-
penies belong exclufively to a certain clafs of fociety,
and when it cofts them no more to obtain thefe than
the trouble of being born. Amongft this lift of privi¬
leged perfons, virtues, talents, and genius, muft of
courfe be much lefs frequent than in the other claffes,
fince, without the poffeffion of any of thefe qualities,
they who belong to it are ftill honoured and rewarded.
Thofe who profit by this abfurd fubverfion of princi¬
ples, and thole who lofe by this unjuft diftribution of
favours, which feem to have grown into a right, can¬
not have any other than falfe, immoral, and pernicious
ideas concerning merits
A perfect equality, however, in rank and fortune
has feldom been contended for, except by the moft
ignorant enthufiafts. It is indeed doubtful whether
it could poffibly exift. The more moderate and ra¬
tional reformers have acknowledged, that as thele diffe¬
rences have always exifted in fome way or other, fo,
from the infinite variety of talents and attainments in
the world, we have reafon to expect they will exift
in every form of government and among every people.
The queftion, therefore, is reduced to this : Whether
the prefent mode of diftin&ion, or any other which
could be inftituted in its ftead, be upon the whole the
beft ? That the prefent is not perfect, or wholly with¬
out faults, few will be fanguine enough to contradict :
and a wile man in the fober hour of philofophical
reflection will fcarce prefume to affert, that any other
fcheme which human ingenuity can plan would be
wholly without imperfection, or altogether free from
error. The cafe is, the errors of our own fyftem are
prefent, and on this account we fee and feel them with
peculiar force : the other plan we look forward to
perhaps in too fanguine a manner, and we probably
forget, in the delufive heat of imagination, that if di-
ftinCtion depended entirely on merit, we fhould fcarce
find a fociety of men fo honeft, or fo able, as always
to reward it according to its deferts ; or if this were
poffible, as perhaps in the nature of things it is not,
fuch is the felf-partiality of the generality of men,
that few wrould think he were dealt juftly by if he
were not promoted as well as his neighbour j and it
is clearly impoffible to promote every one. lor fuch
reafons then, and many more which our limits oblige
us to omit, many think (and we are mclined to think
with them), that it is fafer to remain as we are, as
we know the evils that attend our lituation, and are
ftill able to bear them, rather than to hazard a change,
which*.
Nobility.
tat,'.
NOB [ 35 ] NOB
Nobility, tvnich, with fome benefits, might alfo perhaps increafe
v the troubles, and deftroy many of the pleafures of fo-
cial life.
Perhaps it may not be amifs to lay before our
renders the following obfervations from that moft judi¬
cious commentator on the laws of England, Mr Juftice
Blacldlone, on this important fubjeci.
Comment “ °f rank and honours (fays he) is
neceflary in every well-governed Hate, in order to
reward fuch as are eminent for their fervices to the
public, in a manner the moft defirable to individuals,
and yet without burden to the community j exciting
thereby an ambitious, yet laudable ardour, and gene¬
rous emulation, in others. And emulation, or vir¬
tuous ambition, is a fpring of adftion which, however
dangerous or invidious in a mere republic or under a
defpotic fway, will certainly be attended with good
effefts under a free monarchy j where, without deftroy-
ing its exiftence, its exceffes may be continually re-
ftrained by that fuperior power from which all ho¬
nour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally dif-
fufed, gives life and vigour to the community j it fets
all the wheels of government in motion, which, under
a wife regulator, may be directed to any beneficial
purpofe 5 and thereby every individual may be made
fubfervient to the public good, while he principally
means to promote his own particular views. A body
of nobility is alfo more peculiarly neceflary in our
mixed and compounded conftitution, in order to fup-
port the rights of both the crown and the people, by
forming a barrier to withftand the encroachments of
both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale of
dignity, which proceeds from the peafant to the prince j
rifing like a pyramid from a broad foundation, and
diminifhing to a point as it rifes. It is this afeending
and contra&ing proportion that adds liability to any
government; for when the departure is fudden from
one extreme to another, we may pronounce that ftate
to be precarious. The nobility, therefore, are the pil¬
lars, which are reared from among the people, more
immediately to fupport the throne; and, if that falls,
they mull alfo be buried under its ruins. Accordingly,
when in the 17th century the commons had determined
to extirpate monarchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords
to be ufelefs and dangerous. And fince titles of nobili¬
ty are thus expedient in the ftate, it is alfo expedient
that their owners ftiould form an independent and fe-
parate branch of the legillature. If they were confound¬
ed with the mafs of the people, and like them had only
a vote in elefling reprefentatives, their privileges would
foon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which would effeftually level all diftinflions. It
is therefore highly neceffary that the body of nobles
fhould have a diftin£f affembly, diftimSI deliberations,
and diftindl powers from the commons.”—Thefe re¬
marks, at a time like the prefent, deferve our ferious
attention •, nor do we fuppofe our readers will be dif-
pleafed, if we add the following obfervations on the fub-
jefl from a periodical publication of long Handing and
very confiderable merit.
voTxif^' “ and. nobility are a Wronger obligation to vir¬
tue than is laid upon meaner perfons. A vicious or
dilhonourable nobleman is in effect perjured} for his
honour is his oath.
“ Under the patriarchal feheme, and at the firft fet-
ting out of the tribes, the heads of families had their Mobility,
particular efcutcheons, and their genealogies recorded
with the utmoft exathiefs : Even the Ancient of Days
confirmed this j he often put his people in mind of the
glory and virtues of their forefathers; and hath let a
precedent for attainders, by vifiting the third and fourth
generation.
“ It is a vulgar error to fuppofe, that his blelfed Son
chofe his followers out of the meaneft of the people,
becaufe mechanics 5 for this was part of the educa¬
tion of every Jewilh nobleman : Two of the number,
being his kinfmen, were of the royal houfe of David j
one was a Roman gentleman, and another of the
royal family of Syria; and for the reft, he had the fame
right of creation as his Father and his vicegerents, of ad¬
vancing the poor to honour, and of exalting the lowly
and meek.
“ T he ancient Greeks and Romans paid great regard
to nobility 5 but when the levelling principle obtained,
and the people lhared power and honour, thole Hates
foon dwindled and came to ruin. And in prefent
Rome, great refpeft is paid to the renowned fami¬
lies of Colonna and Casfarini. In Venice, the notion
of nobility is carried fo high as to become inconfiftent
with a republican feheme. The Spaniards pay more
regard to their old nobles than to their old Chriftians 5
and the French are but little behind them. What
was faid of the duke of Montmorency by Henry IV.
“ That he was a better gentleman than himfelf,” was,
perhaps, the reafon why the laft heir of fo illuftrious a
family was cut off, to make the houfe of Bourbon the
firft in France.—-The Wellh, Irilh, and Polanders,
are remarkable for their attachment to blood and pe¬
digree.
^ “ It is for the fake of the meaneft of our people, that
the high value and regard for quality Ihould be kept
up ; for they are bell governed by thofe who feem form¬
ed for power : the robe of authority fits eafy upon them,
and fubmiflion is as much our choice as our duty 5 but
upftarts prove the worft of tyrants.
“ The ancient legillators, who ftudied human nature,
thought it advifable, for the better government of Hates,
that the people Ihould be divided into the noble and
the common. They judged it for the univerfal good f
of mankind, that the valiant and the wife ftiould be fe-
parated from the reft, and appointed for council and
command.
“ To this I take it that the inftitution of nobility
is owing in all countries; even thofe nations which
we are pleafed to call favrge, diftinguifh the wife and
the. valiant, obey them as counfellors and commanders,
which is placing them in the rank of nobles.
“ Some, I know, look upon the inftitution of nobi¬
lity to be one of the groffeft impofitions upon the com¬
mon fenfe of mankind; they confine it indeed to he¬
reditary nobility; they allow, that thofe who have
done the commonwealth any fignal fervice fhould be
diftinguifhed with honours, but it feems an abfurdity
to them that a man ftiould be bom a legiflator, as if
vvifdom or & knowledge of government ran in the blood.
But if they would confider how ftrong the love of po-
fterity is planted in human nature, they muft allow
that nothing can be a ftronger motive to great and
worthy aft ions, than the notion that a man’s pofte-
rity will feap the honour and profit of his labour's.
E 1 Befidci
NOB [ 36 ] NOB
Nobility. Befides, We are to fuppofe that men bom to honours
W-—^ and a high fortune may be bred up in generous fenti-
ments, and formed for the ftation they are to fill;
that they mull be Grangers to thofe vicious falfehoods
and corruptions which neceffity firft, and then habit,
puts men upon praciifmg, whofe lives are fpent in
purfuit of their fortunes. I will own, notwithftand-
ing all thefe advantages, that many of them are like
rocks whofe heads are in the clouds, but are fo barren
that they are quite incapable of producing any thing;
but in general, were their minds only upon a level
with ihofe of other men, we fhould expeft better fruit
from them.
^ “ As authority is founded in opinion, all wife com¬
monwealths have been extremely jealous in keeping
up the honour of their nobility. Wherever they be¬
come bafe, effeminate, cowTardly, or fervile, their au¬
thority finks, they fall into contempt} then the people
begin to confider them as ufelefs to government, and
look upon their privileges as a grievance to fociety,
and perhaps they think how to get rid of them, as
happened in the commonwealth of Florence, -where,
after the expulfion of the duke of Athens, a petty
tyrant of that city, many of the nobility having behaved
fervilely to him, and infolently’ to the people, wrere
degraded from the fenate and the magiilracyy-.a.nd ren¬
dered incapable of holding any employment in the com¬
monwealth.
“ Father Paul, the Venetian, fays, that you muff
either keep your nobility free from taint, or have no
nobility at all: That the high employments of the
v commonwealth fhould be beftowed amongft the inofl
ancient families, unlefs where a perfon fhould diftin-
guifh himfelf by fome fignal fervice to the date. Such
a man wTould think himfelf fufficiently rewarded by
the honour of being put upon a footing with the ancient
nobility 5 and the nobility would be pleafed to find
that no commoner, except fome of great reputation
and merit, was to hold any of the employments ufual-
ly poffeffed by their body. If the perfon fo prefer¬
red fhould not be rich enough to fupport the dignity
of the office, the date may give him a penfion, but
by no means fhould employments be made lucrative j
which not only exhaud and weaken the commonwealth,
but wherever the high employments are fought for
profit, the nobility lofe their generous fentiments, and
it is a means of introducing corruption amongd them.”
The origin of nobility in Europe is by fome referred
to the Goths ; who, after they had feized a part of
Europe, rewarded their captains with titles of honour,
to didinguifh them from the common people. We
ffiall only in this place further confider the manner in
which in our own country they may be created, and the
incidents attending them 5 referring for a fuller ac¬
count of their origin in Europe to the articles Revolu¬
tion, and Civil Society.
1. The right of peerage feems to have been origi¬
nally territorial} that is, annexed to lands, honours,
cadles, manors, and the like; the proprietors and
poiTeffors of which were (in right of thofe edates)
allowed to be peers of the realm, and ivere fummoned
to parliament to do fuit and fervice to their fovereign :
and, wffien the land was alienated, the dignity paffed
with it as appendant. Thus in England the biffiops
dill fit in the houfe of lords in right of fucceffion to
9
certain ancient baronies annexed, or fuppofed to be Nobility.
annexed, to their epifcopal lands j and thus in 11 ——v 
Henry VI. the poiTedion of the cadle of Arundel was
adjudged to confer an earldom on its poffeffor. But
afterwards, when Alienations grew to be frequent,
the dignity of- peerage was confined to the lineage of
the party ennobled, and indead of territorial -became
perfonal. Aftual proof of a tenure by barony became
no longer neceflary to conditute a lord of parliament 5
but the record of the writ of fummons to him or his
ancedors was admitted as a fudicient evidence of the
tenure.
Peers of Great Britain are now created either by Bladjl.
writ or by patent ", for thole who claim by prefcrip- Comment.
tion mud fuppofe either a writ or patent made to their
ancedors ; though by length of time it is lod. The
creation by writ or the king’s letter is a fummons to
attend the houfe of peers, by the dyle and title of that
barony which the king is pleafed to confer: that by
patent is a royal grant to a iubjecf of any dignity and
degree of peerage. The creation by writ is the more
ancient way \ but a man is not ennobled thereby, unleis
he actually take his feat in the houfe of lords 5 and
fome are of opinion that there mud be at lead two
writs of lummons, and a fitting in two didinct parlia¬
ments, to evidence a hereditary barony j and- there¬
fore the mod ufual, becaufe the hired way, is to grant
the dignity by patent, which endures to a roan and his
heirs according to the limitation thereof, though he
neVcr himfelf makes ufe of it. Yet it is frequent to
call up the elded fon of a peer to the houfe of lords
by writ of fummons, in the name of his father’s baro¬
ny, becaufe in that cafe there is no danger of his chil¬
dren’s loling the nobility in cafe he never takes his
feat •, for they will fucceed to their grandfather. Crea¬
tion by writ has alfo one advantage over thatiby pa¬
tent } for a perfon created by writ holds the dignity to
him and his heirs, without any words to that purport
in the writ ; but in letters patent there mud be words
to direft the inheritance, elfe the dignity endures only
to the grantee for hie. For a man or woman may be
created noble for their own lives, and the dignity not
defcend to their heirs at all, or defcend only to fome
particular heirs : as where a peerage is limited to a
man and the heirs male of his body by Elizabeth his
prefent lady, and not to fuch heirs by any former or fu¬
ture wife.
2. Let us next take a view of a few of the principal
incidents attending the nobility,—exclufive of their
capacity as members of parliament, and as heredi¬
tary counfellors of the crown ; for both which we
refer to the articles Lords and Parliament. And
fird we mud obferve, that in criminal cafes a noble¬
man ffiall be tried by his peers. The great are al¬
ways obnoxious to popular envy : wrere they to be
judged by the people, they might be in danger from
the prejudice of their judges \ and -would moreover be
deprived of the privilege of the meaned fabjefts, that
of being tried by their equals, which is fecured to Cl
the realm by magna charta, c. 29. It is faid,, that
this does not extend to biffiops, who, though they
are lords of parliament, and fit there by virtue of their
baronies which they hold jure ecclcjuv, yet are not en¬
nobled in blood, and confaquently not peers with the .
nobility. As to peereffies, no provifion was made for
their
NOB [ 37 J NOB
Nobility, their trial when accufed of treafon or felony, till after
 ^— ' Eleanor duchefs of Gloucefter, wife to the lord pro-
teclor, had been accufed of treafon, and found guilty
of witchcraft, in an ecclefialtical fynod, through the
intrigues of Cardinal Beaufort. This very extraordi¬
nary trial gave occafion to a Ipecial Itamie, 20 Hen. VI.
c. 9. which enatts, that peereiTes, either in their own
right or by marriage, (hall be tried before the fame
judicature as peers of the realm. If a woman, noble
in her own right, marries a commoner, Ihe Hill re¬
mains noble, and fhail be tried by her peers: but if
Ihe be only noble by marriage, then by a fecond mar¬
riage with a commoner die loies her dignity 5 for as by
marriage it is gained, by marriage it is aMo loft. Yet
if a duchefs dowager marries a baron, Ihe continues
a duchefs ftill: for all the nobility are pares, and there¬
fore it is no degradation. A peer or peerefs (either in
her own right or by marriage) cannot be arrefted in
civil cafes : and they have alfo many peculiar privilege^;
annexed to their peerage in- the courie of judicial pro¬
ceedings. A peer fitting in judgement, gives not his
verdict upon oath, like an ordinary juryman, but upon
his honour j he anfwers alfo to bills in chancery upon
his honour, and not upon his oath : but, when he is
examined as a witnefs either in civil or criminal cafes,
he mult be fworn j for the refpebt which the law Ihows
to the honour of a peer does not extend fo far as to
overturn a fettled maxim, that in judicio non creditur
niji juratus. The honour of peers is however fo high¬
ly tendered by the law, that it is much more penal to
fpread falfe reports of them, and certain other great of¬
ficers of the realm, than of other men : fcandal againft
them being called by the peculiar name of fcandalum
magnatum, and fubjefled to peculiar punilhment by
divers ancient ftatutes.
A peer cannot lofe his nobility but by death or at¬
tainder : though there was an inftance, in the reign of
Edward IV. of the degradation of George Nevile duke
of Bedford by aft of parliament, on account of his
poverty, which rendered him unable to fupport his
dignity. But this is a lingular inftance, which ferves
at the fame time, by having happened, to Ihow the
power of parliament j and, by having happened but
once, to Ihow how tender the parliament hath been
in exerting fo high a power. It hath been faid in¬
deed, that if a baron wrnftes his eftate, fo that he is not
able to fupport the degree, the king may degrade him:
but it is exprefsly held by later authorities, that a peer
cannot be degraded but by aft of parliament.
Anton. Matthseus obferves, that nobility, among
the Romans, was a 'quite different thing from what it
is among us. The nobles, among the Romans, v/ere
either thofe raifed to the magiftrature, or defeended
from magiftrates: there was no iiich thing as nobility
by patent.
Bartoli fays, that doftors, after they have held a pro-
feffor’s chair in an univerfity for 20 years, become noble j
and are entitled to all the rights of counts.
But this claim is not admitted at court, &c. though
Bart oil’s fentiments be backed with thofe of feveral
other authors, particularly Chaffaneeus in his Confuetu-
din. Burgundiee ; Boyer fur la Coutume de Berry ; Faber
C. de Dig. Def. 9. &c. which laftj however, reftrains
Bartoli’s rule to doftors in law, and princes phyficians.
By an edift of the French king in 1669, it, is de¬
clared, that trade Ihall not derogate from nobility, pro-- Noble.
vided the perfon do not fell by retail. 1 w—
In Bretagne, by ancient cuftom, a nobleman lofes
nothing by trading even in retail j but he reaifumes all
his rights as loon as he ceafes traffic, his nobility having
flept ail the time.
In Germany, a woman, not noble by bilth, doth not
become, v. gr. a countefs or baronefs by marrying a
count or baron : a lady of the higher degree indeed be¬
comes a princefs by marrying a prince j but this does
not hold of a lady of the lower nobility.
On the coaft of Malabar, children are only capable
of being noble by the mother’s fide j it being allowed
them to take as many hulbands as they plsafe, and to
quit them whenever they think proper.
NOBLE, Nobilis, a perfon who has a privilege
which rail’es him above a commoner or peafant, either
by birth, by office, or by patent from his prince. The
word comes from the Latin nobilis; formed from the
ancient nofcibilis, “ diftinguilhable, remarkable.”
In England, the word noble is of a narrower import
than in other countries, being confined to perfon s
above the degree of knights ; whereas, abroad, it com¬
prehends not only knights, but what we limply call
gentlemen. The nobles of England are alfo called pares
regni, as being nobilitatis pares, though gradu impares.
The Venetian noblejfe is famous : it is in this that
the fovereignty of the ftate refides. It is divided into-
three claffes. The firft only comprehends 24 families.
The fecond includes the defeendants of all thofe who
were entered in the Golden Book, in 1289, and deftined
to govern the ftate, which then began to be ariftocratic.
The third confifts of fuch as have bought the dignity
of noble Venetians. This laft clafs is only admitted
to the inferior employs ; the two former to all indiffer¬
ently. The title or Jioble Venetians is fometimes alfo
given to foreign kings, princes, &c.
Nobles, among the Romans, were fuch as had the
jus imaginum, or the right of ufing the piftures or
ftatues of their anceftors; a right which was allowed
only to thofe whofe anceftors had borne fome curule
office, that is, had been curule cedile, cenfor, preetor, or
conful. For a long time, none but the patricii were
the nobiles, becaufe no perfon but of that fuperior rank
could bear any curule office j hence in Livy, Salluft,
&c. nobihtas is ufed to fignify the patrician order, and
fo oppofed to plebs. To make the true meaning of
nobiles ftill more clear, let it be obferved, that the Re¬
man people were divided into nobiles, novi, and ignobiles.
Nobiles were they who had the piftures, &x. of their
anceftors ; novi were fuch as had only their own ; igno¬
biles were fuch as had neither. See Jus Imaginis.
The Roman nobility, by way of diftinftion, wore
a half moon upon their Ihoes, efpecially thofe of pa¬
trician rank.
The Grecian nobility were called Evirdl^at, as being
defeended from thofe old heroic anceftors fo famous in
hiftory. Such were the Praxiergidce, Etrobutidcc, Alc~
mceonidce, &c. all which had many privileges annexed
to their quality; among!! which was this, that they
wore graffioppers in their hair as a badge of nobility.
Noble, a money of account containing fix Ihillings
and eight pence.
The noble was anciently a real coin ftruck in the
reign of Edward III. and then called the penny of go!d ';
but
N O C [ 33 ] N G C
ISTocera but it was afterwards called a rofe-noble, from its being
it damped with a rofe : it was current at 6s. 8d.
NbuUm* NOCERA, a town in Italy, in the dominions of
nnr--^-,c the king of Naples and Sicily, or, as he is more com¬
monly called, the king of the Two Sicilies. It is an
epifcopal city, but might with greater propriety be
dyled a duller of villages j its feveral parts being ex¬
tended along the foot of the mountains, form the
Citta Sotana, or low town} and the bifhop’s palace,
together with fome convents embowered in cyprefs
groves, cover the peak of a Angle hill in a very pic-
turefque manner, and compofe the Citta Soprana.
Nocera (a), it is reported, contains near 30,000 in¬
habitants •, they are difperfed in forty patches of habi-
tatioh. Their houfes are conftru&ed of two kinds of
done : the common walls are built with yellow tufa
dug out of the hills that lie about a mile to the ead
of the town } which done feems unquedionably to have
been formed by a confolidation of fubdances thrown
out of Vefuvius, becaufe, on opening thefe quarries,
the workmen have frequently difcovered tombs, vafes,
and coins locked up in the body of the deny dratum.
The cafes of their doors and windows are made of a
black done drawn from the hill of Fiano, two miles
to the north : it lies eight feet below the furface, in
a bed or vein 140 feet thick, reding upon a bafe of
land. This feems evidently to be a dream of lava
congealed.
Nocera is a place of very confiderable antiquity : .in
the 13th century it was called de Pagani, to didinguidi
it from a city in Umbria of a fimilar name •, this addi¬
tion was in alludon to a colony of Saracens which Fre¬
derick of Suabia brought from Sicily, and fettled here,
that they might be out of the way of their dangerous
connexions with Africa: hence Nocera has often been
confounded with Lucera by the negligent or ignorant
chroniclers of the fucceeding ages. The mod remark¬
able event that occurs in its hidory is the dege of its
cadle, A. D. 1384. E. Long. 12. 49. N. Lat. 43. 1.
Terra NOCERIJNA, Earth of Nocera, in the Materia
Medico, a fpecies of bole, remarkably heavy, of a gray-
ilh-white colour, of an infipid tade, and generally with
lome particles in it which grit between the teeth. It
is much edeemed by the Italians as a remedy for venom¬
ous bites, and in fevers ; but, excepting as an abforbent
and adringent, no dependence is to be had on it.
NOCTAMBULI, Noctambulones, or Night-
walkers; a term of equal import with fomnambuli,
applied to perfons wdio have a habit of rifmg and
walking about in their deep. The word is a com¬
pound of the Latin nox, “ night,” and ambulo, M I
walk.”
Schenkius, Hordius, Claud erus, and Hildanus, who
have written of deep, give us divers unhappy hidories
of fuch no&ambuli. When the difeafe is moderate,
the perfons affecled with it only repeat the aftions of
the day on getting out of bed, and go . quietly to the
places they frequented at other times 5 but thofe who
have it in the mod violent degree, go up to dangerous
places, and do things which would terrify them to Nodtiluca,
think of when they are awake. Thefe are by lome Nocturnal,
called lunatic night-walkers, becaufe fits are obferved v
to return with the mod frequency and violence at the
changes of the moon.—For the cure fome recommend
purging and a cooling regimen; others are of opinion
that the bed method is to place a veflel of water at
the patient’s bedfide in fuch a manner that he will na¬
turally dep into it when he gets out of bed } or if that
fhould fail, a perfon diould fit up to watch and beat him
every time it happens. See Sleep-walkers, or SoM-
NAMBULI.
NOCTILUCA, a fpecies of phofphorus, fo called
becaufe it dunes in the dark without any light being
thrown upon it.
NOCTURNAL, fomething relating to the night,
in contradidinftion to diurnal.
Nocturnal, NoBurlabium, an indrument chiefly
ufed at fea, to take the altitude or depreflion of fome
dars about the pole, in order to find the latitude and
hour of the night.
Some nocturnals are hemifpheres, or planifpheres, on
the plane of the equinoctial. Thofe commonly in ufe
among feamen are two} the one adapted to the polar
dar, and the fird of the guards of the Little Bear j
the other to the pole dar, and the pointers of the Great
Bear.
This indrument confids of two circular plates, ap¬
plied to each other. The greater, which has a handle
to hold the indrument, is about inches diameter,
and is divided into twelve parts, agreeing to the twelve
months 5 and each month fubdivided into every fifth
day ; and fo as that the middle of the handle corre-
fponds to that day of the year wherein the dar here re¬
garded has the fame right afeenfion with the fun. If
the indrument be fitted for two dars, the handle is
made moveable. The upper left circle is divided into
twenty-four equal parts for the twenty-fours of the day,
and each hour fubdivided into quarters. Thefe twenty-
four hours are noted by twenty-four teeth to be told in
the night. Thofe at the hour 12 are didinguiflred by
their length. In the centre of the two circular plates
is adjuded a long index, moveable upon the upper plate 5 CCCLXX.
and the three pieces, viz. the two circles and index, are
joined by a rivet which is pierced through the centre
with a hole, through which the dar is to be obferved.
To ufe the noftumal, turn the upper plate till the
long tooth, marked 12, be againd the day of the month
on the under plate ; then, bringing the indrument near
the eye, fufpend it by the handle with the plane nearly
parallel to the equinoftial, and viewing the pole dar
through the hole of the centre, turn the index about,
till, by the edge coming from the centre, you fee the
bright dar or guard of the Little Bear, (if the in¬
drument be fitted to that dar) : then that tooth of the
upper circle, under the edge of the index, is at the hour
of the night on the edge of the hour circle, which may
be known without a light, by counting the teeth from
the longed, which is for the hour 1 2.
8 NOD,
(a) Anciently, Nuceria Alphaterna, a word of unknown etymology. It was a Roman colony, ana had its mint,
Num. Nucerin.
1. Caput virile imberbe—Equus dans capite reflexo inter crura. A . . IN ..
4
N'4
Nodes.
Plate
CCCLXX.
fig. i.
NOD [ 39 ] N O L
NOD, or the Land of NOT>. It was to this country
that Cain withdrew after his fratricide, (Gen. iv. 16.).
The Septuagint, as well as .tofephus, read Naid inftead
of Nod, and have taken it for the name of a place. It
is not eafily known what country this wras, unlefs per¬
haps it was the country of Nyfe or Nyfea, towards
Hyrcania. St Jerome and the Chaldee interpreters
have taken the word Nod in the fenfe of an appella¬
tive, for vagabond or fugitive; “ He dwelt a fugitive
in the land.” But the Hebrew reads, “ He dwelt in
the land of Nod” (Gen. iv. 16.).
NODAB, a country bordering upon Iturea and
Idumaea, but now unknown. We read in the Chro¬
nicles, that the tribe of Reuben, affuled by thofe of Gad
and Manaffeh, had a war againft the Hagarites, the
Jeturites, and the people of Nephifh, and of Nodab, in
rvhich the Ifraelites had the advantage (i Chr. v. 19.).
But the time and the other particulars of this war are
unknown.
NOD AT ED HYPERBOLA, a name given by Sir
Ifaac Newton to a kind of hyperbola, which, by turn¬
ing round, decuffates or crofles itfelf.
NODDY. See Sterna, Ornithology Index.
NODE, a tumour arifmg on the bones, and ufually
proceeding from fome venereal caufe; being much the
fame with what is otherwife called exq/lofs.
NODES, in AJlronomy, the two points where the
orbit of a planet interfebls the ecliptic.
Such are the two points C and D, fig. I. of which
the node C, where the planet afcends northward above
the plane of the ecliptic, is called the afcending node, or
the dragon’s head, and is marked thus SI,. The other
node D, where the planet defcends to the fouth, is
called the defcending node, or the dragon’s tail, marked
thus ly.
The line CD, wherein the two circles CEDE and
CGDH interfeft, is called the line of nodes. It ap¬
pears from obfervation, that the line of the nodes of
all the planets conftantly changes its place, and fhifts
Its fituation from call to weft, contrary to the order
of the figns ; and that the line of the moon’s nodes,
by a retrograde motion, finifhes its circulation in the
compafs of 19 years; after which time, either of the
nodes having receded from any point of the ecliptic,
returns to the fame again •, and when the moon is in
the node, ftie is alfo feen in the ecliptic. If the line
of nodes were immoveable, that is, if it had no other
motion than that whereby it is carried round the fun,
it would always look to the fame point of the ecliptic,
or would keep parallel to itfelf, as the axis of the earth
does.
From wdiat hath been faid, it is evident, that the
moon can never be obferved precifely in the ecliptic,
but twice in every period ■, that is, wdien Ihe enters
the nodes. When Ihe is at her greateft diftance from
the nodes, viz. in the points E, F, (he is faid to be in
her limits.
The moon muft be in or near one of the nodes, when
there is an eclipfe of the fun or moon.
To make the foregoing account of the motion of the
moon’s nodes ftill clearer, let the plane of fig. 2. re-
prefent that of the ecliptic, S the fun, T the centre of
ihe earth, L the moon in her orbit DN</tf. N« is
the line of the nodes palling between the quadrature
£) and the moon’s place L, in her laft quarter. Let
now7 LP, or any part LS, reprefent the excefs of the
fun’s abtion at T 5 and this being refolved into the
force LR, perpendicular to the plane of the moon’s u
orbit, and PR parallel to it, it is the former only that
has any effect to alter the pofition of the orbit, and in
this it is w7holly exerted. Its effect is twofold : 1. It
diminilhes its inclination by a motion which we may
conceive as performed round the diameter D d, to
which LT is perpendicular. 2. Being compounded
with the moon’s tangential motion at L, it gives it an
intermediate direction L t, through wftich and the centre
a plane being drawn, muft meet the ecliptic nearer the
conj unction C than before.
NODUS, or NODE, in Dialling, a certain point or
pole in the gnomon of a dial, by the fhadow7 or light
whereof either the hour of the day in dials without
furniture, or the parallels of the fun’s declination, and
his place in the ecliptic, &c. in dials with furniture are
fliown. See Dialling.
NOEOMAGUS lexuviorum, (Ptol.) 5 thought
to be the Civitas Lexoviorum of the lower age. Now
Lifieux, a city in Normandy.—Another of the 2 rica-
Jlini; a town of Gallia Narbonenfis •, thought be
S. Pol. de Trois Chdtetiux, fix miles to the weft of Nyons
in Dauphine.
NOETIANS, in church hiftory, Chriftian heretics
in the third century, foliowTers of Noetius, a philofopher
of Ephefus, who pretended that he was another Mofes
fent by God, and that his brother was a new Aaron.
His herefy confifted in affirming that there wTas but one
perfon in the Godhead } and that the Word and the
Holy Spirit w7ere but external denominations given to
God in confequence of different operations : that, as
Creator, he is called Father; as Incarnate, Son; and as
defcending on the apoftles, Holy Ghoji.
NOLA, a very ancient city, formerly populous and
ftrong, fituated in a plain to the north-eaft of Vefuvius,
in Campania, faid to be built by the Chalcidians j
(Juftin, Silius Italicus) 5 according to others, by the
Tufcans. At this place Hannibal met with the firft
check by Marcellus. Vefpafian added the appellation
Augufa Colonia, (Frontinus). At this place, or in its
neighbourhood, Auguftus is faid to have expired. It
is alfo faid that bells were firft invented there in the be¬
ginning of the 5th century } hence their Latin names
Nolee or Campance. It retains its old name to this day,
but it hath vaftly fallen fhort of its ancient fplendour.
A town of the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 15.
N. Latt 41. 5.
NOLANA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See Botany Index.
NOLLE prosequi, is where a plaintiff in an ac¬
tion does not declare in a reafonable time ; in which
cafe it is ufual for the defendant’s attorney to enter a
rule for the plaintiff to declare, after which a non prof.
may be entered. A nolle profequirs efteemed a volun¬
tary confeffion, that the plaintiff has no caufe of action 5
and therefore if a plaintiff enters his nolle profequi, he
ftiall be amerced ; and if an informer caufe the fame to
be entered, the defendant ftiall have cofts.
NOLLET, Jean Antoine, a deacon, licentiate in
theology, preceptor to the Enfans de France for phy-
fics and natural hiftory, regius profeffor of phyfics in
the college of Navarre, member of the Academy of
Sciences
Nodus
i!
Nollet.
N O L . '[ 40 ] NO M
Sciences at Paris, of the Royal Society of London, of
r the Inilitution of Bologna, and of the Academy of
Sciences of Erfort j was born at Pimbre, in the diocefe
of Noyon, on the I’jth of November 1700, of refpedt-
able but not wealthy parents. To make up the want
of riches, they determined to give their fon a good edu¬
cation. They fent him to the college of Clermont in
Beauvoilis, and afterwards to Beauvais, there to finilh
nis introductory ftudies. The progrefs which he made
in the different claffes, determined them to fend him to
ftudy philofophy at Paris. Thenceforward they intend¬
ed him for the clerical order j and they confidered the
Itridtnefs and purity of his morals, together with his un¬
wearied application to ftudy, as fufficient proofs of his
vocation. The young Nollet yielded without reluct¬
ance to the wifhes of his parents. As foon as he was
capable of fhowkig an inclination for any thing, he had
difcovered a tafte for phyfics j but this was not become
his ruling paflion 5 he therefore facrificed it to the ftudy
of fcholaftic divinity, to which he wholly dedicated
himfelf during his time of probation in 1728. No
fooner had he been invefted with the deaconfhip, than
he folicited and obtained a licenfe to preach. This new
occupation, however, did not make him entirely lofe
light of thofe ftudies which had firft engaged his atten¬
tion. They infenfibly began to occupy a greater por¬
tion of his time, which was now more equally divided
between theology and the fciences. The latter, how¬
ever, prevailed ; and thenceforth he entered into the
ftudy of phyfics with an ardour which was only increafed
by that kind of privation to which he had been long
fubject. Pie was received into the Society of Arts,
eftablifhed at Paris under the patronage of the late
count de Clermont. In 1730, the abbe Nollet was en¬
gaged in a work conjunCtly with Reaumur and du Fay
ot the Academy of Sciences. In 1734, he went to
London in company with M. M. du Fay, du Hamel,
and de Jufiieu. His merit procured him a place in the
Royal Society without any folicitation. Two years af¬
ter, he went to Holland, where he formed an intimate
conneffion with Defaguliers, Gravefande, and Mufch-
enbroeck. On his return to Paris, he refumed the
courfe of experimental phyfics which he had begun in
173 5, and which he continued till 1760. Thefe
courfes of phyfics firft fuggefted the idea of particular
courfes in other branches of fcience, fuch as in che-
miftry, anatomy, natural hiftory, &c. In 1738, the
count de Maurepas prevailed on the cardinal Fleury
to eftablifh a public clafs for experimental phyfics ; and
the abbe Nollet was appointed the firft profeffor. In
the beginning of the year 1739, he was admitted a
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and in the
month of April following, the king of Sardinia intend¬
ing to eftablilh a profefforfhip of phyfics at Turin, in¬
vited the abbe Nollet into his dominions. From thence
he travelled into Italy. In 1744, he was honoured
with an invitation to Verfailles, to inftruft the dauphin
in experimental philofophy •, the king and royal family
were often prefent at his ledlures. The qualities as
well of his underflanding as of his heart gained him the
efteem and confidence of his pupil. Going one dav in
ftate to Paris, he caufed intimation to be made that he
was to dine at the Thuilleries. M. Nollet having gone
thither to pay his court, the dauphin no fooner perceiv¬
ed.him, than he had the goodnefs to fay, “ Binet has
the advantage of me, he has been at your houie.” Till
the period of h:s death, this prince fhowed marks of the
flrongeft attachment and favour for this ingenious jfihi-
lofopher. He would have wifhed that he had been a
little more attentive to the improvement of his fortune.
.He prevailed upon him to go and pay court to a man
in power, whole patronage might have been of fervice
to him. 1 he abbe Nollet accordingly waited upon the
placeman, and made him a prefent of his works. “ I
never read any works of that kind,” faid the patron
coldly, and calling a look at the volumes before him.
“ Sir (replied the abbe), will you allow them to remain
in your antichamber ? There perhaps there may be
found men of genius who will read them with pleafure.”
In the month of April 1749, he made a grand tour in¬
to Italy, being fent thither for the purpofe of making
obfervations. At Turin, Venice, and Bologna, the
abbe Nollet appeared as a deputy from the. philofophers
of the reft of Europe. During his fhort ftay in Italy,
the winders of electricity w ere not the only object of
his refearches ; every part of phyfics, the arts, agricul¬
ture, &c. came equally under his notice. Upon his
return through Turin, the king of Sardinia, always
truly fenfible of his merit, offered him the order of
Saint Maurice, which he did not think proper to ac¬
cept without his fovereign’s permiftion. In 1753 the
king inftituted a clafs of experimental philofophy in
the royal college of Navarre, and appointed the abbe
Nollet profeffor. In 1757, he received from the king
a brevet appointing him preceptor in phyfics and natu¬
ral hiftory to the Enfans de France. In the month of
Auguft, the fame year, he was appointed profeffor of
experimental philofophy in the fchool of artillery, at
that time eftabliihed at la Fere. In the month of No¬
vember following, he was admitted as a penfionary of
the Royal Academy of Sciences. M. de Cremillo, di¬
rector general of artillery and fortification, having
founded a clafs of experimental philofophy at Mezieres
in 1761, the abbe Nollet was appointed profeffor. This
celebrated and laborious philofopher, who has rendered
the moft important fervices to phyfics by the difeoveries
wdth which he has enriched every branch of this fcience,
but particularly eleCtricity, died at Paris on the 2 3th
of April T 770, aged 705 much regretted by the lite¬
rary world, and by his friends, of whom his gentle cha¬
racter and beneficent heart had procured him a great
number. He often retired from the gay and fplendid
focieties of Paris, to give afliftance to his relations, who
W’ere by no means in affluent circumftances. His works
are, 1. Several papers inferted in the memoirs of the A-
cademy of Sciences ; among which one on the Hearing
of Fifties is particularly valuable. 2. Lepons de Phy-
fique Experimenta/e, 6 vols. 12mo j a book wTell com-
pofed, and uniting pleafure with inftruCtion. 3. Recueil
de Leltres fur PEIedlricite, 3 vols 1 2mo, 1753. 4. Ef-
fai fur I'EleBricite des corps, r vol. 12mo. 5. Recherches
fur les caufes particuheres des Phenomenes Elecinques,
1 vol. i2mo. 6. VAndes experiences, 3 vols i2mo,
with figures, 1770.
NOMADES, a name given, in antiquity, to feveral
naftons, wffiofe whole occupation was to feed and tend
their flocks *, and who had no fixed place of abode, but
wrere conftantly fhifting, according to the conveniences
of pafturage.—The wrord comes from the Greek vtyu,
pafco, “ I feed.”
Nmade*.
•>
2
The
N O M [ 41 ] N O M
ia The rfioft celebrated among the Noraades were thofe
, of Africa, who inhabited between Africa properly fo
__ called, to the ealt, and Mauritania to the weft. They
are aftb called Nurwdce or Nunitilians.—Salluft lays, they
were a colony oi Perlians brought into Africa with
Hercules.
The Nomades of Alia inhabited the coafts of the Caf-
pian fea. The Nomades of Scythia were the inhabi¬
tants of Little Tartary 5 who ftill retain the ancient
manner of living.
NOMARCHA, in antiquity, the governor or com¬
mander of a nome or nomos.—Egypt was anciently di¬
vided into feveral regions or quarters, called names, from
the Greek taken in the fenfe of a divilion 5 and
the officer who had the adminiftration of each nome or
Homos, from the king, was called nomarcha, from
and “ command.”
NOMBRE-de-dios, aiown of Mexico, in the pro¬
vince of Darien, a little to the eaftward of Porto-Bello.
It w as formerly a famous place but it is no w abandon¬
ed, on account of its unhealthy lituation. W. Long.
78. 35. N. Lat. 9. 43. _
NOMBRIL point, in Heraldry, is the next below
the fefs point, or the very centre of the efcutcheon.
Sappoling the efcutcheon divided into two equal parts
below the fefs, the lirft of thefe divilions is the nombril,
and the lower the bafe.
NOME, or Name, in Algebra, denotes any quan¬
tity with a fign prefixed or added to it, whereby it is
connefled with fome other quantity, upon which the
whole becomes a binomial, trinomial, or the like. See
Algebra.
NOMENCL ATOR, in Roman antiquity, was ufual-
Jy a Have who attended upon perfons that flood candi¬
dates for' offices, and prompted or liiggefted to them the
names of all the citizens they met, that they might
court them and call them by their names, which among
that people was the higheft piece of civility.
Nomenclators, amopg botanical authors, are thofe
who have employed their labours about fettling and ad-
jufting the right names, fynonymes, and etymologies of
names, in regard to the whole vegetable world.
NOMENCL AT UR E, nomencl at tm a , a catalogue
of feveral of the more ufual wmrds in any language, with
their fignifications, compiled in order to facilitate the
ufe of fuch w'ords to thofe who are to learn the tongue :
fuch are our Latin, Greek, French, &c. nomencla¬
tures : Or a fyftem of technical language by which the
onjVfts of any fcience are denoted, as, for inftance, the
prefent language of chemical fcience, ufually called the
new chemical nomenclature, from its recent conftruction.
NOMENEY, a town in Germany, in the duchy of
Lorrain, lituated on the river SeilR, 15 miles north of
Nancy.
^ NOMINALS, or Nominalists, a fedft of fchool
phftofophers, the difciples and followers of Occam, or
Ocham, an Englifh Cordelier, in the 14th century.
J hey were great dealers in words, whence they were
Vulgarly denominated Word-fellers; but had the deno¬
mination of Nominalifls, becaufe, in oppofition to the
Rea lifts, they maintained, that words, and not things,
were the objeft of dialeftics.
This feet had its firft rife towards the end of the 1 ith
century, and pretended to follow Porphyry and Ari-
Vol. XV. Part L
ftotle j but it w'as not till Ocham’s time that they bore N
the name. The chief of this fed, in the nth century, N
was a perfon called John, who, on account of his logi¬
cal fubtility, w'as called the fophift; and his principal
difciples rvere Robert of Paris, Rofcelin of Compiegne,
and Arnoul of Laon. At the beginning, the Nominals
had the upper hand : but the Realifts, though greatly
divided among themfelves, were fupported by men of
great abilities 5 luch as Albertus Magnus, T. Aquinas,
and Duns Scotus. The nominal fed came hereby in-*
to difrepute 5 till William Occam, in the 14th century,
again revived it, and filled France and Germany with
the flame of deputation. Having joined the party of the
Francifcan monks, who ftrenuouily oppofed John XXII.
that pope himfelf, and his fucceflbrs after him, left no
means untried to extirpate the philofophy of the Nomi-
nalifts, which was deemed highly prejudicial to the in-
terefts of the church : and hence it w'as, that, in the
year 1339, the univerfity of Paris, by a public edici,
folemnly condemned and prohibited the philofophy of
Occam, which was that of the Nominalifts. The con-
fequence was, that the Nominalifts ftourilhed more than
ever. In the 15th century, the controverfy was conti¬
nued W'ith more vigour and animofity than before \ and
the difputants were not content with ufing merely the
force of eloquence, but had frequently recourfe to more
hoftile and dangerous weapons \ and battles were the
confequence of a philofophical queftion, which neither
fide underftood. In moft places, however, the Realifts
maintained a manifeft fuperiority over the Nominalifts.
While the famous Gerfon, and the moft eminent of his
difciples were living, the Nominalifts were in high
efteem and credit in the univerfity of Paris. But upon
the death of thefe patrons, the face of things w as much
changed to their difadvantage. In the year 1473,
Louis XL by the inftigation of his confeifor, the bilhop
of Avranches, iflued out a fevere edidl againft the doc¬
trines of the Nominalifts, and ordered all their writings
to be feized and lecured, that they might not be read by
the people : but the fame monarch mitigated this edidh
the year following, and permitted fome of the books
of that fed! to be delivered from their confinement. In
the year 1481, he not only granted a full liberty to
the Nominalifts and their writings, but aifo reftored that
philofophical feci to its former authority and luftre in
the univerfity.
The Nominalifts wnre the founders of the univerfity
of Leipfic : and there are many yet abroad who pique
themfelves on being Nominals.
The Nominals, with the Stoics, admit the formal
conceptions or ideas of things, as the fubjecl and foun¬
dation of univerfality : but to this they add names,
which reprefent and fignify, after the fame univoca!
manner, and without any diftinciion, a great variety of
fingle things alike in gehus and fpecies.
Whence it is that they are called Nominals ; as pre¬
tending, that to become learned, it is not enough to
have juft ideas of things, but it is likew’ife required to
know the proper names of the genera and fpecies of
things, and to be able to exprefs them clearly and pre-
cifely, without confufion or ambiguity.
NOMINA! IVE, in Grammar, the firft case of
nouns w'hich are declinable.
The fimple pofition, or laying down of a noun, or
F name,
NON [ 42 1 NON
name, is called tlie nominative cafe ; yet it is not fo pro¬
perly a cafe, as tire matter or ground whence the other
cafes are to be formed, by the fevcral changes and in¬
flexions given to this firft termination. Its chief ufe is
to be placed in difcourfe before all verbs, as the fubject
of the proportion or afRrmation.
NONA, a city of Dalmatia, remarkable at prefent
only for its ruins, which might furnifh abundant mate¬
rials to gratify the curiolity of antiquaries 5 but indeed
they are fo buried by repeated devaftations, to which
that unhappy city has been expofed, that rarely any vef-
tige of them appears above ground. “ I went thither
(fays Fortis in his Travels), in hopes of finding fbme-
thing worthy of notice, but was difappointed. Nothing
is to be feen that indicates the grandeur of the Roman
times •, neither are there any remains of barbarous mag¬
nificence, to put one in mind of the ages in which the
kings of the Croat Slavi had their refidence there. It
lies on a fmall ifland, furrounded by a harbour, which
in former times was capable of receiving large Ihips ;
but is now become a fetid pool by means of a little
muddy river that fails into it, after a courfe ol about
fix miles through the rich abandoned fields of that di-
Urieh The ancient inhabitants turned this water into
another channel, and made it run through trie valley of
Drafnich into the lea; and the remains of the bank
raifed by them for that purpofe are ftiil to be feen.
NotwithHanding, however, the depopulation of this di-
fuict, and the dreary fituation of Nona in particular,
the new inhabitants have not loft courage and animat¬
ed by the privileges granted to them by the moft ferene
republic, are endeavouring to bring the population and
agriculture once more into a ftouriftiing ftate. Proper
drains for the water would not only render that rich
territory habitable, but moreover very fertile; and the
brackiih marfti that furrounds the walls of Nona is well
calculated to fupply a confiderable quantity of fiih, efpe-
cyally eels. The government generoufty granted the
inveftiture to private perfons, who already draw no in-
conftderable advantage from the fiftiing *, and did they
but adopt better methods, they might every year fait
many thoufands of eels, which would greatly anfwer
our internal commerce, and fave at leaft a part of the
money that goes out of the country for foreign fait fifti.
To the left of the city of Nona, the walls of feme an¬
cient ruinous buildings appear •, which probably in an¬
cient times were fituated on the main land, /hough now
forrounded by water. The fea fonns a narrow channel
in this place, which is eafily fordable, and, at low wa¬
ter. the fmalleft boat can fcarcely pafs.”
NONAGE, in Law, generally fignifies all the time
a perfon continues under the age of 21 } but in a fpe-
cial fenfe, it is all the tiiuc that a perfon is under the
age of 14.
NONAGESIMAL, or NoNAGESIMAL Degree,
called alfo the Mid Heaven, is the higheft point, or
90th degree of the ecliptic, reckoned from its interfec-
iion with the horizon at any time ; and its altitude is
equal to the angle which the ecliptic makes with the
horizon at their interfcXion, cr equal to the diftance of
the zenith from the pole of the ecliptic. It is much
tiled in the calculation of folar eclipfes.
NON AGON, a figure having nine tides and angles.
Ifi a regular nenagen, cr. that whole angles and fides
are kll equal, if each fide be 1, its area will be Non,
6.1818242—J of the tangent of 70°, to the radius 1. Noncon-
NON, Cape, a promontory on the weft coaft of A-
frica, oppofite to the Canary ii'ands. W. Long. 12. o.
N. Lat. 44. 28.
NONCONFORMISTS, thofe who refbfe to join
the eftabliftied worftiip.
Nonconformifts, in England, are of two forts. Firft,
Such as ablent themfelves from divine worlhip in the
eftabliftied church through total irreligion, and attend
the fervice of no other perfuafion. Thefe, by the fta-
tute 1 Eliz. c. 2. 23 Eliz. c. 1. and 3 jac. I. c. 4. for¬
feit one {hilling to the poor every Lord’s day they fo
abfent themfeives, and 20I. to the king if they continue
Inch default for a month together. And if they keep
any inmate thus irreligioufly difpofed in their houfes,
they forfeit 10I. per month.
The fecond fpecies of nonconformifts are thofe who
offend through a miftaken or perverfe zeal. Such
were efteemed, by the Englifli laws enaXed fince the
time of the Reformation, to be Papifts and Proteftant
diffenters : both of which were fuppofed to be equally
fchifxnatics, in not communicating with the national
church } with this difference, that the Papifts divided
from it upon material, though' erroneous, reafons ; but
many of the diffenters upon matters of indifference, or,
in other words, for no reafon at all. “ Yet certainly Black/t.
(fays Sir William Blackftone) our anceftors were mif- Comment.
taken in their plans of compulfion and intolerance. The
fin of fchiiin, as fuch, is by no means the objeX of tem¬
poral coercion and punilhment. If, through weaknefs
of intelleX, through mifdireXed piety, through per-
verfeneis and acerbity of temper, or (which is often the
cafe) through a profpeX of fecular advantage in herding
with a party, men quarrel with the ecclefiaftical efta-
bliihment, the civil magiftrate has nothing to do with
it ; unlefs their tenets and praXice are fuch as threaten
ruin or difturbance to the ftate. He is bound indeed
to proteX the eftabliftied church: and if this can be
better efteXed by admitting none but its genuine mem¬
bers to offices of truft and emolument, he is certain¬
ly at liberty fo to do j the difpofal of offices being mat¬
ter of favour and diferetion. But this point being once-
fecured, all perfecution for diverfity of opinions, how¬
ever ridiculous or abfurd they may be, is contrary to
every principle of found policy and civil freedom. The
names and fubordinaiion of the clergy, the pollute of
devotion, the materials -and colour of the minifter’s
garment, the joining in a known or unknown form of
prayer, and other matters of the fame kind, muft be
left to the option of every man’s private judgement.
“ With regard therefore to Protefant dijjenters, al¬
though the experience of their turbulent difpofition in
former times occafioned feveral difabilitiea and reftric-
-tions (which I ftiali not undertake to juftify) to be laid
upon them by abundance of ftatutes 5 yet at length the
legiflature, with a true fpirit of magnanimity, extended
that indulgence to thefe feXaries, which they them¬
felves, when in power, had held to be countenancing
fchifm, and denied to the church of England. The
penalties are conditionally fufpended by the ftatute
1 W. M. ft. x. c. 18. “ for exempting their majefties
Proteftant fubjeXs, diffenting from the church of Eng
land, from the penalties of certain laws,” commonly
called
7 Plate CCCLXX.
JVOCTUHNAL. OLIVE PRESS . XODES.
BRAMIX’S OBSERVATORY.
> O
Noncon-
formilts.
Blackjl.
Comment.
NON [ 43 ]
calied the toleration a El; which declares, that rieither images
the laws above mentioned, nor the ftatutes i Eliz. c. 2.
§ 14. 3 Jac. I. c. 4. and 5. nor any other penal laws
made againft Popifh recufants (except the left ads),
ihili extend to any diffenters, other than Papiils and
luch as deny the Trinity^: provided, 1. That they take
the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy, (or make a fimi-
lar affirmation, being Cuakers), and fubfcribe the de¬
claration againft Popery. 2. That they repair to feme
congregation certified to and regiflered in the court of
the bifhop or archdeacon, or at the county feffions.
3. That the doors of fuch meeting-houfe fhall be unlock¬
ed, unbarred, and unbolted •, in' default of which, the
perfons meeting there are ftill liable to all the penalties
of the former adds. Diffenting teachers, in order to be
exempted from the penalties of the flatutes 13 and
14 Car. II. c. 4. 17 Car. II. c. 2. and 22 Car. II. c. x.
are alfo to fubfcribe the articles of religion mentioned in
che ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 12. (viz. thole which only con¬
cern the confeffion of the true Chriftian faith, and the
dobtrine of the facraments), with an exprefs exception
of thofe relating to the government and powers of the
churcjg and to infant baptifm. And by flat. 10 Ann.
c. 2. this toleration is ratified and confirmed; and it is
declared, that the faid a£t ffiall at all times be inviola¬
bly obferved for the exempting fuch Proteflant diflent-
ers as are thereby intended from the pains and penalties
therein mentioned. Thus, though the offence of non-
conformily is by no means univerfally abrogated, it is
impended,, and ceafes to exift with regard to thefe Pro-
telf ant diflenters, during their compliance with the con¬
ditions impofed by the act of toleration : and, under
thefe conditions, all perfons, who will approve them-
felves no Papifts or oppugners of the Trinity, are left
at full, liberty to adt as their confciences ffiall cTiredf
them in the matter of religious worffiip. And if any
perfon {hall wilfully, malicioufiy, or contemptuoully di-
fturb any congregation) affembled in any church or per¬
mitted meeting-houfe, or ffiall milufe anv preacher or
teacher there, he ffiall {by virtue of the fame ftatute)
be bound over to the feffions of the peace, and for¬
feit 201. But by ftatute 5 Geo. I. c. 4. no mayor or
principal magi (Irate rauft appear at any diffenting meet-
mg with the enfigns of his office, on pain of difability
to hold that or any other office : the legiftature judging
it a matter of propriety, that a mode of worffiip, fet up
moppofition to the national, when allowed to be exer-
cited in peace, ftiould be exercifed alfo with decency
gratitude, and humility. Neither doth the a£l of tole¬
ration extend to enervate thofe claufes of the ftatutes
13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4. and 17 Car. II. c. 2. which pro-
IuOil (upon, pam of fine and imprifonment) all perfons
.rom teaching fchool, unlefs they be licenfed by the
ordinary, and fubfcribe a declaration of conformity to
the liturgy of the church, and reverently frequent di¬
vine femce eftablijhedhj the laws of this kingdom.
As to Papift* what has beep faid of the ‘Proteftant
d .enters would hold equally ftrong for a general tole¬
ration of them ; provided their feparation was founded
only upon difference of opinion in religion, and their
principles did not alfo extend to a fubverfion of the
civil government. If once they could be brought to
renounce the fupremacy of the Pope, they might
quietly .enjoy their feven facraments; their purgatory
aKd auricular confeffion; their worffiip of relicks and
N O N
„ . nay, even their tranfubftantiation. But while
they, acknowledge a foreign power, fuperior to the fo-
vereignty of the kingdom, they cannot complain, if the
laws of that kingdom will not treat them upon the foot¬
ing of good fubjebb.
“ The following are the laws that have been enafted
againft the Papifts; who may be divided into three
chides, perfons, profefling Popery, Popifh recufants
convict, and Popifh jrieiis. I. Perfons profefting the
Popilh religion, befides the former penalties for’ not
frequenting their pariih church, are dilabled from taking
any lands either by defeent or purehafe, after 18 yearn
or age, until they renounce their errors; they muft at
the age of 21 regifter their eftates before acquired, and
all future conveyances and wills relating to them ; they
are incapable of prefenting to any advowfon, or grant¬
ing v>' any other perfon any avoidance of the fame;
fi ey may not keep or teach any fchool, under pain of
perpetual imprifonment; and, if they willingly fay or
hear mafs, they forfeit the one 200, the other 100
merks, and each fhall fuffer a year’s imprifonment. Thus
much for perfons, who, from the misfortune of family
prejudices, or otherwife, have conceived an unhappy at¬
tachment to the bom’lli church from their infancy, and
puolicly profefs its errors. But if any evil induftry is
ufed to rivet thefe errors upon them; if any perfon
fends another abroad to be educated in the Popiffi re¬
ligion, or to refide in any religious houfe abroad for
that purpofe, or contributes to their maintenance when
there.;, both the fender, the fent, and the contributor,
are difabled to fue in law or equity, to be executor or
adminiftrator to any perfon, to take any legacy or deed
°f gift, and to bear any office in the realm; and fhall
forfeit all their goods and chattels, and likewife all their
real eftate for life. And where thefe errors a:<e alfb ag¬
gravated by apoftafy or perverfion; where a perfon is
reconciled to the fee of Rome, or procures others to be
reconciled, the offence amounts to high treafon. 2*. Po¬
piffi . recufants, convicted in a court of law of not at¬
tending the fervice of the church of' England, are fub-
jeft to the following difabilities, penalties, and for¬
feitures, over and above thofe before mentioned. They
are confidered as perfons excommunicated; they can
hold no office or employment: they muft not keep arms
in their houfes, but the fame may be feized by the juf-
tices of the peace; they may not come within 10 miles
London, on pain of loci. ;-tbey can bring no ac¬
tion at law or fait xn equity; they are not permitted
to travel above five miles from home, unlefs by li-
cenfe, upon pain of forfeiting all their goods ; and
they may not come to court, under pain of 100I. No
marriage or burial of fuch recufant, or baptifm of his
child, ffiall be had otherwife than by the minifters of
the church of England, under other fevere penalties.
A married woman, when recufant, ffiall forfeit two-
thirds of. her dower or jointure, may not be executrix
Of adminiftratrix to her huffiand, or have any part of
his goods; and during the coverture may be kept in
prifon, unlefs her huffiand redeems her, at the rate of
10I. a month, or the third part of all his lands. And
laftly, as a feme-cqveit recufant may be imprifoneJ, fo
all. others muft, within three months after con vi ft ion,
either fubmit and renounce their errors, or, if renui-
red fo to do by four iuftices, muft abjure and renounce
the realm; and if they do not depart, or if they re-
F 2 turn
Nonrcn-
formifts.
—y—.
Blackfl.
Itmnment.
NON [44
turn without the king’s licence, they fliali be guilty of
felony, and fuffer death as felons, without benefit of
clergy. There is alfo an inferior fpecies of recufancy,
(refufing to make the declaration againft Popery en¬
joined by flatute 30 Car. II. ft. 2. when tendered by
the proper magiftrate) j which, if the party refides
within ten miles of London, makes him an abfolute
recufant convicl *, or, if at a greater diftance,. lufpends
him from having any feat in parliament, keeping arms
in his houfe,or any horfe above the value of 5L 3. Po-
pith priefts are in a ftill more dangerous condition. By
ftatute xi & 12 W. III. c. 4. Popiih pnefts, or bi-
fhops, celebrating mafs or exercifing any part of their
fundftions in England, except in the houles of ambaf-
fadors, are liable to perpetual imprifonment. And by
the ftatute 27 Eliz. c. 2. any Popiflx prieft, born in
the dominions of the crown of England, who jhall
come over hither from beyond fea (unlels driven by
ftrefs of weather and tarrying only a_ reafonable time),
or (hall be in England three days without conforming
and taking the oaths, is guilty of high treafon : and all
perfons harbouring him are guilty ol felony without the
benefit of clergy.
“ This is a fhort fummary of the laws againft the Pa-
pifts • of which the prefident Montefquieu obferves,
that they are fo rigorous, though not profeffedly of
the fanguinary kind, that they do all the hurt that
can poflibly be done in cold blood. But in anfwer to
this, it may be obferved (what foreigners who only
judge from our ftatute book are not fully apprized of),
that thefe laws are feldom exerted to their utmoft ri¬
gour : and indeed, if they were, it would be very dif-
fierdt to excufe them. For they are rather to be ac¬
counted for from their hiftory, and the urgency of
the time^ which produced them, than to be approved
(upon a cool review) as a Handing fyftem of law. . 1 he
reftlefs machinations of the Jefuits during the reign of
EKzabeth, the turbulence and uneafinefs of the Pa-
pifts under the new religious eftablifhment, and the
boldnefs of their hopes and wilhes for the fucceflion of
the queen of Scots, obliged the parliament to coun¬
teract fo dangerous a fpirit by laws of a great, and
then perhaps necefiary, feverity. Ihe powder-treafon,
in the fucceeding reign, ftruck a panic into James 1.
which operated in different wTays : it occafioned the
enacting of new laws againft the Papifts j but deter¬
red him from putting them in execution. The in¬
trigues of Queen Henrietta in the reign of Charles I.
the profpeft of a Popiih fucceffor in that of Charles II.
the affaftmation-plot in the reign of King William, and
the avowed claim of a Popiih pretender to the crown
in fubfequent reigns, will account for the extenfion of
thefe penalties at thofe feveral periods of our hiftory.”
But now that all juft fears of a pretender may be_ faid
to have vaniftied, and the power and influence of the
. pope has become feeble, ridiculous, and defpicable,
*Sef Sir not only in Britain, but in almoft every kingdom of
drefs to the Europe: and as in faff the Britiih Catholics folemnly
throne, difclaim the dangerous principles aferioed to them 5
May 1. - the Britiih legiflature, giving way to that liberality ot
177S, as in-fentiment becoming Proteftants, have lately repealed
theMaca- the moft rigorous of the above edifts, viz. The pu-
zincs or An- niihment of Popiih priefts or Jefuits who ihould be
nual Regif- found to teach or officiate in the fen ices of that church 5
ter for that ans were felony in foreigners, and high treafon
] NON
m the natives of this kingdom :—The forfeitures 01
Popiih heirs, who had received their education abroad 5
and whofe eftates went to the next Proteftant heir :—
The power given to the fon, or other relation, being
a Proteftant, to take poffeflion of the father’s or other
relation’s eftate, during the life of the real proprietor :
—And the debarring Papifts from the poweb of ac¬
quiring any legal property by purchafe.—In propo-
iing the repeal of thefe penalties, it was obferved, That,
belides that fome of them had now ceafed to be necei-
fary, others were at all times a difgrace to humanity,
e imprifonment of a Popiflr prieft for life, only for
officiating in the ferviceS of his religion, was horrible
in its nature : And although the mildnefs of govern¬
ment had hitherto foftened the rigour of the law in the
praCfice, it was to be remembered that the Homan Ca¬
tholic priefts conftantly lay at the mercy of the bafeft
Ind mod abandoned of mankind—of common informers
for on the evidence of any of thefe wretches, the ma-
gifterial and judicial powers were of neceffity bound to
enforce all the fhameful penalties of the aCh Others of
thefe penalties held out the moft powerful temptations
for the commiffion of aCts of depravity, at the very
thought of which our nature recoils with horror : They
feemed calculated to loofen all the bands of fociety : to
diffolve all civil, moral, and religious obligations and
duties, 4o poifon the fources of domeftic felicity, and
to annihilate every principle of honour. The encou¬
ragement given to children to lay their hands upon the
eftates of their parents, and the reftriCtion which de¬
bars any man from the honeft acquifition of property,
need only to be mentioned to excite indignation in an
enlightened age.
In order the better to fecure the Englifti eflabliflied
church againft perils from nonconformifts of all deno¬
minations, Infidels, Turks, Jews, Heretics, Papifts, and
SeClaries, there are, however, two bulwarks ereCled ;
called the corporation and teji aBs: By the former of
which, no perfon can be legally elected to any office
relating to the government of any city or corporation,
unlefs, within a twelvemonth before, he has received
the facrament of the Lord’s fupper according to the
rites of the church of England} and he is alfo en¬
joined to take the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy
at the fame time that he takes the oath of office : or,
in default of either of thefe requifites, fuch election
{hall be void. The other, called the left aS, directs
all officers civil and military to take the oaths and
make the declaration againft tranfubftantiation, in any
of the king’s courts at Weftminfter, or at the quarter
feffions, within fix kalendar months after their admif-
fion j and alfo within the fame time to receive the fa¬
crament of the Lord’s fupper, according .to the ufage
of the church of England, in fome pubhc church im¬
mediately after divine fervice and fermon, and to deli¬
ver into court a certificate thereof figned by the mi-
nifter and church warden, and alio to prove the fame
by two credible witnci.es •, upon forfeiture of ^Qo\. and
difability to hold the faid office. And of much the
fame nature with thefe is the ftatute 7 Jam I. c. 2.
which permits no perlons to be naturalized or reftored
in blood, but fuch as undergo a like teft : which teft ha¬
ving been removed in 1/53’ favour ol the Jews, was
the next feflion of parliament reftored again with fome
nrecipitaticn.
Non-
Non-na¬
turals
' li.
Nonius.
NON [. 45 1 N O O
NoN-Naturals, in Medicine, {o called, becaufeby their Geometrical and Geographical EJfays, has lately fhown Nonius-
abufe they become the caufes of difeafes. that Clevius the Jefuit may difpute the invention with
Phyficians have divided the non-naturals into i :< them both, ihe truth ieems to be, that JNmnez uar^-
clafles, viz. the air, meats and drinks, deep and watch- ed the idea, Clevius improved it, and Vernier carried
motion and reft, the paftions of the mind, the reten- it to its prefent Hate of perfection. I he method o± iSu-
Nootka
Sound¬
ing.,
tions and excretions. See Medicine,
NoN-Objiante (notwitli/landing) a claufe frequent in
ftatutes and letters patent, importing a licenfe from the
king to do a thing, which at common law might be law¬
fully done, but being reftrained by act of parliament can¬
not be done without inch licenfe.
NON-Pror. See Nolle Profequi.
NON-Suit, dignifies the dropping of a fuit or action,
or a renouncing thereof by the plaintiff or defendant *,
which happens moft commonly upon the difcovery of
fome error in the plaintiff’s proceedings when the caufe
is fo far proceeded in, that the jury is ready at the bar
to deliver in their verdidt.
NONES, (NONCE), in the Roman kalendar, the fifth
day of the months January, February, April, June, Au-
guft, September, November, and December ; and the
feventh of March, May, July, and October. . March,
May, July, and October, had fix days in their nones •,
becaufe thefe alone, in the ancient conftitution of the
year by Numa, had 31 days a-piece, the reft having only
29, and February 30: but when Caffar reformed the
year, and made other months contain 31 days, he did
not allot them fix days of nones.
NONJURORS, thofe who refafed to take the oaths
to government, and who were in confequence under
certain incapacities, and liable to certain fevere penal¬
ties. It can fcarcely be faid that there are any non-
jurors now in the kingdom } and it is well known that
all penalties have been removed both from Papifts and
Proteftants, formerly of that denomination, as well in
Scotland as in England. . The members of the Epis¬
copal church of Scotland have long been denominated
Nonjurors •, but perhaps they are now called fo impro¬
perly, as the ground of their difference from the eftabliih-
ment is more on account of ecclefiaftical than political
principles.
NONIUS, Peter, in Spanilh Nunez, a learned Por-
« tuguefe, and one of the ableft mathematicians of the
16th century, was born at Alcacer. He wras preceptor
to Don Henry, King Emmanuel’s fon, and taught the
mathematics in the univerfity of Coimbra. Fie publifii-
ed the following woTks, by which he gained great repu¬
tation : 1. De arte Navigandi. 2. Annotations in theo-
rias planetarum Purbachi; which are greatly efteemed.
3. A y-eatife De Crepufculis. 4. A treatife on Algebra.
It is obferved in Furetiere’s diftionary, that Peter No¬
nius, in 1 530, firft invented the angles of 45 degrees
made in every meridian, and that he called them rhumbs
in his language, and calculated them by fphetical trian¬
gles. Nonius died in 1577, aged 80.
Nonius, the name which w7as not many years ago
given to the common device for fubdividing the arcs
of quadrants and other artronomical inftruments, from
the perfuafion that it w as invented by Nonius or Nu¬
nez, of wdiom fome account has been given in the pre¬
ceding article. The generality of aftronomers of the
prefent age transferring the honour cf the invention
from Nunez to Peter Vernier, a native of Franche
Comte, have called this m*thod of divifion by his
name. (See .Vernier.) Mr Adams, however, in his
deferibed in his treatife De Crepufculis, printed at
Lifbon 1542, confifts in deferibing within the fame
quadrant 45 concentric circles, dividing the outermoft
into 90 equal parts, the next within into 89, the
next into 88, &c. till the innermoft was divided into
46 only. On a quadrant thus divided the plumb line
or index muft Crofs one or other of the circles very
near a point of divifion} whence, by computation, the
degrees and minutes of the arch might be eafily afeer .
tained. This method is alfo deferibed by Nunez in
his treatife De arte atque ratione Navigandi, where he
would fain perfuade himfelf, that it was not unknown
to Ptolemy. Eut as the degrees are thus divided very
unequally, and as it is very difficult to attain exa&neis
in the divificn, efpecially when the numbers -into which
the arches are to be divided are incompofite (of which
there are no lefs than nine), the method of dia¬
gonals, firft publithed by Thomas Digges, Efq. in a
treatife entitled Alee feu fcaLe mqthematicce, printed at
London in 1573, and faid to be invented by one Rich¬
ard Chenfeler, was fubftituted in its room. Nonius’s
method -was, however, improved at different times and
by different perfons; and it muft be acknowledged,
that if Vernier faw either the original or any of the im¬
provements (and there can be little doubt of his having
feen them all), his merit is only that of having applied
to an ufexul practical purpofe the fpeculative invention of
another perfon.
NONNUS, a Greek poet of the 5th century, and na¬
tive of Panopilis in Egypt, was the author of an heroic
poem in 48 books, entitled Dionysiacorum, and a' para-
phrafe in verfe of St John’s Gofpel, which may ferve as
a commentary upon it.
NONUPLA, in the Italian mufic, denotes a quick
time, peculiar to jigs. This fpecies of time is other-
wife called the meafure of nine times, which requires two
falls of the hand, and one rife. There are three forts
of nonupla. 1. Nonupla difemi minima, or dupla fefqui-
quarta, thus marked |, where nine crotchets are to be
in the bar, of which four make a femibreve in com¬
mon time, i. e. in the down ftroke fix, and but three
up : it is ufually beat adagio. 2. Nonupla di crome, or
fefqui ottava, marked thus f,
make a bar inftead of eight
fix down and three up : it
mipla di femkrome or fuper fetti partiente nona, thus
diftinguifhed in which nine femiquavers are con¬
tained in a bar, whereof fixteen are required in com¬
mon time, fix down, and three up : it is ordinarily
beat prefifimo. Befides th.efe, there are two other fpe¬
cies of nonupla, for which fee Triple.
NOOTKA sound, or, as it was' called by Captain
Cook, King George's Sound, lies in N. Lat. 49. 33.
W. Long. 153. 12. It is an entrance or ftrait to a
vaft inland fea on the weft coaft of North America,
and is faid to refemble the Baltic or Mediterranean in
Europe. Upon the fea-coaft the land is tolerably high
and level ; but within the found it rifes into fteep hills,
which have an uniform appearance. The trees of which
the woods, are compofed, are the Canadian pine, white
' cyprefs.
wherein nine quavers
in common time, i. e.
is beat prefo. 3. No-
NOO [ 46 ] NOG
JNojtivi /cypreis, and two or three other forts of pine. In ge-
SolliKt' neral, the trees grow here with great vioour, and are
~ of a large fize. About the rocks and borders of the
woods were feen fome ftrawberry plants, and rafpberry,
currant, and goofeberry bulhes, all in a flourilhing
Hate. The principal animals feen here were racoons,
martens, and fquirrels. Birds are far from being nu¬
merous, and thcfe that are to be feen are remarkably
fhy, owing perhaps to their being continually ha-
raffed by the natives, either to eat them, or to become
poffeffed of their feathers to be worn as ornaments.
The quebrantahueffos, (hags, and gulls, were feen off
the coaft ; and the two laff were alfo frequent in the
iound. Though the variety of fifh is not very great,
yet they are in greater quantities than birds. The
principal forts are the common herring, a filver colour¬
ed bream, and another of a brown colour. Captain
Cook and Mr King, who vilited this place, confider it
as an excellent Ihelter for fhips: and in the account of A
Voyage'to the Pacific Ocean, they give fome directions
for failing into it. Thefe and other matters of that kind
we lhall not trouble our readers with ; and perhaps the
generality of them will be better pleafed with the fol¬
lowing extraft from Meares’s Voyages to the North-well
Coaft of America.
“ The people of the Nootka nation are, in general,
robuft and well-proportioned : -^their faces are large
and full, their cheeks high and prominent, with fmall
black eyes :—their nofes are broad and Hat, their lips
thick, and they have generally very fine teeth, and of
the moil brilliant whitenefs.
“ The manner in which the children of Nootka are
treated, when young, is not more extraordinary from
tis ftrange, and, as it Ihould appear, total inutility, as
from its agreement with the cuftcms of the Chinefe
and Tartars, to whom this practice gives thefe people
a confiderable refemblance. The head of the infant
is bound by the mother with a kind of fillet of feveral
folds, as low down as the eyes, in order to give it a
certain form, which, at this tender age, it is" capable
of receiving. It might be fuppofed, that fuch a tight
drawn ligature muft caufe confiderable pain to the
child ; but we never obferved that any of the infants,
in fuch a ftate of preparation for fugar-loaf heads, fuf-
- fered any vifible pain or inconvenience.
“ Though the cuftom of comprefflng the head in
this manner gives them an unpleafant appearance, by
drawing up the eyebrows, and fometimes producing
the difagreeabls effeft of fquinting, as well as of flatten¬
ing the nofe and diftending the noftrils, they are by
no means an ill-looking race of people. They have
alfo the cuftom, which is known to prevail in fo many
Indian nations, of plucking out -the beard by the roots,
on its firft appearance ; and, as it continues to fprout,
to keep it down by the fame pra£Hee. It is one of
the domeftic employments afligned to their wives, to
watch this appearance of manhood, and to eradicate
the hairs as they come forth ; which they do in a very
dexterous manner with their fingers, and without giving
the leaft pain in the operation.—Some of them, however,
though we faw but very few of this difpofition, when
they advance in years and become infirm, fuffer their
beards to grow without interruption. But, notwith-
ftanding they have fo great an averfion to the hair of
their chin, that of the head is an objecl of their atten-
3
live vanity : it is flrong, black, and gloffy j grov/s to a Nootka
confiderabie length 5 and is either tied in a kind of knot Sound,
c 1 the top of their heads, or fuffered to hang down " v"""'
their backs in flowing negligence.
“ In their exterior form they have not the fymme-
try or elegance which is found in many other Indian
nations.—Their limbs, though flout and athletic, are
crooked and ill lhaped ; their fkin, when cleanfed of
filth and ochre, is white 5 and we have feen fome of the
women, when in a ftate of cleanlijiefs (which, however,
was by no means a common fight, and obtained with
difficulty), who not only poffeffed the fair complexion
of Europe, but features that would have attracted no¬
tice, for their delicacy and beauty, in thofe parts of
the world where the qualities of the human form are
beft underflood. But thefe examples of beauty are
by no means numerous among the women of Nootka,
who are calculated rather to difguft than to charm an
European beholder. I heir hair, like that of the men,
is black : their eyes are of the fame colour 5 and, in
exterior appearance, they are not to be immediately
diftinguifried from the men. In their charafttrs they
are referved and chafte 5 and examples of loofe and
immodeft conduct were very rare among them. There
were women !n St George’s Sound, whom no offers
could tempt to meretricious fubmiffions.”
All reports concerning Nootka Sound agree in cha-
rattenzing the inhabitants as “ a very inotfenfive race
of people.”—Inoffenfive, however, as they are, a cu¬
ftom of a very unnatural, and we Ihould imagine cruel,
kind prevails among them : for, together with many
other articles which they expofed to fale to Cap¬
tain Cook’s fhips, they brought human fkulls and
hands (part of the flefli ftill remaining on them),
which they acknowledged they had been feeding on ;
and tome of them, we are told, had evident marks of
the fire.
From hence it is too apparent, that the horrid prac¬
tice of devouring their enemies exifts here as well as at
New Zealand and other South fea iflands: and hence,
too, appears what men of even the beft natural difpofi-
tions will be, if left entirely to the freedom of their own
will, without law to controul or religion to inftruft
them. As there are but two villages of the Sound in¬
habited, the number of people cannot be many 5 per¬
haps they are about 2000 in all. Our limits prevent
us from being fo minute as we could wifli to be, re-
fpefting the form of their houfes and their manner of
building them ; of their furniture, decorations, and
other things of that kind : we can therefore cifly re¬
fer thofe who wiffi for further information on this liib-
jeft to Cook, and other voyagers and travellers, &c.
The employment of the men is chiefly fifhing, &c.
whilft the women manufafture their garments. Their
ingenuity in this and in the mechanic arts is far from
being inconfiderable ; and in the imitative arts their
fkill is very great. On thefe fubjefts, however, we
cannot enlarge : we have in general made it our bu-
finefs, and it certainly is our duty, to dwell, where it
can be done, on the manners or religion of the inha¬
bitants of the feveral places which come under our
notice ; and they xvho know the utility of this in deve¬
loping the philofophy of the human mind, the rnoft
important of all fciences, will not blame our intentions,
even if they Ihcuid not approve of the execution. In
Cook’s
N O 0 [ 47 ] NOR
Nootka Cook’s Voyages before referred to, we find the fol-
Solin<1- lou'ing obfervations on the religion and language of
the inhabitants of Nootka Sound.
“ Little knowledge we can be fuppofed to have ac¬
quired of the political and religious inflitutions efta-
blifhed among thefe people. We difcovered, however,
that there were fuch men as chiefs, diftinguifhed by
the title of Aciveek, to whom the others are, in fome
degree, fubordinate. But the authority of each of
thefe great men feems to extend no farther than to
his own lamily, who acknowledge him as their head.
As they were not all elderly men, it is pouible this title
may be hereditary.
“ Nothing that we faw could give us any infight
into their notions of religion, except the figures alrea¬
dy mentioned, called Khimma. Thefe, perhaps, were
idols but as the word acvjeek was frequently men¬
tioned when they fpoke of them, we may flip pole
them to be the images of fome of their anceftors,
whofe memories they venerate. This, however, is all
conjecture ; for we could receive no information con¬
cerning them •, knowing little more of their language
than to enable us to afk the names of things, and
being incapable of holding any converfation with
the natives relative to their traditions or their infti-
tutions.
“ Their language is neither harfh nor difagreeable,
farther than proceeds from their pronouncing the k
and h with lefs foftnefs than we do. As to the com-
pofition of their language, we are enabled to fay but
little. It may, however, be inferred from their flow
and diftinfil method of fpeaking, that it has few pre-
pnfitions or conjunctions, and is deditute of even a
fingle interjection to exprefs furprife or admiration.
The affinity it may bear to other languages, we have
not been able fufficiently to trace, not having proner
fpecimens to compare it with •, but from the few Mexi¬
can words we have procured, there is an obvious agree¬
ment throughout the language, in the frequent termi¬
nations of the words in /, // or x.
“ The word waia/h was frequently in the mouths
of the people of Nootka. It feemed to exprefs appro¬
bation, applaufe, and friendffiip. Whenever they ap¬
peared to he pleafed or fatisfied at any fight or oc¬
currence, they would call out wakajh ! wakajh !—It is
worthy of remark, that as thefe people do effentlally
differ from the natives of the iflands in the Pacific
ocean, in their perfons, cuftoms, and language, we can¬
not fuppofe their refpeftive progenitors to have belong¬
ed to the fame tribe, when they emigrated into thole
places where we now find their defcendants.”
We cannot finifh this article without taking notice
of a circumftance, which at the time made a great noife
in Europe, and which it is probable will find a place
in the future hiftories of the contending countries.
A fmall affociation of Britiih merchants refident
in the Eaft Indies had, early in the year 17S6, form¬
ed the projeCl of opening a trade to this part of the
world, for the purpofe of fupplying the Chinefe mar¬
ket with furs. The principal point towards which
thefe expeditions were direCled, was Port Nootka, or
King George’s Sound; and the adventurers, being in
fome degree fatisfied with their traffic, took meafures,
in the year 1788, to fecure to themfelves a permanent
fettlement 1 at the fame time that the dripping em¬
ployed in this expedition was generally two, and never Nopal
exceeded the amount of four, fmall veffels. The Spa- j1
niards conceived fome jealoufy of the intrufion of the y°r(:^einr'i
Englifn into a part of the world which they had long
been defirous to regard as their exclufive property ;
and accordingly a Spanifh frigate of 26 guns was de-
fpatched from the province of Mexico, for the purpofe
of putting an end to this commerce. The Spanilh
frigate arrived in May J789, and captured two Eng- ■
liffi veffels in the following July, at the fame time tak¬
ing poffeffion of the little fettlement which had been
formed upon the coaft. Such, in ftiort, is the circum¬
ftance which was likely to involve us in an expen-
five war. Happily, however, for both countries, and
perhaps for Europe, the matter was at length, after
great altercation, amicably fettled 5 and it muft ftill
be fo frefh in the memories of our readers, that we
txuft they will excufe us from enlarging further upon ■
it—the whole article having extended perhaps to more
than a fufficient length.
NOPAL, Raquette, or Indian fig; plants fo
named by the Indians, on which the cochineal infect
breeds in Mexico. See Cochineal, Dyeing Index.
NOPALXOCHQUETZALLI, or Nopalcoch-
quetzalli, the prickly pear of Mexico, which is com¬
mon over all the Weft Indies. See Cactus, Botany
Index.
NOPH. See Memphis.
NORBURY, a town of Staffordffiire, in England, on
the fouth-weft ftde of Eccleftrall. Here is a lurprifing
echo, which, taken 440 yards north-eaft from the ma¬
nor houfe, near a little bank under a wood fide, repeats
in a ftill day 10 or 11 fyllables very diitinctly, or 12
or 13, if fpoke very quick. It is remarked that the
banks of the Black Meer, in this parilh, grow forward
every year over the furface of the water, at the rate
of three or four yards every feven years.
NORDEN, Frederic Lewis, an ingenious travel- .
ler and naval officer in the Daniftr fervice, was born
at Gluckftadt in Hclfteln in the year 1708. He was
well {killed in mathematics, flrip-building, and efpe-
cially in architeclure j and in 1732 obtained a peniion
to enable him to travel, for the .purpofe of ftudying
the ceni! ruction of ihips, particularly the galleys and
other rowing veffels ufed in the Mediterranean. He
fpent near three years in Italy j and Chriftian VI. being
defirous of obtaining a circumftantial account of Egypt,
Mr Norden while at Florence received an order to ex¬
tend his travels to that country. How he acquitted
himfelf in this commifiion, appears from his Travels ■
into Egypt and Nubia, printed at Copenhagen in folio,
1756; and which were foon after tranfiated into Engliffi
by JDr Peter Templeman. In the war between Eng¬
land and Spain, Mr Norden, then a captain in the Ba-
nifix navy, attended Count Ulrie Adolphus, a fea cap¬
tain, to England 5 and they went out volunteers under
Sir John Norris, and afterwards under Sir Chalcner
Ogle, During his ftay in London, Mr Norden was
made a fellow of.the Royal Society, and gave the public-
drawings of fome ruins and coloffal ftatues at Thebes in
Egypt, with an account of the fame in a letter to the
Royal Society, 1741. His health at this time was de¬
clining •, and taking a tour to France, he died at Paris
in 1742.
NORDHEIM, a town in Germany, in the Hano-
f
NOE. [ 48 ] N O R
Nore-, vcr quarter. Of the four larger towns of this princi-
, Norfolk. ^ pality, it is the third in order. It is Ikuated on the
Ruhme, which runs into the Leine. It contains 500
houfes, and, belides a fecularized Lutheran abbey, has
one parifh church, and fome charitable foundations,
and alfo enjoys fome manufactures.
NORES, Jason de, a fcholar, poet, and philofo-
pher, was born at Nicoiia in Cyprus. He loft his for¬
tune when the Turks made themfelves mailers of that
iiland in 1570. He retired to Padua j where he ac¬
quired great reputation by teaching moral philofophy.
His charafter had that call of feverity which is often
the confequence of fcholaftic habits. He was one of
thofe men who difcufs every thing without being ca¬
pable of feeling any thing. The Pajlor Fido of Gua-
rini made its appearance 5 and paiiorals became a fa-
ihionable fpecies of reading throughout all Italy. No-
res, who did not re'llih works of this kind, attacked
the produftion of Guarini; who entirely confuted him
in a little piece printed at Ferrara in 1588. Nores
made a reply two years after; and the poet was pre¬
paring an anfwer Hill more fevere than the former,
when his antagoniil died of grief, occaiioned by the
banishment of his only fon for having killed a Vene¬
tian in a duel. He left behind him a great many works,
fome in Italian, and others in Latin. The chief of
his Italian works, are, 1. The Poeticks, Padua, 1588,
qto j tins edition is rare. 2. A Treatife on Republics,
1578, qto ; which he forms on the model of that of
the Venetians, his mailers. 3. A Treatife on the
World and its Parts, Venice, 1571, 8vo. 4. Intro-
- ducLon to three books of Ariilotle’s Rhetoric, Venice,
l 584, 410, valuable. 5. A Treatife on what Comedy,
Tragedy, and Epic Poetry, may receive from Moral
Philofophy. His Latin works are, 1. Injiitutio in
Philofophiam Ciceronis, Padua, 1576, 8vo. 2. Brevis
et diftincia fumma prsecebtorujn de arte difcendi, ex hbris
Ciceronis coHeBa, Venice, 1553, 8vo. ; a good work.
3. De Conjlitutione partium humance et civilis philofophia’,
qto. 4. Interpretatio in artem poeticam Horatii, &c.
In all his works we remark great perfpicuity and ac¬
curacy, profound erudition, happy exprelfions, an elevat¬
ed and fometimes forcible Ityle.—His fon Peter Nores,
fucceffively fecretary to feveral cardinals, at once a man
of letters and a man of bufmefs, left behind him differ¬
ent manufcripts 5 among others, the life of Paul IV. in
Italian.
NORFOLK, a county of England, fo called from
its northern fituation in refpedl of Suffolk, is bounded
on the call and north by the German ocean ) on the
fouth by Suffolk, from which it is parted by the
rivers Waveney and the Leffer Oufe ; and on the
weft it is feparated from Cambridgefhire by the Greater
'Oufe, and from a fmall part of Lincolnlhire by the
Wallies. According to Templeman, it extends in
length 57 miles, in breadth 35, and 140 in circumfe¬
rence. It contains an area of 1426 fquare miles, one
city, 32 market towns, 711 villages, according to the
book of rates, though fome make them 1500, and
273,371 inhabitants. It is divided into 31 hundreds,
164 vicarages, and 660 panlhes.
The air differs in different parts of the county ac¬
cording to the foil, which in fome places is marlhy,
efpecially on the fea coaft, and there the air is foggy
■and unwholefome ; in others it is clayey and chalky,
2
poor, lean, and fandy, and there the air is good. The Wo!k,
county is aimoff all champaign, except in lome places, Norfolk
i\ here rife gentle hills. The marlh lands yield rich M-iml.
pafture for cattle } the clay grounds peafe, rye, and *
barley ; and the fandy heaths feed vaft flocks of large
flieep, of which fome villages are laid to keep 4000
or 5000. Thefe heaths abound alfo in rabbits of a
filver gray colour. Walfmgham is noted for produ¬
cing the belt faflfon. Great quantities of mackarel
and herring are caught upon the coal’s of this county,
the former in the fpring, and the latter in September j
efpecially at Yarmouth, where they are cured in a
particular manner, and to great perfection. Wood
and honey are alfo very plentiful in this county ; and
on the coafts jet and ambergreafe are fometimes found.
The inhabitants are generally ftrong and aftive, lagaci-
ous and acute. That they are fo robuft, is the more to
to be wondered at, becaule the common people live
much on puddings, Norfolk dumplings. They are for
the moft: part in eaiy cirqimftances, and were formerly
very quarrelfome and litigious. In confeqqence of this
difpofttion, lawyers fwarmed among them to fuch a de¬
gree, that a ftatute was made fo early as the reign of
Henry VI. to reftrain their number. The manufactures
of the county* which is exceedingly populous, are chief¬
ly woollen and worlted fluffs and itockings, for which
they are well fupplied with wool from the vaft flocks of
fheep bred in it. It gives title of duke to the eldefl
branch of the family of Howard, lies in the diocefe
of Norwich, and fends twelve members to parliament,
viz. two knights for the Ihire, two citizens for Nor¬
wich, and two burgeffes for each of the boroughs of
Lynn Regis, Great Yarmouth, Thetford, and Caftle-
rifing.
The county is well watered, and fupplied with
fifli by the rivers Yare, Tbyrn, Waveney, the Greater
and Leffer Gufe, and the Bure, beiides rivulets. The
Bure abounds in excellent perch, and the Yare has
a filh peculiar to it called the ruffe* The latter rifes
about the middle of the county ; and after being
joined by the Waveney and Bure, falls into the fea at
Yarmouth. At the equinoxes, efpeciajly the autum¬
nal, the Oufe is fubjeft to great inundations, being
forced back by the fea, that enters it with great fury.
This county was famous at a very early period for its
filheries, which were extenfive and valuable, and feem
to have been carried on with fpirit. it has alfo been
remarkable, for at lead 400 years paft, for the manufac¬
ture of fine worfted Huffs.
Norfolk, a county of Virginia contiguous to North
Carolina.
Norfolk Ifcind, a fmall iftand of the South fea, lying
in 290 12' 30" fouth latitude, and ] 68° 16' eaft longi¬
tude. A colony was lately fettled on it : and the fol¬
lowing account of it is given in Governor Phillip's
Voyage to Botany Bay, &c.
Norfolk ifland is about Even leagues in circum¬
ference ; and if not originally formed, like many other
fmall i(lands, by the eruption of volcanic matter from
the bed of the fea, mufl doubtlefs have contained a
volcano. This conclufion is formed from the vaff
quantity of pumice Hone which is fcattered in all parts
of it, and mixed with the foil. The crater, or at
leaff fome traces of its former exiffence, will probably
be found at the furamit of a fmall mountain, which
NOR
Norfolk
Ifland.
[
rues near tire middle of tlie ifland. To tins mountain
the commandant has given the name of Mount Pitt.
The illand is exceedingly well watered. At or near
Mount Pitt rifes a ftrong and copious ftream, which
flowing through a very fine valley, divides itfelf into
feveral branches, each of which retains fufficient force
to be ufed in turning mills 5 and in various parts of the
ifland fprings have been difcovered.
“ 'J-'he climate is pure, falubrious, and delightful;
preferved from oppreflive heats by conflant breezes from
the lea, and of fo mild a temperature throughout the
winter, that vegetation continues there without interrup¬
tion, one crop fucceeding another. Refrefhing fhowers
from time to time maintain perpetual verdure : not in¬
deed of grafs, for none has yet been feen upon the ifland:
but of the trees, ihrubs, and other vegetables, which in
all parts grow abundantly. On the leaves of thefe, and
of fome kinds in particular, the fheep, hogs, and goats,
not only live, but thrive and fatten very much. To
the falubrity of the air every individual in this little
colony can bear ample teflimony, from the uninter¬
rupted date of good health which has been .in general
enjoyed.
“ When our fettlers landed, there was not a fingle
acre clear of wood in the ifland, and the trees were fo
bound together by that kind of creeping fhrub called
fupple jach, interwoven in all dire&ions, as to render it
very difficult to penetrate far among them. The
commandant, fmall as his numbers were at firff, by
indefatigable aclivity foon caufed a fpace to be cleared
fufficient for the requifite accommodations, and for
the production of efculent vegetables of all kinds in
the greatefl abundance. When the lad accounts ar¬
rived, three acres of barley were in a very thriving
date, and ground was prepared to receive rice and In¬
dian corn. In the wheat there had been a difappoint-
ment, the grain that was fown having been fo much
injured by the weevil as to be unfit for vegetation.
Eut the people were all at that time in commodious
lioufes ; and, according to the declarations of Mr King
bimfelf, in his letters to Governor Philip, there was
not a doubt that this colony would be in a fituation
to fupport itfelf entirely without afiidance in lefs than
four years ; and with very little in the intermediate
time.. Even two years would be more than fufficient
for this purpofe, could a proper fupply of black cattle
be fent.
“ Fifh are caught in great plenty, and in the pro¬
per feafon very fine turtle. The woods are inhabited
by innumerable tribes of birds, many of them very
gay in plumage. The mod ufeful are pigeons, which
are very numerous ; and a bird not unlike the Guinea
fond, except in colour (being chiefly white), both of
which were at fird fo tame as to fuffer themfelves to
be taken by hand. Of plants that afford vegetables
for the table, the chief are cabbage palm, the wild
plantain, the fern tree, a kind of wild fpinage, and a
tree which produces a diminutive fruit, bearing fome
refemblance to a currant. This, it is hoped, by tranf-
planting and care, will be much improved in fize and
flavour.
“ the productions which give the greated im¬
portance to Norfolk Ifland are the pines and the flax
plant; the former rifing to a fize and perfection un¬
known-in other places, and promifing the mod valuable
VOL. XV. Part I. < 5
Noria.
49] NO R
fupply of mads and fpars for our navy in the Ead In- Norfolk
dies \ the latter not lefs eflimable for the purpofes of Sound
making failcloth, cordage, and even the fined manu-
factures, growing in great plenty, and with fuch luxu¬
riance as to attain the height of eight feet. The pines
meafure frequently 160, or even 180 feet in height, and
are fometimes g or 10 feet in diameter at the bottom of
the trunk. They rife to about 80 feet without a
branch : the wood is laid to be of the bed quality, al-
mod as light as that of the bed Norway mads; and the
turpentine obtained from it is remarkable for purity and
whitenefs. The fern tree is found alfo of a great heioffit
for its fpecies, meafuring from 70 to 80 feet, and affords
excellent food for the Iheep and other fmall cattle. A
plant producing pepper, and fuppofed to be the true ori¬
ental pepper, has been difcovered lately in the ifland,
growing in great plenty ; and fpecimens have been
fent to England in order to afcertain this important
point.”
Norfolk Sound, according to the account of Cap¬
tain George Dixon, is fituated in 570 3' north latitude,
and *3 5° 3^' wed longitude. It is a very extenfive
place, but how far it dretches to the northward is not
known. There may poffibly be a paffage throw 4 to
the Bay of Iflands, but neither is this certain. ° The
fhore, in common with the red of the coad, abounds
with pines ; there are alfo great quantities of the witch
hazel. There are various kinds of flowering trees and
Ihrubs, wild goolberries, currants, and rafpberries ; wild
parfley is found here in great plenty, and it eats excel¬
lently either as a falad or boiled amongd foup. The
faranne, or wild lily root, grows alfo in great plenty and
perfection. There are a very few wild geefe or ducks
feen here, but they are fliy and difficult of approach.
NORHAM, a town in England, in the county of
Northumberland, on the river Tweed, near the mouth
of the Till, under the cadle, which was anciently erec¬
ted on a deep rock moated round, for the better fecuri-
ty againd the incurfions of the Scotch mofs troopers. It
is of great antiquity ; and its old church has lately re¬
ceived repairs^ and been made a decent place of wor-
fliip. Antiquities have been difcovered here. The
church had the privilege of a fancduary. The cadle
has been frequently honoured with the prefence of fove-
reigns, particularly Edward I. here received the oath of
treaty from John Baliol of Scotland. It has been a
formidable druclure, a great part of which is in ruins;
the fite of which, with its demefnes, confided of 1030
acres.
NORIA, a hydraulic machine much ufed in Spain.
It confids of a vertical wheel of 20 feet diameter, on
the circumference of which are fixed a number of little
boxes or fquare buckets, for the purpofe of raifing the
water out of the well, communicating with the canal
below, and to empty it into a refervoir above, placed by
the fide of the wheel. The buckets have a lateral ori¬
fice to receive and to difcharge the water. The axis
of this wheel is embraced by four fmall beams, eroding
each other at right angles, tapering at the extremities,
and forming eight little arms. This wheel is near the
centre of the horfe walk, contiguous to the vertical axis,
into the top of which the horfe beam is fixed : but near
the bottom it is embraced by four little beams, forming
eight arms fimilar to thofe above deferibed, on the axis
of the water wheel. As the mule which they ufe goes
G round.
Noria,
Noricum.
N O H [ 50 I NOR
round, thefe horizontal arms, fupplying the place of
cogs, take hold, each in fucceffion, of thofe arms which
are fixed on the axis of the water wheel, and keep it in
rotation.
This machine, than which nothing can be cheaper,
throws up a great quantity of water ; yet undoubtedly
it has two defeats: the firft is, that part of the water
runs out of the buckets and falls back into the well
after it has been raifed nearly to the level of the refer-
voir : the fecond is, that a confiderable proportion of
the water to be difcharged is raifed higher than the re-
lervoir, and falls into it only at the moment when the
bucket is at the higheft point of the circle, and ready
to defcend.
Both thefe defeats might be remedied with eafe, by
leaving thefe fquare buckets open at one end, making
them fwing on a pivot fixed a little above their centre
of gravity, and placing the trough of the refervoir in
fuch a pofition as to flop their progrefs whilft perpendi¬
cular j make them turn upon their pivot, and fo dif-
charge their contents.
From the refervoir the water is conveyed by channels
.to every part of the garden} thefe have divifions and
fubdivifions or beds, feme large, others very fmall, fepa-
rated from each other by little channels, into which a
boy with his {hovel or his hoe directs the water, firft in¬
to the moft diftant trenches, and fucceffively to all the
reft, till all the beds and trenches have been either co¬
vered or filled with water.
Mr Townfend, from whom we have taken the above
account, thinks, that on account of the extreme fimpli-
city of this machine, it is an invention of the moft
remote antiquity. By means of it the inhabitants every
morning draw as much water from the well as will ferve
through the day, and in the evening diftribute it to
every quarter according to the nature of their crops.
The refervoirs into which they raife the water are about
20, 30, or even 40 feet fquare, and three feet high above
the furface of the ground, with a ftone cope on the wall,
declining to the water for the women to wafti and beat
their clothes upon.
Our limits preclude us from following Mr Townfend
farther in the defeription of a particular noria ufed at
Barcelona; which he conceives to be the original chain
pump, or at leaft its parent. He compares it with
fimilar inftruments, and {hows its advantages and difad-
vantages.
NORICUM (Ptolemy, Tacitus) •, a Roman province,
fituated between the Danube on the north, and thus le-
parated from ancient Germany; the Alpes Noricae on
the fouth •, the river Afnus on the weft, which feparates
it from Vindelicia 5 and Mons Cetius on the eaft, which
divides it from Pannonia. Now containing a great part
of Auftria, -all Saltzburg, Stiria, and Carinthia. It was
anciently a kingdom under its own kings (Caefar, Vel¬
leius, Suetonius). Norici the people, fubdued by Tibe¬
rius under Auguftus, as allies of the Pannonii (Dio,
Velleius). Tacitus reckons Noricum among thofe pro¬
vinces which were governed by procurators, officers fent
by the emperors to receive and difpofe of the public re¬
venue according to order. It was divided into two pro¬
vinces, but at what time uncertain 5 fuppofed as low
down as Dioclefian and Conftantine, vi'z. the Noricum
•Ripenfe, running along the fouth fide of the Danube 5
and the Noricum Mediterraneum, extending towards the Norm,
Alps. How far each of thefe extended in breadth does Noris.
not appear : all the account we have of the matter be- "“'—v'"*
ing from Sextus Rufus, and the Nothin Imperii Gcciden-
talis. Anciently a country famous for its iron and
fteel (Horace) ; as is Stiria at this day, a part of
Noricum. A climate cold and more fparingly fruitful
(Solinus).
NORIN, a river which rifes in a corner of the Ve¬
netian confines, that runs between the rugged marble hills,
and is left entirely to itfelf from its very fource j hence
a vaft tract of land is overflowed by it, and encumbered
with reeds, willows, and wild alders. A fmall fpace of
ground only remains dry between the roots of the hills and
the marffi at a place called Prudj and that is all cover¬
ed with pieces of ancient hewn ftones, fragments of in-
feriptions, columns, and capitals, and bafs reliefs of the
belt age, worn and deformed by time, and the barbarifm
of the northern people, who begun on that fide to de-
ftroy Narona. The inhabitants, who go often to cut
reeds in the marffi, affert, that the veftiges of that large
city may ftill be feen under water. It appears to have
been extended over the plain a great way, and undoubt¬
edly it was three miles in length at the foot of the hills.
The ancient road is now under water ; and it is neceffary
to afeend a very fteep road, in order to pafs the point of
a craggy hill, on which, probably before the Roman
times, thofe fortifications were erefted that coft Vetinius
fo much labour.
NORIS, Hexry, cardinal, a great ornament of the
order of the monks of St Auguftine, was defeended
from the prefident Jafcn, or James de Noris, and was
born at Verona 1631. He was carefully educated by
his father Alexander Noris, originally of Ireland, and
well known by his Hiftory of Germany. He difeover-
ed from his infancy an excellent underftanding, great
vivacity, and a quick apprehenfion. His father inftruc-
ted him in the rudiments of grammar, and procured an
able profeflbr of Verona, called MaJJbleim, to be his
preceptor. At 15 he was admitted a penfioner in the
Jefuits college at Rimini, where he ftudied philofophy j
after which he applied himfelf to the writings of the
fathers of the church, particularly thofe of St Augu¬
ftine : and taking the habit in the convent of the Au¬
guftine monks of Rimini, he diftinguiffied himfelf among
that fraternity in a fliort time by his erudition : info-*
much, that as foon as he was out of his noviciate or
time of probation, the general of the order fent for him
to Rome, in order to give him an opportunity of im¬
proving himfelf in the more folid branches of learning.
He did not difappoint his fuperior’s expectations. He
gave himfelf up entirely to his ftudy, and fpent whole
days, and even nights, in the library of the Angeliques
of St Auguftine. His conftant courfe was to flick to
his books 14 hours a day •, and this courfe he continued
till he became a cardinal. By this means he became
qualified to inftruCt others $ and on this errand he was
fent firft to Pezaro, and thence to Peroufa, where he
took his degree of doctor of divinity *, after which, pro¬
ceeding to Padua, he applied himfelf to finiffi his Hifto¬
ry of Pelagianifm. He had begun it at Rome at the
age of 26 } and, having completed his defign, the book
was printed at Florence, and publiffied in 1673. The
great duke of Tufcany invited him the following year
NOR [
Xoris, to that city, made him his chaplain, and profeiTor of ec-
Norkoping. clefiaflical hillory in the univerfity of Pita, which his
' v highnefs had founded with that view.
In his hiftory he fet forth and defended the condem¬
nation pronounced, in the eighth general council, againft
Origen and Mopfuefta, the firft authors of the Pelagian
errors : he alfo added an account of the Schifm of A-
quiieia, and a Vindication of the Books written by St
Augultine againft the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians.
Tne w'ors. had procured him a great reputation, but met
with feveral antagonifts, to whom he publilhed proper
anfvvers : the difpute grew warm, and was carried before
the fovereign tribunal of the inquifition. There the
hiftory was examined with the utmoft rigour, and the
author difinifled without the lead; cenfure. It w7as re¬
printed twice afterwards, and Mr Noris honoured by
Pope Clement X. with the title of Qualificator of the
Holy Office. Notwithftanding this, the charge was
renewed againft the Pelagian Hiftory, and it was dila¬
ted afrelh before the inquifttion in 1676; but it came
out again with the fame fuccefs as at firft. Mr Noris
was now fuffered to remain in peace for fixteen years,
and taught ecclefiaftical hiftory at Pifa, without any
moleftation, till he was called to Rome by Innocent
XII. who made him under-librarian of the Vatican in
1692. This poll wras the way to a cardinal’s hat 5
his accufers,. therefore, took frelh fire, and publilhed fe¬
veral new pieces againft him. Hence the Pope appoint¬
ed fome learned divines, who had the charafter of ha¬
ving taken neither fide, to re-examine Father Noris’s
books, and make their report of them. Their teftimo-
ny was fo advantageous to the author, that his holinefs
made ffim counfellor of the inquifition. Yet neither
did this hinder one of his adverfaries, the moft formi¬
dable on account of his erudition, to rife up againft him,
and attack him warmly, under the affumed title of a
Scrupulous Doctor of the Sorbonne. Noris tried to re¬
move thefe fcruples in a work which appeared in 169 ?,
under the title of An Hiftorical Differtation concerning
one of the Trinity that fuffered in the Flelh } wherein,
having juftified the monks of Scythia, who made ufe of
that expreffion, he vindicated himfelf alfo from the im¬
putation of having attainted the Pope’s infallibility, of
having abufed Vincentius Lirinenfis, and other bilhops
of Gaul, as favourers of Semi-Pelagianifm, and of having
himfelf gone into the errors of the bilhop of Ypres.
His anfwers to all thefe accufations were fo much to
the fatisfaftion of the pope, that at length his holinefs
honoured him with the purple in 1695. After this, he
was in all the congregations, and employed in the moft
important affairs •, fo that he had little time to fpend in
his ftudy, a thing of which he frequently comolained to
his friends. Upon the death of Cardinal Cafanati, he
was made chief library keeper of the Vatican in 1700 j
and two years afterwards nominated, among others, to
reform the kalendar : but he died at Rome in 1704 of
a dropfy. He was one of the moft learned men in the
laft century : his writings abound with erudition, and
are very elegantly finiftied. He was a member of the
Academy ; whence he affumed the name of Eucrates
Agoretico. His works are numerous, and were pu-
bliffied at Verona, in 1729 and 1730, in five volumes
folio.
NORKOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Eaft Gothland, in eaft longitude 250 30', latitude
u 1 NOR
58° 20'. Its name fignifies “ the northern market,” in Normandy,
the Swediffi language. It ftands on the banks of a “—
large river called Motala, which coming from the lake
Vetter, falls a little lower into a gulf called Brawicken.
It is the largeft and moft populous town in Sweden,
next to Stockholm, conveniently fituated near the fea on
a navigable river, which brings large veffels up to the
middle of the town. There are fome handfome ftreets,
and the houfes in general are neatly built. Some of
the churches are worth feeing ; but the greateft curiofi-
ty are the famous copper mines, where there is a vaft
number of people conftantly at work. In this article
the town carries on a very good trade j as alfo in feve¬
ral other manufaftures, as leather, fteel, and guns, which
they make the beft in Sweden.
It covers a large fpace of ground, being ten miles in
circumference 5 but the houfes are linall and fcattered,
and the inhabitants do not exceed 10,000. The river
Motala flows through the town, forms a feries of cata¬
racts, and is divided into four principal itreams, which
encircle feveral rocky iflands, covered with houfes and
manufadtories. At the extremity of the town it is na¬
vigable for fmall veffels. Several manufactories are
eftabliftied in the town ; 55 fabrics of cloth, which em-
ploy 1500 men j 3 fugar-houfes j 1 of fnuff; 50 mills
for grinding com, which is exported in large quantities j
and a brafs foundery. A falmon fifhery gives employ¬
ment and riches to many of the inhabitants.
NORMANDY, a province of France, bounded on
the north by the Engliih channel; on the eaft by Picar¬
dy and the Me of France j on the fouth by Perche and
Maine, and one part of Bretagne ; and on the weft by
the ocean. It is about 155 miles in length, 85 in
breadjE, and 600 in circumference. It is one of the moft
fertile, and brings in the largeft revenue of the king¬
dom. It abounds in all things except wine, but they
fupply that defect by cyder and perry. There are vaft;
meadows, fat paftures, and the fea yields plenty of fifh.
It contains iron, copper, and a great number of rivers
and harbours. It carries on a great trade, is very popu- .
lous, and comprehends a vaft number of towns and vil¬
lages. It is divided into the Upper and Lower; the
Upper borders upon Picardy, and the Lower upon Bre¬
tagne. It contains feven diocefes or bifhoprics, Rouen,
Bayeux, Avranches, Evreux, Sees, Lifieux, and Cou-
tances, in wffiich they compute 4189 parifhes, and 80
abbeys. The inhabitants are ingenious, and capable of
underftanding any arts and fciences, but they are chiefly
fond of law The Normans, a people of Denmark and
Norway, having entered France under Rollo, Charles
the Simple ceded this country to them in 912, which
from that time was called Nor mandy, and contains about
8 200 fquare miles. Its chief city is Rouen. Rollo was
the firft duke, and held it as a fief of the crown of
France, and feveral of his fucceffors after him, till Wil¬
liam, the feventh duke, conquered England in 1066 :
from which time it became a province of England, till
it was loft in the reign of King John, and reunited to
the crown of France ; but the Engliih ftill keep the
iflands on the coafts of Normandy.
The principal rivers are the Seine, the Eure, the
Aure, the Iton, the Dive, the Andelle, the Rille, the
Touque, the Dromee, and the Orne : among the fea
ports, the principal are thofe of Dieppe, Havre, Honfleur,
Cherburg, and Granville. Rouen is the principal cky.
G 2 NORMANS,
NOR [ 52 ] NOR
Normans NORMANS, a fierce warlike people of Norway,
r !t Denmark, and other parts of Scandinavia. They at
different times overran and ravaged moll; countries in
Europe : to the refpective hiftories of thofe countries we
therefore refer for a fuller account of them, as it is im-
pofiible to enlarge upon particulars in this place without
repeating what has been already faid, or may be faid, in
different parts of the work.
Norman Characters, a fpecies of writing introduced
into England by William I. From fome old manu-
fcripts the Norman writing appears to have been corn-
pofed of letters nearly Lombardic. In regal grants,
charters, public inftruments, and law proceedings, this
character was ufed with very little variation from the
reign of the Conqueror to that of Edward III. See
Writing. v
NORRIS, or Noris. See Noris.
NORTH, one of the four cardinal points of the
world ; being that point of the horizon which is di¬
rectly oppofite to the fun in meridian. The north
wind is generally accompanied with a confiderable de¬
gree of cold. It fome times blows with almoft irrefilt-
ible fury. It is often mentioned by the claflic authors
under the name of Boreas, which is of Greek original.
See Boreas.
North Pole. See Pole.
North, Dudley, Lord, the third baron of that ac-
compliihed family, was one of the fineft gentlemen in
the court of King James •, but in fupporting that cha¬
racter, diffipated and gamed away the greateft part of
his fortune. In 1645, he appears to have aCted with
the parliament 3 and was nominated by them to be ad-
miniftrator of the admiralty, in conjunction with the
great earls of Northumberland, Effex, Warwick^ and
others. He lived to the age of 85, the latter part of
which he paffed in retirement ; and wrote a fmall folio
of mifcellanies, in profe and verfe, under this title, A
Foreft promifcuous of feveral Seafons Productions, in four
parts, 1659.
North, Dudley, Lord, fon of the former, was made
knight of the Bath in 1616, at the creation of Charles
prince of Wales 3 and fat in many parliaments, till ex¬
cluded by the prevailing party in that which condemned
the king. From that period Lord North lived privately
in the country, and towards the end of his life entertain¬
ed himfelf with books, and, as his numerous iffue requir¬
ed, with economy 3 on which he wrote a little trad, call¬
ed Obfervations and advices economical, 1 2mo. His other
works are, Pafiages relating to the long parliament 3 the
hiftory of the life of Lord Edward North, the firft baron
of he family, addreffed to his eldeft fon 3 and a volume
of Effays.
North, Francis, Lord Guildford, lord-keeper of the
great feal in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.
was a third fon of the fecond Dudley lord Noth, ba¬
ron of Kertling 3 and ftudied at St John’s college in
Cambridge, from whence he removed to the Middle
Temple. He acquired French, Italian, Spanifii, and
Dutch 3 and became not only a good lawyer, but was
well verfed in hiftory, mathematics, philofophy, and
mufic. Fie was afterwards made the king’s folicitor-
general, and was chofen to reprefent the borough of
Lynn in parliament. He fucceeded Sir Pleneage Finch
m the yoft of attorney-general 3 and Lord Chief-Juf-
tice Vaughan, in the place of lord chief-juftice of the
common pleas. He was afterwards made keeper of North,
the great feal: and.in 1683 was created a baron by —
the title of Lord Guildford. He died at his houfe at
Wroxton in 16S5. Fie wrote a philofophical effay on
mufic : a paper on the gravitation of fluids, confidered
in the bladders of fifties, printed in Lowthorp’s abridge¬
ment of the Philofophical TranfaClions 3 and fome oilier
pieces.
North, Right Honourable Frederick, earl of Guild¬
ford, Lord North, lord warden and admiral of the
Cinque Ports, governor of Dover cattle, lord lieutenant
and cuttos rotulorum of Somerfetthire, chancellor of the
univerfity of Oxford, recorder of Gloucefter and Taun¬
ton, an elder brother of the Trinity houfe, prefident of
the Foundling hofpital and of the Afylum, a governor
of the Turkey Company and of the Charter houfe, K. G.
and LL. D. was born April 13. 17323 and married,
May 20. 1756, Mifs Ann Speke, an heirefs of the an¬
cient family of Dillington in Somerfetfhire, by whom
he has left two fons and three daughters : the eldeft fon
George Auguftus, born September 11. 1759, and mar¬
ried, September 30. 1785, to Mifs Hobart, fucceeds to
the earldom and eftates. The late earl fucceeded his fa¬
ther Auguft 4. 1790. His lordihip fucceeded the cele¬
brated Mr Charles Townfend as manager of the houfe
of commons and chancellor of the exchequer 3 and in
1770, on the refignation of the duke of Grafton, was
made firft lord of the treafury 3 in which office he con¬
tinued until the clofe of the American war, or rather
until the formation of the Rockingham miniftry, which
began the bufinefs of peace with the colonies. He was
a man of ftrong mental faculties 3 and as an orator, at
once commanded attention and enforced convidftion : but
taking the helm at a time when the king’s party were
unpopular, and when it was fuppofed that the late
earl of Bute was the great machine by which the ca¬
binet was moved, fo he continued in that ftate of un¬
popularity until he refigned the feals. During the
whole of his premierftiip (and to conduft the helm at
that time required uncommonly great abilities) he ftu-
dioufty avoided impofing any taxes that ftiould mate¬
rially affedl the lower clafs of people. The luxuries,
and not the neceffaries, of life were repeated objects
of hi? budget. As a financier, he flood high, even
in the opinion of oppofition 3 and they were a combi¬
nation of all the great talents in the kingdom : but,
fatally wedded to the deftructive plan of fubduing the
republican fpirit of the Americans, his adminiftration
will not only ftand marked in the page of hjftory with
an immenfe wafte of public treafure, but it will appear
befprinkled with the kindred blood of thoufands of
Britilh fubjects. To the very la ft moment he fpoke in
the fenate, however, he defended that war ; and faid,
he was then, as he was formerly, prepared to meet the
minuteft invefligation as to his conduct in that bufi¬
nefs 3 which nothing but the unforefeen intervention
of France could have prevented from being crowned
with fuccefs. His lordfhip was one of the firmeft and
moil ftrenuous fupporters of the conftitution in church
and ftate. He died on the cth of Auguft 1792. His
recollection he retained to his laft moments : his fa¬
mily, except Lord North, who came within a few mi¬
nutes afterwards, were affembled round his bed, and he
took leave of them individually. Their grief did not
fuffer them to leave the room for fome time after the
event y
NOR [
Cape event j and Lady Caroline Douglas was at lafl forced
from it. Even Dr Warren, who muft be ftrengtliened
we^ as far as habit can operate again!! nature to endure
fuch fcenes, ran from this, convulfed with forrow. If
any extent of fympathy can leffen affliction, this family
may find fuch relief j for perhaps no man was ever more
generally beloved by all who had accefs to him than the
earl of Guildford.
We may form an opinion of the eftimation the cele¬
brated univerfity of Oxford entertained of their chan¬
cellor while living, by the very great honour they
paid to his remains. About five o’clock in the after¬
noon of the 15th, the great bell at St Mary’s church
at Oxford rang out, which was a fignal that the fune¬
ral proceffion had arrived in the environs of that cityr.
The officers of the univerfity, and the whole body of
refident Undents, were previoufiy affembled in Mag¬
dalen College, in order to pay fome tribute to the
memory of their deceafed chancellor. They joined the
procefflon at Magdalen Bridge, and paraded on foot
before the herfe up the high ftreet to Carfax j from
thence down the corn market to St Giles’s church at
the town’s end, in a moft folemn manner. Here they
halted, and opening to the right and left, the herfe and
other carriages palled through, the whole univerfity be¬
ing uncovered. The herfe and attendants then proceeded
to Banbury, where his lordihip’s remains were depolited
in the family vault.
NORTH Cape, the moil northerly promontory in Eu¬
rope, on the coal! of Norway. E. Long. 21. o. N. Lat.
78. o.
NORTH Ferry, a fmall village, on the north fide of
the frith of Forth, at the Queen’s Ferry paflage. There
was here formerly a chapel, ferved by the monks of
Dunfermline, and endowed by Robert I. Near it are
large whinftone quarries, which partly fupply London
with paving Hones, and employ many velfels for the con¬
veyance. “ The granite (whinftone) (Mr Pennant fays)
lies in perpendicular ftrata, and above is a reddiih earth,
filled with micaceous friable nodules.”
NORTH Foreland, a cape or promontory of Kent, in
the ille of Thanet, four miles eaft of Margate. Between
this and the South Foreland are the Downs, through
which all fhips pafs that are bound to or from the well.
E. Long. 1. 25. N. Lat. 51. 25.
NORTH-WeJl Fa [[age, a paffage to the Pacific ocean
through Hudfon’s bay or Davis’s ilraits, and w hich hath
been frequently attempted without fupcefs; notwnthftand-
ing which, many people are ftill of opinion that it is
praflicable.
The idea of a paffage to the Ealt Indies by the north
pole, or through fome opening near to it, was fuggefted
as early as the year 1527. The perfon who had the
honour to conceive this idea wras Robert Thorne, a mer¬
chant of Briilol, who addreffed twro papers on the fub-
jefl, the one to King Henry VIII. the other to Dr
Ley, ambaffador from that monarch to the emperor
Charles V. To remove any objeciion to the under¬
taking, which might be drawn from the luppofed dan¬
ger, he infills, in his addrefs to the king, upon the great
advantages of conftant daylight in the polar feas, and
the probability of the climate being in thofe regions
temperate during the fummer months. In the paper
addreffed to Dr Ley, he obferves that cofmographers
may as probably be miftaken in the opinion which they
5.5 1 NOR
entertain of the polar regions being impaffable from ex- F
treme cold, as it has been found they wTere in fuppofing
the countries under the line to be uninhabitable from ex-
ceffive heat.
The poffibility of the paffage was, in confluence of
thefe addreffes, very generally fuppofed j and in 1557,
Sir Martin Forbiiher tailed to 62° north latitude, where
he difcovered the ffraits which have fince borne his name.
In 1577, Barne, in a book entitled the Regiment of the
Sea, mentions a north-weft paffage as one of the five ways
to Cathay } and dwrells on the mildnefs of the climate,
which, from'the conftant prefence of the fun during
fummer, he imagines muft be found near the pole. In
1578, George Beft, a gehtleman who had been with
Sir Martin Forbiiher in his voyages of difcovery, wrote
a very ingenious difcourfe to prove all parts of the wrorld
habitable. It does not, however, appear that any voyage
was undertaken, for the exprefs purpoie of attempt¬
ing to fail to India in a north-weft direction, till the
year 1607, when Henry Hudfon wras fent, at the ex¬
pence of fome merchants in London to difcover a paf¬
fage by the north pole to Japan and China. He failed
from Gravefend on the lit of May, and on the 21 ft of
June fell in with the land to the wreftwTard, in latitude
730, wdiich he named Ho/d-with-hope. On the 27th he
difcovered Spitibergen, and met with much ice. I he
higheft latitude in which he made an obfervation wra's
8o° 27'. See Hudson.
In March 1609, Jones .Poole wras fent by bir l ho-
mas Smith, and the reft of the Mufcovy Company, to
make further difcoveries towards the north pole. Af¬
ter great feverity of weather, and much difficulty from
ice, he made the fouth part of Spitibergen on the 16th
of May ; and failing along and founding the coaft, he
made many accurate difcoveries j but was not in that
voyage able to proceed beyond 790 50'. He was
again employed (1611), in a fmall veilel called the
Eli-zabet/i, to attempt the north-weft paffage ; but af¬
ter furmounting numberlefs difficulties, and penetrating
to 8o° of latitude, he loft his fhip at Spitihergen. Two
voyages, equally unfuccefsful, were made in 1614 and
1615, by Baffin and Fotherby ; the latter of whom con¬
cludes the account of his difcoveries and dangers, with
exhorting the company which employed him not to ad¬
venture more than 150I. or 200I. at moft on yearly voy¬
ages to thefe feas.
Hitherto nothing had been done in this great under¬
taking but by private adventurers, fitted out for the
double purpofe of difcovery and prefent advantage ; and
the polar regions were fuflered to remain unexplored in
that direction, from the year 1615 till 1773, when the
earl of Sandwich, in coniequence of an application which
had been made to him by the Royal Society, laid before
hif majefty a propofal for an expedition to try how far
navigation is prafticable towards the north pole. Upon
receiving this propofal, his majefty was pleated to direft
that the voyage ihould be immediately undertaken, with
every afliftance that could contribute to its fuccefs. Ac¬
cordingly, the Racehorfe and Carcafs bombs were fitted
out for the purpofe, and the command of the expedition
given to Captain Phipps, now Lord Mulgrave. His
Lordihip’s inftructions were to proceed up to the pole,
or as far towards it as poflible, and as nearly upon a me¬
ridian as t he ice or other obftrufhons ihould admit j and
during the courfe of the voyage, to make fuch obferva-
tiona
NOR
r
NortWefttians of every kind as might be ufeful to navigation, or
i a^age- , tend to the promotion of natural knowledge. A very ac¬
curate account of this voyage was publifhed by his Lord-
fhip in 1774. He had, by exerting all the powers of a
fkilful and intrepid feaman, forced his way, on the 1 ft of
Auguft, to 8o° 37'; but could proceed no farther, as he
was there oppofed by one continued plain of fmooth un¬
broken ice, bounded only by the horizon.
Many other attempts have been made to difcover this
paffage, by failing along the weftem coaft of America ;
but hitherto none of them has been crowned with fuc-
ceis. So early as 1579, Sir Francis Drake aflured (^ueen
Elizabeth that he had failed fome leagues up the ftraits
of Anian (fee Anian), and <*:fcovered New Albion, to
the north of California 3 but the ftrait is now known to
have no exiftence 3 and Drake’s real difcoveries were
not improved. In 1638, King Charles I. fent Captain
Luke Fox in one of his pinnaces to attempt the paffage 3
but of his proceedings we know nothing, but that he
reached Port Nelfon in Hudfon’s bay, where he found
fome remains of former navigators. Next year Captain
James was fitted out by the merchants of Briftol for the
fame purpofe. James was one of the ableft navigators
that ever faned from England or any other country 3
and his voyages to the north were printed in 1633. Af¬
ter all the experiments he had made, he concluded that
there was no fuch paffage 3 or if there be, he affirmed
that the difcovery of it would not be attended with thofe
advantages which are commonly expected. His reafons,
however, for thefe opinions have been anfwered, and
many fubfequent attempts have been made to perform
what he thought impoffible. The arguments for a
north-weft paffage were fo plaufible, that, in 1744, an
adt of parliament was paffed to encourage the difcovery
of it.. Among many others, Captain Cook attempted
the difcovery in vam, and thence adopted James’s opi¬
nion. (See COOKE'S Difcoveries, N° 103.) This cele¬
brated navigator, after having proceeded northw ards to
the weftem extremity of America, and afcertained the
proximity of the two great continents of Afia and Ame¬
rica, returned to the Sandwich iflands, firmly perfuaded
of the impracticability of a paffage in that hemifphere
from the Atlantic into the Pacific ocean, either by an
eaftern or a weftem courfe.
Later voyagers, however, have pretended to detedt
fome errors in Cooke’s difcoveries 3 and the author of
a fmall tradt, entitled An authentic Statement of all the
Faffs relative to Nootka Sound, goes a great way to
make the difcovery not yet hopelefs. In his account
of the expedition under the diredtion of Meffrs Etches,
he fays, that “ one of the firft difcoveries made by
thefe fhips was, that what was by the immortal Cook
laid down as a continuation of the north-weft continent
of America, and lying between the northern latitudes
of 48° and 57, is on the contrary an extenfive clufter
of unexplored iflands inhabited by numerous tribes of
friendly Indians, with whom a regular connexion was
formed.”
Thefe iflands they difcovered, contrary to the affer-
tion of Captain Cook, to conceal the opening of a vaft
inland fea, or archipelago, in all probability equal to
the Mediterranean or Baltic feas, and dividing the great
northern continent of America. The Princefs Royal
penetrated fome hundred leagues among them, in a
north-saft courfe, to within 200 leagues of Hudfon’s
3
5+1 NOR
houfe, bul had not then an opportunity to explore the North raft
extreme termination of that archipelago, their commer- Paflk?e.
cial concerns obliging them to return to the China mar- —v—'
ket.3 but the commanders had the ftrongeft reafons to
beheve had the time favoured their furvey, that they
ihould have been able to difcover the long wiftied for
paffage between the Atlantic and South fea. They con¬
ceived, that Ihould neither the inland arm of the foa
through which the Princefs Royal penetrated, nor a large
ftrait named Sir Charles Middleton’s about three degrees
to the louthward, be found to reach acrofs the continent
yet that the land barrier muft be very inconfiderable ;
and that at the extremity of this bay a practicable paf-
lage, either by rivers or lakes, will, by perfeverance, be
tound terminating towards Hudfon’s bay.
1 he laft attempt to difcover this paffage was made by
V ancouver between the years 1790 and 1795 ; but the
relull of this voyage renders the exiftence of fuch a paf-
iage fti 11 more doubtful.
Upon the whole, however, it appears to us extreme¬
ly doubtful whether there be fuch a paflage 3 but it
is much more likely to be difcovered, if difcovered at
all, by the progreflive advances of mercantile enterprife
than by any immediate expedition undertaken for that
purpofe.
NoilTIt-Eaf Paffage, a paffage to the Eaft Indies
along the northern coafts of Afia, which, like the for¬
mer, hath frequently been attempted, but hitherto wnlh-
out fuccefs. I he firft attempt was made in 1553, by
Sir Hugh Willoughby, who commanded three "fhips.
He departed from the Thames and failed to the North
Cape, where one of his fhips left him, and returned
home. The other two Ihips being feparated, Sir Hugh
Proceeded farther northward, and dilcovered that part
of Greenland which the Dutch have fince called Spite-
berg ; but the feverity of the cold obliging him to return
to the fouthward, he was forced, by bad weather, into
the river Arzina, in Mufcovite Lapland, where, not be¬
ing able to come out, he was found the next fpring fro¬
zen to death, with all his fhip’s company 3 having the
notes of his voyage and his laft will lying before him,
whereby it appeared that he lived till January. But
Richard Chancellor, in the third fhip, with better fuc¬
cefs, in the meanwhile entered Wardhuys, where he
waited fome time for his companions to no purpofe 3 un¬
certain whether they were loft, or driven farther by ftrefs
of weather. He held a council on what he ftiould do 3
whether to return, or purfue his voyage. Whatever dan¬
ger might be in the laft, every one agreed to it, that
they might not feem to have lefs courage than their cap¬
tain. They therefore fet fail, and in a few days found
themfelves in a fea where they could no longer perceive
any night. This fhip, wandering about, entered foon
after into a large bay or gulf. Here they caft anchor,
in fight of land ; and while they were examining the
coaft, they difcovered a fifhing boat. Chancellor get¬
ting into his floop, w ent towards it; but the fifhermen
took to flight. He followed, and, overtaking them,
fhowred them fuch civilities as conciliated their affec¬
tions to him 3 and they carried him to the place where
now is the famous port of St Michael the Archangel.
Thefe people immediately fpread through all the coafts
an account of the arrival of thofe ftrangers 3 and people
came from feveral parts to fee them, and afk them que-
ftions. They, in their turn, examined the others, and
found
NOR [ 55 ] NOR
North-eaft found that the country they were in was RufTia, go-
Faflage. verneJ by the mighty emperor John Bafilowitz. Chan-
' " ' cellor from A rchangel travelled on fledges to the Czar
at Mofcow j from whom, overjoyed at the profpeft of
opening a maritime commerce with Europe, he obtain¬
ed privileges for the Englifh merchants, and letters to
King Edward VI. who wras not, however, alive to re¬
ceive them.
15^5) hlr John Davis in two barks difcovered
Cape Defolation, which is fuppofed to be part of
Greenland ; and twro years after advanced as far as
Lat. 720, where he difcovered the ftraii which ftill
bears his name. Eo enumerate all the attempts which
have been made to dilcover a north-eaft paffage, would
fwell the article to very little purpofe. The Englifli,
Dutch, and Danes, have all attempted it without fuc-
cefs. The laft voyage from England for this pur¬
pofe was made in 1676, under the patronage of the
duke of York. That unfortunate prince, who was
on all occaflons eameft for the promotion of commerce,
and the Lord Berkeley, &c. fitted out a fliip, com¬
manded by Captain Wood, for an attempt once more
to find a north-eail paflage to India, accompanied with
a fnip of the king’s. They were encouraged to this at¬
tempt, after it had been fo long defpaired of, by feveral
new reports and reafonings : ibme of which feem not
to have been very well grounded—As,
“ 1. On the coaft of Corea, near Japan, wrhales had
been found with Englifh and Dutch harpoons flick¬
ing in them. This is no infallible proof that fhips
could get thither by a north-eaft paffage, although
whales might.
“ 2. That, 20 years before, fome Dutchmen had
failed within one degree of the north pole, and found
it temperate weather there : and that therefore Wil¬
liam Barents, the Dutch navigator who wintered at
Nova Zembla in the year 1596, fhould have failed
further^ to the north before turning eallward ; in which
cafe, faid they, he would not have found fo much ob-
flruclion from the ice.
“ 3. I hat two Dutch fhips had lately failed 300
leagues to the eaflward of Nova Zembla; but their
Eafl India Company had ilifled that defign, as againfl
their interefl:—and fuch like other airy reports. But
this attempt proved very unfortunate. They doubled
the North Cape, and came among much ice and drift
wood, in 76° of north latitude, fleering to the coaft of
Nova Zembla, where the king’s fhip flruck upon the
rocks, and was foon beat to pieces ; and Captain Wood
returned home with an opinion, “ that fuch a paflage
was utterly impracticable, and that Nova Zembla is a
part of the continent of Greenland.”
Thefe paflfages, however, are not yet deemed imprac¬
ticable by all. The count de Buffon holds it for cer¬
tain, that there is a paflage from Europe to China by
the North fea. The reafon why it has been fo often
attempted in vain, he thinks, is, that fear prevented
the undertakers from keeping at a fufficient diflance
from land, and from approaching the pole, which they
probably imagined to be an immenfe rock. Hence he
affirms, that if any farther attempts be made to find
a paflage to China and Japan by the north feas, it
will be neceffary to keep at a diflance from the land
and the ice; to fleer direftly towards the pole ; and
to explore the mofl open feas, where unqueflionably,
fays he, there is little or no ice. This opinion has North-eaft
been lately revived by the honourable Daines Barring- t PafTage.
ton, who fays, that if the paflage be attempted by the '
pole itfelf, he has very little doubt of its being accom-
plifhed. See North-POLE.
NORTHAMPTON, a town in England, capital
of a county of the fame name, fituated in W. Long.
O. 55. N. Lat. 52. 15. According to Camden, it
was formerly called North-afandon, from its fituation to
the north of the river Nen, called anciently Aufona,
by which and another lefler river it is almoft enclofed.
Dr Gibfon fays, that the ancient Saxon annals called
both it and Southampton limply Hamton; and after¬
wards, to diflinguifh them, called the one, from its fitu¬
ation, Southamton, and the other Northamton; but
never North-afandon. Though it does not appear to
be a place of very great antiquity, nor to have emerged
from obfcurity till after the Conquefl, it has fent mem¬
bers to parliament fince the reign of Edward I. and
being in the heart of the kingdom, feveral parliaments
have been held at it. There was alfo a caflle, and a
church dedicated to St Andrew, built by Simon de
Sanflo Licio, commonly called Senlez, the firfl earl
of Northampton of that name. It is faid to have
been burnt down during the Danifh depredations; but
in the reign of St Edward it appears to have been a
confiderable place. It was befieged by the barons in
their war with King John; at which time that mili¬
tary work called Hunjhil/, is’ fuppofed to have been
raifed. In the time of Henry III. it fided with the
barons, when it was befieged and taken by the king.
Here the bloody battle was fought in which Henry VI.
was taken prifoner. It was entirely confumed by a
mofl dreadful fire in 1675; yet, by the help of liberal
contributions from all parts of the country, it hath
fo recovered itfelf, that it is now one of the neatefl
and bell built towns of the kingdom. Among the pub¬
lic buildings which are all lofty, the mofl remarkable
are the church called All-hallows (which Hands at the
meeting of four fpacious llreets), the feflions and aflize
houfe, and the George inn, which belongs to the poor
of the town. A county hofpital or infirmary has been
lately built here, after the manner of thofe of Bath,
London, Briflol, &c. It has a confiderable manu-
faflure of fhoes and ftockings; and its fairs are noted
for horfes both for draught and faddle-; befides, it is
a great thoroughfare for the north and weft roads. It
was formerly walled, and had feven churches within
and two without. The horfe market is reckoned to
exceed all others in the kingdom, it being deemed the
centre of all its horfe markets and horfe fairs, both
for faddle and hamefs, and the chief rendezvous of the
joAies both from \ ork and London. Its principal
manufacture is fhoes, of which great numbers are fent
beyond fea; and the next to that, ftockings and lace,
as we have hinted at above. It is the richer and more
populous, by being a thoroughfare both in the north
and weft roads; but, being 80 miles from the fea, it
can have no commerce by navigation. The walls’ of
this town were above two miles in compafs. It is fup¬
pofed to contain about 1085 houfes, and 5200 inhabi¬
tants. It had formerly a nunnery in the neighbouring
meadows, with feveral other monafteries ; and of its
very old caftle on the weft fide of the town, a fmall part
of the ruins is. ftill to be feen. Some difeontented
fcholar^
tonHiire
II
North
Rocks.
NOR [ 56 3
'N«rthamp- fcholars came liither from Oxford and Cambridge, about north to fouth
the end of the reign of Henry III. and, with the king’s
leave, profecuted their ftudies here academically for
three years; during which there was the face of an
univerfity, till it was put a flop to by exprefs prohibi¬
tion, becaufe it was a damage to both univerilties.
The public horfe races are on a neighbouring down,
called Pey-Leys. In and about the town are abundance
of cherry gardens. Within half a mile of the town is
one of the croffes erefted by King Edward I. in me¬
mory of his queen Eleanor, whole corpfe was relied
there in its way to Weltminfter. On the north fide
of the river, near that crofs, many Roman coins have
been ploughed up. At Guilelborough, north-weft of
Northampton, are to be feen the veftiges of a Roman
camp, the fituation of which is the more remark able,^as
lying between the Nen and the Avon, the only pafs from
the north to the fouth parts of England not intercepted
by any river. This camp was fecured only by a fingle
intrenchment, which was, however, very broad and deep.
Northamptonshire, a county of England, is fitu-
ated in the very heart of the kingdom : bounded on
the call by the counties of Bedford and Huntingdon ;
on the fouth by thofe of Buckingham and Oxford 5
on the weft by Warwicklhire 5 and on the north by
the counties of Leicefter, Rutland, and Lincoln, which
are feparated from it by the Leffer Avon, and the
Welland. Its greateft length is about 50 miles, its
greateft breadth about 20, and its circumference about
130. It contains 330 parilhes. There are in it one
city, 11 market towns, 25,000 houfes, and 131,757
inhabitants. Nine members are returned to parliament
for this county, viz. two knights for the ftiire, two for
the city of Peterborough, two for each of the towns of
Northampton and Brockly, and one for Higham Fer¬
rers. It lies in the midland circuit, and in the diocefe
of Peterborough. As this county is dry, well culti¬
vated, free from marlhes, except the fens about Peter¬
borough, in the centre of the kingdom, and of courfe at
a diftance from the fea, it enjoys a very pure and whole-
fome air. In confequence of this it is very populous,
and fo full of towns and churches, that 30 fpires or
fteeples may be feen in many places at one view ; and
even in the fens, the inhabitants feem to enjoy a good
ftate of health, and to be little affefted by the water
which frequently overflows their grounds, efpecially in
winter, but is never fuffered to remain long upon it.
Its foil is exceeding fertile both in com and pafturage ;
but it labours under a fcarcity of fuel, as it doth not pro¬
duce much wood, and, by lying at a diftance from the
fea, cannot be eafily fupplied with coal. Its commodi¬
ties, befides corn, are Iheep, wool, black cattle, and falt-
petre •, and its manufactures are ferges, tammies, {bal¬
loons, boots, and {hoes. Befides many leffer brooks
and ftreams, it is well watered by the rivers Nen, Wel¬
land, Oufe, and Lerm ■, the three firft of which are large,
and for the moft part navigable.
NORTHAMPON, a county of North America,
in Virginia, forming the fouth part of the peninfula on
the eaftem coaft of Virginia.
NORTH rocks, (otherwife called St Patrice's rods,
from a feat of Hone amongft them called St Patrick's
chair, whence the rocks have taken this fecond name) ;
fituated in the harbour of Donaghadee, in the county
of .Down, and province of Ulfter, in Ireland. From
4
N O R
they-are about two thirds of a league, North Sea
between which is clean good ground. But care muft II
be taken of the fouth rock, on which many fliips have
perifhed : for it is overflowed by every tide, and no 1
crew can fave their lives if the wind blows high. This
rock Hands a full mile from the {bore.
NORTH sea. bee North Sea.
NORTHERN lights, the fame with aurora
Borealis* under which article we have given a co¬
pious account of this phenomenon, and of the fup-
pofed cauies of it. Natural fcience, however, does not
arrive at perfection at once, and it is well it it does lb
after trials repeated for years wdtli care and accuracy.
How far the cauies that have been afligned for this
appearance wall account for it, or whether they will
be able to remove all difficulties, it is not for us to
determine ; but it is the part of philolbphers to hear
all fides, and to attend with patient afiiduity to every
hypothefis, rejeCHng or receiving, as realon, alter the
ftrifteft inveltigation, ffiall feem to favour the one fide
or the other. We ftiall here notice a hypoihefis which
DoCtor Stearns, an American, formed, about the year
1788, to account for the appearances called aurora bo.-
reahs, and aurora ait/Iralis.'
DoCtor Stearns fuppofes that thefe phenomena ori¬
ginate from aqueous, nitrous, fulphureous, bituminous,
and other exhalations, from the lumes of various kinus
of earths or other minerals, vegetables, animals, fires,
volcanoes, &c. Thefe, he thinks, become rarefied,
and being charged wfith eleCtrical fluid, become fpeci-
fically lighter than the circumambient air j hence, of
courfe, they afcend; and being elevated to the upper
regions of the air, and driven by the winds from warm¬
er to colder climates, the cold makes them combine
and ftiffen. When they are afteiwards agitated by dif¬
ferent currents of air, they fparkle and crackle like the
hairs of cats and other animals when ftifiened with cold.
This corufcation in quite cold atmofpheres, and in thofe
which are more temperate, appears in different pofitions
in the horizon, zenith, or otherwife, according to the
fituation of the fpeftator, and the pofition of the elevated
exhalations. The difference of colours the doftor fup¬
pofes to arife from the different qualities of the articles
combined, thofe of the moft inflammable nature ffiining
with the greateft luftre.
The doCtor likewife tries to account for thefe lights
not appearing, or but feldom appearing, in ancient
times. The atmofphere, he thinks, was not impreg- •.
nated with materials proper to produce them. He im¬
agines that the increafed confumption of fuel, in A-
merica in particular, the burning of volcanoes, and the
approach of blazing ftars, whofe atmofpheres have been
fo expanded by the fun’s heat that part of them have
fallen into the earth’s atmofphere, and communicated
to it newT matter, have fo changed and prepared our air,
that whenever its confiftence is proper, then, if the light
of the fun and moon is not too powerful, the aurora
borealis will appear.
NORTHUMBERLAND, the moft northerly coun¬
ty of England, and formerly a diftinCt kingdom, is
bounded on the north and weft by the river Tweed,
which divides it from Scotland, the Cheviot hills, and
part of Cumberland; waftied on the eaft by the Ger¬
man ocean ; and feparated from Durham on the fouth
by the rivers Tyne and Derwent. This county, which
gWw
Northum
berland.
NOR [57
gives the title of dune to a nobleman who married
_ llle daughter of Algernon duke of Somerfet, whole
mot-lcr 'Yas heirefs of the Percy family, extends about
66 miies in length from north to fouth, and about 47
in Oreadth from eaft to weft. It is remarkably popu¬
lous, containing 12 market towns, 280 villages, and
460 parifhes. I he face of the country, efpecially to¬
wards the weft, is roughened with huge mountains, the
moft remarkable of which are the Cheviot hills, and
the high ridge called Redefdale; but the lands are level
ton ards the tea fide and the borders of Durham. The
climate, like that of every other mountainous country
in the neighbourhood of the lea, is moift and difagree-
able : the air, however, is pure and healthy, as beinp-
well, ventilated by breezes and ftrong gales of wind"]
and in winter mitigated by the warm vapours from the
two fe.as, the Iriih and the German ocean, between
which it is litUated. The foil varies in different parts of
the county. A,mong the hills it is barren j though it
affords good pafture for fheep, which cover thofe moun¬
tains. The low.country, when properly cultivated,
produces plenty of wheat, and all forts of grain j and
great part of it is laid out in meadow lands and rich en-
clofures. Northumberland is well watered with many
rivers, rivulets, and fountains : its greateft rivers are the
Tweed and the Tyne. The Tyne is compofed of two
ftreams called South and North Tyne: the firft rifes on
the verge of Cumberland, near Alfton moor; enters
Northumberland, running north to Haltwhiftle j then
bends eafterly, and receiving the two fmall rivers Eaft
and Weft Alon, unites above Hexham with the other
branch, taking its rife at a mountain called ¥ane-head
in the weftern part of the county, thence called Tyne-
dale; is fwelled in its courfe by the little river Shele ;
joins the Read near JBillmgham 3 and running in a di-
reeft line to the fouth-eaft, is united with the fouthern
Tyne, forming a large river that walhes Newcaftle, and
fails into the German ocean near Tynemouth.
In all probability the mountains of Northumberland
^Contain lead ore and other mineralized metals in their
ybowels, as they in all refpeas refemble thofe parts of
TV ales and Scotland where lead mines have been found
and profecuted. Perhaps the inhabitants are diverted
horn inquiries of this nature, by the certain profits
and conftant employment they enjoy in working the
coal pits, with which this county abounds. The city
of London, and the greateft part of England, are fup-
plied with fuel from thefe ftores of Northumberland,
which are mexhauffible, enrich the proprietors, and
employ an incredible number of hands and (hipping.
About 658,858 chaldrons are annually (hipped for
London.
. I nere are no natural woods of any confequence in
this county ; but many plantations belonging to the
(eats oj. noblemen and gentlemen, of which here is a
great number. As for pot herbs, roots, falading,
and every article of the kitchen garden and orchard/
they are here raifed in great plenty by the ufual means
of cultivation; as are alfo the fruits of more delicate
flavour, fuch as the apricot, peach, and neftarine. The
fpontaneous fruits it produces in common with other
parts of Great Britain, are the crab-apple, the floe or
bullace, the hazel nut, the acorn, hips, and haws, with
the berries ot the bramble, the juniper, wood ftraw-
berries, cranberries, and bilberries.
Vol. XV. Part I.
] NOR
Nortnumbqrlar.d raifes a good number of excellent
horfes and black cattle, and affords pafture for numer¬
ous flocks of (beep 3 both the cattle and (heep are of
a .large breed, but the wool is coarfer than that which
the more fouthern counties produce. The hills and
mountains abound with a variety of game, fiich as red
deer, loxes, hares, rabbits, heathcock, groufe, partridge,
quail, piover, teal, and woodcock : indeed, this is
counted one of the bed fporting counties in Great Bri¬
tain.. The fea and rivers are well flocked with fifh 3
efpecially the Tweed, in vthich a vafl number of fal-
mon is caught and carried to Tynemouth, where being
pickled, they are conveyed by fea to London, and fold
under the name of Nevocq/Ue fa In: on.
1 he Northumbrians were anciently ftigmatized as a
favage, barbarous people, addified to cruelly, and in¬
ured to rapine. The truth is, before the union of the
tivo crowns of England and Scotland, the borderers on
each iide were extremely licentious and ungovernable,
trained up to war from their infancy, and habituated
to plunuer by the mutual incurflons made into each
kingdom 3 iricurlions which neither truce nor treat’-.'
could totally prevent. People of a pacific difpolition,
who propofed to earn their livelihood by agriculture'
would not on any terms remain in a country expofed
to the firft violence of a bold and defperate enemy ^
there lore the lands lay uncultivated, and in a great
meafure deferted by every body but lawlefs adventur¬
ers, who fubfifted by theft and rapine. There was a
tradl .50 miles in length and fix in breadth, between
Berwick and Carlifle, known by the name of the de-
bateable land, to which both nations laid claim, though-
it belonged to neither ; and this was occupied by a let
of banditti who plundered on each fide, and what they
ftole in one kingdom, they fold openly in the other :
nay, they were lb dexterous in their occupation, that
by means of hot bread applied to the horns of the
cattle which they Hole, they twifted them in fuch a
manner, that, when the right owners faw them in the
market, they did not know their own property. War¬
dens were appointed to guard the marches or borders
in each kingdom 3 and thefe offices were always con¬
ferred on noblemen of the firft charafler for influence,
valour, and integrity. The Englifli border was divided
into three marches, called the eajl, weft, and middle
marches ; the gentlemen of the country were'conftituted
deputy wardens, who held march courts, regulated the
watches, difeiplined the militia, and took meafures for
afiembling them in arms at the firft alarm : but in the
time of peace between the two nations, they were
chiefly employed in fupprefling the infolence and rapine
of the borderers. Since the union of the crowns, how¬
ever, Northumberland is totally changed, both with
refpedl to the improvement of the lands, and the refor¬
mation of the inhabitants. The grounds, being now fe-
cure from incurfion and infult, are fettled by creditable
farmers., and cultivated like other parts of the kingdom.
As holtihties have long ceafed, the people have forgotten
the ufe of arms 3 and exercife themfelves in the more
eligible avocations of peace, in breeding (beep and cat¬
tle, manuring the grounds, working at the coal pits,
and in different branches of commerce and manufafture.
In their perfons they are generally tall, ftrong, bold,
hardy, and frelh coloured 3 and though lefs unpolilhed
than their anceftors, not quite fo civilized as their
H fouthem
NOR [ 58 ] NOR
North wick foutliern neighbours. The commonalty are well fed,
^ , lodged, and clothed; and all of them remarkably di-
Sound S ftinguiflied by a kind of Jhibboleth or whurle, being a
1 t— particular tvay of pronouncing the letter R, as if they
hawked it up from the windpipe, like the cawing of
rooks. In other refpedls, the language they fpeak is an
uncouth mixture of the Englith and Scottifh dialedls.
There is no material diltinclion between the falhionable
people of Northumberland and thole of the fame rank
in other parts of the kingdom 5 th^ fame form of edu¬
cation will produce the fame effedls in all countries.
The gentlemen of Northumberland, however, are di-
ftinguilhed for their induftry, knowledge of rural affairs,
and hofpitality. The number of inhabitants is reckoned
157,1015 ofhoufes 22,740.
A great number of Roman monuments have been
found in this county 5 but the moll remarkable curio-
lity of that kind conlills in the remains of Hadrian’s
vallum and thewTall of Severus. See ADRIAN, note (a),
and SEVER US's Wall.
The moll noted towms in Northumberland, are New-
caftle, Morpeth, , Alnwick, Berwick, Hexham, and
North Shields. It fends two members to parliament.
NORTHWICK, a fmall town of Chelhire, long
celebrated for its rock fait and brine pits. The Itra-
tum of fait lies about 40 yards deep 5 and fome of the
pits are hollowed into the form of a temple. The de-
fcent is through a dome, the roof fupported by rows of
pillars about two yards thick, and feveral in height 5
and when illuminated with a fufficient number of candles,
they make a moft magnificent appearance. Above the
fait is a bed of whitilh clay (Argil la ccerula-cinerea),
ufed in making the Liverpool earthen w^are 5 and in the
lame place is alfo dug a good deal of the gypfum, or
plafter Rone. The foffil fait is generally yellow, and
femipellucid, fometimes debafed with a dull greenilh
earth 5 and is often found, but in fmall quantities, quite
clear and colourlefs. The town fe fituated near the
river Dane, and is tolerably handfome : it has a market
on Fridays. It is 20 miles north-eaR of Chefler, and
173 north-wTeR of London. W. Long. 2. 36. N. Lat.
53. 16.
NORTON, in Chelhire, a good modem alms-houfe,
founded by P—y Brooke, Efq. on the fite of a priory
of canons regular of St AuguRine, founded by William,
fon of Nigellus, A. D. 1135, who did not live to com¬
plete his defign 5 for EuRace de Burgaville granted to
Hugh de Catherine paRure for 100 Rieep, in cafe he
finilhed the church in all refpe&s conformable to the in¬
tent of the founders. It was granted afterwards to R.
Brooke, Efq.
NORTON’S SOUND, was difcovered in Captain
Cook’s lafl voyage, and w7as fo named in honour of
Sir Fletcher Norton (Lord Grantley), a near relation
of Mr afterwards Dr King. It extends as far as N. Lat.
64° 55'. There is no good Ration for flaps, nor even
a tolerable harbour in all the found. Mr King, on his
landing here, difcemed many fpacious valleys, with
rivers flowing through them, well wooded, and bounded
with hills of a moderate height. One of the rivers to¬
wards the north-weR feemed to be conliderable 5 and he
was inclined to fuppofe, from its direftion, that it dif-
charged itfelf into the fea from the head of the bay.
Some of his people, penetrating beyond this into the
country, found the trees to be of a larger fize the
further they proceeded. E. Long. 197. 13. N. Lat. Norway.
64. 31. ^ '    
NORWAY, a country of Europe (for the map fee
Denmark), lying between the 57th and 72a degrees
of north latitude, and between the 5th and 31A de¬
grees of longitude eafl from London 5 extending in
length about 1000 miles, in a direct line from Lmdef-
naes, in the diocefe of Chriflianfand, to the North Cape,
at the extremity of Finmark. Its breadth, from the
frontiers of Sweden weflward to Cape Statt, may a-
mount to about 300 miles 5 but from thence the coun¬
try becomes gradually narrower towards the north.
On the fimth it is bounded by the Schagen rock, or
Categate, the entrance into the Baltic 5 on the eafl it
is divided from Sweden by a long ridge of high moun¬
tains 5 and on the wrefl and north it is ^/allied by the
northern occean. In the fouthern part of Norway, the
Country is craggy, abrupt, and mountainous, diverli-
fied fometimes with fertile and even delightful fpots.
In thefe refpefts it refembles Switzerland : the pro-
fpefts and the meteorological phenomena feem to be
very fimilar. The range of the thermometer is of
great extent 5 in the fummer having rifen to SB0, and in
the winter fallen to —40° : in general it is between 8o°
and —22°.
Refpefting the population of Norway it is difikult
to attain to certainty. An author of fome note (Coxe)
feems to think it amounts to 750,000 5 but he appears
to have over-rated it confiderably.
The Norwegian peafants are free, w7ell clothed, wTell
lodged, fpirited, a£Hve, frank, open, and undaunted.
They are faid to have a very confiderable refemblance
to the peafants of Switzerland. The foil is too thin
for the plough : corn is therefore obtained from the
neighbouring Rates 5 and the chief employment of the
peafants of Norway is grazing. The following extraft
from Mr Coxe, being a defcription of the fcene near
Chrifliana, is not befide our purpofe, and may not per¬
haps be difagreeable to our readers.
“ As w7e approached Chrifliana, the country was Coxe's Tra-
more wdld and hilly, but Rill very fertile and agree- vels.
able 5 and about two miles from the town we came to
the top of a mountain, and burfl upon as fine a view
as ever I beheld. From the point on which we flood
in raptures, the grounds laid out in rich enclofures,
gradually doped to the fea 5 below7 us appeared Chri-
Riana, fituated at the extremity of an extenfive and
fertile valley, forming a femicircular bend along the
fliore of a mofl beautiful bay, which, being enclofed
by hills, uplands, and forefls, had the appearance of a
large lake. Behind, before, and around, the inland
mountains of Norway rofe on mountains covered with
dark forefls of pines and fir, the inexhauflible riches
of the north. The mofl diftant fummits were caped
with eternal fnow. From the glow of the atmofphere,
the warmth of the weather, the variety of the produc¬
tions, and the mild beauties of the adjacent fcenery, I
could fc-arcely believe that I was nearly in the 60th de¬
gree of northern latitude.”
The coaft of Norway, extending above 300 leagues,
is fludded with a multitude of fmall iflands, affording
habitation to fifliermen and pilots, and pafture to a
few7 cattle. They form an infinite number of narrow
channels, and a natural barrier of rocks, which ren¬
ders Norway inacceffrble to the naval power of its ene¬
mies.
NOR [ 59 1 NOR
Norway, mies. Attempts of this kind are the more dangerous,
  as the fhore is generally bold, deep, and impending ;
lb that clofe to the rocks the depth of the fea amounts
to ioo, 200, or 300 fathoms. The perils of the north
lea are moreover increafed by fudden dorms, funk
rocks, violent currents, and dreadful whirlpools. The
mod remarkable vortex on this coad is called Mojloe-
Jlrom, from the fmall illand Molkoe, belonging to the
didrift of Lofoden in the province of Nordland. In
time of flood, the dream runs up between Lofoden
and Molkoe with the mod boiderous rapidity; but in
its ebb to the fea, it roars like a thoufand catarafts,
fo as to be heard at the didance of many leagues. The
furface exhibits different vortices 5 and if in one of
thefe any (hip or veffel is abforbed, it is whirled down
to the bottom, and dadied in pieces againd the rocks.
Thefe violent whirlpools continue without intervals,
except for a quarter of an hour, at high and low wa¬
ter, in calm weather } for the boiling gradually returns
as the Hood or ebb advances. When its fury is height¬
ened by a dorm, no veffel ought to venture within a
league of it. Whales have been frequently abforbed
within the vortex, and howled and bellowed hideoully
in their fruitlefs endeavours to difengage themfelves.
A bear, in attempting to fwim from Lofoden to Mof-
koe, was once hurried into this whirlpool, from whence
he draggled in vain for deliverance, roaring fo loud as
to be heard on fhore 5 but notwithdanding all his efforts,
he was borne down and dedroyed. Large trees being
abforbed by the current are fucked down, and rile again
all diattered into fplinters. There are three vortices of
the fame kind near the illands of Ferroe4
Norway is divided into the four governments of Ag-
gerhus, Bergen, Drontheim, and Wardhus, beddes that
of Bah us, which is now fubjeft to Sweden. The pro¬
vince of Aggerhus comprehends the fouth-ead part of
Norway, extending in length about 300 miles. Its
chief towns are Chridiana, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan
to the metropolitan fee of Drontheim, where the fovereign
court of judice is held, in prefence of the viceroy and
the governor of the province ; Aggerhus, about 15 miles
to the fouth-wed of Chridiana 5 Fredericklhall or Fre-
derickdadt, in the dege of which Charles XII. of Swe-
deti lod his life ; Saltzberg, Tonlherg, Alleen, Hammar,
•and Hollen.
The government of Bergen lies in the mod fouther-
ly and weilerly part of Norway, including the city of
the fame name, which is an epifcopal fee, and a place
ot conliderable trade } and Staffhanger, dtuated in
the bay of Buckenfior, about 80 miles to the fouth-
ward of Bergen. The third province, called £)ron-
theim or Tronthcim, extends about 500 miles along
tiie coall 5 and is but thinly peopled. The chief town,
Drontheim, feated on a little gulf at the mouth of the
river Nider, is the only metropolitan fee in Norway j
and carries on a confiderable trade in mads, deals, tar,
copper, and iron. Lectdrand, Stronden, Scoerdale,
Opdal, Romfdael, and Solendael, are likewife places of
fome traffic. The northern dividon of Drontheim, call¬
ed the fub-government of Salieri, comprehends the towns
Melanger and Scheen. The province of Wardhus, ex¬
tending to the North Cape, and including the illands, is
divided into two parts; namely, Finmark and Nor¬
wegian Lapland. The chief town, which is very in-
ccndderable, dands upon an ifland called Ward, from
whence the place and the government derive their ha me. Norway.
I he province of Bahus, though now yielded to the
Swedes, is reckoned part of Norway, being a narrow
traft of land, about 90 miles in length, lying on the
coad of the Categate.
1 he great chain of Norway mountains, running from
north to fouth, called indifferently Rudfcld, Slid field,
Skarsfe/d, and Scoreberg, is known in different parts by
other appellations ; fuch as Dofrefeid, Lamsfield, Sag-
mfeld, Filefield, Ralnefeld, Hardangerfeld, Johlef.eld,
Byglefeld, Hick/efe/d, and Hangfield. The height and
breadth of this extendve chain likewife vary in different
parts. To pals the mountain Hardanger, a man mult
travel about 70 Engliffi miles, whereas Filefield may tc
about 50 over. This lad riles about two miles and a
half in perpendicular height; but Dofrefield is counted
the highed mountain of Norway, if not of Europe.
The river Drivane winds along the fide cf it in a fer-
pentine courfe, fo as to be met nine times by thofe who
travel the winter road to the other fide of the chain.
The bridges are thrown over roaring catarafts, and but
indifferently fadened to the deep rocks on . either fide ;
fo that the whole exhibits a very dreadful appealance,
fufficient to deter the traveller from hazarding fuch a
dangerous paffage j for which reafon, people generally
choofe the road over Filefield, which is much more te¬
dious. This, however, is the pod road ufed by the king’s
carriages. The way is didinguidied by pods fixed at
the didance of 2od paces from each other, that, in
fnowy or dark weather, the traveller may not be be¬
wildered. For the convenience of reding and refrelh-
ing, there are two mountain doves or houfes maintain¬
ed on Filefield, as well as upon other mountains, at the
expence of the public, and furnilhed with fire, light,
and kitchen utenfils. Nothing can be more difmal and
dreary than thofe mountains covered with eternal fnow,
where neither houfe, tree, nor living creature is to be
feen, but here and there a folitary rein deer, and per¬
chance a few wandering Laplanders.
In travelling from Sweden to Nordenfields, there is
only one way of avoiding this chain of mountains ; and
that is, where it is interrupted by a long deep valley,
extending from Romfdale to Guldbrandldale. In the
year 1612, a body of 1000 Scots, commanded by Sin¬
clair, and fent over as auxiliaries to the Swedes, were
put to the fword in this defile, by the peafants of Guld-
brandj who never give quarter.
Befides this chain, there is a great number of de¬
tached mountains over all the country, that form val¬
leys and ridges, inhabited by the peafants. Some of
there are of incredible height, and others exhibit very
remarkable appearances. In failing up Jeering Creek
on the left hand, the fight is aftoniffied with a group of
mountains, refembling the profpeft cf a city, with old
Gothic towers and edifices. In the parilh of Oerlkong
is the high mountain Skopthorn, the top of which repre-
fents the figure of a fortification, with regular walls and
baftions. In the diftrift of Hilgeland appears a very
high range of mountains, with feven pinnacles or crefts,
known by the appellation of the Seven Sijlers, difeern-
ible a great way off at fea. To the fouthv ard of this
range, though in the fame diilrift, riles the famous
mountain Torghatten, fo called becaufe the fummit re-
fembles a man’s head with a hat on, under which ap¬
pears a fingie eye, formed by an aperture through the
H 2 mountain.,
N O R
’vay- mountain, 150 ells high, and 3000 ells in length. The
r fun may be teen through this furprHing cavity, which
is paffable by the foot of travellers. On the top of the
mountain we fmd a refervoir of water, as large as a mo¬
derate fifh pond : in the lower part is a cavern, through
which a line 400 fathoms in length, being let down,
did not reach the bottom. At Herroe in Sundmoer is
another cavern called Dolfteen, fuppoled to reach under
the fea to Scotland; which, however, is no more than
an idle tradition. In the year J750, two clergymen
entered this fubterranean cavity, and proceeded a confi-
derable way, until they heard the fea daihing over their
heads: the paffage n.-as as wide and high as an ordinary
church, the fides perpendicular, and the roof vaulted.
I hey defcended one flight of natural flairs; but arriv¬
ing at another, they were afraid to penetrate farther :
they had gone fo far, however, that two candles were
confumed in their prog refs and return. A cavern of a
Very curious nature, ferving as a conduit to a dream of
water, penetrates through the fides of the mountain
Limur. In the diftrifl of Rake, in the neighbourhood
of Frederickfhall, are three cavities in a rock; one of
which is fo deep, that a final 1 ftone dropped down, does
not reach the bottom in lefs than two minutes ; and
then the found it produces is pleafant and melodious, not
unlike the found of a bell.
The vaft mountains and rugged rocks that deform the
face of this country are productive of numberlefs incon¬
veniences. They admit of little arable ground : they
render the country in feme parts impaffable, and every¬
where difficult to travellers : they afford fhelter to wild
beads, which come from their lurking holes, and make
terrible havock among the flocks of cattle : they expofe
the ffieep and goats, as well as the peafants, to daily ac¬
cidents of falling over precipices : they occafion hidden
torrents, and falls of fnow, which defeend with incredi¬
ble impetuofity, and often fweep away the labours of
the hufbandman; and they are fiibjeCl to dreadful dif-
mptions, by which huge rocks are rent from their fides,
and,^ hurling down, overwhelm the plains below with
inevitable ruin. The peafants frequently build their
houfes on the edge of a fteep precipice, to which they
mud climb by ladders, at the hazard of their lives ; and
when a perfon dies, the corpfe mud be let down with
ropes, before it can be laid in the coffin. In winter the
mail is often drawn up the fides of deep mountains.
Even in the king’s road, travellers are expofed to the
frequent riiks of falling over thofe dreadful rocks; for
they are obliged to pafs over narrow pathways, without
rails or rifing on the fides, either fliored up with rotten
polls, or fufpended by iron bolts faftened in the moun¬
tains. In the narrow pafs of Naerce is a remarkable
way of this kind, which, above 600 years ago, the fa¬
mous King Surre caufed' to be made for the paffage of
his cavalry; and even this would have been found im¬
paffable by any other horfes than thofe of Norway,
which are ufed to climb the rocks like goats. Another
very difficult and dangerous road is that between Shog-
ladt and Vang-in-Volders, along the fide of a fteep
mountain, in fome places fo narrow, that if two travel¬
lers on horfeback fliould meet in the night, they would
find it impracticable either to pafs each other, or turn
hack. In fuch a cafe their lives could not be faved,
unleis one of them ftiould alight, and throw his horfe
headlong into the lake below, and then cling to the.
[ 60 ]
N O K
rock, until the other could pafs. When a fiieep or goat Norw;
makes a falfe ftep to the projection of a rock, from ' y-
whence it can neither afeend nor defeend, the owner
hazards his own life to preferve that of the animal. He
direCls himfelf to be lowered down from the top of the
mountain, fitting on a crofs flick, tied to the end of a
long rope ; and when he arrives at the place where the
creature Hands, he faftens it to the fame cord, and it is
drawn up with himfelf. Perhaps the other end of the
rope is held by one perfon only; and there are fome in-
fiances in which the affiftant has been dragged down by
the weight of his friend, fo that both have perilhed.
When either man or bead has had the misfortune to fall
over very high precipices, they have not only been fuf-
focated by the repercuffion of the air, but their bodies
have been always burft before they reached the ground.
Sometimes entire crefts of rocks, many fathoms in length
and breadth, have fallen down at once, creating inch a
violent agitation of the air, as feemed a prelude to the
world’s diffolution. At Steenbrce in Laerdale, a ftu-
pendous mafs, larger than any caftle in the univerfe, ap¬
pears to have been fevered and tumbled from the moun¬
tain in large, fharp, and ragged fragments, through
which the river roars with hideous bellowing. In the
year 1731, a promontory on Sundmoer, called Ram¬
mer sfield, that hung over Nordal Creek, fuddeniy gave
way, and plunged into the water ; which fwelled to
fiich a degree, that the church of Strand, though half a
league on the other fide of the bank, was overflowed :
the creek, however, was not filled up ; on the contrary
the fifhermen declare they find no difference in the depth,
which is find to exceed 900 fathoms.
The remarkable rivers of Norway are thefe : The
Nied, iffuing from Tydalen, on the borders of Sweden,
runs weftward into the lake Selboe ; and afterwards,
turning to the northward, pailes by the city of Dron-
theim, to which it anciently gave the name of Nideros
and Nidrqfia : Sule Ely, that defeending from Sulefield,
runs with a rapid courfe through Nordale into the fea :
Gulen, which rifes near Sffarsfield in the north ; and
running 20 leagues weftward, through Aalen, Ellotaa-
len, Storen, and Melhuus, difeharges itfelf into the fea,
about a league to the weft of Drcntheim. In the year
1344, this river buried itfelf under ground : from
whence it again burft forth with fuch violence, that the
earth and ftenes thrown up by the eruption filled the
valley, and formed a dam ; which, however, was foon
broken and walked away by the force of the water.
Divers churches, 48 farm houfes, with 250 perfons,
were deftroyed on this occafion.— Ottercen, a large ri¬
ver, taking its rife from the mountain Agde, runs about
30 leagues through Seeterdale and Efie, and difem-
begues itfelf into the cataract ofWiland. The river
Syre rifes near the mountain Lang, and winds its courfe
through the vale of Syre into the lake of Lunde in the
diocefe of Chriftianfand ; thence it continues its way to
the fea, into which it difeharges itfelf through a narrow
ftrait formed by two rocks. This ecu traction augments
its impetuofity, fo that it fhoots like an arrow into the
fea, in which it produces a very great agitation. Nid
and Sheen are two confiderable rivers, iffuing out of
Tillemark. Their water-falls have been diverted, with
infinite labour, by canals and paffages cut through the
rocks, for the convenience of floating down the timber.
Tyrefiord or Dramrne, is in the neighbourhood of Ho-
nifofle, ,v ^
NOR [ t
Norway. nifolTe, joined by two rivers front Cedale and Hade-
“—v  land, and difembogues itfelf into the fea near Bragnefs.
Loven rifes in the higheit part of Nummedal, and runs
through Konfberg to the fea near Laurwig. Glaamen
js the larged river of Norway, dillinguiihed by the
name of Star E/vin, or the great river. It derives its
origin from the mountain Dofre, from whence it winds
all along the plains of Oetlerdale and Soloe *, then joins
the Vorme, another confiderable river riling out of
Mioes and Guldbrandfdale. Thefe being joined, tra-
verfe the lake Oeyern •, and thence iffuing, run on to
Sarp near Frederickftadt.
Norway abounds with frelh-water lakes •, the princi¬
pal of which are Ryfvand in Nordland, Snaafen, Selboe,
the Greater and Leffer Mioes, Slirevand, Sperdille,
Rand, Veftn, Saren, Modum, Lund, Norfoe, Huidfoe,
Farifvand, and Oeyevand : all thefe are well flocked
with fifh, and navigable for large veffels. Wars have
been formerly carried on upon thefe inland feas 5 in
lome of which are fmall floating illands, or parcels of
earth, with trees on them, feparated from the main
land, and probably preferved in compaff rnaffes by the
roots of trees, flmibs, and grafs, intenvoven in the foil.
In the year 1702, the family feat of Borge, near Fre¬
derickftadt, being a noble edifice, with lofty towers and
battlements, fuddenly funk into an abyfs too fathoms
deep, which was inftantaneoufly filled by a piece ot wa¬
ter 300 ells in length and about half as broad. Four¬
teen perfons, with 200 head of cattle, perilhed in this
cataftrophe, which was occafioned by the river Glaamen
precipitating itfelf down a whaler-fall near Sarp, and un¬
dermining the foundation. Of all the water-falls in
Norway this of Sarp is the moft dangerous for its height
and rapidity. The current drives 1 7 mills; and roars
with fuch violence, that the whaler, being dallied and
comminuted among the rocks, rifes in the form of rain,
where a beautiful rainbow may be always feen when the
fun {Lines. In ancient times this cataract was made ufe
of for the execution of traitors and other malefactors :
they were .{.brown down alive, that they might be dafh-
ed in pieces on the points of rocks, and die in a dread¬
ful commotion, analogous to thofe they had endeavour-
ed to excite in the community.
Great part of Norway is covered with forefts of -wood,
which conftilute the principal article cf commerce in
this country. They chiefly confift of fir and pine, for
which great fums are received from foreigners, who ex¬
port an immenfe number of malts, beams, planks, and
boards. Befides, an incredible quantity is confumed at
home in building houfes, fhlps, bridges, piles, moles,
and fences ; over and above the vaft demand for char¬
coal to the founderies, and fuel for domeftic ufes.—
Nay, in fome places, the trees are felled for no other
purpofe but to clear the ground and to be burned into
allies for manure. A good quantity of timber is yeafly
exported to Scotland and Spain : but this is inconfider-
able when compared to the vaft: exports from Drammen,
Frederickfhall or Frederickftadt, Chriftiana, Skeen, A-
rendal, Chriftianfand, Chriftian’s Bay, and Drontheim.
The mails and large beams are floated dowm the fivers,
and the reft is divided into boards at the faw mills.
Thefe works fupply a vaft number of families with a
comfortable fubftftence.—A tenth part of ail fawTed tim¬
ber belongs to his Danifti majefty, and makes a conli-
derable branch of his revenue. The forefts in Nomay
i ] NOR
are fo vaft and thick, that the people feem to think Norway,
there can never be a fcarcity of wood, efpecially as the
fcil is peculiarly adapted for the produdlion of timber :
they therefore deftroy it with a wafteful hand ; infomuch
that more.wmod rets in Norway than is burned in the
whole kingdom of Denmark. The belt timber grows
in the provinces of Saltan, Helleland, Romfdale, Guld¬
brandfdale, Ocfterdale, Soloe, Valders, Hallingdale, Sog-
nifiord, Tellemark, and the lordlhip of Nedenes.
The climate of Norway is very different in different
parts of the kingdom. At Bergen the winter is fo mo¬
derate, that the leas are always open and practicable
both to mariners and hlhermen, except in creeks and
bays, that reach far up into the country towards File-
field, when the keen north-eaft wind blows from the
land. On the eaft fide of Norway, from the frontiers
of Sweden to Filefield, the cold generally fets in about
the middle of 0£tober with great feverity, and lafts till
the middle of April 3 during which interval the waters
are frozen to a very confiderable thicknefs, and the face
of the country is covered with fnow. In the year 1719,
7 ?oo Swedes, who intended to attack Drontheim, pe¬
rilhed in the fnow on the mountain of Ruden or Tydel,
which feparates jempteiand in Sweden from the diocefe
of Drontheim. A company of 200 Norwegian fledge-
men under Major Emahus, found them all frozen to
death on the ridge of the mountain, where they had
been furprifed by a ftorm accompanied with fnow, hail,
and extreme cold. Some of thefe unhappy vidtims ap¬
peared fitting, forne lying, and others kneeling in a pof-
ture of praying. They had cut in pieces their mufkets,
and burned the little wmod they afforded.—The gene¬
rals Labarre and Zoega loft their lives; and of the
whole corps, confiding originally of 10,000, no more
than 2500 furvived this dreadful cataftrophe.
The cold is Hill more intenfe in that part of Norway
called Finmark, fituated in the frigid zone near the po¬
lar circle. But if the winter is generally cold, the fum-
mer is often exceftively hot in Norwray. The rays of
the fun are reverberated from the fides of the mountains
fo as to render the weather clofe and fultry in the val¬
leys 3 befides, the fun’s abfence below the horizon is fo
Ihort, that the atmofphere and mountains have not time
to cool. The heat is fo great, that vegetation is re¬
markably quick. Barley is fovvn, grows, ripens, and
is reaped, in the fpace of fix weeks or two months.
The longeft day at Bergen confifts of 19 hours 3 the
fun rifing at half an hour after twro, and fetting at half
an hour after nine. The Ihorteft day does, not exceed
fix hours 3 for the fan rifes at nine in the morning, and
fets at three in the afternoon.—In the beginning' cf the
year the daylight increafes with remarkable celerity 3
and, at the approach of winter, decreafes in the fame
proportion. In fummer one may read and write at mid¬
night by the light of the Iky. Chriftian V. while he
refided at Drontheim, ufed to fup at midnight without
candles. In the diftrift of Tromfen, at the extremity
of Norway, the fun is continually in view at midfum- -
mer. It is feen to circulate day and night round the
north pole, contrafiing its orbit, and then gradually
enlarging it, until at length it leaves the horizon. In
the depth of winter, therefore, it is for fome weeks in-
vifible 3 and all the light perceived at noon is a faint,
glimmering for about an hour and a half, proceeding
fropa the reflection of the fun’s rays from the higheft -
mountains,--'--'
N O -R [ 62
Xorivay. mountains. But the inhabitants of thefe provinces are
^ ~ fupplied with other lights that enable them to follow
their employments in the open air. The Iky being ge¬
nerally lercne, the moonlhine is remarkably bright,
and, being reflected from the mountains, illuminates
the valleys. They are alfo aiTilted by the aurora bo¬
realis, which is very frequent in the northern parts of
Europe.
The air of Norway is generally pure and falubrious.
On the fea coafts, indeed, it is rendered moift by va¬
pours and exhalations: but in the midland parts of the
country, towards the mountains, the climate is fo dry,
that meal may be- kept for many years without being
worm-eaten or damaged in the leaft. The inhabitants
have no idea of licknefs, except what is occafioned by
exceffes. It is faid, that in the vale of Guldbrand the
inhabitants live to fuch extreme old age, that they be¬
come weary of life, and caufe themfelves to be removed
to a lefs falubrious climate, whereby they may have a
chance of dying the fooner. In confumptions, how¬
ever, the moilt air on the fea fide is found to be moll
agreeable to the lungs in refpiration. Norway, being
a mountainous country interfered by creeks, abounding
with lakes, rivers, and fnow, mull be fubjedl to fre¬
quent rains; and from hidden thaws the inhabitants are
fometimes expofed to terrible difallers. Vail mafles of
fnow falling from precipices overwhelm men, cattle,
boats, houfes, nay even whole railages. About two
centuries ago, a whole pariih was covered and deftroyed
by an immenfe mafs of fnow } and feveral domellic uten-
fils, as fciflars, knives, and bafons, have been at differ¬
ent times brought to light by a rivulet that runs under
the fnow, which has been gradually hardened and in-
creafed by repeated frolts and annual accellions.
The winds that chiefly prevail on the wellern coall
are thofe that blow from the fouth y whereas, on the
other fide of Filefield, the winds that produce and con¬
tinue the hard frofts are always northerly. In the fum-
mer, there is a kind of regular trade-wind on the coall
of Bergen. In the forenoon the fea begins to be cooled
with a wellerly breeze* which continues till midnight.
Then the land breeze begins from the call, and blows
till about ten in the morning. The coall is likewife
fubjefl to fudden fqualls and llorms. Hurricanes fome¬
times rife at fea ; and in thefe latitudes the phenomenon
called a watcr-fpout is not uncommon. One of thefe in
the neighbourhood of Ferro is faid to have fucked up
with the water fome halts of herrings, which were
afterwards dropped on Kolter, a mountain 1200 feet
, high.
The frefli water of Norway is not very light or pure ;
but on the contrary is generally turbid, and depofites a
fediment of adventitious matter, being fometimes im¬
pregnated with ochre and particles of iron.—Neverthe-
lefs it is agreeable to the talle, and remarkably falubri¬
ous ; as appears from the good health of the common
people, who drink little or no other liquOr.
The foil of Norway varies in different places accord¬
ing to the fituation of rock or valley. The mountains,
here, as in every other country, are bare and barren y
but the earth waflied down from them by the rains en¬
riches and fertilizes the valleys. In thefe the foil gene¬
rally confilts of black mould, fand, loam, chalk, and
gravel, lying over one another in unequal llrata, and
ibmetimes in three or four fucceffions: the mould that
] NOR
lies uppermoff is very fine and mellow, and fit to nou- Norway
rilh all forts of vegetables. There is alfo clay found in 
different parts of this kingdom, of which the inhabitants
begin to make earthen ware y but bricks and tiles are
not ufed in building. T. he face of the country is in
many places deformed by large fwamps and marfhes,
very dangerous to the traveller. Near Leeffoe in the
diocefe of Chriftianfand, a wooden caufeway is extend¬
ed near a mile over a morafs y and if a horfe or any
other animal fhould make a falfe ftep, he will fink at
once into the abyfs, never to rife again.
In a cold country like Norway, roughened with rocks
and mountains, interfperfed with bogs, and covered with
foreils, we cannot expect to find agriculture in perfec¬
tion. The ploughed lands, in refpecl to mountains*
woods, meadows, and waftes, do not exceed the pro¬
portion of 1 to 80 y fo that the whole country does not
produce com to maintain above half the number of its
inhabitants. The peafants are dilcouraged from the
practice of hufbandry by the frequency ot accidents that
feem peculiar to the climate. Even in the fruitful pro¬
vinces of Guldbrandfdale, Oeflerdale, and Soloer, as
well as in the other places, when the corn appears in
themoff flourilhing ccndition, the whole hope of the har-
vell is fometimes deftroyed in one night by a fudden
froft that nips the blade and extinguifhes the vegetation.
The kingdom is moreover vifited by fome unfavourable
years, in which the fun feems to have loft his genial
power y the vegetables are Hunted y the trees bud and
bloom, yet bear no fruit y and the grain, though it rifes,
will yet produce nothing but ^mpty ears and ftraw.
This calamity, however* rarely occurs y and in general
the cultivated parts of Norway yield plentiful crops of
excellent rye, barley, and oats. The moft fruitful pro¬
vinces are Nordland, Inderbarre, and Numedale, in the
diocefe of Drontheim y Sognifiord and Vaas, in that of
Bergen y Jedderen, Ryefyllk, Raabygdelag, and the
lordftiip of Nedenes, in the diocefe of Chriftianfand y
Hedemark in the diocefe of Aggerhus y Hadeland,
Toten, Romerige, Ringerige, and Guldbrandfdale : thefe
territories not only produce grain enough for their
own confumption, but liketvife lupport their neighbours*
and even fupply part of Sweden.-—Peafe are likewife
propagated in this country, together with wheat, buck¬
wheat, hops, hemp, and flax, but not to any^confider-
able advantage. The meadows are well ftored with
pafturage for ftieep and cattle, and the fields are produc¬
tive of thofe vegetables which are common in other
northern countries. Within thefe 50 years the people of
Norway have beftowed fome attention on the culture of
gardens, which in former times was fo neglected, that
the cities and towns wTere fupplied wuth leeks, cabbage,
and roots, from England and Holland. At prefent,
however, the Norwegians raife their own culinary and
garden rOots and vegetables, which thrive there as well
as in any other country. The feurvy being a difeafe
that prevails along the fea coaft, Nature has fcattered
upon it a variety of herbs efficacious in the cure of that
diftemper y fuch as angelica, rofe-wort, gentian, creffes,
trefoil, forrel, feurvy-grafs, and a plant called cricli's
.grqfs, that grows in great plenty on the iflands of Nord¬
land : from wffience the people of the continent fetch
away boat loads of it, to be preferveft in barrels as a
fuccedaneum for cabbage. There are alfo a few noxious
vegetables little known hi any country but Norway.
In
Norway-
NOR [ 63 ] NOR
In Guldbrandfdale is a fpecies of grafs called felfnape ;
' the root of which is fo poifonous, that any beaft which
eats of it dies immediately, the belly burfting 5 nay, the
carnivorous fowls that prey upon the carcafs of the
beaft meet with the fame fate : children have been more
than once poifoned by this root, which neverthelefs is
fometimes ufed externally as an amulet for arthritic difor-
ders. Another vegetable pernicious to the cattle is the
Gratnen ojfifragum Norwegienfe, which is faid to mollify
the bones of the cattle which feed upon it. Among the
noxious plants of Norway we may allb reckon the igle-
glafs, fatal to fhecp and goats j the tour-grafs, which
affefts horfes and cows with a fort of lethargy ; and the
plant torboe, or hifte-fpring, which produces nearly the
fame effect on horfes, but is not at all prejudicial to
cows, Iheep, or any ruminating animals. The herb
lurte, not unlike angelica, operates nearly in the fame
manner : yet the bears are faid to feed upon it with
peculiar relifh *, and when their hair begins to fall off by
feeding upon this plant, they cure themfelves by eating
the delh of animals.
The common fruit trees thrive tolerably well in Nor¬
way, the inhabitants of which have plenty of cherries,
apples, and pears. Some kinds of plums attain matu¬
rity •, which is feldom the cafe with grapes, apricots,
and peaches. But even the apples and pears that ripen
here are fummer fruit ; that which grows till the -winter
feldom coming to perfection. Great variety of agree¬
able berries is produced in different parts of this king¬
dom j fuch as the hagebar, a kind of floes ; an infufion
of which in wine makes a pleafant cooling liquor 5 juni¬
per berries, corinths red and white, foelbar or fun-
berries, rafpberries, goofeberfies, blackberries, Jlraw-
berries, &c. with many other fpecies that feem to be
natives of Norway and Sweden. Among thofe are the
tranaebar, the produce of the myrtillus repens, red and
auftere, found in the fpring in perfection under the fnow,
and much reliflied by the reindeer ; crakebeer, refemb-
ling bilberries, deemed a powerful antifcorbutic ; ager-
beer, larger and blacker than bilberries, of a pleafant
acid, ripened by cold, and ufed as cherries for an infu¬
fion in wine ; and finally tyltebeer, a red pleafant berry
growing on a fliort ftem, with leaves like thofe of box ;
they are plucked off by handfuls, and fent to Denmark
to be preferved for the table, where they are eaten by way
of deffert.
Of the trees that grow wild ,in Nor-way, the prin¬
cipal are the fir and the pine. The firft yield an an¬
nual revenue of 1,000,000 of rixdollars, if we include
the advantages refulting from the faw mills and the
marts : one of which laft has been known to fell for 200
rixdoliars. The red fir tree, which grows on the moun¬
tains, is fo rich in turpentine as to be almoft incorrupti¬
ble. Some of the houfes belonging to the Norway pea-
fants, built of this timber, are fuppofed to be above 400
years {landing. In Guldbrandfdale the houfe is ftill to
be feen {landing in which King Olaf lodged five nights,
above 700 years ago, when he travelled round the king¬
dom to convert the people to the Chriftian faith. Even
100 years after the trunk of the fir tree has been cut
down, the peafanls burn the roots for tar, which is a
very profitable commodity. In the fens, the refin of
the fir tree is by nature transformed into a fubftance
which may be called Norway franhincenfe. The buds
or pine apples of this tree, boiled in ftale beer, make an
excellent medicine for the fcurvy j lefs unpleafant to
the tafte, though as efficacious, as tar-water. The pine
tree is more tall and beautiful than the fir, though in¬
ferior to it in ftrength and quality 5 for which reafon the
planks of it are fold at an inferior price, and the peafants
wafte it without remorfe. Norway likewife produces
fome forefts of oak, which is found to be excellent for
ffiip-building. Here alfo grow plenty of elm trees j the
bark of which, being powdered, is boiled up with other
food to fatten hogs, and even mixed by the poor among
their meal ■, alfo the afli, from which the peafants difi.il
a balfam ufed in certain diforders, and which is ufed
both externally and internally. Many other trees flourifh
in this country, an enumeration of which would prove
too tedious. Hazels grow here in fuch abundance, th^t
100 tons of the nuts are annually exported from Bergen
alone.
A great diverfity of ftones is found in Norway, fome
of -which are of a furprifing figure. Several mountains
confift chiefly of a brown pebble, which decays with
age ; nay, it fometimes diffolves, and drops into the fea,
and the cement being thus loofened, a terrible difruption
enfues. In fome places the gray and black pebbles are
intermixed with iron, copper, lead, filver, and gold.
The ground in certain difiricf s is covered with the frag¬
ments of rocks that have been precipitated from the
fummits of mountains, and broken by their fall into in¬
numerable ihivers. Between 20 and 30 years ago, in
the neighbourhood of Bergen, a man was Suddenly over¬
whelmed wfith fuch a mafs, which formed a kind of vault
around him. In this dreadful tomb he remained alive
for feveral weeks. By his loud cries the place of his
confinement was difcovered : but it was found impoftible
to remove the huge ftcnes by which he was inclofed.
All that his friends could do for him was,- to lowTer
down meat and drink through fome crevices ; but at
length the ftones fell in, and crufhed him to death.
In Norway are inexhauftible quarries of excellent
marble, black, white, blue, gray, and variegated 5 to¬
gether with fome detached pieces of alabafter, feveral
kinds of fpar, chalk-ftone, eement-ftcne, fand -ftone, mill-
ftone, baking-ftone, flate, talc, magnets, and fwine-ftone,
a production natural to Norway and Sweden, of a
brown colour, fetid fmell, In texture refembling cryftal,
and deriving its name from a fuppofed efficacy in curing
a difiemper incident to fwine. Here alfo is found the
amianthus or ft one-flax, of which incombuftible cloth
may be made. Norway, however, affords no flints,
but plenty of pyrites or quartz, beautiful cryftals,
granites, amethyfts, agate, thunder-ftones, and eagle-
ftones. Gold has formerly been found in a fmall quan¬
tity in the diocefe of Chriftianfand, and coined into
ducats. There is at prefent a very confiderable filver
mine wrought at Konglberg on the account and at the
rilk pf his Daniffi majefty : the ore is furprifingly
rich, but interrupted in fuch a manner, that the vein
is often loft. Many maffes of pure filver have been,
found ; and, among the reft, one piece weighing 360
pounds, preferved in the royal mufeum at Copen¬
hagen. Such is the richnefs of thefe mines, that the
annual produce amounts in value to a ton and a
half in gold. About 5000 people are daily employ¬
ed, and earn their fubfiftence, in thofe ftupenduous
works
Norway:
NOR [64
, Nonyay. works (a). Other filver mines are profecuted at Jarif-
-v~ laerg, but not to the fame advantage ; and here the ore
is mixed with lead and copper. In many parts of this
country copper mines have been difcovered ; but the
principal, and perhaps the richeit in all Europe, is at
Roraas, about 100 Englifh miles from Drontheim.
This w'ork yields annually about r 100 fiiip pounds of
pure copper ; the founderies belonging to it confume
yearly about 14,000 lads of coal, and 500 fathoms of
wood. The next in importance is the copper work
at. Lykken, about 20 miles from Drontheim. A third
mine is carried on at Indfet or Quickne, at the di-
ftance of 30 miles from the fame place ; and here they
precipitate the copper from its menftruum, by means
of iron. There is a fourth copper work at Silboe,
about 30 miles dillant from Drontheim, though the
lead confiderable of the four. Other copper mines
of lefs note are worked in different parts of the king¬
dom. Iron is dill in greater plenty, and was the fird
metal wrought in this country. Many hundred thou-
fand quintals.are annually exported, chiedy in bars,
and part of it in doves, pots, kettles, and cannon :
the national profit arifing from this metal is edimated
at 300,000 rixdollars. There is a Ipecies called moor-
ir&n, found in large lumps among the moraffes : of
this the peafants make their own dotnedic tools and
utenfils, fuch as knives, fcythes, and axes. The lead
found mixed in the filver ore is an article of fmall im¬
portance in Norway ; yet fome mines ox this metal
have been lately opened in the didridl of Soloer by
the proprietors of the copper work at Oudal. A vi¬
triol work has been begun near Kongfherg : the mines
yield great plenty of fulphur 5 which, however, the
Norwegians will not take the trouble to melt and de¬
purate, becaufe immenfe quantities are found at a
cheaner rate in the ifland of Iceland. Alum is found
between the date dakes near Chridiana in fuch plenty,
that works have been fet up for refining this mineral,
though they have not yet brought it to any degree of
tranfparency. His Danidi majedy has edablilhed fait
works in the peninfula of Valoe, about fix Englifh miles
from Tonfberg, where this mineral is extracted in large
quantities from the fea water.
Befides the animals common to other countries, Nor¬
way is fa:d to contain many of the uncommon and du¬
bious kind ; fuch as the kraken, mermaid, fea ferpent,
Sec. See thefe articles.
Many Danifh, Englifh, Scotch, Dutch, and Ger¬
man families have now fettled in Norway ; and indeed
form no inconfiderable part of the trading people : but
the original inhabitants are the defendants of thofe
ferocious Normanni, who haraffed almod all the coads
.pf Europe with piratical armaments in the 8th, 9th,
and 10th centuries.
.“ Our fird certain knowledge of the inhabitants of
XArEi.Zool.this country (fays Pennant*) was from the defola-
] NOR
tion they, brought on the fouthern nations by their Norway,
piratical invafions. Their country had before that —
peiiod . the name 01 Nortm(inland, and the inhabi¬
tants IS or t mans, a title which included other adjacent
people. Great Britain and Ireland were ravaged by
them in 843 •, and they continued their invafion till
tl.ey edefied the conqued of England, under their
leader Canute the Great. They went up the Seine as
far as Pans, burnt the town, and forced its weak mo-
naren to purchafe their abfence at the price of fourteen
thoui'aijd marks. They plundered Spain, and at len h
carried their excurfions through the Mediterranean ,0
Italy, and even into Sicily. They ufed narrow veffels,
like their ancedors the Sitones; and, befides oars,
added the improvement of two fails j and vi&ualled
them with faded provifions, bifcuit, cheefe, and beer.
Their fhips were at fird fmall j but in after times they
were, large enough to hold 100 or 1 20 men. But the
multitude of veffels was amazing. The fleet of Harold
Blaatand confided of 700. A hundred thoufand of
thde favages have at once failed from Scandinavia, fo
judly dyled Officina gentium, aut certe velut vagina na-
tionum. Probably necedity, more than ambition, caufed
them to difeharge their country of its exuberant num¬
bers. Multitudes were dedroyed; but multitudes re¬
mained, and peopled more favourable climates.
I heir king, Olaus, was a convert to Chridianity
in 994 i Bernard an Englidnnan had the honour of
baptizing him, when Olaus happened to touch at one
of the Scilly Hands. He plundered with great fpirit
during feveral years ; and in 1006 received the crown
of martyrdom from his pagan fubjecls. But religious
zeal fird gave the red of Europe a knowledge of their
country and the fweets of its commerce.’ The Hanfe
towns peured m their midionaries, and reaped a tem¬
poral harved. By the year 1204, the merchants ob¬
tained from the wife prince Suer every encouragement
to commerceand by that means introduced wealth and
civilization into his barren kingdom. England by every
method cnerifhed the advantages reliilting from an inter-
courfe with Norwuy, and Bergen was the emporium,
Henry III. in 1217, entered into a league with its mo¬
narch Haquin; by which both princes dipulated for free
r.ccefs for their fubjefls into their refpe&ive kingdoms,
free trade, and fecurity to their perfons. In 1269, Hen¬
ry entered into another treaty with Magnus 5 in which
it was agreed, that no goods diould be exported from
either kingdom except they had been paid for ; and
there is, befides a humane provifion on both fides,
for the fecurity of the perfons and effe&s of the
fubjecls who diould differ Ihipwreck on their feveral
coafts.”
I he inhabitants now Ipeak the fame language that
is ufed in Denmark, through their original tongue is
the dialeft now fpoken in Iceland. They profefs the
Lutheran religion, under an archbifiiop eflabliflied at
Drontheim,
^a) Mr Coxe .texts us, that he vifited thofe mines. They formerly, he fays, produced annually 70,000!.
but at prevent yield lui.e more than 50,000!. The expences generally exceed the profits } and government
gams omy by tne number Oi miners employed. The mines of cobalt, and the preparation of Pruflian blue
are muca moie productive. The. latter, goes through 270 hands, and the number of men employed is
365. It is fuppofed, that, at this period (1793J), it may produce to government a profit of" 16.Q00I.
a-yeaj*
3
N O R
Norway.
^ Drontheim, with four fuffragans $ namely, of Bergen,
w Staffanger, Hammer, and Chriftiana. By the union of
Calmar, the two kingdoms of Norway and Denmark
were united under one monarch and then the people
ot both nations enjoyed confiderable privileges : but
the Danifh government foon became abfolute j and Nor¬
way was ruled defpotically by a viceroy, who refided in
the capital, and prefided m the fupreme court, to winch
appeals were made from the fubordinaie courts of judica¬
ture. A great change has, however, taken place fmce
the prefent amiable and accomplifhed prince of Denmark
had part of the government 5 and wore may be expected
from his virtue and affiduity when the power fhall come
wholly into his own hands.
The Norwegians are generally well formed, tall,
fturdy, and robuft, brave, hardy, honed, hofpitable, and
ingenious 5 yet favage, rafh, quarrelfome, and litigious.
The fame charafter will nearly fuit the inhabitants of
every mountainous country in the northern climates.
Their women are well Ihaped, tall, comely, remarkably
fair, and obliging. The nobility of Norway have been
chiefly removed by the kings of Denmark, in order to
prevent faction and oppofition to the court; or are long
ago degenerated into the rank of peafants: fome fami¬
lies, however, have been lately raifed to that dignity.
Every freeholder in Norway enjoys the right of primo¬
geniture and power of redemption ; and it is very ufual
to fee a peafant inhabiting the fame houfe which has been
poffelled 400 years by his anceftors. The odels-gads, or
freehold, cannot be alienated by fale or otherwife from
the right heir, called odels-mand: if he is not able to
redeem the eftate, he declares his incapacity every 10th
year at the feflions ; and if he, or his heirs to the third
generation, Ihould acquire wealth enough for that
-purpofe, the poffdfor pro tempore mull refign his pof-
feflion.
The mountaineers acquire furprifmg ftrength and
dexterity by hard living, cold, laborious exercife, climb¬
ing rocks, Ikating on the fnow, and handling arms,
which they carry from their youth to defend themfelves
againlt the wild hearts of the foreft. Thofe who dwell
in the maritime parts of Norway exercife the employ¬
ments of fifliing and navigation, and become very expert
manners. »
The peafants of Norway never employ any handi-
craftfmen for neceffaries to themfelves and families :
they are their own hatters, fhoemakers, taylors, tan¬
ners, weavers, carpenters, fmiths, and joiners: they are
even expert at fliip-building ; and fome of them make
excellent violins But their general turn is for carving
in wood, which they execute in a furprifing manner wflth
a common knife of their own forging. They are taught
in their youth to wreftle, ride, fwim, fkate, climb, fhoot,
and forge iron. Their amufements confift in making
verfes, blowing the horn, or, playing upon a kind of gui¬
tar, and the violin : this lart kind of mufic they perform
even at funerals. 'The Norwegians have evinced their
t 65 i
N O R
rel, fight, and murder generally enfues. The very com- Norway,
mon people are likewdfe paflionate, ambitious of glory ■■■■—v**"—
and independence, and vain of their pedigree. The no¬
bility and merchants of Norway fare fumptuourty j but
the peafant lives with the utmoil temperance and fruga¬
lity, except at feftivals : his common bread is made&of
oatmeal, rolled into broad thin cakes, like thofe ufed in
Scotland. In time erf fcarcity, they boil, dry, and grind
the bark of the fir tree into a kind of flour which they
mix with oat meal 5 the bark of the elm tree is ufed in
the fame manner. In thofe parts where a fifliery is car¬
ried on, they knead the roes of cod with their oat meal.
Of thefe laft, mixed with barley meal, they make haftv
pudding and foup, enriched with a pickled herring or
falted mackarel. Frefli fifh they have in plenty on the
fea coaft. They hunt and eat groufe, partridge, hare,
red deer, and reindeer. They kill cows, fheep, and
goats, for their winter ftock: thefe they pickle, or fmoke,
or dry for ufe. They make cheefe of their milk, and a
liquor calledyyre of their four whey : this they common¬
ly drink mixed xvith water • but they provide a tlore of
llrong ale for Chriftmas, weddings, chriftenings, and
other entertainments. From their temperance and ex-
ercife, joined to the purity and elafticity of their air,
they enjoy good health, and often attain to a furprifing
degree of longevity. Nothing is more common than to
fee a hearty Norwegian turned of 100. In the year
I733» /our couples danced before his Daniih majerty at
Frederickfliall : their ages, when joined, exceeded 800
years. Neverthelefs the Norwegians are fubject to va¬
rious difeafes ; fuch as the fcab, the leprofy, the feurvy,
the catarrh, the rheumatifm, gout, and epilepfy. The
drefs of the Norway peafants confifts of a wide loofe
jacket made of coarfe cloth, with waiftcoat and breeches
of the fame. Their heads are covered with flapped hats
or caps ornamented with ribbons. They wear ihoes
without outer foies, and in the winter leathern bulkins.
They have likewife fnow flioes and long fkates, with
which they travel at a great pace, either on the land or
There is a corps of foldiers thus accoutred, who
vplour and fidelity in a thoufand different inftances. The
country was always diftra&ed by inteftine quarrels, which
raged from generation to generation. Even the farmers
Hand upon their pun&ilio, and challenge one another to
Angle combat with their knives. On fuch occafions they
hook themfelyes together by their belts, and fight until
one of them is killed or mortally wounded. At wed-
’dings and public feafts they drink to intoxication, quar-
Vol. XV. Part I.
ice.
can outmarch the fwifteft horfes. The Norwegian pea¬
fant never wears a neckcloth, except on extraordinary
occafions : he opens his neck and breaft to the weather,
and lets the fnow beat into his bofom. His body is girt
round with a broad leathern belt, adorned with brafs
plates, from which depends a brafs chain that fuftains a
large knife, gimlet, and other tackle The women are
dreffed in clofe laced jackets, having leathern girdles de¬
corated with ornaments of filver. They likewife wear
filver chains round their necks, to the ends of which are
fixed gilt medals. Their caps and handkerchiefs are al-
moft covered with fmall plates of filver, brafs, and tin,
large rings,_ and buttons. A maiden bride appears with
her hair plaited, and, together with her clothes, hung full
of fuch jingling trinkets.
The. churches, public edifices, and many private
houfes in Norway, are built of ftone : but the people
in general live in wooden houfes, made of the trunks of
fir and pine tree laid upon each other, and joined by
mortifes at the comers. Thefe are counted more dry,
warm, and healthy, than ftone or brick buildings. In
the whole diocefe of Bergen, one hardly fees a farm
houfe with a chimney or vfindow i they are geneially
lighted by a fquare hole in the top of the houfe, wflnch
lets in the light, and lets out the fmoke. In fummer
I this
NOR
Norway, this hole is left quite open : in the winter, it is covered
Norwich. wjt}1 what they call a fiau ; that is the membrane of
feme animal, ilretched upon a wooden frame that fits
the hole, and tranfmits the rays of light. It is fixed or
removed with a long pole occafionally. Every perfon
that enters the houfe, upon bufinefs or courtlhip, takes
hold of this pole, according to ancient cuftom. The
ceiling is about eight feet high in the middle •, and, be¬
ing arched like a cupola, the fmoke of the fire under¬
neath rolls about, until it finds a vent at the hole, which
is called liur. Under this opening hands a thick table
with benches, and a high feat at the upper end for the
mailer of the family : he has like wife a fmall cupboard
for his own ufe, in which he locks up his mod valuable
effefls. The boards of the roof are coated with the
bark of the birch trees, which is counted incorruptible :
this again is covered with turf, which yields a good crop
of grals for goats and Iheep, and is often mowed as hay
by the farmer.
The Norwegians carry on a confiderable trade with
foreign nations. The duty on the produce of their own
country exported, amounts annually to 100,000 rix-
dollars. Thefe commodities are, copper wrought and
unwrought : iron call into cannon, lloves, and pots, or
forged into bars ; lead, in fmall quantity ; malls, tim¬
ber, deal boards, planks, marble, millilones, herring,
cod, ling, falmon, lobllers, flounders, cow hides, goat
Ikins, feal Ikins, the furs of bears, wolves, foxes, beavers,
ermines, martens, &c. down, feathers, butter, tallow,
train oil, tar, juniper and other forts of berries, and nuts j
fait, alum, glafs, vitriol, and pot afties. All oiher com¬
modities and articles of luxury the Norwegians import
from different nations. The nature of the ground does
not admit of much improvement in agriculture : never-
thelefs, the farmers are not deficient in indullry and Ikill
to drain marlhes, and render the ground arable and fit
for pallure. Many are employed in grazing and breed¬
ing cattle : but a much greater number is engaged in
felling wood, floating timber, burning charcoal, and ex-
t rafting tar from the roots of the trees which have been
cut down in the lilver, copper, and iron mines j in the
navigation and filhery. A conliderable number of peo¬
ple earn a comfortable livelihood by hunting, fliooting,
and bird-catching. Every individual is at liberty to pur-
fue the game, efpecially in the mountains and commons:
therefore every peafant is expert in the ufe of fire arms 5
and there are excellent markfmen among the mountains,
who make ufe of the bow to kill thofe animals, whofe
Ikins, being valuable, would be damaged by the fliot of
fire arms.
Norway can produce above 14,000 excellent fea-
men. The army of this country amounts to 30,000
effeflive men 3 and the annual revenue exceeds 800,000
xixdollars.
Norwat Rat. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
NORWICH, the capital of the county of Norfolk
in England, fituated in E. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 52. 40.
It is fuppofed to have had its name, which fignifies “ a
callle to the north,” from its fituation in refpefl of Caf-
tor, the ancient Venta Icenorum, three or four miles to
the fouth of it, out of whofe ruins it feems to have rifen.
In its infancy, in the reign of Etheldred, it was plun¬
dered and burnt by Sueno the Dane, when he invaded
England with a great army. Afterwards it recovered 3
and in the reign of Edward the ConfelTor was a con-
N O It
fiderable place, having 1320 burghers. Eut it fuffered Norwich,
again much in the reign of William I. by being the feat *
of a civil war, which Ralph earl of the Eait Angles
raifed againft that king. So much was it, impaired by
the fiege it then underwent, that there were fcarce 560
burghers left in it, as appears from Doomfday book.
From that time forward it began by little and little to
recover, efpecially after Bifhop Herbert tranflated the
epifcopal fee hither from Thetford in the reign of Wil¬
liam Rufus in 1096 3 and built a beautiful cathedral, of
which he himfelf laid the firlt flone, with this inferip-
tion, Dominus Herbertus pofuit pritnam lapidem, in
nomine Patt'is, Fdii, et Spirit up Santti, Amen, i. e.
“ Lord (Bifhop) Herbert laid the firft ftone, in the
name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghofl 3.” and by a
licenfe from Pope Pafchal, declared it the mother church
of Norfolk and Suffolk. After this, as Malmfbuiy has
it, it became a town famous for merebandife and the
number of inhabitants. Yet it was miferably haraffed
in the reign of Henry II. by Hugh Bigod earl of Nor¬
folk, who was an adherent of Henry’s fon, called the
junior king. In the time of Edward I. it was walled
round by the citizens, who had prefented a petition to
parliament for liberty to do it. Henry IV. allowed
them, inftead of bailiffs, which they had before, to cleft
a mayor yearly, and made the city a county of itfclf.
In the year 1348, near 58,000 perfons were carried off
by the plague 3 and in 1505, the city was almoit con-
fumed by fire. Eor the flourifhing Hate to which the
city is now arrived, they are much indebted to the
Flemings, who fled hither from the tyranny of the duke
of Alva and the inquifition, and taught them the manu-
faclure of thofe ftriped and flowered damafks, camblets,
druggets, black and white crape, for which the place is
now fo noted, and which have been computed to yield
fometimes 200,cool, a-year. In the year 1583, the citi¬
zens, by the help of an engine, conveyed water through
pipes to the highefl parts of the city, which is plea-
fantly feated along the fide of a hill, extending a mile
and a half in length from north to fouth ; but the
breadth is much lei's, and it contraffs iifelf by degrees
towards the fouth. It is now one of the molt confider¬
able cities in Britain for wealth, populoufnefs, neat build¬
ings, beautiful churches, (of which it had once 58, but
now only 36), and the induftry and civility of the inha¬
bitants. The cathedral is a very venerable flruflure,
with a curious roof, adorned with the hiftory of the Bi¬
ble in little images, carved to the life, and a lofty fteeple
105 yards high. The wall of flint Hone, beautified with
40 towers and 12 gates, nnifhed in 1309, is now much
decayed. The city, though there is a great deal of wafie
ground within the walls, was computed, about 60 years
ago, to contain 8000 houfes and 50,000 inhabitants.
Befides the cathedral already mentioned, the moll re¬
markable buildings are, the duke of Norfolk’s houfe,
one of the largeil in England ; the caftle, which is now
the county gaol, and Hands in the heart of the city, with
a deep moat round it, over which is a bridge of one very
large arch 3 the town hall 3 the guild hall, formerly the
church belonging to the monaftery of Black Friars 3
the houfe of corre£lion 3 the Ihire heufe, where the
aflizes are held 3 a lofty market crofs, built after the
manner of a piazza 3 the biihop’s palace 3 the king’s
fchool, founded by Edward VI. the boys of which are
nominated by the mayor for the time being, with the
confent
[ 66 ]
NOR [ 6? ] "NOS
Norwl'h. confent of the majority of aldermen. There having
——— been formerly many thatched hoafes, an order was made,
that all houfes that Ihould hereafter be built fhould be
covered with tiles. The city is interfperfed with gar¬
dens, orchards, and trees, which make it both pleafant
and healthful. It has four hofpitals, in which a great
number of old men and women, boys and girls, are main¬
tained ; and a dozen charity fchools. Here are two
churches for the Dutch and French Flemings; who have
particular privileges, and- are very numerous. Some of
the churches are thatched, and all of them crufted with
flint ftone curioufly cut 5 which is the more wonderful,
as Norwich Hands in a clay country, and has no dint
within 20 miles of it. It is nowr governed by a mayor,
recorder, fteward, two iherids, 24 aldermen, 60 common
council, with a town clerk, fword-bearer, and other in¬
ferior officers. The mayor is chofen on May-day by
the freemen, and fworn in on the Tuefday before Mid-
fummer-eve. The ffieriffs are alfo chofen annually, on
the firft Tuefday in Auguft, one by the freemen, the
other by the aldermen, and fworn in on Michaelmas day.
The freemen of the feveral wards choofe each their al¬
derman. The common council is chofen in Midlent.
The mayor is a juitice of the peace and quorum, during
his year (as are alfo the recorder and fteward) within
the city and liberties ; and after his mayoralty, he is a
juftice"during life. The trade and manufaftures of the
city are very conflderable. At Yarmouth they export
large quantities of their manufaclures, moft of which are
fent to London •, and import a great deal of wine, coal,
fiffi, oil, &.c. All the city and country round are em¬
ployed in the worfted manufacture, brought hither, as
already obferved, by the Flemings, in which they not
only confume the wool of their own county, in fpinning,
weaving, &c. but ufe many thoufand packs of yam
which they receive from other parts of England, as far
as Yorklhire and Weftmoreland. There are eight
■wardens of the weavers chofen annually, and fworn to
take care that there be no frauds committed in fpinning,
weaving, or dying the fluffs. It is computed that there
are not lefs than, 120,000 people employed in and about
the city in the filk and woollen manufactures. Their
markets are thought to be the greateft in England, and
furnllhed with a furprifing plenty and variety of goods
and provifions. At a fmall village to the north of the
city, called St Faith's, not lefs than 40,000 head of
Scotch cattle are faid to be yearly bought up by the
Norfolk graziers, and fattened in their meadows and
marffies. Its markets are on Wednefday, Friday, and
Saturday. It has a great number of fairs, fends two mem¬
bers to parliament, and gives the title of earl to the duke
of Gordon.
Few cities or towns feem to have fuffered more than
Norwich has done at various periods, and few feem to
have felt it lefs 5 for though quite burnt down by Sueno
as above, it was of conflderable confequence in Edward
the Confeffor’s time *, nor did it long feel the evils of
the infurreftion and liege in William the Conqueror’s
time, for it was rebuilt in Stephen’s reign, and made
a corporation.
The city of Norwich has long been famous for its
manufactures •, which are not, in the opinion of fome, at
prefent in fo ilourilhing a Hate as formerly. In addition
to the manufacture of camblets, druggets, and crapes, it
is alfo remarkable for baize, ferges, (balloons, dockings, ^
and woollen cloths.
The inhabitants of Norwich are generally fo em¬
ployed in their manufactures within doors, that the
city has the appearance of being deferted, except on
Sundays and holidays, when the ftreets fwarm with
people.
Caller, near Norwich, was the Venta Icenorum,
or capital city of the Iceni, the broken walls of which
contain a fquare of about 30 acres. In thofe walls
may Hill be perceived the remains of four gates and a
tower. Several Roman urns, coins, and other relicks
of antiquity, have been found in this place.
NOSE, the organ of fmell. See Anatomy. The
ufes of the nofe are, its giving us the fenfe of fmell-
ing ; its ferving in the great office of refpiration, and
in modelling the voice ; in receiving the abundant hu¬
mours from the eyes, and in adding to the beauty of the
face.
The nofe was by the augurs particularly attended
to in forming conjectures concerning future good or
ill fuccefs. The tingling of the right or left fide of it,
for inftance, was thought to have different lignifica-
tions as it happened to different fexes, or perfons in dif¬
ferent conditions.
In Tartary, the greateft beauties are thofe who have
the leaft nofes. Ruybrock mentions the wife of the
great Jenghiz Khan as a celebrated beauty, becaufe Ihe
had only two holes for a nofe. The Crim Tartars break
the nofes of their children while young, as thinking it a
great piece of folly to have their nofes Hand before their
eyes. In moft other countries, China excepted, great
nofes are an honour.
In what the beauty of the nofe confifts, different
nations have different opinions: and the following re¬
flections of Sir Jolhua Reynolds on this fubjeft, are
perhaps the molt philofophical account of the beauty
of form that is to be found in any language. “ I///f;J
fuppofe (fays Sir Jolhua) it wall be eafily granted,
that no man can judge whether any animal be beauti¬
ful in its kind, or deformed, who has feen only one of
that fpecies: that is as conclulive in regard to the hu¬
man figure 5 fo that if a man born blind was to reco¬
ver his fight, and the moft beautiful woman was brought
before him, he could not determine whether Ihe was
handfome or not; nor, if the moft beautiful and moft
deformed W'ere produced, could he any better deter¬
mine to which he Ihould give the preference, having
feen only thofe two. To diftinguilh beauty, then, im¬
plies the having feen many individuals of that fpecies.
If it is alked, how is more (kill acquired by the obfer-
vation of greater numbers ? I anfwer, that, in confe¬
quence of having feen many, the powder is acquired,
even without feeking after it, of diftinguilhing I etween
accidental blemilhes and excrefcences, which are conti¬
nually varying the furface of Nature’s works, and the
invariable general form which Nature moft frequently
produces, and always feems to intend in her produc¬
tions.
“ Thus amongft the blades of grafs or leaves of the
fame tree, though no twm can be found exaCtly alike,
yet the general form is invariable : a naturalift, before
he chofe one as a fample, would examine many, fince,
if he took the firlt that occurred, it might have, by
I 2 accident
NOS [68
ofi‘- accident or ollierwife, fuch a form as that it would
v fcarce be known to belong to that fpecies 5 he felefts,
as the painter does, the molt beautiful, that is, the molt
general form of nature.
“ Every fpecies of the animal as well as the vegetable
creation may be faid to have a fixed or determinate
iorm, towards which nature is continually inclining,
like various lines terminating in the centre } or it may
be compared to pendulums vibrating in different di¬
rections over one central point 5 and as they all crofs
the centre, though only one pafles through any other
point, fo it will be found that perfeft beauty is of-
tener produced by nature than deformity : I do not
mean than deformity in general, but than any one
kind of deformity. To inftance in a particular part
of a feature : the line that forms the ridge of the nofe
is beautiful when it is ftraight 5 this then is the central
form, which is oftener. found than either concave, con¬
vex, or any other irregular form that fhall be propofed.
As we are then more accuftomed to beauty than defor¬
mity, we may conclude that to be the reafon why we
approve and admire it, as we approve and admire cuf-
toms and fafhions of drefs for no other reafon than
that we are ufed to them j fo that though habit and
cuftom cannot be faid to be the caufe of beauty, it
is certainly the caufe of our liking it : and I have
no doubt, but that if we were more ufed to defor¬
mity than beauty, deformity would then lofe the idea
now annexed to it, and take that of beauty; as if the
whole world Ihould agree that yes and no fhould change
their meanings, yes would then deny, and no would
affirm.
“ Whoever undertakes to proceed further in this
argument, and endeavours to fix a general criterion
of beauty refpefting different fpecies, or to fhow why
one fpecies is more beautiful than another, it will be
required from him firft to prove that one fpecies is really
more beautiful than another. That we prefer one to
the other, and with very good reafon, will be readily
granted 5 but it does not follow from thence that we
think it a more beautifol form ; for we have no criterion
of form by which to determine our judgement. He*
who fays a fwan is more beautiful than a dove, means
little more than that he has more pleafure in feeing a
fwan than a dove, either from the ftatelinefs of its mo¬
tions, or its being a more rare bird j and he who gives
the preference to the dove, does it from fome afibciation
of ideas of innocence that he always annexes to the
dove 5 but if he pretends to defend the preference he
gives to one or the other, by endeavouring to prove that
this more beautiful form proceeds from a particular
gradation of magnitude, undulation of a curve, or
dire&ion of a line, or whatever other conceit of his
imagination he fhall fix on as a criterion of form, he
will be continually contradicling himfelf, and find at
laft that the great mother Nature will not be fub-
je&ed to fuch narrow rules. Among the various rea-
fons why we prefer one part of her works to another,
the moft general, I believe, is habit and cuftom : cu¬
ftom makes, in a certain fenfe, white black, and
black white \ it is cuftom alone determines our pre¬
ference of the colour of the Europeans to the /Ethio¬
pians } and they, for the fame reafon, prefer their own
colour to ours. I fuppofe nobody will doubt, if one
of their painters was to paint the goddefs of beauty,
1 NOS
but that he would reprefent her black, with thick
ips, liat nofe, and wooly hair ; and it feems to me
he would a£l very unnaturally if he did not; for by
criterion will any one difpute the propriety of
his idea ? We indeed fay, that the form and colour of
the European is preferable to that of the Ethiopian :
but I know of no other reafon we have for it, but
that we are more accuftomed to it. It is abfurd to fay,
that beauty is poffefled of attraftive powers, which ir-
refiftibly leize the correfponding mind with love and
admiration, fince that argument is equally conclulive in
favour of the white and the black philofopher.
“ "1 he black and white nations muff, in refpeft
of beauty, be confidered as of different kinds, at leaft
a different fpecies of the fame kind j from one of
which to the other, &s I obferved, no inference can be
drawn.
Novelty is faid to be one of the caufes of beau¬
ty : that novelty is a very fufficient reafon why we
fhould admire, is not denied ; but becaufe it is un¬
common, is it therefore beautiful ? The beauty that
is produced by colour, as when we prefer one bird to
another, though of the fame form, on account of its
colour, has nothing to do with this argument, which
reaches only to form. I have here confidered the
word beauty as being properly applied to form alone.
There is a neceffity of fixing this confined fenfe $ for
there can be no argument, if the fenfe of the word
is extended to every thing that is approved. A rofe
may as well be faid to be beautiful, becaufe it has a
fine fmell, as a bird becaufe of its colour. When we
apply the word beauty, we do not mean always by it
a more beautiful form, but fomething valuable on ac¬
count of its rarity, ufefulnefs, colour, or any other
property. A horfe is faid to be a beautiful animal y
but had. a horfe as few good qualities as a tortoife, I
do not imagine that he would be then efteemed beau¬
tiful.
“ A fitnefs to the end propofed is faid to be another*
caufe of beauty } but fuppofing we were proper judgesr
of what form is the moft; proper in an animal to coniti-
tute ftrength or fwiftnefs, we always determine concern¬
ing its beauty before we exert our underltanding to
judge of its fitnefs.
“ From what has been faid, it may be inferred, that
the works of nature, if we compare one fpecies with
another, are all equally beautiful y and that preference
is given from cuftom, or fome affociation of ideas y and
that in creatures of the fame fpecies, beauty is the me¬
dium or centre of all various forms. See the article
Beauty, towards the end.
NOSOLOGY, is a Greek word fignifying a dif.
courfe or treatife of difeafes ; otherwife called pathology.
The importance of a comprehenfive and accurate
nofology has been long and generally allowed. Bag-
livi, Boerhaave, Gorter, Gaubius, and Sydenham, have
expreffed their defire of a work of this kind, the great ob-
jeft of which is to fix pathognomonics to every difeafe y or
in which all difeafes are difpofed into certain claffes, orders,
and genera, founded on diftinflions taken from the fymp-
toms only, without regard to remote or proximate caufes.
See Medicine.
NOSTOCH, shot stars y tremella nojloc, (Lin.
Spec. Plant Dillenius de Mufcis, tab. 10. fig. 14.
Flor. Danica, tab. 885. fig. 1.) 3 tremella inteJHnalis vel
mefenterica,
Nofe
fi
Noftoch.
Noftoch.
NOS - [69] NOS
mefenterica, (Lin. Spec. Plant. Dillen. de Muf. tab.
10. fig. 16. Flor. Danic. tab. 885. fig. 2.)
A writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine gives this
account of it : “ The fubftance in queilion is not un¬
frequent in England, nor in all other parts of Europe,
after rains, both in fpring and autumn. Very large
fpots of it are feen in gravelly foils, and particularly on
the tops of hills, and on open downs, and often it is
found on gravel walks.
“ It is met with in fome of the old authors, under
the name of nojloch, as in Paracelfus and others; and the
alchemilts fancied there was fomething wonderful in
it, and that it would afford a menftruum for gold.
Noftoch is faid to be a word fynonymous to Jaculum
alicujus Jlellce, velpotius ejus repUrgatione dejeftum quid
in terram ; Jlos aeris ; fragmentum nimbi; as this fub¬
ftance was believed to fall from the fky with the me¬
teors that we often fee, and call falling-Jlars. Hence
the country people in Sweden have called it fky-fall;
and in England it is known by the name of witches
butter, in common with fome of the gelatinous liver¬
worts.
“ Paracelfus, Helmont, and others, ranked it with
the terniabin, or manna, and thought it dropped, as
that did, from heaven. It is defcribed, and the che¬
mical analyfis thereof given, by M. Geoffrey, in the
Paris Memoirs for 1708, and is there faid to yield,
befides an acid phlegm, a portion of concrete vola¬
tile fait and fome fixed fait. The diftilled water from
it was believed by fome to poffefs Angular virtues, in
allaying pains of the joints j but there is certainly no
room to attribute any extraordinary qualities to it.
“ Since the days of Paracelfus it has been coufider-
ed as a vegetable produftion *, but the botanifts have
had difficulty to aflign its place or genus in their fe-
veral fyftems. Our own countryman, Dr Merret,
feems to have been among the firft authors who rank¬
ed it among vegetables, and he calls it Lichen humiditate
intumefcens,Jiccitate evanefeens (Pin. page. 71.) Others
have retained it among the plants of that genus to this
day ; as does the celebrated Dr Haller, in his Hijioria
Stirp. He/vetice, who calls it Lichen gelatinofus, plicatus,
undulatus; laciniis crifpatis, granulojis, N° 2041, as
there are feveral of the liverworts that have a gelatinous
texture and appearance j though they differ much from
the noftoch, in not being fo inftantly dried up. It was
put into Ray’s Synopfis, by Dr Dillenius, under the
name of Viva terrejlris pinguis et fugax, p. 64. ; but he
afterwards changed that name for tremella, in his Hif-
toria Mufcorum, where he calls it tremella terre/Iris
Jinuofa pinguis et fugax, p. 52. tab. 10. f. 14, and re¬
duces the lavers to the fame genus. Micheli, an Ita¬
lian botanift, famous for his attention to the Cryptoga-
mia clafs of plants, makes it a fungus, as Magnol and
Dr Morifon had done before him, and deferibes and
figures it, in his Nova Plantarum Genera, under the
name of Liniia terre/Iris gelatinofa, membranacea, vul-
gatifjima, p. 126. t. 67. f. 1. Pie deferibes the feeds as
lying in the form of little firings of beads, coiled up
within the plant, or rather in the folds thereof, and on¬
ly to be difeovered by the microfcope. Linnaeus men¬
tions it, firft under the name of Byjpus gelatinofa fugax
terrefris, in his Flora Lapponica, N° 520 ; but he af¬
terwards adopted Dillen ms's term, though he does not
make it a laver. Linnaeus has called itj in all his fub-
fequent works, tremella (nofoc) plicata, undulata, un- Noftoch.
der which name it ftands in his Species Plantarum, N*"””
p. 1157, and in Hudfon’s Flora Anglica, p. 463, as alfo
in a numerous fet of other authors who follow his fyf-
tem.”
Another writer in the fame work gives this account
of it. “ This fubftance is very rarely feen between the
middle of April and the month of October. It is
moft frequently to be found in the high pafture lands,
where the ground is inclined to wet, and on the moors
and commons in the north of England. The time
we always meet with it is after a very wet night,
when the air in the morning fuddenly clears up, and a
fharp froft enfues. The frogs that then happen to be
out are immediately feized by the froft, and turned
into this jelly-like fubftance. For as I have had oc-
cafion fometimes to go out very early, I have found
feveral parts of the frog not yet diffolved among the
jelly, fuch as feet, legs, and thighs, yet in a little time
afterwards the change was fully completed. The
quantity of jelly produced from one fingle frog is almoft
beyond belief, even to five or fix times its bulk when in
its natural ftate.
“ I communicated this difeovery to an acquaintance,
wTho has fince had frequent opportunities of obferving
and examining this produftion ; and we are fully af-
fured, that, whatever opinion the learned may have of
it, it certainly proceeds from the above-mentioned caufe
wherever found.
“ Moft people that I have converfed with on the
fubjeft, are of opinion that this jelly falls from the
ftars, or out of the higher regions of the air $ which
notion, however abfurd, many are credulous enough to
believe.”
Naturalifts had for fome years begun to doubt wrhe-
ther thefe gelatinous fubftances were of a vegetable or
animal nature, when at length Mr J. Platt of Oxford,
in a letter printed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
1776, page 402, threw fuch light on the fubjedt as to
us, at leaft, is perfeftly fatisfadlory.
“ From a child I remember feeing the meteors {hoot¬
ing in the air, which appearance, by my comrades, was
called far-fhooting, believing the ftars no larger than
their apparent magnitude. This jelly-like fubftance
mentioned in your magazine, was believed to be the
drofs of thefe meteors, and took the name of far-fijot,
which paffed for certain with me till I had arrived at the
age of 24, when I w-as engaged in bufinefs that requir¬
ed my frequently paffing over both meadows and pafture-
grounds, where in fpring and autumn I fawr many por¬
tions of this fuppofed alga or noftoch, but never more
than one or two contiguous, moftly near the wrater,
when the meadows were or had been juft before flooded.
My conjedtures wrere various, until I faw a crow pecking
of fomething in a field, which I heard to cry; when
turning my horfe to the place, I found a frog of the
common fize, which the crow (of the carrion kind)
would" foon have killed and gorged, had I not difturbed
her, and chafed her away.
“ About this time I found in a meadow the bowels
of a frog indigefted, and compact as the chitterlings of
a calf or pig ; but white as the paper I write upon,
though not tranflucid. I took it up, and placed it in
a paper expofed to the air ; leaving it in fome grafs'
where I found it, till my return that wray in three days
time,
N O S
[ 7°
time, when I faw it changed to that tremulous jelly-
like fubftance, the_ alga or ftar-fhot. I was much
pic a fed with this difcovery, and took it home in my
pocket wrapped in a paper, where I (howed it to a fo-
ciety of young, perfons of which I was a* member, who
agreed with my ientiments of its being the indigeitible
part of a frog difgorged by fome bird of prey.
“ 1 o corroborate my fentiments of this alga being
the bowels of a frog, I luckily faw fome of it lying by
the tide of a brook, where 1 lighted and took it up,
and to my great furprife found attached to the jelly
the head, heart, liver, and one leg of the frog, which
had been (1 prefume) difgorged by fome carrion crow,
w ho frequented the flooded grounds to pick up worms
and other vermine. There was alfo fome of it found
on an apple tree at Wyfton Magna, near Leicefter,
where I then lived, w’hich, no doubt, was difgorged by
fome owl.”
Dr Darwin, in his Poem on the Loves of the Plants,
is of the fame opinion wnth Mr Platt, that thefe gelati¬
nous fubflances are of an animal nature, and that the
different appearances they put on are owing to various
circumftances, viz. the different birds who feed on
frogs, the quantity they devour at a time, and the flate
of digeftion before they are voided.
NOSTRADAMUS, Michel, an able phyfician
and a celebrated aftrologer, was a Provencal, and de¬
fended of a noble family, and born Dec. 14. 1503, at
St Remy, in the diocefe of Avignon. By his grand¬
father he was initiated in the ftudy of the mathema¬
tics. ^ He afterwards completed his courfes of hu¬
manity and philofophy at Avignon 5 and, going thence
to Montpelier, he there applied himfelf to phyfic, till
being forced away by the plague in 1525, he took his
route towards Thouloufe, and puffed on till he crtme to
Bourdeaux. Ihis courfe held him five years, during
which he undertook the cure of all fuch patients as were
willing to put themfelves under his care. After this he
returned to Montpelier, and wras created dodlor of his
faculty in 1529, and then revifited the fame places
where he had practifed phyfic before. At Agen he
contracted an acquaintance with Julius Caefar Scaliger,
w'hich induced him to make fome flay in that town, and
there he entered into matrimony ; but having buried his
wife, and two children which fhe brought him, he quit¬
ted Agen after a refidence of about four years. He re¬
turned into Provence, and fixed himfelf firft at Mar-
feilies ; but his friends having provided an advantageous
match for him at Salon, he tranfported himfelf thi¬
ther in 1544. In 1546, Aix being affli&ed wdth the
plague, he went thither at the folicitation of the in¬
habitants, and wras of great fervice} particularly by a
powder of his own invention: fo that the towm in
gratitude gave him a confiderable penfion for feveral
years after the contagion ceafed. Returning after-
wards to Salon, he became a reclufe, and made ufe of
his leifure to apply himfelf to his fludies. He had a
long time followed the trade of a conjurer occafionally j
and now he began to think himfelf infpired, and mira-
culoufly illuminated with a profpecf into futurity. As
fart as thefe illuminations had difcovered to him any
future event, he entered it in writing, in rtmple profc,
but by enigmatical fentences, as he declared1 himfelf •,
but revifing them afterwards, he thought the fentences
would appear more refpeftable, and would favour more
2
] NOS
? Propyet^c fpirif, if they were expreffed in verfe. Noftrada-
ihis opinion determined him. to throw' them all into mut>-
quatrains, and he afterwards ranged them into ceru.u- v -■
ries. \\ hen this wTas done, he heiitated about mak-
mg them public, till relieving that the time of many
events which he had foretold was very near at hand,
he determined to print them. This he did with a de¬
dication addreffed to his fon Csefar, an infant only
iome months old, in the form of a letter or preface,
dated March 1. 1555. This firft edition, which is in¬
cluded in feven centuries, was printed by Rigault at
Lyons. He prefixed his name in Latin, but gave to
his fon Caefar the name as it is pronounced, Noti-a-
dame.
The public were divided in their fentiments of this
work : many looked upon the author as a fimple vifio-
nary or a fool j while he was accufed of the black art,
or black magic, by others, and treated as an impious
perfon, who held a commerce with the devil : at the
fame time there were not wanting Inch, and thofe in
great numbers, who believed him to be really and truly
endued with the fupernatural gift of prophecy. Lart-
3y, Some were found who remained in fufpenfe, and re¬
frained from giving any judgment at all upon the point.
However, Henry II. and Queen Catharine of Medicis
his mother, w-ere refolved to fee our prophet ; and, re¬
ceiving orders to that effeft, he prefently repaired to Pa¬
ris. He was very gracioufty received" at court ; and,
befides the extraordinary refpect that was paid to him,
received a prefent of 200 crowns. He was fent after-
wards to Blois, to make a vifit to his majefty’s children
there, and report what he rtiould be able to difcover
concerning their deftinies. No doubt he exerted him¬
felf to the utmoft on the occafion ; but what his fentence
was is not known ; however,-it is certain, he returned to
Salon loaded with honour and prefents. Animated with
his fuccefs, he augmented his work from 300 quatrains
to the number of a complete milliade, and publiflied it
with a dedication to the king in 1558. That prince
dying the next year of a wound which he received, as
is well known, at a tournament, the book of our prophet
was immediately confulted ; and in the 3 5th quatrain of
the firft century this unfortunate event was found pre¬
dicted in the following verfe :
Le lion jeune le vieux fiirmontera,
En champ bellique par Jingu/ier duel,
Dans cage d'or les yeux lid crevera,
Deux clajjes line puis mourir, mart cruelle.
So remarkable a predi&ion added new wings to his
fame; and he was honoured ftiortly after with a vifit
from Emanuel duke of Savoy and the princefs Marga¬
ret of France his confort. From this time Ncftrada-
mus found himfelf even overburdened with vifitors, and
his feme made every day new acquifitions. Charles IX.
coming to Salon, was eager above all things to have a
fight of him. Noftradamus, who then was in waiting
as one of the retinue of the magiftrates, being inftant-
ly prefented to his majefty, complained of the little
efteem his countrymen had for him ; whereupon the
monarch publicly declared, that he ftiould hold the ene¬
mies of Noftradamus to be his enemies, and defired to
fee his children. Nor did that prince’s favour ftop here;
in parting, not long after, through'the city of Arles, he
fent for Noftradamus, prefented him with a purfe of 200
crowns.
NOT
t 7
JsToftre,
Notse
crowns, together with a brevet, conftituting him his phy-
fician in ordinary, with the fame appointment as the relb
— v ]>ut our prophet enjoyed thefe honours only for the fpace
of fixteen months, for he died July 2. 1566, at Salon.
Befides his “ Centuries,” we have the following compo-
fitions of his : A Treatife de Yardemens et de Senteurs,
1 552.—A Book of lingular Receipts, pour Entretenir
la Sdnte du Corps, 1556,—A piece des Confitures, 1557.
  A French Tranilation of the Latin of Galen’s Para-
phrafe, exhorting Menedolas to Study, efpecially to that
of Phyiic, 1552. Some years before his death, he pu-
blhdied a fmall inltruction for hulbandmen, fnowing the
belt feafohs for their feveral labours, which he entitled,
The Almanack of Noftradamus. Laltly, After his
death there came out The eleventh and twelfth Centu¬
ries of his Quatrains, added to the former ten, which
had been printed three times in two feparate parts. It
is only in thefe firft editions that our author’s Centuries
are found without alterations, additions, &c. is to
this work that the following diltich of Stephen Jodelie
alludes.
Nfira damns cum falfia damns, nam. fullere nofirumefi.
Et cum falfia damns, nil nifi Nofira damns.
NOSTRE, Andrew le, comptroller of the build¬
ings of the French king, and deligner of his gardens,
■ diliinguilhed himfelf by carrying the art of laying, out
gardens to great perfection. He was born at Paris in
1631 ; and was near 40 years of age when M. Fouquet,
fuperintendant of the finances, gave him an opportunity
of becoming known by the fine gardens of Vhux-le-
Vicomte. He was afterwards employed by Louis XIV.
at Verfailles, Triannon, St Germains, &c. and difeove-
ved an admirable tafle in all his works. In 1678 he
went to Rome, with the permiflion of the 1 rench king,
to improve his fkill •, but he found nothing there com¬
parable to what he himfelf had done. Pope Innocent
XL refolved to fee Le Noltre, and gave him a pretty
long audience } at the conclufion ot which Le Xoltre
faid, “ I have feen the two greateft men in the world,
your holinefs, and the king my mailer.” “ There is a
great difference,” anfwered the pope : “ The king is a
great victorious prince 5 and I am a poor prieil, the fer-
vant of the fervants of God.” Le Noilre, charmed
with this anfwer, and forgetting who he was with, clap¬
ped the pope on the ihoulder, faying, “ Reverend fa¬
ttier, you look extremely well, and will live to bury all
tlie facred college.” The pope laughed at his predic¬
tion. Le Noftre, charmed more and more at the good-
nefs of the fovereign pontiff and the fingular efteem he
ihowed for the king, threw his arms about the pope’s
neck and kiffed him. It was his cuftom to behave in
the fame manner to all who fpoke in praife of Louis
XIT;r. and he even embraced the king himfelf whenever
that prince returned from the country. Le Noftre had
alfo a talent for painting. He preferved his good fenfe
and vivacity of mind to the end of his life 5 and died
at Paris, in 1700, aged 87.
NOT/E, figns ufed in writing, which have the force
of many letters. This contrivance for expedition is of
+ Atilt's 8reat antiquity. It was known to the Greeks, and
Origin and from them derived to the Romans. By whom the in-
Pt ogrtjs of vention was brought into Rome is not precifely afeer-
IVs uing, tained 3 but the moft general opinion f is, that in mat-
1 ] NOT
ters of importance Tully firft made ufe of notes or fliort- Notw,
hand writing, when Cato made an oration in order to , Noum,
oppofe Julius Cedar relative to the eonfpiracy of Cati¬
line. Cicero, who was at that time conful, placed no-
tarii, or expert Ihorl-hand writers, in different parts of
the ienate houfe, to take down the fpeech 3 and this was
the firft public occafion which we find recorded of em¬
ploying Ihort-hand writers among the Romans. It is
unneceflary to obferve, that hence proceeded the name of
notary ftill in ufe.
There were three kinds of notes for fliort-hand writ¬
ing ufed by the ancients, either for difpatch or fecrecy.
The firft and moft ancient was that of hieroglyphics,
which are rather images or reprefentations of things
than of words. (See Hieroglyphics.) The Chinde
characters are of this kind, and may with greater pro¬
priety be called noire than lit era', as appears from whatr
hath been already advanced.
The fecond fpecies of notes were called fingularne,
from their expreffing words by fingle letters. Serto-
rius Urfatus has compiled a very copious collection of
fuch abbreviations, of which work there are feverai edi¬
tions.
The third kind of notes wTere called notce Tironware,
from Tiro the freed man of Cicero, who was excellent¬
ly fldlled in this art 3 and it is to him that wTe are in¬
debted for the prefervation of Cicero’s letters, of which
a great part ftill remain, and one entire book of them
written to Tiro himfelf.
From books its appears, that notes were very frequent
among the Romans, and continued in ufe to the icth
and 11th centuries. We have indeed but few books
remaining that are written in ihort hand 3 but this is net
furprifing, when fuch was the unhappy fituation of early
ages, that either fuperftition condemned them to the
flames as the works of impious magicians or necroman¬
cers, or they were left to be devoured by vermine,
through ignorance and ftupidity, which wTas fo very
great, that feme people, as Trilhemius affirms, looked
upon notes in thofe days as the elements of the Arme¬
nian language. It is probable, however, that there are
writings of this fort ftill extant, wdiich might contribute
to enrich the republic of letters.
There are feveral MSS. and inftruments written in
thefe kind of notse, in the royal library at Paris. In
the year 1747, the learned and ingenious Monk Char-
pentier, engraved and publilhed at Paris a capitulary,
and 54 charters of Louis the Pious, emperor and king
of France, written in thefe notae Tironianae. To this
work the learned editor hath prefixed an Alphabetum
Tironianum, together with a great number and variety
of notes or marks for the different parts of fpeech,
and rules for acquiring the art of writing in thefe kind
of notes. Valerius Probus, in his book De Literis
Antiquis, explains many of th»; characters ufed by the
ftiort-hand writers 3 and there is a dictionary of them
fet forth by Janus Gruterus. See Stenography.
NOTARII, perfons employed by the Romans to
take, by notce, trials and pleadings in their courts of
judicature, or to vuite as amanuenfes from the mouth
of an author. Thefe notarii were of fervile condition.
Under the reign of Juftinian, they were formed into a
college or corporate body. Notarii were alfo appoint¬
ed to attend the prefects, to tranferibe for them. There
were like wife- notarii domefiici, who wrere employed in
keeping; ,
NOT [ -
Notary keeping the accounts of the Roman nobility ; and when
the empire became Chriftian, there were notaries for
— ‘, ecclefiaftical affairs, who attefted the a£ls of archbifhops,
bifhops, and other fpiritual dignitaries. We find eccle¬
fiaftical notaries at Rome, under Pope Julius IV. and in
the church of Antioch, about the year 370. From thefe
notaries is derived the office of chancellor to the bi¬
fhops *, afterwards almoft every advocate was admitted a
notary.
NOTARY (Notarius), fignifies a perfon, ufually
fbme fcrivener, who takes notes, or frames fliort draughts,
,.of contracts, obligations, charter parties, or other writ¬
ings. At prefent we call him a notary public, who
publicly attefts deeds or writings, in order to make them
authentic in another nation : but he is principally em¬
ployed in bufinefs concerning merchants \ as making
protefts of bills of exchange, &c. And noting a bill,
is where he goes to take notice of a merchant’s refufal
to accept or pay the fame.
NOTATION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, the method
of exprefling numbers or quantities by figns or charac¬
ters appropriated for that purpofe. See Arithmetic
and Algebra.
NOTES, in Mujic, characters which mark the founds,
i. e. the elevations and fallings of the voice, and the
•iwiftnefs and flownefs of its motions.
Note is likewife ufed for a mark made in a book or
writing, where there occurs fomething remarkable and
worthy of particular notice : as alfo for an obfervation
or explication of fome paffage in an author added in the
-margin, at the bottom of the page, or elfewhere 5 in
which fenfe it ftands contradiftinguifhed to text.
Note, is alfo a minute, or fhort writing, containing
fome article of bufinefs •, in which fenfe we fay, pro-
miffory note, note of hand, bank note, &c.
NOTH US, fignifies fpur ions, or bajlard; whence it
is figuratively applied by phyficians to fuch difeafes as,
though in refpeft of a fimilitude of fymptoms, &.c. they
have the fame denomination as fome others, yet are of a
different origin, feat, or the like, from the fame.
Nothus, a Perfian prince, and grandfather to Darius
Codomannus. He is wrorthy of being mentioned only
as he was progenitor to that lovereign whofe overthrow
conferred upon Alexander the title of Great.
NOTION, a wrord which in common language -is
confidered as of the fame import wdth idea. This, how¬
ever, is improper. Notion comprehends the meaning
of idea, but it denotes much more. We have a notion
of fpirit, of power, of folidity; but of thefe things we
can have no ideas. Ideas are relicks of fenfation ; but
there are objects of knowledge which fall under the
cognizance of no fenfe ; of thefe objecfts, however, we
may have very diftinci notions either direrit or relative.
See Metaphysics, N° it.
* NOTITIA, in literai-y hiftory, a book that gives
an account of a particular country, city, or other place :
fuch is the Notitia Iniperii Romani, Notitia Romx Anti-
quce, &c.
NOTO, an ancient, large, and handfome town of
Sicily, and capital of the Val-di-Noto. It was entirely
ruined by an earthquake in 1693 } but the inhabitants
huilt another town at fome diftance from it, which they
call Noto Nuovo. E. Long. 14. o. N. Lat. 36. 50.
NOTO, Val di, one of the three valleys or provinces
into which Sicily is divided \ and it lies between the fea,
4'
2 ] NOT
Val-df-Demona, and Val-di-Mazara. Noto is the capi- Notore&a
tal town. ||
NOIONECTA, the boat fly ,a genus of infects be-
longing to the order of hemiptera. See Entomology 1— «
Index.
NO FTEBURG, a towm of Ruflia, in the province
of Ingria, ieated on an ifland in the lake Ladoga, at the
place where the river Neva proceeds from this lake. It.
is ftrong, has a good citadel, and was capital of the pro¬
vince before Peterfburg was built. E. Long. 31. 40.
N. Lat. 60. o.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE, a county of England,
bounded on the eaft by Lincolnfhire, on the fouth-eaft
and fouth by Leicefterfhire, on the weft by Derbyfhire,
and on the north and north-weft by Yorkftiire. It ex¬
tends in length 48 miles, 25 in breadth, and 110 in
compafs \ containing 560,000 acres, 8 hundreds, 9 mar¬
ket towns, 168 parifhes, 450 villages, about 25,611
houfes, and 140,350 inhabitants. No county in Eng¬
land enjoys a pleafanter and healthier air. As for the
foil, it differs widely in different parts of the county.
Towards the weft, where lies the foreft of Sherwood, it
is fandy; and therefore that part of the county is called
by the inhabitants the Sand; but the fouth and eaft
parts, watered by the Trent and the rivulets that fall in¬
to it, are clayey ; and for that reafon are called by the
inhabitants the Clay. The latter is fruitful both in corn
and pafture \ but the former produces little befides wood,
coal, and fome lead. The county has a variety of com¬
modities and manufactures, as wool, leather, tallow,
butter, cheefe, coal, marl, cattle, malt, liquorice, ftock-
ings, glafs, earthen wares, and ftrong ale. The princi¬
pal rivers are the Trent and Idle. The Trent, whofe
name is fuppofed to be derived from the French or La¬
tin word fignifying thirty, either becaufe it receives
thirty, fmaller rivers, or has thirty different forts of fifti
in it, is inferior to no river in England, but the Severn,
Thames, and Humber. It enters the county on the
fouth-weft, and paffes through it to the north-eaft,
where it enters Lincolnftiire, and after a long courfe falls
at laft into the Humber. The Idle rifes in Sherwood
foreft , and after traverfing the northern part of the
county, falls into the Trent upon the borders of York¬
ftiire and Lincolnftiire.
The fpacious foreft of Sherwood lies in the weft part
of the county, and indeed takes up the greateft part of
it. It was formerly fo thick, that it was hardly paffa-
ble ; but now it is much thinner. It feeds an infinite
number of deer and flags; and has fome towns in it, of
which Mansfield is the chief. It abounds in coal, and
a road lies through it for thirty miles together. Since
the reign of King Edward I. the nobility and gentry
have had grants of it. It was governed by a great
number of officers under the late earl of Chefterfield,
chief forefter j whofe anceftor, Sir John Stanhope, had
a grant of it, with liberty to deftroy and kill at plea-
fure, referving only a hundred deer in the whole walk.
The duke of Newcaftle is now fteward and keeper.
The principal towm is
Nottingham, which gives name to the county. I*
is a handfome town, and a county of itfelf by charter.
The name is derived from the Saxon word Snottengham,
which fignifies caves, from the caves and apartments
anciently dug in the rocks on which the town ftands.
Thefe, being foft, eafily yield to the fpade and pickaxe •,
w’henc.e
NOT t 73 ] NOT
jotting- wKehce the townfmen have excellent cellars for the vafl
bam. quantities of malt liquors made here, and fent, as well
— 1 as their malt, to molt parts of England. The lituation
of the town is very pleafant, having meadows on one
hand, and hills of a gentle eafy afcent, on the other.
It is well fupplied with fuel, both wood and coal, from
the foreft *, and with filh by the Trent, which runs
about a mile to the fouth of it, and has been made na¬
vigable for barges: fo that they receive by it not only
great quantiues of cheefe from Warwickllure and Staf-
fordlhire 5 but all their heavy goods from the Humber,
and even from Hull. Over the Trent is a llately flone
bridge of 19 arches, where the river is very large and
deep, having received the addition of the Dove, the
Derwent, the Irwafh, and the Soar, three of them great
rivers of themfelves, which fall into it after its palling
by Burton in Stafford^ure.
The town is of great antiquity, and it had formerly
a ftrong caftle, in which the Danes,'in the time of the
heptarchy, held out a liege againft Buthred king of
Mercia, Alfred, and Ethelred his brother, king of the
• Weft Saxons.
Soon after the Conqueft, William either repaired this
fortrefs, or built a new one on the fame Ipot, in the fe-
cond year of his reign, probably to fecure a retreat on
his expedition againft Edwin earl of Chefter and Mor-
car earl of Northumberland, who had revolted. He
committed the cuftody of it to William Peverell, his
natural fon, who has by fome been conlidered as the
founder. It Hands on a fteep rock, at the foot of which
runs the river Leen.
Deering, in his hiftory of Nottingham, feems very
juftly to explode the ftory of the place called Morti¬
mer’s Hole, having been made as a hiding place for him ;
and from his defcription of it, (hows that it was meant
t as a private pafiage to the caftle, to relieve it with men
or provifions in a liege. He fays that it is one conti¬
nued ftaircafe, without any room, or even a place to lit
down on. It was by this paffage that Edward III. got
into the caftle and furprifed Mortimer and the queen}
and from hence, and his being carried away through it,
it has its name.
Edward IV. greatly enlarged the caftle, but did not
live to complete the buildings he began. Richard III.
finilhed them.
It was granted by James I. to Francis earl of Rut¬
land, who pulled down many of the buildings ; but it
was ftill of fo much ftrength, that Charles I. in 1642,
pitched on it as the place for beginning his operations
of war. He fet up his ftandard, firft on the walls of
the caftle, but in two or three days removed it to a
clofe on the north fide of the caftle, without the wall, on
a round fpot 5 after which it was for many years called
Standard clofe, and fince, from the name of one who
rented it, Nevil’s clofe. Where the ftandard was fixed,
there Hood a poll; for a confiderable time. It is a
common error that it was erefted on a place called Der-
rymount, a little further north than the clofe juft men¬
tioned ; this is an artificial hill, raifed on purpofe for a
wind-mill, which formerly was there. The caftle was
afterwards fequeftered by the parliament, and the trees
in the park cut down.
This caftle was fo ftrong that it was never taken by
fiorm. After the civil war, Cromwell ordered it to
be demolbhed. On the Refloration, the duke of Buck-
Vol. XW Part I.
ingham, whofe mother was daughter and heir of this Nottmg-
Francis earl of Rutland, had it reftored to him, and ,!am-
fold it to William Cavendifh, marquis and afterwards **”
duke of Newcaftle. In 1674 he began the prefent
building, but died in 1676, when the work was not
far advanced. However, he had the building of it io
much at heart, that he left the revenue of a confider¬
able eftate to be applied to that purpofe, and it was
finiftied by Henry his fon. The expence was about
14,oool. It is one of the feats of the prefent duke of
Newcaftle.
In the park, weft of the caftle, and facing the river
Leen, are fome remains of an. ancient building (if it
may be fo called) cut and framed in the rock. Dr
Stukeley gives it, as he does moft things, to the Brb
tons. Many other ancient excavations have been found
in other parts of the rocks*
The frames for knitting ftockings were invented by
one William Lea of this county, about the beginning
of the 17th century ; but not meeting with the encou¬
ragement he expefted (a cafe too common with the
firft inventors of the moft ufeful arts) he went with fe-
veral of his workmen to France, on the invitation of
Henry IV. The death of that king, and the troubles
which enfued, prevented attention being given to the
work. Lea died there, and moft of his men returned
to England. Other attempts were made to fteal the
trade, without better fuccefs, and it has flouriftied here
ever fince, and is now carried on to a very confiderable
extent. It is noted for its horfe-races on a fine courle
on the north fide of the town. The corporation is go¬
verned by a mayor, recorder, fix aldermen, two coro¬
ners, tWro fiieriffs, two chamberlains, and twenty-four
common-council men, eighteen of the fenior council,
and fix of the junior, a bell-bearer, and two pinders,
one for the fields and the other for the meadows. The
town being within the jurifdiftion of the foreft, the
former of thefe pinders is town-woodward, and attends
the foreft courts. It has three neat churches, the chief
of which is St Mary’s 5 and an alms-houfe, endowed
with xool. a-year, for twelve poor people j with a noble
townhoufe, furrounded with piazzas. A confiderable
trade is carried on in glafs and earthen wares, and frame
ftockings, befides the malt, and malt liquors, mentioned
above. Marftial Tallard, when a prifoner in England,
was confined to this town and county. In the duke of
Newcaftle’s park there is a ledge of rocks hewn into a
church, houfes, chambers, dove-houfes, &c. The altar
of the church is natural rock; and between that and
the caftle there is a hermitage of the like workmanfiiip.
Upon the fide of a hill there is a very extraordinary
fort of a houfe, where you enter at the garret, and afeend
to the cellar, which is at the top of the houfe. Here
is a noted hofpital founded by John Plumtree Efq. in
the reign of Richard II. for thirteen poor old widows.
There are four handfome bridges over the Trent and
Lind. To keep thefe in repair, and for other public
purpofes, the corporation has good eftates. This town
and Winch elfea both give title of earl to the noble fa¬
mily of Finch. Here David king of Scots, when a
prifoner in England, refided ; and under ground is a
vault, called Mortimer1 s hole becaufe Roger Mortimer,
earl of March is faid to have concealed himfelf in it,
when he was taken and hanged by order of Edward III.
W. Long. 1. 5, N. Lat. 53, o.
K
NOVA
NOV [ 74 ] NOV
Nora
Scotia
Noratian.
NOVA Scotia. See Nova Scotia.
Nova Zemb/a. See Nova ZEMBLA.
NOVALLE, a fmall, rich, and populous town of
Italy, between Padua and Trevifo. E. Long. 12. 5.
N. Lat. 45. 35.
NOVARA, an ancient and ftrong city of Italy,
in the duchy of Milan, and capital of the Novarefe.
Some pretend that this city was built by the Tro¬
jans, and fo called quafi Nova Ara, becaufe they had
erefted there a temple to Venus. Tacitus mentions
its being made a municipal city by the Romans,
and there are many infcriptions ftill extant, which fuf-
ficiently prove its ancient fplendour. It is now a
fmall but well-built town, lituated on a little emi¬
nence, in a fine country, betwixt two rivers, very well
fortified, and is the fee of a bifhpp fuffragan of Mi¬
lan. It is remarkable for the feveral fieges fultained in
paft times, and for being the birth-place of Peter Lom¬
bard, mafter of the lentences. E. Long. 8. 35. N. Lat.
NOVATIAN, who made fo much noife and fo
greatly difturbed the peace of the church, was, we are
told, firlt a Pagan philofopher. Pie was baptized in bed
when dangeroully ill : recovering, however, he was
afterwards ordained prieft of the church of Rome,
his bilhop having obtained this favour for him, which
the clergy and people were far from being difpofed to
grant. Pie does not appear to have had the good of
the church much at heart; for with his wit, know¬
ledge, and eloquence, he might have been peculiarly
ferviceable to her, had he not with cowardice fhrunk
from his duty when he dreaded perfecution. His am¬
bition to be made a bilhop likewife milled him; and
what occafioned the apoftafy of moll of the firll here-
fiarchs, alfo occafioned his. On the death of Fabian
bilhop of Rome, after writing a letter to St Cyprian, he
remained quiet whilll the fee was vacant; but the
promotion of Cornelius to that dignity excited his
envy and jealoufy to no common pitch. The confe-
quence was a reparation from the new bilhop, and from
thofe who profeffed to believe, what Novatian flrenu-
oully denied, that the church could receive thofe again
who had been guilty of idolatry. He foon got a num¬
ber of followers among the laity, and fome even among
the clergy. Nqvatus, a priell of Carthage, was one
of his party, and having been a party-man himfelf
againll St Cyprian, brought his adherents with him.
He got himfelf confecrated bilhop of Rome in a moll
infamous and clandeltine manner, by three weak men
whom he had moll grofsly impofed upon, and one of
whom did penance for having been concerned in what
wras fo contrary to order, decency, and the rules of the
church.
His deligns, however, in this difgraceful affair did
not fucceed, for he was not acknowledged as bilhop
of that diocefe j Cornelius being confirmed in it, whilll
he was condemned and excommunicated. He Hill
however, taught his doflrine, and at length became
the head of the party which bears his name. Beiides
. the letter mentioned above, St Jerome fays he wrote
on the Pa/fbver, on the Sabbath, on Circumcijion, on the
High Prie/is, on Prayer, on Jewi/h meals, and on Firm-
nefs of tnind, &.c. with a large treatife on the Trinity.
None of them appear under his own name, and fome are
thought not to be his.
NOVATIANS, Novatiani, a fefl of ancient here- Novatian*
tics, that arofe towards the clofe of the third century, fo ^ i! j
called from Novatian, a prieit of Rome, (fee the prece-
ding article.) They were called alfo Cathari, from
pure, q. d. Puritans.
Novatian firll feparated from the communion of Pope
Cornelius, on pretence of his being too eafy in admit¬
ting to repentance thofe who had fallen off in times of
perlccution.
Novatus coming to Rome, joined himfelf to the
faftion of Novatian \ and both maintained, that there
wras no other admiflion into the church but by the re¬
pentance in baptifmgrounding their opinion on
that of St Paul: “ It is impolfible for thole once
“ enlightened, and who have tailed the heavenly gift,
“ if they fall away, to renew themfelves by repent-
“ ance.”
Not that they denied but a perfon fallen into any
fin, how grievous foever, might obtain pardon by re¬
pentance ; for they themfelves recommend repentance
in the ftrongeft terms: but their do£lrine was, that
the church had it not in its powder to receive linners
into its communion, as having no wray of remitting
fins but by baptifm j which once received could not
be repeated.
In procefs of time the Novations foftened and mo¬
derated the rigour of their mailer’s dohtrine, and only
refufed abfolution to very great finners.
The two leaders were profcribed, and declared he¬
retics, not for excluding penitents from communion, but
for denying that the church had a power of remitting
fins. See NovAtus.
NOVATION, or Innovation, in the Civil Law, de¬
notes the change of one kind of obligation for another j
as when a promife is accepted inltead of a written obli¬
gation.
NOVATUS, a priell of Carthage, in the third cen¬
tury, who, to avoid being punilhed for a crime, join¬
ed with the deacon, named FeliciJJimus, againll St Cy¬
prian. He wTent to Rome in 251; and there found No¬
vatian, wrho had acquired great reputation by his elo¬
quence, but who murmured at his not being raifed to
the fee of Rome in preference to Cornelius. Novatus
contracted a friendlhip with him j. and afterwards pro¬
moted the detellable confecration of Novatian to the fee
of Rome. This irregular confecration produced a very
great fchifm. Novatus alfo maintained, that the church
had not the powder to receive thofe to communion who
were fallen into idolatry.
NOVEL, a fictitious narrative in profe, which pro-
feffes to exhibit the natural workings of the human
heart, the happinefs and mifery of private life, and,
above all, the nature of the affection called Love, and
the confequence of indulging it in certain circum-
llances.
The novel fprung out of the old romance, and has
been cenfured for infipidity, as its parent was for ex¬
travagance. (See Romance.) That the greater part
of thofe abfurd things, wdiich, under this title, are
daily iffuing from the prefs, deferve all the contempt
with which they can be treated, is a polition which
We feel not ourfelves inclined to controvert j but we
cannot admit that any fpecies of writing is in itfelf in-
fipid, merely becaufe numbers have attempted it with¬
out fuccefs. The heroic poems of Blackmore are uni-
verfally
NOV [ 75 ] - NOV
Wove!, verfally known to be contemptible performances j
 ' an{i if we had before us all the heroic poetry that has
ever been written, how many thoufands of volumes
{hould we have as mean as either Prince Arthur, King
Arthur, Elme, or Alfred? Yet no critic has hitherto
dared to maintain, that heroic poetry is an infipid fpecies
of writing.
But to the novel objections have been urged of
more importance than its infipidity. It has been often
affirmed, with learned folemnity, that the perufal of
novels tends to corrupt the youth of both fexes 5 to
produce effeminacy in men and extravagant notions
of the happinefs of love in women 5 that it diverts the
minds of the former from more ferious and ufeful ftu-
dies, anff expofes the latter to the arts of feduCtion.
That jffiere are too many novels to which this objec¬
tion is applicable in its full force, is a fa£t which we
are afraid cannot be denied: but when it is admitted,
let not thefe performances be again accufed nf infipi¬
dity : for were they infipid, they could have no fuch
confequences. It is by laying faff hold of the heart
that they lead it affray. That a novel might be writ¬
ten fo as to intereft the heart in behalf of virtue, as
much as any one has ever warped it to the fide of
vice, is a truth which no man will ever venture to call
in queftion who has any knowledge of human nature }
and therefore we are decidedly of opinion, that there
may be novels worthy at once of the perufal of inexperi-
* y 1 r enced youth and hoary wifdom. A critic *, by no means
joinjon- indulgent to works of fancy, and among whofe fail¬
ings laxity of morals has never been numbered, thus
expreffes himfelf on the fubjeCl of novel-writing :—
“ Thefe familiar hiffories may perhaps be made of
greater ufe than the folemnities of profeffed morality,
and convey the knowledge of vice and virtue with more
efficacy than axioms and definitions. But if the power
of example is fo great, as to take poffeffion of the me¬
mory by a kind of violence, and produce effects almoft
without the intervention of the will, care ought to be ta¬
ken, that, when the choice is unreftrained, the beft exam¬
ples only ffiould be exhibited ; and that what is likely to
operate fo ftrongly, {hould not be mifchievous or un¬
certain in its effefts.”
We have faid, that the novel profeffes above all
things to exhibit the nature of love and its confequen¬
ces. Whether this be effential to fuch performances
may perhaps be reafonably queftioned : bqt it has
been made an important part of the drami in moft
novels, and, we think, with great propriety. It is the
object of the novelift to give a true picture of life, di-
verfified only by accidents that daily happen in the
world, and influenced by paffions and qualities which
are really to be found in converfing with mankind.
To accompliffi this obje£t, he conceives a hero or he¬
roine, whom he places in a certain rank of life, en¬
dues with certain qualities of, body and mind, and
conduits, through many viciffitudes of fortune, either
to the fummit of happinefs or to the abyfs of mifery,
according to the paffion wffiich he wiffies to excite in
nis readers. In the modern novel, this hero or he-
loine is never placed on a throne, or buried in a cot¬
tage ; becaufe to the monarch and the cottager no dif¬
ficulties occur which can deeply intereft the majority of
readers. But among the virtuous part of the inter¬
mediate orders of fociety, that affection which we call
hve feldom fails, at fome period of life, to take pof- Kovel,
feffion of the hearts of both fexes} and wherever it has"—v—“
place, it muff be produ&ive of happinels or of mifery.
In the proper management of this paffion confifts much
of the difficulty of the novel-writer. He muff exhibit
his hero as feeling all the pangs and pleafures of love,
as fometimes animated with hope, and fometimes ready
to fink into delpair, but always exerting himfelf to ob¬
tain the gratification of his withes. In doing this, care
ffiould be taken, either that he never tranfgreis the
laws of virtue, or at lead that he never tranfgrefs them
with impunity.
“ It is juftly confidered as the greateft excellency
of art to imitate nature; but it is necefiary to diitin-
guiffi thofe parts of nature which are moft proper for
imitation : greater care is ftill required in reprefenting
life, which is fo often difcoloured by paffion or de¬
formed by wickednefs. If the world be promifcuouily
defcribed, I cannot perceive (fays the great critic al¬
ready quoted) of what ufe it can be to read the acp
count; or why it may not be as fafe to turn the eye
immediately upon mankind, as upon a mirror which
{hows all that prefents itfelf without difcrimination.
It is therefore not a fiifficient vindication of a cha-
rafter, that it is drawn as it appears ; for many cha-
racters ought never to be drawn: nor of a narrative,
that the train of events is agreeable to obfervation;
for that obfervation which is called knowledge of the
world wall be found much more frequently to make
men cunning than good. The purpofe of thefe writ¬
ings is furely not only to ffiow mankind, but to pro¬
vide that they may be feen hereafter with lefs hazard 5
to teach the means of avoiding the fnares which are
laid by Treachery for Innocence, without enfuring
any wiffi for that fuperiority with which the betrayer
flatters his vanity ; to give the power of counteracting
fraud, without the temptation to pradtice it 3 to ini¬
tiate youth by mock encounters in the arc of neceffary
defence 3 and to increafe prudence' without impairing
virtue.
“ Many writers, for the fake of following nature, fo
mingle good and bad qualities in their principal perio-
nages, that they are both equally confpicuous 3 and as
we accompany them through their adventures with de¬
light, and are led by degrees to intereft ourfelves in
their favour, we lofe the abhorrence of their faults, be
caufe they do not hinder our pleafures, or perhaps re¬
gard them with fome kindnefs for being united with fo
much merit.—There have been men indeed fplendidly
wicked, whofe endowments threw a brightnefs on their
crimes, and whom fcarce any villany made perfedlly de-
teftable, becaufe they never could be wholly divefted of
their excellencies : but fuch have been in all ages the
great corrupters of the world 3 and their refemblance
ought no more to be preferve'd than the art of murder¬
ing without pain.
“ In narratives, where hiftorical veracity has no
place, there ffiould be exhibited the moft perfect idea
of virtue 3 of virtue not angelical, nor above probability
(for what wre cannot credit wre ffiall never imitate), but
the higheft and pureft that humanity can reach, wffiich,
exerciftd in fuch trials as the various revolutions of
things ffiall bring upon it, may, by conquering fome.
calamities and enduring others, teach us what wTe may
hope, and what wTe can perform.. Vice (for vice is ne-
K 2 ceffary
Novel.
f The au¬
thor of
Lajolie
femme, or
La femme
du jour.
NOV [ 7i
Ceffary to be frown) frould always difguft j nor frould
^ the graces of gaiety, or the dignity of courage, be fo
united with it, as to reconcile it to the mind. Where-
ever it appears, it frould raife hatred by the malignity
of its pratiices, and. contempt by the meannefs of its
ftratagems ; for while it is fupported by either parts or
fpirit, it will ieldom bo heartily abhorred.”
If thefe obfervations be juft, and to us they appear
unanfwerable, Richardfon’s Lovelace is a character which
ought never to have been drawn. In the graces of
gaiety and the dignity of courage, in liberality without
profufion, in perfeverance and addrefs, he everywhere
appears as the firft of men ; and that honour with which
he protects the virtue of his Rnfebuf, if any inftruftion
is to be drawn from it, can only lead the admirers of
Richardfon to believe that another ClariiTa might be in
perfeft fafety were fre to throw herfelf upon the honour
of another Lovelace. Yet in the compofition of this
splendid character there is not one principle upon (vhich
confidence can fecurely reft 5 and Lovelace, whilft he
is admired- by the youth of both fexes, and efcapes the
contempt of all mankind, muft excite in the breaft of the
cool moralift fentiments of abhorrence and deteftation.
A French critic f, fpeaking of this character, fays,
“■ By turns I could embrace and fight with Lovelace.
His pride, his gaiety, his drollery, charm and amufe
me : his genius confounds me and makes me fmile ; his
wickednefs aftonifres and enrages me j but at the fame
time I admire as much as I deteft him.” Surely this is
not the character which ought to be prefented to the
inexperienced and ardent mind. <
The moft perfeft charafters which we at prefent re-
colletft in any novel are Richardfon’s Grandifon and
Fielding’s Allworthy. The virtues of the former are
perhaps tincftured with moral pedantry, if wTe may ufe
the expreftion : and the latter fuffered himfelf to be long
impofed upon by the arts of the hypocrite and the phi-
lofophical coxcomb j but without fome defefts they
would not be human virtues, and therefore no objects
of human imitation. Clarifla is an excellent charadler :
fre has as much perfeftion as can be expe&ed in wo¬
man, whilft fre exhibits, at the fame time, fome obvi¬
ous defe«Rs.
As it is the objedl of the novelift to intereft the
heart, and to communicate inftrucrion through the
medium of pleafure, his work, like a tragedy or comedy,
frould be one, exhibiting a hero or heroine, whofe fuc-
cefs every incident frould contribute to forward or to
retard. In this refpedl no wrork of fancy has ever fur-
paffed the Tom Jones of Fielding. It is conftrufted up¬
on principles of the foundeft criticifm, and contains not
a Angle event which does not in fome way contribute
towards the winding up of the piece. A living author,
deeply read in Grecian literature, and far from being
prejudiced in behalf of any modern, has been heard to
fay, that had Ariftotle feen Tom Jones, he would have
pronounced it a poem perfect in its kind.
Againft this fentence another critic of name has en¬
tered his proteft, and ftrenuoufiy maintained that nothing
can be a poem which is not written in verfe. We frail
judge of the truth of this conclufion by comparing it
with the principles from which it is deduced. Having
laid down as a maxim incontrovertible, that “ the end
of poetry is pleafure, to which ufe itfelf muft be fubfer-
vient,” he very juftlv vifers from this idea, tint
5 ] NO V
“ poetry frould neglect no advantage that fairly offers Novel.'
itfelf, of appearing in fuch a drefs or mode of language  y—
as is moft taking and agreeable to us. It follows (he
fays), from the lame idea of the end which poetry would
accomplifr, that net only rhythm, but numbers pro¬
perly fo called, is effential to it, and that it cannot ob¬
tain its own purpofe unlefs it be clothed in verse.”
He then proceeds to afk, “ What, from this conclufion,
are we to think of thofe novels or romances, as they are
called, which have been fo current of late through all
Europe ? As they propofe pleafure for their end, and
profecute it, befides, in the way offiEiion, though with¬
out metrical numbers, and generally indeed in harfr
and rugged profe, one eafily fees what their pretenfions
are, and under what idea they are ambitious to be re¬
ceived. Yet as they are wholly, deftitute of meafured
founds (to fay nothing of their other numberlefs deft As),,
they can at moft be confidered but as hafty, impertedf,.
and abortive poems: whether fpawned fiom the drama¬
tic or narrative fpecies, it may be hard to fay.
Unfinifil’d things one knows not what to call,
Their generation’s fo equivocal.
However, fucli as they are,, thofe novelties have been
generally well received : Some for the real merit of
their execution ; others, for their amufing fubjeefs j all
of them for the gratification they afford, or at leaft
promife, to a vitiated, pallid, and fickly imagination,
that laft difeafe of learned minds, and fure prcgnoftic of
expiring letters. But whatever may be the temporary
fuccefs of thefe things (for they vanifii as fail as they
are produced), good fenfe will acknowledge no work of
art but fuch as is compofed according to the law of its
kind.”
Of this fevere criticifm the author himfelf has given
us, what amounts to a complete confutation. He tells
us, that the ancients looked for fo much force and fpirit
of expreflion in whatever they dignified with the name
of poem, as fometimes to make a queftion “ whether co¬
medy were rightly referred to this clafs, becaufe it dif¬
fered only in meafure from mere profe ? Their doubt
(he juftly adds) might have been fpared or at leaft re-
folved, if they had confidered that comedy adopts as
much of this force and fpirit of words as is confiftent
with the nature and dignity of that pleafure which it
pretends to give : For the name of poem will belong to
every compofition whofe primary end is to pleafe, pro¬
vided it be fo conftrubied as to afford all the pleafure
which its kind or fort will permit.”
If this decifion be juft, and we readily admit it, a
well compofed novel is entitled to the appellation of a
poem, though it be written in profe and in a ftyle not
remarkable for elevation. The bufinefs of the novelift
is to intereft the heart by a difplay of the incidents of
common life. In doing this, he muft exhibit feenes
that are probable, and record fpeeches that are natural.
He is not at liberty to invent, but only to felebl, ob-
jebls, and to cull from the mafs of mankind thofe indi¬
viduals upon which the attention ought moft to be em¬
ployed. The more clofely he adheres to this rule, the
more deeply does he intereft us in his narrative j becaufe
every reader fees at once that it is poflible he may at
fome time or other be in circumftances nearly refem-
bling thofe of the hero of the tale. But the bufinefs of
life
NOV
Novel, life is not tranfa&ed in pompous language
Novelty. f,-eeches of real lovers made in verfe either rhymed or
blank. Were Tom Jones or C/ariJJa Harlowe to be
tranflated imo verfe, we lliall venture to aiTert that they
would quickly iofe their hold of the public mind : be-
caufe the hero and heroine would then appear in a light
which every heart mult feel to be unnatural.
It is well obfcrved by Johnfon, that the talk of the
novel writer “ requires, together with that learning
which is to be gained from books, that experience
which can never be attained by lolitary diligence, but
mult arife from general convcrfe and accurate obfer-
vation of the living world. Their performances have,
as Horace expreffes it, p/us oneris quantum varies minus,
little indulgence, and therefore more difficuby. They
are engaged in portraits of which every one knows the
original, and can detett any deviation from exa&nefs of
refemblance. Other writings are lafe, except from the
malice of learning, but thefe are in danger from every
common reader •, as the flipper ill executed was cenfured
by a Ihoemaker who happened to flop in his way at the
Venus of Apelles.” It is in thus faithfully copying na¬
ture that the excellence of Fielding confifts. . No man
was ever better acquainted with the lhades which diver-
fify characters, and none ever made his perfonages aCt
and fpeak more like real men and women in the parti¬
cular circumftances which he deferibes.
“ But the fear of not being approved as a juft copier
of human manners, is not the moll important concern
that an author of this clafs ought to have before him.
Novels are written chiefly to the young, the ignorant,
and the idle, to wFom they ferve as leCtures of conduft
and introduction into life* In every fuph work, it
fliould therefore be carefully inculcated, that virtue is
the higheft proof of underltanding, and the only folid
bafis of greatnefs; and that vice is the natural con-
fequence of narrow thoughts } that it begins in mif-
take and ends in ignominy : and fince love mult be
introduced, it flrould be reprefented as leading to wretch-
ednefs, whenever it is feparated from duty or from pru¬
dence.”
Novel, in the civil larv, a term ufed for the confu¬
tations of feveral emperors, more particularly thofe of
Juftinian. They wrere called novels, either from their
producing a great alteration m the face of the ancient
law, or becaufe they were made on new cafes, and after
the revifal of the ancient code.
NOVELTY, or Newness. Of all the circumftan¬
ces that raife emotions, not excepting beauty, nor even
* Elements greatnefs, fays Lord Kames *, novelty hath the moft
of Criti- powerful influence. A new objeCt produces mftantane-
eifin. oufly an emotion termed wonder, which totally occu¬
pies the mind, and for a time excludes all other objeds.
Converfation among the vulgar never is more interefting
than when it turns upon ftrange objects and extraordi¬
nary events. Men tear themfelves from their native
country in fearch of things rare and new } and nove 11 y
converts into a pleafure the fatigues and even perils of
travelling. To what caufe fhall we aferibe thefe fingu-
lar appearances ? To curiofity undoubtedly j a principle
implanted in human nature for a purpofe extremely be¬
neficial, that of acquiring knowledge ; and the emotion
of wonder raifed by new and ftrange objeds, inflames
our curiofity to know more of luch objeds. Phis emo¬
tion is different from admiration: novelty, wherever
C 77 1 * NOV
nor the found, whether in a quality or adion, is the caufe of
wonder ■, admiration is direded to the perfon who per¬
forms any thing wonderful.
During infancy, every new objed is probably the oc-
cafion of wonder, in feme degree } becaufe, during in¬
fancy, every objed at firft fight is ftrange as well as
new : but as objeds are rendered familiar by cuftom,
we ceafe by degrees to wonder at new appearances, if
they have any refemblance to what we are acquainted
w-ith 5 for a thing muft be Angular as well as new, to
raife our wonder. To fave multiplying words, we
would be underftood to comprehend both circumftances
wdien we hereafter talk of novelty.
In an ordinary train of perceptions, wrhere one thing
introduces another, not a fingle objed makes its appear¬
ance unexpededly : the mind thus prepared for the re¬
ception of its objeds, admits them one after another
without perturbation. But when a thing breaks in un¬
expededly, and without the preparation of any connec¬
tion, it raifes an emotion, known by the name ei fur*
prife. That emotion may be produced by the moft fa¬
miliar objed, as when one unexpededly meets a frie-nd
who was reported to be dead ; or a man in high life,
lately a beggar. On the other hand, a new objed,
however ftrange, will not produce the emotion, if the
fpedator be prepared for the fight : an elephant in In¬
dia will not furprife a traveller who goes to fee one y
and yet its novelty will raife his wonder : an Indian in-
Britain would be much furprifed to ftumble upon an ele¬
phant feeding at large in the open fields y but the crea¬
ture itfelf, to which he was accuftomed, would not raife
his wonder.
Surprife thus in feveral refpeds differs from wonder :
unexpedednefs is the caufe of the former emotion y no¬
velty is the caufe of the latter. Nor differ they lefs in
their nature and circumftances, as will be explained by
and by. With relation to one circumftance they per-
fedly agree y which is, the fhortnefs of their duration :
the inftantaneous produdion of thefe emotions in per-
fedion, may contribute to that effed, in conformity to
a general law. That things foon decay which foon come,
to perfedion: the violence of the emotions may alfo
contribute •, for an ardent emotion, which is not ful-
ceptible of increafe, cannot have a long courfe. But.
their fhort duration is occafioned chiefly by that of
their caufes : we are foon reconciled to an objed, how¬
ever unexpeded , and novelty foon degenerates into fa¬
miliarity.
Whether thefe emotions be pleafant or painful, is not:
a clear point. It may appear ftrarrge, that our own-
feelings and their capital qualities flrould afford any
matter for a doubt : but when we are engroffed by any
emotion, there is no place for fpeculation ; and when
fufficiently calm for fpeculation, it is not eafy to recat
the emotion with accuracy. New objeds are lometimes
terrible,Sometimes delightful: the terror which a tyger-
infpires is greateft at firit, and wears off gradually by
familiarity : on the other hand, even women will ac¬
knowledge that it is novelty which pleafes the moft in a
new falhion. It would be rail), however, to conclude,
that wonder is in itielf neither pleafant nor painful, but
that it affumes either quality according to circumftances.
An objed, it is true, that hath a threatening appear¬
ance, adds to our terror by its novelty : but from that
experiment it doth net follow, that novelty is in itfelf,
difagreeable ;
NOV [
■ °velty. disagreeable; for it is perfedtly confident, that we
delighted with an objeft in one view, and terrified with
it in another. A river in flood fwelling over its banks,
is a grand and delightful objeft 5 and yet it may pro¬
duce no fmall aegree of fear when we attempt to crofs
it: courage and magnanimity are agreeable 5 and yet,
when we view thefe qualities in an enemy, they ferve to
increafe our terror. In the fame manner, novelty may
produce two effedls clearly diftinguifliable from each
other : it may, direclly and in itfelf, be agreeable j and
it may have an oppofite effect indiredtly, which is, to
mfpire terror; for when a new object appears in any
degree dangerous, our ignorance of its powers and fa¬
culties affords ample fcope for the imagination to drefs
it in the molt frightful colours. The firft fight of a
lion, for example, may at the fame inftant produce two
oppofite feelings, the pleafant emotion of wonder, and
the painful pafliion of terror : the novelty of the objedt
produces the former diredtly, and contributes to the lat¬
ter indiredfljy. Thus, when the fubjedl is analyzed,
we find that the power which novelty hath indirectly to
mflame terror, is perfectly confident with its being in
every circumftance agreeable. The matter may be put
in the cleared; light, by adding the following circum-
dance. If a lion be fird feen from a place of fafety,
the fpectacle is altogether agreeable without the lead
mixture of terror. If, again, the fird fight puts us
within reach of that dangerous animal, our terror may
ne fo great as quite to exclude any fenfe of novelty.
But this fadl proves not that wonder is painful : it
proves only, that wonder may be excluded by a more
powerful paflion. Every man may be made certain
from his own experience, that wonder raifed by a new
objedl that is inoffenfive, is always pleafant; and with
refpett to offenfive objedfe, it appears, from the fore¬
going deduction, that the fame mud hold as long as the
Jbeftator can attend to the novelty.
Whether furprife be in itfelf pleafant or painful, is a
quedion not lefs intricate than the former. It is certain
that furprife inflames our joy when unexpectedly we
meet with an old friend j ahd not lefs our terror when
we durable upon any thing noxious. To clear that
quedion, the fird tiring to be remarked is, that in fome
indances an unexpected object overpowers the mind, fo
-as to produce a momentary dupefaClion : where the ob-
jeCl is dangerous, or appears fo, the fudden alarm it
gives, without preparation, is apt totally to unhinge the
mind, and for a moment to fufpend all its faculties, even
thought itfelf; in which date a man is quite helplefs :
and it he move at all, is as like to run upon the danger
as rrom it. Surprife carried to fuch a height, cannot
78 ] NOV
be be either pleafant or painful} becaufe the mind, during
fuch momentary dupefaCtion, is in a good meafure, if
not totally, inlenfible.
If we then inquire for the character of this emotion,
it mud be where the unexpected objeCt or event produ-
ceth lefs violent effeCts. And while the mind remains
fenfible of pleafure and pain, is it not natural to fuppofe,
that furprile, like wonder, fliould have an invariable
character ? It would appear, however, that furprife has
no invariable character, but affumes that of the objeCt
which raifes it. Wonder being an emotion invariably
raifed by novelty, and being didinguifliable from all
other emotions, ought naturally to poffefs one condant
character. The unexpected appearance of an objeCt,
feems not equally entitled to produce an emotion didin¬
guifliable from the emotion, pleafant or painful, that is
produced by the objeCt in its ordinary appearance : the
effeCt it ought naturally to have, is only to fwell that
emotion, by making it more pleafant or more painful
than it commonly is. And that conjeCture is confirmed
by experience, as well as by language which is built
upon experience : when a man meets a friend unexpeCt-
edly, he is faid to be agreeably furprifed j and when he
meets an enemy unexpeCledly, he is faid to be difagree-
ably furprifed. It appears, then, that the foie effeCt of
furprife is to fwell the emotion raifed by the objeCt.
And that effeCt can be clearly explained : a tide of con¬
nected perceptions glide gently into the mind, and pro¬
duce no perturbation •, but an objeCt breaking in unex¬
pectedly, founds an alarm, routes the mind out of its
calm date, and direCts its whole attention to the objeCt,
which, if agreeable, becomes doubly fo. Several cir-
cumdances concur to produce that effeCt: on the one
hand, the agitation of the mind and its keen attention
prepare it in the mod effectual manner for receiving a
deep impreflion : on the other hand, the objeCt, by its
fudden and unforefeen appearance, makes an impreflion,
not gradually as expeCted objeCts do, but as at one
flroke with its whole force. The circumdances are
precifely fimilar where the objeCt is in itfelf difagree-
able (a).
The pleafure of novelty fs eafily didinguiftied from
that of variety : to produce the latter, a plurality of ob¬
jects is neceffary 5 the former arifes from a circumdance
found in a Angle objects Again, Where objeCts, whe¬
ther co-exident or in fucceffion, are fufticiently diverfi-
fied, the pleafure of variety is complete, though every
Angle objeft of the train be familiar \ but the pleafure
of novelty, direCtly oppofite to familiarity, requires no
diverfification.
There are different degrees of novelty, and its effeCts
Novelty.
to
(a) What Marefchal Saxe terms le cceur humam, is no other than fear occafioned by furprife. It is owing
that caufe that an ambulh is generally fo dtdvuCHve: intelligence of it beforehand renders it perfectly harmlefs.
The. Marefchal gives from Caefar’s Commentaries two examples of what he calls le cceur hutnain. At the fiege of
Amiens, by the Gauls, Caefar came up with his army, which did not exceed 7000 men } and began to entrench
himfelf in fuch hurry, that the barbarians judging him to be afraid, attacked his entrenchments with great fpirit.
During the time they were filling up the ditch, he iflued out with his cohorts, and by attacking them unexpeCledly
ffruck a panic that.made them fly with precipitation, not a Angle man offered to make a dand. At the fiege of
Alefia, the Gauls infinitely fuperior in number, attacked the Roman lines of circumvallation, in order to raife the
fiege. Caefar ordered a body of his men to march out filently, and to attack them on the one flank, while he with
another body did the. fame on the other flank. The furprife of being attacked when they expected a defence only,
put the Gauls into diforder, and gave an eafy victory to Ccefar,
4
A
NOV [79
Novelty, are in proportion. The loweft degree is found in ob-
—* jecis furveyed a fecond time after a long interval j and
that in this cafe an object takes on fome appearance of
novelty, is certain from experience : a large building of
many parts varioully adorned, or an extenfive field em-
bellifhed with trees, lakes, temples, ftatues, and other
ornaments, wall appear new oftener than once: the me¬
mory of an object fo complex is foon loft, of its parts at
leaft, or of their arrangement. But experience teaches,
that, even without any decay of remembrance, abfence
alone will give an air of novelty to a once familiar ob-
ject •, which is not furprifing, becaufe familiarity wears
oft' gradually by abfence : thus a perfon with whom we
have been intimate, returning after a long interval, ap¬
pears like a new acquaintance. And diftance of place
contributes to this appearance, not lefs than diftance of
time: a friend, for example, after a ftiort abfence in a
remote country, has the fame air of novelty as if he had
returned after a longer interval from a place nearer
home : the mind forms a connexion between him and
the remote country, and beftows upon him the Angula¬
rity of the obietfts he has feen. For the fame realbn,
when two things equally new and Angular are prefented,
the fpeclator balances between them ; but when told
that one of them is the produft of a diftant quarter of
the wnrld, he no longer hefitates, but clings to it as the
more Angular : hence the preference given to foreign
luxuries, and to foreign curiofities, which appear rare
in proportion to their original diftance.
The next degree of novelty, mounting upward, is
found in objects of which we have fome information at
fecond hand ; for defeription, though it contribute to
familiarity, cannot altogether remove the appearance
of novelty when the object itfelf is prefented : the firft
fight of a lion occafions fome wonder, after a thorough
acquaintance wdth the correiteft pictures and ftatues of
that animal.
A new object that bears fome diftant refemblance to
a knowm fpecies, is an inftance of a third degree of no¬
velty : a ftrong refemblance among individuals of the
fame fpecies, prevents almoft entirely the effect of no-
velty, unlefs diftance of place or fome other circum-
■ftance concur; but where the refemblance is faint, fome
degree of wonder is felt, and the emotion rifes in pro¬
portion to the faintnefs of the refemblance.
The higheft degree of wronder arifeth from unknown
objedts that have no analogy to any fpecies we are ac¬
quainted with. Shakelpeare in a fimile introduces that
fpecies of novelty :
As glorious to the fight
As is a winged meffenger from heaven
Unto the white up-turned wond’ring eye
1 NOV
Of mortals, thnt fall back to gaze on him.,
When he beftrides the lazy pacing clouds.
And fails upon the bofom of the air.
Romeo and Juliet.
One example of that fpecies of novelty deferves pecu¬
liar attention; and that is, when an object altogether
new is feen by one perfon only, and but once. Thefe
circumftances heighten remarkably the emotion : the
Angularity of the fpedlator concurs with the Angu¬
larity of the object, to inflame wonder to its higheft
pitch.
In explaining the effects of novelty, the place a be¬
ing occupies in the fcale of exiftence, is a circumftance
that muft not be omitted. Novelty in the individuals
of a low clafs is perceived with indifference, or with a
very flight emotion : thus a pebble, however Angular in
its appearance, fcarcely moves our winder. The emo¬
tion rifes with the rank of the object 5 and, other cir¬
cumftances being equal, is ftrongeft in the higheft order
of exiftence ; a ftrange intect aflects us more than a
ftrange vegetable 3 and a ftrange quadruped more than
a ftrange infedt.
However natural novelty may be, it is a matter ot
experience, that thofe who relifh it the molt are careful
to conceal its influence. Love of novelty, it is true-
prevails in children, in idlers, and in men of (hallow*-1
underftanding : and yet, after all, why (hould one be
aftiamed of indulging a natural propenfity ? A diftinc-
tion will afford a fatisfactory anfwer. No man is afha- \
med of curioAty when it is indulged to acquire know¬
ledge. But to prefer any thing merely becaufe it is
new, (hows a mean tafte which one ought to be afha-
med of: vanity is commonly at the bottom, which
leads thofe who are deficient in tafte to prefer things
odd, rare, or Angular, in order to diftinguiih them-
felves from others. And in fact, that appetite, as
above mentioned, reigns chiefly among perfons of a
mean tafte, who are ignorant of refined and elegant
pleafures.
Of this tafte we have fome memorable inftances in
men of the higheft and the beft education. Lucian
tells the following ftory of Ptolemy I. which is as dis¬
graceful to him, as honourable to his fubjedls. This
prince had ranfacked the world for two curiofities 3
one was a camel from Baftria all over black 3 the other
a man, half black half white. Thefe he prefented to
the people in a public theatre, thinking they would
give them as much fatisfaflxon as they did him 3 but
the black monfter, inftead of delighting them, affright¬
ed them 3 and the party-coloured man railed the con¬
tempt of fome and the abhorrence of others. Ptolemy,
finding the Egyptians preferred fymmetry and beauty
to
Novelty
_ A third may be added not lefs memorable. In the year 846, an obftinate battle v/as fought between Xamire
king of Leon and Abdoulrahman the Moorifti king of Spain. After a very long conflict the night only pre¬
vented the Arabians from obtaining a complete victory. The king of Leon, taking advantage of the darknefs,
retreated to a neighbouring hill, leasing the Arabians mafters of the field of battle. Next morning, perceiving
that he could not maintain his place for want of provifions, nor be able to draw off his men in the face of a vido-
rious army, he ranged his men in order of battle, and, without lofing a moment, marched to attack the enemy,
refolving to conquer or die. The Arabians, aftonilhed to be attacked by thofe who were conquered the night be¬
fore, loft all heart: feat fucceeded to aftonilhment, the panic wasjmiverfal, and they all turned their backs with.
e.ut almoft drawing a fword..
9
NOV '[ Bo ] NOV
Novelty to the molt attonilhing produftiens of art or nature
. without them, wifely removed his two enormous tiiiles
Ba/ar oul; 5 neglefted camel died in a little
.v^—^ time, and the man he gave for a fong to the mulxcian
Thefpis.
One final caufe of wonder, hinted above, is, that this
emotion is intended to flimulate our curiofity. An¬
other, fomewhat different, is, to prepare the mind for
receiving deep impreffions of new obje&s. An acquaint¬
ance with the various things that may affedl us, and
v -with their properties, is effential to our well-being : nor
will a flight or fuperficial acquaintance be fufficient j
they ought to be fo deeply engraved on the mind, as to
be ready for ufe upon every occafion. Now, in order
to a deep impreflion, it is wifely contrived, that things
fhould be introduced to our acquaintance with a certain
pomp and folemnity productive of a vivid emotion.
When the impreflion is once fairly made, the emotion
of novelty being no longer neceflary, vanifheth almoft:
inftantaneoufly } never to return, unlefs where the im¬
preflion happens to be obliterated by length of time or
other means j in which cafe the fecond introduction
hath nearly the fame folemnity with the firft.
Defigning wifdom is nowhere more eligible than in
this part of the human frame. If new obje6ts did net
affect us in a very peculiar manner, their impreflions
would be fo flight as fcarce to be of any ufe in life :
on the other hand, did objects continue to affect us
as deeply as at firft, the mind would be totally engrof-
fed with them, and have no room left either for action
or reflection.
The final caufe of furprife is ftill more evident than
of novelty. Self-love makes us vigilantly attentive
to felf-prefervation ; but felf-love, which operates by
' means of reafon and reflection, and impels not the
mind to any particular objeCt or from it, is a principle
too cool for a hidden emergency ; an objeCt breaking
in unexpectedly, affords no time for deliberation •, and
in that cafe, the agitation of furprife comes in feafon-
ably to roufe felf-love into aCtion : furprife gives the
alarm ; and if there be any appearance of danger, our
■whole force is inftarttly himmoned to fhun or to pre¬
vent it.
NOVELLARA, a handfome town of Italy, and
capital of a fmall diftriCt of the fame name, with a hand¬
fome caftle, where their fovereign refides. E. Long.
io. 37. N. Lat. 45. 56.
NOVEMVIRI, nine rriagiftrates of Athens, whofe
government lafted but for one year. The firft of whom
was called archon, or prince ; the fecond bdjilius, or
king; the third polemarchus, or general of the army :
the other fix were called thefiriothetce, or lawgivers.
They took an oath to obferve the laws 5 and in cafe of
failure, obliged themfelves to bellow upon the common¬
wealth a ftatue of gold as big as themfelves. Thofe
who difeharged their office with honour, were received
into the number of the fenators of Areopagus.
NOVI, a town of Italy, in the territory of Genoa,
on the confines of the Milanefe. It was taken by the
Piedmontefe in 1746. E. Long. 8. 48. N. Lat. 44.
45*
NOVI Bazar, a confiderable town of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, and in Servia, near the river Orefco. E. Long.
£0, 24. N. Lat. 43. 25.
NG\ ICE, a perfon not yet fkilled or experienced Novice
in an art or profeflion. |)
In the ancient Roman militia, novicii, or novitii, were
the young raw foldiers, diftinguifhed by this appellation . V ( C ‘.
from the veterans.
In the ancient orders of knighthood, there were no¬
vices, or clerks in arms, who went through a kind of
apprenticefhip ere they were admitted knights. See
Knight.
Novice is more particularly ufed in monafteries for
a religious yet in his, or her, year of probation, and
who has not made the vows.
In fome convents, the fub-prior has the direction of
the novices. In nunneries, the novices wear a white
veil; the reft a black one.
NOVICIATE, a year of probation appointed for
the trial of religious, whether or no they have a voca¬
tion, and the neceflary qualities for living up to the
rule; the obfervation whereof they are to bind them¬
felves to by vow. The novitiate lafts a year at leaft;
in fome houfes more. It is efteemed the bed of the
civil death of a novice, who expires to the 'world by
profeflron.
NOVIGRAD, a fmall but ftrong town of Upper
Hungary, capital of a county of the fame name, with
a good caftle, feated on a mountain near the Danube,
E. Long. 18. id. N. Lat. 40. 50.
Novigrad, a fmall but ftrong town of Dalmatia,
with a caftle, and fubjeCt to the Turks •, feated on a
lake of the fame name, near the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 16. 45. N. Lat. 44. 30.
Novigrad, a very ftrong place of Servia, fubjeCt to
the Turks; feated near the Danube. E. Long. 26. 5.
N. Lat. 45. 5.
NOVIODUNUM (Caefar), a town of the ^Edui,
commodioufly feated on the Liguris: the Nivernum
of Antonine. Now Nevers in the OrleanUois, on the
Loire.—A fecond Notiiodunuth of the Aulerci Dia-
blintes, in Gallia Celtica, (Antonine) ; called Novice-
dunum (Ptolemy), and Noningentum Rotrudum by the
moderns : Nogente le Rotrou, capital of the duchy of
Perche.—A third of the Bituriges, (Csefar) : Now
Ntieve fur Baranion; a village 15 miles to the north
of Bourges, towards Orleans.—A fourth, of Mcefia
Inferior, (Ptolemy), fituated on the Ifter : now Nivorz,
in Beflarabia.—A fifth, of Pannonia Superior, (An¬
tonine ; now Gurkfeld in Carinthia.-—A fixth, Novio-
dunum Sueffionum, the fame with Augufa Sucfonum.—-
A feventh, Noviodunum of the Veromandui in Gallia
Belgica, (Ccefar) : now Noyon in the Ifle of France, on
the borders of Picardy.
NOUN, fee Grammar, N° 7.; and Chapter I. iri
toto.
NOVOGOROD welicki, Great Novogorod, ac¬
cording to Mr Coxe, is one of the moft ancient cities
in Ruflia. It was formerly called Great Novogorod, to
diftinguifh it from other Ruffian towns of a fimilar ap¬
pellation ; and now prefents to the attentive and inteL
ligent traveller a ftriking inftance of fallen grandeur.
According to Neftor, the earlieft of the Ruffian hi-
ftorians, it was built at the fame time with Kiof,
namely, in the middle of the 5 th century, by a Scla-
vonian horde, who, according to Procopius, iifiued
from the banks of the Volga. \ Its antiquity is clearly
proved
NOV [
Novfijo’-oJproveci by a paflage in the Gothic hiftorian Jornandes,
, Welick!. jn it is called Civil as Nova, or new town. We
have little infight into its hiftory before the ninth cen¬
tury, when Ruric the firll great duke of Rullia reduced
it, and made it the metropolis of his vail dominion.
The year fubfequent to his death, which happened in
879, the feat of government was removed, under his
fun Igor, then an infant, to Kiof •, and Novogorod con¬
tinued, for above a century, under the jurifdiclion of
governors nominated by the great dukes, until 970,
when Svatollaf, the fon of Igor, created his third fon
Vladimir duke of Novogorod: the latter, fucceeding his
father in the throne of Ruflxa, ceded the town to his
fon Yaroilaf, wTho in 1036 granted to the inhabitants
very confiderable privileges, that laid the foundation of
that extraordinary degree of liberty which they after-
vards gradually obtained. From this period Novogorod
was for a long time governed by its own dukes : thefe
fovereigns were at firll fubordinate to the great dukes,
who refided at Kiof and Volodimir} but aftenvards, as
the town increafed in population and wealth, they gra¬
dually ufurped an abfolute independency. Its inde¬
pendency, however, was not perpetual. It continued, in¬
deed, in a flourifiiing Hate until the middle of the 15th
century : but the great dukes of Ruffia, whofe anceftors
had reigned over this town, and wrho ftill retained the
title of dukes of Novogorod, having transferred their re-
fidence from Kiof to Volodimir, and afterwards to Mof-
cow, laid claim to its feudal fovereignty ; a demand
which the inhabitants fometimes put off by colnpofition,
fometimes by refiftance, but were fometimes compelled
to acknowledge. At length, however, the great duke
became abfolute fovereign of Novogorod, though the
oftenfible forms of government were ftill preferved. It
even then, however, continued to be the largeft and
molt commercial city of Ruffia *, a proof of which we
have as late as the year 1^4, from the following de-
feription of Richard Chancellor, who paffed through it
in 15^4 in his way to Mofcown “ Next unto Mofcow,
the cit y of Novogord is reputed the chiefeft of Ruffia ;
for although it be in majefty inferior to it, yet in
greatnefs it goeth beyond it. It is the chiefeft and
greateft mart town of all Mufcovy; and albeit the
emperor’s feat is not there, but at Mofcow, yet the
commodioufnefs of the river, falling into that gulf
which is called Sinus Finnicus, whereby it is well
frequented by merchants, makes it more famous than
Mofcow itfelf.” An idea of its population during
this period, when compared with its prefent declined
ftate, is manifeft from the faff, that in 1508 above
15,000 perfons died of an epidemical diforder j more
than double the number of its prefent inhabitants. In
its moft flouriftring condition it contained at leaft
400,000 fouls. Its ruin was brought on by Ivan Va-
filievitch II. and completed by the foundation of Pe-
terfburgh. The prefent town is furrouhded by a ram¬
part of earth, with a range of old towers at regular
dilfances, forming a circumference of fcarcely a mile
and a half-, and even this inconfiderable circle in¬
cludes much open fpace, and many lioufes which are
not inhabited. As Novogorod was built after the
manner of the ancient towns in this country, in the
Afiatic ftyle, this rampart, like that of the Semlaino-
gorod at Mofcow, probably enclosed feveral interior
Vox.. XV. Part I.
Si ] N O Y
circles. Without it was a vaft extenfive fuburb, which Novogorol
reached to the diftance of fix miles, and included with- We|lckl
in its circuit all the convents and churches, the ancient Noyon,
ducal palace and other ftruclures, that now make ay—J
fplendid but folitary appearance, as they lie fcattered in
the adjacent plain.
Novogorod ftretches on both fides of the Volkof, a
beautiful river of confiderable depth and rapidity, and
fomewhat broader than the Thames at Windfor. This
river feparates the town into two divifions, the trad-
ing part, and the quarter of St Sophia, w7hich are unit¬
ed by means of a bridge, partly wmoden and partly brick.
NOVOGOBOD Welichi, a province of Mufcovy, bound¬
ed on the north by Ingria 5 on the eaft by part of the
duchy of Eelozero, and that of Tuera, which alfo
bounds it on the fouth, with the province of Rzeva ;
and on the weft by Plefcow. It is full of lakes and
forefts; however, there are fome places which produce
corn, flax, hemp, honey, and wax.
NOVOGOROD Serpfkoi, a ftrong town of the Ruffian
empire, and capital of a province of Siberia of the
fame name, feated on the river Dubica, In E. Long. 33.
20. N. Lat. 52. 30.
NOVOGORODECK, a town of Lithuania, and
capital of a palatinate of the fame name. It is a large
place, and fituated in a vaft plain, in E. Long. 25. go.
N. Lat. 53. 45.
NOURISHMENT. See Nutrition.
Nourishment of Vegetables. See Agriculture
Index.
NOWED, in Heraldry^ fignifies “ knotted,” from
the Latin nodatns ; being applied to the tails of fuch
creatures as are very long, and fometimes reprefented in
coat armour as tied up in a knot.
NOX, in fabulous hiftory, one of the moft ancient
deities among the heathens, daughter of Chaos. From
her union with her brother Erebus, (he gave birth to the
Day and the Light. She was alfo the mother of the
Parcse, Hefperides, Dreams, of Difcord, Death, Mo-
mus, Fraud, &c. She is called by fome of the poets
the mother of all things, of gods as well as of men 5
and Ihe was worfhipped with great folemnity by the
ancients. She had a famous ftatue in Diana’s temple
at Ephefus. It was ufual to offer her a black flieep,
as flie was the mother of the Furies. The cock was
alfo offered to her, as that bird proclaims the approach
of day during the darknefs of the night. She is re¬
prefented as mounted on a chariot, and covered with
a veil befpangled with ftars. The conftellations gene¬
rally went before her as her conftant meffengers. Some¬
times fhe is feen holding two children under her arms j
one of which is black, reprefenting Death, and the other
vflute, reprefenting Sleep. Some of the moderns have
defcribtd her as a woman veiled in mourning, and crown¬
ed with poppies,, and parried on a chariot drawn by owls
and bats.
NOYON, a tmvn of France, fituated on the decli¬
vity of a hill on the rivulet Vorfe, which at a quarter of
a league’s diftance falls into the Oyfe, in the department
of Oyfe, in E. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 49. 38. about 66
miles north-eaft of Paris. It is an ancient place, being
the Noviodunum Be/garum of the Latins. It is a pretty
large city, and is wrell fituated for inland trade, which
confilts here in wheat and oats, w-hich they fend to
L Paris*
Noyon
Nuba.
NUB t
Paris. They have alio manufactories of linen cloths,
lawns, and tanned leather. There are. eight parifhes in
i it, two abbeys, and feveral monafteries of both iexes..
It is the fee of a bifhop, fuBxagan to the metropolitan of
Rheims : he has the title of count ana peer of b ranee,
and his income is faid to amount to about 15,000 livres
per annum. The principal buildings are tbe epifcopal
palace, a cloifter where the canons ot the cathedral dwell,
ahd the towm-houfe. The latter is regularly built in a
large fquare, in the middle of which there is a fountain,
where tire water conveyed to it from a neighbouring
mountain runs continually through three conduits, and
is received in a large bafon built of very hard hone.
They have alfo many other lountains, lev era! market
places, and two public gardens. Noyon is particularly
remarkable for the birth of the tamous John Calvin, who
Tfras bom here on the 10th of July 15^2, and died at
Geneva the ? "th of May 1564*
NUAYHA3, the Ague tree ; a namd given by
the Indians to a fort of batnboe cane, the leaves of
which falling into the vVater, are faid to irr. • regnate
it with fuch virtue, that the bathing in it. afterwards
cures the ague. I hey ufo ?.lfo a decodion of the
leaves to dlffolve coagulated blood, giving it inter¬
nally, and at the fame time rubbing the bruifed part
externally with it. It is faid that this plant bears its
flowers only once in its life 'y that it lives 60 years.be¬
fore thofe make their appearance j but that v\ nen the}
begin to fhow tnemfelves, it withers away in about a
month afterwards •, that is, as foon as it has ripened
the feed. There feems to be fomething of fiftion in
the account of many other particulars, relating to this
tree in the Hortus Molobancus / but it leems certain,
that the length of the flalks, or trunk, muil be veij
great: for, in the gallery 01 Leyden, there is pre-
ferved a cane of it 28 feet long j and another not
much fhorter in the A(hmolean mufeum at Oxford, and
which is more than eight inches in diameter: yet both
thefe appear to be only parts of the whole trunk, they
being nearly as large at one end as at the other..
NUB A/a race of black Pagans, in the neighbour¬
hood of Sennaar, of whom we know nothing but what
we have learned from Tvlr Bruce. 'T hat celebrated tra¬
veller paffed a day or two among them, in his way
from AbviTmia ; and he tells us, that they are all fol-
diers of the Mek or king of Sennaar, cantoned in vil¬
lages, which to the dillance of four or five miles fur-
round the capital. They are not the aborigines of that
part of Africa; but “ are either purchafed or taken
by force from Fazuclo, and the provinces to the fouth
upon the mountains Dyre and Tegla.” Though the
flaves of a cruel and treacherous mailer, IVIr Bruce re-
prefents them as a gentle, honeft, and hofpitable people-,
and he fays exprefsly, that on a journey he.had feldom
paffed a more comfortable night, than one in which he
took refuge from a florin in a village of thofe Nuba.
He had a good funper, and a clean neat hut to deep in;
while fome of the Nuba watched for him all night,
and took care of his beads and his baggage. “ Having
Settlements and provifions given them by the govern-
ment of Sennaar, as alfo arms put into their hands,
.they never wilh to defert, but live a very domeflic
and fober life, and are a much gentler fort of negro
ifean their mailers.” (See Senear.) Though the
2 ] N' U B
effablilhed religion of Sennaar is that of Mahomet, the
government has never attempted to convert the Nuba.
On the contrary, a certain number of Pagan priefis
is maintained for them in every village, who have fol-
diers in pay to aflifl them in the affairs of their religion.
This is a very Angular inftance of toleration among
Mahometans, and what we fliould little have expefted
from fuch barbarous and fanguinary wretches as thofe
who have the fupreme power in Sennaar, had not our
obferving traveller informed us, that thefe men them-
felves know almoft nothing of the religion which they
profefs, and are in their hearts rather Pagans than Ma¬
hometans.
The idolatry of the Nuba is deferibed as a mixture
of Sabiifm and ftatue worfhip : but what is.very un¬
common, their vorfoip is chiefly paid , to the moon,
while they pay no attention to the fun either rifmg or
fetting, advancing to the meridian or receding from it.
It is an old obfexvation, that the . worftiip of every
people is tin&ured by their natural difp’cfitions} and this
is verified in the Nuba. “ That their worfhip is per¬
formed with pleafure and fatisfadlion, is cbvious (fays
our author) every night that the moon fhines. Coming
out from the' darknefs of their huts, they fay a few
woids upon feeing her brightnefs, and teftify great
joy, by motions of their feet and hands, at the firfl
appearance of the new mccn.,, I his is juft what we
fhould have expeQtd from their gentlenefs and hofpi-
talily. They worfhip likewife a tree and a flcne j but
our author could never dilcover w-hat tree 01 flcne j
only he learned that neither of them exifls in Sennaar,
but in the country where the Nuba are born. Such of
them as are natives of the villages where he faw them,
become, like their mailers, nominal Mahometans.—
NuVia.
The reft practife the idolatrous worfhip of their ancef-
tors, and are much under the influence cf their priefis,
from fear rather than from affection. They are im¬
moderately fond of fwine’s flefh, and maintain great
herds of fmall hogs, marked with black and white fpots.
Few- of the Nuba advance higher than to be foldiers
and officers in their own corps y and the Mek main¬
tains about 12,000 of them near Sennaar to keep the
Arabs in fubje&ion. In a climate, fo violent as that
which they inhabit, there is very little need of fuel ,
and it is happy for them that fuch is the cafe, for in
the whole country there is not a Angle tree, or tuif,
or any thing refembling it. They do not, however,
“ eat their meat raw like the Abyflinians } but with,
tbe flalk of the dora or millet, and the dung of ca¬
mels, they make ovens under ground, in which they
roafl their hogs whole, in a very cleanly manner, keep-,
ing their fkins on till they are perfeftly baked. 1 hey
have neither flint nor fteel with wdiich to light their,
fire at fir ft y but do it in a manner Hill more expedi¬
tious, by means of two flicks, brought, we are led tq
think, from Sennaar, and there picked out of the river
when flooded. They make a ftnall hole in one of thefe
flicks, and point the other: then laying the former in
a horizontal pofition, they apply the point of the latter
to the hole and, turning the perpendicular flick be¬
tween their hands, as we do a chocolate mill, both flicks
take fire and flame in a moment * fo perfe&ly dry and -
prepared to take fire is every thing there on the furface
of the earth.”- _ TTtt>t?/—• nr \
NUBECULA,
NUB [
Nubecula NUBECULA, IJTTLK CLOUD, in Medicine, % term
II fomctimes ufed for a difeafe in the eye, wherein objects
. Nubia. appear as through a cloud or milt.
The nubecula feems to arife from certain grofs par¬
ticles detained in the pores of the cornea, or fvvimming
in the aqueous humour, and thus intercepting the rays oi
light.
Nubecula, or Nubes, is alfo ufed for what is other-
wife called albugo. See Albugo.
Nubecula is ufed likewife for a matter in form of a
cloud, fufpended in urine.
NUBIA, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by Egypt, on the call by the Red fea and part
of Abylt'mia, on the weft by the kingdoms of T agua,
Gaoga, and the defert of Gerham. The river Nile
runs through it} on the banks of which, and thofe of
the other rivers, it is pretty fruitful, but in other
places barren, fandy, and in want of wrater.. To the
weft of the Nile is the defert of Bahouda, which is five
days journey over, being the ulual road from Egypt to
Abyflinia. Money is of no ufe in this country in the
way of trade, it being all carried on by way of ex¬
change. Their bread and drink is made of a {mall
round feed, called doc a or Jeff, which is very ill tailed.
Their houfes have mud walls, being very low, and
covered with reeds. The habit of the better fort is a
veil without lleeves •, and they have no coverings for
their heads, legs, and feet. The common people wrap
a piece of linen cloth about them, and the children go
quite naked. They are a ftupid debauched fort of
people, having neither modefty, civility, nor religion,
though they profefs to be Mahometans.—The produc¬
tions of this country are gold, elephants teeth, civet,
and fandal wood j and they fend a great many Haves in¬
to Egypt. The principal towms known to the Euro¬
peans are Dangola and Sennaar.
It is famous for a race of horfes the moil powerful
and docile in the world. Thefe animals are generally
about fixteen hands high •, and by Mr Bruce, who has
given the moll fcientific account of them, they are
laid to be the breed which was introduced into Nubia
at the Saracen conqueft, and has been preferved un¬
mixed to this day. Our author reprefents this as a
much nobler animal than the Arabian horfe. “ What
* Trawls %ure (%s *) ^ Nubian horfe would make in
yoi.y’b. 8. point of fleetnefs is very doubtful, his make being fy
ch. 10. entirely different from that of the Arabian j but if
beautiful fymmetry of parts, great fize and ilrength,
ftre moll agile, nervous, and elaltic movements, great
endurance of fatigue, docility of temper, and feeming
attachment to men beyond that of any other domef-
tic animal, can promife any thing for a ftallion, the
Nubian is above all comparifon the moll eligible in the
world.” He thinks, and juftly thinks, that an at¬
tempt Ihould at leaft be made to import them into this
kingdom. “ The expence (he fays) would not be
great, though there might be fome trouble and appli¬
cation neceffary : but if adroitly managed, there would
not be much even of that. The Nubians are very jea¬
lous in keeping up the pedigree of their horfes, which
are black or white, but a vail proportion of the former
to the latter.” Our author never faw the colour which
we call gray, i. e. dappled ; but he has feen fome bright
bays, and fome inclined to forrel. All noble horfes
in Nubia are faid to be defcended of one of the five
83 ] N U B
upon which Mahomet and his four immediate mccef-
fors, Abu Beer, Omar, Atinen, and Ali, fled from Mec- u
ca to Medina the night of the Hegira. No one will
pay much regard to this legendary tale, or believe that
the ftrength and beauty of this breed of horfes is owing
to any virtue communicated to the firft of them by the
prophet and his apoities. Mr Bruce accounts for their
exceller.ee upon rational principles. a 1 he beft hories
of the Arabian breed are found (he fays) in the tribe
of Mowelli and Annecy, which is about 36° north la¬
titude. Dangola, which is in 20° latitude, feemed to
him to be the centre of excellence for this noble ani¬
mal.” Hence he infers, that the bounds in which tire
horfe is in greateft perfeclion, are between the 20th and
36th degrees of latitude, and between 30 degrees of
longitude call from Greenwich and the banks of the
Euphrates. If to the effedls of climate we add the
manner of feeding the Nubian hordes, we fhall perhaps
have the true caufe of their fuperiority over all others.
“ They are kept fat upon dora, and fuffered to eat no¬
thing green but the ftiort roots of grafs tnat are to bs
found by the fide of the Nile, after the fun has withered
it. This is dug out where it is covered with earth, and
appears blanched, and lard in {mail heaps once a-day on
the ground before them.”
NUBIAN DESERT, a vaft tra£l of barren rocks and
burning fands, extending from Syene in Upper Egypt
to Geon the capital of Berber in Nubia. As Syene
is in latitude 240 o' 45" north, and Geon in latitude
170 57' 22", the length of this defert from north to
fouth is 6° 3' 23", or upwards of 420 Englifti miles.
Its breadth from call to weft has not, as far as we
know, been precifely afeertained. Through -this hor¬
rid region, where nothing is to be feen which has the
breat h of life, mult all travellers pafs from Sennaar to
Egypt j in danger every moment of perilhing by third,
being overwhelmed by moving columns of land, fuffo-
cated by a hot and poifonous wind, or cut in pieces
by troops of wandering Arabs. Xhe laft European of
whom we have heard that made the journey and lived
to give an account of it, is Mr Bruce j and the perfon
mult have neither tafte nor fenfrbility who can read -un¬
moved his manly narrative.
No fingle traveller, nor even a caravan, can enter with
fafety into this defert, but under the preteflion of a Hy-
bear 5 whofe title and office are thus explained by Mr
Bruce : “ A Hybear is a guide, from the Arabic word
Hubbar, which fignifies to inform, inftruct, or direct,
becauie they arc uled to do this oftice to the caravans
travelling through the defert in ail directions. J hey
are men of great confideration, knowing perfectly the
fituation and properties of all kinds 01 wrater to be met
with on the route, the diitance of wells, whether oc¬
cupied by enemies or not 5 and if fo, the wray to avoid
them with the leaft inconvenience. It is alfo neceffary
that they ffiould know the places occupied by the Si¬
moom, and the feafons of its blowing (fee Simoom),
as wTell as thofe occupied by moving fands.”—Under
the conduct of one of thefe men, Mr Bruce, with in¬
finite fortitude and addrefs, pailed through the uefert
in the year 177-? furmounting dangers at which one
fhudders in his clofet. Of thefe, the following, which
we {hall give in the nervous language of the author,
may ferve as an intlance. ' . '
“ We were here (at a place railed WeadialHalboub)
L 2 at
Nubia
N XJ C
Nuli.an De at once furprued and terrified by a fight furely one of
,,rt thejrmo5 magnificent in the world. In thatVaft ex-
Nutf a. Panle of defert’ from W. and to NW, of us, we faw a
v ' number ot prodigious pillars of fand at different di-
llances, at times moving with great celerity, at others
ffalldng on with a majeftic flownefs. At intervals we
thought they were coming in a very few' minutes to
overwhelm us ; and finall quantities of fand did actually
more than once reach us. Again they would retreat fo
as to be almoll out of fight; their tops reaching to the
very clouds. 1 here the tops often feparated from the
bodies ; and thefe once disjoined, difpcrfed in the air,
and did not appear more. Sometimes they were broken
m t-ne middle as if ftruck with a large cannon fhot.
About noon they began to advance with confiderable
fwiftnefs upon us, the wind being very flroiw 2t north.
Eleven, of them ranged alongfide of us about the di¬
fiance of three miles. The grealeft diameter of the
largeff appeared to me at that difiance as if it would
meafure 10 feet. They retired from us with a wind
at SE. leaving an impreffion upon my mind to which
. caa Tve no .narne j though furely one ingredient in
ltn wa® ‘c:ir’ a confidetable degree of wonder and
aitonifhment.”
K it be true, as the author of A Philofophical In¬
quiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and
-Beautiful affirms, that “ the paffion raifed by the fublhne
is aftonifiiment, and that aftonifiiment is that date of the
onl in which all its motions are fulpendcd with fome
degree of horror,” furely a more fublime fpeftacle was
never prefented to mortal eyes, than that which was on
this occafion prefented to Mr Bruce. It muft have been
awfully majeftic ; but few, we believe, would choofe
the pleafure of contemplating fuch a fcene of magnifi¬
cence at the hazard of that dreadful death with which
at every moment it threatened our traveller and his at¬
tendants. He, indeed, had firmnefs of mind to ftand
in admjre d > kut his companions ffirieked out;
while lome of them exclaimed that it was the day of
judgement, and others that it was hell or the world fet
on fire. But lor a more particular account of this phe¬
nomenon, as well as of the nature of the defert and the
proper way of palling it, we muft refer to the work from
* Bruce't WhlCh thlS l*10571 fiietch is taken f *
Travels, NUCLEUS, in general, denotes the kernel of a nut
vol.iv. or even any feed enclofed within a hulk. The term
nuc/euS' is alfo ufed for the body of a comet, otherwife
called its head.
NUCIA, a dew, which falling in Egypt about
..t John s day, is by the fuperftitious natives of the
country confidered as miraculous, and the peculiar gift
vItis effeas are indeed fo beneficial, that
this belief is little furpnfing among a people fo totally
ignorant of natural caufes as the modern Egyptians for
it is acknowledged, by the moft enlightened travellers, to
itop the plague, and announce a fpeedy and plentiful
inundation of the country. Thefe effefts are thus ra¬
tionally accounted for by Mr Bruce.
“ Jn February and March, the fun is on its ap¬
proach to the zenith of one extremity of Egypt and
of courfe has a very confiderable influence °upon the
other. The Nile having now fallen low, the water in
certain old cifterns, which, though they ftill exift, are
lunered to accumulate all the filth of the river be
comes putnd, mud the river itfelf has loft all its finer
[ 84 ]
N U M
and volatile parts by the continued adlion of a vertical
lun ; fo that mftead of being fubjeft to evaporation, it
grows daily more and more inclined to putrefaction,
r uUtrSt dokn's ^ day it receives a plentiful mixture
o the ftelh and fallen rain from Ethiopia, which di¬
lutes and refrelhes the almoft corrupted river, and the
fun near at hand exerts its influence upon the water,
which is now become light enough to be exhaled, though
it has fiill with it a mixture of the corrupted fluid. °It
is in February, March, or April only, that the plague
begins in Egypt.” Our philofophical traveller does not
b mi eve d an endemical difeafe 5 but afiigns very fuffi-
cient reafons for thinking that it comes from Conftan-
tinople n it h merchandfie or with paffengers at the very
time of the year when the air, by the long abfence of
dews, has attained a degree of putridity proper to re¬
ceive it. In this Hate of the atmolphere, the infec¬
tion continues to rage till the period of St John’s day,
when it is fuddenly flopped by the dews occafioned by
a lefieihing. mixture of rain wTater, which is poured
into the Nile at the beginning of the inundation,
xhc fii ft and moft remarkable fign of the change effect¬
ed in the air, is the hidden flopping of the plague.
Every perfon, though Unit up from fociety for months
before, buys, fells, and communicates with his neigh¬
bour without any fort of apprehenfion ; and as far "as
our author could learn upon fair inquiry, it was never
knoy.n that one fell fick of the plague after the anni-
verfary of St John. He admits that fome have died
of it after that period j but of them the dileafe had
got fuch hold, under the moft putrid influence of the
aii, that they could not recover, do corroborate this
theory, which attributes fo much to the benign influ¬
ence of the falling dew, he obferves, that immediately
after St John’s day, the clothes of the many thoufands
who have died during the late continuance of the plavue
are publiciy expofed in the market place 5 and that all
thefe, though confifting of furs, cotton, lilk, and woollen
cloths, which are the fluffs moft retentive of infeCHon,
imbibing the moift air of the evening and the morning,
are handled, bought, put on and worn, without any ap¬
prehenfion of danger, and without a fingle accident be¬
ing known to have happened to any one poffefi'ed of this
happy confidence.
NUDIlIES, in painting and fculpture, thofe parts
of an human figure which are not covered with any
drapery • or thofe parts where the carnation appears.
NULLIIY, in Law, fignifies any thing that is null
or void : thus there is a nullity of marriage, where per-
fons marry within the degrees, or where infants marry
without confent of their parents or guardians.
NUMA Pompilius, the fourth fon of Pompilius
Pompo, an illuftrious Sabine. He had married Tatia,
the daughter of King Tatius, and together with her
remained in his native country, preferring the tran¬
quillity of a p. vate life to the fplendour of a court.
Upon the death of his wife, with whom he had lived
thirteen years, he gave himfelf up entirely to the ftudy
of wifdom ; and, leaving the city of Cures, confined
himfelf to the country, wandering from folitude to
folitude, in fearch only of thofe woods and fountains
which religion had made facred. His reclufe life gave
rife to the fable, which was very early received among
the Sabines, that Numa lived in familiarity with the
nymph Egeria. Upon the death of Romulus, both the
fen ate
Niufla
i!
Numa.
N U M
[ 85 ]
N U M
Nunv.. fenate and people ftrongly folicited him to be their king.
—— They defpatched Julius Proculus and Valerius Voiefus,
two fenators of difUnftion, to acquaint Numa with
their refolution, and make him an offer of the king¬
dom. The Sabine philofopher rejefted at firft their
propofal but being at lail prevailed upon by the ar¬
guments and entreaties of the deputies, joined with •
thofe of his father and of Martins his near relation,
he yielded; and having offered facrifices to the gods,
fet out for Rome, where he was received by all ranks
of people with loud fhouts of joy. Spurius Vettius, the
interrex for the day, having affembled the curiae, he was
defied in due form, and the eiecliou was unanimoully
confirmed by the fenate.
The beginning of his reign, was popular ; and he
difmiffed the 300 bodyguards which his predeceffor had
kept around his perfon, and obferved, that he did not
diftruft a people who had compelled him to reign ever
them. He was not, like Romulus, fond of war and
military expeditions, but he applied himfeif to tame the
ferocity of his fubjefls, to inculcate in their minds a
reverence for the Deity, and to quell their diffenfions by
dividing all the citizens into different claffes. He efta-
blifhed different orders of priefts, and taught the Ro¬
mans not to worlhip the Deity by images; and from
his example no graven or painted ftatues appeared in
the temples or fanftuaries of Rome for the fpace of 160
years. He encouraged the report that was fpread of
Ids paving regular vifits to the nymph Egeria, and
made ufe of her name to give fanflion to the laws and
inftitutians which he had introduced. He eftablifhed
the college of the veftals, and told the Romans that
the fafety of the empire depended upon the prefervation
of the facred ancyle or Ihield, which, as was generally
believed, had dropped from heaven. He dedicated a
temple to Janus, which, during his whole reign, remain¬
ed fliut as a mark of peace and tranquillity at Rome. Af¬
ter a reign of 4 2 years, in which he had given every
pofiible encouragement to the ufeful arts, and in which
he had cultivated peace, Numa died in the year of
Rome 82. Not only the Romans, but alfo the neigh¬
bouring nations, were eager to pay their laft offices to
a monarch whom they revered for his abilities, mode¬
ration, and humanity. He forbade his body to be burnt
according to the cuftom of the Romans 5 but he ordered
it to be buried near Mount Janiculum, with many of
the books which he had written. Thefe books were
accidentally found by one of the Romans, about 400
years after his death 5 and as they contained nothing
new or interefting, but merely the reafons why he had
made innovations in the form of worfhip and in the re¬
ligion of the Romans, they were burnt by order of the
fenate. He left behind him one daughter called Pompi-
lia, who married Numa Marcius, and became the mo¬
ther of Ancus Marcius they fourth king of Rome.
Some fay that he had alfo four fons; but this opinion
is ill founded. The principal laws of King Numa, men¬
tioned by different authors, are, 1. That the gods ffiould
be worffiipped with corn and a falted cake. 2. That
whoever knowingly killed a free man, ffiould be held
as a parricide. 3. That no harlot ffiould touch the
altar of Juno •, and if Ihe did, that ffie fhould facrifice
a ewe-lamb to that goddefs, with dilhevelled hair.
4. That whoever removed a land-mark ffiould be put to
death. 5. That wine ffiould not be poured on a funeral Nnmantia,
pile, &c. ^ . ,^ber',
NUMANTIA, a very noble city, the ornament of 'r~
the Hither Spain, (Floras) ; celebrated for the long
war of 20 years which it maintained againft the Ro¬
mans. The bafenefs and injuftice of the Romans during
this war were truly difgraceful to them, and altogether
unworthy of a great and powerful people. The inha¬
bitants obtained fome advantages over the Roman
forces, till Scipio Africanus was empowered to finiffi
the war and to fee the deilruction of Numantia. He
began the fiege, with an army of 60,000 men, and was
bravely oppofed by the befieged, who were no more
than 4000 men able to bear arms. Both armies be¬
haved with uncommon valour, and the courage of the
Numantines was foon changed into defpair and fury.
Their provifions began to fail, and they fed upon the
fleffi of their horfes, and afterwards on that of then-
dead companions, and at laft they were obliged to draw
lots to kill and devour one another. The melancholy
fituation of their affairs obliged them to furrender to
the Roman general. Scipio demanded them to deliver
themfelves up on the morrow 5 they refufed, and when
a longer time had been granted to their petitions, they
retired and fet fire to their houfes and deftroyed them¬
felves, fo that not even one remained to adorn the tri¬
umph of the conqueror. Some hiftorians, however,
deny that; and affert, that a number of Numantines
delivered themfelves into Scipio’s hands, and that go
of them were drawn in triumph at Rome, and the reft
fold as Haves. The fall of Numantia was more glorious
than that of Carthage or Corinth, though the place
was much inferior to them. It was taken by the Ro¬
mans, A. U. C. 629-, and the conqueror obtained the
furname of Numanticw.
NUMBER, an affemblage of feveral units, or things
of the fame kind. See Arithmetic, and Metaphy¬
sics, N° 205—208.
Number, fays Malcolm, is either abflraft or appli¬
cate : Abftracl, when referred to things in general,
without attending to their particular properties; and
applicate, when confidered as the number of a particu¬
lar fort of things, as yards, trees, or the like.
When particular things are mentioned, there is al¬
ways fomething more confidered than barely their
numbers; fo that what is true of numbers in the ab-
ftrafl, or when nothing but the number of things is
confidered, will not be true when the queftion is li¬
mited to particular things: for inftance, the number
two is lefs than three 5 yet two yards is a greater
quantity than three inches: apd the reafon is, becaufe -
regard mull be had to their different natures as well as
number, whenever things of a different fpecies are
confidered 5 for though we can compare the number
of fuch things abftraftedly, yet we cannot compare
them in any applicate fenfe. And this difference is ne-
ceffary to be confidered, becaufe upon it the true fenfe,
and the poffibility or impoffibility, of fome queftions
depend.
Number is unlimited in refpecl of increafe ; becaufe
we can never conceive a number fo great but Hill there
is a greater. However, in refpe£l of decreafe, it is li¬
mited ■, unity being the firft and leaft number, below
which therefore it cannot defeend,
Kinds
Nmiiber.
N U M [gS
Kinds AnddiJHv.Eiions of NUMBERS. Mathematicians,
" conlidering number under a great many relations, have
eftabliihed the following diitindliorts.
Broken numbers are the fame with fra&ions.
Cardinal numbers are thofe which exprei’s the quan¬
tity of units, as x, 2,3, 4, &c. whereas ordinal num¬
bers are thofe which exprefs order, as id, 2d, 3d, &c.
Compound number, one divifible by iome other num¬
ber befides unity 5 as 12, which is divifible by 2, 3, 4,
and 6. Numbers, as 1 2 and 15, which have fome comJ
mon meafure befides unity, are faid to be compound
numbers among themfelves.
Cubic number is the produfl of a fquare number by
its root: fuch is 27, as being the produd of the
fquare number 9 by its root 3. All cubic numbers
whofe root is lefs than being divided by 6, the re¬
mainder is the root itfelfj thus 27—6 leaves the re¬
mainder 3, its root 5 215, the cube of 6, being di¬
vided by 6, leaves no remainder; 343, the cube of 7,
leaves a remainder 1, which added to 6, is the cllbe,
root j and 5x2, the cube of 8, divided by 6, leaves a
remainder 2, which added to 6, is the cube root.
Hence the remainders of the divifions of the cubes
above 216, divided by 6, being added to 6, always
give the root of the cube fo divided till that remainder
be 5, and confequently 1 x, the cube root of the number
divided. But the cubic numbers above this being
divided by 6, there remains nothing, the cube root be¬
ing 12. Thus the remainders of the higher cubes are
to be added to 12 and not to 6, till you come to 18,
when the remainder of the divifion muft be added to 18 ’
and fo on ad infinitum.
Determinate number is that referred to fome given
unit, as a ternary or three : whereas an indeterminate
one is , that referred to unity in general, and is called
quantity.
Homogeneal numbers are thofe referred to the fame
unit j as thofe referred to different units are termed
keterogeneal. •
Whole numbers are otherwife called integers.
Rational number is one commenfurable with unity ;
as a number, incommenfurable with unity, is termed
irrational, or a fiurd.
fit the fame manner, a rational whole number is that
whereof unity is an aliquot part; a rational broken
number, that equal to fome aliquot part of unity ; and a
rational mixed number, that confiding of a whole num¬
ber and a broken one.
Even number, that which may be divided into two
equal parts without any fraflion, as 6, 12, &c. The
fim, difference, and produb!, of any number of even
numbers, is always an even number.
An evenly even number, is that which may be mea-
/ared, or divided, without any remainder, by another
even number, as 4 By 2.
An unevenly even number, when a number may be
equally divided by an uneven number, as 20 by 5.
Uneven number, that which exceeds an even number,
at leaf! by unity, or which cannot be divided into two5
equal parts, as 3, 5, &c.
I he fum or difference of two uneven numbers makes
an even number; but the fab!urn of two uneven ones
makes an uneven number.
If an even number be added to an uneven one : or if
the one be fubtrabtod from the other, in the former
3
] N U M
cafe the fum, in the latter the difference, is an uneven
number; but the fablum of an even and uneven num¬
ber is even.
I he fum of any even number of uneven numbers is an
even number j and the fum of any uneven number of
uneven numbers is an uneven number.
Primitive or prime numbers are thofe divifible only
,7 U71t> ’ as 5) 7i &-c. And prime numbers among-
themfelves, are thofe which have no common meafure
oeudes unity, as 12 and 19.
Perfeb! number, that whofe aliquot parts added to¬
gether make the whole dumber, as 6, 28; the aliquot
parts of 6 being 3, 2, and 1, =6 ; and thofe of 28 be~
mg Mi 7> 4> 2, 1, =28.
Imperfebt numbers, thofe whofe aliquot parts added
together make either more or lefs than the whole.
And the.e are diftinguifhed into abundant and defec¬
tive : an inftance in the former cafe is 12, whofe ali¬
quot parts 6, 4, 3, 2, 1, make 16; and in the latter
cafe 16, whofe aliquot parts 8, 4, 2, and 1, make
but 15.
Plane number, that arifing from the multiplication
oi two numbers, as 6, which is tfie produb! of 3 by 2 •
ana thefe numbers are called the fides of the plane. ’
Square number is the produb! of any number multi-
pued by itfelf; thus 4, which is the fa&um of 2 by 2,
is a iquare number.
Even fquare number added to its root makes an even
number. 5
Figurate numbers, are fuch as reprefent fame geo¬
metrical figure, in relation to which they are always
confidered j as triangular, pentagonal, pyramidal, &c.
numbers.
figurate numbers are diftinguifhed into orders ac¬
cording to# their place in the fcale of their generation
being all produced one from another, viz. by adding*
continually the terms of any one, the fucceffive firms are
the terms of the next order, beginning from the firft
order which is that of equal units i, I, I, i, &c. j then
the 2d order confifb of the fucceftive fums of thofe of
the if! order, forming the arithmetical progreflion i
2, 3, 4, &c. ; thofe of the third order are the fucceflive
jums of thofe of the 2d, and are the triangular num-
bers x, 3 6, xo, 15, &c. 5 thofe of the 4th order are
the iuccelnve fums of thofe of the 3d, and are the py
ramidal numbers 1, 4, xo, 20, 35, &c. j and fo on as
below :
Number.
Order.
Names.
Equals.
Arithmeticals,
Triangulars,
Pyramidals,
2d Pyramidals,
3d Pyramidals,
4th Pyramidals,
Numbers,
u u
4*
10,
20,
35,
56,
84,
3,
6,
10,
*5,
28.
U
5,
I5»
35,
70,
126,
2X0.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
&c.
*1 lie above are all confidered as different forts of tri¬
angular numbers, being formed from an arithmetical pro-
grefiion whofe common difference is 1. But if that
common difference be 2, the fucceffive fums will be
the feries of fquare numbers : if it be 3, the feries will
be _ pentagonal numbers, or pentagons; if it be 4, the
feries will be hexagonal numbers, or hexagons; and f
on. Thus:
Arithmetic als.
/
N
TT
M
r
Number.
Arithmetica!s.
I ft Sums, or
Polygons.
2d Sums, or
2d Polygons.
&c.
4*
7>
io,
Tri.
Sqrs.
Pent.
Hex.
6>
9>
12,
IO
16
22
28
IO, 20
J4> 3°
18, 40
22, 50
And the reafon of the names triangles, fquares, pen¬
tagons, hexagons, &c. is, that thofe numbers may be
placed in the form of thefe regular figures or polygons.
But the figurate numbers of any order may alfo be
found without computing thofe of the preceding orders ;
which is done by taking the fucceftive products of as
many of the terms of the arithmetical, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
&c. in their natural order, as there are units in the num¬
ber which denominates the order of figurates required,
and dividing thofe products always by the firft product :
thus, the triangular numbers are found by dividing the
products 1x2, 2x3, 3X4, 4X5, &c. each by the
jft pr. 1 X 2 j the firft pyramids by dividing the pro¬
ducts 1X2X3, 2X3X4, 3X4X5, &c- by the hrtt
j X 2 X 3* And, in general, the figurate numbers
of any order n, ate found by fubftitutmg fucceftively
l, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. inftead of x in this general ex-
_ .r . a;4-i . ^4-2 . »4-3 • &c. , rn
preftion 1 :  —5— ; where the factors
1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . &c.
in the numerator and denominator are fuppofed to be
multiplied together, and to be continued till the num¬
ber in each be lefs by 1 than that which expreffes the
order of the figurates required. See Maclaurin’s Flux¬
ions, art. 351, in the notes 5 alfo Simpfon’s Algebra,
p. 213 ; or Malcolm’s Arithmetic, p. 396, where the
fubje<ft of figurates is treated in a very extenfive and
perfpicuous manner. Hutton's Mathematical Dictionary.
Polygonal or polygonous numbers, the fums of ariih-
metical progreflions beginning with unity : thefe, wdiere
the common difference is 1, are called triangular num-
lers; where 7, fquare numbers; where ^pentagonal
numbers ; where 4, hexagonal numbers ; where 5, hepta-
gonal numbers, &c.
Pyramidal numbers, the- fums of polygonous numbers,
collefted after the fame manner as the polygons them-
felves, and not gathered out of arithmetical progreftions,
are called JirJl pyramidal numbers ; the fums of the firft
pyramidals are called/twWpyramidals, &c.
If they arife out of triangular numbers, they are called
triangular pyramidal numbers ; it out of pentagons, JirJ}
pentagonal pyramidals.
From the manner of fumming up polygonal numbers,
it is eafy to conceive how the prime pyramidal numbers
. {a—2V4-37Z3—(a—5> r-
are found, viz.     —-y    — exprelies
ail
the prime pyramidals.
The number nine has f. very curious property, its pro-
dufts always compofing either 9 or feme leffer produc!
of it. We have already given an account of this, with
the examples from Hume, under the article Nine *,
and we ne' d not repeat them. Did our limits permit
us. we could inftance in a variety of other pronerties
numbers both curious and furpriftng. Such fpecula-
tions are indeed by fome men . confidered as trifling
87] N U M
and ufelefs : but perhaps they judge too haftily j for
few employments are more innocent, none more inge¬
nious, nor, to thofe who have a tafte for them, more
amufing.
Numbers were by the Jews, as well as the ancient
Greeks and Romans, expreffed by letters of the alpha¬
bet : hence we may conceive bow imperfeft and limited
their arithmetic was, becaufe the letters could not he ar¬
ranged in a feries, or in different lines, conveniently enough
for the purpofes of ready calculation. The invention of
the cypher, or arithmetical figures, which we now make
ufe of, has given us a very great advantage over the an¬
cients in this refpeft.
Mankind, we may reafcnably fuppefe, firft reckoned
by their fingers, w Inch they might indeed do in a variety
of ways. From this digital arithmetic, very probably, is
owing the number 1 o, which conftitutes the whole fet of
arithmetical figures.
The letters chiefly employed by the Romans to ex-
prefs numbers were, M, for, 1000 } D, for 500 j C,
for igo } L, for 50 ; V, for five } X, for 10 } and I,
for one.—M, probably fignified 1000, becaufe it is the
initial of mitle; D ftands for 500, becaufe it is dinn-
dium mille; C fignifies 100, as being the firft letter-
of the wrord centum ; L ftands for 50, becaufe it is the
half of C, having formerly been wrote thus w ; V fig¬
nifies 5, becaufe V is the fifth vowel 5 X ftands for
10, becaufe it contains twice Y or V in a double form j
I ftands for one, becaufe it is the firft letter of initium.
Thefe however are fanciful derivations. See Numeral
Letters.
The .1 ewilh cabbalifts, the Grecian conjurors, and the
Roman augurs, had a great veneration for particular num¬
bers, and the refult of particular combinations of them.
Thus three, four, fix, feven, nine, ten, are full of divine
myfteries, and of great efficacy.
Golden NUMBER. See CHRONOLOGY, N° 27.
Numbers, in Poetry, Oratory, <h'c. are certain mea-
fures, proportions, or cadences, w’hich render a verfe, pe¬
riod, or fong, agreeable to the ear.
Poetical numbers confift in a certain harmony in the
order, quantities, &x. of the feet and fyllables, which
make the piece mufical to the ear, and fit for finging,
for which all the verfes of the ancients were intended.
See Poetry.—It is of thefe numbers Virgil fpeaks in
his ninth Eclogue, when he makes Lycidas fay, Nu~
meros memmi, Ji verba tenerem; meaning, that al¬
though he had forgot the words of the verfes, yet he
remembered the feet and meafure of which they w*ere
compoled.
Rhetorical or profaic numbers are a fort of fimple un-
aftefted harmony, lefs glaring than that of verfe,- but luch
as is perceived and affeCts the mind with pleafure.
The numbers axe that by which the ftyle-is faid to be
eafy, free, round, flowing, &c. Numbers are things
abfolutely neceffary in all writing, and even in all fpeech.
Hence Ariftotle, Tully, Quintilian, &c. lay down abun¬
dance of rules as to the beft manner of intermixing dac-
tyles, fpondees, anapefts, &c. in order to have the num¬
bers perfect. The fabftance of what they have faid, is
reducible to what follows : 1. The ftyle becomes nu¬
merous by the alternate difpofition and temperature of
long and fhort fyllables, fo as that the multitude of fhort
ones neither render it too hafty, nox that of long ones -
too -
GoUleu
Number,
Numbers.
M l) M [ 88 ] N U M
Numbers too flow and languid : fometimes, indeed, long and
Numeral <ll0rt fyllabJes are thrown together defignedly without
  any fuch mixture, to paint the flownels or celerity of
any thing by that of the numbers ; as in thefe verfes of
Virgil :
I//i inter fefe mngna vi brachia tollunt ;
and
Radit iter hquidum, celeres neque cotnmovet alas.
2. The ftyle becomes numerous, by the intermixing
rvords of one, two, or more fybabies j whereas the too
frequent repetition of monofyllables renders the ftyle
pitiful and grating. 3. It contributes greatly to the
numeroufnefs of a period, to have it clofed by magnifi¬
cent and wTell-founding words. 4. The numbers depend
not only on the noblenefs of the words in the dole, but
of thofe in the whole tenor of the period. 5. To have
the period flow ealily and equally, the harfli concur¬
rence of letters and Words is to be Itudioufly avoided,
particularly the frequent meeting of rough confonants ;
the beginning the firft: fyllable of a word with the lafi;
of the preceding; the frequent repetition of the fame
letter or fyllable ; and the frequent ufe of the like end¬
ing words. Laftly, The utmofl: care is to be taken, left,
in aiming at oratorial numbers, you ftiould fall into poeti¬
cal ones j and inftead of profe, write verfe. .
Boob of NUMBERS, the fourth book of the Pentateuch,
taking its denomination from its numbering the families
of Ifrael.
A great part of this book is hiftorical, relating to fe-
veral remarkable paffages in the Ifraelites march through
the wildernefs. It contains*a diftindl: relation of their
feveral movements from one place to another, or their
42 ftages through the wildernefs, and many other things,
whereby we are inftrufted and confirmed in fome of the
weightieft truths that have immediate reference to God
and his providence in the wTorld.—But the greateft part
of this book is fpent in enumerating thole lawrs and
ordinances, whether civil or ceremonial, which vTere
given by God, but not mentioned before in the preced¬
ing books.
NUMERAL letters, thofe letters of the alphabet
which are generally ufed for figures; as I, one) V, five;
X, ten ; L, fifty j C, a hundred j D, five hundred ;
M, a thoufand, &c.
It is not agreed how the Roman numerals originally
received their value. It has been fuppofed, as we have
obferved in the end of the article Number, that the Ro¬
mans ufed M to denote 1000, becaufe it is the firft
letter of mills, which is Latin for xooo 5 and C tor de¬
note 100, becaufe it is the firft letter of centum, which
is Latin for too. It has alfo been fuppofed, that D,
being formed by dividing the old M in the middle, was
therefore appointed to ftand for 500, that is, half as
much as the M flood for when it was whole 5 and that
L being half a C, was, for the fame reafon, ufed to de¬
nominate 50. But what reafon is there to fuppofe, that
1000 and too wrere the numbers which letters were firft
ufed to exprefs i And what reafon can be afligned why
D, the firft letter in the Layn word decern, ten, fliould
not rather have been chofen to ftand for that number,
than for 500, hecaufe it had a rude refem'olance to half
an M ?—But if thefe queftions could be fatisfaflorily
anfwered, there are other numeral letters which have
never yet been accounted for at all. Thefe confidera-
2
tions render it probable that the Romans, did not, in Numeral,
their original intention, ufe letters to exprefs numbers —_J
at all j the moft natural account of the matter feems to
be this :
ihe Romans probably put down a Angle ftroke, I,
for one, as is ftill the practice of thofe who fcore on a
flate or with chalk: this ftroke, I, they doubled, trebled,
and^ quadrupled, to exprefs 2, 3, and 4 : thus, II. III.
IIIL So far they could eafily number the ftrokes with
a glance of the eye. But they prefently found, that if
more were added, it would foon be neceffary to tell
the ftrokes one by one ; for this reafon, then, when they
came to.5, they expreffed it by joining two ftrokes to¬
gether in an acute angle thus, V ; which will ap¬
pear the more probable, if it be confidered that the
progreflion of the Roman numbers is from 5 to 3,
i. e. from the fingers on one hand to the fingers on
the other.—Ovid has touched upon the original of this
in his Fajlorum, lib. iii. and Vitruvius has made the fame
remark.
After they had made this acute angle V. for five,
they added the Angle ftrokes to it to the number of 4,
thus, VI. VII. VIII. VIIII. and then as the ftrokes
could not be further multiplied without confufion, they
doubled their acute angle by prolonging the two lines
beyond their interfe&icn thus, X, to denote two fives,
or ten. After this they doubled, trebled, and quadru¬
pled, this double acute angle thus, XX. XXX. XXXX.
they then, for the fame reafon which induced them firft
to make a Angle and then to double it, joined two Angle
ftrokes in another form, and inftead of an acute angle,
made a right angle L, to denote fifty. When this 50
was doubled, they then doubled the right angle thus r,
to denote 100, and having numbered this double right
angle four times, thus EE eee eeee 5 when they came
to the fifth number, as before, they reverted it, and put
a Angle ftroke before it thus 13, to denote 500 5 and
when this 500 was doubled, then they alfo doubled their
double right angle, fetting two double right angles op-
pofite to each other, with a fingle ftroke between them,
thus EI3 to denote 1000 : when this note for 1000 had
been four times repeated, then they put down 133 for
5000, EE133 for 10,000, and 1333 for 50,000, and
EEE1333 for 100,000,13333 for 500,000 and EEEEI3333
for one million.
That the Romans did not Originally write M for
loco, and C for 100, but-fquare charadiers, as they are
written above, we are exprefsly infoimed by Paulus
Manutius ; but the comers of the angles being cut off
by the tranferibers for defpatch, thele figures were gra¬
dually brought into what are now numeral letters.—
When the corners of E13 were made round, it flood
thus cio, which is fo near the Gothic m, that it foon
deviated into that letter } fo 13 having the corner made
round, it flood thus 10, and then eafily deviated into D.
E alfo became a plain C by the fame means ; the fingle
re ft angle which denoted 50, was, without alteration, a
capital L ; the double acute angle was an X } the fingle
acute angle a V confonant; and a plain fingle ftroke, the
letter I ; and thus thefe feven letters, M, D, C, L, X,
V, I, became numerals.
Numeral CharaBers of the Arabs, are thofe figures
which are now ufed in all the operations of arithmetic
in every nation of Europe. We have elfewhere fhown
that the Arabs derived the ufe of them moft probably
from
N U M [
Numeral from India, (See Arithmetic, N° 5.) Tills opinion,
Numerical ^owever> though very generally received, has been con-
. - y-' troverted with fome ingenuity. A writer in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine, at a period when that mifcellany was
in its higheft reputation,'thus endeavours to prove that
the Arabs derived their notations from the Greeks. “ I
maintain (fays he) that the Indians received their nume¬
ral characters from the Arabians, and the Arabians
from the Greeks, as from them they derived all their
learning, wdiich in fome things they improved, but for
the molt part have altered. The numerical figures which
they received from the Greeks are proofs of this altera¬
tion rvhich is fo great, that without particular atten¬
tion one can fcarce difcover in them the veftiges of their
origin. But when we compare them carefully and with¬
out prejudice, we find in them manifeft traces of the
Greek figures. The Greek numerical figures were no
other than the letters of their alphabet. A fmall ftroke
wTas the mark of unity. The B, being abridged of its
two extremities, produced the 2. If you incline the y a
little on its left fide, and cut off its foot, and make the
left horn round towards the left fide, you will produce a
3.} the A makes the 4, by raifing the right leg perpen¬
dicularly, and lengthening it a little below the bafe, and
lengthening the bafe on the left fide. The s forms the
5, by turning the loweft femicircle towards the right,
which before was turned towards the left fide. The
number 5 forms the 6 by having its head taken off, and
its body rounded. Z, by taking awTay the bafe, makes
the 7. If we make the top and bottom of H round,
we lhall form an 8. The 6 is the 9 with very little al¬
teration. The cypher o was only a point, to which one
of the figures was added to make it Hand for ten times
as much. It was neceffary to mark this point very ffrong-
ly j and in order to form it better, a circle was made,
which was filled up in the middle ; but that circum-
ftance was afterwards negleCted. Theophanes, an hifto-
rian of Conftantinople, who lived in the ninth century,
fays exprefsly, that the Arabians retained the Greek fi¬
gures, having no characters in their language to repre-
lent all the numbers. The Greeks obferved in their
numbers the decuple progreffion, which the Arabians
have retained. Certain characters are found in the
Greek alphabet, which are not ufed in reading, but on¬
ly in calculation, and for this reafon they are Ityled
Epifemes, that is to fay, notes, marks, in order to diftin-
guifh them from letters. The number 6 derives its form
from one of thefe epifemes, which was called ima-n^ov fiav.
This epifeme forms the letter F among the fEolians and
among the Latins. This was called the Digam?na, fo
ityled from its figure, which feems to have been one r
placed upon another.
_ That this reafoning is plaufible will hardly be que-
ftioned ; but whether it be conclufive our readers muff
determine. It has not convinced ourfelves 5 but through
the whole of this work we wifli to ftate candidly the dif¬
ferent opinions held on every fubjeCt of curiofity and ufe-
fulnefs.
NUMERATION, or Notation, in Arithmetic, the
art of exprefling in characters any number propofed in
words, or of exprefling in words any number propofed
in characters. See Arithmetic, N° 7.
NUMERICAL, Numerous, or Numeral, fomething
belonging to numbers; as numerical algebra is that
which makes ufe of numbers, inftead of letters of the
Vol. XV. Part I.
89 ] N U M
alphabet.--Alio numerical difference is that by which NumicL,
one man is dillinguithed from another. Hence a thing Numidia.
is laid to be numerically the fame, when it is fo in the v 
ItriCteft fenfe of the word.
NUMIDA, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of gallinae. See Ornithology Index.
NUMIDIA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, bound¬
ed on the north by the Mediterranean fea j on the fouth
by Gaetulia, or part of Libya Interiofr j on the weft by
the Mulucha, a river which feparated it from Maurita¬
nia ; and on the eaft by the Tufca, another river which
bounded it in common with Africa Propria. Dr Shaw
has rendered it probable, that the river which formerly
went under the denominations of Malva, Ma/vana, Mu¬
lucha, and Molochatli, is the fame with that now called
Mullooiah by the Algerines 5 in which cafe, the king¬
dom of Numidia mull have extended upwards of 500
miles in length : its breadth, however, cannot be fo well
alcertained j but luppofing it to have been the fame with
that of the prefent kingdom of Algiers, in the narrbw-
ell part it mull have been at leall 40 miles broad, and
m the widell upwards of 100. T
This country included two dillriCls 5 one inhabited Ancient di-
by the Majfyli, and the other by the MaJJ'cefyli; the lat-viflon*
ter^being alio called in after times, Mauritania Ccefari-
enfis, and the former Numidia Propria. Tire country
of the Maffyli, or, as fome call it, Terra Metagonitis,
was feparated from the proper territory of Carthage by
its eallern boundary the river Tufca, and from the king¬
dom of the Maffaefyli, or Mauritania Csefarienfis, by the
river Ampfaga. It feems to correfpond with that part
of the province of Conllantina lying between the Zaine
and the Wed al Kibeer, which is above 130 miles long,
and more than 100 broad. The fea coaft of this pro¬
vince is for the moll part mountainous and rocky, an-
fwering to the appellation given to it by Abulfeda, viz.
El Edwaa, the high or lofty. It is far from being equal
in extent to the ancient country of the Maffaefyli, which,
Strabo informs us, was yet inferior to the country of the
Maffyli. Its capital was Cirta, a place of very confi-
derable note among the ancients.
The moll celebrated antiquarians agree, that the trad, Peopled bv
extending from the iilhmus of Suez to the lake Trito-tbedefcend-
nis, was chiefly peopled by the defeendants of Miz- ants of
raim, and that the pollerity of his brother Put, orPhut‘
Phut, fpread themfelves all over the country between
tnat lake and the Atlantic ocean. To this notion He¬
rodotus gives great countenance: for he tells us, that
the Libyan Nomades, whofe territories to the well
were bounded by the Triton, agreed in their culloms
and manners with the Egyptians ; but that the Afri¬
cans, from that river to the Atlantic ocean, differed
in almoll all points from them. Ptolemy mentions a
city called Putea near Adrametum 5 and Pliny, a river
of Mauritania Tingitana, known by the name of Put,
or Phut; and the diltricl adjacent to this river was cal¬
led Regio Phutenfis, which plainly alludes to the name
of Phut. That wTord fignifies fcaltered, or difperfed,
wdiich very well agrees with what Mela and Strabo re¬
late of the ancient Numidians; fo that we may, without
any fcruple, admit the aborigines of this country to have
been the defeendants of Phut. 3
I he hillory of Numidia, during many of the early Great part
ages, is buried in oblivion. It is probable, however, °^the hi‘
that as the Phoenicians were mailers of a great part ofpn0\Vnn
,M the ^
N U M [go 1 N U M
Nam’d!a. tlie country, lliefe tranfacrions had been recorded, and
-r—' generally known to the Carthaginians. King jarbas
probably reigned here as well as in Africa Propria, if
not in Mauritania, and other parts of Libya, when Di¬
do began to build Byrfa. It appears from juliin, that
about the age of Herodotus, the people of this country
were called both Africans or Libyans and Numidians.
Juftin likewife intimates, that about this time the Car¬
thaginians vanquifhed both the Moors or Mauritanians
and the Numidians •, in conlequence of which they were
excufed from paying the tribute wdriclr had hitherto been
demanded of them.
After the conclufion of the firft Punic war, the Afri¬
can troops carried on a bloody conteft againft their ma¬
ilers the Carthaginians 5 and the mod active in this re¬
bellion, according to Diodorus Siculus, were a part of
the Numidian nation named Micatanians. This fo in-
cenfed the Carthaginians, that after Hamilcar had either
killed or taken prifoners all the mercenaries, he lent a
large detachment to ravage the country of thole Numi¬
dians. The commandant of that detachment executed
his orders with the utmoft cruelty, plundering the di-
ftricl in a terrible manner, and crucifying all the prifo¬
ners without dilbinftion that fell into his hands. This
filled the reft with fuch indignation and refentment, that
both they and their pofterity ever afterwards bore an
4 implacable hatred to the Carthaginians.
HI (lory of In the time of the fecond Punic war, Syphax king
Syphax and 0f *}ie Mafiheiyli entered into an alliance with the Ko-
Aialiniila. maus^ auj gaVe the Carthaginians a confiderable defeat.
This induced Gala, king of the Maflyii, to conclude a
treaty with the Carthaginians, in conlequence of which
his Ion Maiinilia marched at the head of a powerful
army to give Syphax battle. The conteft ended in fa¬
vour of Mafinifta 30,000 of the Maffaefyli were put
to the ft void, and Syphax driven into Mauritania 5 and the
like bad fuccefs attended Syphax in another engagement,
where his troops were entirely defeated and tiilperled.
Gala dying whilft his fon Mafiniffa was acting at the
head of the Numidian troops fent to the affiftance of the
Carthaginians in Spain, his brother Defalces, according
to the ellablilhed rules of fucceftion in Numidia, took
poffeffion of the Maffylian throne. That prince dying
loon after his fucgeffion, Capula his eldeft fon fucceeded
him. But he did not long enjoy his high dignity ; for
one Mczetulus, a perfon of the royal blood, but an ene¬
my to the family of Gala, found means to excite a great
part of his fubjecls to revolt. A battle foon took place
between him and Capufa *, in which the latter was flam
with many of the nobility, and his army entirely de¬
feated. But though Mezetulus thus became pofleffed
of the fovereignty, he did not think proper to affume
the title of king, btit llyled himfelf guardian to Lacu-
maces, the furviving fon of Defalces, whom he graced
with the royal title. To fupport himfelf in his ufurpa-
tion, he married the dowager of Defalces, who was
Hannibal’s niece, and confequently of the moft power¬
ful family in Carthage. In order to attain the fame
end, he fent axnbaffadors to Syphax, to conclude a treaty
of alliance with him. In the mean time Mafiniffa, re¬
ceiving advice of his uncle’s death, of his coufin’s daugh¬
ter, and of Mezetulus’s ufurpation, immediately palled
over to Africa, and went to the court of Bocchar king
of Mauritania to follicit fuccours. Bocchar, fenfible of
the great injoitice done Mafiniffa, gave him a body of
4000 Muors to effort him to his dominions. His fub-
je£ls, having been apprifed of his approach, joined him Niun
upon the frontiers wit1, a party of 500 men. The  v'
Moors, in purfuance of their orders, returned home, as
foon as Mafiniila reached the confines of his kingdom.
Notwithftanding which, and the fmall body that decla¬
red for him having accidentally met Lacumaces at
Thapfus with an effort going to implore Syphax’s affift¬
ance, he drove him into the town, which he carried by
affault after a faint refiftance. However, Lacumaces,
wdth many of his men, found means to efcape to Sy¬
phax. The fame cf this exploit gained MafiniiTa great
credit, infomuch that the Numiclians flocked to him
from all parts, and amongit the reft, many of his father
Gala’s veterans, who preiied him to make a fpeedy and
vigorous pufti for his hereditary dominions. Lacuma¬
ces having joined Mezetulus with a reinforcement of
Maffaffylians, which he had prevailed upon Syphax to
fend to the affiftance of his ally, the ulurper advanced
at the head of a numerous army to offer MafiniiTa bat¬
tle j which that prince, though much inferior in num¬
bers, did not decline. Hereupon an engagement en-
fued } which notwithftanding the inequality of numbers,
ended in the defeat of Lacumaces. The immediate
coafequence of this vitlory of Mafiniffa was a quiet and
peaceable poffeffion of his kingdom} Mezetulus and
Lacumaces, wdth a fewr that attended them, flying into
the territories of Carthage. However, being apprehen-
five that he (hould be obliged to fuilain a war againfi:
Syphax, he offered to treat Lacumaces with as many
marks of diftincticn as his father Gala had Defalces,
provided that prince would put himfelf under his pro-
tection. He alfo proraifed Mezetulus pardon, and a re-
ftituticn of all the effe&s forfeited by his treafonable
conducf, if he would make his fubmiffion to him. Both
of them readily complied with the propefal, and imme¬
diately returned home j fo that the tranquillity and re-
pofe of Numidia wx>uld have been fettled upon a folid
and lafting foundation, had not this been prevented by
Afdrubal, who was then at Syphax’s court. He inii-
nuated to that prince, who was difpofed to live amica¬
bly with his neighbours, “ That he was greatly mifta-
ken, if he imRgined MafiniiTa v/ould be fatisfied with his
hereditary dominions. That he was a prince of much
greater capacity and ambition, than either his father
Gala, his uncle Defalces, or any cf his family. That
he had difcovered in Spain marks of a moft rare and
uncommon merit. And that, in fine, unlefs his rifing
flame was extinguilhed before it came to too great a
head, both the Maffsefylian and Carthaginian Hates
would be infallibly confumed by it.” Syphax, alarmed
by thefe fuggeftiens, advanced with a numerous body
cf forces into a di ft riel which had long been in difpute
between him and Gala, but was then in pofieffion of
Mafiniffa. This brought on a general adlion between
theff tw'o princes *, wherein the latter was totally de¬
feated, his army difperfed, and he himfelf obliged to fly
to the top of Mount Balbus, attended only by a few of
his. horfe. Such a decifive battle at the prefent juncture,
before Mafiniffa was fixed in his throne, could not but
put Syphax into poffeffion of the kingdom of the Maf-
fyli. Mafiniffa in the mean time made noflurnal incur-
fions from his poft upon Mount Balbus, and plundered
all the adjacent country, particularly that part of the
Carthaginian territory contiguous to Numidia. This
dtftrifl he not only thoroughly pillaged, but likewife
laid wafte with fire and fword, carrying off from thence
N U M [ 91 ] N U M
Nuaii^b. an immenfe booty, which was bought by fume mer-
—‘ chants, who had put into one of the Carthaginian ports
for that purpofe. In fine, he did the Carthaginians more
damage, not only by committing fuch dreadful devafta-
tions, but by malTacring and carrying into captivity vail
numbers of their fubjects on this occafion, than they
could have fuftained in a pitched battle, or one cam¬
paign of a regular war. Syphax, at the prefiing and
reiterated inftances of the Carthaginians, fent Bocchar,
one of his moil adlive commanders, with a detachment
of 4000 foot, and 2000 horfe, to reduce this peftilent
gang of robbers, promifing him a great reward if he
could bring Mafiniifa either alive or dead. Bocchar,
watching an opportunity, fjrprifed the Maffylians, as
they were ftraggling about the country without any or¬
der or difcipline 5 fo that he took many prifoners, dif-
perfed the reft, and purfued Mafinifta hirnfelf, with a
few of his men, to the top of the mountain where he
had before taken poll. Confidering the expedition as
ended, he not only fent many head of cattle, and the
other booty that had fallen into his hands, to Syphax,
but likewife all the force, except 500 foot and 200
horfe. With this detachment he drove Maftniffa from
the fummit of the hill, and purfued him through feveral
narrow panes and defiles, as far as the plains of Clupea.
Here he fo farrounded him, that all the Maffylians, ex¬
cept four, were put to the fword, and Mafiniffa himfelf,
after having received a dangerous wound, efcaped with
the utmoft difficulty. As this was effefled by crofting
a rapid river, iri which attempt two of his four attend¬
ants perifhed in the fight of the detachment that pur¬
fued him, it was rumoured all over Africa, that Mafi¬
niffa alfo was drowned 5 which gave inexpreflible plea-
fure to Syphax and the Carthaginians. For feme time
he lived undifeovered in a cave, where he was fupported
by the robberies of the two horfemen that had made
their efcape with him. But having cured his wound by
the application of fome medicinal herbs, he boldly be¬
gan to advance towards his own frontiers, giving out
publicly that he intended once more to take poffefllon
of his kingdom. In his march he was joined by about
40 horfe, and, foon after his arrival amongft the Maflyli,
fo many people flocked to him from all parts, that out
of them he fonned an army of 6000 foot and 4000
horfe. With thefe forces, he not only reinftated him¬
felf in the poffeftion of his dominions, but likewife laid
wafte the borders of the Maffaefyli. This fo irritated
Syphax, that he immediately afl'embled a body of troops,
and encamped very commodioufly upon a ridge of
mountains between Cirta and Hippo. His army he
commanded in perfon j and detached his fon Vermina,
with a confiderable force, to take a compafs, and attack
the enemy in the rear. In purfuance of his orders,
C ermina fet out in the beginning of the night, and
took poll in the place appointed him, without being dif-
covered by the enemy. In the mean time Syphax de¬
camped, and advanced towards the Maffyli, in order
to give them battle. When he had poffeffed himfelf
of a’ rifing ground that led to their camp, and conclu¬
ded that his fon Vermina mull have formed the ambuf-
cade behind them, he began the fight. Mafiniffa being
advantagecufly polled, and his foldiers diftinguifhirtg
themfelves in an extraordinary manner, the difpute was
long and bloody. But Vermina unexpeftedly falling
upon their rear, and by this means obliging them to
divide their forces, which were fcarce able before to op-
pofe the main body under Syphax, they were foon thrown
into confufion, and forced to betake themfelves to a pre¬
cipitate flight. All the avenues being blocked- up,,
partly by Syphax and partly by his Ion, iuch a dreadful
daughter was made of the unhappy Maffyli, that only
Mafiniffa himfelf, with 60 horfe, efcaped to the Lefi'er
Syrtis. Here he remained, betwixt the confines of the
Carthaginians and Garamantes, till the arrival of L&di-
us and the Roman fleet on the coaft of Africa. What
happened immediately after this junction with the Ro¬
mans, belongs to the article Rome.
It will be fufficient therefore in this place to ob-
ferve, that, by the afliftance of La-lius, Mafiniffa at lait
reduced Syphax’s kingdom. According to Zonaras,
Mafiniffa and Scipio, before the memorable battle of
Zama, by a ftratagem deprived Hannibal of lome ad¬
vantageous polls ; which, with a folar eclipfe happening
during the heat of the action, and not a little intimida¬
ting the Carthaginian troops, greatly contributed to the
victory the Romans obtained. At the conclufion there¬
fore of the fecond Punic war, he was amply rewarded
by the Romans for the important lervices he had done
them. As for Syphax, after the lofs of his dominions,
he was kept in confinement for fome time at Alba 5
from whence being removed in order ta grace Scipio’s
triumph, he died at Tibur in bis way to Rome. Zo¬
naras adds, that his corpfe was decently interred ; that
all the Numidian prifoners were releafed 5 and that
Vermina, by the afliftance of the Romans, took peace¬
able pofTeftion of his father’s throne. However, part
of the Maffsefylian kingdom had been before annexed
to Mafiniffa’s dominions, in order to reward that prince
for his Angular fidelity and clofe attachment to the
Romans.
This feems to be countenanced by the epitomizer of
Livy, who gives us fufficiently to underftand, that Sy¬
phax’s family, for a coniiderable time after the conclu¬
fion of the fecond Punic war, reigned in one part of
Numidia. For he intimates, that Archobarzanes, Sy¬
phax’s grandfon, and probably Vermina’s fon, hovered
with a powerful army of Numidians upon the Cartha¬
ginian frontiers a few years before the beginning of
tire third Punic war. This he feems to have done,
either in order to cover them, or to enable the Cartha¬
ginians to make an irruption into Mafiniffa’s territo¬
ries. Cato, however, pretended that thefe forces, in
conjunction with thole of Carthage, had a defign to in¬
vade the Roman dominions, which he urged as a reafon
to induce the confcript fathers to deftroy the African re¬
public.
Nothing is further requifite, in order to complete the
hiftory of this famous prince, than to exhibit to our
readers view fome points of his conduct towards the de¬
cline, and at the clofe, of life ; the wife difpofitions
made after his death by ZEmilianus, in order to the re¬
gulation of his domeftic affairs ; and fome particulars
relating to his character, genius, and habit of body,
drawn from the moft celebrated Greek and Roman au¬
thors.
By drawing a line of circumvallation around the
Carthaginian army under Afdrubal, polled upon an
eminence, Mafiniffa cut off all manner of fupplies from
them: which introduced both the plague and famine
into their camp. As the body of Numidian troops eim
M 2 ployed
Numidia.
N U M [ 92 ] N U M
Numidia. ployed in this blockade was not near fo numerous as
'“"'v the Carthaginian forces, it is evident, that tlie line here
mentioned mull have been extremely ftrong, and con-
fequently the effeft of great labour and art. The
Carthaginians, finding themfelves reduced to the laft
extremity, concluded a peace upon the following terms,
which Mafiniffa dictated to them: 1. That they
fhould deliver up all deferters. 2. That they fhould
recal their exiles, who had taken refuge in his domi¬
nions. 3. That they fhould pay him 5000 talents of
filver within the fpace of 50 years. 4. That their
foldiers fhould pafs under the jugum, each of them car-
rying off only a fingle garment. As Mafiniffa him-
felf, though between 80 and 90 years of age, conduc¬
ted the whole enterprife, he muff have been extremely
well verfed in fortification, and other branches of the
military art. His underftanding likewife he muft
have retained to the laft. This happened a fhort time
before the beginning of the third Punic war. See
s Carthage.
.Mafinifia Soon after, the confuls landed an army in Africa, in
difpleafed ordef to lay fiege to Carthage, without imparting to
v 'u 1 n2- Mafiniffa their defign. This not a little chagrined
J ’ him, as it was contrary to the former pradlice of the
Romans ; who, in the preceding war, had communica¬
ted their intentions to him, and confulted him on all
occafions. When, therefore, the confuls applied to him
for a body of his troops to aft in concert with their
forces, he made anfwer, “ That they fhould have a re¬
inforcement from him when they flood in need of it.”
It could not but be provoking to him to confider, that
after he had extremely weakened the Carthaginians,
and even brought them to the brink of ruin, his pre¬
tended imperious friends fhould come to reap the fruits
of his viftory, without giving him the leaft intelligence
of it.
However, his mind foon returned to its natural bias,
which was in favour of the Romans. Finding his end
approaching, he fent to Aimiiianus, then a tribune in
the Roman army, to defire a vifit from him. What he
* propofed by this vifit, was to inveft him with full
powers to difpofe of his kingdom and eftate as he fhould
think proper, for the benefit of his children. The
high idea he had entertained of that young hero’s abi¬
lities and integrity, together with his gratitude and af-
6 feftion for the family into which he was adopted, in-
ever^tffin -duced him to take this ftep. But, believing that death
to the dif- would not permit him to have a perfonal conference
pofal of i£-with /Emilianus upon this fubjeft, he informed his wife
milianus. and children in his laft moments, that he had empower¬
ed him to difpofe in an abfolute manner of all his pol-
feftions, and divide his kingdom amongft his fons.
To which he fubjoined, “ I require, that whatever
/Emilianus may decree, fhall be executed as punftual-
ly as if I myfelf had appointed it by my will.” Having
uttered thcfe words, he expired, at about 90 years of age.
This prince, during his youth, had met with ftrange
reverfes of fortune. However, fays Appian, being
fupported by the Divine proteftion, he enjoyed an un¬
interrupted courfe of profperity for a long feries of
years. His kingdom extended from Mauritania to
the weftern confines of Cyrenaica ; from whence it ap¬
pears, that he was one of the moft powerful princes of
Africa. Many of the inhabitants of this vaft traft he
civilized in a wonderful manner, teaching them to cul¬
tivate their foil, and to reap thofe natural advantages Numiciia.
which the fertility of fome parts of their country of- -“"'v——1
fered them. He was of a more robuft habit of body
than any of his cotemporaries, being bleffed with the
greateft health and vigour •, which was doubtlefs owing
to his extreme temperance, and the toils he incefi’antiy
fuftained. We are informed by Polybius, that fome-
times he flood upon the fame fpot of ground from mor¬
ning till evening, without the leaft motion, and at others
continued as long in a fitting pofture. Fie would
remain on horfeback for feveral days and nights together,
without being fenfible of the leaft fatigue. Nothing
can better evince the ftrength of his conftitution, than
his youngeft fon, named Stembal, StJiemba, or Stembanus,
who wTas but four years old at his deceafe. Though 96
years of age, he performed all the exercifes ufed by
young men, and always rode without a faddie. Pliny
tells us, that he reigned above 60 years. He was an
able commander, and much facilitated the reduftion of
Carthage. Plutarch from Polybius obferves, that the
day after a great viftory won over the Carthaginians,
Mafiniffa was feen fitting at the door of his tent, eating
a piece of brown bread. Suidas relates, that to the
laft he could mount his horfe without any afliftance.
According to Appian he left a numerous well diciplined
army, and an immenfe quantity of wealth, behind him.
Mafiniffa, before his death, gave his ring to his eldeft
fon Micipfa •, but left the diftribution of all his other
effefts and poffeflions amongft his children entirely to
TEmilianus. Of 54 fons that furvived him, only three
were legitimate, to wit, Micipfa, Guluffa, and Mafta-
nabal. /Emilianus, arrived at Cirta after he had ex¬
pired, divided his kingdom, or rather the government
of it, amongft thefe three, though to the others he gave
confiderable poffeflions. To Micipfa, who was a prince
of a pacific difpofition, and the eldeft fon, he afligned
Cirta, the metropolis, for the place of his refidence, in
exclufion of the others. Guluffa, the next to him,
being a prince of military genius, had the command of
the army, and the tranfafting of all affairs relating to
peace or wrar committed to his care. And Manaftabal,
the youngeft, had the adminiftration of juftice, an
employment fuitable to his education, allotted him.
They enjoyed in common the immenfe treafures Mafiniffa
had amaffed, and were all of them dignified by Aimi-
lianus with the royal title. After he had made thefe
wife difpofitions, that young nobleman departed from
Cirta, taking writh him a body of Numidian troops,,
under the conduft of Guluffa, to reinforce the Roman
army that was then afting againft the Carthaginians.
Maftanabal and Guluffa died foon after their father,
as appears from the exprefs teftimony of Salluft. We
find nothing more remarkable of thefe princes, befides
what has been already related, than that the latter con¬
tinued to affift the Romans in the third Punic war, and
that the former was pretty 'well verfed in the Greek
language. Micipfa therefore became foie poffeffor of the
kingdom of Numidia. In his reign, and under the con-
fulate of M. Platius Hyphens and M. Fulvius Flaccus,
according to Orofius, a great part of Africa was co¬
vered with locufts, which deftroyed all the produce of
the earth, and even devoured dry wood. But at laft
they were all carried by the wind into the African lea,
out of which being thrown m vaft heaps upon the
ftiore, a plague enfued which fwept away an infinite
number
N U M [
Kumklia. nuirxber of animals of all kinds. In Ts mnidia only
^—v ' 800,000 men perifhed, and in Africa Propria 200,000 5
amongfl: the reft, 30,000 Roman foldiers quartered in
and about Utica for the defence of the latter province.
At Utica, in particular, the mortality raged to fuch
a degree, that 1500 dead bodies were carried out of
one gate in a day. Micipfa had two fons, Adherbal
and Hiempfal, whom he educated in his palace, toge¬
ther with his nephew Jugurtha. That young prince
was the fon of Maftanabal j but his mother having
been only a concubine, Mafiniffa had taken no great no¬
tice of him. However, Micipfa confidering him as a
prince of the blood, took as much care of him as he
~ did of his own children.
Hiftorycf Jugurtha pofleffed feveral eminent qualities, which
Jugurtha. gained him univerfal efteem. He was very handfome,
endued with great ftrength of body, and adorned with
the ftneft intellectual endowments. He did not devote
himfelf, as young men commonly do, to a life of lux¬
ury and pleafure. He ufed to exercife himfelf, with
perfons of his age, in running, riding, hurling the
javelin, and other manly exerciles, fuited to the mar¬
tial genius of the Numidians j and though he furpaffed
all his fellow fportfmen, there was not one of them but
loved him. The chafe was his only delight j but it
was that of lions and other favage beafts. Salluft, to
finith his character, tells us, that he excelled in all things,
and fpoke very little of himfelf.
So confpicuous an affemblage of fine talents and per-
feCtions, at firft charmed Micipfa, who thought them
an ornament to his kingdom. However, he foon be¬
gan to refleCt, that he was confiderably advanced^ in
years, and his children in their infancy ; that mankind
naturally thirfted after power, and that nothing was
capable of making men run greater lengths than a vi¬
cious and unlimited ambition. I hefe reflections foon
excited his jealoufy, and determined him to expole Ju¬
gurtha to a variety of dangers, fome of which, he en¬
tertained hopes, might prove fatal to him. In order to
this, he gave him the command of a body of forces
which he fent to aflift the Romans, who were at that
time befieging Numantia in Spain. But Jugurtha, by
his admirable conduCt, not only efcaped all thofe dan¬
gers, but likewife won the efteem of the whole army,
and the friendlhip of Scipio, who fent a high charac¬
ter of him to his uncle Micipfa. However, that ge¬
neral gave him fome prudent advice in relation to his
future conduCt j obferving, no doubt, in him certain
fparks of ambition, which, if lighted into a flame, he
apprehended might one day be productive of the molt
9 fatal confequences.
Is dreaded Before this laft expedition, Pvlicipia had endeavour-
by Kins; ed to find out fome method of taking him off private-
Micipfa, ly • but his popularity amongft the Numidians obliged
that prince tcJ lay afide all thoughts of this nature.
After his return from Spain the whole nation almolt
adored him. The heroic bravery he had Ihown there,
his undaunted courage, joined to the utmoft caimnefs
of mind, which enabled him to preferve a juft medium
between a timorous forefight and an impetuous ralh-
nefs, a circumftance rarely to be met with in perfons
of his age, and above all the advantageous teftimo-
nials of his conduCt given by Scipio, attraCled an uni¬
verfal efteem. Nay, Micipfa himfelf, charmed with
the high opinion the Roman general had entertained of
93 ] N U M
his merit, changed his behaviour towards Wrn *, refolv- KurniJiav
ing? if poffible, to win his affeftion by kindnefs. He
therefore adopted him, and declared him joint heir
with his two fons to the crown. Binding, fome few
years afterwards, that his end approached, he fent for
all three to his bed fide j where, in the prefence of the
whole court, he defired Jugurtha to recoiled with what
extreme tendernefs he had treated him, and coniequent-
ly to confider how well he had deferved at his hands.
He then entreated him to proted his children on all
occafions j who, being before related to him by the 9
ties of blood, were now by their father’s bounty be-
come his brethren. In order to fix him the more firmly entruftshim
in their intereft, he likewife complimented him upon with the
his bravery, addrefs, and confummate prudence. He rare‘This
further inlinuated, that neither arms nor treafures Con-chl!dren ^
ftitute the ftrength of a kingdom j but friends, who
are neither won by arms nor gold, but by real iervices
and an inviolable fidelity. “ Now, where ^continued
he) can we find better friends than in brothers ? And
how can that man who becomes an enemy to his rela¬
tions, repofe any confidence in, or depend upon fti an¬
gers ?” Then addrefling himfelf to Adherbal and Hi¬
empfal, “ And you (faid he) I enjoin always to pay
the higheft reverence to Jugurtha. Endeavour to imi¬
tate, and if poflible furpafs, his exalted merit, that the
world may not hereafter obferve Micipfa’s adopted fon
to have reflected greater glory upon his memory than
his own children.” Soon after, Micipfa, who, accord¬
ing to Diodorus, was a prince of an amiable character,
expired. Though Jugurtha did not believe the king
to fpeak his real fentiments with regard to him, yet
he feemed extremely pleafed with fo gracious a fpeecn,
and made him an anfwer fuitable to the occafiom
However, that prince at the fame time was determined
within himfelf to put in execution the icheme he had
formed at the fiege of Numantia, which was fuggefled
to him by fome factious and abandoned Roman offi¬
cers, with whom he there contracted an acquaintance.
The purport of this fcheme was, that he fhould extort
the crown by force from his two coufins, as foon as
their father’s eves were clofed which they infinuated
might eafily be effeCled by his own valour, and the
venality of the Romans. Accordingly, a fhort time
after the old king’s death, he found means to. affaffi- IO
nate Hiempfal in the city of Thirmida where his trea- one of
hires were depofited, and drive Adherbal . out of his whom he
dominions. That unhappy prince found himfelf obli- drpRj-,
ged to fly to Rome, where he endeavoured to engage out rhe '
the confcript fathers to efpoufe his quarrel; but, not- other,
withftanding the juftice of his caufe, they had not vir¬
tue enough effeftually to fupport him. Jugurtha’s am-
baffadors, by diftributing vaft fums ot money amongft
the fenators, brought them fo far over, that a majority
palliated his inhuman proceedings. Ihis encouraged
thofe minifters to declare, that Hiempfal had been
killed by the Numidians on account of his exceffive
cruelty 5 that Adherbal was the aggreffor in the late
troubles j and that he was only chagrined becaufe he
could not make that havock among his countrymen he
would willingly have done. They therefore entreated
the fenate to form a judgement of Jugurtha’s behaviour
in Africa from his conducl at Numantia, rather than
from the fuggeftions of his enemies. Upon which, by
far the greateft part of the fenate difeovered themfelves.
prejudiced
Ntimi. !ia
N U M
prejudiced in his favour. A few.
the R
mans.
- - .^vvcvcf, uiat wen
not l°d to honour, nor abandoned to corruption, in-
inled upon bringing him to condign punhWnt. But
as they could not prevail, he had the beft part of Nu-
nudia allotted him, and Adherbal was forced to reil
j j latisned with the other.
penality of Jugurtha finding now” by experience that every thino-
was venal at Rome, as his friends at Numantia had
before informed him, thought he might purfue his
towering projeds without any obftrudion from that
quarter. He therefore, immediately after the lafi: di-
'' ct' Micipfa’s dominions, threw off the mafk, and
attached his coufin by open force. As Adherbal was
a pnnee of a pacific difpofition, and almolt in all ra-
tpec.s the reverfe of Jugurtha, he was by no means a
match for him. The latter therefore pillaged the for¬
mer’s territories, ftormed feveral of his fortrefies, and
overran a good part of his kingdom without oppofition.
Adherbal, depending on the friendihip of the Romans
which his father in his lafi: moments allured him would
be a ftronger fupport to him than all the troops and
treasures in the univerfe, defpatched deputies to Rome
to complain of thefe hoftilities. But whilfi he loft his
time m fending thither fruitlefs deputations, Jugur-
"ha oyerthrew him in a pitched battle, and foon after
ihut him up in Cirta. During the fiege of this city, a
Roman commifiion arrived there, in order to perfuade
botn parties to an accommodation ; but finding Juo-Ur-
tna untra&able, the commiffioners returned home w ith-
out lo much as conferring with Adherbal. A fecond
deputation, compofed of fenators of the higheft diitinc-
tion, with iEmilius Scaurus, prefident of the fenate at
tneir head, landed fome time after at Utica, and fum-
moned Jugurtha to appear before them. That prince
at firft feemed to be under dreadfiil apprehenfions, efpe-
ciahy as Spaurus reproached him with his enormous
crimes, and threatened him with the refentment of the
Romans if he did not immediately raife the fie-m of
Cnrta. However, the Numidian, by his addrefq and
tne irrefililble power of gold, as was afterwards fu-
Ipeaed at Rome, lb mollified Scaurus, that he left
Adherbal at his mercy. In fine, Jugurcha had at lafi
Cirta iurrendered to him, upon condition only that he
fiiould fpare the life of Adherbal. But the mercilels
tyrant, in violation of the laws of nature and humanity
as well as the capitulation, when he had got poffeflion
or the town, ordered him to be put to a moft cruel
death. The merchants iikewife, and all the Numidians
j-- . f,1aCe cfPable of bearing arms, he caufed without
diltmcfion to be put to the fword.
Every perfon at Rome infpired with any fentiments
of humanity, was ftruck with horror at the news of
this tragical event. However, all the venal fenators
ftill concurred with Jugurtha’s minifters in palliatinp-
his enormous crimes. Notwithftanding which, the
people, excited thereto by Caius Memmius their tri¬
bune, who bitterly inveighed againft the venality of
the fenate, refolved not to let fo flagrant an inftance of
villany go unpunilhed. This difpofition in them in¬
duced tne cuinciipt fathers hkewile to declare their
intention to . chaftife Jugurtha. In order to this, an
army was levied to invade Namidia, and the command
of it given to the confiil Calpumius Befiia, a perfen of
good abilities, but rendered unfit for the expedition he
was to go upon by his infatiable avarice. Jugurtha
3
, C 94 ] N U M
however, that were being informed of the great preparations making at
iv°e-te th a-taCk m S dommions» fent his fon thither to
plentifullv f01™- The y°Ung Prince was
m u"1* mon^’ which he orders
to chftnbute hberaliy amongft the leading men. But
Ten a, propofing to hunfelf great advantages from an
mvafion of Nunudia, defeated all his intngues and
tod a Paffed’ ordering him and his attendants
to depart Italy m ten days, unlefi they were come to
deliver up the king himfelf, and all his territories to
the repubnc by way of dedition. Which decree beuig-
notified to them they returned without fo much £
lavmg emered the gates of Rome 5 and the conful
oon alter landed with a powerful army in Africa. For
.ome time he carried on the war there very brilkly
reduced feveral ftrong holds, and took many Nura-
dians pmoners. But upon the arrival of Scaurus a
peace was granted Jugurtha upon advantageous terms
lhat prince coming from Vacca, the place of his refi-
dcnce, to the Roman camp, m order to confer with
-Keaia. and Scaurus, and the preliminaries of the trea¬
ty being immediately after fettled betweeh them in
private conferences, every body at Rome was convin¬
ced that the prince of the fenate and the conful had to
their avarice facnficed the republic. The indiema
Uon therefore of the people in general difplayed itfelf
whl hR fr°ngt mTanner. t Mtmraius alfo fired them
his fpeech^. It was therefore refolved to defpatch
"e p.^c0r Caffius,. a perfon they could confide in, to
t0- P,;eV;Ul Uprn Ju8urdla t0 come to Rome,
that they might learn from the king himfelf which of
them generals and fenators had been feduced by the
peftnent influence of corruption. Upon his arrival there
he found means to bribe one Bsebius Salca, a man of
great authority amengft the plebeians, but of infatiable
avarice, by whofe afliftance he efcaped with impunity.
N f’ by the/fficacy of gold, he not only eluded all the
endeavours of the people of Rome to bring him to iuftice
but hkewife enabled Bonulcar, one of his attendants, to’
E 1 u V£l’ ^illegitimate fon of Micipfa, affaflinated
J1V'; ie retfS of Rc^e- * hat y°^g prince was advifed
f nfr7 t°manS °f Problty’ wellwifliers to the family
, .IVJariniita, to aPP]7 for the kingdom of Numidia •
v/lnch coming to Jugurtha’s ears, he prevented the ao-
plication by this execrable ftep. However, he was ob¬
liged to leave Italy immediately.
Jugurtha had Farce fet foot in Africa, when he re¬
ceived auvice that the_ fenate had annulled the ftiame-
ul peace concluded with him by Befiia and Scaurus.
ooon after, the conful Albinus tranfported a Reman
army into Numidia, flattering himfelf with the hopes of
reducing Jugurtha to reafon before the expiration of his
conful ate. In this, however, he found himfelf deceived ;
for that crafty prince, by various artifices fo amufed and
impoled upon Albmus, that nothing of moment happen¬
ed that campaign. This rendered him ftrongly fufpeaed
of having betrayed his country, after the example of his
predeceuors. His brother Aulus, who fucceeded him
m the command of the army, was flill more unfuccefsful •
for after rifing from before Sutlml, where the kinu’s
treamres were depofited, he marched his forces into a
defile, out of which he found it impoftible to extricate
himfelf.. He therefore was obliged to fubmit to t he
ignominious ceremony of paffing under the jugum, with
ail Ins men, and to quit Numidia entirely in ten days
time,
Numidia.
N U M [ 95 ] N U M
NumiiH?.. time, in order to delivet his troops from immediate de-
ifrudixon. The avaricious difpofition of the Roman
commander had prompted him to beflege Suthul, the
polTefFion of which place he imagined would make him
mater of all the wealth of Jugurtha, and confequently
paved the way to fuch a fcandalous treaty. However,
this was declared void as fcon as known at Rome, as
being concluded without the authority of the people.
The Roman troops retired into Africa Propria, which
they had now reduced into the form of a Roman pro¬
vince, and there took, up their winter quarters.
In the mean time Cains Mamillius Limetanus, tri¬
bune of the people, excited the plebeians to inquire
into the conduct of thofe perfons by whofe aiTiftance
Jugurtha had found means to elude all the decrees of
the fenare. This put the body of tbe people into a
great ferment 5 which occatered a profecution of the
guilty fenatovs, that was carried on, for feme time,
with the utmoft t heat and violence. Lucius MeteUus
the conful, during thefe tranfacliors, had Numidia
12 a digued him for his province, and confequently was
ln^ appointed general of the army deilined to act againd:
Jugurtha. Jugurtha. As he perfeflly difregarded wealth, the
Numidian found him fuperior to all his temptations ;
which was a great mortification to him. To this he
joined all the other virtues which conftitute the great
captain •, fo that Jugurtha found him in all refpects in-
accedtble. That prince therefore was now forced to
regulate his conduct according to the motions of Me-
tellus, with the greated: caution •, and to exert his utmotl
bravery, in order to compenfate for that hitherto fo
favourable expedient which now began to fail him.
Marius, Metellus’s lieutenant, being likewife a perfon
of uncommon merit, the Romans reduced Vacca, a
large opulent city, and the mod: celebrated ma-t in
Numidia. They alfo defeated Jugurtha in a pitched
battle 'y overthrew Bomilcar, one of his generals, up¬
on the banks of the Mufhullus 5 and, in fine, forced
the Numidian monarch to take teelter in a place ren¬
dered almoft inacceffible by the rocks and woods with
which it was covered. However, Jugurtha fignalized
himfelf in a furprifing manner, exhibiting all that could
be cxpecfcd from the courage, abilities, and attention
of 3 confnmmate general, to whom defpair admmiters
Irefh ftrength, and fuggefts new lights. But his troops
could not make head againft the Romans •, they were
again worded by Marius, though they obliged Metel-
lus to ralfe the fiege of Zama. Jugurtha therefore,
finding his country everywhere ravaged, his mod opu¬
lent cities plundered, his fortreffes reduced, his towns
burnt, vad numbers of his fubiefls put to the fword
and taken prifoners, began to think ferioufiy of coming
13 to an accommodation with the Romans. His favourite
Who is be- Bomilcar, in whom he repofed the highed confidence,
ira)ed by but who bad been gained over to the enemy by Me-
omi car. tcuus> obferving this difpofition, found it no difficult
matter to perfiiade him to deliver up his elephants,
money, arms, horfes, and deferters, in whom the main
drength of his army confided, into the hands of the
Romans. Some of thefe lad, in order to avoid the pu-
nhhment due to their crime, retired to Boechus king
of Mauritania, and fded in his fervice. But Metellus
ordering him to repair to Tifidwim, a city of Numidia,
there lo receive farther dhe&ions, and he refilling a
compliance with that order, hanilities were renewed
with greater fury than ever. Fortune now feemed to Numidia.
declare in favour of Jugurtha : he retook Vacca, and
maffacred all the Roman ganifon, except Turpilius
the commandant. However, foon after, a Roman le¬
gion feized again upon it, and treated the inhabitants
with the utmoft feverity. About this time, one of Maf-
tanabal’s fons, named Gauda, whom Micipfa in his
will had appointed to fucceed to the crown in cafe
his two legitimate fons and Jugurtha died without
iffue, wrote to the fenate in favour of Marius, wffio
wTas then endeavouring to fuppiant Metellus. That
prince having his underftanding impaired by a de¬
clining Hate of health, fell a more eafy prey to the
bate and infamous adulation of Marius. The Roman,
foothing his vanity, aifured him, that as he was the
next heir to the crown, he might depend upon being
fixed unon the Numidian throne, as foon as Jugurtha
w-as either killed or taken 5 and that this muft in a ftiort
time happen, when once he appeared at the head of the
Roman army with an unlimited commiffion. Soon af-a centpira-
ter, Bomilcar and Nabdalfa formed a defign to aflaffinate cy againft
Jugurtha, at the inftigation of Metellus j but this be-him.
ing detected, Bomilcar and moft of his accomplices fijf-
fered death. The plot however had fuch an eil'eft upon
Jugurtha, that he enjoyed afterwards no tranquillity or
repofe. He fufpected perfons of all denominations, Nu~
midians as well as foreigners, of fome ~ black defigns
againft him. Perpetual terrors fat brooding over his
mind •, infomuch that he never got a wink of fleep but
by ftealth, and often changed his bed in a low plebeian
manner. Starting from his fleep, he would frequently
fnatch his fword, and break out into the moft doleful
cries : So ftrongly was he haunted by a fpirit of fear, .
jealoufy, and diftraftion !
Jugurtha having deftroyed great numbers of his
friends on fufpicion of their having been concerned in
the late confpiracy, and many more of them deferring
to the Romans and Bocchus king of Mauritania, he
found himfelf, in a manner, ceftitute of counfellors, ge¬
nerals, and all perfons capable of affifring him in carry¬
ing on the war. 'I bis threw him into a deep melancho¬
ly, which rendered him diffatisfied with every thing, and
made him fatigue his troops with a variety of contradic¬
tory motions. Sometimes he wmuld advance with great
celerity againft the enemy, and at others retreat with no
fraall fwiftnefs from them. Then he relumed his former
courage ; hut focn after defpaired either of the valour or
fidelity of the forces under his command. All his
movements therefore proved unliiccefsiul, and at laft he
was forced by Metellus to a battle. That part of the
Numidian army which Jugurtha commanded, behaved
with fome refolution •, but the ether fled at the firft on- T,
fet. The Romans therefore entirely defeated them, He is be¬
took all their ftandards, and made a few of them pri- teted by
foners. But few of them were flam in the action ; ^tetellus.
fince, as Salluft obferves, the Numidians trufled more to
their heels than to their arms for fafety in this engage¬
ment.
Metellus purfued Jugurtha and his fugitives to Tha-
la. His march to this place being through vaft de-
ferts, was extremely tedious and difficult. But be¬
ing fupplied with leathern bottles and wooden veflels
of all fizes taken from the huts of the Numidians,
which were filled with water brought by the natives,
who had fubmitted to him, he advanced towards that
city, .
N U M [9
NumkUa. city. He had no fooner begun his march, than a mod
' —' copious thower of rain, a thing very uncommon in thofe
deferts, proved a great and feafonable refrefhment to his
troons. This fo animated them, that upon their arrival
before Thala, they attacked the town w’ith fuch vigour,
that Jugurtha with his family, and treafures depolited
therein, thought proper to abandon it. After a brave
defence, it was reduced; the garrifon, confiding of Ro¬
man deferters, fetting fire to the king’s palace, and con-
fuming themfelves, together with every thing valuable
to them, in the flames. Jugurtha, being now reduced
to great extremities, retired into Gaetulia, where he
formed a confiderable corps. From thence he advanced
to the confines of Mauritania; and engaged Bocchus
king of that country, who had married his daughter, to
enter into an alliance with him. In confequence of
which, having reinforced his Gaetulian troops with a
powerful body of Mauritanians, he turned the tables up-
•on Metellus, and obliged him to keep clofe within his
entrenchments. Sailufl informs us, that Jugurtha brib¬
ed Bocchus’s miniders to influence that prince in his
favour j and that having obtained an audience, he
infinuated, that, Ihould Numidia be fubdued, Mauri¬
tania mud be involved in its ruin, efpecially as the Ro¬
mans feemed to have vowed the deflruftion of all the
thrones in the univerfe. In fupport of what he ad¬
vanced, he produced feveral inflances very appofite to
the point in view. However, the fame author feems
to intimate, that Bocchus was determined to aflifi Ju¬
gurtha againfl; his enemies by the flight the Romans
had formerly fhown him. That prince, at the firfl:
breaking out of the war, had fent ambafladors to Rome,
to propofe an offenfive and defenfive alliance to the re¬
public *, which, though of the utmofl confequence to it
at the juncture, a few of the mod venal and infamous
fenators, who wTere abandoned to corruption, prevent¬
ed from taking effeft. This undoubtedly wrought
more powerfully upon Bocchus in favour of Jugurtha,
than the relation he dood in to him : For both the
Moors and Numidians adapted the number of their
wives to their circumdances, fo that feme had 1 o, 20,
&c. to their fhare j their kings therefore were unli¬
mited in this particular, and of courfe all degrees of af¬
finity refulting to them from marriage had little force.
It is obfervable, that the poderity of thofe ancient na¬
tions have the fame cudom prevailing amongd them at
jg this day.
Marius fuc- Such was the fituation of affairs in Numidia, when
ceeds Me- Metellus received advice of the promotion of Marius
tellus. to tJle confulate. But, notwithdanding this injurious
treatment, he generoudy endeavoured to draw off Boc¬
chus from Jugurtha, though this would facilitate the re-
duftion of Numidia for his rival. To this end ambaffa-
dors were defpatched to the Mauritanian court, who in¬
timated to Bocchus, “ That it would be highly im¬
prudent to come to a rupture with the Romans without
any caufe at all j and that he had now a fine opportuni¬
ty of concluding a mod advantageous treaty with them,
which was much preferable to a war. To which they
added, that wdiatever dependence he might place upon
his riches, he ought not to run the hazard of lofing his
dominions by embroiling himfelf with other dates, when
he could eafily avoid this ; that it was much eafier to
begin a war than to end it, which it was in the power
of the viclor alone to do } that, in fine, he would by no
4
6 ] HUM
means confult the intered of his fubjedts if he followed Namidia.
the defperate fortunes of jugurtha.” To which Boc-
chus replied-. “ That for his part there was nothing he
wiflied for more than peace } but that he could not help
pitying the deplorable condition of jugurtha j that if
the Romans, therefore, would grant that unfortunate
prince the fame terms they had offered him, he would
bring about an accommodation.” Metellus, let the
Mauritanian monarch know, that it was not in his power
to comply with what he defired. However, he took
care to keep up a private negotiation with him till the
new conful Marius’s arrival. By this conduct he ferved
two wvife ends. Fird, He prevented Bocchus from
coming to a general adtion with his troops ; which was
the very thing Jugurtha defired, as hoping that this,
wdratever the event might be, would render a reconcilia¬
tion betwixt him and the Romans impradticable. Se¬
condly, This inadtion enabled him to difeover fomething
of the genius and difpofition of the Moors ; a nation of
whom the Romans, till then, had fcarcely formed any
idea j which, he imagined, might be of no fmall fervice,
either to himfelf or his fuccelfors, in the future profe-
cution of the war.
Jugurtha, being informed that Marius, with a nu¬
merous army, was landed at Utica, advifed Bocchus
to retire, with part of the troops, to fome place of dif¬
ficult accefs, whild he himfelf took pod upon another
inacceflible fpot with the remaining corps. By this
meafure, he hoped the Romans would be obliged to di¬
vide their forces, and confequently be more expofed to
his efforts and attacks. He likewife imagined, that fee¬
ing no formidable body appear, they would believe the
enemy in no condition to make head againd them;
which might occafion a relaxation of difeipline, the ufu-
al attendant of a too great fecurity, and confequently
produce fome good effeft. However, he was difappoint-
ed in both thefe views. For Marius, far from fuffering
a relaxation of difeipline to take place, trained up his
troops, which confided chiefly of new levies, in fo per-
feft a manner, that they were foon equal in goodnefs to
any confular army that ever appeared in the field. He
alfo cut off great numbers of the Gaetulian marauders,
defeated many of Jugurtha’s parties, and had like to
have taken that prince himfelf near the city of Cirta.
Thefe advantages, though not of any great importance, He gains
intimidated Bocchus, wdio now made overtures for an a great ad-
accommodation ; but the Romans, not being fufficiently vanta°e
fatisfied of his fincerity, paid no great attention to them. u^u
In the mean time Marius pufhed on his conquefls, redu¬
cing feveral places of lefs note, and at lad refolved to
befiege Capfa. That this enterprife might be conduced
wdth the greater fecrecy, he differed' not the lead bint
of his defign to tranfpire, even amongd any of his offi¬
cers. On the contrary, in order to blind them, he de¬
tached A. Manlius, one of his lieutenants, W’ith fome
light-armed cohorts, to the city of Lares, where he had
fixed his principal magazine, and depofited the military
ched. Before Manlius left the camp, that he might
the more effeftually amufe him, he intimated, that him¬
felf with the army fliould take the fame route in a few
days : but inflead of that, he bent his march towards
the Tanais, and in fix days time arrived upon the banks
of that river. Here he pitched his tents for a fliort
time, in order to refrefli his troops 5 which having done,
he advanced to Capfa, and made himfelf mader of it.
As
N U M [ 97 ] N U M
t t|rTi,“ -*• ;^ t^lie fiiUaUon of tins cu} rendered it extremely com- with that flute, refolved to fhtisfy it in this particular j Num'tfiH.
v modious to jugurtha, whofe plan of operations, ever and was confirmed in his refolution by one Dabar, a' '
iince the commencement of the war, it had exceedingly Numidian prince, the fon of Maffuprada, and defcended
favoured, he levelled it with the ground after it had by his mother’s fide from Mafinifla. Being clofely at-
been delivered up to the foldiers to be plundered. The tached to the Romans, and extremely agreeable to Boc-
citizens likewife, being more ftrongly attached to that chus on account of his noble difpolition, he defeated all
prince than any of the other Numidians, on account of the intrigues of Afpar, Jugurtha’s miniiter. Upon Svl-
tae extraordinary privileges he indulged them with, and la’s arrival at the Mauritanian court, the affair there
of cour{e bearing a more implacable hatred to the Ro- feemed to be entirely fettled. However, Bocchus, who
mans, he put to the iword or told for flaves. The true was for ever projeciing new defigns, and, like the reft of
motive ot the comul's conducl on this occafion feems his countrymen, in the higheft degree perfidious, debat-
heie to be aftigned } though we are told by Salluft, in ed within himfelf, whether he fhould facrifice Sylla or
contonnily io the Roman genius, that neither avarice Jugurtha, who were both then in his power. He was a
nor reientment sprompted him to fo barbarous an ac- long time fluctuating with uncertainty, and combated
tmn, but only a defire to ftrike a terror into the Numi- by a contrariety of fentiments. The fudden changes
xt • ■ • . which difplayed themfelves in his countenance, his air,
i he rsumidians, ever after this exploit, dreaded the and his whole perfon, evidently fhowed how ftrongly his
\ciy name of Marius j who now, in his own opinion, mind was agitated. But at laft he returned to his firft de¬
ad eclipfed the glory of all his predecelfor’s great a- fign> to which the bias of his mind feemed naturally to
chievements, particularly the reduftion of I hala, a city, lead him. He therefore delivered up Jugurtha into the
m ftrength and fituation, nearly refcmbling Capfa. Fol- hands of Sylla, to be condu&ed to Marius 5 who, by that
on mg ais blow, he gradually prefented himfelf before fuccefsful event, happily terminated this dangerous war.
m°j of tae places of ftrength in the enemy’s country 5 Ihe kingdom of Numidia was now reduced to a new
many of which either opened their gates, or were aban- form : Bocchus, for his important fervices, had the
doned, at his approach, being terrified with what had country of the Mafftefyli, contiguous to Mauritania, af-
happened to the unfortunate citizens of Capfa. Others figned him : which, from this "time, took the name of
taken by foice, he laid in allies; and in Ihort, filled the New Mauritania. Numidia Propria, or the country of
g reale ft p.ut of Numidia with blood, horror, and con- the Maflyli, was divided into three parts; one of which
iufion. 1. hen, after an obftinate defence, he reduced a was given to Hiempfal, another to Mandreftal, both
caftle that feemed impregnable, feated not far Rom Mu- defcendants of Mafiniffa ; and the third the Romans an-
ku ha, where Jugurtha kept part of his treafures. In nexed to Africa Propria, or the Roman province adja-
tne mean time, Jugurtha not being able to prevail upon cent to it. What became of Jugurtha after he had
Bocchus, by his repeated felicitations, to advance into graced Marius’s triumph, at which ceremony he was led
iVimuha, where he found himfelf greatly prefled, was in chains, together with his two fons, through the ftreets
ojhged to have recourfe to. his ufual method of bribing of Rome, we have already laid before our readers. See
the Mauritanian mimfters, in order to put that prince in Jugurtha. iq
motion. He alfo promifed him a third part of his king- Jugurtha’s two fons furvived him, but fpent theirTranlac-
r?r°V1^e^ C°U^ ehher drive the Romans out lives in captivity at Venufia. However, one of them,[I°1!jaftfr
ot Africa, or get all the Numidian dominions confirmed named Oxyntas, was, for a Ihort time, releafed from WurTha. °
to nm by treaty . his confinement by Aponius, who befieged Aceme in
00 conuderable a ceiTion could not fail of engaging the war between the Romans and the Italian allies.
Bocchus to fupport Jugurtha with his whole power. That general brought this prince to his army, where
. . Jwo A.ncan monarchs therefore, having joined he treated him as king, in order to draw the Numidian
l iui orces, furprifed Marius near Cirta as he was go- forces off from the Roman fervice. Accordingly thofe
nygnuo winter quarters. Ihe Roman general was fo Numidians no fooner heard that the fon of their old
pnftied on this .occafion, that the barbarians thought king was fighting for the allies, than they began to
tiemielves certain of viffory, and doubted not but they defert by companies; which obliged Julius Caflar the
l8 Ihould be able to extinguifh the Roman name in Nu- conful to part with all his Numidian cavalry, and fend
Ju spirt ha micna. But their incaution and too great fecurity them back into Africa. Some few years after this
fcated/ Cn f „ Ma?lr to/ive fem a total defeaM which event, Pcmpey defeated Cneius Domitius Aheitobar-
_ 7s Showed four days after by fo complete an over- bus, aijd Hiarbas one of the kings of Numidia, kill-
throw, that their-numerous army, confifting of 90,000 ing 17,000 of their men upon the fpot. Not fatisfied
men, by the acceftion of a powerful corps of Moors, with this viefory, that general purfued the fugitives to
commanded oy Bocchus’s fon Volux, was entirely ruin- their camp, which he foon forced, put Domitius to the
e . b7Jla» Manus’s lieutenant, moft eminently diftin- fword, and took Hiarbas prifoner. He then reduced
guilhed himfelf m the laft a&ion, which laid the founda- that part of Numidia which belonged to Hiarbas, who
tion ot his future greatnefs. Bocchus, now looking feems to have fucceeded Mandreftal above-mentioned:
upon Jugurtha’s condition as defperate, and not being and gave it to Hiempfal, a neighbouring Numidian
uullmg to run the nfk of lofing his dominions, fhowed prince, defcended from Mafiniffa, who had always op-
a dilpoiition to clap up a peace with Rome. However, pofed the Marian faction. 20
repu-he ga\e him to underftand, that he muft not Suetonius informs us, that a difpute happened bb-C82fari0-
expect to be. ranked amongft its friends, till he had tween Hiempfal and one Mafintha, a noble Numidian ^tsJuba.
delivered up into the conful’s hands Jugurtha, the inve- whom, it is probable, he had in fome refpeft injured
tra,e V '7 ^ ‘°r ^16 ^°™an nai^ie' . I be Mauritanian when Julius Csefar firft began to make a figure in the
monaici avmg enteitaised a high idea of an alliance world. The fame author adds, that Csefar warmly
Vol. XV. Part L N ’ - eifouM
N U M [ oB ] N U M
Nuraidia. erpoufed the caufe of Mafintha, and even grofsly infult-
''-—v—-' et} juba, Hiempfal’s fon, when he attempted to vindi¬
cate his father’s condu£l on this occaiion. He pulled
him by the beard, than which a more unpardonable af¬
front could not be offered to an African. In fhort, he
fcreened Mafmtha from the infults and violence of his
enemies ; from whence a reafon may be afligned for
Juba’s adhering fo clofely afterwards to the Pompeian
21 faflion.
Juba de- jn confequence of the indignity Caefar had offered
Caffar’s6 ° and the difpofition it had occafioned, that prince
lieutenants, did Cael’ar great damage in the civil wars betwixt him
and Pompey. By a ftratagem he drew Curio, one ot
his lieutenants, into a general affion, which it was his
intereft at that time to have avoided. He cauied it to
be given out all over Africa Propria and Numidia, that
he was retired into fome remote country at a great di-
llance from the Roman territories. J his coming to
Curio’s ears, who wras then befieging Utica, it hin¬
dered Kira from taking the neceffary precautions againit
a furprife. Soon after, the Roman general receiving in¬
telligence that a fmall body of Nurnidians was approach¬
ing his camp, he put himfelf at the head of his forces in
order to attack them, and, for fear they fliould cfcape,
began bis march in the night, looking upon himfelf as
hire of vi&ory. Some of their advanced polls he fur-
prifed afleep, and cut them to pieces ; which Hill farther
animated him. In Ihort, about daybreak he came up
with the Numidians, whom he attacked with great bra¬
very, though his men wrere then falling, and vaftly fa¬
tigued by their forced and precipitate march. In the
moan time, Juba, who immediately after the propagation
of the rumour above mentioned, bad taken care to march
privately, with the main body of the Numidian army, to
fupport the detachment fent before to decoy Curio, ad¬
vanced to the relief of his men. I he Romans had met
with a great reliltance before he appeared j fo that he.
eafily broke them, killed Curio, with a great part of his
troops, upon the fpot, purfued the reft to their camp,
which he plundered, and took many of them prifoners.
Moll of the fugitives, who endeavoured to make their
efcape on board the (hips in the port of Utica, were
either llain by the purfuers, or drowned. 1 he re¬
mainder fell into the hands of Varus, who would have
faved them •, but Juba, who arrogated to bimfelf the
honour of this viftory, ordered molt of them to be put
22 to the fword.
Juba over- This victory infufed new life and vigour into the
thrown by pompeian faflior, who thereupon conferred great ho-
Csefar‘ nours upon Juba, and gave him the title of king of all
Numidia. But Caefar and his adherents declared him
an enemy to the Hate of Rome, adjudging to Bopchus
and Bogud, two African princes entirely in their in¬
tereft, the fovereignty of h;s dominions. Juba after¬
wards, uniting his forces with thofe of Scipio, reduced
Gsefar to great extremities, and would in all probabi¬
lity have totally ruined him, had he not been relieved
by Publius Sittius. That general, having formed a
conftderable corps, confifting of Roman exiles, and Mau¬
ritanian troops fent him by Bocchus, according to Dio,
or, as Csefar will have it, Bogud, made an irruption into
Gaetulia and Numidia, whilft Juba was employed in
Africa Propria. As he ravaged thefe countries in h
dreadful maimer, Juba immediately returned with the
heft part of his army, to preferve them from utter de-
ftruction. However, Caefar knowing his horfe to be Numidia,
afraid of the enemy’s elephants, did not think proper to
attack Scipio in the abfence of the Numidian, till his
own elephants, and a frefti reinforegnent of troops,
hourly expedted, arrived from Italy. With this accel-
fion of ftrength, he imagined himfelf able to give a good
account, both of the Roman forces with which he was
to cope, and the barbarians. In the mean time Scipio
defpatched reiterated expreffes to Juba to haften to bus
affiftance j but could rot prevail upon him to move out
of Numidia, till he had promifed him the poffeflion of
all the Roman dominions in Africa, if they could from
thence expel Csefar. This immediately put him in mo¬
tion 5 fc that, having fent a large detachment to make
head againft Sittius, he marched with the reft of his
troops to aftilt Scipio. However, Csefar »t laft over¬
threw Scipio, Juba, and Labienus, near the town of
Thapfus, and forced all their camps. As Scipio was
the firft furprifed and defeated, .Tuba fled into Numidia
w'ithout waiting for Caefar’s approach ; but the body ot
the Numidians detached againft Sittius, having been
broken and difperfed by that general, none of his fab-
jefts there would receive him. Abandoned therefore to
defpair, he fought death in a fmgle combat with Pe-
treius, and, having killed him, caufed himfelf to be del-
patched by one of his Haves. 2,
After this decilive aftion,. and the reduction of A->furn;ci;a
frica Propria, Csefar made himfelf mafter of Numidia,reduced to
which he reduced to a Roman province, appointingthe form of
Crifpus Salluftius to govern it in quality of proconful,a provlnte‘
with private inftru&ions to pillage and plunder the in¬
habitants, and, by that means, put it out of their power
ever to fhake off the Roman yoke. However, Bocchus
and Bogud ftill preferved a fort of fovereignty in the
country of the Maffsefyli and Mauritania, fince the for¬
mer of thofe princes, having deferted Caefar, fent an ar¬
my into Spain to aflift the Pompeians *, and the latter,
with his forces, determined viftory to declare for Caefar
at the ever memorable battle of Munda. Bogud, after¬
wards fiding with Antony againft; Obtavius, fent a body
of forces to aflift him in Spain $ at w hich time the i ing:-
tanians revolting from him, Bocchus, with an army com-
pqfed of Romans in the intereft of Oclavius, who paffed
over from Spain into Africa, and his own fubjebls, poi-
feffed himfelf of Mauritania Tingitana. Bogud fled to
Antony j and Oclavius, after the oonclufton of the war,
honoured the inhabitants of Tingi with all the privileges
of Roman citizens. He likewile confirmed Bocchus
king of Mauritania Caefarienfis, or the country of the
Maffsefyli, in the poffeffion of Tingitana, which he had
conquered, as a reward for his important fervices. In
this he imitated the example of his great predeceffor
Julius Csefar, who divided lome of the fruitful plains
of Numidia among the foldiers of P. Sittius, who had
conquered great part of that country, and appointed
Sittius himfelf fovereign of that diftribt. Sittius, as
has been intimated above, having taken Cirta, kilted
Sabura, Juba’s general, entirely difperfed his forces,
and either cut off or taken prifoners molt of the Pom¬
peian fugitives that efcaped from the battle of Ihap-
fus, highly deferved to be diftinguiflied in fo eminent a
manner. After Boccbus’s death, Mauritania and the
Maffaefylian Numidia were in all refpebls confidered as
Roman provinces.
NUMISMATOGRAPHIA, a term ufed for the
defcriptxon
NUN [ 99 ] N U G
Hiunitor dcfcription and knowledge of ancient coins and medals,
II whether of gold, lilver, or brafs. See Coins and Me-
^Un-
DALS.
NUMITOR, the fon of Procas king of Alba, and
the brother of Amulius. Procas before his death made
him and Amulius joint heirs to the crown, on condition
of their reigning annually by turns : but Amulius, on
getting poifeilion of the throne, excluded Numitor,
whole fon Laufus he ordered to be put to death, and
obliged Rhea Sylvia, Numitor’s only daughter, to be¬
come a veital. This princefs becoming pregnant, de¬
clared that (he was with child by the god Mars ; and
afterwards brought forth Remus and Romulus, wno at
length killed Amulius, and reftored Numitor to the
throne, 754 B. C. See Remus and Romulus.
N LJMMUS, a piece of money, otherwife called fejler-
tius.
NUN, the fon of Elilhamah, and father of Jolhua,
of the tribe of Ephraim. The Greeks gave him the
name of Nane inilead of Nun. This man is known in
facred hi dory only by being the father of Jolhua.
Nun, a woman, in feveral Chriftian countries, who
devotes herfelf, in a cloilter or nunnery, to a religious
life. See the article Monk.
There were women, in the ancient Cl.ldlian church,
who made public profedion of virginity, before the
monadic life was known in the wrorld, as appears from
the writings of Cyprian and Tertullian. Thefe, for dild
tindtion’s fake, are fometimes called ecclefiajllcal virgins,
and were commonly enrolled in the canon or matricula
of the church. They differed from the monadic virgins
chiefly in this, that they lived privately in their fathers
houfes, whereas the others lived in communities: but
their profelhon of virginity was not fo drift as to make
it criminal for them to marry afterwards, if they thought
fit. As to the confecration of virgins, it had fame
things peculiar in it: it was ulually performed'publicly
in the church by the bithop. The virgin made a pub¬
lic profeflion of her refolution, and then the bifhop put
upon her the accudomed habit of facred virgins. One
part of this habit was a veil, called \he facrum vein men;
another was a kind of mitre or coronet worn upon the
head. At prefent, when a woman is to be made a nun,
the habit, veil, and ring of the candidate are carried to
the altar; and die herfelf, accompanied by her neared
relations, is conduced to the bilhop, who, after mafs
and an anthem, (the fubjefl of which is, “ that die
ought to have her lamp lighted, becaufe the bridegroom
is coming to meet her),” pronounces the benediflion :
then die rifes up, and the bilhop confecrates the new
habit, fprinkling it with holy water. When the candi¬
date has put on her religious habit, die prefents herfelf
before the bilhop, and fings, on her knees, Ancilla Chrif-
ti'fum, &c. ; then die receives the veil, and afterwards
the ring, by which die is married to Chrid 5 and ladly,
the crown of virginity. When die is crowned, an ana¬
thema is denounced againd all wflio fliall attempt to
make her break her vows. In feme few indances, per¬
haps, it may have happened that nunneries, monaderies,
. See. may have been ufeful as well to morality and reli¬
gion as to literature : in the grofs, however, they have
been highly prejudicial 5 and however wrell they might
be luppoled to do when viewed in theory, in fafl they
are unnatural and impious. It was furely far from the
intention of Providence to feclude youth and beauty in
a cloidered ruin, or to deny them the innocent enjoyment Nuncio
of their years and fex. ’ |i
NUNCIO, or Nuntio, an ambaffador from the pope
to fome catholic prince or date, or a perfon who at- >
tends on the pope’s behalf at a congreis, or an affembly
of feveral ambafladors.
NUNCUPATIVE, in the fchools, fomething that
is only nominal, or has no exidence but in name.
Nuncupative Will os Tejlament, a will made ver¬
bally, and not put in writing. See the articles Will
a'hd Testament.
N UNDIN A, a goddefs among the ancient hea¬
thens, tup pofed to have the care of the purification of
infants. And becaufe male infants were purified nine
days after their birth, her name is derived from nanus,
or the ninth, though female infants were purified the
eighth day ; which purification was called lujlration by
the Romans.
NUNDINAL, Nundinalis, a name which the Ro¬
mans gave to the eight firlt letters of the alphabet ui’ed
in their kalendar.
This feries of letters, A , B, C, D, E, F, G, H, is
placed and repeated fuccedively from the fird to the
lad day of the year : one of thefe always expreifed the
market days, or the aflemblies called nundince, auaji no-
vendince, becaufe they returned every nine days. The
country people, after working eight days fucceffively,
came to town the ninth, to fell their feveral commodi¬
ties, and to inform themfelves of what related to reli¬
gion and government. Thus the nundinal day being
under A on the fird, ninth, leventeenth, and twenty-
fifth days of January, &c. the letter D will be the nun¬
dinal letter of the year following. Thefe nundinals
bear a very great refemblance to the dominical letters,
which return every eight days, as the n mdinals did
every nine.
NUNDOCOMAR, a Rajah in Bengal, and head of
the Bramins, who, in 1775, was condemned to an ig¬
nominious death by Englifh laws newly introduced, in
an Englifh court of judice newly edablifned, for a for¬
gery charged to have been committed by him many
years before. That he was guilty of the deed cannot
be quedioned 5 but there was lurely fomething hard In
condemning a man by an ex pojl fncio law. He bore
his fate with the utmoft fortitude, in the full confidence
that his foul would foon be reunited to the univerfal fpi-
rit whence it had fprung. See Metaphysics, Part III.
Chap. IV. Of the Immortality of the Soul.
Monte NUOVO, in the environs of Naples, blocks
up the valley of Averno. “ This mountain (Mr Swinburne
tells us) arofe in the year 1^38; for after repeated
quakings, the earth burd afunder, and made way for a
deluge of hot aflies and flames, which rifing extremely
high, and darkening the atmofphere, fell dow n again
and formed a circular mound four miles in circumfe¬
rence, and 1000 feet high, with a large cup in the
middle. The wind rifing afterwards, wrafted the light¬
er particles over the country, bladed vegetation, and
killed the animals who grazed ; the confequence was,
that the place was deferted, till Don Pedro de Toledo,
viceroy of Naples, encouraged the inhabitants by ex-
ample and otherwife to reiurn.
“ Part of Monte Nuovo is cultivated, but the larger
portion of its declivity is wildly overgrown with prickly
broom, and rank weeds that emit a very fetid lulphu-
N 2 reous
N U R [ ioo ] N U R
Nuptial reous fmell. The crater is ihallow, its inficle clad with
r'tes> flirubs, and the little area at the bottom planted with
^ber™" and mulberry trees ; a moft ftriking fpecimen of the
 . ~ ’ amazing viciflitudes that take place in this extraordinary
country. I faw no traces of lava or melted matter, and
few ftones within.
“ Near the foot of this mountain the fubterraneous
fires a£t with fuch immediate power, that even the fand
at the bottom of the fea is heated to an intolerable de¬
gree.”
NUPTIAL rites, the ceremonies attending the fo-
lemnization of marriage, which are different in different
ages and countries. We cannot omit here a cuftom
which was practlfed by the Romans on thefe occafions •,
which was this : Immediately after the chief ceremonies
were over, the new married man threw nuts about trie
room for the boys to fcramble for. Various reafons
have been affigned for it j but that which moft gene¬
rally prevails, and fetms to be the moft juft, is, that by
this act the bridegroom fignified his refolution to aban¬
don trifles, and commence a ferious courfe of life j
whence nucibus rcli&is in this fenfe became a proverb.
They might alfo be an emblem of fertility.
The ancient Greeks had a perfon to conduct the
bride from her own to the bridegroom’s houfe and
hence he was called by the Greeks Nymphagogi, which
term was afterwards ufed both by the Romans and the
Jews.
NUREMBERG, an imperial city of Germany, ca¬
pital of a territory of the fame name, fituated in E.
Long. it. N. Lat. 47. 30. It ftands on the Regnitz,
over which it has feveral bridges, both of wood and
ftone, at the bottom of a hill, 60 miles from Augf-
burg, 87 from Munich, 46 from Wurtzburg, and 50
from Ratilbon •, and is thought by fome to be the Sego-
dunum, and by others the Caftrum Noricum of the an¬
cients.
The city has derived its name from the hill, upon
which ftands this caftle, called, in Latin, Caftrum No¬
ricum, round which the city was begun to be built, and
where the emperors formerly lodged ; and here they
lodge ftill, when they pafs by that city. They there
preferve, as precious relicks, the crown, fceptre, clothes,
bufkius, and other ornaments of Charlemagne (a),
which ferved alfo the emperor Leopold, when he went
thither after his ele&ion, to receive the homage of the
, city. The fmall river Regnitz, which runs through it,
and thofe of Rednitz and Schwarzack, which pafs by
its walls, furnifh the inhabitants, befides other advan¬
tages, with the means of making all forts of fluffs, dyes,
and other manufaftures (b), and toys, which are car¬
ried and fold even in the Indies.
It is a large and well-built town, but not very popu- Nurem-
lous. Its fortifications are a double wall, flanked with lje!g-
towers mounting cannon, and a deep ditch. The ma- ' v '
giftrates, and moft of the inhabitants, are Lutherans.
There are a great many churches and chapels in it. In
that of St Sebald is a brafs monument of the faint : and
a picture, reprefenting the creation of the world, by
the celebrated Albert Durer, who was a native of the
town *, but the fineft church in the town is that of St
Giles. In that of the Holy Ghoft are kept moft of the
jewels of the empire, together with the pretended (pear
with which our Saviour’s fide was pierced, a thorn of
his crown, and a piece of the manger wherein he was
laid. Here are alfo a great many hofpitals, one in par¬
ticular for foundlings, and another for pilgrims 5 with a
gymnafium, an anatomical theatre, a granary, a fine
public library, the old imperial fortrefs or caftle, fome
remains of the old citadel of the burgraves of Nurem¬
berg, feveral Latin fchools, an academy of painting, a
well furnifhed arfenal, a Teutonic houfe in which the
Roman Catholic fervice is tolerated, and a mint. Mr
Keyfler fays, there are upwards of 500 ftreets in it,
about 140 fountains, 16 churches, 44 religious houfes,
12 bridges, 10 market places, and 25,000 inhabitants •,
and that its ' aitories, befides the capital and four other
towns, contain above! 500 villages, and about 160 mills
on the Regnitz. The trade of this city, though upon
the decline, is ftill very great, many of its manufactures
being ftill exported to all parts of the world •, among
which may be reckoned a great variety of curious toys
in ivory, wood, and metal, already mentioned. The
city has alfo diftinguifhed itfelf in the arts of painting
and engraving. When the emperor Henry VI. aftifted
at a tournament in Nuremberg, be raifed 38 burghers
to the degree of nobility, the defcendants of wThom are
called patricians, and have the government of the city
entirely in their hands j the wdiole council, except eight
mafters of companies, who are fummoned only on extra¬
ordinary occaftons, confifting of them. Among the
fine brafs cannon in the arfenal, is one that is charged
at the breech, and may be fired eight times in a mi¬
nute \ and two that carry balls of eighty pounds. The
city keeps, in conftant pay, feven companies, confifting
each, in time of peace, of 100 men, but, in time of
wrar, of 185 ; turn troops of cuirafliers, each confifting
of 8 5 men •, and two companies of invalids. There are
alfo 24 companies of burghers, well armed and difcip-
lined. On the new bridge, which is faid to have coit
100,000 guilders, are two pyramids, on the top of one
of wdiich is a dove wfith an olive branch in her bill, and
on the other an imperial black eagle. Mufic alfo flou-
rilhes greatly in Nuremberg 5 and thofe who delight in
mechanic
(a) Thefe ornaments are, a mitred crown, enriched with rubies, emeralds, and pearls ; the dalmatic of Char¬
lemagne, richly embroidered \ the imperial mantle powrdered wfith embroidered eagles, and its border thick fet
with large emeralds, fapphires, and topazes j the bulk ins covered with plates of gold \ the gloves embroidered 5
the apple, the golden fceptre, and fword. The ancient cuftom of the empire is, that the emperor is bound to af-
femble in this city the firft diet that he holds after his eleftion and coronation.
( b) There is in Nuremberg, and in the neighbouring villages depending upon it, an infinite number of work¬
men, very ingenious in making feveral kinds of toys of wood, wdiich are carried through all the fairs of Germany,
and from thence through all Europe. Thefe toys are called Nurembergs; and they have fo great a fale, that it
even exceeds defcription. This employment affords a livelihood to the greateft: part of the inhabitants of the city 5
aind they make a very confiderable profit from this traffic,
N U R [ ioi ] N U R
Nurfery,
Nurfing.
f An. Reg
vol- vi.
p. 13Q.
mecnanic arts and manufadhires cannot anywhere better
gratify their curioiity. As an imperial city, it has a
feat and voice at the diets of the empire and circle, pay¬
ing to the chamber of Wetzlar 812 rixdollars each
term. The territory belonging to the city is pretty
large, containing, befides two coniiderable forefts of
pine, called the Sibald and Laurence foreJIs, feveral
towns and villages.
We have mentioned already that certain families cal¬
led patricians, to the exclufion of the reft, poflefs the
offices of the fenate. They are compofed of 42 per-
fons (c), over which two caftelhuw, or perpetual fe-
nefchals, prelide, the firft of whom has his refidence in
the caftle. Thefe caffellans affemhle fometimes in the
caftle, with five or fix of the chief members, to hold a
fecret council (d). And, as this city glories in being
one of the firll which embraced Lutheranifm, it pre-
ferves the privilege of that in civil matters, not admit¬
ting any Catholics to the magittracy or freedom of the
town ; the Catholics there having the liberty only of
remaining under the protection of the reft, and perform¬
ing their religious worfhip in a commandery of Malta,
and this but at certain hours, not to difturb the Luthe¬
rans, who likewife aftemble there, although in pofTeffion
of all the other churches.
This city is particularly noted for its antiquity,
grandeur, fortifications, its triple walls of hewn (tone,
its large and deep moat, its fine houfes, large churches,
its wide ftreets, always clean, and for its curious and
large library, and its magazine ftored with every thing
proper for its defence.
NURSERY, in Gardening, is a piece of land fet
apart for railing and propagating all forts of trees and
plants to funply the garden and other plantations.
NURSING of children. See Lactatio.
The following obfervations and directions are faid to
be the refult of long experience f. The child fhould
be laid (the firft month) upon a thin mattrefs, rather
longer than itfelf, which the nurfe will keep upon her
lap, that the child may always lie ftraight, and only fit
up as the nurfe Hants the mattrefs. To fet a child quite
upright before the end of the firft month, hurts the
eyes, by making the white part of the eye appear be¬
low the upper eyelid. Afterwards the nurfe will begin
to fet it up and dance it by degrees. The child muft
be kept as dry as poffible.
The clothing fhould be very light, and not much
longer than the child, that the legs may be got at with
eafe, m order to have them often rubbed in the day noth
a warm hand cr flannel, and in particular the infide of
them.
Rubbing a child all over takes off feurf, and makes
the blood circulate. The one breaft fhould be rubbed
with the hands one way, and the other the other way,
night and mottling at leaft.
The ankle bones and infide of the knees fhould be
nibbed twice a day; this will ftrengthen thofe parts, Nu
and make the child ftretch its knees and keep them
flat, which is the foundation of an ereft and graceful
perfon.
A nurfe ought to keep a child as little in her arms
as poffible, left the legs fhould be crapiped, and the
toes turned inwards. Let her always keep the child's
legs loofe. The oftener the pofture is changed, the
better.
Tofling a child about, and exercifing it in the open
air in fine weather, is of the greateft fervice. In cities,
children are not to be kept in hot rooms, but to have
as much air as poffible.
Want of exercife is the caufe of large heads, weak
and knotted joints, a contracted breaft, which occa-
fions coughs and fluffed lungs, an ill fhaped perfon,
and waddling gait, befides a numerous train of other ills.
The child’s flefh is to be kept perfectly clean, by
conftantly wafhing its limbs and likewife its neck and
ears; beginning with warm water, till by degrees it
will not only bear, but like to be wafhed with cold
water.
Rifing early in the morning is good for all children,
provided they awake of themfelves, which they gene¬
rally do : but they are never to be waked out of theit
fleep, and as foon as poffible to be brought to regular-
fleeps in the day.
When laid in bed or cradle, their legs are always to
be laid ftraight.
Children, till they are two or three years old, muft
never be fufl'ered to walk long enough at a time to be
weary.
Girls might be trained to the proper management of
children, if a premium were given in free fchools, work-
houfes, &c. to thofe that brought up the finefL child to
one year old.
If the mother cannot fuckle the child, get a whole-
fome cheerful woman, with young milk, who has been
ufed to tend young children. After the firft fix months,
fmall broths, and innocent foods of any kind, may do
as well as living wholly upon milk.
A principal thing to be always attended to is, to give
young children conftant exercife, and to keep them in a
proper pofture.
With regard to the child’s drefs in the day, let it be
a ffiirt •, a petticoat of fine flannel, two or- three inches
longer than the child’s feet, with a dimity top (com¬
monly called a bodice coat), to tie behind •, over that a
furcingle made of fine buckram, two inches broad, co¬
vered over with fatin or fine ticken, with a ribbon fatt¬
ened to it to tie it on, which anfwers every purpofc of
flays, and has none of their inconveniences. Over this
put a robe, or a flip and frock, or whatever you like
heft; provided it is faftened behind, and not much
longer than the child’s feet, that their motions may be
ftridlly obferved.
Two
(c) Of thefe 42 members, there are only 34 chofen from the patrician families 5 the other eight are taken from1
among the burghers, and make in a manner a fmall feparate body.
(d) This fecret council is compofed of feven principal chiefs of the republic, and for that reafon is called feptem*-
virate. It determines the moft important affairs ; and is the depofitory of the precious {tones of the empire, of the
imperial crown, the.enfigns, feals, and keys of the city.
Nufance
NUT [ 102 ] N D Y
».
Nutridon.
Two caps are to be put on the head, till the child
has got raoft of its,teeth.
The child’s drefs for the night may be a fhirt, a
blanket to tie on, and a thin gown to tie over the
blanket.
NUSANCE, or Nuisance, in Law, a thing done
to the annoyance of another.
Nuifances are either public or private.—A public
nuifance is an offence againft the public in general, ei¬
ther by doing what tends to the annoyance of all the
king’s fubjects, or by neglecting to do what the com¬
mon good requires : in which cafe, all annoyances and
injuries to llreets, highways, bridges, and large rivers,
as alfo diforderiy alehoufes, bawdy-houfes, gaming
houfes, itages for rope-dancers, &c. are held to be com¬
mon nuifances.—A private nuifance is, when only one
perfon or family is annoyed by the doing of any thing;
as where a perfon flops up the light of another’s houfe,
or builds in fuch a manner that the rain falls from his
houfe upon his neighbour’s.
NUT, among botanilts, denotes a fERICARPIUM of
an extraordinary hardnefs, enclcfjng a kernel or feed.
NUTATION, in Astronomy, a kind of tremulous
motion of the axis of the earth, whereby, in each an¬
nual revolution, it is twice inclined to the ecliptic, and
as often returns to its former polition.
NUTCRACKER. See Corvus, Ornithology
Indexl
NUTHATCH. See Sitta, Ornithology Index.
NUTMEG, the fruit of a tree, and a well known
fpice. See Myristica.
NUTRITION, in the animal economy, is the re¬
pairing the continual lofs which the different parts of
the body undergo. The motion of the parts of the
body, the friclion of thefe parts with each other, and
efpedally the afticn of the air, would deflroy the body
entirely, if the lofs was not repaired by a proper diet,
containing nutri live juices ; which being digeiled in the
flomach, and afterwards converted into chyle, mix with
the blood, and are dlftributed through the whole body
for its nutrition.
In young perfons, the nutritive juices not only ferve
to repair the parts that are damaged, but alfo to increafe
them , which is called growth.
In grown perfons, the cuticle is everywhere conftant-
ly defquamating, and again renewing ; and in the fame
manner the parts rubbed off, or otherwife feparated from
the ileihy parts of the body, are foon fupplied with new
fielh •, a wound heals, and an emaciated perfon grow'S
plump and fat.
Buffon, in order to account for nutrition, fuppofes
the body of an animal or vegetable to be a kind of
mould, in which the matter neceffary to Its nutrition
is modelled and affimilated to the whole. But (con¬
tinues he) of what nature is this matter which an
animal or vegetable affimilates to its own fubftance ?
What power is it that communicates to this matter
the activity and motion neceffary to penetrate this
mould ? and, if fuch a force exift, would it not be by
a fiiniiar force that the internal mould itfelf might be
reproduced ?
As to the firff queftion, he fuppofes that there exifts
in nature an infinite number of living organical parts,
and that all organized bodies confift of fuch organical
parts ; that their produ&icn cofts nature nothing, fince
3
their exiffence is conftant and invariable ; fo that the Nux Mo.
matter which the animal or vegetable affimilates to its
lubltance, is an organical matter of the fame nature
with that of the animal or vegetable, which confe-
quently may augment its volume without changing its
form or altering the quality of the fubftance in the
mould.
As to the fecond queftion : There exift (fays he) in
nature certain powers, as that of gravity, that have no
affinity with the external qualities of the body, but adl
upon the moft intimate parts, and penetrate them
throughout, and which can never fall under the obfer-
vation of our fenfes.
And as to the third queftion, he anfwrers, that the
internal mould itielf is reproduced, not only by a fimi-
lar power, but it is plain that it is the veiy fame power
that caufes the unfolding and reproduction thereof: for
it is ffifficient (proceeds he), that In an organized body
that unfolds itfelf, there be fome part fimilar to the
whole, in order that this part may one day become it¬
felf an organized body, altogether like that of which it
is actually a part.
NUX moschata. See Myristica.
ATVX Piflachia. See Pistachia, Botany Index.
Nux Vomica, a fiat, compreffed, round fruit, about
the breadth of a {hilling, brought from the Eaft Indies.
It is found to be a certain poifcn for dogs, cats, &c.
and it is not to be doubted that it would alio prove fatal
to mankind. Its furface is not much corrugated •, and
its texture is firm like horn, and of a pale grayifti-brow n
colour. It is faid to be ufed as a {pecific againft the
bite of a fpecies of water-fnake. It is confiderably bit¬
ter and deleterious ; but has been ufed in dcfes from five
to ten grains twice a-day or fo, in intermittents, parti¬
cularly obftinate quartans, and in contagious dylentery.
The ftrychnus Ignatii is a tree of the fame kind, produ¬
cing gourd-like fruit, the feeds of which are improperly
called St Ignatius’s beans. Thefe, as alfo the woods
or roots of fome fuch trees, called lignum colulrmum,
or fnakcwood, are very narcotic bitters, like the rrux vo¬
mica.
NUYTS, Peter, a native of Holland, and a lead¬
ing character in that extraordinary tranfadtion which
happened between the Japanefe and the Dutch about the
year 1628. In 1627 Nuyts. arrived in Batavia from
Holland, and was in the fame year appointed ambaffa-
dor to the emperor of Japan by the governor and coun¬
cil of Batavia.
He repaired to that empire in 16285 and being a
man of a haughty difpofition, and extremely vain, he
believed it practicable to pafs upon the natives for an
ambaffador from the king of Holland. Upon his af-
fuming this title he wTas much more honourably received,
careffed, and refpedled, than former minifters had been.
But he was foon detedled, reprimanded, and reproach¬
ed in the fevereft manner, fent back, to the port, and
ordered to return to Batavia with all the circumftances
of difgrace imaginable 5 notwithftanding which, his in-
tereft was fo great, that, inftead of being pqniftied as he
deferved, he was immediately afterwards promoted to
the government of the ifiand of Formofa, of w hich he
took poffeffion the year following.
He entered upon the adminiilraticn of affairs in that
ifiand with the fame difpofition that he had fhown while
ambaffador, and with the moft implacable refentment
againft;
Nuvts
l|
Js’ychthe-
meron.
NYC [i
againft the Japanefe j neither was it long before an op¬
portunity offered, as he thought, of revenging himfelf
to'the full. Two large Japanefe fhips, with upwards of
_ 500 men on board, came into the port} upon which he
took it into his head to dilarm and unrig them, in the
lame manner as the Dutch veffels are treated at Japan,
The Japanefe did all they could to defend themfelves
from this ill ufage ; but at laft, for want of water, they
were forced to fubmit. Governor Nuyts went ffill
farther. When they had finiffied their affairs at For-
mofa, and were delirous of proceeding, according to
their inffruftions, to China, he put them off with fair
words and fine promifes till the monfoon was over.
T hey began then to be very impatient, and defired to
have their cannon and fails reftored, that they might re¬
turn home j but the governor had recourfe to new arti¬
fices, and, by a feries of falfe promifes, endeavoured to
hinder them from making ufe of the feafon proper for
that voyage.
The Japane'e, however, foon perceived his defign ;
and at length, by a bold attempt, accomplifned what
by fair means and humble entreaty they could not
obtain j for, by a daring and well concerted effort,
they took him prifoner, and made him and one of the
council iign a treaty for fecuring their liberty, free de¬
parture, and indemnity, which was afterwards ratified
by the whole council. Nuyts was firfl: confined in Ba¬
tavia, and afterwards delivered up to the Japanefe, not-
withffanding the moll earneft entreaties on his part to
be tried, and even to fuffer any kind of death where he
was, rather than to be fent to Japan. He was fent
there, however,- in 1634. He was fubmitted to the
mercy or difcretion of the emperor; and the confe-
quence was, that, though imprifoned, he was well ufed,
and could go anywhere, provided his guards were with
him, which was more than he could poffibly have ex-
pe&ed. He now looked for nothing but the continu¬
ance of his confinement for life. On a particular occa-
fion, however, i. e. at the funeral of the emperor’s father,
at the requeft of the Dutch he was fet free, and returned
again to Batavia, to the furprife of that people, who,
however, adopted ever after a very different condutt
with refpeft to the Japanefe.
NUZZER, or NUZZERANAH; a prefent or offering
from an inferior to a fuperior. In Hindoftan no man
ever approaches his fuperior for the firft time on bufmefs
without an offering of at leaf! a gold or filver rupee
in his right hand; which, if not taken, is a mark of dif-
favour. Nuzzeranah is alfo ufed for the fum paid to
the government as an acknowledgment for a grant of
lands or any public office.
NYCHTHEMERON, among the ancients, figni-
fied the whole natural day, or day and night, confining
of 24 hours, qf 24 equal parts. This way of confider-
mg the day was particularly adopted by the Jews, and
feems to owe its origin to that expreffion of Mofes, in
the firfl: chapter of Genefis, “ the evening and the morn¬
ing were the firft day.”—Before the Jews had introdu¬
ced the Greek language into their difcourfe, they ufed
to fignify this fpace of time by the fimple expreffion of
a mght and a day.
It is proper here to obferve, that all the eaftem
countries reckoned any part of a day of 24 hours for
a whole day; and fay a thing that was done on the
third or feventh day, &c. from that laft mentioned, was-
03 ] N Y M
done after three or feven days. And the Hebrews, Nyctalopia
having no word which exactly anfwers to the Greek H .
fignifying “ a natural day of 24 hours,” . ,1
ufe mg/it and daij, or day and night, for it. So that to
fay a thing happened after three days and three nights,
was, with them, the fame as to fay it happened after
three days, or on the third day. This, being remem¬
bered, will explain what is meant by “ the Son of
Man’s being three days and three nights in the heart of
the earth.”
NYCTALOPIA. See Medicine, N° 361.
NYCTANTHES, Arabian Jasmine, a genus of
plants, belonging to the diandria clafs, and in the natu¬
ral method ranking with the 44th order, Scpiarue. See
Botany Index.
NYCTASTRATEGI, among the ancients, were
officers appointed to prevent fires in the night, or to give
alarm and call affiftance when a fire broke out. At
Rome they had the command of the watch, and wrere
call nociurm triumviri, from their office and number.
N FCTICORAX, the night raven; a fpecies of
Ardea. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
NYLAND, a province of Finland in Sweden, ly¬
ing on the gulf of Finland, to the weft of the province
of Carelia.
N\ L-GHAU, a fpecies of quadruped belonging to
the genus Eos, a native of the interior parts of India.
See Mammalia Index.
NYMPH, in Mythology, an appellation given to
certain inferior geddeffes, inhabiting the mountains,
wood, waters, &c. find to be the daughters of Oce-
anus and d ethys. All the univerfe was reprefented as
frill of thefe nymphs, who are diftinguilhed into feve-
ral ranks or claffes. The general divifion of them,
is into celeftial and terreftrial; the former of them
were called uranue, and were fuppofed to be intelli¬
gences that governed the heavenly bodies or fpheres.
I he terreftrial nymphs, called epigeice, prefided over
the feveral parts of the inferior world; and were divi¬
ded into thole of the water, and thole of the eaith.
J he nymphs of the water were the aceanitides, or nymphs
of the ocean ; the nereids, the nymphs of the fea ; the
naiads and ephydriades, the nymphs of the fountains;
and the hmniades, the nymphs of the lakes. The nymphs -
ot_ the earth were the arcades, or nymphs of the moun¬
tains ; the napeece, nymphs of the meadows: and the
dryads and hamadryads, who were nymphs of the forefts
and groves. Befides thefe, we meet with nymphs who
took their names from particular < ountries, rivers, &c.
as the cithaeroniades, fo called from Mount Cithseron
in Boeotia: the dodonides, from Dodona; tiberiades,
form the Tiber, &.c.—Goats were fometimes facrifi-
ced to the nymphs; but their, conftant offerings were
milk, oil, honey, and wine.
We have the following account of nymphs in Chand¬
ler’s Greece. “ They were fuppofed to enjoy longevity,
but not to be immortal. They were believed to delight
in fprings and fountains. They are deferibed as fleep-
lefs, and as dreaded by the country people. They were
fufceptible of paffion. The Argonauts, it is related,
landing on the ffiore of the Propontis to dine in their
way to Colchos, fent Hylas, a boy, for water, who dif-
covered a lonely fountain, in which the nymphs Eunica,
Malis, and Nycheia, were preparing to dance ; and thefe
feeing him were enamoured, and, feizing him by the
hand ?
N Y M [ 104 ] N Y M
Nymph, 'hand as he was filling his vafe, pulled him in. The dei-
“"”~v ' lies, their copartners in the cave, are fuch as prelided
with them over rural and paftoral affairs.
“ The old Athenians were ever ready to cry out,
A god ! or a goddefs! The tyrant Pififtratus entered
the city in a chariot with a tall woman dreffed in ar¬
mour to refemble Minerva, and regained the Acropolis,
which he had been forced to abandon, by this ftratagem}
the people worlhipping, and believing her to be the dei¬
ty whom (he reprefented. The nymphs, it was the po¬
pular perfuafion, occafionally appeared j and nympho-
lepfy is characterized as a frenzy, which arofe from ha¬
ving beheld them. Superffition difpofed the mind to
adopt delufion for reality, and gave to a fancied vifion
the efficacy of full conviClion. The foundation was per¬
haps no more than an indirect, partial, or obfcure view
of fome harmlefs girl, who had approached the foun¬
tain on a like errand with Hylas, or was retiring after the
had filled her earthen pitcher.
“ Among the facred caves on record, one on Mount
Ida in Crete was the property of Jupiter, and one by
Lebadea in Boeotia of Trophonius. Both thefe wTere
oracular, and the latter bore fome refemblance to that
we have defcribed. It was formed by art, and the mouth
furrounded with a wall. The defcent to the landing
place was by a light and narrow ladder, occafionally
applied and removed. It was fituated on a mountain
above a grove 5 and they related, that a fwarm of bees
conduced the perfon by whom it was firff difcovered.
But the common owners of caves were the nymphs,
and thefe were fometimes local. On Cithaeron in Bceo-
tia, many of the inhabitants were poffeffed by nymphs
called Sphragitides, whofe cave, once alfo oracular, was
on a fummit of the mountain. Their dwellings had ge¬
nerally a well or fpring of water 5 the former often a
collection of moilture condenfed or exuding from the roof
■ and fides; and this, in many inftances, being pregnant
with ftony particles, concreted, and marked its paffage
by incruftation, "the groundwork in all ages and coun¬
tries of idle tales framed or adopted by luperftitious and
credulous people.
“ A cave in Paphlagonia was facred to the nymphs
who inhabited the mountains about Heraclea. It was
Jong and wide, and pervaded by cold water, clear as
cryftal. There alfo were feen bowls of ftcne, and
nymphs and their webs and diltaffs, and curious work,
exciting admiration. The poet who has defcribed this
grotto, deferves not to be regarded, as fervilely copying
Homer ; he may juilly lay claim to rank as an original
topographer.
“ The piety of Archidamus fumiffied a retreat for the
nymphs, where they might find Ihelter and provifion, if
diftreffed •, whether the fun parched up their trees, or
Jupiter enthroned in clouds upon the mountain top feared
th em with his red lightning and terrible thunder, pour¬
ing down a deluge of rain, or brightening the fummits
'with his fnow.”
Nymph, among naturalifts, that ftate of winged in-
feCts between their living in the form of a worm and their
appearing in the winged or moft perfeCl ftate.
The eggs of infeCls are firft hatched into a kind of
worms or maggotswhich afterwards pafs into the
nymph ftate, furrounded with ffiells or cafes of their
own Ikins j fo that, in reality, thefe nymphs are only
the embryo infeCts, wrapped up in this covering j from
2
whence they at laft get loofe, though not without great Nymph,
difficulty. ° Nympha;-
During this nymph ftate the creature lofes its motion. 1‘n'
Swammerdam calls it nympha aurelia, or limply aure/ia;
and others give it the name of chnjfalis, a term of the
like import. See the article Chrysalis.
NTAIPH-Rand, fituated about 10 leagues off the
coaft qf the county of Waterford, and province of Mun-
fter in Ireland, is a great filhing place, and 11 leagues
S. S. E. from the high head of Dungarvan. It
abounds with cod, ling, ficate, bream, whiting, and
other filh which was difcovered by Mr Doyle, who
on July 15. 1736 failed to it, in company with feven
men, on board the Nymph, a fmail veffel of about 12
tons. This place is well adapted for a filhing com¬
pany, the great public advantages of which muft be
very evident.
NYMPH A7,, in Anatomy, two membranaceous parts,
fituated on each fide the rima. See Anatomy Index.
NYMPHAlA, the water-lily 3 a genus of plants
belonging to the polyandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 54th order, Mijceli'anece. See
Botany Index.
Nymph^ea (amongft the ancients), doubtful what
ftructures they were 3 feme take them to have been
grottoes, deriving their name from the ftatues of the
nymphs with which they were adorned 3 but that they
were confiderable works appears from their being ex¬
ecuted by the emperors, (Ammian, Victor, Capitolinus)
or by the city pfefefts. In^ an infeription, the term
is written nymjium. None of all thefe nymph a-a has
lafted down to our time. Some years fince, indeed, a
fquare building of marble was difcovered between
Naples and Yefuvius, with only one entrance, and
fome fteps that went down to it. On the right hand as
you enter, towards the head, there is a fountain of the
purefi: water 3 along which, by ivay of guard as it were,
is laid a naked Arethufa of the whiteft marble 3 the bot¬
tom or ground is of variegated marble, and encompaffed
with a canal fed by the water from the fountain : the
walls are fet round with {hells and pebbles of various co¬
lours 3 by the fetting of which, as by fo many ftrokes in
a pifture, are expreffed the 12 months of the year, and
the four political virtues 3 alfo the rape of Proferpine 3
Pan playing on his reed, and foothing his dock 3 befides
the reprefentations of nymphs fvvimming, failing, and
wantoning on fifties, &c.
It feems pretty evident that the nyrhphsea were public
baths 3 for at the fame time that they were furnilhed
with pleafing grottoes, they were -alio fupplied with
cooling ftreams, by which they were rendered exceed¬
ingly delightful, and drew great numbers of people to
frequent them. Silence feems to have been a particu¬
lar requifite there, as appears by this infeription, Nymphis,
loci, bibe, lava, tace. That building between Naples
and Vefuvi.is, mentioned above, was certainly one of
thefe nymphaea.
NYMPH ALUM, (Plutarch) 3 the name of a facred
place, near Apollonia in Illyricum, lending forth con¬
tinually fire in detached ftreams from a green valley
and verdant meadows. Dio Caffius adds, that the fire
neither burns up nor parches the earth, but that herbs
and trees grow and thrive near it, and therefore the
place is called nympheeum: near which was an oracle of
fuch a nature, that the fire, to ftiow that the wilh was
granted
um
Nymphi-
dius.
N Y M [ r
Nymphae- granted, Confumed the frankincenfe thrown into it :
but repelled it, in cafe the defire was rejecled. It was
there that a deeping fatyr was once caught and brought
i to Sylla as he returned from the Mithridatic war.
This monfter had the fame features as the poets afcribe
to the fatyr. He was interrogated by Sylla and by
his interpreters , but his articulations were unintelli¬
gible ; and the Roman fpurned from him a creature
which feemed to partake of the nature of a bead more
than that of a man.
NympH-SUM, in antiquity, a public hall magnificently
decorated, for entertainments, &c. and where thofe
who wanted convenience at home held their marriage
feafts •, whence the name.
NYMPHIDIUS, Sabinus, a perfon of mean de-
fcent, but appointed by Nero colleague of Tigellinus
in the command of the praetorian guards. About the
time, however, that the German legions revolted from
this -defpicable prince, he was alfo betrayed by Nymphi-
dius and abandoned by his guards.
Nymphidius began now to entertain thoughts of
feizing the fovereignty himfelf. However, he did not
immediately declare his ambitious views j but pretending
to efpoufe the caufe of Galba, aflured the guards that
Nero was fled, and promifed them fuch fums as neither
"Galba nor any other was able to difcharge. This
promife fecured for the prefent the empire to Galba,
occafioned afterwards the lofs of it, and, finally, pro¬
duced the deftruclion of Nymphidius and the guards
themfelves. After Nero’s death, however, and on the
acknowledgement of Galba as emperor, he renewed his
ambition ; and having, by his immenfe largeffes, gained
the affeftions of the praetorian guards, and perfuading
himfelf that Galba, by reafon of his infirmities and old
age, would never reach the capital, ufurped all the
authority at Rome. Prefuming upon his interelt, he
obliged Tigellinus, who commanded, jointly with him,
the praetorian guards, to refign his commiflion. He
made feveral magnificent and extenfive entertainments,
inviting fuch as had been confuls or had commanded
armies, diitributed large fums among the people, and
with {hows and other diverfions, which he daily exhibit¬
ed, gained fo great an intereit with all ranks, that he
already looked upon himfelf as fovereign. The fenate,
dreading his power, conferred extraordinary honours
upon him, ftyled him their proteElor, attended him when
he appeared in public, and had recourfe to him for the
confirmation of their decrees, as if he had been already
invefted with the fovereign power. This bafe com-
05 ] NYU
pliance elated him to fuch a degree, that he ufurped,
not leifurely and by degrees, but all at once, an ab-
folute authority. He afted as fovereign indeed, but
he had not as yet openly declared his defign of feizing
the empire : his power however was great, and he
ufed it in undermining Galba's power 5 he was, how¬
ever, unfuccefsful, and the difclofure of his defigns was
much againfl: him. Galba was again acknowledged
and proclaimed, and he, notwithftanding his artifices,
detected and {lain by the foldiers who were proclaim¬
ing Galba. See Nero.
NY ON, a confiderable town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, and capital of a bailiwick of the fame
name, with a caftle. It Hands delightfully upon the
edge of the lake of Geneva, in the very point where
it begins to widen, and in a moft charming country
commonly called Pays de Vaud. It was formerly called
Colonia Equejlris Noiodutium ; and, as a proof of its an¬
tiquity, feveral Roman inferiptions, and other ancient
remains have been frequently difeovered in the outlkirts
of the town. E. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 46. 24/
NYSA, or Nyssa, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Ethiopia, at the fouth of Egypt. Some place it in
Arabia. This city, with another of the fame name m
India, was facred to the god Bacchus, who was edu¬
cated there by the nymphs of the place, and who
received the name of Dionyfus, which lieems to be com¬
pounded of A«jj and Nvcra, the name of his father,
and that of the place of his education. The god made
this place the feat of his empire, and the capital of the
conquered nations of the eaft. According to fome geo¬
graphers, there were no lefs than ten places of this
name. One of thefe was famous on the coaft of Euboea
for its vines, wdrich grew in fuch an uncommon manner,
that if a twig wTas planted in the ground in the morning,
it immediately produced grapes which were full ripe in
the evening. A city of Thrace : another feated on the
top of Mount Parnaffus, and facred to Bacchus.
NYSLOT, a llrong town of Ruflla, in Livonia, writh
a caftle j feated on the river Narva, among large marihes.
E. Long. 26. 55. N. Lat. 58. 461.
NYSSA, a genus of plants, belonging to the poly-
gamia clafs j and in the natural method ranking under
the x 2th order, iloloracece. See Botany Index.
NYU-CHE, or Kin, an empire which arofe in
Eaftem Tartary in the beginning of the 13th century.
From the founder of this empire the late Chinefe em¬
peror Kang-hi faid that his family was defeended. See
China and Tartary.
O.
| THE 14th letter and fourth vowel of our alphabet j
9 pronounced as in the wmrds nofe, rofe, &c.
'The found of this letter is often fo foft as to require
it double, and that chiefly in the middle of words j as
goofe, reproof. Sec. And in fome words, this 00 is pro¬
nounced like u fliort, as in blood,flood, Sec.
Vol. XV. Part I.
As a numeral, O was fofnetimes ufed for 11 among
the ancients j and with a dafli over it thus, O, for
11,000.
In the notes of the ancients, O. CON. is read opus
conduBum; O. C. O. opera confllioque; O. D. M, operce,
donum munus; and O. LO. opus locatum.
O The
OAK [106] OAK
o,
Oik.
The Greeks had two O’s 5 viz. omicron, o, and
omega, 0 ; the firit pronounced on the tip of the lips
with a {harper found ; the fecond in the middle of the
mouth, with a fuller found, equal to 00 in our lan¬
guage. The long and (liort pronunciation of our O
are equivalent to the two Greek ones 5 the lirft, as in
fuppo^e 5 the fecond, as in obey.
C is ufually denoted long by a fervile a fubjoined,
as moan; or by e at the end of the fyllable, as bone;
when thefe vowels are not ufed, it is generally (hort.
Among the Irifli, the letter O, at the beginning of
the name of a family, is a chara&er of dignity annexed
to great houfes. Thus, in the hiftory of Ireland, we
frequently meet with the 0 Neals, 0 Carrols, &c. con-
fiderable houfes in that ifland.
Camden obferves, that it is the cuftom of the lords
of Ireland to prefix an O to their names, to diftinguifh
them from the commonalty.
The ancients ufed O as a mark of triple time •, from
a notion that the ternary, or number 3, was the molt
perfect of numbers, and therefore properly expreffed
by a circle, the moil perfeft of figures.
It is not, ftriftly fpeaking, the letter O, but the
figure of a circle Q1 or double CO, by which the mo¬
dern ancients in mufic ufed to exprefs what they called
tempo perfecio, or triple time. Hence the Italians call it
circolo.
The feven antiphones, or alternate hymns of feven
verfes, &c. fung by the choir in the time of Advent,
were formerly called 0, from their beginning with fuch
an exclamation.
O is an adverb of calling, or interjeftion of forrow
or wilhing.
OAK, in Botany. See Quercus.
The oak has been long known by the title of mo¬
narch of the woods, and very juftly. It was well
known, and often very elegantly defcribed, by the an¬
cient poets. The following defcription from Virgil is
exquifite :
Veluti annofo validam cum robore quercum
Alpini Borece, nunc hinc, nunc flatibus Mine
Eruere inter fe certant: it Jlridor, et alte
Confer nunt terram concufb fipile frondes :
Ipfa hceret fcopulis ; et quantum vertice ad auras
jEtherias, tantum radice in Tartara tendit.
zTiN. iv. 441.
As o’er th’ aerial Alps fublimely fpread,
Some aged oak uprears his reverend head ;
This way and that the furious tempefts blow,
To lay the monarch of the mountains low •,
Th’ imperial plant, though nodding at the found,
Though all his fcatter’d honours ftrew the ground j
Safe in his ftrength, and feated on the rock,
in naked majefty defies the {hock :
High as the head {hoots tow’ring to the {kies,
So deep the root in hell’s foundation lies. Pitt.
The ancient druids had a moll profound veneration Oak.
for oak trees. Pliny f fays,- that “ the druids (as the ^ f
Gauls call their magicians or wife men) held nothing ^ ^at'
lo lacred as the mnletoe, and the tree on which it
grows, provided it be an oak. They make choice of
oak groves in preference to all others, and perform no
rites without oak leaves 5 fo that they feem to have
the name of druids from thence, if we derive their name
from the Greek,” &c. (See Druids—Definition, and
N° 11.) Maximus Tyrius fays the Celtae or Gauls wor-
Ihipped Jupiter under the figure of a lofty oak (a).
This uleful tree grows to fuch a furprifing magni¬
tude, that were there not many, well authenticated in-
ftances of them in our own country, they would cer¬
tainly appear difficult of belief. In the 18th volume
of the Gentleman’s Magazine we have the dimenfions
of a leaf twelve inches in length and feven in breadth,
and all the leaves of the fame tree were equally large.
On the eftate of Woodhall, purchafed in 1775 by Sir
Thomas Rumbold, Part, late governor of Madras, an
oak was felled which fold for 43I. and meaiured 24
feet round. We are alfo told of one in Millwood fo-
refl, near Chaddelley, which was in full verdure in
winter, getting its leaves again after the autumn ones
fell off. In Hunter’s Evelyn’s Sylva, we have an ac¬
count of a very remarkable oak at Greendale ; which
Gough, in his edition of Camden, thus minutely de-
feribes: “ The Greendale oak, with a road cut through
it, {fill bears one green branch. Such brandies as have
been cut or broken off are guarded from wet by lead.
The diameter of this tree at the top, whence the
branches iffue, is 14 feet 2 inches 5 at the furface of
the ground n-J feet j circumference there 35 feet 5
height of the trunk 53 ; height of the arch 10, width
6. Mr Evelyn mentions feveral more oaks of extraordi¬
nary fize in Workfop park.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1773 we have an
account of one differing very effentially from the com¬
mon one ; it is frequent about St Thomas in Devonlhire,
and is in that county called Lucombe oak, from one
William Lucombe who fuccefsfully cultivated it near
** Exeter. It grows as ftraight and handfome as a fir j
its' leaves are evergreen, and its wood as hard as that
of the common oak. Its growth is fo quick, as to
exceed in 20 or 30 years the altitude and girth of the
common one at 100. It is cultivated in various places}
Cornwall, Somerfetfhire, &c.
M. du Hamel du Mon^eau, of the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris (who wrote a treatife on hufband-
ry), gave an account in the year 1749 of an oak which
he had kept in water eight years, and which yielded
fine leaves every fpring. The tree had, he fays, four
or five branches} the largeft 19 or 20 lines round,
and more than 18 inches long. It throve more in the
two firft years than it would have done in the belt
earth ; it afterwards loft its vigour, and rather decayed j
which he attributed to a defied in the roots rather than
to a want of aliment.
M.
(a) Camden informs us of a tradition (which, like moft other traditions of this nature, feems to be founded in
ignorance and foftered by credulity) refpeding an oak near Malwood caftle, where Rufus was killed, viz. that it
budded on Chriftmas day, and withered before night. This tree, the fame tradition reports to have been that againft
which Tyrrel’s arrow glanced.
OAK [i
M. de Buffon made fome experiments oh oak trees j
the refult of which is recorded in the Gentleman’s
Magazine, 1754- He had compared barked with un¬
barked trees, and proves, wre think with fuccefs, from
a variety of trials* that timber barked and dried Hand¬
ing, is always heavier and conliderably ftronger than
timber kept in its bark.
The bark of oak trees was formerly thought to be
extremely ufeful in vegetation. One load (Mr Mills in
his Treatife on Hufbandry informs us) of oak bark,
laid in a heap and rotted, after the tanners have ufed
it for dreffing of leather, wall do more fervice to ftiff
cold land, and its effects wrill lalt longer, than two
loads of the richeff dung •, but this has been ftrenu-
oadly controverted. (See OAK Leaves.)
The bark, in medicine, is alfo a ftrong aftringent j
and hence Hands recommended in hfemorrhagies, al-
vine fluxes, and other preternatural or immoderate
fecretions •, and in thefe it is fometimes attended with
good effects. Some have alleged, that by the ufe of
this bark every purpofe can be anfwered which may be
obtained from Peruvian bark. But after feveral very
fair trials, we have by no means found this to be the
cafe. Befides the bark, the buds, the acorns and their
cups are ufed ; as alfo the galls, wrhich are excrefcences
caufed by infers on the oaks of the eaflern countries, of
which there are divers forts ; fome perfectly round and
fmooth, fome rougher with fmall protuberances, but all
generally having a round hole in them. All the parts
of the oak are Hyptic, binding, and ufeful in all kinds
of fluxes and bleedings, either inward or outward. The
bark is frequently ufed in gargarifms, for the relaxation
of the uvula, and for fore mouths and throats: it is
alfo ufed in reffringent clyflers and injections, againff
the prolapfus uteri or ani. The acorns, beaten to pow¬
der, are frequently taken by the vulgar for pains in the
fide. The only officinal preparation is the aqua germinum
quercus.
OAK Leaves. The ufe of oak bark in tanning, and
in hot-beds, is generally known. For the latter of thefe
purpofes, howrever, oak leaves are now found to anfwer
equally well, or rather better. In the notes to Dr
Hunter’s edition of Evelyn’s Treatife on Foreff Trees,
we find the following directions for their ufe by W.
Speechly : The leaves are to be raked up as foon as
poffible after they fall from the trees. When raked
into heaps, they ffiould immediately be carried into fome
place near the hot-houfes, where they may lie to couch.
Mr Speechly fays, it was his cuflom to fence them round
with charcoal hurdles, or any thing to keep them from
being blown about the garden in windy weather. In
this place they tread them well, and water them in cafe
they happen to have been brought in dry. The heap
is made fix or feven feet thick, and covered over with
old mats, or any thing elfe, to prevent the upper leaves
from being blown away. In a few days the heap will
come to a ffrong heat. For the firff year or two in
which he ufed thefe leaves, our author did not continue
them in the heap longer than ten days or a fortnight :
but by this method of management they fettled fo much
when brought to the hot-houfe, that a fupply was very
foon required; and he afterwards found, that it was
proper to let them remain five or fix weeks in the heaps
before they are brought to the hot-houfe. In getting
them into the pine pets, if they appear dry, they are to
7 ] OAK
be watered, and again trodden down exceedingly well,
in layers, till the pits are quite full. The whole is then
covered with tan bark, to the thicknefs of two inches,
and well trodden down, till the furface becomes fmooth
and even. On this the pine pots are to be placed in the
manner they are to Hand, beginning with the middle
row firfl, and filling up the fpaces between the pots with
tan. In this manner we are to proceed to the next row,
till the whole be finiffied 3 and this operation is perform
ed in the fame manner as when tan only is ufed. The
leaves require no farther trouble through the whole fea
fon 3 as they will retain a conflant and regular heat for
12 months without ffirring or turning 3 and our author
Informs us, that if he may judge from their appearance
when taken out (being always entire and perfeCt), it is
probable they would continue their he.at through a
fecond year 3 but, as an annual fupply of leaves is eafily
obtained, the experiment is hardly worth making-.
After this, the pines will have no occafion to be moved
but at Hated times of their management, viz. at the
ffiifting them in their pots, &c. when at each time a
little freffi tan ffiould be added to make up the deficiency
arifing from the fettling of the beds 3 but this will be
inconfiderable, as the leaves do not fettle much after
their long couching. During the firff two years of our
author’s practice he did not ufe any tan, but plunged
the pine pots into the leaves, and juff covered the fur-
face of the beds, when finiffied, with a little faw-duff,
to give it a neatnefs. Tiffs method, however, was
attended with one inconvenience 3 for, by the caking
of the leaves they ffirunk from the fides of the pots,
whereby they became expofed to the air, and at the fame
time the heat of the beds was permitted to efcape.
“ Many powerful reafons (fays Mr Speechly) may
be given why oak leaves are preferable to tanners
bark.
“ 1. They always heat regularly 3 for during the
wffiole time that I have ufed them, which is near feven
years, I never once knew of their heating with vio¬
lence 3 and this is fo frequently the cafe with tan, that
I affirm, and indeed it is well knowm to every perfon
converfant in the management of the hot-houfe, that
pines fuffer more from this one circumffance, than all
the other accidents put together, infefts excepted.—
When this accident happens near the time of their
fruiting, the effedt is foon feen in the fruit, which is
exceedingly fmall and ill-ffiaped. Sometimes there will
be little or no fruit at all; therefore gardeners who make
ufe of tan only for their pines, ffiould be moff particu¬
larly careful to avoid an over-heat at that critical jundture
—the time of {honing the fruit.
“ 2. The heat of oak leaves is conflant 3 whereas
tanner’s bark generally turns cold in a very ffiort time
after its furious heat is gone off. This obliges the gar¬
dener to give it frequent turnings in order to promote
its heating. Thefe frequent turnings, not to mention
the expence, are attended with the worff confequences 3
for by the continual moving of the pots backwards
and forwards, the pines are expofed to the extremes of
heat and cold, wiiereby their growth is confiderably
retarded 3 wiiereas, when" leaves are ufed, the pines
will have no occafion to be moved but at the times of
potting, &c. The pines have one peculiar advantage
in this undiffurbe.d fituation 3 their roots grow through
the bottoms of the pots, and mat among the leaves in
O 2 a
Oak-
OAK [ i
a furprxfing manner. From the vigour of the plants
when in this lituation, it is highly probable that the
leaves, even in this ftate, afford them an uncommon
and agreeable nouriftiment.
“ 3. There is a laving in point of expence 5 which
is no inconliderable objeff in places where tan cannot
be had but from a great di (lance.
“ 4. The laft ground of preference is, that decayed
leaves make good manure } whereas rotten tan is ex¬
perimentally found to be of no value. I have often
tried it both on fand and clay, and on wet and dry
land ; and never could difcover in any of my experi¬
ments, that it deferved the name of a manure ; whereas
decayed leaves are the richelt, and of all others the
moil proper manure for a garden. Leaves mixed with
dung make excellent hot-beds 5 and I find that beds
compounded in this manner, preferve their heat much
longer than when made entirely wuth dung } and in
both cafes, the application of leaves will be a confider-
able faving of dung, which is a circumllance on many
accounts agreeable.”
OAK-Leaf Galls. Thefe are of feveral kinds 5 the
remarkable fpecies called the tnujhroom gall is never
found on any other vegetable fubltance but thefe
leaves : and belide this there are a great number of
other kinds.
The double gall of thefe leaves is very lingular, be-
caufe the generality of productions of this kind a fie cl
only one fide of a leaf or branch, and grow all one
way : whereas this kind of gall extends itfelf both
ways, and is feen on each fide of the leaf, in form of
two protuberances, oppofite the one to the other. Thefe
are of differently irregular fhapes, but their natural
figure feems that of two cones,, with broad bafes, and
very obtufe points, though Ibmetimes they are round, or
very nearly fo.
Thefe make their firlt appearance on the leaf in
April, and remain on it till June or longer. They are
at firlt green, but afterwards yellowith, and are fofter
to the touch than many other of the productions of this
kind : they are ufually about the fize of a large pea, but
fometimes they grow to the bignefs of a nut. When
opened, they are found to be of that kind which are in¬
habited each by one infeCt only, and each contains one
cavity. The cavity in this is, however, larger than in
any other gall of the fize, or even in many others of
three times the fize ; the fides of it being very little
thicker than the fubftance of the leaf.
It is not eafy to afcertain the origin of the feveral
fpecies of (lies which are at times feen in this manner
to come out of the fame fpecies of galls. It feems
the common courfe of nature, that only one fpecies of
infeCt forms one kind of gall •, yet it may be, that
two or three kinds may give origin to the fame kind.
There is, however, another occafion of our feeing dif¬
ferent fpecies come out of different galls of the fame
kind : and this is the effeCt of the enemies of the pro¬
per inhabitants.
It might appear that the parent fly, when flie had
formed a gall for the habitation'of her worm offspring,
had placed it in an impregnable fortrefs 5 but this is
not the cafe) for it frequently happens, that a fly, as
finali perhaps as that which gave origin to the gall,
produces a worm which is of the carnivorous kind, as
the other feeds on vegetable juices. This little fly,
08 ] ' OAR
well knowing that where there is one of thefe protu¬
berances on a leaf, there is a tender and defencelefs xn-
feCI within, pierces the fides of the gall, and depofites
her egg within it. This, when it hatches into a worm,
feeds upon the proper inhabitant ) and finally, after
devouring it, pafles into the chryfalis ftate, and thence
appears in the forixr of its parent fly, and is feen mak¬
ing its way out of the gall, in the place of the proper
inhabitant.
On opening thefe leaf-galls, which are properly the
habitation only of one animal, it is common to find
two, the ftronger preying upon the body of the other,
and fucking its juices as it dees thofe of the leaf;
often it is found wholly employed in devouring its un¬
offending neighbour at once : this is probably the cafe
when its time of eating is nearly over : and, in fine,
when we find the gall inhabited by only one inleCl, or
containing only one chryfalis, as it ought in its natu¬
ral flate to do, we axe never certain that this is the
proper inhabitant, as it may be one of thefe deftroy-
ers who has eaten up the other, and fupplied its place.
See Aphis, Entomology Index.
Oak Saw-dijt is now found to anfwer the purpofes
of tanning, as well, at leaft, as the bark. See Tan¬
ning.
Oak of Jerafulem. See Chenopodium, Botany Index.
OAKHUM, Ockham, or Oakum, in fea-language^
denotes the matter of old ropes untwifted and pulled-
out into loofe hemp, in order to be ufed in caulking
the Teams, tree nails, and bends of a fliip, for flopping
or preventing leaks.
OAKHAMPTON, a town of Devonfliire, which
fends two members to parliament 5 fituated in W. Long.
4. 5. N. Lat. 50. 48.
OANNES, a being in Chaldean mythology, repx-e-
fented as half a man and half a filh. According to
Berofus and other fabulous writers, tills monfter was
the civilizer of the Chaldeans 5 to whom he taught a
fyftem of jurifprudence fo perfeft as to be incapable
of improvement. In difehargiug the duties of his of¬
fice, he fpent the day on dry land, but retired every
night into the ocean or the river. See Mythology,
N° 25.
OAR, a long piece of timber, flat at one end and
round or fquare at the other ; and which being ap¬
plied to the fide of a floating veffel^ ferves to make it
advance upon the water.
That part of the oar which is out of the veffel, and
which enters into the water, is called the blade, or
wajh-plat; and that which is within board is termed
the loom, whofe extremity being fmall enough to ba
grafped by the rowers, or perfons managing the oars,
is called the handle.
To puflx the boat or veffel forwards by means of
this inftrument, the rowers turn their backs forward,-
and, dipping the blade of the oar in the water, pull
the handle forward fo that the blade at the fame time
may move aft in the water : but fince the blade cannot
be fo moved, without ftriking the water, this impullion
is the fame as if the water were to flrike the blade from-
the ftern towards the head : the veffel is therefore necef-
farily moved according to this direction. Hence it fol¬
lows, that ftie will advance with the greater rapidity,
by as much as the oar ftrikes the water more forcibly.
Thus it is evident, that an oar a£ls upon the fide of a
boat
Oariftus
II
Oath.
OAT [i
boat or veffel like a lever of the fecond clafs, whofe ful¬
crum is the ftation upon whicli tlie oar refts on the boat’s
rrunn^l. In large veflels, this ftation is ufually called
the row-port; but in lighters and boats it is always term¬
ed the row-loci. .
OAR I ST US, or Oaristys, a term in the Greek
poetry, fignifying a dialogue between a hufband and his
wife-, fuch as that in the fixth book of the Iliad betVveen
Heftor and Andromache.
Scaliger obferves, that the oariftus is not properly any
particular little poem, or entire piece of poetry but al¬
ways a part of a great one. He adds, that the panage
now cited in Homer is the only proper oariftus extant m
the ancient poets. . , -jar
OASIS, the name of a fertile fpot m the midd o* a
fandy defert. Many of thofe fpots, or oafes, in the
African deferts are remarkable for their fertility.
OAT. See A VENA, Botany Index.
Mr Bruce gives the following account of the oats
which he found growing wild in Arooffi, a foiall terri¬
tory in Abyffinia, not far from the fource of the Nile :
“ Wild oats (fays he) grow up here fpontaneoufly to a
prodigious height and frze, capable often of concealing
both the horfe and his rider, and fome of the ftalks
beino- little elfe than an inch in circumference. They
have* when ripe, the appearance of fmall canes.. I he
inhabitants make no fort of ufe of this grain m any
period of its growth: the uppermoft thin hulk or it is
beautifully variegated with a changeable purple colour ;
the tafte is perfectly good. I often made the meal into
cakes in remembrance of Scotland.” Our author in¬
forms us, that the Abyflinians could never be brought
to relifh thefe cakes, which they faid were bitter, burnt
their ftomachs, and made them thirfty. He is, Hwe\ er,
decidedly of opinion, that the wild oat of AroolFi is Ge
oat in its original ftate} and that it has degenerated
everywhere in Europe.
OATH, an affirmation or promife, accompanied with
an invocation of God to witnefs what we fay.-, and with
an imprecation of his vengeance, or a renunciation ot his
favour, if what we affirm be falfe, or what we promile
be not performed (a).
09 ] OAT
The laws of all civilized ftates have required the ^
fecurity of an oath for evidence given in a court of juf-
tice, and on other occafions oi high importance (RJ j
and the Chriftian religion utterly prohibits fwearing,
except when oaths are required by legal authority.
Indeed no ferious and reflefting theift, whether he ad¬
mit the truth of revelation or not, can look upon
fwearing on trivial occafions as any thing elfe than a
fm of a very heinous nature. To call upon that in¬
finite and omniprefent Being, who created and fu -
tains the univerfe, to witnefs all the impertinence ot
idle converfation, of which great part is commonly ut¬
tered at random, betrays a fpirit fo profane, that nothing
ftiort of experience could make us believe it poffible lor
a creature endowed with reafon and refletlion to be ha¬
bitually guilty of a practice d impious. .No man can
plead in extenuation of this crime, that he is tempted, to
fwear by the importunity of any appetite or paihon im¬
planted in the human breaft: for the utterance or a
profane oath communicates no pleafure and removes no
uneafinefs : it neither elevates the fpeaker nor depiekes
tlic liCcifcr*
Quakers and Moravians, fwayed by thefe confidera-
tions, and by the fenfe which they put upon certain
texts of Scripture, refufe to fwear upon any occafion,
even at the requifition of a magiftrate, and in a court
of juftice. Thefe fcruples are groundlefs •, and teem
to proceed from an incapacity to diftinguiffi. between
the proper ufe and abufe of fwearing. It is unque-
ftionably impious to call upon God to witnefs imper¬
tinences, or to ufe his tremendous name as a mere ex¬
pletive in converfationbut it by no means follows,.
that we may not piourly call upon him to witnefs
truths of importance, or invoke his name with, reve¬
rence and folemnity. No individual could, without
grofs profanenefs, pray for a thoufand times more
wealth than he may ever have occafion to ufe *, but it
was never thought profane to pray “ day by day for
our daily bread, for rain from heaven, and fruitful lea-
fons.” If it be lawful to alk of God thefe. earthly
bleffings, becaufe he alone can bellow them ; it cannot
furely be unlawful, where the lives or properties of
Oath.
(A) The word oath is a corruption of the Saxon eotp I* is often in England called a corporal oath, becaufe,
doubtlefs very remarkable, that the grand impoftor Mahomet taught the Modems, n.t t e ^ ^
circumftance happened about the year ot t e y j b •Tr,orrln:ncr it nroceeded from interefted marriages
The cenfors of this year obferving.the population d.echnmg, and imag^ ^ other Jw
•and promifeuous cohabitation, obliged all 16 citizens o wear, g occalioned many domeftic ruptures,
than that of peopling the -public. It raifed Wver, ^ hi/oath to divorce his
Among the reft, one Carvihus Ruga, a man of diftmfiion, imagined ^at ‘le was y
H by --ft plrfoS'r^a t°0 tLm; and on that ,ve know they founded their hopW
of fuccefs in wTar.
Orth.
OAT [ x
 y—«_ r,m ne#t>Gurs, or the fecurity of government is con¬
cerned to invoke him with reverence to witnefs the
truth of our affertions, or the fincerity of our intentions :
becaufe of our truth m many cafes, and of our fmcerity
in all, none but he can be the witnefs.
J he text of Scripture upon which the Quakers
chiefly reft their argument for the unlawfulnefs of all
wearing under the gofpel, is our Saviour’s prohibi¬
tion (Mat. v. 34.) : “ I fay unt0 yOU> fwear not at au «
^ut whoever fhall take the trouble of turning over his
^7. e’ ,and Poking at the context, will perceive, that
it is only in ordinary converfation, and by no means in
courts ox juftice, that our Lord prohibits his follow¬
ers rom fwearing at all. There is no evidence what¬
ever, that fwearing by heaven, by the earth, by Jerufa-
lem or by their own heads, was the form of a judicial
* See Whit Y1 u^e among the Jews. On the contrary, we are
by on the told Maimomdes*, that “ if any man fwear by hea-
Place. vei| or hy earth, yet this is not an oath j” 'ivhich fure-
ly he could not have faid, had fuch been the forms of
judicial fwearing. _ Indeed _ they could not have ad¬
mitted fuch forms into their courts without exprefsly
violating the law of Mofes, Who commands them to
r ear the Lord (Jehovah) their God, to ferve him,
and to fwear by his NAME.” But the Jews, as every
one knows, had fuch a reverence for the name Jeho¬
vah, that they would not pronounce it on flight occa-
fions, and therefore could not fwear by that°name in
common converfation. Hence, to gratify their pro-
penfity to common fwearing. they invented fuch oaths
as, by heaven, by earth, by Jerufalem, by the life of thy
head, &c. and by this contrivance they thought to
avoid the guilt of profaning the name Jehovah.
Thefe, however, being appeals to infenfible objefts,
either had no meaning, or were in faff, as our Sa¬
viour juftly argues, oaths by that God whofe crea¬
tures they were 5 fo that the Jew who (wore them
was ftill guilty of profanenefs towards the very Jeho¬
vah whofe name his fuperftition -would not permit him
to pronounce. But what puts it beyond all doubt
that the ufe of judicial oaths is not wholly prohibited
m the gofpel, is the conduft of our Saviour himfelf as
well as of his apoftle St Paul. When Jefus was
imply a/hed by the high prieft, what it was which
certain falfe witneffes teftified agairift him ? we are
told by the evangelifts, that “ he held his peace
but being adjured by the living God to declare whe¬
ther he was the Chrift,'the Son of God, or not, he
Immediately anfwered the high prieft, without objecting
to the oath (for fuch it was) upon which he was ex-
* Paley's amined. “ St Paul, ih his Epiftle to the Romans f
Moral Phi- fays, ‘ God is my witnefs, that, without ceafmg, I make
yW mention of you in my prayers and to the Corinthians
ftill more ftrongly, ‘ I call God for a record upon my
foul, that, to fpare you, I came not as yet to Corinth:
Both thefe expreflions are of the nature of oaths j and
the author of the Epiftle to the Hebrews fpeaks of the
cuftom of fwearing judicially without any mark of cen-
fure or difapprobation : ‘ Men verily fwear by the great¬
er ; and an oath, for confirmation, is to them an end of
all ftrife.”
But though a nation has an undoubted right to re¬
quire the fecurity of an oath upon occafions of real im¬
portance, we do not hefitate to fay, that, in our opinion,
it is fomething worfe than bad policy to multiply oaths,
10 ]
OAT
andto ho’xd out to the people temptations to peijure Oath.
themfelves. I he fecunty which an oath affords, de-^ y-—'
pends entirely upon the reverence which attaches to it
m the mind of him by whom it is given ; but that re-
verence us much weakened by the frequency of oaths,
and by the carelefs manner in which they are too often
admim iciv. . An excellent moral!ft f obferves, with £ Mr Patey,
truth that “the levity and frequency with which oaths '
are admmiftered has brought about a general inadver¬
tency to the obligation of them, which both in a re¬
ligious and political view is much to be lamented : and
it merits (continues he) public confideration, whether
the requiring of oaths on fo many frivolous occafions
Specially m the cuftoms, and in the qualification for
petty offices, has any other effefl than to make them
cheap in the minds of the people. A pound of tea can¬
not travel regularly from the ftiip to the confumer with¬
out coftmg half a dozen oaths at leaft j and the fame fe¬
curity for the due difcharge of his office, namely that of
an oath, is required from a church warden and an arch-
bifop, from a petty confable and the chiefjufice of Eng¬
land. Let the law continue its own fan&ions, if they
be thought requifite j. but let it fpare the folemnity of
an oath : and where it is neceffary, from the want of
iomethmg better to depend upon, to accept a man’s
own word or own account, let it annex to prevarica¬
tion penalties proportioned to the public Confequence of
the offence.”
That thefe pernicious confequences of frequent oaths
are not felt only in England, we have the evidence of
another, refpe&able writer, whofe acutenefs well qua¬
lified him to obferve, whilft his ftation in fociety fur-
mffied him with the belt opportunities of obferving,
the effedts of repeated fwearing upon the morals of
Scotchmen. “ Cuftomhoufe oaths (fays Lord Karnes*) * cx , ,
have become fo familiar among us, as to be fwallowed
without, a wry face 5 and is it certain that bribery and/o'y of
perjury in ele&ing parliament members are not approach-Man’
mg to the fame cool ftate ? Men creep on to vice by de¬
grees. Perjury, in order to fupport a friend, has be¬
come cuftomary of late years j witnefs fictitious quali¬
fications in the electors of parliament-men, which are
made effeaual by perjury: yet fuch is the degeneracy
of the prefent times, that no man is the worfe thought
of upon that account. We muft not flatter ourfelves,
that the poifon will reach no farther : a man who bog¬
gles not at perjury to ferve a friend, will in time be¬
come fuch an adept, as to commit perjury in order to
ruin a friend when he becomes an enemy.”
Befides the frequency of oaths, we have mentioned
the irreverent manner in which they are too often ad-
mmiftered as one of the caufes which make them cheap
in the eftimation of the people. In this view, the
form of the oath, and the ceremonies with which it is
required to be taken, are of confiderable importance.
“ The forms of oaths in Chriftian countries (fays Mr
Paley) are very different 5 but in none I believe worfe.
contrived either to convey the meaning or to imprefs
the obligation of an oath, than in England. In that
country.the juror, after repeating the promife or affirma¬
tion which the oath is intended to confirm, adds, ‘ fo
help me God 5’ or more frequently the fubftance of the
oath is repeated to the juror by the officer or magiftrate
who adminifters it; adding in the conclufion, ‘ fo help
you God.’ The energy of the fentence refides in the
particle
OAT [ii
Oath. particle fo ; fo, i. e. hac lege, ‘ upon condition of my
—v~—' fpeaking the truth, or performing this promife, may Gcd
help me, and not other-wife.’ The juror, whilft he hears
or repeats the wTords of the oath, holds his right hand
upon a Bible, or other book containing the four gofpels.
The conclufion of the oath fometimes runs, ‘ ita ??ie
Deus adjuvet, et lute JanHa evangeha,"1 or ‘ fo help me
God, and the contents of this book which laft claufe
forms a connexion between the words and action of the
juror, which before was wanting. The juror then kilfes
the book.”
This obfeure and elliptical form, the excellent au¬
thor juftly obferves, is ill calculated to imprefs the
juror with reverence : and he feems to think great
preference due to the form of judicial oaths in Scot¬
land. In that country the juror holds up his right
hand towards heaven, and fwears by Almighty God,
and as he fhall anfwer to God at the great day of
judgement, “ that he will tell the truth, the whole
truth, and nothing but the truth, fo far as he knows, or
it fhall be afked of him.” This, if adminiftered with
dignity and reverence, is an oath fufficiently folemn
N and well calculated to have the proper effect upon the
mind of the juror, as it brings immediately into his
view the Author of his being, and the awful day of final
retribution when every man fhall receive the things
done in his body according to that he hath done, whe¬
ther it be good or evil. But when the magiflrate, as
is too often the cafe, repeats this folemn invocation
without riling from his feat at the name of the Su¬
preme Being, and in a tone of careleffnefs which may
convey to the ignorant juror an opinion that he has
kimfelf no ferious belief that there ever will be a great
day of judgement, the form, howrever excellent, makes
not its full impreffion.
But let us fuppofe the oath to be adininiifered with
the greatefl dignity and reverence, the words of the
promife itfelf appear to us by no means unexception¬
able. In a trial on life and death, we fhould be glad
to know what this oath binds the witnefs to declare.
Is he to tell all that he knows touching the matter in
queflion ? or only all that fhall be ajhed of him ? If
he be obliged, in virtue of his oath, to tell all that he
knows, the claufe—“ or it fhall be afked of you” is
fuperfluous, and calculated to miflead. If he be bound
to tell nothing more of the truth than what fhall be
afked of him, the word or fhould be changed into and;
he fhould fwear “ to tell the truth, &c. fo far as he
knows, and it fhall be afked of him.” The court, we
believe, confiders the witnefs as bound to declare every
thing which he knows touching the matter in queflion.
The greater part of watneffes, on the other hand, con-
fider themfelves as bound no farther by their oath than
to give true anfwers to fuch queflions as fhall be afked
of them. They would do -well, however, to remember,
that as oaths are deflgned for the fecurity of the public,
they muft be interpreted in the fenfe in which the pu¬
blic intends them, otherwife they afford no fecurity.
But the fenfe of the public is the law ; and as it be¬
longs to the court to declare what the mind of the law
is, the witnefs, who has any doubt concerning the extent
of the obligation impofed on him by the wrords of this
oath, fhould apply to the court for a folution of that
doubt, which will be a fafe guide to him refpecling the
evidence which he is to give. Should the court, in re-
i ] OAT
folving the doubts of a witnefs, give an opinion concern- Oatfi..
ing the fenfe of any other part of the oath contrary to
what he apprehends to be the defign of the law in im-
pofing it, he is bound to difregard fuch opinion; becaufe
it is only where he himfelf is doubtful that the court has
a right to interfere, and becaufe in all moral queflions
men muft be finally determined by their own judgement
and confcience.
There is one cafe, and but one, in which, whatever
fenfe be put upon the words of the oath, no witnefs is
obliged to declare the whole truth. It is wrhen fuch
declaration would tend to accufe himfelf of fome legal
crime ; for as the laws of Scotland and England con-
ftrain no man to become his own accufer, they mult
be confidered as impofing the oath of teftimony with
this tacit refervation. “ The exception, however f, f Paley'j
mull; be confined to legal crimes. A point of honour, Moral Phi-
of delicacy, or of reputation, may make a witnefs back- hfopty'
ward to dlfdofe fome circumflance w ith which he is
acquainted; but is no excufe for concealment, unlefs
it could be fhown, that the law which impofes the
oath, intended to allow this indulgence to fuch mo¬
tives. The exception is alfo withdrawn by compaft
between the magiftxate and the witnefs, wdien an ac¬
complice is admitted to give evidence againft the part¬
ners of his crime.” But thefe are a fort of witneffes ta
whom a fenfible jury will always liflcn with a very
cautious ear.
Oaths are either ajfertory or promijfory. Affertory
oaths are required both to confirm our veracity in
evidence, and to give fecurity to the public that we
believe certain propofitions conceived to be of public,
importance. An oath in evidence binds the juror to
declare what he knows to be true, and nothing but
what he knows to be true. An oath required to af-
fure the public of our belief in the truth of any propo-
fition, cannot, without the guilt of perjury, be taken
by any man, who, at the time of fwearing, has the
flighteft doubt whether the propofition be really true.
Such an oath, however, though it unqueftionably re¬
quires the fincerity of the juror’s belief at the time
wdien it is given, cannot oblige him to continue in that
belief as long as he may live ; for belief is not in any
man’s powrer : it is the neceffary ccnfequence of evi¬
dence, which compels the affent of the mind according
as it appears to preponderate on the one fide or on the
other. No man, therefore, can be juftly accufed of
perjury for holding opinions contrary to thofe which,
he may formerly have fworn to believe } becaufe his
belief at the time of emitting his oath may have been,
the neceflary refult of the evidence which then, ap¬
peared before him ^ and his change of opinion may
have refulted with the fame neceftity from faperior
evidence which had been ftnee throw n into the oppofite •
fcale, and made it preponderate. On this account, we
cannot help thinking, that all affertory oaths, except
fuch as are neceffary to confirm teftimony refpeeting
faBs, ought either to be abolifhed or expreffed with
great caution. Of truths intuitively certain or capable
of rigid demonftration, no man of common fenfe can en¬
tertain a doubt *, and therefore the public never requires
from individuals the folemnity of an oath as an affurance
of their believing fuch truths. But with refpeft to
the truth of propofitions which admit of nothing fupe-
rior to moral evidence on either fide, a man of the molt
fteadv
■^ath
ii
Obed-
Edem.
O B E C II
fteady virtfie may think differently at different periods
of his life j and in fuch cafes, the effedt of an oath, if
it have any effecf, can only be either, to Ihut the man’s
^ eyes againtt the light, or to make his integrity be caule-
lefsly queffioned by thofe who (hall obferve his change ot
belief.
Promiffory oaths cannot, without the guilt of perju¬
ry, be given by him, who, at the time of Iwearing,
knows that it will not be in his power to fulfil the pro-
mife, or who does not ferioufly intend to fulfil it. A
promiffory oath cannot, without great guilt, be given
by any man, who at the time of wearing believes the
objeft of the promife to be in itfelf unlawful j for if he
ferioufly mean to* fulfil his oath, he calls upon Almighty
God to witnefs his intention to commit a crime. Pro¬
miffory oaths give to the public greater fecurity than a
Ample promife ; becaufe the juror having the thoughts
of God and of religion more upon his mind at the one
time than at the other, offends with a higher hand, and
in more open contempt of the divine power, knowledge,
and juffice, when he violates an oath, than when he
breaks a promife. Yet it is certain that promiffory oaths,
though more folemn and facred, cannot be binding,
when the promife without an oath would not be fo in
an inferior degree 5 for the feveral cafes of which, fee
Promise and Allegiance.
Coronation 0ATH. See King.
. OATHLAW, the name of a pariih in .Angus,
about two miles from Forfar, chiefly remarkable for
the remains of a Roman camp called Battle-dykes (vul¬
garly Black-dykes'), which is about a mile well of the
church.
OBADIAH, or the Crophecy of Obadiah, a cano¬
nical book of the Old Teftament, which is contained in
one Angle chapter ; and is partly an invedlive againlt
the cruelty of the Edomites, who mocked and derided
the children of Ifrael as they pafled into captivity ; and
with other enemies, their confederates, invaded and op-
preffed thofe ffrangers, and divided the fpoil ainongff.
themfelves 5 and partly a predidfion of the deliverance
of Ifrael, and of the victory and triumph of the whole
church over her enemies.
Obadiah, the prophet, is believed to have been the
fame with the governor of Ahab’s houfe, mentioned in
the firfi: book of Kings, (xviii. 3, &c.) who hid and fed
the hundred prophets whom Jezebel would have deftroy-
ed ; and fome fay, that he was that Obadiah whom
jofiah made overfeer of the works of the temple,
(2 Chron. xxxiv. 12.). The truth is, that when he
lived or prophefied is wholly uncertain : though molt
writers make him cotemporary with Hofea, Amos, and
Joel.
Obadiah, a valiant man of David’s army, wTho came
to join him in the vildernefs, with feveral others of the
tribe of Gad, (1 Chron. xii. 9.).
This was alfo the name of one of thofe whom King
Jehofhaphat fent into the cities of Judah to inftrudt the
people in their religion, (2 Chron. xvii. 7.). It was al¬
fo the name of one of the principal men of Judah, who
figned the covenant that Nehemiah renewed with the
Lord, (Nehem. x. 5.).
OBED-EDOM, fon of Jeduthun, a Levite, (1 Chr.
xvi. 38.) and father of Shemaiah, Jehozabad, Joah,
Sacar, Nathaneel, Ammiel, Iffachar-, and Peulthai. He
had a numerous family, fays the Scripture, {1 Chron.
4
2 ] O B E
xxvi. 4.) becaufe the Lord bleffed him ; and this is the Gbeliik,
occafion of the bleffing. When David transferred the  v~“'
ark of the covenant to the city of Jerufalem, Uzzah ha¬
ving rafhly laid hands on the ark, which he thought to
be in danger of falling, was fmitten of God, and died
upon the fpot. David, terrified at this accident, durlb
not remove the ark into the place he had provided for
it in his own houfe, but fet it up in the houfe of Obed-
edom, which was near the place where Uzzah had been
ftruck dead. But the prefence of the ark not only cre¬
ated no temporal misfortune to the family of this Levite,
but, on the contrary, the Lord heaped upon him all
forts of bleflings •, which encouraged David lome months
after to remove it to the place he had appointed for it.
Afterwards Obed-edom and his fens were afligned Lobe
keepers of the doors of the temple, (1 Chron. xv. 18,
21.). In the fecond book of Samuel, (vi. 10.) Obed-
edom is called the Gittite, probably becaufe he was of
Gathrimmon, a city of the Levites beyond Jordan,
(Jofli. xxi. 24, 25.).
OBELISK, in ArclnteElure, a truncated, quadran¬
gular, and flender pyramid, railed as an ornament, and
frequently charged either with inlcriptions or hierogly¬
phics.
Obelilks appear to be of very great antiquity, and to
have been firlt raifed to tranfmit to pofferity precepts of
philofophy, which were cut in hieroglyphical charac¬
ters : afterwards they were ufed to .immortalize the
great aftions of heroes, and the memory of perfons be¬
loved. The firfi: obelilk mentioned in hiftory was that
of Ramp/es king of Egypt, in the time of the Trojan
war, which wras 40 cubits high. Phius, another king
of Egypt, raifed one of 55 cubits $ and Ptolemy Phila-
delphus, another of 88 cubits, in memory of Arfinoe.
Auguftus erefted one at’ Rome in the Campus Martius,
which ferved to mark the hours on a horizontal dial,
drawn on the pavement. They w7ere called by the E~
gyptian priefis But fingers of the fun, becaufe they were
made in Egypt alfo to ferve as ftyles or gnomons to
mark the hours on the ground. The Arabs ftill call
them Pharaoh's needles ; whence the Italians call them
aguglia, and the French aiguilles.
The famous obeiifks called the devil's arrows, now
reduced to three, the fourth having been taken down
in the laft century, ftand about half a mile from the
town of Borough-Bridge to the fouth-weft, in three
fields, feparated by a lane, 200 feet afunder, nearly on
high ground Hoping every wmy. Mr Drake urges many
arguments for their Roman antiquity, and plainly proves
them to be natural and brought from Plumpton quar¬
ries about five miles off, or from Ickly 16 miles off.
The crofs in the town, 1 2 feet high, is of the fame
kind of ftone. The eaftermoft or higheft is 22 feet
and a half high by 4 broad, and 14 J in girth ; the fe¬
cond 21 i by 55-i- ; the third by 84. Stukeley’s
meafures differ. The flutings are cut in the ftfine but
not through : the tailed: hands alone, and leans to the
fouth. Plot and Stukeley affirm them to be Britiffi mo¬
numents, originally hewn fquare. Dr Gale luppofed
that they were Mercuries, which have loft their heads
and inferiptions ; but in a MS. note in his Antoninus,
he acknowledges that he was mifinfermed, and that there
was no cavity to receive a buft.
On the north fide of Penrith, in the churchyard, are
two fouare obelilks, of a Angle ftone each, 11 or 12 feet
•high.
obj-a
il
Oblati.
O B L [I
higli, about t; inches diameter, and 12 by 8 at the
hdes, the higheft about 1 8 inches diameter, with fome-
thing like a tranlverfe piece to each, and mortifed into
round bale. They are 14 feet afunder, and between
them is a grave enclofed between four femicircular ftones
of the unequal lengths of five, fix, and four and a half,
and two feet high, having on the outfides rude carving,
and the tops notched. This is called the Giant's grave,
imd atcrioed to Sir Ewan Cselarms, who is faid to have
ucen as tail as one of the columns, and capable of
i! retching his arms from one to the other •, to have de¬
ployed robbers and wild boars in Englewood foreft ;
and to have bad a hermitage hereabouts called Sir
Hugh's parlour; but the conjectures refpectin g them
a e extremely various and contradictory. * A little to
t :e wed of theie is a ftone called the Giant's Thumb,
fix reet high, 14 inches at the bafe contracted to 10,
which is no more than a rude crofs, fuch as is at Long-
town in Cumberland and ellewhere j the circle of the
end's 18 inches diameter.
Near the town of Forres in the north of Scotland
there is a very fine obelilk, 22 feet in height, known
by the name of the bar res pillar, or Sweno's flone. See
Forres.
M. Pouchard, in the memoirs of the Academy of In-
fc rip cions, gives a curious account of fome celebrated
1‘dypa-ui obelifks. See Gentleman’s Magazine for
June 174.3.
OBJECT, in Thilofophij, fomething apprehended or
prefented to the mind by fenfation or imagination. See
Metaphysics, Part I. Chap. I. SeCL II.
OBJECT G/afs of a Telefcope, or Microfcope, the glafs
placed at the end of the tube which is next the object.
See Optics and Microscope.
OBJECTION, fomething urged to overthrow a po-
fiiion, or a difficulty raifed again ft an allegation or pro¬
portion of a perfon we are difputing with.
OBJECTIVE, is fifed in the fchools, in fpeaking
of a thing which exifts no otherwife than as an object
known. I he exiftence of (uch a thing is faid to be ob¬
jective.
OBIT, (Lat.) fignifies a funeral folemnity, or office
for the dead, moft commonly, performed when the corpfe
lies in the church uninterred : Alfo the anniverfary of¬
fice^, (2 Cro. 51 Dyer 313). The anniverfary of any
perlbn’s death was called the obit; and to obferve fuch
clay with prayers and alms, or other commemoration,
yus the keeping of the obit. In religious houfes they
had a regifter, wherein they entered the obits or obitual
days of their founders and benefactors •, which was
thence termed the obituary. The tenure of obit or
chantry lands is taken away and extinct by 1 Edw. VI.
c. 14. and 1 7 Car. II. c. 9.
OBL ATE, flattened orfhortened ; as an oblate fphe-
roul, having its axis ffiorter than its middle diameter ;
being formed by the rotation of an ellipfe about the
fiiorter axis. The earth, whofe polar diameter is fliort-
cr than the equatorial, is an oblate fpheroid.
OBL A I I, in church hiftory, were fecular perfons,
who devoted(themfelves and their eftates to fome mo-
naftery, into which they were admitted as a kind of lay
brothers. I he form of their admiffion was putting the
beft rones of the church round their necks, as a mark
O' lervitude. I hey wore a religious habit, but difter-
ent from that of the monks.
Vol. XV. Part I.
13 ] O B O
OBLIGATION, in general, denotes any aft where- Obligaticw
by a perfon becomes bound to another to do fome- II
thing ; as to pay a fum of money, be furety, or the Qbod!' .
like.
Obligations are of three kinds, viz. natural, civil,
and mixed. Natural obligations are entirely founded on
natural equity •, civil obligations on civil authority alone,
without any foundation in natural equity ; and mixed
obligations are thofe which, being founded on natural
equity, are farther enforced by civil authority.
In a legal fenfe, obligation fignifies a bond, wherein
is contained a penalty, with a condition annexed, for
the payment of money, &c.' The difference between
it and a bill is, that the latter is generally without a
penalty or condition, though it may be made obliga¬
tory : and obligations are fometimes by matter of re¬
cord, as ftatutes and recognizances. See the article
Bond.
Moral Obligation. See Moral Philosophy,
N° 58, &c.
OBLIQUE, in Geometry, fomething afiant, or that
deviates from the perpendicular. Thus an oblique angle
is either an acute or obtufe one, i. e.' any angle except
a right one.
OBLIQUE Cafes, in Grammar, are all the cafes ex¬
cept the nominative. See Grammar.
OBLIQUE Afeenfon, is that point of the equinoftial
which rifes with the centre of the fun, or ftar, or any
other point of the heavens, in an oblique fphere.
OBLIQUE Circle, in the ftereographic projeftion, is
any circle that is oblique to the plane of projeftion.
OBLIQUE Defcenfon, that point of the equinoftial
which lets with the centre of the fun, or ftar, or any
other point of the heavens, in an oblique fphere.
OBLIQUE Line, that which, falling on another line,
makes oblique angles with it, viz. one acute, and the
other obtule.
OBLIQUE Tlanes, in Dialling, are thofe which de¬
cline from the zenith, or incline towards the horizon.
See Dial.
OBLIQUE Sailing, in Navigation, is when a ffiip fails
upon fome rhumb between the four cardinal points,
making an oblique angle with the meridian; in which
cafe Hie continually changes both latitude and longitude.
See Navigation, Chap. VIII.-
OBLIQUUS, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral
mufcles, particularly in the head, eyes, and abdomen.
See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
OBLONG, in general, denotes a figure that is long¬
er than broad 5 fuch is a parallelogram.
OBOLARIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Terfonatce. See Botany Index.
OBOLUS, an ancient filver money of Athens, the
fixth part of a drachma •, worth fomewhat more than a
penny-farthing fterling.—The word comes from the
Greek eSo/aj, or eosAaj, “ fpit, or broach •'' either be-
caufe it bore fuch an impreffion ; or becaufe, according
to Euftathius, it was in form thereof. But thofe now
in the cabinets of the antiquaries are round.
Obolus, in Medicine, is ufed for a weight of ten
grains, or half a fcruple.
OBOTH, an encampment of the Hebrews in the
wildernefs. From Punon they went to Ohoth, and
from Oboth to Ije-abarim, (Numb. xxi. 10. xxxiii. 43.).
P Ptolemy
O B S [ 114 ] OB S
Obfepti-
tious
Ptolemy fpeaks of a city called Oboda, or Eboda, in
Arabia Petraea, which is the fame as Oboth. Pliny
and the geographer Stephanus mention it alfo. Stepha-
nus makes it belong to the Nabathseans, and Pliny to
the Helmodeans, a people of Arabia. It was at Oboth
that they worfhipped the god Ooodus, wdiich Tertul-
lian joins with Dufares, another god or king of this
country.
OBREPTITIOUS, an appellation given to letters
patent, or other inftruments, obtained of a fuperior by
furprife, or by concealing from him the truth.
OBSCURE, fomething that is dark and ref!efts lit¬
tle light in material objefts, or that is not clear and in¬
telligible in the objefts of the intelleft.
OBSECRATION, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby
the orator implores the affiftance of God or man.
OBSEQUIES, the fame with funeral folemnities.
See Funeral.
OBSERVATION, among navigators, fignifies the
taking the fun’s or the ftars meridian altitude, in order
thereby to find the latitude.
OBSERVATORY, a place deftined for obferving
the heavenly bodiei; being generally a building ereft-
ed on fome eminence, covered with a terrace tor making
allronomical obfervations.
The more celebrated obfervatories are, i.Tbe Green¬
wich obfervatory, built in 1676, by order of Charles II.
at the felicitation of Sir Jonas Moore and Sir Chrifto-
pher Wren; and fund (bed with the moil accurate in-
ftruments 5 particularly a noble fextant of feven feet ra¬
dius, with telelcopic fights.
2. The Paris obfervatory, built by the order ox
Louis XIV. in the fauxbourg St Jacques.
It is a very lingular, and a very magnificent building,
the defign of Monfieur Perault: it is 80 feet high*, and
has a terrace at the top.
The difference in longitude between this and the
Greenwich obfervatory is 2° 20'.
In it is a cave or cellar, of 170 feet defeent, for ex¬
periments that are to be made far from the fun, &c.
particularly fuch as relate to congelations, refrigerations,
indurations, confervations, &c.
3. Tycho Brahe’s obfervatory, which was in the little
ifland Ween, or Scarlet Ifland, between the coafts of
Schonen and Zealand in the Baltic. It was erefted and
fumifhred with inftruments at his owm expence, and call¬
ed by him XJraniburg. Here he fpent twenty years in
obferving the ftars ; the refult is his catalogue.
4. Pekin obfervatory. Father Le Compte deferibes
a very magnificent obfervatory, erefted and furnifhed
by the late emperor of China, in his capital, at the in-
terceffion of fome Jefuit minion aides, principally Father
Verbeift,' whom he made his chief obferver. The in¬
ftruments are exceedingly large} but the divifion lefs
accurate, and the contrivance in fome refpefts lefs com¬
modious, than that of the Europeans. The chief are,
An armillary zodiacal fphere of fix feet diameter •, an
equinoftial fphere of fix feet diameter } an azimuthal ho¬
rizon of fix feet diameter ; a large quadrant fix feet ra¬
dius ; a fextant eight feet radius ; and a celeftial globe
fix feet diameter.
Obfervatories, as they are very ufeful, and indeed ab-
folutely neceflary for aftronomers, fo they have become
far more common than they were. There is a very ex¬
cellent one now at Oxford, built by the truftees of Dr
RadclifTe, at the expence of nearly 30,000!. At Cam- Obferva-
bridge there is as yet no public obfervatory. Over the
great gate of Trinity college, indeed, there is one y—~
which is called Sir Ifaac Hew toil's, becaufe this great
philofopher had ufed it; but it is gone to decay. It
were well if the univerfity would repair and preferve it
in memory of that truly great man. In St John’s', too,
there is a fmall one. The late ingenious Mr Cotes had
ufed to give lectures in Sir Ifaac Newton’s on experimen¬
tal philofophy. In Scotland there is an obfervatory at
Glafgow belonging to the univerfity : there is one ereft¬
ed on the Calton hill at Edinburgh ; but it is in very
bad repair, (fee Edinburgh) j and there is an excellent
one at Dublin.
5. Bramins obfervatory at Benares. Of this Sir Ro- Plate
bert Barker gives the following account, (Phil. Tranf. CCCLXX.
vol. Ixvii. p. 59S.). “ Benares in the Eaft Indies, one
of the principal feminaries of the Bramins or priefts of
the original Gentoos of Hindoftan, continues ftill to be
the place of refort of that feft of people 5 and there are
many public charities, hofpitals, and pagodas, where
fome thoufands of them now refide. Having frequently
heard that the ancient Bramins had a knowledge of
aftronomy, and being confirmed in this by their infor¬
mation of an approaching eclipfe both of the fun and
moon, I made inquiry, when at that place in the year
1772, among the principal Bramins, to endeavour to
get fome information relative to the manner in which
they were acquainted of an approaching eclipfe. The
moft intelligent that I could meet with, however, gave
me but little fatisfaftion. I was told, that thefe mat¬
ters were confined to a few, who were in poffefiion of
certain books and records 5 fome containing the myfte-
ries of their religion •, and others the tables of aftrono-
mical ©bfervations, written in the Shanfcrit language,
which few underftood but themfelves : that they would
take me to a place which had been conftrufted for the
purpofe of making fuch obfervations as I was inquiring
after, and from whence they fuppofed the learned Bra¬
mins made theirs. I was then condufted to an ancient
building of ftone, the lower part of which, in its pre-
fent fituation, was converted into a ftabie for horfes,
and a receptacle for lumber •, but by the number of
court-yards and apartments, it appeared that it muft
once have been an edifice for the ufe of fome public bo¬
dy of people. We entered this building, and went up
a ftaircafe to the top of a part of it, near to the river
Ganges, that led to a large terrace, where, to my fur¬
prife and fatisfaftion, I faw a number of inftruments yet
remaining, in the greateft prefervation, ftupendouily
large, immoveable from the fpot, and built of ftone,
fome of them being upwards of 20 feet in height; and
although they are faid to have been erefted 200 years
ago, the graduations and divifions on the feveral arcs
appeared as well cut, and as accurately divided, as if
they had been the performance of a modern artift. ft he
execution in the conftruftion of thefe inftrgments exhi¬
bited a mathematical exaftnefs in the fixing, bearing,
fitting of the feveral parts, in the necefiary and fufficient
fupports to the very large ftones that compofed them,
and in the joining and faftening each into the other by
means of lead and iron.
“ The fituation of the two large quadrants of the
inftrument marked A in the plate, whofe radius is nine
feet two inches, by their being at right angles with a
gnomon
O B S
Obferva- gnomcn at twenty-five degrees elevation, are thrown
tory. into fuch an oblique fituatibn as to render them the moll
difficult, not only to conllrucl of fuch a magnitude, but
to fecure in their pofition for fo long a period, and af¬
fords a Itriking inllance of the ability of the architeft in.
their conilruction : for by the ffiadow of the gnomon
thrown on the quadrants, they do not appear to have al¬
tered in the leall from their original pofition \ and fo
true is the line of the gnomon, that, by applying the
eye to a fmall iron ring of an inch diameter at one end,
the fight is carried through three others of the fame di-
menfion, to the extremity at the other end, diftant 38
feet 8 inches, without ob.truciion ; fach is the firmnefs
and art with which this inftrument has been executed.
This "performance is the more wonderful and extraordi¬
nary, when compared with the works of the artificers of
Hindoftan at this day, who are not under the immediate
diredlion of an European mechanic ; but arts appear to
have declined equally with fcience in the eaft.
“ Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, at that
time chief engineer in the Ealt India Company’s fervice
at Bengal, made a perfpeftive drawing of the whole of
the apparatus that could be brought within his eye at
one view j but I lament he could not reprefent fome
very large quadrants, whofe radii were about 20 feet,
they being on the fide from whence he took his draw¬
ing. Their defcription, however, is, that they are ex-
aft quarters of circles of different radii, the largefi: of
which I judged to be 20 feet, conllrufled very exactly
on the fides of Hone w'alls, built perpendicular, and fi-
tuated, I fuppofe, in the meridian of tire place : a brafs
pin is fixed at the centre or angle of the quadrant, from
whence, the Bramin informed me, they ftretched a wire
to the circumference when an obfervation was to be
made $ from which, it occurred to me, the obferver
muff have moved his eye up or down the circumference,
by means of a ladder or fome fuch contrivance, to rail'e
and lower himfelf, until he had difcovered the altitude
of any of the heavenly bodies in their paffage over the
meridian, fo exprefied on the arcs of thefe quadrants :
thefe arcs were very exactly divided into nine large fec-
tions 5 each of which again into ten, making ninety lef-
fer divifions or degrees ; and thofe alfo into twenty, ex-
prefling three minutes each, of about two-tenths of an
inch afunder •, fo that it is probable they had fome me¬
thod of dividing even thefe into more minute divifions
at the time of obfervation.
“ My time would only permit me to take down the
particular dimenfions of the moft capital inftrument, or
the greater equinoflial fun dial, reprefented by figure A,
which appears to be an inftrument to exprefs folar time
by the ftiadow of a gnomon upon two quadrants, one fi-
tuated to the eaft, and the other to the weft of it ; and
indeed the chief part of their inftruments at this place
appear to be conftrucled for the fame purpofe, except
the quadrants, and a brafs inftrument that will be de-
fcribed hereafter.
“ Figure B is another inftrument for the purpofe of
determining the exaft hour of the day by the ftiadow
of a gnomon, which Hands perpendicular to, and in the
centre of, a flat circular ftone, fupported in an oblique
fituation by means of four upright ftones and a crofs
piece j fo that the ffiadow of the gnomon, which is a
. v perpendicular iron rod, is thrown upon the divifion of
O B T
tile circle defcribed on the face of the flat circular Otfleiva-
ftone. t0ijy
“ Figure c is a brafs circle, about two feet diameter, obtufe.
moving vertically upon two pivots between two ftcne ——y—
pillars, having an index or hand turning round horizon¬
tally on the centre of this circle, which is divided into
360 parts; but there are no counter divifions on the in¬
dex to fubdivide thofe on the circle. This inftrument
'appears to be made for taking the angle of a ftar at fet-
ting or rifing, or for taking the azimuth or amplitude of
the fun at rifing or fetting.
“ The ufe of the inftrument, figure D, I was at a lofs
to account for. It confifts of two circular walls •, the
outer of which is about forty feet diameter, and eight
feet high *, the wall within about half that height, and
appears7 intended for a place to ftand on to obferve the
divifions on the upper circle of the cuter wall, rather
than for any other purpofe } and yet both circles are di¬
vided into 360 degrees, each degree being fubdivided
into twenty leffer divifions, the lame as the quadrants.
There is a door-way to pafs into the inner circle, and a
pillar in the centre, of the fame height with the lov/er
circle, having a hole in it, being the centre of both
circles, and feems to be a focket for an iron rod to be
placed perpendicular into it. The divifions on thefe, as
well as all the other inftruments, will bear a nice exami¬
nation with a pair of compaffes.
“ Figure E is a fmaller equinoctial fun dial, conftrucl¬
ed upon the fame principle as the large one A.
“ I cannot quit this fubjecl without obferving, that
the Bramins, without the affiftance of optical glaffes,
had neverthelefs an advantage unexperienced by the ob-
fervers of the more northern climates. The ferenity and
cleamefs of the atmofphere in the nighttime in the Eaft
Indies, except at the feafons of the monfoons or periodi¬
cal winds changing, is difficult to exprefs to thofe who
have not feen it, becaufe we have nothing in compari-
fon to form our ideas upon : it is clear to perfedlion, a
total quietude fubfifts, fcarcely a cloud to be feen, and
the light of the heavens, by the numerous appearance
of the ftar?, aflbrds a profpecl both of wonder and con¬
templation.
“ This obfervatory at Benares is faid to have been
built by the order of the emperor Ackbar : for as this
wife prince endeavoured to improve the arts, fo he
wiffied alfo to recover the fciences of Hindoftan, and
therefore diredled that three fuch places flrould be ereft-
ed; one at Delhi, another at Agra, and the third at
Benares.”
OBSIDIANUS lapis, or Obsidian, a mineral
fubftance. See Mineralogy Index.
OBSIDIONALIS, an epithet applied by the Ro¬
mans to a fort of crown. See the article Crown.
OBSTETRICS, or the Obstetric Art, the fame
with Midwifery.
OBSTRUCTION, in Medicine, luch an obturation
of the veffels as prevents the circulation of the fluids,
whether of the found and vital, or of the morbid and
peccant kind, through them.
OBTURATOR. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
OBTUSE, fignifies blunt, dull, &c. in oppofition
to acute or {harp. Thus we fay, obtufe angle, obtufe-
angled triangle, &c.
P 2 OBY,
[ 115 1
O C C [ I
Ot'7 OBY, or Ob, a large and famous river of Afiatic
<WrniLrv Rufria> wh:ch ilTues from the Altln lake (called by the
i —R ufl'ians Telejkoi Qfero), in latitude 52 degrees, and
longitude 103 degrees 30 minutes. Its name fignifies
Cyreat; and accordingly in Ruffia it is often flyled the
* treat River. The Calmucks and Tartars call it Umar.
Its dream is very large and fmooth, its current being
ufually How 5 and it is in general Jctween two and three
hundred fathoms broad} though in fome places it is
much wider. It affords plenty of filh, and is navigable
almoff to the lake from which it fprings. After a long
binding courfe through a vaft traft of land, in which it
forms feveral iflands, it empties itfelf in latitude 67 de¬
grees, and longitude 86 degrees, into a bay, which, ex¬
tending near 400 miles farther, joins the Icy fea, in la¬
titude 73. 30. and longitude 90. The fprings from
which thus river riles, are not very copious 5 but it re-
ceives in its courfe the waters of a great number of con-
fiderable ftreams. Of thefe, the Tom and the Irtis are
the molt confiderable : the Tom falls into it in latitude
58. and the Irtis in latitude 61. and longitude 86. The
exaiff courfe of this river was unknown till the country
was furveyed by the Ruffians } who have given us tole¬
rable maps of it and of all Siberia. The Oby forms the
boundary between Europe and Afia, and its courfe is
upwards of 2000 miles in length.
OCCIDENT, in Geographic the weftward quarter
of the horizon j or that part of the horizon where the
ecliptic, or the fun therein, defcends into the lower he-
mifphere 5 in contradiftin&ion to orient. Hence we ufe
the word occidental for any thing belonging to the weft ;
as occidental bezoar, occidental pearl, &c.
Occident EJhval, that point of the horizon where
the fun fets at midwinter, when entering the fio-n Ca¬
pricorn.
^ Occident EquinoBial, that point of the horizon
wnere the fun fets, when he croffes the equinoctial, or
enters the fign Aries or Libra.
OCCIPITAL, in Anatomy, a term applied to the
parts of the occiput, or back part of the flcull.
OCCUL1 , fomething hidden, fecret, or inviftble.
L he occult fciences are magic, necromancy, cabbala,
&y. Occult qualities, in philofophy, were thofe qua¬
lities of body or fpirit which baffled the inveftigation
of philofophers, and for which they were unable to
give any reafon j unwilling, however, to acknowledge
their ignorance, they deceived themfelves and the vul¬
gar by an empty title, calling what they did not know
occult.
Occult, in Geometry^ is ufed for a line that is fcarce
perceivable, drawn with the point of the compaffes or a
leaden pencil. Thefe lines are ufed in feveral opera¬
tions, as the raifing of plans, deftgns of building, pieces
of perfpeflive, &c. They are to be effaced when the
work is finiffied.
OCCULRATION, in Ajlronomy, the time a ftar or
planet is hid from our light, by the interpolation of the
body of the moon or fome other planet.
Blackfi. OCCUPANCY, in Law, is the taking poffeffion of
Comment, thofe things which before belonged to nobody. This
is the true ground and foundation of all Property,
or of holding thofe things in feveralty, which by the
law cf nature, unqualified by that of fociety, were
common to all mankind. But, when once it was a-
greed that every thing capable of ownerlhip fflould
6 ] O c C
have an owner, natural reafon fuggefted, that he who Occupancy,
could firlt declare his intention of appropriating any ‘"~~v—
thing to his ufe, and, in confequence of Inch his in¬
tention, adlually took it into poffeffion, fhould there¬
by gain the abfolute property of it 5 according to that
rule of the law of nations, recognized by the laws of
Rome, nulhus ejl, id rations naturah occupanti
conceditur.
I his right of occupancy, fo far as it concerns real
property, hath been confined by the laws of England
within a very narrow compafs ) and was extended only
to a fingle inftance; namely, where a man was tenant
pour autre vie, or had an eftate granted to himtelf only
(without mentioning his heirs) for the life of another
man, and died during the life of ccjiuy que vie, or him
by whofe life it was holden : in this cafe he that could
firft enter on the land, might lawfully retain the pol-
feffion fo long as cejluy que vie lived, by right of oc¬
cupancy.
I his feems to have been recurring to firft principles,
and calling in the law of nature to afcertain the pro¬
perly of the land, when left without a legal owner.
For it did not revert to the granter, who had parted
wi th all his intereft, fo long as cefsity que vie lived 5 it
did not elcheat to the lord of the fee } for all eicheats
muft be of the abfolute entire fee, and not of any par¬
ticular eftate carved out of it, much lefs of fo minute
a remnant as this : it did not belong to the grantee 5
for he was dead : it did not defeend to his heirs 5 for
there were no words of inheritance in the grant: nor
could it veft in his executors ; for no executors could
fucceed to a freehold. Belonging therefore to nobody,
like the hecreditas jacens of the Romans, the law left it
open to be feized and appropriated by the firft perfon
that could enter upon it, during the life of cejluy que
vir, under the name of an occupant. But there w as no
right of occupancy allowed, where the king had the re-
verfton of the lands : for the reverfioner hath an equal
right with any other man to enter upen the vacant pof¬
feffion ; and where the king’s title and a fubjeift’s inter¬
fere, the king’s Shall always be preferred. Againft the
king therefore there could be no prior occupant, becaufe
nullum tempus occurrit regi. And, even in the cafe of
a fubjeft, had the eftate pour autre vie granted to a man
and his heirs during the life of cejluy que vie, there the
heir might, and ftill may, enter and hold poffeffion, and
is called in law a fpeciai occupant ; as having a fpecial
exclufive right, by the terms of the original grant, to
enter upon and occupy this hcereditas jacens, during the
refidue of the eftate granted : though fome have thought
him fo called wfith no very great propriety 5 and that
fuch eftate is rather a defcendible freehold. But the
title of common occupancy is now reduced almoft to no¬
thing by twm ftatutes ; the one, 29 Car. II. c. 3. which
enaUs, that wdiere there is no fpecial occupant, in whom
the eftate may veft, the tenant pour autre vie may devife
it by will, or it fhall go to the executors, and be affets
in their hands for payment of debts: the other that of
14 Geo. II. c. 20. which ena6ts, that it fhall veft not
only in the executors, but, in cafe the tenant dies inte-
ftate, in the adminiftralors alfo ; and go in courfe of a
diftribution like a chattel intereft.
By thefe two ftatutes the title of common occupancy is
utterly extinft and abolifhed : though that of fpecial oc¬
cupancy, by the heir at law, continues to this day ; fuch
heir
O C C [ I
Ocraparey. tejng f^cceed to tlie anceftors edate, not
by dsfcent, for then he mull take an eftate of inheritance,
bat as an occupant, fpecially marked out and appointed
by the original grant. The doctrine of common occu¬
pancy may, however, be ufefully remembered on the
following account, amongft others : That, as by the
common law no occupancy could be of incorporeal he¬
reditaments, as of rents, tithes, advowfons, commons, or
the like, (becaufe, with refpect to them, there could be
no actual entry made, or corporal feiiin had ; and there¬
fore by the death of the grantee pour autre vie a grant
of fuch hereditaments was entirely determined) : fo now,
it is apprehended, notwithftanding thofe ftatutes, fuch
grant would be determined likewife ; and the heredi¬
taments could not be devifeable, nor veil in the execu¬
tors, nor eo in a courfe of diftribution. For the ftatutes
muft not be cor.itrued fo as to create any new eftate, or
to keep that alive which by the common law was deter¬
mined, and thereby to defeat the granter’s reverfion •,
bu t merely to difpofe of an intereft in being, to which
by law there was no owner, and which therefore was left
open to the fir ft occupant. When there is a reftdue
left, the ftatutes give it to the executors, &c. inftead of
the ftrlt occupant} but they will not create a reftdue
cn purpofe to give it to the executors. They only
mean to provide an appointed inftead of a cafual, a
certain inftead of an uncertain, owner, of lands which
before were nobody’s j and thereby to fupply this cafus
omi/fiis, and render the difpofition of the law in all re-
fpedis entirely uniform *, this being the only inftance
wherein a title to a real eftate could ever be acquired by
occupancy.
For there can be no other cafe devifed, wherein there
is not fome owner of the land appointed by the law.
In the cafe of a foie corporation, as a parfon of a church,
■when he dies or refigns, though there be no aEiual ow¬
ner of the land till a focceffor be appointed, yet there
is a legal, potential, ownerfhip, fubfifting in contempla¬
tion of law-- 5 and when the fucceftbr is appointed, hjs
appointment fhall have a retrofpecl and relation back¬
wards, fo as to entitle him to all the profits from the in-
ftant that the vacancy commenced. And, in all other
inftances, when the tenant dies inteftate, and no other
owner of the lands is to be found in the common courie
of defcents, there the law vefts an ownerfhip in the king,
or in the fubordinate lord of the fee, by efcheat.
So alfo, in fome cafes, where the laws of other nations
give a right by occupancy, as in lands newly created,
by the rifing of an bland in a river, or by the alluvion
or dereliction of the fea; in thefe inftances, the law of
England aftigns them an immediate owner. For Brac-
ton tells us, that if an iftand arife in the middle of a river,
it belongs in common to thofe who have lands on each
fide thereof} but if it be nearer to one bank than the
other, it belongs only to him who is proprietor of the
neareft ftiore : which is agreeable to, and probably co¬
pied from, the civil lawT. Yet this feems only to be
renfonable, where the foil of the river is equally divided
between the owners of the oppofite fhores : for if the
w'hole foil is the freehold of any one man, as it muft be
whenever a feveral fifoery is claimed, there it feems juft
(and fo is the ufual praflice) that the iflets, or little
iflands, ariftng in any part of the river, fhall be the pro¬
perty of him who owneth the pifcary and the foil.
However, in cafe a new iiland rife in the fea, though the
7 ] O C E
civil law gives it io the firft occupant, yet ours gives it Oct
to the king. And as to lands gained from the fea; (_
either by alluvion, by the walking up of fand and earth,
fo as in time to make terra frma ; or by dereliction, as
when the foa fhrinks back below the ufual water mark ;
in thefe cafes the law is held to be, that if this gain
be by little and little, by fmaii and imperceptible de¬
grees, it fhall go to the owner of the land adjoining.
For de minimis non curat lex : and, befides, thefe own¬
ers being often lofers by the breaking in of the fea, or
at charges to keep it out, this poffible gain is there¬
fore a reciprocal confideration for fuch poftible charge .
or lofs. But if the alluvion or dereliction be fudden
and coniidersble, in this cafe it belongs to the king :
for, as the king is lord of the fea, and fo owner of the
foil while it is covered with water, it is but reafonable
he fhould have the foil when the water has left it dry.
So that the qurniity of ground gained, and the time du¬
ring which it is gained, are what make it either the
king’s or the fubjeCt’s property. In the fame manner,
if a river, running between two lordthips, by degrees
gains upon the one, and thereby leaves the other dry ;
the owner who lofes his ground thus imperceptibly has
no remedy : but if the courfe of the river be changed
by a fodden and violent flood, or other hafty means,
arid thereby a man lofes his grounds, he fhall have what
the river has left in any other place as recompenfe
for this fudden lofs. And this law of alluvions and de-
relitlions, with regard to rivers, is nearly the fame in
the imperial law j from whence indeed thofe our deter¬
minations feem to have been drawn and adopted : but
we ourfelves, as iflanders, have applied them to marine
increafes 5 and have given our fovereign the prerogative
he enjoys, as well upon the particular reafons before
mentioned, as upon this other general ground of prero¬
gative, -which was formerly remarked, that whatever
hath no other owner is veiled by law in the king. See
Prerogative.
OCCUPANT, in Law, the perfon that firft; feizes-
or gets poffeflion of a thing.
OCCUPATION, in a legal fenfe, is taken for ufe
or tenure : as in deeds it is frequently faid, that fuch
lands are, or were lately, in the tenure or occupation
of fuch a perfon.—It is likewife ufed for a trade or
myftery.
OCCUPIERS of Walling, a term ufed in the
falt-works for the perfons who are the fworn officers--
that allot in particular‘places what quantity of fait is to
be made, that the markets may not be overftocked, and :
fee that all is carried fairly and equally between the lord
and the tenant.
OCE AN, that huge mafs of fait waters which en-
compaftes all parts of the globe, and by means of which,
in the prefent improved Hate of navigation, an eafy in-
tercourfe fubfifts between places the moil diftant.
The ocean is diftinguifhed into three grand divi-
fions. 1. The Atlantic ocean, which divides Europe
and Africa from America, which is generally about
3000 miles wide. 2. The Pacific ocean, or South fea,
which divides America from Afia, and is generally
about 10,000 miles over. And, 3. The Indian ocean,
which feparates the Eaft Indies from Africa : which is
3000 miles over. The other feas, which are called
oceans, are only parts or branches of thefe, and ufually-
receive their names foooa the countries they border upo i/
For
a c e [it
Jes For tlie faltnefs, tides, 6:c. of the ocean, fee the ar¬
ticles Sea, Tides, &c.
, OCEANt-DES, in fabulous hiftory, fea nymphs,
daughters of Oceanus, from whom they received their
name, and of the goddefs Tethys or Thetis. They
were 3000 according to Apollodorus, who mentions the
names of feven of them; Alia, Styx, Eleclra, Donis,
Eurynome, Amphitrite, and Metis*. Heiiod fpeaks of
the eldeft of them, which he reckons 41, Pitho, Adme-
te, Prynno, lanthe, Rhodia, Hippo, Callirhoe, Urama,
Clymene, Idyia, Pahthoe, Clythia, Zeuxo, Galuxaure,
Plexaure, Perfeis, Pluto, Thoe, Polydora, Melobofis,
Dione, Cerceis, Xanthe, Acafta, lanira, Teleftho, Euro-
pa, Meneftho, Petrsea, Eudora, Calypfo, Tyche, Ocy-
roe, Criua, Amphiro, with thofe mentioned by Apollo¬
dorus, except Amphitrite. Plyginus mentions 16, whofe
names are almoft all different from thofe of Apollodo¬
rus and Hefiod ; which difference proceeds from the mu¬
tilation of the original text. The Oceanides, like the
reft of the inferior deities, were honoured with libations
and facrifices. Prayers were offered to them, and they
were entreated to protect failors from ftorms and dange¬
rous tempefts. The Argonauts, before they proceeded
to their expedition, made an offering of flour, honey,
and oil, on the fea ftiore, to all the deities of the fea,
and facrificed bulls Jo them, and entreated their protec¬
tion. When the facrifice was made on the fea ftrore,
the blood of the vidlim was received in a veffel 5 but
when it was in open fea, they permitted the blood to
run down into the waters. When the fea was calm,
they generally offered a lamb or a young pig ; but if it
was agitated by the winds and rough, a black bull was
deemed the moft acceptable vidlim.
OCEANUS, in Pagan mythology, the fon of Coelus
and Terra, the hufband of Thetis, and the father of the
rivers and fountains, called Oceanides. The ancients
called him the Father of all things, imagining that he
was produced by Humidity, which, according to Thales,
wras the firft principle from which every thing was pro¬
duced. Homer reprefeuts Juno vifiting him at the re-
moteft limits of the earth, and acknowledging him and
Thetis as the parents of the gods. He was reprefented
with a bull’s head, as an emblem ef the rage and bel¬
lowing of the ocean when agitated by a ftorm.
According to Homer, he was the father even of all
the gods, and on that account he received frequent viftts
from them. He is often, indeed almoft always, repre¬
fented as an old man With a long* flowing beard, and fit¬
ting upon the waves of the fea. He often holds a pike
in his hand, while ftiips under fail appear at a diftance,
or a fea monfter Hands near him. Oceanus prefided
over every part of the fea, and even the rivers were fub-
iedled to his power. The ancients were fuperftitious in
their worfhip of him, and revered with great folemnity
a deity to whofe care they intrufted themfelves when go¬
ing on any voyage.
OCEIA, a woman who prefided over the facred rites
ofVeftafor 97 years with the greateft fanclity. She
died in the reign of Tiberius, and the daughter of Do-
miiius fucceeded her.
OCELLUS the Lucanian, an ancient Greek philo-
fopher of the fchool of Pythagoras, who lived before
Plato. His work raw Ileevleff, or “ The Univerfe,”
is the only piece of his which is come down entire to
us 3 and was written originally in the Doric dialed!, but
8 ] O C T
was tranfiated by another hand into the Attic. Wil- Ocelot
liam Chriftian, and after him Lewis Nogarola, tranfla- !!
ted this work into Latin 3 and we have ieveral editions. V
of it, both in Greek and Latin.
OCELOT, the Mexican cat. See Felis, Mamma-'
lia Index.
OCHLOCRACY, that form of government where¬
in the populace have the chief adminiftration of af¬
fairs.
OCHNA, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
andria clafs 3 and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany In¬
dex.
OCHRE, in Natural Hiflory, a mineral fubftance
compofed of oxide and carbonate of iron, and clay.
See Ores of Iron, Minf.ralogy Index.
OCHROMA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia clafs 3 and in the natural method ranking
under the 37th order, Column/era:. See Botany In¬
dex.
OCHUS, a king of Perfia, fon of Artaxerxes. He
was cruel and avaricious 3 and in order to ftrengthen
himfelf on his throne, he murdered all his brothers
and fifters. His fubjedts revolted 3 but he reduced
them to obedience, and added Egypt'to his other do¬
minions. Bagoas, his favourite eunuch, poifoned him
for the infults he had offered to Apis the god of the
Egyptians ; and he gave his flelh to be eaten by cats,
.and made handles for knives with his bones. It feems
to be not a little remarkable, that all thofe monfters
who difgraced humanity by their crimes, and funk
themfelves below the level of brutes, have met with
condign punilhment 3 and this in general feems true,
wkether we refer to ancient or modern times.—A man
of Cyzicus, -who was killed by the Argonauts.—A
prince of P6rfia, who refufed to vifit his native country
for fear of giving all the women erch a piece of gold.—
A river of India or of Baftriana.—A king of Perfia :
He exchanged this name for that of Darius Nothus.
See Persia.
OCRA, a vifeous vegetable fubftance well known in
the Weft Indies, where it is ufed to thicken foup, parti¬
cularly that kind called pepper pot, as well as for other
purpofes.
OCRISIA, in fabulous hiftory, the wife of Cornicu-
lus, wras one of the attendants of Tanaquil the wife of
Tarquinius Prifcus. "As ftie was throwing into the
flames, for offerings, feme of the meats that were ferved
on the table of Tarquin, fhe fuddenly faw, as is report¬
ed, in the fire, what Ovid calls obfeceni forma virilis.
She informed the queen of it 3 and when by her com¬
mand ftie had approached near it, Ihe conceived a fon
who wras named Servius Tullius, and wras educated in
the king’s family. He afterwards fucceeded to the va¬
cant throne. Some fuppofe that Vulcan had affumed
that form which wTas prefented to the eyes of Ocrifia,
and that this god was the father of the fixth king of
Rome.
OCTAETERIS, a cycle or term of eight years,
in the Grecian chronology, at the conclufion of which
three entire lunar months were added. This cycle was
in ufe till Meton’s invention of the golden number or
cycle of 19 years.
OCTAGON, or Octogon, in Geometry, is a figure
of eight fides and angles 3 and this, when all the fides
and
Octagon
II .
Odlavia.
OCT T 119 ] OCT
and angles are equal, is called a regular oElagon, or one
that may be infer!bed in a circle.
Octagon, in Fortification, denotes a place that has
eight baftions. See Fortification.
OCTAHEDRON, or Octaedron, in Geometry,
one of the five regular bodies, confifting of eight equal
and equilateral triangles.
OCTANDRIA ' (onTii “ eight,” and myip a “ man
or hufband,”) the 8th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem •,
confining of plants which are furnkhed with eight fta-
mina. See Botany Index.
OCTANT, the eighth part of a circle.
Octant, or Octile, in Ajlronomy, that afpecl of two
planets, wherein they are diflant an eighth part of a
circle, or 450 from each other.
OCTAPLA, in matters of facred literature, denotes
a Polyglot Bible, confifting of eight columns, and as
many different verfions of the facred text ; viz. the ori¬
ginal Hebrew both in Hebrew and Greek characters,
Greek verfions, &c.
OCTATE UGH, an appellation given to the eight
firft books of the Old Teftament.
OCTAVE, in Mufic. See Interval.
OCT AVIA, daughter of Caius Odlavius and fitter
to Auguftus Caefar. See the following article. She
was one of the moft illuftrious ladies of ancient Rome ;
her virtues and her beauty were equally confpicuous.—
Prideaux fays fire was much handfomer than Cleopatra.
She married Claudius Marcellus, and after his death M.
Antony. Her marriage with Antony was a political
match, to reconcile her brother and him together. An¬
tony proved for fome time attentive to her : but when
he had feen Cleopatra, he neglected and defpifed her :
and when the attempted to withdraw- him from this ille¬
gal amour by going to meet him at Athens, fhe wras re¬
buked and totally bankhed from his prefence. This af¬
front was highly refented by her brother •, and though
Oftavia endeavoured to pacify him by palliating Anto¬
ny’s behaviour, yet he refolved to revenge her caufe by
firms. After the battle of Attium and the death of
Antony, Ocdavia, forgetful of her own injuries, took
into her houfe all the children of her hufband, and
treated them with extraordinary tendernefs. Marcellus,
her fon by her firft hufband, was married to a niece of
Auguftus, and openly intended as a fucceffor to his
uncle. His hidden death plunged all the family into
the greateft grief. Virgil, whom Auguftus patronized,
undertook of himfelf to pay a melancholy tribute to the
memory of a young man whom Rome had looked upon
as her future father and patron. He wTas defired to re¬
peat his compofition in the prefence of the emperor and
his filler. Odlavia burft into tears even when the poet
began but when he mentioned Tu Marcellus cris, fhe
fwooned away. This tender and pathetic encomium
upon the merit and the virtues of young Marcellus fhe
liberally rewardedj and Virgil received 10,000 fefterces,
according to fome 7 81. 2s. 6d. for every one of the ver-
fes. Oct avia had two daughters by Antony, Antonia
Major and Antonia Minor.—The elder married L.
Domitius Ahenobarbus, by whom fhe had Cn. Do-
mitius, who w as the hither of the emperor Nero by
Agrippina the daughter of Germanicus. Antonia Mi¬
nor, who was as virtuous and as beautiful as her mother,
married Drufus the fon of Tiberius, by wThcm fhe had
Germanicus, and Claudius who reigned before Nero.
The death of Marcellus conftantiy preyed upon the Oclavianus.
mind of Odlavia, who died of grief or melancholy, v '
about 11 years before the Chriftian era. Her brother
paid great regard to her memory, and pronounced her
funeral oration himielf. The Roman people alfo fnowrd
their regard to her virtues, by wiflung to pay her divine
honours.—A daughter of the emperor Claudius by
Meffalina. She w’as betrothed to Silanus, but by the
intrigues of Agrippina, fhe was married to the emperor
Nero in the 16th year of her age. She wras foon after
divorced under pretence of barrennefs; and the emperor
married Poppaea, who exercifed her enmity upon Odla¬
via by procuring her to be banifhed into Campania.
She w'as afterwards recalled by the people ; but Poppsea,
who wTas determined on her ruin, caufed her again to be
baniihed to an ifland, where fhe was ordered to kill her-
felf by opening her veins. Hef head was cut off and'
carried to Poppaea.
OCTAV1ANUS, or Octavius Cesar, was ne¬
phew of Julius Caefar the didlator, being the fon of
Accia his filler by Octavius a fenator, and afterwards
became the fecond emperor of Rome. He was born
in the year of the city 691, during the confulfhip of
Cicero. His uncle Julius Csefar adopted him, and
left him the greateft part of his fortune. When he
was but 20 years of age, he was raifed to the conful¬
fhip. His youth and inexperience were ridiculed by
his enemies ; notwithftanding which obftacle, his pru¬
dence and valour raifed his confequence. He made
war againft his opponents on pretence of avenging the
aflaflination of his uncle. He engaged in five civil
wrars with great fuccefs, viz. The wars of Mutina,
Perufia, Philippi, Sicily, and Aftium :. the firft and
laft of which were againft M. Antony } the fecond
againft L. Antony, brother of the triumvir ; the third
was againft Brutus and Caflius •, and the fourth againft
Sext. Pompey, fon of Pompey the Great. He united
his forces with Antony’s at the battle of Philippi ;
and had he not been fupported by the aftivity and
bravery of his colleague, he would doubtlefs have been
totally ruined in that engagement. In this trium¬
virate with Antony and Lepidus, he obtained the
weftern parts of the Roman empire ; and, like his other
colleagues, more firmly to eftablifh his power, he pro-
feribed his enemies and cut them off. The triumvirate
lafted for 10 years. He had given his filler Odlavia in
marriage to Antony, to make their alliance more lafting j
but when Cleopatra had charmed this unfortunate man,
O£1 avia was repudiated. Auguftus immediately took
up arms to avenge the wrongs of his filler •, but perhaps
more eager to remove a man whofe powxr and ex-
iftence kept him in continual fear and conftant de¬
pendence. . Both parties met at A<ftium to decide
the fate of Rome. Antony was lupported by all the
power of the eaft, and Auguftus by Italy. Cleopa¬
tra fled from the battle with 60 fhips } and her flight
ruined the intereft of Antony, who followed her into
Egypt. The conqueror foon after w7ent into Egypt
likewife, befieged Alexandria, and honoured with a mag¬
nificent funeral his unfortunate colleague and the cele¬
brated queen, whom the fear of being led in the vitftor’s
triumph at Rome had driven to commit filicide. Af¬
ter he had eftablilhed peace all over the world, he fhut
the gates of the temple of Janus, A. U. C. 753. He
wTas tw'ice determined to lay down the fhpreme pow'er :
and -
O C Y [ 120 ] O D A
Ofiavianus immediately after the viclory obtained over Antony,
and on account of his ill health ; but his two faithful
l _  A friends Mecaenas and Agrippa difl'uaded him, and con¬
tended, that if he did he would leave it to be the
prey of the mofi powerful, and expofe himlelf to the
greateft dangers. He died at Nola in the 76th year
of his age, after he had held the fovereign power tor
57 years.—He was an active emperor, and confulted
the good of the Romans with the greateft anxiety and
care. He vifited all the provinces except Africa and
Sardinia, and his confummate prudence and experience
occaiioned many falutary laws. He is, however, ac-
cufed of licentioufnefs and adultery •, but the good-
nefs of his heart, the fidelity of his friendihip, and the
many good qualities which the poets whom he patro¬
nized have perhaps truly celebrated, made fome, though
in the eye of ilrict religion and true morality but little,
amends for his natural foibles. He was ambitious of be¬
ing efteemod handfome j and as he was publicly report¬
ed to be the fon of Apollo according to his mother’s
declaration, he wilhed his flatterers to reprefent him
with the figure and attributes of that god. Like Apollo,
his eyes were clear, and he afte&ed to have it thought
that they poflefled tome divine irradiation, and was well
pleafed if, when he fixed his eyes upon any body, they
held down their eyes as if overcome by the glaring
brightnefs of the fun. He diftinguifhed himfelf by
his learning j he was a complete mafter of the Greek
language, and wrote fome tragedies, befides memoirs
of his life and other works, which are now loft. He
married four times j but he was unhappy in all thefe
connexions ; and his only daughter Julia difgraced her-
lelf and her father by the debauchery and licentioufnefs
of her manners. He recommended at his death his
adopted fon Tiberius as his fucceffor. He left his for¬
tune partly to him and to Drufus, and made donations
to the army and Roman people. The title of Auguftus
was conferred upon him by the fenate after the battle
of Aflium and the final deftruction of the Roman re¬
public. The title continued afterwards, being given
to his fucceffors in the empire. Virgil is faid to have
written his /iineid at the defire of Auguftus, whom he
reprefents under the amiable and perfedl character of
Aeneas. The name of Octavius was very common at
Rome ; it was the name of a variety of men of very con-
fiderable rank.
OCTOBER, in Chronology, the eighth month of Ro¬
mulus’s year, which, the name implies ; but tenth in the
kalendar of Numa, Julius Gaefar, &c. The fenate gave
this month the name Fau/Hnus, in compliment to Fau-
ftina, the wife of the emperor Antoninus ; Commodus
wordd have it called Inviclus ; and Domitian named it
Domitianus ; but in fpite of all thefe-attempts it ftrll re¬
tains its original-name. This month was facred to Mars,
and under Ids protection.
OCTOBER Equus, a horre annually facrrficed to Mars
in the month of OCtober, either becaufe the horfe is a
warlike animal, or to punifh him for the taking of
Troy. A race was run with chariots, drawn by two
horfes, previous to the facrifices, and he that ran quick-
eft v'as adjudged to be the victim.
OCTOSTYLE, in the ancient architecture, is the
face of an edifice adorned with eight columns.
OCULUS, the EYE, in Anatomy. See there, N°
M5-
OCYMOPHYLLON, a name given by Euxbaum
to a new genus of plants, the characters oi which are
thei’e : '1 he flower rs of the itamineous kind, having no
petals j this ftands upon the embryo fruit, which after¬
wards becomes an oblong quadrangular feed-veffel, di¬
vided into four cells, and containing rounahh and very
fmall feeds •, its leaves are like thofe of the common ocy-
mum or balil, whence its name } and its place of growth
is in damp marihes. Boccone has deferibed it under the
improper name of g/aux, calling it the great, green-
flowered, marjh glaux.
OCYMUM, basil •, a genus of plants belonging to
the didynamia clafs 5 and iiAhe natural method ranking
under the 42d order, Verticiiiatce. See Botany Index.
OCZAKOW, or Oczakoef, a town of Turkey in
Europe, and capital of a fangiack of the fame name,
inhabited by Tartars. During a late war, here was a
Turkiih garrifon of 20,000 men. However, it was
taken by the Ruffians in 1737, and all thole that refill¬
ed were put to the fword. The Ruffians themfelves loft
18,000 men in the affault. The Turks returned the
fame year with 70,000 men to retake it 5 but were ob¬
liged to retire, after the lofs of 20,000. In 1738, the
Ruffians withdrew their garrifon, and demoliihed the
fortifications. It is feated on the river Bog, to the
w-eft of the Nieper, or rather where they beth unite
and fall into the Black fea. It is 42 miles fouth-weft
of Bialagrod, and 190 north by eaft of Confiantinople.
It has been lately a fubject of great conteft between
the Ruffians and Turks. 'X he affair is fit fh in our
readers memories; but the following more particular
account of the place, will not, we trull, be unaccep¬
table to our readers.—It is called by the Turks Dtzain
Crimenda, is feated at the influx of the Nieper into the
Black fea, 120 miles from Bender, to the fonth-eaft.
The river is here above a mile bread. Elither the
Turkiih galleys retire which guard the mouth of the
river, to prevent the Coffacks from pirating upon the
Black fea. Here is no port, but good anchorage. It
is defended by a caftle, furroundeci with walls 25 feet
high •, thofe of the town are much lower. There are
about 2000 people at Gczakow. Below the caftle are
two towns or fuburbs, filuated on the declivity of a hill,
which on the other fide has nothing but precipices. To
the fouth of thefe towns is another fmall cafile, where
is fome artillery to prevent veffels from coming up the
river. Here is alfo a tower, in which are always fome
Turks upon the watch to difeover from afar any of the
Coffacks at fea, and give notice of them td the galleys
by a fignal. The city is inhabited by Tartars, though
garrifoned by Turks. E. Long. 30. 5c. N. Lat.
46‘ 5°‘
ODA, in the Turkiih feraglio, fignifies a clafs, or¬
der, or chamber. The grand fignior’s. pages are di¬
vided into five claffes or chambers. The firft, which
is the lowed: in dignity, is called the great oda, fr.om
tire greater number of perfens that compofe it; thefe
are the juniors, who are taught to read, wiite, and
fpeak the languages. The fecond is called the little
oda, where from the age of 14 or 15 years, till about
20, they are trained up to amis, and the liudy of all
the polite learning the Turks are acquainted with. The
third chamber, called ki/ar oda, confifts of 200 pages,
who, befides their other exercifes, are under the com¬
mand of the kilardgi-bachi, and ferve in the pantry and
fruiter y.
OcyT'o-
phylion
y~
2
ODE [ j
Badu fruitery. The fourth confifts only of 24, who are under
■nflee. ^ command of tlie khazineda-bachi, and have charge
1 L'j of the treafure in the errand ficrm'nr’c
' oi t-ke treafure in the grand fignior’s apartment, which
they never enter with clothes that have pockets. The
fifth is called kas odci or pvivy-chcituber ,* and is compof-
ed of only 40 pages, who attend in the prince’s cham-
bei. Every night eight of thefe pages keep guard in
the grand fignior’s bedchamber while he deeps : they
take care that the light, which is conftantly kept in
tne room, does not glare in his eyes, left it ftiould
awake him : and if they find him difturb,*d with trou-
blefome dreams, they caufe him to be awakened by one
of their agas.
Op A Bachi, or Oddabciffi, an officer in the Turkiffi
foldiery, equivalent to a ferjeant or corporal among us.
The common foldiers and janizaries, called oldachis, af¬
ter having ferved a certain number of years, are always
preferred and made biquelairs ; and of biquelairs in
time become odobachis, i. e. corporals of companies,
or chiefs of certain divifions, whofe number is not fix¬
ed ; being fometimes ten, and fometimes twenty.
. Their pay is fix doubles per month 5 and they are di-
ftinguilhed by a large felt, a foot broad and above a
foot long, hanging on the back, with two long oftrich
feathers.
ODDLY-odd. A number is faid to be oddly-
odd, when an odd number meafures it by an odd num¬
ber. So 15 is a number oddly-odd, becaufe the odd
number 3 meafures it by the odd number 5.
ODE, in Poetry, a fong, or compofition proper to
be fung. See Poetry.
ODED, a prophet of the Lord, who being at Sa¬
maria, when the Ifraelites of the ten tribes returned
Lorn the war, with their king Pekah, together with
200,000 of the people of Judah captives, he went out
to meet them, and faid, “ You have feen that the Lord
God of your fathers was in wrath againft Judah ; he
has therefore delivered them into your hands, and you
have Uain them inhumanly, fo that your cruelty has
afeended up into heaven; and more than this, you would
make llaves of the children of Judah, who are your bre¬
thren, and would add this fin to the many others you
have committed : therefore, hear the counfel that I
give you; fend Lack thefe captives, left the Lord ffiould
pour out his fury upon you.” Oded having done fpeak-
ing, fome of the chiefs of Samaria feconded him, and
by their remonftrances prevailed with the Ifraelites
to let the captives at liberty (2 Chron. xxviii.). See
Ahaz.
The enlargement of the captives being obtained, the
principal men of Samaria took care of them, gave them
clothes and food and other neceffary affiftance. After
which they fhrniftied them with horfes, becaufe the
greateft part of them were fo tired and exhaufted that
they were not able to walk. Thus they conducted them
to Jericho, which was in the confines of the land of Ju¬
dah.. Phis is all that is come to our knowledge con¬
cerning the prophet Oded.
ODENSEE., the capital of the ille of Funen, a
place of fuch high antiquity, that fome Daniffi Writers
derive its foundation and name from Odin the god and
hero of the Gothic nations. “ Its name certainly occurs
(fays Mr Coxe) in the earlieft ages of the Daniih hif-
fcpry ; and it was a town of great note long before Co-
penhagen^exifted. ^Odenfee Hands upon a fmall river,
21] ODE
not navigaole, ana about two miles from the bav of
Stegeftrand. Many of the houfes are ancient, bearing
dates about tne middle of the 16th century ^ but part is
neuly built, it contains about 5200 inhabitants, who
carry on fome commerce, exporting chiefly grain and
leather , the latter is much efte^med, and its goodnels is
luppofed to ante from a certain property in the river
water, in which it is foaked for tanning. The Daniih
cavalry are fupplied from thence with the greateft part
of their leathern accoutrements.
“ Odenfee is the feat of a biihop, which was founded
by Harold Blaatand in 980, and is the richeft in Den¬
mark next to Copenhagen. It has a fchool, endowed
by the. celebrated Margaret of Valdemar, in which
a certain number of fcholars, from fix to 16 years of
age, are inftrufled gratis : they live and board in the
town, and each receives a yearly penfion 3 other fcho-
larffiips have been alfo founded by private perfons. The
whole number amounted to 70. There is alfo a gym-
nafium, inftituted by Chriftian IV. for the admiffion of
ftudents at the age of 16. The feminary was ftill fur¬
ther improved by the liberality of Holberg the Daniih
hiftorian, wffio proteefed letters with the fame zeal with
which he cultivated them. It is now greatly fallen
from its former flouriffiing ftate, containing, when I palled
through the town,, only eight ftudents. The cathedral
is a large old brick building, wfliich has nothing re¬
markable except fome coftly monuments of a private
Daniffi family. The church, which formerly belonged
to the convent of Recolets, contains the fepulchre of John
king of Denmark, and of his fon Chriftian II.” E.
Long. 10. 27. N. Lat. 55. 28.
ODENATUS, a celebrated prince of Palmyra, wffio
very early inured himfelf to bear fatigues, and by hunt-
ing leopards and. wild beafts, accuftomed himfelf to the
labours of a military life. He was a faithful friend to
the Romans 3 and wffien Aurelian had been taken pri-
foner by Sapor king of Perfia, Odenatus warmly interef-
ted .himfelf in his caufe, and folicited his releafe, by
writing to the conqueror, and by fending him prefents.
1 he king of Perfia was offended at this liberty of Odeti-
atus, he tore the letter, and ordered the prefents that
were offered to be throwm into a river, and in order to
punilh Odenatus, who had the impudence, as he called
it, to pay homage to fo great a monarch as himfelf, he
commanded him to appear before him, on pain of be¬
ing devoted to inftant deftru&ion with all his family, if
he dared to refufe. Odenatus defpifed this haughty
fummons of Sapor, and oppofed force by force. He ob¬
tained fome-oonfiderable advantages over the troons of
the Perfian king, and took his wife prifoner, with a
great and rich booty. Thefe fervices wrere obferved
with gratitude by the Romans 3 and Gallienus, the then
emperor, named Odenatus as his colleague on the
throne, and gave the title of Augujlus to his children,
and to his wife the celebrated Zenobia. Odenatus in-
vefted with new powder, refolved to fignalize himfelf
more confpicuoufly by conquering the barbarians of the
north: but his exulting was of ftiort duration: he perifti-
ed by the dagger of one of his own relations, whom he
had flightly offended at a domeftic entertainment.—
He died at Emeffa about the 267th year of the Chri¬
ftian era. Zenobia fucceeded to his titles and ho¬
nours.
ODER, a river of Germany, which has its fource
near
O D I [12
Orbr near a town of the fame name in Sllefia, and on the
!1. confines of Moravia. It runs north through that pro-
^^in~ vtnce, and then into l!ie marche of Brandenburg and
Pomerania, where it forms a large lake, afterwards fall¬
ing into the Baltic fea by three mouths } between which
lie the iflands Uledom and Wolin. It paffes by feveral
towns} as Ratibor, Oppelen, Brellau, Glogau and ( jrof-
fen, in Silefia •, Francfort, Lebus, and Cuftrin, in Bran¬
denburg ; and Gartz, Stetin, Cammin, Wallin, Ufedom,
and Wolgaft, in Pomerania.
ODEUM, in Grecian antiquity, a mufic theatre
built by Pericles j the inlide of w?hich was filled with
feats and ranges of pillars, and on the outfide the roof
defcended (helving downwards from a point in the cen¬
tre, with many bendings, in imitation of the king of
Perfia’s pavilion. Here the mufical prizes were con¬
tended for 5 and here alfo, according to Ariftophanes
was a tribunal.
ODIN (fee Frea), in Mythology, called alfo in the
dialect of the Anglo-Saxons, Woden or Wodan, a name
given by the ancient Scythians to their fupreme god,
and aflfumed, about 70 years before the Chriftian era, by
Sigge, a Scythian prince, who conquered the northern
nations, made great changes in their government, man¬
ners, religion, and enjoyed great honours, and had even
divine honours paid him. According to the account
given of this conqueror by Snorro, the ancient hiftonan
of Norway, and his commentator Torfaeus, Odin was a
Scythian, who withdrew himfelf, with many others in
his train, by flight, from the vengeance of the Romans,
under the condu£t of Pompey } and having officiated as
a prieft in his own country, he affumed the direffion of
the religious worlhip, as well as the civil government,
of the nations which he conquered. Plaving fubdued
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, he retired to Sweden,
where he died. I here is nothing certain in this ac-„
count} but it is probable, that the god, wdiofe prophet
or prieft this Scythian pretended to be, was named
Odin, and that the ignorance of fucceeding ages con¬
founded the deity with his prieft, compofing out of the
attributes of the one, and the hiftory of the other, the
character of the northern conqueror. He deluded the
people by his enchantments and (kill in magic : having
cut off the head of one Mimer, who in his lifetime was
in great reputation for wifdom, he caufed it to be em¬
balmed, and perfuaded the Scandinavians that he had
reftored it to the ufe of fpeech •, and he caufed it to pro¬
nounce whatever oracles he wanted. 1 he Icelandic
chronicles reprefent Odin as the moft eloquent and per-
fuafive of men ; they afcribe to him the introduction of
the art of poetry- among the Scandinavians, and likewife
the invention of the Runic characters. He had alfo the
addrefs to perfuade his followers, that he could run
over the world in the twinkling of an eye , that he
had the direftion of the air and tempefts •, that he could
transform himfelf into all forts of ftiapes, could raife
the dead, could foretel things to come, deprive his
enemies, by enchantment, of health and vigour, and
difcovsr all the treafures concealed in the earth. They
add, that by his tender and melodious airs, he could
make the plains and mountains open and expand with
delight 5 and that the ghofts, thus attracled, would
leave their infernal caverns, and ftand motionlefs about
, bun. Nor was he lefs dreadful and furious in battle ;
2 ] O D I
changing himfelf into the fliape of a bear, a wild bull, Odin
or a lion, and.amidft ranks of enemies committing the
moft horrible devaftation, without receiving any wound    1. 1
himfelf.
Dr Henry gives this account of him : “ Odin is be- Henry's
lieved to have been the name of the one true God ofBri~
among the firft colonies who came from the eaft and t:un< v0 •1U
peopled Germany and Scandinavia, and among their
pollerity for feveral ages. But at length a mighty
conqueror, the leader of a new aimy of adventurers
from the ea *, overrun the north of Europe, eredled
a great empire, aflumed the name of Odin, and claim¬
ed the honours which had been formerly paid to that
deity. From thenceforward this deified mortal, un¬
der the name of Odin or Wodin, became the chief ob-
jeft of the idolatrous worfhip of the Saxons and Danes
in this ifland, as well as of many other nations. Hav¬
ing been a mighty and fuccefsful warrior, he was be¬
lieved to be the god of war, who gave victory, and
revived courage in the conflict. Having civilized, in
fome meafure, the countries which he conquered, and
introduced arts formerly unknown, he was alfo wor-
fhipped as the god of arts and artifts. In a word, to
this Odin his deluded worfhippers impioufly aferibed
all the attributes which belong only to the true God :
to him they built magnificent temples, offered many
facrifices, and confecrated the fourth day of the week,
which is (till called by his name in England and in all
the other countries where he was formerly worftupped.
Notwithftanding all this, the founders of all the king¬
doms of the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy pretended to be de¬
fcended from Wodin, and fome of them at the diitance
only of a few generations.”
0din's Fire. We have this account of it in Gough’s
Camden. “ In Evie pariftr, in the Orkneys, near the
fea, are fome rocks, which frequently in the night ap¬
pear on fire -, and the church of St Michael there was
often feen full of lights, called fires fent by Odin to
guard their tombs, but now ceafed. This may be a
meteor, or fome inflammable matter on the cliffs, as at
Charmouth, Dorfet.”
ODIN US, a celebrated hero of antiquity, who flou-
riftied about 70 years before the Chriftian era, in the
northern parts of ancient Germany, or in the modern
kingdom of Denmark. Fie was at the fame time a
prieft, a foldler, a poet, a monarch, andaviclor. Fie
impofed upon the credulity of his fuperftitious country¬
men, and made them believe that he could raife the
dead, and that he was acquainted with futurity. When
he had extended his power, and increafed his fame by
conqueft and by artifice, he determined to die in a dif¬
ferent way from other men. He afiembled his friends,
and with the (harp point of a lance he made in his body
nine different wounds in the form of a circle j and when
expiring he declared that he was going to Scythia, where
he fhould become an immortal god. He added, that
he would prepare blifs and felicity for thofe of his
countrymen who lived a virtuous life, who xought wit*,
bravery, and who died like heroes in the field of battle.
Thefe injun&ions had the wiftied-for effeft : his coun¬
trymen fuperftitioufly believed him, and ccnftantiy re¬
commended themfelves to his protection when they en¬
gaged in battle ; and they entreated him to receive the
fouls of fuch as fell in war.
O D O [ i
Odio Be OdIO et Alia. See Talfe IMPRISONMENT.
^ [ 11 The writ de odio et atia was anciently ufed to be di-
' reeled to the iheriff, commanding him to inquire whe¬
ther a priloner changed with murder was committed
upon juft caufe of fufpicion, or merely propter odium et
aliam, for hatred and ill will} and if upon the inqui-
fition due caufe of fafpicion did not then appear, then
there iffued another writ for the Iheriff to admit him
to bail. This writ, according to Brafton, ought not
to be denied to any man ; it being exprefsly ordered
to be made out gratis, without any denial, by magna
char la, c. 26. and ftatute Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 29.
But the rtatute of Glocefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 9. reftrain-
od it in the cafe of killing by mifadventure or felf de¬
fence, and the ftatute 28 Edw. III. c. 9. abolilhed it
in ail cafes whatibever: but as the flat. 42 Ed. III. c. 1.
repealed all ftatutes then in being, contrary to the
great charter, Sir Edward Coke is of opinion that the
writ de odio et atia was thereby revived. See HABEAS
Corpus.
ODO, St, fecond abbot of Cluny in France, was
illuftrious for learning and piety in the 10th century.
The fanffity of his life contributed greatly to enlarge
the congregation of Cluny ; and he was lb efteemed,
that popes, bifhops, and fecular princes, ufually chofe
him the arbiter of their dftputes. He died about the
year 942, and his works are printed in the Bibliotheque
of Cluny.
QiyO Cantiatius, fo called as being a native of Kent
in England, was a Benediftine monk in the 12th cen¬
tury, in which order his learning and eloquence railed
him to the dignity of prior and abbot. Archbilhop
Becket was his friend } and his panegyric was made by
John of Salilbury. He compofed Commentaries on the
Pentateuch, and the Second Book of Kings 5 Moral Re^
fleftions on the Pfalms} treatifes entitled, De Oncre Phi-
HJlini; De Moribus Eccleftajlicis ; De Vitiis et Virtutibus
Anwue, &c.
ODO ACER, according to Ennodius, was meanly
born, and only a private man in the guards of the
emperor Auguftulus, when (A. D. 476, under the con-
fullhip of Bafilicus and Armatus) the barbarians chofe
him for their leader. The barbarians thought, as they
often defended Italy, they had a right at leaft to part of
it •, but upon demanding it they were refiifed, and the
confequence was a revolt. Odoacer is faid to have been
a man of uncommon parts, capable alike of commanding
an army or governing a ftate. Having left his own
country when he was very young, to ferve in Italy, as
he was of a ftature remarkably tall, he was admitted
among tire emperor’s guards, and continued in that fta-
tion till the' above year •, when, putting himfelf at the
head of the barbarians in the Roman pay, who, though
of different nations, had unanimoufly chofen him for
their leader, he marched againft Oreftes, and his fon
Auguftulus, who ftill refufed to (hare any of the lands
in Italy. The Romans were inferior both in numbers
and valour, and were eafily conquered : Oreftes wTas or¬
dered to be {lain •, but the tmperor Auguftulus was fpar-
ed, and, though ftripped of his dignity, was treated with
humanity, and allowed a liberal fum for his own fupport
and for that of his relations. Odoacer was proclaimed
king of Italy 5 but affumed neither the purple nor any
other mark of imperial confequence. He was afterwards
23 ] OB Y
defeated and llain by Theodoric the Oftrogoth. See Ode meter
Ostrogoth. s’
ODOMETER, an inftrument for meafuring the di-
fiance paffed over in travelling. See Pedometer.
ODONTALGIA, the toothach. See Medicine,
N° 210.
ODONTOIDE, in Anatomy, an appellation given
to the procefs of the fecond vertebra of the neck, from
its refemblance to a tooth.
ODOROUS, or Odoriferous, appellations given
*' to whatever fmells ftrongly, whether they be fetid or
agreeable but chiefly to things whofe fmell is brifk
and pleafant.
ODYSSEY, the name of an epic poem compofed by
Homer, which, when compared with the Iliad, exhibits
its author as the fetting fun, whofe grandeur remains
without the heat of his meridian beams.
The poet’s defign in the Odyffey was to paint the
miferies of a kingdom in the abfence of its fupreme
governor, and the evil confequences refulting from a dif-
regard of law, and of that fubordination without which
fociety cannot exift. With this view he fets before his
countrymen the adventures of a prince wdio had been
obliged to forfake his native country, and to head an
army of his lubjefls in a foreign expedition ; and he art¬
fully contrives, without interrupting the narrative, to
make the reader acquainted with the ftate of the coun¬
try in the abfence of its fovereign. The chief having
glorioufly finiftied the enterprife in wdiich he was en¬
gaged, was returning with his army •, but in fpite of all
his eagernefs to be at home, he was detained on the wray
by tempefts for feveral years, and call upon feveral
countries differing from each other in manners and in
government. ' In thefe dangers his companions, not
ftridtly obeying his orders, perifti through their own
fault. In the mean time the grandees of his country
abufe the freedom which his abfenc t gave them ; con-
fume his eftate ; confpire to deftroy his fon •, endeavour
to compel his queen to accept one of them for her huf-
band ; and indulge themfelves in every fpecies of vio¬
lence, from a perfuafion that he wrould never return.
In this they were difappointed. He returns 5 and dif-
covering himfelf only to his fon and fome others who
had maintained their allegiance, he is an eye witnefs of
the infolence of his enemies, punifhes them according to
their deferts, and reftores to his ifland that tranquillity
and repofe to which it had been a ftranger during the
many years of his abfence.
Such is the fable of the Odyffey, in which there
is no opportunity of difplaying that vigour and fub-
limiiy which charadlerize the Iliad. “ It defeends
from the dignity of gocE and heroes-f, and warlike , ^
achievements j but in recompenfe we have more plea- i^e^i2a ec%
fing pictures of ancient manners. Inftead of that fe¬
rocity which reigns in the other poem, this prefents us
with the moft amiable images of hofpitality and hu¬
manity ; entertains us writh many a wonderful adven¬
ture 5 and inftrucls us by fuch a conftant vein of mo¬
rality and virtue which runs through the poem,”
fometimes in precepts, and always in the condudl of
the hero, that we fhould not wonder if Greece, which
gave the appellation of wife to men who uttered Angle
fentences of truth, had given to Homer the title of
the father of virtue, for introducing into his work fuch
Q 2 a
o E D [ 124 ] O E N
Occonomicsa number of moral maxims. As a poem, however,
II the Odyfley has its faults. The laft twelve books are
1 6 'pus'. tedious and languid j and we are difappointed by the
calm behaviour of Penelope upon the difcovery of her
long loft hufband.
OECONOMICS, the art of managing the affairs
of a family or community ; and hence the perfon who
takes care of the revenues and other affairs of churches,
monafteries, and the like, is termed ceconomus.
OECONOMISTS, a fe£l of French philofophers,
who obtained this name in confequence of directing their
attention and refearches to objefts of political economy,
and in particular to the improvement of the departments
of finance. The views of thofe philofophers, among
whom are reckoned the celebrated names of Voltaire,
d’Alembert, Diderot, and Condorcet, have been vari-
oufly reprefented ; by fome as direftly hoftile to all regu¬
lar government, and by others as unfriendly to religion.
OECOiSlOMY, denotes the prudent conduift, or dif-
creet and frugal management, whether of a map’s
own eftate or that of another.
Animal 0ECONOMY, comprehends the various opera¬
tions of nature in the generation, nutrition and prefer-
vation of animals *. The doftrine of the animal eco-
* See Ge- nomy nearly connecled with phyfiology, which ex-
neration, plains the operation and action of the feveral parts of
Nutrition, the human body, their ufe, &c. See Anatomy and
&c- Physiology.
OECUMENICAL, fignifies the fame with general
or univerfal; as, oecumenical council, bifhop, &c.
OEDEMA, or Phlegmatic Tumour, in Medi¬
cine and Surgery, a fort of tumour attended with pale-
nefs and cold, yielding little refiftance, retaining the
print of the finger when prefled with it, and accompa¬
nied with little or no pain.
This tumour obtains no certain fituation in any par¬
ticular part of the i:ody, fince the head, eyelids, hands,
and fometimes part, fometimes the whole body, is afflict¬
ed with it. When the laft mentioned is the cafe, the
patient is faid to be troubled with a cachexy, leuco-
phlegmatia, or dropfy. But if any particular part is
more fubjeft to this diforder than another, it is certain¬
ly the feet, which are at that time called /welled or (ede¬
matous feet.
OEDERA, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging
to the fyngenefia clafs. See Botany Index.
OEDIPUS, the unfortunate king of Thebes, whofe
hiftory is partly fabulous, flouriflied about 1266 B. C.
It is faid he was given by his father to a fflepherd,
who was ordered to put him to death, in order to
prevent the misfortunes with which he Was threatened
by an oracle. But the fhepherd, being unwilling to
kill him with his own hands, tied him by the feet
to a tree, that he might be devoured by wild beafts.
The infant was however found in this fituation by
another fflepherd named Phorbas, who carried him to
Polybus king of Corinth •, w-here the queen, having
no children, educated him with as much care as if he
had been her own fon. When he was grown up, he
was informed that he wras not the fon of Polybus ; on
which, by order of the oracle, he went to feek for
his father in Phocis; but fcarce was he arrived in that
country, when he met his father on the road, and
killed him without knowing him. A fflort time after,
having delivered the country from the monfter called
the Sphinx, he married Jocafta, without knowing that Oedipus
fire was his mother, and had four children by her j but II
afterwards, being informed of his inceft, he quitted the . °C!Ud>tte-
throne, and, thinking himfelf unworthy of the light, put
out his eyes. Eteocles and Polynices, who were cele¬
brated among the Greeks, were born of this inceftuous
marriage.
OEGWA, a town on the Gold coaft of Africa,
fituated, according to Artus, on the brow of an emi¬
nence, raifing itfelf by a gentle afeent to a confiderable
height, and defended by rocks, againft which the waves
beat with the utmoft violence, the nolle of which is
heard at a great diitance.
Barbot affirms, that Oegwa contains above 500
houfes disjoined by narrow crooked ftreets -, and that
from the lea it has the appearance of an amphitheatre.
Des Marchias reduces the number of houfes to 200,
in the centre of which Hands a large fquare building,
the repofitory of their gold dull and- other commo¬
dities. The houfes are built of earth and clay, but
convenient, and well furniffled with chairs, ftools, mats,
carpets, earthen pots, and even looking glaffes, which
laft they purchafe from the Europeans. No part of the
coalt is better provided wdth all kinds of eatables, which
are fent in from the adjacent cantons, and fold in public
markets. Every thing is bought and fold wath gold
duft, which is the ftandard of all other commodities,
and brought hither in great abundance from all quar¬
ters of Fetu, Abrambo, Affiento, and Mandingo. The
gold is fold by wreight, and the quantity determined by
nice feales, made in the country before it was frequented
by the Europeans: a proof that thofe negroes are not
wfflolly ignorant of the more refined principles of me¬
chanics. Next to gold, the chief commerce of the
place confifts in the Tale of fiffl, of wfflich they catch
prodigious quantities on the coaft. Although the na¬
tives are brave and warlike, yet in time of peace no
people are more induftrious, their whole time being em¬
ployed in catching fiffl or cultivating the fruits of the
earth. They are extremely expert in throwing the line,
and fiftiing by the hook 5 nor is their intrepidity in com¬
bating the elements, and purfiiing their employments in
all kinds of weather, lefs aftoniffling. Every day in the
week, except Wednefday, which is facred to the Fe¬
tiche, they employ in their feveral occupations, and no
feafon of the year is exempted from fiftiing. Their
canoes weather ftorms wfflich wrould endanger the
largert fflipping and the negroes have the dexterity
of making their advantage of thofe feafons, wfflich o-
blige others to difeontinue their labours, by throwing
their lines with the fame fuccefs in tempeftuous as in
calm wTeather.
OELAND, an ifland of Sweden, feated in the Bal¬
tic fea, between the continent of Gothland and the
ifle of Gothland. It lies between 56° and 570 of north
latitude, and between 170 and 18° of eaft longitude.
It is about 60 miles in length, and 15 in breadth j
having a wfflolefome air, and a fertile fdil, with rifing
hills, and feveral caftles. It has no town of any great
note.
OENANTHE, water dropwort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order Umbellate. See
Botany Index.
OENOPTAf, in Grecian antiquity, a kind of cen-
fors
O E T [ 125 ] OFF
fors at Athens, who regulated entertainments, and took
care that none drank too much, nor too little.
OENOS, in Ornithology, the name ufed by authors
for the ftock-dove, or wrood-pigeon, called alfo by fome
vinago, fomewhat larger than the common pigeon, but
of the fame fliape and general colour. Its neck is of a
fine changeable hue, as differently oppofed to the light •,
and its breaft, fnoulders, and wings, are of a fine pur-
p'i!h hue, or red wine colour, from whence it has its
name vinago.
OENOTHERA, tree-primrose, a genus of plants
belonging to the oclandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 17th order, Calycanthemce.
See Botany Index.
OENOTRIA, an ancient name of Italy ; fo called
from the Oenotri, (Virgil) j inhabiting between Pteftum
and Tarentum, (Ovid). Originally Arcadians, (Dio-
nyfius Halicarnaffeus), who came under the conduct of
Oenotrus fon of Lycaon, 1 7 generations before the war
of Troy, or 459 years, at 27 years each generation, and
gave name to the people. Cato derives the name from
Oenotrus, king of the Sabines and Etrufcans 5 but Var-
ro from Oenotrus, king of the Latins } and Servius from
the Greek name for wane, for which Italy was famous ;
of which opinion is Strabo.
OENOTRIDES (Strabo, Pliny), two fmall islands
in the Tufcan fea, over againft Velia, a town of Lu-
cania, called Pontia and Ifcia; now Penza and Ifchia,
on the coaft of the Principato Citra, or to the wTeft of
Naples. So called from the Oenotri, an ancient people
of Italy.
OESEL, an illand of the Baltic fea, at the entrance
of the gulf of Livonia. It is about 70 miles in length,
and 50 in breadth, and contains 10 parishes. It is de¬
fended by the fortrefles of Airenlhurg and Sonneburg.
It lies between 22° and 240 of eaft longitude, and be¬
tween 58° and 590 of north latitude.
OESOPHAGUS, in Anatomy, the Gula, or Gullet,
is a membranaceous canal, reaching from the fauces to
the Stomach, and conveying into it the food taken in
at the mouth. See Anatomy, N°92.
OESTRUS, a genus of infects belonging to the order
of diptera. See Entomology Index.
OETA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Thef-
faly, extending from Thermopylae wdtward to the Sinus
Ambracius, and in fome meafure cutting at right angles
the mountainous country Stretching out between Par-
naffus to the fouth, and Pindus to the north. At Ther¬
mopylae it is very rough and high, rifing and ending
in Sharp and Steep rocks, affording a narrow paffage
between it and the fea fromTheffaly to Locris (Strabo),
with two paths over it-, the one above Trachis, very
Steep and high ; the other through the country of the
Atnianes, much eafier and readier for travellers •, by
this it was that Leonidas was attacked in rear by the
Perfians (Paufanias). Here Hercules laid himfelf on
the funeral pile (Silius Italicus, Ovid) } the fpot thence
called Pyra (Livy), who fays, that the extreme moun¬
tains to the eaft are called Oeta; and hence the
poets allege, that day, night, fun, and Stars, arofe from
Oeta (Seneca, Statius, Silius Italicus, Catullus, Virgil’s
Culex')—circumftances which Show the height of this
mountain.
OETING, a town of Germany, in Upper Bavaria,
under the jurifdiftion of Buckhaufen. It is divided
into the upper and the lower town, and feated on the Oeting-
river Inn, eight miles weft of Buckhaufen. E. Long. , II
12. 47. N. Lat. 48. o. There is a great refort of pil-
grims to the old chapel.
Oeting, or Oetingen, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, and capital of a county of the fame
name, feated on the river Wirnitz. E. Long-. 10. a ?.
N. Lat. 48. 52.
Oeting, a county of Germany, in the circle of Sua¬
bia, bounded on the north and eaft by Pranconia; on
the fouth by the duchy of Neuburg •, and on the weft
by that of Wirtemberg. It is about 40 miles from eaSt
to weft, and 20 from north to fouth.
OFFA’s Dyke, an intrenchment caft up by Offa,
a Saxon king, to defend England againft the incur-
fions of the Welih. It runs through Hertfordshire,
Shropshire, Montgomeryshire, Denbighshire, and Flint¬
shire.
OFF ANT O, a river of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples. It rifes in the Apennine mountains, in the
Farther Principato : and paffing by Conza, and Monte
Verde, it afterwards feparates the Capitanata from the
Bafilicata and the Terra-di-Bari, and then it falls into
the gulf of Venice, near Salpe.
OFFENCE, in Law, an aft committed againft the
law, or omitted where the law requires it.
OFFERINGS. The Hebrews had feveral kinds
of offerings, which they prefented at the temple. Some
were free-will offerings, and others were of obligation.
The firft fruits, the tenths, the fin offerings, were of
obligation j the peace offerings, vows, offerings of
wine, oil, bread, fait, and other things, which were
made to the temple or to the ministers of the Lord,
were offerings of devotion. The Hebrews called all
offerings in general corban. But the offerings of bread,
fait, fruits, and liquors, as wine and oil, which were pre¬
fented to the temple, they called mincha. The facrifices
are not properly offerings, and are not commonly in¬
cluded under that name. See Corban and Sacrifice.
The offerings of grain, meal, bread, cakes, fruits,
wine, fait, and oil, were common in the temple. Some¬
times theS’e offerings were alone, and fometimes they
accompanied the facrifices. Honey was never offered
with the facrifices; but it might be offered alone in
the quality of firft fruits. Now thefe were the rules
that were obferved in the prei’enting of thofe offerings,
called in Hebrew mincha, or kerbon mincha ; in the Sep-
tuagint, offerings of facrifice; and the fame by St Je¬
rome, oblationem facrificii; but by our translators, meat
offerings (Lev. ii. 1, &c.). There were five Sorts of
thefe offerings : 1. Fine flour or meal. 2. Cakes of fe¬
veral forts, baked in an oven. 3. Cakes baked upon
a plate. 4. Another fort of cakes, baked upon a grid¬
iron, or plate with holes in it. 5. The firft fruits of
the new corn, which were offered either pure and with¬
out mixture, or roafted or parched in the ear or out of
the ear.
The cakes were kneaded with oil olive, or fried with
oil in a pan, or only dipped in oil after they were baked.
The bread offered to be prefented upon the altar, was
to be without leaven \ for leaven was never offered up¬
on the altar, nor with the facrifices. But they might
make prefents of common bread to the priefts' and mi¬
nisters of the temple. See Cake, &c.
The offerings now mentioned were appointed on ac¬
count
OFF [ i
S5- count of the poorer fort, who could not go to the charge
of facrificing animals. And even thofe that offered
living victims were not excufed from giving meal, wine,
/ and fait, which was to go along with the greater fa-
crifices. And alfo thofe that offered only oblations of
bread or of meal, offered alfo oil, incenfe, fait, and wine,
which were in a manner the feafoning of it. The prieft
in waiting received the offerings from the hand of
him that offered them; laid a part of them upon the
altar, and referved the reff for his own fubliltence : that
was his right as a minifter of the Lord. Nothing was
burnt quite up but the incenfe, of which the prieft kept
back nothing for his own ffiare.
When an Ifraelite offered a loaf to the prieft, or a
whole cake, the prieft: broke the loaf or the cake into
two parts, letting that part afide that he referved to
himielf, and broke the other into crumbs; poured oil
upon it, fait, wine, and incenfe j and fpread the whole
upon the fire of the altar. If thefe offerings be ac¬
companied by an animal for a facrifice, it w'as all
thrown upon the viftim, to be confumed along with it.
If thefe offerings were the ears of new corn, either
of wTheat or barley, thefe ears were parched at the fire
or in the flame, and rubbed in the hand, and then of¬
fered to the prieft in a veffel; over which he put oil,
incenfe, wine, and fait, and then burnt it upon the al¬
tar, firft: having taken as much of it as of right belong¬
ed to himfelf.
d ne greateft part of thefe offerings were voluntary,
and of pure devotion. But when an animal vTas offered
in facrifice, they wrere not at liberty to omit thefe offer¬
ings. Every thing was to be fupplied that w'as to ac¬
company the facrifice, and which ferved as a feafoning
to the viftim. There are fome cafes in which the law
requires only offerings of corn, or bread: for example,
when they offered the firft: fruits of their harveft, whether
they were offered folemnly by the whole nation, or by
the devotion of private perfons.
As to the quantity of meal, oil, wine, or fait, which
was to go along with the facrifices, we cannot eafily
fee that the law had determined it. Generally the
prieft: threw an handful of meal or crumbs upon the
fire of the altar, with wine, oil, and fait in proportion,
and all the incenfe. All the reft belonged to him, the
quantity depended upon the liberality of the offerer.
We obferve in more places than one, that Mofes ap¬
points an affaron, or the tenth part of an ephah of
meal, for thofe that had not wherewithal to offer the
appointed fin offerings (Lev. v. n. xiv. 21.). In the
folemn offerings of the firft fruits for the whole nation,
they offered an entire ftieaf of corn, a lamb of a year
old, two tenths or two affarons of fine meal mixed with
oil, and a quarter of an hin of wine for the libation.
(Lev. xxiii. 10, n, 12, &c.).
In the facrifice of jealoufy (Numb. v. 1 ^.), when a
jealous hufband accufed his wife of infidelity, the hur-
band offered the tenth part of a fatum of barley-meal,
without oil or incenfe, becaufe, it was a facrifice of jea¬
loufy, to difcover whether his wife was guilty or not.
The offerings of the fruits of the earth, of bread,
of wine, oil, and fait, are the moft ancient of any that
have come to our knowledge. Cain offered to the
Lord of the fruits of the earth, the firft fruiu of his
(labour (Gen. iv. 3, 4.). Abel offered the firftlings of
6 ] OFF
his flocks, and oi iheir fat. The heathen have no- Cfilce
thing more ancient in their religion, than thefe forts II
of offerings made to their gods. They offered clean v 0ffict r~’- .
wheat, flour, and bread. ''
OFFICE, a particular charge or truft, or a dignity
attended with a public function. See Honour. The
word is primarily ufed in fpeaking of the offices of judi¬
cature and policy ; as the office of fecreUry of ftate, the
office of a flieriff, of a juflice of peace, Sac.
Office alfo fignifies a place or apartment appointed
for officers to attend in, in order to difcharge their re-
fpeftive duties and employments; as the fecretary’soffice,
ordnance office, excife office, fignet office, paper office
pipe office, fix clerks office, &c.
Office, in ArchiteBure, denotes all the apartments
appointed for the neceffary occafions of a palace or great
houfe ; as kitchen, pantries, confectionaries, &.c.
Office, in the canon law, is ufual for a benefice,
that has no jurifdiCtion annexed to it.
_ Duly upon OFFICES and Pcnjions, a branch of the
king’s extraordinary perpetual revenue, confifting in a
payment of is. in the pound (over and above all other
duties) out of all falaries, fees, and perquifites of of¬
fices and penfions payable by the crown. This highly
popular taxation was impofed by flat. 31 Geo. II. c. 22.
and is under the direction of the commiffioners of the
land tax.
OFFICER, a perfoti poffeffed of a poft or office.
See the preceding article.
The great officers of the crown, or ftate, are, The
lord high Reward, the lord high chancellor, the lord
high treafurer, the lord prefident of the council, the
lord privy feal, the lord chamberlain, the lord high
conftable, and the earl marflial; each of which fee un¬
der its proper article.
Non-commiffioned OFFICEBS, are ferjeant majors, quar-
termafter ferjeants, ferjeants, corporals, drum and fife
majors; who are nominated by their refpedftive cap¬
tains, and appointed by the commanding officers of
regiments, and by them reduced without a court mar¬
tial.
Orderly non-commijjtonedOFFICERS, are thofe who are
orderly, or on duty for that week; who, on hearing
the drum beat for orders, are to repair to the place
appointed to receive them, and to take down in writ¬
ing, in the orderly book, wffiat is di&ated by the ad¬
jutant, or ferjeant major : they are then immediately to
fliow thefe orders to the officers of the company, and
afterw ards warn the men for duty.
Flag Officers. See Flag Officers, and Admirals.
Commiffion OFFICERS, are fuch as are appointed by
tne king’s commiflion. Such are all from the general
to the cornet and enfign inclufive. They are thus called
in contradiftimftion to non-commiffioned officers. See
Non-commiffioncd OFFICERS.
General OFFICERS, are thofe whofe command is not
limited to a fingle company, troop, or regiment; but
extends to a body of forces compofed of feveral regi¬
ments : fuch are the general, lieutenant general, major
general, and brigadier.
OFFICERS of the Houfehold. See the article House¬
hold.
StaffiOFFICERS, are Inch as, in the king’s prefence,
bear a white ftaff or wand; and at other times, on
their
O G I
[ 127 ]
Officers their going abroad, have it carried before them by a
1 footman bare-headed : fuch are the lord fteward, lord
°otve- chamberlain, lord treafurer, &c.
v The white half is taken for a commiffion j and, at
the king’s death, each of thefe officers breaks his llaff
over the herfe made for the king’s body, and by this
means lays down his commiffion, and difeharges all his
inferior officers.
Subaltern OFFICERS, are all who adminider juflice in
the name of fubjedls } as thofe who aft under the earl
marffial, admiral, &c. In the army, the fubaltern of¬
ficers are the lieutenants, cornets, enfigns, ferjeants, and
corporals.
OFFICIAL, in the canon law, an ecclefiaftical
judge, appointed by a biffiop, chapter, abbot, &c. with
/ charge of the fpiritual jurifdiftion of the diocefe.
Official, is alfo a deputy appointed by an arch-dea¬
con as his affiftant, who fits as judge in the arch-deacon’s
court.
OFFICINAL, in Pharmacy, an appellation given
to fuch medicines, whether fimple or compound, as are
required to be conftantly kept in the apothecaries fhops.
The officinal ftmples are appointed, among us, by the
College of Phyficians ; and the manner of making the
compofitions direfted in their pharmacopoeia. See Ma¬
teria Medica.
OFFING, or Offin, in the fea language, that part
of the fea a good diftance from fnore, where there is
deep water, and no need of a pilot to conduft the
{hip : thus, if a ffiip from ffiore be feen failing out to
feaward, they fay, Jhe Jlands for the offi?ig ; and if a
ffiip, having the fliore near her, have another a good way
rvithout her, or towards the fea, they fay, that jhip is in
the offing.
OFF-SETS, in Gardening, are the young ffioots
that fpring from the roots of plants; which being care¬
fully feparated, and planted in a proper foil, ferve to pro¬
pagate the fpecies.
Off-sets, in Surveying, are perpendiculars let fall,
and meafuring from the flationary lines to the hedge,
fence, or extremity of an enclofure.
OGEE, or O. G. in ArchiteRure, a moulding con¬
fiding of two members, the one concave and the other
convex •, or of a round and hollow, like an S. See
Architecture.
OGHAMS, a particular kind of deganography, or
writing in cypher, praftifed by the Iridi j of which there
were three kinds : The fird was compofed of certain
' lines and marks, which derived their power from their
dtuation and podtion, as they dand in relation to one
principal line, over or under which they are placed, or
through which they are drawn •, the principal line is
horizontal, and ferveth for a rule or guide, whofe upper
part is called the left, and the under dde the right *,
above, under, and through which line, the charafters
or marks are drawn, which dand in the place of vowels,
confonants, diphthongs, and triphthongs. Some authors
have doubted the exidence of this fpecies of writing in
cypher, called Ogham among the Iriffi : but thefe doubts
are perhaps ill founded : for feveral MSS. in this charac¬
ter dill exid, from which Mr Adle has given a plate of
them.
OGIVE, in ArchiteRure, an arch or branch of a
Gothic vault •, which, indead of being circular, paffes
diagonally from one angle £0 another, and forms a
O I L
crois with the other arches. The middle, where the
ogives crofs each other, is called the hey ; being cut in
form of a role, or a cul de lamps. The members or ^
mouldings of the ogives are called nerves, branches, or
reins ; and the arches which feparaie the ogives, double
arches.
OGYGES, king of the Thebans, or, according to
others, of Ogygia and Aftre, afterwards called Bceotia
and Attica. He is recorded to have been the fird founder
of Thebes and Eleufis. The famous deluge happened
in his time, in which fome fay he perilhed with all his
fubjefts, 1796 B. C.
OGYGIA (Homer), the idand of Calypfo; placed
by Pliny in the Sinus Scylaceus, in the Ionian fea,
oppofite to the promontory Lacinium •, by Mela in the
itrait of Sicily, calling it AEcea ; which others place
at the promontory Circeium, and call it the idand of
Circe.
Ogygia, the ancient name of Thebes in Bceotia :
fo called from Ogyges, an ancient king, under whom
happened a great deluge, 1020 years before the fird
Olympiad.
OHIO, a river of North America, having its fource
in the Alleghany mountains, and afier them is called
Alleghany, till it joins the Monongahela at Fort Pitt,
where it receives the name of Ohio. It bounds the date
of Kentucky, and its only difadvantage is a rapid, one
mile and a half long, in N. Lat. 38. 3. about 400 miles
from its mouth. The breadth of this river in no one
place exceeds 1200 yards, but its mean breadth may be
edimated at 600 yards, and its length aimod 1 200 miles,
according to the meafurement of Captain Hutchins.
The inundations of the Ohio begin about the end of
March, and fublide in July, although they have been
known to happen frequently in other months 5 fo that
boats which are capable of carrying 300 barrels ot dour
from the Monongahela above Pittihurg, have feldom
very long to wait for water. It is thought that, during
the great fioods, a fird rate man of war might fail from
Louifville to New Orleans, if the hidden turns of the
river, and the rapidity of its current, ffiould be found to
admit of a fafe deerage. The bed of the Ohio is a folid
rock, and is divided by an iiland into two branches, the
fouthern of which is about 200 yards wude, but impaf-
fable in dry feafons. It is the branch that may be mod
eafily opened for a condant navigation, as the bed of
the northern branch is worn into channels by the con¬
dant courfe of the w^ater, and the attrition of the pebble .
dones carried along with it.
Ohio is alfo the name of the north-wedermod county
of the date of Virginia, bounded on the ead by the
county of Wadiington in Penrifylvania. It contains
5,212 inhabitants, of whom 281 are haves.
OHETEROA, one of the South fea iflands late¬
ly difeovered, is fituated in W. Long. 150. 47- S.
Lat. 2 2. 27. It is neither fertile nor populous 5 nor
has it any harbour or anchorage fit for dripping, and
the difpofition of the people is hodile to fuch as vifitr
them.
OIL, an unftuous inflammable fubdance, drawn from
feveral natural bodies, as animal and vegetable fubdan-
ces. See Chemistry and Materia Medica Index.
For an account of the condruftion of an oil mill, fee
Gray’s Experienced Millwright j and for an account of
a very fimple apparatus for expreffing oils from different
Ogyges
it
Oh.
OLD [ j
feeds at Bangalore in the Eaft Indies, fee Phil. Mag.
vol. XXX. p. 329.
R°ck 0[L- See Petroleum, Mineralogy Index.
OINIMENT, in Pharmacy. See Unguent, Ma-
TERIA Medica Index.
OK EH AM, the capital of Rutlandlhire, in Eng¬
land, feated in a rich and pleafant valley, called the
‘vale of Catmus. It is pretty well built, has a good
church, a free-fehool, and an hofpital. W. Lone. o.
45. N. Lat. 52. 40.
OKINGHAM, Ockingham, or Woxingham, a large
town of Berkfhire, in England, noted for the manufac¬
ture of filk ftockings. W. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 51. 26.
GLAUS magnus. See Magnus.
OKRA, the fruit of a fpecies of hibifeus, which is
employed in the Weft Indies in making foups. See
Botany Index.
OLAX, a genus of plants, belonging to the triandria
clafs. See Botany Index.
OLD AGE. See Longevity. Many methods have
been propofed for lengthening life, and rendering old
age comfortable. Cornaro’s Treatife on this fubjed is
known to every body, and needs not be quoted. To
lome of our readers the following fet of reiolutions will
perhaps be new, and may certainly be ufefuk
, The old men fhould refolve, except the reafons for a
change be invincible, to live and to die in the public
profeiuon of the religion in which they were born and
bred. To avoid all profane talk and intricate debates
on facred topics. To endeavour to get the better of the
mtrufions of indolence of mind and body, thofe certain
harbingers of enfeebling age. Rather to wear out, than
to ruft out. To rife early, and as often as poflible to go
to bed before midnight. Not to nod in company, nor
to indulge repofe too frequently on the couch in the day.
To wafte as little of life in fieep as may be, for we ftiall
have enough in the grave. Not to give up walking •
nor to 1 ide on horfeback to fatigue. Experience, and
a late medical opinion, determine to ride five miles
every day: Nothing contributes more to the preferva-
Uon of appetite, and the prolongation of life. Cheyne’s
direftion to the valetudinary, “ to make exercife a part
ot their religion,” to be reUgioufty obferved. To con¬
tinue the practice of reading, purfued for more than fifty
years, m books on all fubjefts; for variety is the fait
ot the mind as well as of life. Other people’s thoughts
like the beft converfation of one’s companions, are ge¬
nerally better and more agreeable than Tine’s own.
frequently to think over the virtues of one’s acquaint-
tance, old and new. To admit every cheerful ray of
lunlhme on the imagination. To avoid retrofpeaion
on a paft fnendftup, which had much of love in it •
lor memory often comes when Ihe is not invited To’
try to think more of the living and lefs of the dead ;
. .* dead belong to a world of their own. To live
will,in one’s income, be it large or little. Not to let
paiuon of any fort run away with the underftanding
Aot to encourage romantic hopes nor fears. Not to
drive away hope, the fovereign balm of life, though
he is the greateft of all flatterers. Not to be under
the dominion of fiiperftition or enthufiafm. Not wil-
luily to undertake any thing for which the nerves of
the mind or the body are not ftrong enough. Not to
mn the race of competition, or to be in another’s way.
1 o avoid being jollied too much in the ftreet, beino-
3
28 ] OLD
overcome by the noife of the carriages, and not to be Oid.
carried even by curiofity itfelf into a large crowd. To ' ^ v—
ftnve .to_ embody that dignified fentiment, “ to write
injuries in dull, but kindnefies in marble.” Not to
give the reins to conftitutional impatience, for it is
apt to hurry on the firrt expreflions into the indecen¬
cy of fwearing. To recoiled!, that he who can keep
his own temper, may be mailer of another’s. If one
cannot be a ftoic, in bearing and forbearing, on eveiy
trying occaiion, yet it may not be impoflible to pull
the check-ftring againft the morofenefs of fpleen or
the impetuofity of peeviflmefs. Anger is a Ihort mad-
nefs. Not to fall in love, now on the precipice of
threefcore, nor expedl to be fallen in love with. A
connexion between fummer and winter is an impro¬
per one. Love, like fire, is a good fervant, but a
bad mailer. Lovre is death, when the animal fpirits
are gone. To contrive to have as few vacant hours
upon one’s hands as poflible, that idlenefs, the mo¬
ther of crimes and vices, may not pay its vilit. To
be always doing of fomething, and to have femething
to do. To fill up one’s time, and to have a good deal
to fill up : for time is the materials that life is made
of. If one is not able by fituation, or through the
neceflity of .railing the fupplies within the year, or by
habit (for virtue itfelf is but habit), to do much often-
tatious good, yet do as little harm as poflible. To make
the bell and the moft of every thing. Not to in¬
dulge too much in the luxury of the table, nor yet to
underlive the conftitution. The gout, rheumatifin,
and dropfy, in the language of the Spedlator, feem
to be hovering ever the dilhes. Wine, the great pur¬
veyor of plealure, and the fecond in rank among the
lenfes, offers his fervice, when love takes his leave.
It is natural to catch hold of every help, when the
pirits begin to droop. Love and wine are good cor¬
dials, but are not proper for the beverage of common
ule. Refolve not to go to bed on a full meal. A
hght flipper and a good confcience are the beft re-
ceipts for a good night’s reft, and the parents of un¬
did urbmg dreams. Not to be enervated by the flatu¬
lency of tea. Let the fecond or third morning’s
thought be to confider of the employment for the day j
and one of the laft at night to inquire wdiat has been
done in the courfe of it. Not to let one’s tongue run at
the expence of truth. Not to be too communicative
nor unreferved. A clofe tongue, with an open counte¬
nance, are the fafeft paffports through the journey of the
world. To correct the error of too much talking, and
reftrain the narrativenefs of the approaching climacleric.
To take the good-natured fide in converfation. How¬
ever, not to praife every body, for that is to praife no¬
body. Not to be inquifitive, and eager to know fecrets,
nor. be thought to have a head full of other people’s
affairs. Not to make an enemy, nor to lofe a friend.
1 o aim at the efteem of the public, and to leave a good
name behind. Not to be Angular in drefs, in behaviour,
in notions, or expreflions of one’s thoughts. Never to
give bad advice, and to ftrive not to fet a bad example.
Seldom to give advice till alked, for it appears like giv¬
ing fomething that is fuperfluous to one’s felf. Not to
like or diflike too much at firft fight. Not to wonder
for all wonder is ignorance that poffeflion falls fliort of
expectation. The longing of twenty years may be dif-
appoiuted in the unanfwtted gratification of a Angle
hour.
Old
!l
Oidcaftle.
OLD [ j
hour. Win!ft we are wiftiing, we fee the beft fide 5
after ire have taken pofleftion, the worft. Hefolve to
attend to the arguments on both Tides, and to hear every
body againft every body. The mind ought not to be
made up, but upon the beft evidence. To be affefHon-
ale to relations, which is a kind of felf-love, in pre-
ikience to all other acquaintance. But not to omit
paying the commanding refpeft to merit, which is fu-
perior to all the accidental chain- of kindred. Not to
debilitate the mind by new and future compofitions.
Like thejpider, it may fpin itfelf to death. The mind,
like the field, muft have its fallow- feafpn. The leifure
of the pen has created honourable acquaintance, and
plealed all it has wiflied to pleafe. To reiolve not to be
too iree of promifes, for performances are fometimes very
difficult tilings. Not to be too much alone, nor to read,
nor meditate, or talk too much on points that may
awaken tender fenfations, and be too pathetic for the
foul. To enjoy the prefent, not to be made too unhappy
by refteftion on the paft, not to be opprefled by invin¬
cible gloom on the future. To give and receive com¬
fort, thofe necefiary alms to a diftrefled mind. To be
conftantly thankful to providence for the plenty hitherto
poffefled, which has preferved one from the dependence
on party, perfons, and opinions, and kept one out of
debt.. The appearance of a happy fituation, and oppor¬
tunities of tailing many worldly felicities (for content
has feldom perverted itfelf into difcontent), has induced
many to conclude, that one muft be pleafed with one’s
lot in lifa ; and it occafions many to look with the
eye, of innocent envy. To refolve more than ever to
ffiun every public ftation and refponfibility of conducl.
1 o. be fatisfied w'ith being mafter of one’s felf, one’s
habits, now a fecond nature, and one’s time. Deter¬
mined net to folicit, unlefs trampled upon by fortune
to Jive and die in the harnefs of trade, or a profeffiom
To take care that pity (humanity is not here meant)
does not find out one in the endurance of any calami¬
ty. When pity is within call, contempt is not far off.
Not to W'ifh to have a greater hold of life, nor to quit
(hat hold. Jffie poftible tenure of exiftence is of too
ftiort poffeftion for the long night that is to fucceed :
therefore not a moment to be loft. Not to lofe fight
even for a fingie day, or thefe good and proverbial
doftors-—diet—merryman—and quiet. Refolved to
remember and to recommend, towards tranquillity and
longevity, the three oral maxims of Sir Hans Sloane
—“ Never to quarrel with one’s felf—one’s wife or
one’s prince.” Laftly, Not to put one’s felf too much
in the powder of the elements, thofe great enemies to the
human frame j namely, the fun—the wind—the rain 
and the night air.
Old Man of the Mountain. See Assassins.
OLDCASTLE, Sir John, called the Good Lord
Cob ham, was born in the reign of Edward III. and
was the firft author as well as' the firft martyr among
the Englifti nobility : he obtained bis peerage by mar¬
rying the heirefs of that Lord Cobham who with fo
inucn virtue and patnotifm oppoled the tyranny of
Richard II. By his means the famous ftatute againft
provifors was revived, and guarded againft by feverer
penalties j he wras one of the leaders of the reformino-
party ; was at great expence in procuring and difperft
ing copies of Wickliffe’s writings among the people,
as well as by maintaining a number of his difciples as
Vol. XV. Part I. ^
OLD
29 ] .
itinerant preachers. In the reign of Henry V. lie was OWaff.’
accufed of .hereiy 5 the growth of wffiich w as attribut- t'kletibii:.
ed to his influence. Being a domeftic in the kind’s
4-1-.^ 1W J 1 1 1 * r* • . . Q
court, the king delayed his profecution that he might
reafon with him himfelf; but not being able to re¬
claim him to the church of Rome, he in great difplea-
fure refigned him to its cenfure. He was apprehended
and condemned for herefy j but efcaping from the Tower,
lay concealed for four years in Wales, until the ru¬
mour of a pretended confpiracy was raifed againft him
and a price let upon his head : he was at laft feized
and. executed in St G iles’s Fields 5 being hung alive in
chains upon a gallows, and burned by a fire placed
underneath. Pie wrote “ Tivelve Conclufions, addreffed
to the Parliament of England.”
OLDENBURG, a title of the royal houfe of Den¬
mark. The origin of this illuftrious family, we are told
is this :—
On the death of Chriftopher king of Denmark, &c.
m 144S, without illue, there was a great conteft about
the fucceflion ; and a variety of factions were raifed,
particularly in Sweden and Norway, for the promotion
of different perfons ; and various animofities and numer¬
ous difeords were excited by the feveral parties, in order
each to obtain their -awn ends.
As foon as thefe intrigues were known in Denmark,
the lenate .refolved to proceed to the eleftion of a
king j for it did not appear expedient to commit the
government of affairs to the queen dowager, at a time
when they had every thing to fear from the tw o neigh¬
bouring crowns. At this time a lord of great weigH,
property, and ambition, fought the queen in marriage’
the more eafily to pave his w ay to the throne. This
is a fad mentioned by Pontanus and Meurfius, though
neither takes notice of his name. But as for a great
number of years there was no precedent for electing a
king out of the body of nobility, though agreeable^ to
lawq the queen entered into the views of the fenate^
and declared (he would give her hand to no prince whcT
ffiould not be judged deferving of the crown by the fu^
preme council of the ration.
The advantages which would have accrued from an¬
nexing the duchy of Slefwick and Holftein to the
crown, made the fenate firft caft their eyes on Adol¬
phus. This matter required no long deliberation j all
law the conveniences refulting from fuch an union,
and gave their affent. Immediately an embaffy was
defpatched with the offer to Adolphus; but that prince
confulting the good of his fubjefts, whofe intereft
would have been abforbed in the luperior weight of
Denmark, declined it, with a moderation and difin-
tereftednefs, altogether uncommon among princes. PIow-
ever, that he might not be wanting in refped to
the fenate, he propofed to them his nephew Chriftian,
fecond Ion to 1 heoaoric, count of Oldenburg, a prince
bred up at the court of Adolphus from his infancy.
The propofition w;as fo agreeable to the fenate, that,
without lofs of time, the ambaffpdors -were fent to
Theodoric, to demand either of his fons he ftiould
pitch upon for their king. Theodoric’s anfwer to the
ambaffadors was remarkable : “ I have three fons
fays he, of very oppofite qualities. One is paffion-’
ately fond of pleafure and women ; another breathes
nothing but war, without regarding the juftice of the
caufe; but the third is moderate in his difpofition,
K prefers
OLD
[ I3° 1
O L E
Oldenburg prefers peace to tVie din of arms, yet ftalids unrivalled
il valour, generofity, and magnanimity.” He faid
Oldham.
—~
he painted thefe characters for the fenate’s informa¬
tion, defiring they would choofe which of the young
princes they believed would render the kingdom hap-
pieft. It was a matter which would admit ot no he-
iilation : with one voice the fenate declared for that
prince whofe panegyric the father had lo warmly
drawn 5 and under thefe happy aufpices commenced the
origin of the grandeur of the houfe ol Oldenburg, at this
day feated on the throne of Denmark.
Oldenburg, Henry, a learned German of the x 7th
century, was defeended from the noble family oi his
name, who were earls of the county of Oldenburg, in
the north part of Weftphalia, for many generations.
He was born in the duchy of Bremen in the Lower
Saxony ; and during the long Englilh parliament in
King Charles I.’s time, was appointed conful for his
countrymen, at London, after the ufurpation of Cromwell:
but being difeharged of that employ, he was made tutor
to the lord Henry O’Bryan, an Iriili nobleman, whom
he attended to the univerfity of Oxford, where he was
admitted to ftudy in the Bodleian library in the begin¬
ning of the year 1656. He was afterwards tutor to
William lord Cavendilh, and was acquainted with Mil-
ton the poet. During his refidence at Oxford, he be¬
came alfo acquainted with the members of that body
there, which gave birth to the Royal Society ; and upon
the foundation of this latter, he was elefled fellow •, and
when the fociety found it neceffary to have two Secre¬
taries, he was chofen affiftant fecretary to Dr W ilkins.
He applied himfelf with extraordinary diligence to the
bufmefs of his office, and began the publication of the
Philofophical Tranfaftions with N° I. in 1664. In
order to difeharge this talk with greater credit to him¬
felf and the fociety, he held a correspondence with more
that feventy learned penons, and others, upon a \ ait
variety of fubjects, in different parts of the world.
This fatigue would have been infupportable, had not
he, as he told Dr Lifter, managed it fo as to make one
letter anfwer another j and that to be always freffi, he
never read a letter before he had pen, ink, and. paper,
ready to anfwer it forthwith ; fo that the multitude of
his letters cloyed him not, nor ever lay upon his hands.
Among others, he was a conftant correspondent of Mr
Robert Boyle, with whom he had a very. intimate
friendffiip j and he trandated Several of that ingenious
gentleman’s works into Latin. ^
^ Mr Oldenburg continued to publiffi the Tranfaftions,
as before, to N° xxxvi. June 25. 1677. After which
the publication was difeontinued till the January fol¬
lowing, when it was again refumed by his fucceffor in
the Secretary’s office, Mr Nehemiah Grew, who car¬
ried it on till the end of February 1678. Our author
dying at his houfe at Charleton, near Greenwich in
Kent, in the month of Auguft that year, was interred
there.
OLDENLANDIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the tetrandria clafs. See Botany Index.
OLDHAM, Jc’lN, an eminent Engliffi poet in the
17th century, fon of a Nonconformiff minifter, was edu¬
cated under his father, and then Sent to Edmund-hall in
Oxford. He became uffier to the free-fehool at Croy¬
don in Surry 5 where he received a vifit from the earls
of Rochefter and Dorfef, Sir Charles Sedley, and other O.c’haai-
perfons of diftinftion, merely upon the reputation °f Qiea ;noa5
lofne verfes of his which they had Seen in manufeript. .
He was tutor to feverai gentlemen’s fons fficceffively;
and having laved a fmall lurn of money, came to Lon¬
don, and became a perfect votary to the bottle, being
an agreeable companion. He was quickly found out
here by the noblemen who had vifited him at Croydon,
who brought him acquainted with Mr Dryden. He
lived moftly with the earl of Kingfton at Holme-Pier-
point in Noitinghamlhire, where he died of the Small¬
pox in 1683, in the 30th year of his age. His acquaint¬
ance with learned authors appears by his fatires againft
the Jefuits, in which there is as much learning as wit
difeovered. Mr Dryden efteemed him highly. His
works are printed in 2 vols 1 2mo. They chiefly confllt
of fatires, odes, tranflations, paraphrafes of Horace and
other authors, elegiac verles, imitations, parodies, fami¬
liar epiftles, &c.
OLD-HEAD, a promontory Situated in the county
of Cork, and province of Munfter, four miles South of
Kinfale, in the barony of Courcies, Ireland, which runs
far into the fea, and on which is a lighthoufe for the
convenience of fliipping. A mile from its extremity is
an ancient caltle of the lords of Kinfale, built from one
fide of the ifthmus to the other, which defended all the
lands towards the head : this place was formerly called
Duncearma, and was the old feat of the Iriffi .kings.
The ifthmus, by the working of the fea, was quite pe¬
netrated through, fo as to form a Stupendous arch, un¬
der which boats might pafs from one bay. to the other.
Among the rocks of this coaft there are aviaries of good
hawks ; alfo the fea eagles or ofpreys build their nefts
and breed there.
OLDMIXON, John, was defeended from an an¬
cient family in Somerfetffiire : he was a violent party-
writer and malevolent critic, who would Scarcely ha\e
been remembered, if Pope, in refentment of his abufe,
had not condemned him to immortality in his Dun-
ciad. His party-writings procured him a place in the
revenue at Liverpool, where he died at an advanced
age in the year 1745. Befldes his fugitive.temporary
pieces, he wrote a Hiftory 01 the Stuarts, in folio $ a
Critical Hiftory of England, 2 vols 8vo ; a^. volume of
Poems, feme dramatic pieces,. &c.; none of them wor¬
thy of notice, his principal talent being that of falftfying
hiftory.
Old-wife, or Wrajfe. See Labrus, ^ Ichthyolo-
Old-wife Fijh. See Balistes, J gy Index.
Old-woman’s ISLAND, a narrow flip of land, about
two miles long, Separated irom Bombay in the Eaft. In¬
dies by an arm of the fea, which, however, is paffable
at low water. It terminates at one extremity in a fmall
eminence, on which a look-out houfe is kept for veffels.
Near the middle are three tombs kept conftantly white,
as land-marks into the harbour. From the end of the
illand a dangerous ledge of rocks fticots forth, which
are not very eafily cleared. It produces oifly pafture ioi
a few cattle.
OLE A, the olive-tree; a genus of plants belonging
to the diandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 44th order, Sepiarur. See Botany Index.
OLEAGINOUS, fomething that partakes oi the
nature of oil, or out of which oil may be exprdffffi
o L I [I
Oleander OLEANDER, or rose bay, nerium; a genus of
it plants belonging to the pentandria clafs. See Botany
0ho> Index.
OLECRANUM, or Olecranon, in Anatomy, the
protuberance of the ulna, which prevents the joint of
the elbow from being bent back beyond a certain length.
See Anatomy, N° 51.
OLENUS, a Greek poet, older than Orpheus, came
from Xanthe, a city of Lycia. He compofed feveral
hymns, which were fung in the ifland of Delos upon fe-
ftival days. Olenus is faid to have been one of the
founders of the oracle at Delphi; to have been the firft
who filled at that place the office of prieft of A pollo ,
and to have given refponfes in verfe : but the truth of
thefe afiertions is very doubtful.
OLERON, an ifland of France, on the coafl of Au-
nis and Saintogne, about five miles from the continent.
It is 12 miles in length, and five in breadth ; and is
Very fertile, containing about 12,000 inhabitants, who
are excellent feamen. It is defended by a caftle, which
is well fortified ; and there is a lighthoufe placed there
for the direction of fhips. It is 14 miles fouth-eaft of
Rochelle. W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 46. 3.
Sea Laws of OLERON, certain laws relative to mari¬
time affairs, made in the time of Richard I. when he was
at the ifland of Oleron. Thefe laws, being accounted
the moft excellent fea laWs in the world, and recorded
in the black book of the admiralty. See Selden’s Mare
Ciaufum.
OLEUM PALMiE christi, commonly called cafor
iil, is extra&ed from the kernel of the fruit produced
by the Ricinus Americanus. See Ricinus, Botany
and Materia Medica Index.
OLFACTORY nerves. See Anatomy, N° 139
and 143.
OLGA, queen of Igor, the fecond monarch of Ruf-
fia, who flourifhed about the year 880, having fucceed-
ed his father Ruric, who died in 878. Olga was born
in Plefcow, and was of the bed family in that city. She
bore him one fon, called Swetoflaw. Igor being mur¬
dered by the Drewenfes, or Drewliani, Olga revenged
his death. She went afterwards, for what reafon we
know not, to Conftantinople, where fhe was baptized,
and received the name of Helena.
The emperor John Zimifces was her godfather, and
fell in love with her as we are told 5 but fhe, alleging
their fpiritual alliance, refufed to marry him. Her ex¬
ample made fome impreffion upon her fubjecls, a good
■number of whom became converts to Chriflianlty $ but
Yione upon her fon, who reigned for a long time after
her death, which happened at Pereflaw, in the 80th
year of her age, 14 years after her baptifm. The Ruf¬
fians to this day rank her among their faints, and com¬
memorate her feftival on the nth of July.
OLIBANUM, in Pharmacy, a gummy refin, (the
product of the jnniperus lycia Lin.), brought from Tur¬
key -and the Eaft Indies, ufually in drops or tears. See
Materia Medica Index.
OLIGARCHY, a form of government wherein the
adminiflration of affairs is confined to a few hands.
OLIO, or Oglio, a favoury diffi, or food, compo¬
fed of a great variety of ingredients j chiefly found at
Spanifh tables.
3 he forms of olios are various. To give a notion of
31 1 O L I
this flrange affemblage, we fhall here add one from an
approved author.
Take rump of beef, neats tongues boiled and dried,
and Bologna faufages } boil them together, and, after
boiling two hours, add mutton, pork, venifon and ba¬
con, cut in bits ; as alfo turnips, carrots, onions and
cabbage, borage, endive, marigolds, forrel, and fpi-
nach ; then fpices, as faffron, cloves, mace, nutmeg,
&c. This done, in another pot put a turkey or goofe,
with capons, pheafants, wigeons and ducks, partridges,
teals, and llock-doves, fnipes, quails, and larks, and
boil them in water and fait. In a third veffel, prepare
a fauce of white wine, ftrong broth, butter, bottoms of
artichokes, and chefnuts, with cauliflowers, bread, mar¬
row, yolks of eggs, mace, and faffron. Laftly, Diffi
the olio, by firfi: laying out the beef and veal, then the
venifon, mutton, tongues, and faufages, and the roots
over all 5 then the largefl fowls, then the fmalleft, and
laftly pour on the fauce.
OLISIPO, (Pliny, Antonine, Infcriptions); a town
of Lufitania, fituated on the north fide of the frith of
the Tagus'of fuch antiquity, that Solinus thought it
was built by Ulyffes ; and Mela, probably to favor,”
this opinion, writes, according to the common copies,
> both of them perhaps deceived by the fimila-
rity of found. It was a municipium, with the farname
Felicitas Julia, a privilege granted by the munificence
of Auguftus, (Infcriptions, Pliny). Now Liffion, ca¬
pital of Portugal, fituated on the north bank of the
Tagus, diftant about ten miles from its mouth. See
Lisbon.
OLIVAREZ, Count de, by name Hon Gafpar de
Gut&man, favourite and minifter to Don Philip IV. of
Spain, about 1620 } a man of great parts and boundlefs
ambition. Philip no fooner became king, than he be¬
came the fubjeft of this his favourite. The king had
abilities, it is true, but they lay dormant 3 and whilft
he fpent his time in liftlefs inactivity, the whole govern¬
ment was under the direction of Olivarez. The count’s
management, indeed, was fufficiently dexterous in ac-
compliffiing his own defigns 3 for by the belt framed ex-
cufes, and on the moft plaufible pretexts, he removed
all fuch as he thought flood in his way 3 nor did he flop
there, but fometimes perfecuted his rivals even to death,
of which Don Rodrigo Calderona was a melancholy in-
ftance, an inftance which at that time excited univerfal
compaffion. This minifter, in ffiort, had a genius of
no common kind 3 added to which, he had a difpofition
which fpurned all controul.
He had perfecuted the late miniftry for their pufilla-
nimity in the management of affairs 3 he therefore
thought it necefiary, and it was certainly prudent, to
purfue new meafures. His felf-fufficiency, though un¬
bounded, was concealed under the veil of affumed mo-
defty, and he was careful to make it appear that he was
wholly taken up with the things of his own province.
His politics were of a refined perhaps, but not of a very
ufeful, tendency 3 for his imprudence, or his wrong no¬
tions on the fubjeCJ, made him renew a war with Hol¬
land, contrary to the univerfal opinion of the council
and the people. By the fame imprudence, or by fome-
thing worfe, he provoked England, and obliged her to
endeavour to humble the pride and leffen the authority
of the hcufe of Auftria. Thus far he had been of little
R 2 fcrvire
-Ctliyarez.
O L I [ 132 ] O L I
femce to l;is pour,try, having only provoked the refent-
inent of the xnofi: powerful hates, particularly England,
France, Holland, &c. to confpire for its ruin. It is re¬
markable that Olivarez, notwithhanding this, never loft
his credit j and indeed things fo turned about in the
end, that though Spain for a whole year was put to the
fevereft trials, it acquired a degree of fame which fuffi-
ciently, in the general opinion, overbalanced fome lit¬
tle lofs. Olivarez too was particularly fortunate in
making the peace } in which tranfadlion he gained a
very confiderable advantage over Richelieu, fo that
things appeared to be hill in a very favourable train.
Fortune, however, was not always quite fo indulgent to
the fchexnes of this miniher : he again drew Spain into
a war with Mantua, contrary to the fentiments of the
wifeh men ; from which is juhly dated its deplenfton, if
not its ruin.
On the whole, Olivarez feems to have been always
averfe to peace } and with fuch a rehlefs difpofition, it
is undoubtedly wonderful that he held his place fo long
and with fo few complaints as he did.
It was certainly owing to his ambition and obhinacy,
that an almoh general war was excited about the year
1627, -r'd which, as we have faid, proved fo fatal to
Spain. So averfe, indeed, does he appear to have been
to peace, that he ufed every means in his power to pre¬
vent the reftoration of it in Italy 5 and for this very pur-
pofe he font Feria into Milan, whom he knew to be a
man of fuch a temper and abilities as foiled his purpofes 5
for he was naturally averfe to quiet. He endeavoured
to break the alliances of the duke of Mantua by various
flratagems ; but they did not fucceed : the fchemes of
Olivarez and the intrigues of Feria being totally defeat¬
ed. Our minifter had foon after this another caufe of
mortification, on Richelieu’s being c.fated a duke and
peer of France, and unanimoufly admitted among the
Venetian nobility 5 which could net fail to be a 1'evcre
ftroke on Olivarez, who confidered him as his implaca¬
ble enemy.
The people at length began to foe and be difpleafed
with his conduct and with reafon, had they known it
all, for it was in many inftances cruel and deteftable.
Indeed the differences which at that time had fo long
fobfifted between France and Spain were the effect of
the private animofity between him and Richelieu.
Things, however, fo turned about, and Spain was fo
unufoally foccefsful, that the faults of the minifter were
overlooked for the time •, but this unexpected good for¬
tune had no other effect than that of making him far
more infolent than ever. He was, in every inftance,
one of the moft headitrong and obftinate men in the
world : he had fet his heart on the redu&ion of Cafal in
Italy, and he was determined on it at whatever ha¬
zard } this foolilh enterprife was, however, unaccount¬
ably defeated, and the Spanilh army experienced a total
defeat.
The revolt of the Catalans, wfoom he withed to de¬
prive of their privileges, was the next confequence of
his folly : he had privately- employed the marquis de
los Velez to extinguifh this rebellion 5 but the cruelty
of the meafores ufed for this purpofe only inflamed
it the more. The revolution of Portugal, another dif-
aftrous event, was alfo the refolt of his obftinacy and
rigour-
This feries of ill fortune, which ought to have opened
the eyes of the Catholic king and his mm;tiers, feemed Olivarez
to infatuate both. The great fecret by which Olivarez fl
had governed his mailer was being the companion, or at
leaft the confidant, of his pleafores. While he affected    1
to deceive the world with a fpecious appearance of reli¬
gion and piety, he was not only immerfed in -s ice him-
lelf, but encouraged and promoted it in his prince, to
the Ibandal of his fobjects, and the prejudice of his af¬
fairs. At this time, of all others the moft improper,
Olivarez produced a baftard of his, hitherto called Ju-
lian ; he had taken fo little care of this fon, that, net
able to fubiift in Spain, he had palled over to the Indies,
where, in very mean ftations, he had fcarcely got bread.
On him he now beftowed the name of Don Henrico de
Guzman; and bringing him with great pomp and
fplendour to court, either flattered or torced the con-
ftable of Caftile to give him his daughter 5 in qonfidera-
tion of which alliance he was to devolve upon him bis
duchy of St Lucar. In the beginning of his actminiftra¬
tion, by feme accident or other, he prefented to tl\e
king a memorial, in relation to an affair upon which his
majefty had already received one from Don Balthafar
de Zuniga : upon comparing them, they contradibled
each other flatly. The king ordered a perfon of great
quality to inquire thoroughly into this bufinefs ; in con ¬
fequence of which Don Palthafars memorial appeared
to be the tnuh, and that of Olivarez the reverie of it.-
The king was very angry •. but the count regained his
favour, by procuring for him the fair atlrefs Calderon?..
By this woman he had a fon, of wdiom no great notic e
was taken ; but now-, to obfeure the folly of the count
duke, this youth, fcarce in the 14th year of his age,
was produced, with the title of Don Juan of Avftria,
and declared generaliffimo of the army againft Portugal;
while the heir apparent to the crown, Don Balthafar,
was left under the tuition, or rather in the cuftody of
the counfefs of Olivarez ; at which conduct the queen
was chagrined, the people enraged, and the world in
general aftonithed.
His fchemes now began to be entirely broken and
defeated everywhere and in every kind ; he fell under
the difpleafure of the queen, the emperor, the grandees,
and the people all at once, and experienced the difgrace
he had long merited. His ill fortune, which carne up¬
on him wiih the force of a torrent, did not, however,
wholly overpower him ; he wras indeed obliged to con¬
ceal himlelf, in order to avoid the rage of the populace :
but he had ftill confidence enough to offer an apology
for his conduft, which poffeffed no inconfiderable fluvre
of wit and humour, w-ell tempered with fpirit and rna-
fterly reafoning. It was not, however, of any confe¬
quence to him; for he was banilhed to Toro, where,
worn out by infirmities, or overcome by defpair, he
ended his days about the year 1645.
OLIVE, the fruit of the olive tree. See Olea, Bo¬
tany Index.
OLIVE Prefs. In order to obtain the olive oil, the Plate
olives are firft bruifed in a rough trough, under a mill-CCCLXXt-
ftone, rolling perpendicularly over them ; and when
fufficiently mafhed, put into the maye or trough, m,
of an olive prefs, where aa are the upright beams, or
cheeks ; b, the female, and c, the male ferew; f the
board on which the ferew7 preffes ; g, a cubical piece of
wood, called a b/ock ; h, the peel, a circular board, to
be put under the block. By turning the ferew, all the
liquor
Olive Co¬
lour
II
Olive tan.
O L I [ 133 ] 0 L Y
liquor is preiTed out of the mafbed olives, and is called
virgin oil; after which, hot water being poured upon
the remainder in the prefs, a coarfer oil is obtained.
Olive oil keeps only about a year, after which it dege¬
nerates.
OLIVE Colour, a yellow mingled with black.
OLIVET, or Mount of OLIVES, in Ancient Geo-
grapluj, was lituateu to the eaft of the city of Jerufalem,
and parted from the city only by the brock Kidron, and
by the valley of Jeholhaphat, which ftretches out from
the north to the fouth. It was upon this mount that
Solomon built temples to the gods of the Ammonites
(1 Kings xi. 7.) and of the Moabites, out of complai-
fance to his wives, who were natives of thefe nations.
Hence it is that the mount of Olives is called the moun¬
tain of corruption (2 Kings xxiii. 13.). Jofephus fays,
that this mountain is at the ditlance of five ftadla, or
furlongs, from Jerufalem, which make 625 geometrical
paces, or the length of a Sabbath-day’s journey, fays St
Luke (Adis i. 12.). The mount of Olives had three
fummits, or was compofed of three feveral mountains,
ranged one after another from north to fouth. The
middle fummit is that from whence cur Saviour afeend-
ed into heaven. It was upon that towards the fouth
th*t Solomon built temples to his idols. The fummit
which is moll to the north is diilant two furlongs from
the middicrnoO:. This is the higheft of the three, and
is commonly called Galilee.
In the time of King Uzziah, the mount of Olives
was fo {battered by an earthquake, that half of the
earth that was on the weftern fide fell down, and rolled
four furlongs or 500 paces from thence, towards the
mountain which was oppofite to it on the eaft ■, fo that
the earth blocked up the highways, and covered the
king’s gardens.
Mr Maundrell tells us that he and his company going
out of Jerufalem at St Stephen’s gate, and crofting the
valley of Jeholhaphat, began immediately to afeend the
mountain y that being got above two-thirds of the wray
up, they came to certain grottoes cut with intricate
windings and caverns under ground, which were called
the fepulchres of the prophets ; that a little higher up
were twelve arched vaults under ground, Handing fide
by fide, and built in memory of the apoftles, who are
laid to have compiled their creed in this place j that 60
paces higher they came to the place where Chrift is faid
to have uttered his prophecy concerning the final de-
ft raft ion of Jerufalem ; and a little on the right hand,
to another, where he is faid to have dictated a fecond
time the J-ord’s prayer to his difciples •, that fomewhat
higher is the cave of a faint called Petagia ; a little
above that, a pillar denoting the place where an angel
gave the Elefied Virgin three days warning of her
death and at the top of all, the place of our blefled
Lord’s afeenfion.
OLIVET AN, Robert, related to the famous Cal¬
vin, printed at Neufchatel in 1335* in folio, a verfion
of the Bible into French, the firft which had been tranf-
lated from the original Hebrew and Greek. It is writ¬
ten in an uncouth and barbarous ftyle, and is far from
being faithful. The charaflers in which it is printed
are Gothic, and the language of it is no lefs fo. It is
valued only becaufe it is rare. Calvin is thought to
have had a very confiderable {hare in this tranflation.
Ollvetan furvived his publication but a {hort time } for
he was poifened at Rome the year after, of Avhich nis Ciivetan
tranilation is aiiged to have been the caufe. 01 vetan’s ^
Bible, reviled by John Calvin and N. Malinger, was
reprinted at Geneva, in 1340, in quarto. This edition
is ftill rarer than the former. It is called the Bible de
CEpee, becaufe the printer had a fword for his fign,
OLIVIER, Claude Matthieu, advocate of the
parliament of Aix, was bom at Marfeilles in 1701, and
appeared at the bar with eclat. He had a chief hand
in the eftabliihment of the academy of Marfeilles, and
was one of its original members. He pofieiTed a quick
and livelv genius. A few hours retirement from fcciety
and from his pleafures were frequently fufficient to en¬
able him to {peak and write, even on important caufes;
but his works commonly bore marks of hafte. Given
to excefs in every thing, he would employ a fortnight
in ftudying the Code and the Tigeft, or in ftorlng his
mind with the beauties of Demoithenes, Homer, Cice¬
ro, or Boffuet ; and then abandon himfelf for another
fortnight, fiequently a whole month, to a life of frivo¬
lity and dtffipation. He died in 1736, at the age of
33. Ke publifhed, 1. LlHi/loire de Philippe roi de Ma¬
cedoine, et pere d"1 Alexandre le Grand, 2 vols 12mo.
No writer has fo ably handled the hiftory of the age of
Philip, the interelis of the different nations of Greece,
and their manners and cuftoms : but the conduit of the
work is extremely defective. The digreflions are too
frequent, and often tedious. The ftyle is in no refpect
fuitabie to a hiftory. It is in general dry, unconnected,
and like the ftyle of a differtation. Sometimes, how-
eve*-, we find in it paffages full of fire and beauty, and-
turns of expreffion truly original. A difeafe of the
brain, with which he was attacked, and under which
he laboured feveral years, prevented him from putting
his laft hand to the work. 2. Memoire fur lesfecours
donnes aux Romains par les Marfeillois pendant la id a
Guerre PuJiique. 3. Memoire fur les fecours donnes aux
Romains par les Marfeillois durant la Guerre conire les
Gaulois.
OLMUTZ, a town of Germany, in Moravia, with
a bifhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity. The public
buildings are very handfome, particularly the Jefuits col¬
lege. It is a populous, trading, and very ftrong place ;
and yet it was taken, with the whole garrifon, by the
king of Pruflia in 1741. In July 1758 he befieged it
again ; and wrhen he had almoft taken the place he was
obliged to raife the fiege, to go and meet the Ruffian
army. It is feated on the river Morave. E. Long.
17. 35. N. Lat. 49. 30.
OLYMPIA, Maldachiki Donna, a woman of a
very uncommon charailer. She flouriihed about the
middle of the 1 7th century. She was fifter-in-law to..
Pope Innocent X. and had the addrefs to acquire an un ¬
limited power over this vain, weak, and injudicious ec-
lefiaftic. Her fon Camillo was promoted to the carbi-
nalate, under the title of Pamphilio 5 but falling in love
with the princefs Roffana, a beautiful young widow, he
laid afide his hat, and married. The crime, if it was
one, was efteemed by the Romans in general at lead ve¬
nial. The pope, however, was difpleafed 5 and 01ym=
pia procured their baniffiment, being afraid left her
daughter-in-law fhould leffen her authority in the facred'
court. This authority, equally unnatural and uncom¬
mon, reflected neither honour on her who held it, nor
on the man who allowed her to hold it. Such elevated
fituatiorrs,
\
Olympia.
0 L Y r 134 ] O L Y
fituations, however, whether they are the reward of
mem, the effect of chance, or acquired by cunning,
are feldom very fecure. Olympia, who had procured
the difgrace of many who did not delerve it, and who
had herfelf long merited fuch a fate, at length experi¬
enced both difgrace and banifhment. This was obtain¬
ed by means of Cardinal .'Panzirollo, a great favourite of
the pope’s. The immediate caufe of it was this : The
pope had determined, in order to leffen his own trouble,
to adopt a nephew, and to make him a Cardinal Pa¬
tron, in order to give audience to ambaffadors and mi-
nifters, and in his abfence to prefide at the council. For
.this purpofe, at the recommendation of his favourite,
his holinefs make choice of Aftalli, brother of the mar¬
quis Ailalli, who had married a niece of Olympia.
Olympia indeed was (lightly confulted on the affair, and
.fhowed no difapprobation of the appointment. The
pope, however, no fooner got him fixed in his new of¬
fice, than he (howed his own weaknefs by repenting of
it. Olympia too was difpleafed, and by her folicitations
procured the difgrace of Aftalli, before had enjoyed ei¬
ther the honours or emoluments of his office. Panzi¬
rollo, however, foon managed matters fo as to turn the
fcales : he prevailed on the pope again to countenance
and honour Aftalli; and, what was more, had influence
f’ufficient to perfuade him to difgrace Olympia, and to
banifh her the court. She had indeed abufed her autho¬
rity in a moft fcandalous manner, and had gained fuch
an abfolute a fc end ant over the pope, that in every tiling
his will had been fubfervient to her dictates.—Her ava¬
rice and ambition were unbounded : (he difpofed of all
benefices, which were kept vacant till (he fully informed
herfelf of their value : (he rated an office of 1000
crowns for three years, at one year’s revenue, and if for
life, at 12 years purchafe, one half of which fum fhe
required to be paid in advance : fhe gave audience upon
public affairs, enafted new laws, abrogated thofe of
former popes, and fat in council with Innocent, with
bundles of memorials in her hands. It was generally
faid that they lived together in a criminal correfpond-
ence, and that fhe had charmed him by fome fecret in¬
cantation. In the Proteftant countries the loves and
intrigues of Innocent and Donna Olympia were repre-
fented upon the ftage ; and fevere farcafms were daily
put into the hands of Pafquin at Rome.—As fhe had
ufurped fuch an abfolute authority, the new cardinal
nephew faw the neceflily of ruining her credit 5 he
therefore feconded the endeavours of Panzirollo.—He
infinuated to the pope, that his reputation had fuffered
greatly among the Catholics by her fcandalous proceed¬
ings, and that his nuncios were treated with difrefpeft
and contempt at the courts of the emperor, France, and
Spain. Upon thefe reprefentations, Innocent at length,
but with great reluffance, banifhed Olympia, and was
reconciled to Prince Camillo and the princefs Roffana;
though fome authors affirm that her banifhment was no
more than a political retreat, and that 'fhe ftill in pri¬
vate diredled the affairs of the pope. A woman of O-
lympia’s chara&er, however, with fuch unbounded am¬
bition, fuch an extravagant luft for power, and fuch an
ambitious defire of wealth, and who had once poffeffed
fio great an afcendency over fuch a man as Innocent,
was not to be fo eafily put off. She was banifhed in
4650 } but in 1653, A*6 again aflumed the fupreme di¬
rection of affairs juft as before her difgrace. She again
accomplifhed the difgrace of Aftalli, and procured the
promotion of Azzolini to the office of fecretary of the
briefs. In 1654, his holinefs refigned himfelf entirely
into the hands of this affuming woman ; who, obferving
his infirmities daily mcreafing, redoubled her rapacity,
difpofing of benefices to the higheft bidders in all parts
of Italy. She was again, however, in hazard of being
difplaced by a new favourite, viz. the cardinal de Retz ;
pnd had not the pope’s diffolution prevented it, it would
in all probability quickly have taken place. During
his laft illnefs he received nothing but from the hands
of Donna Olympia, who was at great pains to prolong
his life, watched continually at his bed fide, and pre¬
vented the ambaffadors or others from difturbing him
with difeourfes upon bufinefs. She is faid, during the
laft ten days of his life, when he continued without the
ufe of reafon, to have amaffed about half a million of
crowns. She did not find the fucceeding pope (Alex¬
ander VII.) fo eafy to be played upon as his weak pre-
deceffor : a number of memorials were fent in againft
her, and his holinefs was well difpofed to attend to
them : he ordered her to retire from Rome, and at the
fame time began to examine witnefles refpecting her
conduft. She was cut off, however, before the trial
was finifhed, by the plague, which, in 1636, affiifted
Rome and its neighbourhood. Her eftate was not con-
fifeated as was generally expected ; and the prince
Pamphilio was allowed to fucceed her. The pope
only referved for his own relations about a million of
crowns.
Olympia, in Ancient Geograpij, with the furname
Pifatis (Strabo) ; fo called from the territory of Pifa in
Elis; deferibed by Strabo, “ as the temple of Jupiter
Olympius, before which (lands a grove of wild olive
trees, in which is the ftadium, or foot-courfe, fo called
becaufe the eighth part of a mile 5 and by which the
Alpheus, coming down from Arcadia, runs.” Olym¬
pia, however, was famous not merely for the temple
of Jupiter, but alfo for a temple of Juno, 63 feet long,
with columns round it of the Doric order; and a
Metroum or temple of the mother of the gods, a large
Doric edifice 5 with holy treafuries. Thefe, and the
porticoes, a gymnafium, prytaneum, and many more
buildings, chiefly in the enclofure, with the houfes of
the priefts and other inhabitants, made Olympia no in-
confiderable place. The ftadium was in the grove of
wild olive trees, before the great temple ; and near it
was the hippodrome or courfe for the races of horfes
and chariots. The Alpheus flowed by from Arcadia
with a copious and very pleafant ftream, which was re¬
ceived on the coaft by the Skilian fea.
The temple of Jupiter was of the Doric order, 68
feet high to the pediment, 95 wide, and 230 long; the
cell encompafled with columns. It was ereifted with
the country Hone j the roof not of earth baked, but of
Pentelic marble ; the (labs difpofed as tiles 5 the way
to it up a winding ftaircafe. The two pediments were
enriched with fculpture 5 and one had over the centre
a ftatue of Viclory gilded; and underneath a votive
buckler of gold. At each comer was a gilded vafe.
Above the columns were fixed 21 gilded bucklers, of¬
fered at the conclufion of the Achaean war by the Ro¬
man general Mummius. The gates in the tv. o fronts
Olympia,
were
.A
at
4
O L Y [I
Olympia, were" of brafs, and over them were carved the labours
Olympiad. Qf Hercules. Within the cell were double colonnades,
v between which wras the approach to the image.
The Jupiter of Olympia was accounted alone fuffi-
rient to immortalize its maker, Phidias. It was of
ivory and gold, the head crowned with olive. In the
right hand was a ftatue of Victory ; in the left a
dowered fceptre, compofed of various metals, on which
was an eagle. The fandals were of gold, as alfo the
veftment, -which was curioufly emboffed with lilies and
animals. The throne was gold inlaid with ebony and
ivory, and ftudded with jewels, intermixed with paint¬
ings and exquifite figures in relievo. The pillars be¬
tween the feet contributed to its fupport. Before it
were walls, ferving as a fence, decorated principally
with the exploits of Hercules ; the portion oppofite to
the door of a blue colour. It was the office of a fa¬
mily defcended from Phidias, called phcedruntce or the
poli/hers, to keep the work bright and clean. The
veil or curtain was cloth rich with the purple dye of
Phoenicia and with AiTyrian embroidery, an offering
of King Antiochus, and was let down from above by
loofening the firings. The image imprefled on the fpec-
tator an opinion that it was higher and wider than it
meafured. Its magnitude is fuch, that though the tem¬
ple was very large, the artifi: feemed to have erred in the
proportions. The god, fitting, nearly touched the cei¬
ling with his head } fuggefting an idea, that if he were
to rife up, he would deftroy the roof. A part of the
pavement before it was of black marble, enclofed in a
rim of Parian or white, where they poured oil to pre-
ferve the ivory,
The altar of Jupiter Olympius was of great antiqui¬
ty, and compofed of allies from the thighs of the vic¬
tims, which were carried up and confirmed on the top
with wood of the white poplar tree. The affies alfo of
the prytaneum, in which a perpetual fire was kept on
a hearth, were removed annually on a fixed day, and:
fpread on it, being firft mingled with water from the
Alpheus. The cement, it was affirmed, could be made
with that fluid only 5 and therefore this river was much
refpefted, and efteemed the molt friendly of any to the
god. On each fide of the altar were ftone fteps. Its
height was 22 feet. Girls and women, when allowed
to be at Olympia, were fuffered to afcend the bafe-
ment, which was 125 feet in circumference. The peo¬
ple of Elis facrificed daily, and private perfons as often
as they chofe.
Religion flourilhed at Olympia, and many deities
were worfliipped befides Jupiter. Paufanias has enu¬
merated above 60 altars of various fiiapes and kinds.
One of the unknown gods flood by the great altar.
The people of Elis offered on all tbefe monthly 5 lay¬
ing on them boughs of olive 5 burning incenfe, and
wheat mixed with honey ; and pouring libations of fuch
liquors as the ritual prefer ibed. At the latter ceremony
fometimes a form of prayer was ufed, and they fung
hymns compofed in the Doric dialed!.
Olympia was fituated on an eminence, between two
mountains called OJfa and Olympus. Though its ancient
fplendour is gone, the place reminds the traveller of
what it once was. It is in the Morea, being now a fmall
place called Longinico, 50 miles fouth of Lepanto, in E.
Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 40.
OLYMPIAD, the fpace of four years, whereby
\
35 1 O L Y
the Greeks reckoned time.—The firfi: Olympiad fell, Olympiad
according to the accurate and learned computation of II .
feme of the modems, exadlly 776 years before the firft
year of Chrift, or 775 before the year of his birth, in <' >
the year of the Julian period 3938, and 22 years before
the building of the city of Rome. The games were
exhibited at the time of the full moon next after the
fiunmer lolftice ; therefore the Olympiads were of un¬
equal length, becaufe the time of the full moon differs
1 x days every year, and for that reafon they fometimes
began the next day after the folftice, and at other times
four weeks after. The computation by Olympiads
ceafed, as feme fuppofe, after the 304th, in the year
440 of the Chriftian era. It was univerfally adopted
not only by the Greeks, but by many of the neighbour¬
ing countries ; though itill the Pythian games ferved as
an epoch to the people of Delphi and to the Boeotians y
the Nemaean games to the Argives and Arcadians; and
the Ifthmian to the Corinthians and the inhabitants of
the Peloponnefian ifthmus. To the Olympiads hiftory is
much indebted. They have ferved to fix the time of
many momentous events; and indeed before this method
of computing time was obferved, every page of hiftoiy
is moftly fabulous, and filled with obfeunty and contra-
diclion, and no true chronological account can be pro¬
perly eftablifiied and maintained with certainty.
OLYMPIAS, a celebrated woman, who was daugh--
ter of a king of Epirus, and who married Philip king
of Macedonia, by whom Ihe had Alexander the Great.
Her haughtinefs, and more probably her infidelity, obli¬
ged Philip to repudiate her, and to marry Cleopatra,
the niece of King Attains. Olympias was fenfible of
this injury, and Alexander ftiowed his difapprobation of
his father’s xneafures, by retiring from the court to his
mother. The murder of Philip, which foon followed
this difgrace, and which fome have attributed to the in¬
trigues of Olympias, was produflive of the greateft ex¬
travagancies. The queen paid the greateft honour to
her hulband’s murderer. She gathered his mangled
limbs, placed a crown of gold on his head, and laid his
allies near thofe of Philip. The adminiftration of Alex¬
ander, who had fucceeded his father, was in fome inftan-
ces offenfive to Olympias 5 but when the ambition of
her fon was concerned, ffie did not fcruple to declare
publicly that Alexander was not the fon of Philip, but
that he was the offspring of an enormous ferpentwho had
fupernaturally introduced himfelf into her bed. When-
Alexander was dead, Olympias feized the government
of Macedonia 5 and, to eftablilh her ufurpation, fhe
cruelly put to death Aridseus, with his wife Eurydice,.
as alfo Nicanor the brother of Caffander, with loo lead¬
ing men of Macedon, who were inimical to her intereft.
Such barbarities did not long remain unpunilhed: Caf¬
fander befieged her in Pydna, where ftie had retired with
the remains of her family, and Ihe was obliged to fur-
render after an obfiinate fiege. The conqueror ordered
her to be accufed, and to be put to death. A body of
200 foldiers were ordered to put the bloody commands:
into execution, but the fplendour and majefty of the
queen difarmed their courage ; and Ihe was at laft maf-
facred by thofe whom fire had cruelly deprived of their
children, about 316 years before the Chriftian era.
OLYMPIC games, were folemn games among the
ancient Greeks, fo called from Olympian Jupiter, to
whom they were dedicated and by fome faid to be
firft-
OlwTipic
G.ijnes.
* Gillies's
Hi/lory of
Greece.
O L Y
[ 136 ] O L Y
flrft inftiluted by him, after his viffory over the Tons of
Titan ■, others afcribe their inflit ution to Hercules, not
the fon of Alcmena, but one of much greater antiqui¬
ty ; others to Pelops ; and others to Hercules the Ion
of Alcmena. By whomfoever they were inftituted, we
know that, at a period rather early, they had fallen into
difufe. The wars which prevailed among the Greeks,
for a while, totally interrupted the religious ceremonies
and exhibitions with which they had been accuftomed to
honour the common gods and heroes } but the Olympic
games were reftored on the following occafion. Amidft
the calamities which afflidted or threatened Peloponnefus,
Iphitus, a defcendant of Oxylus, to wrhom the province
of Eleia * had fallen in the general partition of the pen-
infula, applied to the Delphic oracle. The priefts -of
Apollo, ever difpofed to favour the views of kings and
legiflators, anfwered agreeably to his wifh, that the fe-
ftivals anciently celebrated at Olympia, on the Alpheus,
muft be renewed, and an armiftice proclaimed for all the
Hates willing to partake of them, and defirous to avert
the vengeance of heaven. Fortified by this authority,
and aflifted by the advice of Lycurgus, Iphitus took
meafures, not only for reftoring the Olympic folemmty,
but for rendering it perpetual. The injunction of the
oracle was fpeedily diffufed through the remoteft parts
of Greece by the numerous votaries who frequented the
facred limine. The armxilice was proclaimed in Pelo¬
ponnefus, and preparations were made in Eleia for ex¬
hibiting Ihows and performing facrifices. In the heroic
ages, feats of bodily ftrength and addrefs were defti-
ned to the honour of deceafed warriors ■, hymns and
facrifices were referved for the gods : but the flexible
texture of Grecian fuperftition, eafily confounding the
expreffions of refpectful gratitude and pious veneration,
enabled Iphitus to unite both in his newr inftitution.
The feftival, which lafted five days, began and end¬
ed with a facrifice to Olympian Jove. The intermediate
time was chiefly filled up by the gymnaftic exercifes, in
which all freemen of Grecian extraction were Invited
to contend, provided they had been born in lawful wed¬
lock-, and had lived untainted by any infamous immoral
llain. The preparation for this part of the entertain¬
ment was made in the gymnafium of Elis, a fp'acious
edifice, furrounded by a double range of pillars, with an
open area in the middle. Adjoining were various apart¬
ments, containing baths, and other conveniences for the
combatants. The neighbouring country was gradually
adorned with porticoes, fhady walks and groves, inter-
fnerfed with feats and benches •, the whole originally
deftined to relieve the fatigues and anxiety of the can¬
didates for Olympic fame •, and frequented in later
times, by fopbifls and philofophers, who v/ere fond to
contemplate wifdom, and communicate knowledge, in
thofe delightful retreats. The order of the athletic
exercifes, or combats, was eftablifned by Lycurgus, and
correfponded almoft exaftly to that defcribed by Ho¬
mer, in the 23d book of the Iliad, and eighth of the
Odyffey. Iphitus, we are told, appointed the other ce¬
remonies and entertainments •, fettled the regular return
of the feftival at the end of every fourth year, in the
month of July •, and gave to the whole folemnity that
form and arrangement, which it preferved with little va¬
riation above a thoufand year’s *, a period exceeding the
duration of the moft famous kingdoms and republics of
antiquity. Among the henefaclors of Olympia, at a Olympic
much later period, was reckoned Herod, who was after- {-“trnev-
wards king of Judcea. Seeing, on his way to Home,
the games negledled or dwindling into inftgnificance
from the poverty of the Eieans, he dilplayed vail muni¬
ficence as prefident, and provided an ample revenue lor
their future fupport and dignity.
The care and management of the Olympics belong¬
ed for the moft part to the Eieans j who on that account
enjoyed their poffeflions without moleftation, or fear of
war or violence. They appointed a certain number of
judges, who were to take care that thofe who offered
themfelves as competitors fliould perform their prepara¬
tory exercifes ; and thefe judges, during the folemnity,
fat naked, having before them a crown of viclory, form¬
ed of wild olive, which was prefented to whomfoever
they adjudged it. Thofe who were conquerors were
called Olympionices, and were loaded with honours by
their countrymen. At thefe games women were not
allowed to he prefent} and if any woman was found,
during the ibiemnity, to have palled the river Alpheus,
Ihe was to be thrown headlong from n rock. This,
however, was fometimes neglected ; for we find not on¬
ly women prefent at the celebration, but alfo iome among
the combatants, and feme rewarded with the crown.
The preparations for thefe feftivals were great. No
per Ion was permitted to enter the lifts, if he had not re¬
gularly exercifed himfelf ten months before the celebra¬
tion at the public gymnafium of Elis. No unfair deal¬
ings were allowed •, whoever attempted to bribe his ad-
verfary was fubjecled to a fevere fine \ and even the la¬
ther and relations were obliged to fwear that they would
have recourfe to no artifice which might decide the vic¬
tory in favour of their friends. No criminals, nor fueh
as were connc&ed with impious and guilty perlbns, were
fulfered to prefent themlelves as combatants. ILhe
wreftlers were appointed by lot. Some little balls lu-
perferibed with a letter were thrown into a filver urn,
and fuch as drew the fame letter were obliged to contend
one with the other. He who had an odd letter remain¬
ed the laft ; * and he often had the advantage, as he was
to encounter the laft who had obtained the fuperiority
over his adverfary. In thefe games were exhibited run¬
ning, leaping, wreftling, boxing, and the throwing of
the quoit, which was called altogether ^surasS-Aov, or qmn-
quertium. Befides thefe, there were horfe and chariot
races, and alfo contentions in poetry, eloquence, and the
fine arts. The only reward that the conqueror obtained >
was a crown of olive. This, as feme iuppofe, was in
memory of the labours of Hercules, which were acccm-
plilhed for the univerfal good of mankind, and for which
the hero claimed no other reward but the confcioufeefs of
having been the friend of mankind. So imall and trifling
a reward ftimulated courage and virtue, and was the iburce
of greater honours than the moft unbounded trealures.
The ftatues of the conquerors, called Olympia niece, were
erefted at Olympia in the facied wood of Jupiter.
Their return home was that of a warlike conqueror •,
they were drawn in a chariot by four horfes, and
everywhere received with the greateft acclamations.
Their entrance into their native city was not through
the gates : to make it more grand and more folemn, a
breach was made in the walls. Painters and poets were
employed in celebrating their names j and indeed the
victories
O L Y
Olymiji
Olympus.
[
victories feverally obtained at Olympia are the fubjects
_ of the molt beautiful odes of Pindar. The combatants
were naked. A fcarf was originally tied round their
waift; but when it had entangled one of the adverfa-
ries, and been the caufe that he loft the victory, it was
laid afide, and no regard was paid to decency. The
Olympic games were obferved every fifth year, or, to
fpeak with greater exadtnefs, after a revolution of four
years, and in the firft month of the fifth year, and they
continued ftor five fucceflive days. As they were the
moft ancient and moft folemn of all the feftivals of
the Greeks, it will not appear wonderful, that they
drew fo many people, not only inhabitants of Greece,
but of the neighbouring iflands and countries.
Such is the account of Grecian writers, who have,
doubtlefs, often afcribed to pofitive inftitution many in¬
ventions and ufages naturally refulting from the progref-
five manners of fociety. When we come to examine the
Elean games in their more improved ftate, together,
with the innumerable imitations of them in other pro¬
vinces of Greece, there will occur reafons for believing,
that many regulations, referred by an eafy folution to
the legi dative wifdom of Iphitus or Lycurgus, were in¬
troduced by time or accident, continued through cuftom,
improved by repeated trials, and confirmed by a fenfe of
* Gillies's their utility *. Yet fuch an inftitution as the Olympi-
Hijiary of ad, even in its leaft perfedl form, muft have been attend-
Kireece. ed with manifeft advantages to fociety. It is fufficient
barely to mention the fufpenfion of hoftilities which
took place, not only during the celebration of the fefti-
val, but a confiderable time both before and after it.
Confidered as a religious ceremony, at which the whole
Grecian name was invited, and even enjoined, to affift,
it was well adapted to facilitate intercourfe, to promote
knowledge, to Ibften prejudice, and to haften the pro-
grefs of civilization and humanity. Greece, and parti¬
cularly Peloponnefus, was the centre from which the ad¬
venturous fpirit of its inhabitants had diffufed innumer¬
able colonies through the furrounding nations. To
thefe widely feparated communities, which, notv/ithftand-
ing their common origin, feemed to have loft all con¬
nexion and correfpondence, the Olympiad ferved as a
common bond of alliance and point of re-union. The
celebrity of this feftival continually attracted to it the
characters moft diftinguifhed for genius and enterprife,
whofe fame would have otherwife been unknown and
loft in the boundlefs extent of Grecian territory. The
remote inhabitants, not only of European Greece, but
of Afia and Africa, being affembled to the worfhip of
common gods, were formed to the fenfe of a general
intereft, and excited to the purfuit of national honour
and profperity. Strangers of fimilar difpofitions might
confirm in Elis the facred and indiflbluble ties of hofpi-
tality. If their communities were endangered by any
barbarous power, they might here folicit aftiftance from
their Grecian brethren. On other cccafions they might
explain the benefits which, in peace or war, their refpec-
tive countries were bell: qualified to communicate. And
the Olympic feftival might thus ferve the purpofe of re-
fident ambafladors, and other inftitutions alike unknown
to antiquity.
OLYMPUS, the name of feveral mountains.—One
bounding Bithynia on the fouth.—Another in the
iiland of Cyprus, on whofe top was a temple of Venus,
which women were not permitted either to enter or to
Vol. XV, Part I.
37 ] O M A
fee (Strabo).—A third, Olympus of Galatia (Livy).
A fourth, of Lycia, with a noble cognominal town,
near the fea coaft (Strabo, Cicero), extinct in Pliny’s
time, there remaining only a citadel : the town was de-
ftroyed by P. Servilius Ifauricus (Fionas), having been
the retreat of pirates, hrom this mountain there was
an extenlive profpeCl of Lycia, Pamphilia, and Pifidia
(Strabo).—A fifth, Olympus of Myfia (Ptolemy) ;
thence furnamed (Jhjmpcna, anciently Minor; one of
the higheft mountains, and fumamed My/ius (Theo-
phraftus j) fituated on the Propontis, and thence extend¬
ing more inland—A fixth, on the north of Theffaly, or
on the confines of Macedonia $ famous for the fable of
the giants (Virgil, Horace, Seneca) ; reckoned the high¬
eft in the whole world, and to exceed the flight of birds
(Apuleius), which is the reafon of its being called hea¬
ven, than which nothing is higher : the ferenity and
calmnefs which reign there are celebrated by Homer,
Lucan, and Claudian.
OLYRA, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
noecia clafs \ and in the natural method ranking under
the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
OMAR Ebn Al Khattab, fucceflbr of Abu Beer.
—The Mohammedan impofture, like every other falfe-
hood of its kind, copies after the truth as far as was
thought convenient or proper ; and miracles being the
grand proof of revelation, it was to be expe&ed that
all pretences to that fhould affume at leaft the ap¬
pearances of them. Few fyftems of faith are more
abfurd than Mohammed’s ; yet, though he difclaimed
miracles, it was fupported, as we are told by latter writers
by a variety of them, which, however, unfortunately for
the creed they were contrived to fupport, are too trifling,
abfurd, and contradictory, to deferve the fmalleft atten¬
tion.
They tell us, but upon grounds too vague and in-
determinate to command belief, that Omar was mira-
culoufly converted to this faith : a man he is report¬
ed to have been, before this event, truly refpectable,
and in particular a violent oppofer of the Arabian
prophet. Mohammed, it feems, felt this oppofition,
and regretted it; he therefore, with the fervour, and.
as it happened, with the fuccefs of a true prophet, ac¬
cording to his followers account, prayed for the conver-
fion of this his dangerous antagonift. Omar, it is faid.
had no fooner read the 20th chapter of the Koran than
he was convinced : upon which he inftantly repaired to
Mohammed and his followers, and declared his conver-
fion. It is faid, that at one time he intended to
murder the prophet ; and various caufes are afligned for
the prevention of this Ihocking piece of facrilege. After
his wonderful converfion, the Mohammedan writers
inform us that he was furnamed Al Faruk, or the
“ divider $” becaufe, fay they, when a certain Moflem
was condemned by Mohammed for his iniquitous treat¬
ment of a Jew, and appealed afterwards from the fen-.
terice of the prophet to Omar, he cut him in two
with his feimitar, for not acquiefcing in the decifion
of fo upright a judge : which circumftance when
Mohammed heard, he gave him the furname of AT
Faruk, or “ the divider ^” becaufe, by this adtion,
he had ihown himfelf capable of perfedly diftinauifh-
mg between truth and falfehood. Al Kodai affirms,
that 39 of Omar’s adherents followed his example the*
fane day he profelTed lumfelf a votary of IVIohammed.
S The
O'yrh,
Omar.
DMA [ 138 ] O M B
The ccnverfion of Hamza and Omar Ebn A1 Kliattab
happened in the year preceding the firft flight of the
Modems into Ethiopia, or the fourth year of Moham¬
med’s million, according to Abulfeda. He was un-
quefiionably a great acquilition to the prophet, and
enabled him to carry on his fchemes to far mere pur-
pofe than he could poflibly have done without him,
or if he had continued his enemy. Omar at length
found his fcrvices in the caufe he had undertaken luf-
ficiently honoured and amply rewarded ; for on the
death of Abu Beer, who had fucceeded the impollor
himlelf, he was promoted to the regal and pontifical
dignity. The title lirit afligned him was the caliph of
the caliph of the apoftle of God; or in other words the
fucceffor of the fucceffor of Mohammed: but the Arabs
conlidering that this title, by the addition to be an¬
nexed to it at the acceflion of every future caliph,
would be too long, they, by univerfal confent, fa-
luted him the emperor of the believers ; which illuitrious
title, at this jundlure conferred on Omar, defeended
afterwards to all the fucceffors of that prince. Our
readers will not expedt us to follow the caliph with
minute exadlnefs through the tranfaftions of his reign.
This would indeed fwell our article beyond all propor¬
tion. We lhall therefore confine ourfelves to fome of the
leading facls.
His arms appear to have been particularly fuccefs-
ful \ the Perfians he conquered, and Jerufalem fub-
mitted to his powder \ nor does he appear to have been
checked in a Angle inftance. In confequence, however,
of his fuccefs, an attempt was made to aflfafiinate him.
The fact is thus related : Wathek Ebn Mofafer, a re-
folute young Arab, was procured by the king of Ghaf-
fan, and fent to Medina for this very purpofe. Some
time after his arrival, obferving Omar to fall afleep
under a tree on which he had placed himfelf, fo as
not to be difeovered by any perfon, he drew his dag¬
ger, and was upon the point of dabbing him, when,
lifting up his eyes, he faw a lion walking round about
him, and licking his feet. Nor did the lion ceafe to
guard the caliph till he awoke ; but then infiantly went
away. .This phenomenon ftruck Wathek with a pro¬
found reverence for Omar, whom he now revered as the
peculiar care of heaven. He therefore came down from
the tree, on which the lion had forced him to remain,
biffed the caliph’s hand, confeffed his crime, and em¬
braced the Mohammedan religion •, being fo ftrongly
affetfted with the wonderful deliverance he had been
an eye witnefs of. His life, however, was. at length
ended by affaffmation •, for about two years after the
conclufion of the N oh aw an di an war, in which the Arabs
probably ftill farther extended their conquefts, though
no account of their military operations during that pe¬
riod has reached us, that is, in the 23d year of the He¬
gira, according to Abu Jaafar A1 Tabari, the caliph
Omar Ebn Al Khattab was affaflinated by a Perfian
Have ; of which horrid fa ft the Arab writers have hand¬
ed down the following particulars : Abu Lulua, a Per¬
fian of the Magian feft, whofe name was Tiru%, one of
Al Mogheira Ebn Al Shaabah’s Haves, was obliged by
his mailer to pay daily two dirhems, in conformity to
the Mohammedan cuftom, for the free exercife of this
religion. Firuz refenting this treatment, complained of
it to the caliph, and defired that fome pare at leaf! of
the tribute exafted of him might be remitted 3 but this
favour being refufed by Omar, the Perfian threatened Omar,
Ins deltruftion 3 which he icon after effefted, by ilab-
bing him thrice in the belly with a dagger, while he 'r~
was in the mofquc at Medina performing his morning
devotions. The Arabs then prefent perceiving that the
villain had imbrued his hands in the blood of their fovt-
reign, immediately rufhed upon him 3 but he made io
deiperate a defence, that he wounded 13 of the affailants,
and feven of them mortally. At laft one of the caliph’s
attendants threw his veil over him, and feized him 3 up¬
on which he llabbed himielf and loon after expired.
According to Theophanes, this Firuz was an apollate
or renegade, and confequently had before embraced the
Mohammedan religion : but this aflertion is by .no means
probable 3 becaufe on his becoming a convert to lllamifm,
he mull have been manumitted by his mailer, and on his
relapfinginio Magiifm, he would have been put to death
by the caliph’s order : neither of which particulars are
confiftent with what we find related by the Arab hilco-
rians, and even by cur Greek chronographer himfelf.
Omar languilhed three days and then died, in the month
of Dhu’lhajja, and the 23d year of the Hegira, which
began in the year of our Lord 643. Authors are not
agreed with regard to the duration of his caliphate.
The Arab hillorians, whom wTe are inclined to follow,
fay that he reigned between 10 and 11 years. Theo¬
phanes affirms, that he was murdered in the 12th year
of his caliphate, and Dionyfius Telmarenfis extends the
length of his reign to 12 complete years. Only one of
the wounds given him by Firuz w as mortal, and that he
received under his navel. At his death he wras 63 years
old 3 which, as we are told by an Arab author, w as the
age of Mohammed himfelf, Abu Beer, and Ayelha,
one of the prophet’s wives, wdren they died. When
Omar fell in the mofque, Abd’alrahman Ebn Awl,
one of Mohammed's firll converts, lupplied his place
during the remainder of the fervice 3 and three days be¬
fore his death, Sahib Ebn Tarfib, at his command, offi¬
ciated for him. His body was interred in Ayelha’s
apartment, near that of the prophet Mohammed. "We
are informed by Eutychius, that during his caliphate he
performed the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. His ex-
tenlive conqueils made the Mollem empire one of the
molt powerful and formidable monarchies in the world.
His difpofiLicn is reprefented to us, with evident par¬
tiality indeed, as one of the heft poflible, and his tempe¬
rance has always been highly extolled.
OMBI, a city of ancient Egypt, afterwards called
Arjieoe and Crocodilopolis, was the capital of one of the
nornes into which that country was divided, and is re¬
markable, in the annals of idolatry, for the hatred of its
inhabitants to the religion of their neighbours the citizens
of Tentyra.
The genius of paganifm was fo complying with re-
fpeft to the objects of religious worlhip, that although
each nation, each city, and almcft every family, had its
owm tutela:- god, we know not a fingle inftance, out of
Egypt, of one tribe of Pagans perfecuting another for
worlhipping gods different from theirs. 1 he Jews and
Chriftians were indeed perfecuted by the Romans, not
however for worlhippmg the true God, but becaufe, to¬
gether with him, they would not wmrlhip Jupiter, Juno,
and all the rabble of heathen divinities.
The reafon of the almolb univerfal tolerance of ido¬
laters to one another, and of the intolerance of all to
the
OMB [ 139 ] 0 M B
Ombi,
Ombre.
# Prep.
Evany.
p. ji.
bttpn. ed.
the Jews and Chriftians, is very obvious. Not a {ingle
Pagan, a very few philofopliers perhaps excepted, ever
thought of paying his adoration to the Supreme and felf-
exiiient Being, but to inferior divinities, to whom it was
fuppofed that the care of particular perfons, families, cities,
and nations was configned by the God of the univerfe.
The confequence was, that, as no perfon denied the di¬
vinity of his neighbour’s object of worfnip, an intercom¬
munity of gods was everywhere admitted, and all joined
occafionally in adoring the gods of the various nations.
By the Jews and Chriftians this communion was rejected
as in the higheft degree impious •, and it could not well
be maintained between the citizens of Ombi and thofe of
Tentyra.
That brutes were worfnipped in Egypt is univerfally
known (See Polytheism) •, and Diodorus the Sicilian
informs us, in a paffage quoted by Eulebius *, that “ the
cities and nomes of Egypt being at one time prone to re¬
bellion, and to enter into confpiracies againft monarchi¬
cal government, one of their moft politic kings contrived
to introduce into the neighbouring nomes the worftiip of
different animals ; fo that while each reverenced the
deity which itfelf held facred, and defpifed that which
its neighbours had confecrated, they could hardly be
brought to join cordially in one common deftgn to the
difturbance of the government.”
In this diftribution of gods he conferred upon Ombi
the crocodile, and upon Tentyra, the mortal enemy of
that monfter, the ichneumon. The confequence of which
W'as, that while the Ombites worfhipped the crocodile,
the Tentyrites took every opportunity of ftaughtering
him, infomuch that, according to Strabo, the very
Wee of an inhabitant of Tentyra put the crocodile
to flight. This, we confefs, is a very improbable
fa<ft ; but it is certain that the mutual hatred of thofe
cities, on account of their hoftile gods, rofe to fuch
a height, that whenever the inhabitants of the one were
engaged in the more folemn rites of their religion, thofe
of the other were fure to embrace the opportunity of fet-
ting fire to their houfes, and rendering them every in¬
jury in their power to inflift. And what may, to a
fuperficial thinker, appear extraordinary, though it will
excite no wonder in the breaft of him who has ftudied
mankind, this animofity continued between the inhabi¬
tants of the two cities long after the crocodile and ich¬
neumon had loft their divinity.
The conduct of the Egyptian monarch was admi¬
rably calculated for preventing the nation from Com¬
bining againft the government; and it extended its
influence over the whole kingdom. Diodorus informs
us, that he afligned to each nome an animal to wor-
fnip, which was hated, killed, and fometimes fed up¬
on by the inhabitants of the neighbouring nome •, and
we know upon higher authority than his, that the
Xfraelites could not offer facrifices in Egypt, becaufe
the bullock was deemed facred over the whole coun¬
try.
OMBRE, a celebrated game at cards, borrowed
from the Spaniards, and played by two, by three, or
by five perfons, but generally by three. When three
play at this game, nine cards are dealt to each party ;
the whole ombre pack being only 40 : becaufe the
eights, nines, and tens, are thrown out of the pack.
There are two forts of counters for flakes, the greater
and the leffer 5 the laft having the fame proportion to Ct'nG-.
the other as a penny to a flailing : of the greater coun- v—*“
ters each man flakes one for the game 5 and ene of the
leffer for pafiing for the hand, when eldeft, and for
every card taken in. As to the order and value of the
cards, the ace of fpades, called JpaJi/lo, is always the
higheft trump, in whatfoever fuit the trump be ; the
manille, or black duce, is the fecond ; and the bajlo,
or ace of clubs, is always the third: the next in order
is the king, the queen, the knave, the feven, the fix,
the five, four, and three. Of the black there are 11
trumps 5 of the red, 1 2. The leaxft fmall cards of the
red are always the bell, and the mcit of the black j
except the duce and red feven, both of which are called
the manilles, and are always fecond when the red is a
trump. The red ace, when a trump,- enters into the
fourth place, and is called punto; otherwife it is only
called an ace. The three principal cards are called ma~
tadores; which have this privilege, that they are not
obliged to attend an inferior trump when it leads ; but
for want of a fmall trump, the perfon may renounce
trumps, and play any other card j and when thefe are
all in the fame hand, the others pay three of the great¬
er counters a-piece j and with thefe three for a foun¬
dation, he may count as many matadores as he has
cards in an uninterrupted feries of trumps •, for all which
the others are to pay one counter a-piece. He who
hath the firft hand is called ombre, and has his choice ■
of playing the game, of naming the trump, and of ta¬
king in as many and as few cards as he pleafes 5 and
after him the fecond, &.c. But if he does not name
the trump before he looks on the cards he has taken in,
any other may prevent him, by naming what trump
he pleafes. lie that has the firft hand fliould neither
take in, nor play, unlefs he has at leaft three fure tricks
in his hand : for, as he wins the game who wins moft
tricks, he that can win five of the nine has a fure game :
which is alfo the cafe if he wins four, and can fo divide
the tricks as that one perfon may wan two, and the
other three.
If a perfon plays without difearding or changing
any cards, this is called playing fans prendre; and if
another win more tricks than he, he is faid to win co¬
ddle. The over-fights in the courfe of the game- are
called beajls. And if the ombre wins all the nine tricks,
it is called winning the vole.
In ombre by five, which many, on account of its not
requiring fo clofe an attention, prefer to that by three,
only eight card? a-piece are dealt; and five tricks muft
be won, otherwife the ombre is beafted. Here the per¬
fon who undertakes the game, after naming the trump,
calls a king to his affiftance ; upon which the perfon in
whofe hand the king is, without difeovering himfelf, is
to affift him as a partner, and to fliare his fate. If,
between both, they can make five tricks, the ombre wins
two counters, and the auxiliary king only one 5 but
when the counters are even, they divide them equally.
If the ombre venture the game without calling in any
king, this too is called playing fans prendre ; in which
cafe the other four are all againft him, and he muft win
five tricks alone, or be beafled. The reft is much the
fame as by three.
OMBRE de foleil, “ Shadow of the fun,” in Herald¬
ry, is when the fun is borne in armory, fo as that the
S 2 ^yes.
O M E [ 14© 1 O M E
Ombna eyes, nofe, and mouth, which at other times are repre-
0Jj,n fented, do not appear j and the colouring is thin, fo
IL, that the field can appear through it.
OMBRI A, the ancient name of a province of Italy,
in the territory of the pope, now called Spoletto and
Perugia.
OMBRO, or Lombro, a town of Italy, in the
duchy of Tufcany, and territory of the Siennois, fi-
tuated near the Tufcan fea, a little fouth of the lake
of Caftiglione, 4 5 miles fouth-weft of Sienna.
OMBROMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
quantity of rain that falls. We have the defcription
and figure of one in Phil. Tranf. N° 473. p. 1 2. It
confifts of a tin funnel, whofe furface is an inch fquare,
with a flat board, and a glafs tube fet into the middle
of it in a groove. The rife of the -water in the tube,
whofe capacity at different times muff be meafured and
marked, fhows the quantity of rain that has fallen.
OMELET, or Amlet, a kind of pancake or fri-
caffee of eggs, with other ingredients, very ufual in
Spain and France. It may be made as follows : The
eggs being beaten, are to be feafcned with fait and
pepper, and then fried in butter made boiling hot}
this done, gravy is to be poured on, and the whole
Hewed with chives and parfley Hired fmall : when one
fide is fried enough, it is to be turned on the other.
OMEN, is a word which, in its proper fenfe, figni-
fies a fign or indication of fome future event, taken from
the language of a perfon fpeakmg without any intent
to prophecy. Hence Tully fays, “ Pythagorei non folum
voces deorum obfervarunt, fed etiam hominum, quae vo-
cent omina “ the Pythagoreans attend to the difcourfe
not only of gods, but alfo of men, wFich they call omens'''
1 his fort of omen wras fuppofed to depend much upon the
will of the perfon concerned in the event; whence the
phrafes accepit omen, arripuit omen. Such were the original
omens ; but they were afterwards derived from things as
well as from words. Thus Paterculus, fpeaking of the
head of Sulpicius on the roftrum, fays it was velut omen
nnminentts profcriptioms, “ the omen of an impending
profcription.” Suetonius fays of Auguftus, that he be¬
lieved implicitly in certain omens; and that, Ji mane
fibi calceus per per am, ac JiniJler pro dextero indueeretur,
ut dirum, “ If his fhoes were improperly put on in the
morning, efpecially if the left fhoe was put upon his
right foot, he held it for a bad omen.” Omen was
ufed in .a ftill larger fenfe, to fignify an augury; as in
the following line of Tully : “ Sic aquilae clarum fir-
mavit Jupiter omen “ thus Jove confirmed the bright
omen of the eagle.” It wras laftly ufed, in the moll
generic fenfe of all, for a portent or prodigy; as in
the third book of the Atneid, wdiere a myrtle torn up
by Hineas dropped blood. Upon this appearance, fays
the hero,
   Mihi frigidus horror
Membra quatit, gelidulque coit formidine fanguxs.
And the fame thing being repeated upon his breaking
a branch from another tree, he prayed to the gods to
avert the omen.
Multa movens animo Nymphas venerabar agrefl.es,
Gradivumque patrem, Geticis qui praefidet arvis,
Rite fecundarent vilus, c/wewque levarent (a).
The portentous or fupernatural omens were either
external or internal. Of the former fort were thole
fliowers of blood fo frequently occurring in the Roman
hiitory, which were much of the fame nature with this
adventure of Atneas, which he cails monstra deum.
Of the fecond fort were thofe fudden confternations,
which, feizing upon men without any vifible caufe,
were imputed to the agency of the god Pan, and hence
called panic fears. But indeed there was hardly any
thing, however trivial, from which the ancients did not
draw? omens. That it fhould have been thought a
direful omen when any thing befel the temples, altars,
or flatues of the gods, need excite no w onder; but
that the meeting of a eunuch, a negro, a bitch with
whelps, or a fnake lying in the road, fhould have been
looked upon as portending bad fortune, is a deplorable
inftance of human weaknefs, and of the pernicious in¬
fluence of fuperftition on the mind.
It is more than probable that this pradlice of making
ordinary events ominous of good or bad fortune took its
rife in Egypt, the parent country of almoft every fuper¬
ftition of paganifm 5 but wherever it may have arifen, it
fpread itfelf over the whole inhabited globe, and at this
day prevails in a greater or lefs degree among the vulgar
of all nations.
In England, it is reckoned a good omen, or a fign
of future happinefs, if the fun fliines on a couple com¬
ing out of the church after having been married. It
is alfo efteemed a good fign if it rains whilft a corpfe is
burying:
Happy is the bride that the fun fliines on ;
Happy is the corpfe that the rain rains on.
To
(a) Inftead of tranflating thefe fliort quotations, we fhall here give Dryden’s verfion of the whole of this
portentous adventure, as we are perfuaded that the mere Englifh reader, who alone can wifli for a tranflation,,
will be glad to have the fulleft: account of the bleeding myrtle, together with its effedls on the mind of the
hero. It is as follows :
Not far, a rifing hillock flood in view j
Sharp myrtles on the fides and corners grew.
There, while I went to crop the fylvan feenes,
And fhade our altar with their leafy greens,
I pull’d a plant (with horror I relate
A prodigy fo ftrange, and full of fate) :
The rooted fibres rofe ; and from the wound
Black bloody drops diftill’d upon the ground.
Mute and amaz’d, my hair with terror flood 3
Fear fhrunk my finewTs, and congeal’d my blood.
Mann’d once again, another plant I try 3
That other gufh’d with the fame fanguine dye.
Then, fearing guilt for fome offence unknow n,
With prayers and vowts the Dryads I atone,
With all the lifters of the wToods, and moft
The god of arms, w-ho rules the Thracian coaft ;
That they, or he, thefe omens would avert,
Releafe our fears, and better figns impart.
O M E [ I
Omen. To break a looking glafs is extremely unlucky ; the
' v party to whom it belongs will lofe his belt friend.
If, going a journey on bufinefs, a fow crofs the road,
you will probably meet with a dilappointment, if not
a bodily accident, before you return home. To avert
this, you. muft endeavour to prevent her eroding you j
and if that cannot bev done, you muft ride round on
frefh ground. If the fow is attended with her litter of
pigs, it is lucky, and denotes a fuccefsful journey.
It is unlucky to fee firft one magpye, and then more j
but to fee two, denotes marriage or merriment; three,
a fuccefsful journey 5 four an unexpected piece of good
newrs j five, you will fhortly be in a great company. To
kill a magpye, will certainly be punifhed with fome
terrible misfortune.
If, in a family, the youngeft daughter ftiould be
married before her elder fiftprs, they muft all dance at
her wedding v/ithout ihoes : this will counteract their
ill luck, and procure them hufbands.
If you meet a funeral proceflion, or one pafies by
you, always take off your hat : this keeps all evil fpirits
attending the body in good humour.
If, in eating, you mifs your mouth, and the victuals
fall, it is very unlucky, and denotes^.approaching fick-
nefs.
It is lucky to put on a flocking the wrong fide out¬
wards : changing it alters the luck.
When a perfon goes out to tranfacl any important
bufinefs, it is lucky to throw an old fhoe after him.
It is unlucky to prefent a knife, feiffars, razor, or
any ftiarp or cutting inftrument, to one's miftrefs or
friend, as they are apt to cut love and friendfhip. To
avoid the ill effects of this, a pin, a farthing, or fome
trifling recompenfe, muft be taken. To find a knife
or razor, denotes ill luck and difappointment to the
party.
In the Highlands of Scotland, it is thought unlucky
if a perfon fetting out upon a journey ftumble over the
tHrefhold, or be obliged to return for any thing forgot¬
ten. If a fportfman fee any perfon ftepping over his
gun or fiftiing rod, he experts but little fuccefs in that
day’s diverfion. Sneezing is alfo deemed ominous. If
one fneeze when making a bed, a little of the ftraw or
heath is taken out and thrown into the fire, that no¬
thing may difturb the reft of the perfon who is to fleep
in the bed. Among the fame people, fuccefs in any
enterprife is believed to depend greatly upon the firft
creature that prefents itfelf after the enterprife is under¬
taken. Thus, upon going to ftioot, it is reckoned lucky
to meet a horfe, but very unfortunate to fee a hare, if
fhe efcape ; and upon meeting any creature deemed un¬
lucky, the bell means of averting the omen is to roll a
ftone towards it. The Greeks attributed the fame ef¬
ficacy to the rolling of a ftone, though they greatly pre¬
ferred hilling the ominous animal, that the evil portend-
* See Pot- ed might fall on its own head *.
ter s Anti-^ motions and appearances of the clouds were
f ' not long ago confidered as certain figns by which the
Ikilful Highlander might attain to the knowledge of
futurity. On the evening before new year's any, if a
black cloud appeared in any part of the horizon, it was
thought to prognoftieate a plague, a famine, or the
death of fome great man in that part of the country
over which it fhould appear to fet 3 and in order to
a (certain the place threatened by the omen, the mo-
41 ] o M E
tions of this cloud were often watched through the whole,
night, if it happened to continue fo long vifible above
the horizon.
By the believers in this fuperftition there are days,
as well as words and events, which are deemed ominous
of good or bad fortune. The firft day of every quar¬
ter, midfummer, and new year’s day, are reckoned the
moll fortunate days in the year 'Tor accomplilhing any
defign. In the ifle of Mull, ploughing, fowing, and
reaping, are always begun on Tuefday, though the moft
favourable weather for thefe purpofes be in this way
frequently loft. That day of the week on which the
third of May falls, is deemed unlucky throughout the
whole year. In Morven, none will upon any account
dig peat or turf for fuel on Friday; and it is reckon¬
ed unlucky to number the people or cattle belonging
to any family, and doubly fo if the number be taken
on Friday. The age of the moon is alfo much at¬
tended to by the vulgar Highlanders. It is alleged,
that during the increafe things have a tendency to
grow and itick together': and hence, in the ille of Skyf
fences, which are there made of turf, are built only at
that time 3 whilil turf or peat for fuel are never, even
in the moft favourable weather, either made or Hacked
up but while the moon is in its wane. An opinion
prevails in fome places, that if a houfe take fire during
the increafe of the moon, the family to which it be¬
longs wall profper in the wwld : but that if the fire
happen while the moon is in the decreafe, the family
wall from that time decline in its circumftances, and fink
into poverty.
In attributing fiich influence to the moon, the fuper-
ftitious Highlanders have the honour to agree with the
philofophic Virgil, wflio in his Georgies gives the follow¬
ing fage inftruftions to the hulhandman :
Ipfa dies alios alio dedit ordine Luna
Felices, ope rum. ^uintam fuge :
* * # *
Septima pojl decimam felix et ponere vitem,
Etprenfos domitare boves, et licia telce
Addere : nonafugev melior, contraria furtis.
The lucky days in each revolving moon
For labour choofe : the fifth be lure to fhun.
* * * *
Thefeventh is next the tenth, the beft to join
Young oxen to the yoke, and plant the vine.
Then weavers ftretch your flays upon the weft:
The ninth is good for travel, bad for theft.
Dry den.
From this coincidence of the fuperftition of the
Roman poet wath that of the natives of Mull and Mor¬
ven, wre are ftrongly inclined to adopt the hypothe-
fis of the gentleman w ho favoured us with this accu¬
rate account of Highland omens. He juftly obferves,
that this fuperftitious practice of auguring good or ill
from trifling events, and from the particular phafes of
the moon, has. no connexion whatever with popifh
prieftcraft : he (hows that the Romifh clergy, even in
the darkeft age, wrere at pains to eradicate it as idle
and impious 3 and he therefore infers, that it muft fce
a relick of Druidifm handed down by tradition from
an era prior to the introduftion of Chriftianity into
the Highlands and ides of Scotland. That the Druids
O rcer:.
were.
’Cmentum
i!
Omoa.
O M O [142
were acquainted with the particular do&rines of Py¬
thagoras has been fhown elfewhere (fee Druids) j that
Virgil was no itranger to the Pythagorean philofophy
is known to every fcholar j that Pythagoras and his
followers were addicted to the dotages of Magic has
been made apparent in that article ; and therefore it
appears to us probable at leafl, that the attention paid
to pretended omens, not only in the Highlands, but
alfo in the low country of Scotland, and indeed among
the vulgar in every country of Europe, is a remnant of
one of the many fuperifitions which the Druids impofed
upon their deluded followers. That it is contrary to
every principle of found philofophy, all philofophers
wall readily acknowledge j and whoever has ftudied the
writings of St Paul muft be convinced that it is inccn-
ftiient with the fpirit of genuine Chriftianity.
OMENTUM, or Epiploon, the taW, in Anatomy^
a membranaceous part, ufually furnifhed with a large
quantity of fat; being placed under the peritonaeum,
and immediately above the inteftines. See Anatomy,
90.
OMER, in Jewiilr antiquity. See Corus.
St OMER’s, a ftrong, fortified, - large, and popu¬
lous town of France, in the department of the ftraits of
Calais, with a caftle and a bilhop’s fee. It is a fortrefs
of confiderable importance, and furrounded on one fide
with a large morafs; and about it there are many
fluices, which ferve to carry the water off when it is
overflowed} and in the midil of the morafs there is a
fort of floating illands covered with verdure and trees.
I he cathedral is a handfome fl ructure •, and there are
other fine buildings, with a rich Benedi&ine abbey.
The French became matters of this place in 1679. It is
feated on the river Aa, and on the fide of a hill, eight
miles north-weft of Aire, and 135 north of Paris. E.
Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 54. 45.
OMOA, a Spaniih town and fortification on the
Louth fide of the bay of Honduras, N. Lat. 15. 50.
W. Long. 89. 50. from London. It is the key to the
bay; and fuch is the depth of the water, that fliips of
any burden may ride in the harbour with fafety. It
is a place of the utmcft importance to Spain, as the
regifter fhips to and from Guatimala are fent to it in
the time of war. The town was firft eftablifhed in
1751, under the command of Don Jofeph Antonio
de Palmo. At that period the inhabitants were about
20 white men, 60 mulattoes and free negroes, and 206
flaves to the king of Spain ; and the military force con-
fitted of about 30 foldiers, befides officers. The fort
was originally compofed of fand confined in boarded
coffers, and faced with half-burnt bricks. It was de¬
fended by 12 fine brafs 24 pounders mounted, four
or five iron guns of different bores, and fome field-
pieces. The Spaniard^ fenfible of the importance of
the place, afterwards fortified it at an incredible ex¬
pence, the ftone of which the wmlls are built having
been raifed from the fea, and brought from the diftance
of 20 leagues. The outworks were not completely
finifhed in the year 1779, though 1000 men had then
been employed upon them for 20 years.
Towards the end of that year an expedition ivas un¬
dertaken againft this fortrefs, in confequence of one
formed by the Spaniards againft the Britifh logwood
cutters in the bay of Honduras and on the Mofquito
] O M 0
fhore. The latter, finding themfelves hard preffed by
their enemies, applied to General Dulling governor of
Jamaica for affittance \ who accordingly lent a detach¬
ment to their relief under Captain Dalrymple, with
neceffary fupplies of arms, ammunition, and artillery.
Before their arrival, however, the Spaniards had taken
poffeifion of St George’s Key, the chief fettlement of
the Bntxlh in thefe parts, which they plundered, and
took a number of prifoners; but thofe who efcaped,
pcing joined by a body of their countrymen, retook
it, and forced the enemy to retire. In the mean time
Captain Dalrymple, who had been informed of the
lofs of the place, wras haftening to the relief of the
inhabitants, and in his way fell in wfith Admiral Par¬
ker, who was in queft of fome regifter fhips ; but which,
retreating into the harbour of Omoa, w^ere too ftrongly
prote&ed by the fort there to be attacked by fea. As
the Spaniards, however, had now been compelled to
abandon St George’s Key, it was propofed to unite the
Britilh forces by fea and land, and to attempt the con-
queft of this fortrefs. As the force under Captain Dal¬
rymple w^as too inconfiderable to attempt the fort by
land, it was augmented by the marines of the fquadron
and a ftrong party of the fettlers ; though, after all, it
did not exceed the number of the garrifon who oppofed
them.
The troops were landed at about nine miles diftance
from the fort in the dufk of the evening, with a defign
to march directly forward, in order to furprife and carry
it by efcalade in the night time. No roads, however,
being found, they were obliged to explore their wray
through narrow foot-paths, moraffes, and over mountains
fo befet with precipices, that they were obliged, in or¬
der to avoid them, to make ufe of lights made of the
cabbage tree. In confequence of thefe impediments
they were yet at a confiderable diftance from the fort,
when the approach of day dtfcovered them to the ene¬
my. An engagement enfued, in which the Spaniards
W'ere quickly routed and driven into the town : from
whence as they continued to-fire upon the Britifh, it was
found neceffary to fet fire to it, though very much a-
gainft the inclination of the affailants.
In the mean time the fquadron took the opportu¬
nity, while the town was in flames, to come into the
bay, and approach the fort with an intention to batter
it •, but the garrifon returned the fire fo brifkly, that no
impreflion could be made by that of the fquadron,
which was detained by want of wfind from approach¬
ing fufficiently near. The troops then, being matters
ol the ground adjacent to the fort, credited feveral
batteries in fuch fituations as wrere moft proper for an¬
noying it; but though they carried on their operations
with great vigour, it was ftill found that heavier artil¬
lery than any they poffeffed wmuld be requifite, the w^alls
being no lefs than 18 feet in thicknefs 5 in confequence
of which they refolved ftill to attempt the place by ef¬
calade.
The attempt was made on the 21ft of Oftober, early
in the morning. The troops entered the ditch, which
forlunately for them happened to be dry, and fixed their
fcaling ladders againft the wralls, which were near 30
feet high. Two feamen mounted firft } and, wfith admi¬
rable courage and prefence of mind, flood by the ladder
which they had mounted, to guard it till others afcend-
ed ;
Omoa,
4
O M O [ 1
Ornoa. ed j and boldly prefcnted their piece? againft a large
—^ ' party dravm up to receive them, though they prudently
retained their fire till their comrades came up.
The fquadron, now drawing near, kept up a heavy
and continual fire upon the fort, while the Spaniards
were ftruck with fuch furprife at the exceflive celerity
and boldnefs of the affailants, that they remained mo-
tionlefs and unable to oppofe their enemies, notwith-
ftanding the exhortation and example of their officers.
From this panic they never recovered 5 and while the
feamen and foldiers continued to fcale the walls with
amazing quxcknefs, the Spaniards never made any ef¬
fort to defend themfelves. About 100 of them efcap-
ed over the walls on the oppofite fide of the fort} the
remainder furrendered at difcretion.
The whole of this tranfaclion reflected the higheft
luftre both on the conduft and courage of the Britilh ;
and an inftance of heroifm is related in a Britilh failor
to which hiftory affords nothing fuperior. This man,
having foaled the walls, had armed himfelf with a cut-
lafs in each hand. Thus armed, he met with a Spa-
nifh officer unarmed, and juft roufed from fleep. The
generous tar fcomed to take advantage of his condition,
and therefore prefented him with one of his own cut-
lafles faying, “ You are now7 on a footing with me !”
The officer, however, was too much ftruck with ad¬
miration at his conduct to accept the offer, and took
care to make the circumftance fufficiently known.—
The value of the booty taken on this occafion amounted
to three millions of dollars 5 but the lofs moft fenfibly
felt by the Spaniards was that of 250 quintals of quick-
filver, a commodity indifpenfably neceflary in extra£t-
ing the precious metals from their ores. They offered
therefore to ranfom it at any price : but though the
retention of it was far from affording a profit equal to
that offered by the Spaniards, the Briiiffi commanders
abfolutely refufed to part with it, on account of the ad¬
vantages the enemy would derive from having the metal
in their pofTeffion. For the fame reafan they refufed to
accept of any ranfom for the fort, though the governor
offered to lay down 300,000 dollars for it. The Spa-
nifii military and the inhabitants were treated with the
utmoft humanity; their perfonal effedls remaining un¬
touched : and this generofity muft have appeared to
greater advantage, when contrafted with the beha¬
viour of their own countrymen at Honduras, where
the Britifti were treated with remarkable feverity. The
church plate and ornaments were reftored, on condi¬
tion that the terms of capitulation fliould be faithfully
kept.
In a fhort time, however, it appeared that it would
have been better to have accepted of a ranfom for the
fort, as from circumftances at that time it could not
be retained in the pofieflion of Britain. A garrifon
was indeed left for its defence on the departure of the
Britiffi fquadron ; but as it was very inconfiderable, on
account of the finall number of men that could be fpa-
red, the Spaniards quickly determined to make an at¬
tempt to regain the fort. For this purpofe a body of
2000 men were colledled, wffio invefted it on the 25th
of November. The Britifti defended it with the ut¬
moft bravery •, keeping up a confiant fire on the ene¬
my, and obliging them to retire for ffielter, and take
up their quarters behind a hill. Here they ma.de pre¬
parations for an aflault, in which their numbers left
43 ] O M P
the fuccefs, as they fuppofed, by no means dubious.
The garrifon was therefoie fummoned to furrender,
with a promife of the honours of war and a fafe con¬
veyance to Great Britain, denouncing at the fame time
the ulmoft vengeance in cafe of a refufal \ which being
refufed, the necelfary preparations were made for an ei-
calade.
The condition of the garrifon was now fuch as could
aftord very little hope ot being able to make any ef-
feftual refiftance. They were but 85 in number, moft
of whom were become incapable of duty either from
illnefs or exceffive fatigue. They were now alfo ob¬
liged to make one centinel anfwer for five, by ihifting
his place, and challenging as many times. ri here was
no furgeon to attend the fick and wounded ; nor had
they even any water but what came from a floop of war
that lay abreaft of the fort. In this defperate fituation,
they refolved, notwithftanding the menaces of the
Spanith commander to render the place as unierviceable
as they could. For this purpofe they fpiked up all the
guns ; deftroying the ftores and ammunition that could
not be carried olf: they even locked the gates of the
fort, after which they embarked without the lofs of a
Angle man. All this was performed in defiance of the
large force that befieged them 5 and the exploit,
when duly confidered, muft appear not lefs a matter
of aftoniffiment than the extraordinary manner in which
the fort had been taken. The officer who command¬
ed in this remarkable retreat was Captain Hulke of the
navy.
OMOPHAGIA, an ancient Greek feftival, in ho-"
nour of Bacchus, furnamed Omophagos, i. e. eater of
raw ftefli. This feftival was obferved in the fame man¬
ner with the other feftivals of Bacchus, in which they
counterfeited madnefs. What was peculiar to it, was,
that the worihippers ufed to' eat the entrails of goats,
raw and bloody, in imitation of the god, who was fup-
pof’ed to do the fame thing.
OMPHACINE oil, a vifoous brown juice extratl-'
ed from green olives. With this oil the ancient ath~
/etce, when going to wreftle, anointed themfelves; and
when that gymnaftic exercife was over, they rolled
themfelves in the fand, which, mixing with the oil and
fweat on their bodies, conftituted the Jlrigmenta fo high¬
ly efteemed in the cure of feveral difeafes. This precious
medicine was carefully fcraped off the body of the ath-
leta with a kind of inftrument fomething like a comb,
'which was called Jlrigilis ; and fuch was the demand for
the fcrapings, that they were a very lucrative article of
trade.
OMPHALE, in Fabulous Hiftory, a queen of Ly¬
dia, daughter of Jardanus. She married Tmolus, who
at his death left her millrefs of his kingdom. Omphak
had been informed of the great exploits of Hercules,
and vvifhed to fee fo illuftrious a hero. Her wiffi was
foon gratified. After the murder of Eurytus, Hercules
fell fick, and was ordered to be fold as a Have, that he
might recover his health and the right ufe of his fen-
fes. Mercury was commiffioned to lell him, and Om-
phale bought him, and reftored him to liberty. The
hero became enamoured of his miftrefs, and the queen
favoured his paffion, and had a fon by him, whom fome
call Agelaus, and others Lamon. From this fon were
defcended Gyges and Croefus 5 but this opinion is dif¬
ferent from the account which makes thefe Lydian
monarch*
4
ON [144] O N A
monarchs fpring from Alcaeus, a fort of Hercules, by
one of the iexnale fervants of Omphale. Hercules is
reprefented by the poets as fo defperately enamoured
oi the queen, that, to conciliate her efteem, he fpins by
her fide among her women, while fire covers herfelf
with the lion’s fkin, and arms herfelf with the club of
the hero, and often ftrik.es him with her fandals, for
the uncouth manner with which he holds the diltaff,
&c. Their fondnefs was mutual. As they once tra¬
velled together, they came to a grotto on Mount Tmo-
lus, where the queen dreffed herfelf in the habit of her
lover, and obliged him to appear in a female garment.
After they had fupped, they both retired to reft in
different rooms, as a facrifice on the morrow to Bac¬
chus required. In the night Faunus, or rather Pan,
who was enamoured of Omphale, introduced himfelf
into the cave. He went to the bed of the queen, but
the lion’s fkin perfuaded him that it was the drefs of
Hercules; and therefore he repaired to the bed of Her¬
cules, in hopes to find there the objeft of his affec¬
tions. The female drefs of Hercules deceived him, and
he laid himfelf down by his fide. The hero was awa¬
kened, and kicked the intruder into the middle of the
cave. The noife awoke Omphale, and Faunus was dif-
covered lying on the ground, greatly difappointed and
afhamed.
OMPHALEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
monoecia clafs; and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany In¬
dex.
OMPHALO-mesenteric, in Anatomy. All fce-
tufes are wrapped up in at leaft two coat$ or mem¬
branes ; moft of them have a third, called alIantoidesy
®r urinary.
Some, as the dog, cat, hare, &c. have a fourth,
which has two blood-veffels, viz. a vein and an ar¬
tery, called omphalo-mefenterics, becaufe pairing along
the firing to the navel, and terminating in the mefen-
tery.
OMRAH, a man of the firlt rank in the Mogul
empire 5 a nobleman. It is the plural of the Arabic
ameer.
ON, in Ancient Geography, a city of Egypt facred to
the fun, and by the Greeks, on that account, called He¬
liopolis. (See Heliopolis.) It was remarkable for
the wifdom and learning of its priefthood, and for the
fpacious building in which they cultivated the ftudies
of philofophy and aftronomy. The priefts of On xvere
efteemed more noble than all the other priefts of Egypt.
They were always privy counfellors and minifters of
ftate ; and therefore, when Pharaoh refolved to make
Jofeph prime minifter, he very wifely gave him in mar¬
riage a daughter of the prieft of On, thereby incorpo¬
rating him into the moft venerable call in Egypt. Bi-
fhop Warburton thinks that the fuperior nobility of the
priefts of On was chiefly owing to their high antiquity
and great learning. That they were much given to the
ftudy of aftronomy, we know from the teftimony of
Strabo ; and indeed nothing is more probable than that
they fhould be attached to the ftudy of that fyftem over
wdiich their god, the Sun, prefided, not only in his mo¬
ral, but alfo in his natural capacity. The learned orelate
affirms, that “ whether they received the dodtrine from
original tradition, or invented at hazard (which laft
fuppofition he thinks more probable, though we are of a
2
very different opinion), it is certain they taught that the On,
Sun is in the centre of its fyftem, and that all the other ^any¬
bodies move round it in perpetual revolutions. This v _ 111
noble theory (he continues) came with the reft of the
Egyptian learning into Greece (being brought thither
by Pythagoras, who received it from Oenuphis *, a*Plut.de
prieft of Oil)', and after having given the moft diftin-
guifhed luftre to his fchool, it funk into obfcurity, and F .
fuffered a total eclipfe throughout a long fucceffion 0f ^teph' ed*
learned and unlearned ages 5 till thefe times reftored its
ancient fplendour, and immoveably fixed it on the uner¬
ring principles of fcience.”
If it be true, as fome philofophers allege, that
Mofes appears from the firft chapter of Genefis to
have been acquainted with the true folar fyftem, this ac¬
count of the origin of that fyftem is extremely proba¬
ble. As it is of no importance to the civil or religious
conftitution of a ftate whether the fyftem of Ptolemy
or that of Copernicus be admitted by the people, we can¬
not reafonably fuppofe that the jewifh lawgiver was
taught aftronomy by a revelation from Heaven. But
there can be no doubt of his knowing as much of that
fcience as the priefts of On; for we know that he xvas
inftrudled in all the wifdom of the Egyptians; and
therefore, if he held the fun to be in the centre of the
fyftem, it is morally certain that the fame thing was
held by that priefthood.
ONANIA, or Onanism, terms employed to de¬
note the crime of felf-pollution, mentioned in Scrip¬
ture to have been committed by Onan, and puniflied in
him with death.
This pradlice, however common, hath among all na¬
tions been reckoned a very great crime. In Scripture,
befides the inftance of Onan above mentioned,'we find
felf-polluters termed effeminate, unclean, Jilthy, and abo¬
minable. Even the heathens, who had not the advan¬
tage of revelation, were of the fame opinion, as appears
from tire -following lines of Martial.
Hoc nihil effe putes ! fcelus ejl, mihi crede; fed ingens
Quantum vix animo concipis ipfe tuo.
You think ’tis nothing ! ’tis a crime, believe !
A crime fo great you fcarcely can conceive.
Dr Tiffot has publilhed a treatife on the pernicious
effects of this Ihameful praftice, which appears to be
no lefs baneful to the mind than to the body. He be¬
gins with obferving, that, by the continual wafte of the
human body, aliments are required for our fupport.
Thefe aliments, however, require certain preparations
in the body itfelf; and when by any means we become
fo altered that thefe preparations cannot be eft'ebled,
the beft aliments then prove infufficient for the fupport
of the body. Of all the caufes by which this morbid
alteration is brought on, none is mere common than
too copious evacuations ; and of all evacuations, that
of the femen is the moft pernicious when carried to ex-
cefs. It is alfo to be obferved, that though excefs in
natural venery is produefi ve of very dangerous difor-
ders, yet an equal evacuation by felf-pollution, which
is an unnatural way, is nrodudhve of others ftill more to
be dreaded. The confequences enumerated by Dr Tiffot
are as follow:
1. All the intelleffual faculties are weakened j the
memory fails; the ideas are confufed, and the patient
fometimes
Onania
ONE (-
fometimes even falls into a flight degree of infanity.
    UA IlUailUy.
Oneehoura 1 are contmually under a kind of inward reflleffnefs,
  v ar}d feel a conilant anguifti. They are fubjeft to gid-
gmels; all the fenfes, efpecially thofe of feeing and hear-
Ing> grow weaker and weaker, and they are fubjeft to
frightful dreams. J
2. The ftrength entirely fails, and the growth in
young perfons is cOnhderably checked. Some are af-
hided with almoft continual watching, and others dofe
almofl perpetually. Almoll all of them become hy¬
pochondriac or hyfteric, and are afflided with all
the evils which attend thefe diforders. Some have
been known to fpit calcareous matters ; and others
are afllicled with coughs, How fevers, and confump-
tions. r
. 3* f patients are affeded with the moil acute pains
in different, parts of the body, as the head, breaft, fto-
mach, and inteffines 5 while lome complain of an ob-
tule fenfation of pain all over the body on the flighted:
impreflion. °
4 • J here are not only to be feen pimples on the face
w hich are one of the moft common fymptoms; but
even blotches, or fuppurative puftuleS, appear on the
face, nofe, breaft, and thighs 5 and fometimes flefhy ex-
crefcences arife on the forehead.
5- The organs of generation are alfo affeded j and
the femen is evacuated on the flighteft irritation, even
that of going to ftool. Numbers are afflided with an
habitual gonorrhoea, which entirely deftroys the vigour
of the conftitution, and the matter of it refembles a
fetid fames.. Others are affeded with painful pria-
pifms, dyfuries, ftranguries, and heat of urine, with
painful. tumours in the tefticles, penis, bladder, and
iperm.atic coi 3 j and impotence in a greater or lefs de¬
gree is the never-failing confequence of this deteftable
vice.
^un(^ons of *-he inteftines are fometimes total¬
ly deftroyed j and fome patients complain of coftivenefs,
otneis of diarrhoea, piles, and the running of a fetid mat-
ier from the fundament.
With regard to the cure, the firft fteP is to leave
oh . thofe pradices which have occafioned the difeafe •
which our author aflerts is no eafy matter ^ as, accord¬
ing to him, the foul itfelf becomes polluted, and can
dweil on no other idea 5 or if the does, the irritability
ot the parts of generation themfelves quickly recal ideas
of the fame kind This irritability is no doubt much
more to be dreaded than any pollution the foul can
ia/le r^ceive^> and by removing it, there will be no oc-
cafion for exhortations to difcontinue the practice. The
principal means for diminithing this irritability are, in
the firft place, to avoid all ftimulating, acrid, and fpi-
. meat®* A low diet, however, is improper, becaufe
it would further reduce the body, already too much
emaciated. I ne food ftiould therefore be nutritive, but
plain, and ftiould conflft of flefti rather roafted than boil-
«d, rich broths, &c.'
0kce- See Fj-usi Mammalia Index.
GNEEHOURA and ONEEHOW, two fmall
nlands of that clufter w-hich was difcovered by Captain
Cook, and by h.m called the Sandw/c/i l/lands. (See
Sandwich Islands). Oneehoura is very fmall, and its
c net produce is yams. Onechow is conftderably larger,
being about, ten miles over. Jt is remarkable for the
great quantity of excellent 'yams which it produces,
Vol. XV. Part I. ’
45 ] ONE
-d ^or a ^weet rdot called tee or tea, wrhich is generaliy
about the thicknefs of a man’s wrift, though fometimes
inuc arger, I his root, which the natives commonly
bake previous to their bringing it to market, is of a wet
clammy nature, and with proper management makes ex
cellem beer.
ONEGA, a river and lake of the Ruffian empire,
between Mufcovite Carelia, the territory of Cargapol
and Swedilh Carelia. It is 100 miles in length and 40 in
breadth, having a communication with the lake Ladoga
and confequently with Peterftmrgh. The river has its
iource m Cargapol, and gives its name to a country full
of woods, and falls into the White fea.
ONEGLIA, a fea port town of Italy, in the terri¬
tory of Genoa, with the title of a principality; but it
belongs to the king of Sardinia, as well as the province,
which abounds in olive trees, fruit, and wine. It has
of^n been taken and retaken in the wars of Italy,
which is no wonder, as it is an open place. The French
and Spaniards had. pofleffion of it in 1744, but were
nven out by the Piedmontefe •, however, they retook it
the following winter. It was laft taken by the French
m 1794- E- Long. 7. 51. N. Eat. 43. c8.
ONEIROCRI1IC A, the art of interpreting dreams j
or a method of foretelling foture events by means of
dreams. See Dream, Divination, &c The word
is ormed from the Greek avsigoy, “ dream,” and
of “ judgment.”—Some call it otieiro-
cratica; and derive it from and “ I poffefs.
I command.” s > r >
It appears from feveral pafiages of Scripture, that
there was, under the Jewiffi difpenfation, fuch a thing
as foretelling future events by dreams 5 bat then there
was a particular gift or revelation required for that
purpofe.
Hence it has been inferred, that dreams are really fig-
mficative, and do forebode fomething to come j and ftl
that is wanting among us is the oneirocritica, or the art
of knowing what: yet it is the opinion of many, that
creams are mere chimeras j bearing indeed fome rela¬
tion to what has palled, but none to what is to come.
As to the cafe of Jofeph, it was poffible for^God, who
knew all things, to difeover to him what was in the
womb of fate; and to introduce that, he might take
the occafion of a dream.
OXEIROCRITICS, a title given to interpreters of
dreams, or thofe who judge of events from the circum-
Itances of dreams.
There is no great regard to be had to thofe Greek
books called oneirocritics; nor do we know why the pa¬
triarch of Conffantinople, and others, ffiould amufe them-
lelves with writing on fo pitiful a fubjeft.
Rigault lias given us a colkaion of the Greek and
Latin works of this kind ; one attributed to Aftramp-
fichus; another to Nicephorus, patriarch of Conftanti-
naple } to which are added the treatifes of Artemidorus
and Achmet. But the books themfelves are little elfe
tiian reveries ; a.kind of waking dreams, to explain and
account for fleeping ones.
The focret of oneirocriticifm, according to them all
confifts m the relation fuppofed to be "between the
cream and the thing fignified: but they are far from
keeping to the relations of agreement and fimilitude;
and frequently have recourfe to others of diffimilitude
and contrariety. Concerning oneirocritics and enei-
x rocntica-,
One
Onefiae
<1
Cnkelos.
O N K [ 146 ] O N T
rocritica, the unlearned reader will find much informa¬
tion in Warburton’s Divine Legation of Moles, and the
books to which he refers.
ONESl/if, THERMiE, were, according to Strabo
excellent baths, and falutanj waters, at the foot of the
Pyrenees in Aquitania. Near the river Aturus Hands
at this day the town Bagneres, famous for its waters,
which appear to be the Onejice of Strabo : fituated in
the county of Bigorre in Gai’cony, near the river
A dour.
ONI/E oppidum and Templum, (Jofephus)j fo
called from Onias, the high-prieft of the jews in
Itgypt; who built a temple in imitation of that at Je-
ruialem, by permiffion of the king of Egypt, on the
fpot where flood the temple of Diana Agreflis in Le-
ontopolis : it was encompaffed with a brick wall, and
had a large tower like that at Jerufalem (Jofephus) ;
it was the metropolis of the Nomos Heliopolites, (Pto¬
lemy) ; became in Strabo's time Heliopolis was fallen
to decay.
ONGLEE, in Heraldry, an appellation given to the
talons or daws of beafts or birds, w hen borne of a differ¬
ent colour from that of the body of the animak
ONION. See Allium, Botany Index; and for
the mode of its cultivation, fee Gardening Index.
ONISCUS, a genus of infects belonging to the or¬
der of aptera. See Entomology Index.
ONKELOS, furnamed the Profelyte, a famous rabbi
of the firil century, and the author of the Chaldee
Targum on the Pentateuch. Pie flourifhed in the time
of Jefus Chrift, according to the Jewiih writers*, who
all agree that he was, at leaf! in fome part of his life,
contemporary with Jonathan Ben Uzziel, author of the
fecond Targum upon the prophets. Dean Prideaux
thinks he was the elder of the two, for feveral reafons:
the chief of which is the purity of the flyle in his Tar¬
gum, therein coming neareft to that part of Daniel
and Ezra wdiich is in the Chaldee, and is the trueil
standard of that language, and confequently is the molt
ancient \ fmce that language, as well as others, was
in a conftant flux, and continued deviating in every age
from the original: nor does there feem to be any rea-
fon why Jonathan Ben Uzzicl, when he undertook his
Targum, fhould pafs over the lawq and begin with the
prophets, but that he found Onkelos had done this
work before him, and with a fuccefs which he could
not exceed.
Az^rias, the author of a book entitled Meor Enaim,
or the light of the eyes, tells us, that Onkelos wag a
profelyte in the time of Hillel and Samnai, and lived
to fee Jonathan Ben Uzziel one of the prime fcholars
of Plillel. Thefe three dodlors flouriihed 12 years be¬
fore Chrift, according to the chronology of Gauz 5
who adds, that Onkelos was contemporary with Ga¬
maliel the elder, St Paul’s mafter, who was the grand-
fon of Hillel, who lived 28 years after Chrift, and did
not die till 18 years before the deftruftion of Jerufalem.
However, the fame Gauz, by his calculation, places
Onkelos 100 years after Chrift j and to adjuft his opi¬
nion with that of Azarias, extends the life of Onkelos
to a great length. The Talmudifts tell us that he af-
ftfted at the funeral of Gamaliel, and wras at a prodi-
fious expence to make it moft magnificent. Dedn
'rideaux obferves, that the Targum of Onkelos is
rather a verfion than a paraphrafe 3 fince it renders the
Plebrew text word for word, and for the moft part ac- Cnoclea
curately and exactly, and is by much the bed of all ^ ^ ^^
this fort: and therefore it has always been held in
efteem among the Jews much above all the other Tar-
gums: and being let to the fame mufical notes with the
Hebrew text, is thereby made capable of being read
in the fame tone with it in their public atlcinbnes.—
From the excellency and accuracy of Onkelos’ Tar¬
gum, the dean ailb concludes him to have been a native
Jew, fince without being bred up from his birth in the
Jewiih religion and learning, and long exercifed in all
the rites and doclrines thereof, and being alio thorough¬
ly Ikilled in both the Hebrew and Chaldee languages,
as far as a native Jew* could be, he can fcarce be thought
thoroughly adequate to that work which he performed 3
and that the reprefenting him as a profelyte feems to have
proceeded from the error of taking him to have.been the
fame with Akilas, or Aquila, of Pontus, author of the
Greek Targum or verfion of the prophets and Hagio-
graphia, who wTas indeed a jewiih profelyte.
ONOCLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs and order of Filices, bee Botany
Index.
ONOMANCIA, or rather Onomantia, a branch
of divination, which foretels the good or bad fortune
of a man, from the letters in his name. See the article
Divination and Name.
From much the fame principle the young Romans
toafted their miftreftes as often as there were letters in
their names : Plence Martial lays,
Neevia fex cyathis,feptem Jujlina bibatur.
ONOMATOPOEIA, in grammar and rhetoric, a
figure where words are formed to refemhle the found
made by the things fignified 3 as the buzz of bees, the
cackling of hens, Sec. Refemblances of this kind are
often fancied when they are not real, though,'no doubt,
there are in every language fome rvords of which the
found is very like to that which thofe words are em¬
ployed to exprefs. Yet, to the mortification of gram¬
marians* and rhetoricians, conjunctions, which have
been juftly pronounced no parts of fpeech, are the only
founds uttered by men that are wholly natural, and
thefe are huver than is commonly fuppofed. See Gram¬
mar and Language.
ONONIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the dia-
delphia clafs. See Botany Index.
ONOPORDUM, a genus of plants, belonging to
the fyngenefia clafs 3 and in thematural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
ONOSANDER, a Greek author and Platonic phi-
lofopher, who wTrote Commentaries on Plato’s Politics,
which are loft : but his name is particularly famous for
a treatife entitled Aeyos “ Of the duty and
virtues of the general of an army 3” which has been
tranflated into Latin, Italian, Spanilh, and French.
The time when he lived is not precifely known : but
is imagined to be in the reign of the emperor Clau¬
dius.
ONOSMA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs 3 and in the natural method ranking
under the 41ft order, Afperfolice. See Botany Index.
ONTARIO, a lake of North America, in the coun¬
try of the Iroquois, 180 miles in length and 60 in
breadth. There are many rivers that run into it: and
from
G O N [ 147 3 OPE
Ontology from it the great river St Lawrence proceeds. It
II , communicates with the lake Erie by a river 33 miles
Qor't:JH' in length, on which is the remarkable cataract of Nia¬
gara.
ONTOLOGY. See Metaphysics, N° 3.
ONYCOMANCY, or, as fome write it, Onyman-
cy j a kind of divination by means of the nails of the
fingers. The word is formed from the Greek
“ nail,” and f&xvluia, “ divination.”
The ancient practice was to rub the nails of a youth
with oil and foot, or wax; and to hold up the nails
thus fmeared againft the fun.—Upon them were fup-
pofed to appear figures or chara£fers, which fhowed
the thing required.
ONYX, a mineral fubftance ranked among gems,
which derives its name from the colour refembling that
of the nail of the finger. See Carxeliak, under Ml-
XERAEOGY, p. 167.
OONALASHKA, one of the iflands of the Nor¬
thern Archipelago, vifited by Captain Cook in his lall:
voyage. The native inhabitants of this ifiand are, to all
appearances, a very peaceable people, having been much
polilhed by the Ruffians, who now keep them in a date
of fubjeftion. As the ifland furniihes them with fubfi-
llence, fo it does, in fome meafure, with clothing, which
is chiefiy compofed of Ikins. The upper garment,
which is made like a waggoner’s frock, reaches down to
the knees. Befides this, they wear a waiftcoat or two,
a pair of breeches, a fur cap, and a pair of boots, the
legs of which are formed of fome kind of ftrong gut;
but the foies and upper-leathers are of Ruffia leather.
Fifh and other fea animals, birds, roots, berries, and
even lea weed, compofe their food. They dry quantities
of filh during the fummer, which they lay up in fmall
huts for their ufe in winter. They did not appear to be
very defirous of iron, not to want any other inftrument,
except fewing needles, their owm being formed of bone.
With -thefe they few their canoes, and make their
clothes, and alfo work their curious embroidery. They
ufe, inllead of thread, the fibres of plants, which they
fplit to the thicknefs required. All fewing is per¬
formed by the females, who are ihoemakers, tailors, and
boat-builders. They manulaclure mats and balkets of
grafs, which are both llrong and beautiful. There
is indeed a neatnefs and perfection in moft of their
w'orks, that lhowTs they are deficient neither in inge¬
nuity nor perfeverance.
Though the climate is fometimes fevere, Captain
Cook did not obferve a fire-place in any of their ha¬
bitations. They are lighted as wrell as heated by
lamps ; which, though fimple, effectually anfwer the
purpofe for which they are intended. They confift
of a fiat Hone, hollowed on one fide like a plate; in
the hollow part they put the oil, mixed with fome
dry grafs, which ferves for a wick. Both fexes often
warm themfelves over one of thefe lamps, by placing
it betw'een their legs, under their garments, and fit¬
ting thus over it for feveral minutes. E. Long. 1
29. N. Lat. 53. 5.
OONELLA, and OONEMAH, two iflands of the
fame archipelago with Oonalafhka ; the former of
which lies to the north-eaft of that ifland, being fe-
parated from it by a navigable llrait} the other is more
to the wrefl:ward, being in E. Long. 102. 30. and
N. Lat. 3 {. 30. The circumference of Gonella is
about feven leagues, and the produce of both much the Opacuy
fame with that of Oonalalhka. ll
OPACITY, in Philofophy, a quality of bodies w'hich
renders them impervious to the rays of light.
OPAH, commonly called the kingjijh. Sec Zeus,
Ichthyology Index.
OPAL, in Natural Hi/lory, a fpecies of gems. See
Mineralogy, p. 169.
OPALIA, in Antiquity, feafts celebrated at Rome
in honour of the goddefs Ops. Varro fays they were
held on the 19th of December, which wTas one of the
days of the Saturnalia: thefe two feafts were celebrated
in the fame month, becaufe Saturn and Ops were huf-
band and wife : the vows offered to the goddefs wTere
made fitting on the ground,
OPARO, or Oparro, a fmall iflapd in S. Lat. 27°
36', and in E. Long. 215° 49', which wras difcovered by
Vancouver. This ifland was fuppofed to be about 64
miles long, and it was out of fight of any other land.
It is compofed of craggy mountains, forming in feveral
places perpendicular cliffs from their fummits to the
fea, having narrow valleys or chafms interpofed. On
fome of the higheff hills wrere obferved fome kind of
works, refembling fortified places ; but as the difcoverers
did not land on the ifland, they could not learn their
nature and ufe. In their language and appearance the
natives refembled thofe of the Friendly iilands j they
feemed acquainted with the ufe of iron, preferring it to
beads and other trinkets, and lliowed a hofpitable difpo-
fition. There appeared to be anchoring ground near the
north-well end of the ifland.
OPERA, a dramatic compofition fet to mufic, and
fung on the ftage, accompanied with mufical inffru-
ments, and enriched with magnificent dreffes, machines
and other decorations.—This fpecies of drama is of
modern invention. In its prefent ftate it wars not
known even in Italy before the beginning of the laft
century ; and at its introdudlion into England, a cen¬
tury afterwards, it divided the wits, literati, and mu-
ficians of the age. By thofe who were efteemed the
belt judges of the art, the Englilh language was con-
fidcred as too rough and inharmonious for the mufic
of the opera ; and, on the other hand, critics, whole
taile was built on the balls of common lenfe, looked
upon a drama in a foreign and unknown tongue as the
greateft of all abfurdities. Many of them, however,
pleaded for operas in the Englilh language 5 and it is
v eil knowm that Addifon, who was one of the oppof-
ers of the Italian opera on the London ftage, WTote in
his native tongue the opera of Rofamond. This is con-
feffedly a beautiful poem ; but, in the opinion of Dr
Burney, it adds nothing to Addifon’s fame, as it Ihows
his total ignorance of the firft principles. of mufic,
and of courfe his unfitnefs for the talk he had under¬
taken.
In queftions refpefting the fine arts there is no appeal
from the general tafte ; and therefore, as the French
opera, wffiich is in the language of the country where it is
a£led, has always been admired by perfons of liberal
education, it doubtlefs has merit confidered as a drama *,
but how the dramas of this kind which are compofed in
Italian fhould find admirers in England among perfons
wflio underhand not a word of the language, it is to us
a matter of aftoniihment. The mulic of them may
deferve and command the admiration of everv one who
T 2 has
OPE [ 148 ] O P H
Opera, has an ear ; and the &6iion of the lingers may be
“ periectly fuitable to the fubjeft reprefented j but of
this fuitablenefs the majority of the audience can be no
judges.
Even when the language is thoroughly underftood,
we Ihould imagine, that, to make an opera agreeable
to good fenfe, much wTould depend upon the choice of
the iubjeft ; for it is furely abfurd to have perfons of all
ranks, and on every occalion, perpetually accompanied
with the regular refponfesof fymphony. To hear Caefar,
Scipio, or Macbeth, when forming plans to enfure vic¬
tory, or hatching plots of treafon and murder, talking
in recitative and keeping time with fiddles, wrould furely
difgull every perfon whofe fenfe had not all evaporated
in found 5 but when the fubject reprefented naturally
admits of mulic in real life, we can fuppofe an opera to
afford to perfons of tafle one of the mod exquifite and Operation
refined entertainments of which human nature is capable. li
For a farther account of the opera, fee Music, page 497, °8 ol*
and Poetry, N° 133, &x. ^■
OPERATION, in general, the act of exerting or
exerciling fome power or faculty, upon which an effect
follows.
Operation, in Surgery and Medicine, denotes a
methodical action of the hand on the human body, in
order to re-eftablifh health.
OPHIDIUM, a genus of fifties belonging to the
order of apodes. See Ichthyology Index.
OPHIOGLOSSUM, adder’s tongue, a genus of
plants, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs, and ta the
order Ydices. See Botany Index.
OPHIOLOGY.
Hiftoric&I
notices of
ophiological
writers.
. .3
Ancient.
4
Modern.
INTRODUCTION.
Definition HTHE term ophiology is compofed of two Greek words,
A. namely ofa ferpent, and Aoyoj, difcourfe, and
confequently denotes that branch of zoology which
treats of ferpents. The latter conftitute an order in the
clafs of amphibious animals. They are covered with
fcales, breathe by means of lungs, and are deftitute of
„ feet and fins.
The hideous afpecl of fome of the fpecies, and the
poifonous properties of others, long contributed to prevent
any deliberate inveftigation of fheir ftrudlure, conftitution,
and modes of exiilence. Hence, the ancients, wdio at
beft had very imperfect notions of claffification, fome-
times indicate different fpecies under the fame name,
or beftow different appellations on the fame fpecies, and
moreover blend their vague defcrip lions with the embel-
lifhments or abfurdities of fable.
Among the moderns, few naturalifts have directed their
refearches to the hiftory of ferpents. “ It muff be ac¬
knowledged,” obfervesDr Ruffel, “ that it offers no attrac¬
tive allurements ; and that thofe who from other avoca¬
tions, can only fpare tranfient attention to fubje&s of
natural hiffory, are more likely to prefer objedls lefs dif-
gufting, and experiments accompanied with lefs cruelty
and perfonal danger. Even the eager and refolute
naturalift has to contend with many difficulties in this
path of refearch. He cannot, at once, diveft himfelf of
the abhorrence, next to innate, of thefe reptiles ; nor
can he foon acquire a dexterity in handling them, with
that calmnefs requifite for his own fafety. The fearch
for plants, for birds, or even infedts, is comparatively
paffime, or pleafurabie occupation j but in the adfual
purfuit of the difgufting race of ferpents, he ftands in
need of afliftants, who are not at all times to be pro¬
cured 5 and if he rely folely on the diligence of fuch as
he may employ, he will find himfelf expofed to the
5 chagrin of inceffant difappointment.”
Seba. Seba has indeed prefented us with a numerous cata-
6 logue j but his fpecies are too multiplied, and his defcrip-
.Catefby. tions too concife. Catefby was more folicitous to defign
7 and colour his ferpents, than to unfold their difcrimina-
Groncvius. ting charafters. The defcrip tions of Gronovius are,
for the moft part well and accurately detailed; but they
are unprovided with the fpecific names. §
Linnaeus, availing himielf of the wrorks to which wre Linnseas.
have juft alluded, of the difcoveries of Garden, and of
his own difcernment, publilhed his method of diftinguifti-
ing the fpecies by the number of fcaly plates on the
abdomen, and beneath the tail. Experience has indeed
proved, that thefe do not always conftitute an infallible
criterion, and that more obvious marks, fuch as the
relative fize of the head, the length of the body and tail,
&c. mull; fometimes be reforted to: it muft, however,
be allowed, that the celebrated Swedilh naturalift paved
the wray to a far more accurate nomenclature of lerpents
than had yet appeared, and that the value of his fcien-
tific diftindlions is greatly enhanced by the interefting
notices on the fame fubjeCl which are inferted in his
Amccnitates Academic a;, and in the firft and fecond vo¬
lumes of his Adolphian Mufeum. ^
The count de la Cepede has in fome refpedts improved La Cepede.
the Linnaean arrangement, and exhibited a more com- 1Q
plete catalogue than any of his predeceffors. Dr Shaw Shaw,
has likewife difplayed his ufual fagacity in the fecond
part of the third volume of his General Zoology, which
is allotted to bis expofition of the ferpent tribes. To ri
thefe we may add, Owen on the natural hiftory of Owen,
ferpents, Klein’s Tentamen Herpetologiae, Blumenbach’s Klein.
Beytrag zur Naturgefchichte der Schlangen, Schneider’s
Allgemeine Betrochtungen uber die Eintheilung und
Kennzeichen der Schlangen, Merian’s Beytrage zur
gefchichte der Amphibien, Laurenti’s Specimen Medi-
cumfcontinens Synopfin Reptilium, Bonaterre’s Ophiolo-
gie, in the Encyclopedic Methodique, Latreille’s Hiftoire
Naturelle des Reptiles, Ruffell’s Account of Indian
Serpents, &c. &c.
Anatomy and Phyftology of Serpents.
13
The body of ferpents is very long when compared Body,
wdth its thicknefs; and is fometimes quite cylindrical,
or rounded, fometimes compreffed on the fides, fome¬
times flat on the under furface, and fometimes attenuated
towards the tail. It is ufually covered with fcales; but
fometimes naked, either rough, or flippery to the touch,
and
OPHIOLOGY.
Aiiatomy
of Serpents
13
Head.
Mouth.
x5
Snout.
16
Jaws.
Lips.
iS
Teeth.
r9
Fangs.
ao
Tongue.
Eyes.
Noltrils.
atid banded, fpotted, or reticulated j the fkin exhibiting
great varieties in the tints and diftribution of the co¬
lours.
The head is either diftinft from the trunk, or con¬
founded with it, and is convex, or flattened, oval, trian¬
gular, or heart-fhaped, and fumiihed with plates, or im¬
bricated fcales. It includes the mouth, fnout, jaws, lips,
teeth, tongue, eyes, and noflrils. There is no viftble
external ear •, though animals of this order doubtlefs pof-
lefs the faculty of hearing.
The mouth is that cavity which is lituated between
the jaws. It is very large in proportion to the flze of
the head, and is capable of being widely extended.
The fnout is the anterior part of the head : it is flanting,
elongated, obtufe, truncated, or reflexed. The jaws,
wThich are either of equal or unequal length, are com-
pofed of two bones, which do not, as ours, open in the
manner of a pair of hinges, but are held together at the
roots, by a ftretching mufcular Ikin, fo as to open as
widely as the animal chufes to ftretch them. By this
contrivance ferpents are enabled to fwallow animals
thicker than themfelves. The lips are entire, notched,
or reflexed. The teeth, in the jaws, are generally
iharp-pointed, and, in ferpents not poifonous, are difpofed
in three rows in the upper jaw, one row exterior and two
interior. The under iaw is fometimes provided with a
Angle row. The noxious fpecies are furnilhed with ca¬
nine teeth, or fangs, of a tubular llruclure, lituated in,
the projecting part of the upper jaw, commonly of a
much larger fize than the other teeth, and frequently
accompanied by fmaller or fublidiary fangs, apparently
deltined to fupply the principal ones, when loll either by
age or accident. The fangs are lituated in a peculiar
bone, fo articulated with the rell of the jaw, as to ele¬
vate or deprefs them at the pleafure of the animal. In
a quiefcent Hate they are recumbent, with their points
dire&ed inwards or backwards •, but, in the moment of
irritation, their polition is altered by the mechanifm of
the above-mentioned bone, in which they are rooted,
and they become almolt perpendicular. The tongue is
ufually llraight and llender, compofed of two long and
rounded flelhy fubltances, which terminate in lharp points,
and are very pliable. They unite at about two thirds
length, and the root is connefted to the neck by two
tendons, which give the whole organ a great variety and
facility of motion. In moll fpecies, the tongue is al-
molt wholly inclofed in a Iheath, or integument, from
which the animal can dart it out of its mouth, without
opening its jaws; the upper mandible having a fmall
notch, through which it can pafs. Some of the viper
kinds have tongues a fifth part of the length of their
bodies, and, as they are conllantly darting them out,
terrify thofe who are ignorant of the real lit nation of
the poifon. The eyes are fmall, when compared with
the length of the body, and greatly vary in refpeft of
livelinefs and colour. In fome fpecies the upper eyelid
is wanting, while others have a nictitating membrane,
or Ikin, which keeps the organ clean, and preferves the
fight. In all, the fubltance of the eye is hard and
horny, the cryftalline humour occupying a great part of
the globe. The pupil is lufceptible of confiderable con¬
traction and dilatation, and the iris is often of a golden
or fine red colour. The noltrils are two openings at
the extremity of the fnout, for receiving the fenfatisn
of fmell.
149
The trunk is that part of the body which reaches Anat
from the nape to the vent. It is fcaly, annulated, ra-''r SerPfcUty;
berculated, or wrinkled } and comprehends the back, ~
tides, belly, anus, organs of generation, and fcales. The Trunk,
back is the upper part of the trunk, commencing at the 24 <
nape and terminating immediately above the vent. In ck-
moil fpecies it is rounded, but in fome carinated or far-<,.^5
rowed. The fides are the lateral portions of the trunk,
from the extremity of the jaws to the vent. The bel-Beey.
ly, or abdomen, is the lower part of the body, from the
head to the tail, the want of a diaphragm precluding 27
a breait. The anus is an opening, ufually tranfverfe, Anus,
placed at the extremity of the lower furface of the
trunk, forming the line of demarcation between the lat¬
ter and the tail, and affording a paffage to the liquid
and folid excrements. The penis of the male, and the
ovary of the female, are alfo fituated in this common
vent, from which they are extended only during the fea- 2g
fan of pairing. The fcales, properly fo called, areScaies.
round, oval, oblong, and attenuated at the extremities,
rhomboidal, fmooth, or carinated. The broad undivid¬
ed plates on the belly and head, are termed feuta, and
the fmaller or divided plates beneath the tail, are cal¬
led fqiuimte fubcaiulales or /cut cl la, fut caudal fcales
or platelets. jy
The tail is attenuated, obtufe, fquare, in the form of Fail,
a triangular pyramid, flattened or compreffed at the
lides.
As ferpents have neither limbs nor breaft, the ftruc- Skeleton,
ture of their Ikeleton is much lefs complex than that of
quadrupeds. The bones of the head are from eight to
ten. The fkull, which is fometimes flat and fometimes
convex, is very hard and compadt, and exhibits four
principal futures, which are with difficulty feparated.
The bones of the trunk confift of a feries of vertebrae,
incafed in one another, and articulated with the ribs.
The caudal vertebrse are difpofed in the fame manner,
and provided with fimilar proceffes 5 but they are un-
connecled with ribs, and gradually diminifh in fize as
they approach to the end of the tail. In moft quadru¬
peds, the joints in the back-bone feldom exceed thirty
or forty 5 whereas in ferpents they often amount to 145,.
from the head to the vent, and 25 more from that to
the tail. The number of thefe joints muff give the
back-bone a furprifing degree of pliancy, which is ftill
increafed by the manner in which one is locked into the
other. In man and quadrupeds, the flat furfaces of the
bones are laid one againft the other, and bound tight by
finews ; but in ferpents the bones play one within the
other, like ball and facket, fo that they have free motion
in every direction. ^ r
The remarkable ftrength and agility, manifefted by Mufdes*
ferpents, depend on the vigorous mufcles with which
they are provided. Several of thefe are inferted along
and beneath- the fkull, and about the upper and lower
jaws. Four, which are denominated lateral, have their
origin behind the head, and defeend, by each fide, to
the extremity of the tail. Each vertebra has alfo its
correfponding intercoftal mufcle, which ferves the fame
purpofes as in other animals.
The internal organs, or vifeera of individuals ofVifcera.
this order of animals, nearly correfpond to thofe of
others, and, confequently, need not • long detain us.
The brain is divided into five fmall portions, which Brain,
are round, and feme what elongated. The two firft are
placed
*50
Anatomy
of Serpents
artery.
3S
Lungs.
Oefophagn;
37
Stomach.
38
Heart.
39
Inteftinal
canal.
40
Kidneys.
4i
External
fenfes.
42
Sexual u-
. 43
Oviparous.
placed between tne eyes, and give origin to the olfac¬
tory nerves ; other two are fitualed in the middle region
of the Ikull j and the laft, which is a little farther back,
appears to be the commencement of the fpinal marrow.
The tracheal artery, compofed of diftincl and cartilagi¬
nous rings, has its origin at the top of the gullet, and
communicates with the lungs, under the heart. The
lungs are not lobed, but con fill of a cellular and mem¬
branous fubftance, abundantlydurnilhed with blood vef-
fels. The oefophagus is formed of a lingle membrane,
extends to the orifice of the llomach, is of an equal di¬
ameter throughout, and fufceptible of an extraordinary
degree of dilatation. The llomach, which is of a larger
capacity, is formed of two concentric tunics, which
clofely adhere, and which are internally covered with
folds or'wrinkles. The heart has two ventricles, and is
Imall in proportion to the fize of the body. As the cir¬
culation of the blood is independent of the lungs, the
animal is enabled to remain for a confiderable time un¬
der water. It cannot, however, make this element its
conftant refidence ; becaufe occafional fupplies of frelh
air are necefifary to preferve in its blood thofe qualities
which are neceffary to motion and vitality. In ferpents,
therefore, as well as in viviparous quadrupeds, refpiration
is eflential to life. This funclion they do not perform by a
rapid fucceffion of alternate dilatations and contractions
of the lungs ; but, having this vifeus remarkably large in
proportion to their bodies, they are able to fill it with a
confiderable provifion of air •, and, as they expire very
ilowly, fome time will elapfe before they are obliged to
infpire again. The inteftinal canal is narrow, finuous,
and internally divided by many tranfverie partitions.
The kidneys are particularly large, and compofed of
fmall continuous glands, blended with excretory vef-
fels.
That animals of the ferpent kind poffefs the ufe of
the five external fenfes, can fcarcely admit of difpute.
We have indeed remarked, that moil of the fpecies ap¬
pear to want an external auditory paffage ; but it is
certain that they are often dire£l:ed to birds, by liftening
to their notes ; and many indicate a degree of fenfihility
to the founds of mufical inftruments. Their fenfe of
fmell, with a few remarkable exceptions, is neither very
aftive nor acute ; but, in moft, that of fight is quick and
penetrating. The foft and nervous texture of the tongue
and palate would induce a fufpicion, that they enjoy the
fenfe of tafte in a pre-eminent degree ; yet, as they ge¬
nerally fwallow their food in large portions, they feldom
avail themfelves of the delicacy of thefe organs. Being
unprovided with feet, hands,-or feelers, their fenfe of touch
is probably very imperfedl •, and even when they twine
very clofely round an objeft, the interpofition of their
feales will render their feeling of its furface vague
and obtufe.
The fexual union of ferpents ufually takes place in the
funny days of fpring,is very clofe and ardent, and varies in
duration from an hour to feveral days, according to the
fpecies,but terminates without any permanent attachment.
The females of fome are oviparous, and of others vivi¬
parous. The eggs of the former vary in refpeft of fize,
colour, and number, according to the fpecies and con-
ftitution of the individual; and they are depofited, not
in continuous fucceffion, but at intervals, and fometimes
with the appearance of much fuffering on the part of
OPHIOLOGY.
the female. Segerus relates, that he faw a female fnake, Pliyfiology
after twilling herfelf, and rolling on the ground in an0* Serpents,
unufual manner, bring forth an egg. He immediately ' v ~'
took her up, and facilitated the extrufion of thirteen
more, the laying of all which coriumed an hour and a
half; for, after depofiting each, {he refted for fome time.
When he remitted his affiftance, the procefs was more
flow and difficult 3 and the poor animal feemed to re¬
ceive his good offices with gratitude, w-hich fhe expreffed
by gently rubbing her head againft his hands. The
mother never hatches thefe eggs, but leaves them expo-
fed m fome wnrm fituaiion, as in holes wrth a louthern
afpecl, on dry fand, under mofs or foliage, on a dung¬
hill, near an oven, &c. The outer covering of the egg
is a thin but compact membrane, and the young ferpent
is fpirally rolled in its albuminous liquid. The vivipa- Viviparous,
rous fpecies differ confiderably, both with refpect to their
periods of geftation, and the number of their offspring.
Thus, vipers which go about three months with young,
generally breed twice a year, and produce from twenty
to twenty-four, while the blind-worm, which is pregnant
about a month, brings forth fometimes feven, and fome¬
times ten at a birth. When young ferpents are hatched
or produced, they are abandoned to the refources of their
own in ft in 61, and-often peril'll before they have acquired
fufficient experience to fhun the fnares which are laid
for them by quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles.
In regard to the different ftages of growth of the dif- Growth,
ferent fpecies, little precife information teems to have been
obtained : and, though fome arrive at a very large fize,
their dimenfions have, no doubt, been much exaggera¬
ted. The young of the viper, at the moment of partu-Sjze45
rition, meafures from twelve to fifteen lines; and two
or three years elapie before they are capable of repro¬
ducing their kind. Adanfon however concludes, from
ocular obfervalion, that the largeft ferpent in Senegal
may meafure from forty to fifty feet in length, and from
a foot to a foot and a half in breadth. Leguat affures
us, that he faw one in Java, that was fifty feet long.
Carli afferts, that they grow to upwards of forty feet.
Mr Wentworth, a gentleman who had large concerns in
the Berbices, informs us, that he one day font out a fol-
dier,with an Indian, to kill wild fow l for the table 3 and
they accordingly went fome miles from the fort. In
purfuing their game, the Indian, w ho generally marched
before, beginning to tire, went to reft himfelf on the
fallen trunk of a tree, as he fuppofed it to be 3 but, when
he wyas juft going to fit down, the huge monfter began
to move, and the poor favage, perceiving that he had
approached a Boa, dropped down in an agony. The
foldier, perceiving what had happened, levelled at the
ferpent’s head, and by a lucky aim ffiot it dead. He
continued his fire, her ever, until he was affured that the
animal was killed 3 and then going up to refeue his com¬
panion, he found him killed by the fright. The animal
wTas brought to the fort, and was found to meafure
thirty-fix feet. Mr W. caufed the flan to be fluffed,
and font it as a prefent to the Prince of Orange. We
are told, that when Regulus led his army along the
banks of the Bagrada, in Africa, an enormous ferpent
difputed his paffage acrofs the river. If we can give
credit to Pliny, this reptile wTas 120 feet long, and had
deployed many of the foldiers, wffien it wras overcome
in turn by the batt ering engines. Its fpoils were carried
to
2
OPHIOLOGY.
15i
Phviiolo^y to Rome, and tlie general was decreed an ovation for his
of Serpents. fuccefs. The Ikin was preferved for years after in the
.47
Voice.
4S
M.-iffes-of
food.
49 .
Capability
of abfti-
nence.
5°
Age.
5X
Hyberna¬
tion.
Renewal
of Ik in.
capitol, where Pliny fays that he faw it.
In regard to voice, foine ferpents are apparently
filent, and others have a peculiar cry ; but hiding
is the found which they mod commonly utter, either
as a call to their kind, or a threat to their enemies.
In countries where they abound, they are generally ii-
lent in the midme of the day, but, in the'cool oi the
evening, they iffue from their retreats with continued
hidings. v
The mafies of food which ferpents are enabled to
fwallow, would appear quite miraculous, did we not re-
lleft on the lax ftructure of their jaws, their power of
crufhing their viciims, and the yifcid humour, or faliva,
which lubricates the crude morfel in its paflage down an
extendle oefophagus. In fpite of all thefe circumftances,
the quantity of aliment is ibmetimes fo voluminous, that
it ilicks in the gullet, when only partly immerfed in the
ftomach, and the animal lies ftretched and nearly mo-
tionlefs, in its retreat, till the fwallowed portion be di-
geded, and the extruded half introduced, to undergo the
lame procefs. But, though ferpents thus occadonally
gorge themfelves with food, as their blood is colder than
that of mod other terrcdri^l animals, and circulates
dowly, their powers of digedion are feeble and tardy,
fo that they can endure weeks, and even months of ab-
dinence. Nay, fo tenacious are they of the vital prin¬
ciple, that they exid and grow in mephitic mardies,
continue to breathe, for a condderable time, in the ex-
handed receiver of an air-pump, and frequently exhibit
fymptoms of life after one part of the body has been
fevered from the other. Vipers are often kept in boxes,
for fix or eight months, without any food whatever j and
there are little ferpents fometimes fent to Europe from
Cairo, which live for feveral years in glades, and never
eat at all.
The natural term of the exidence of ferpents, is not
accurately known •, but it has been conjectured, that
fome of the larger kinds may complete a century. The
fird failure of their drength is the almod immediate
forerunner of their diffolution ; for, when deprived of
the requifite eladicity of frame to fpring on their prey,
and of the requifite force to combat their enemies, they
dirink into their recedes, and die of hunger, or are eafily
devoured by the ichneumon, dork, and other powerful
affailants.
In the more northerly and temperate regions of the
globe, the ferpent tribes, towards the end of autumn,
fall into a date of torpor, more or lefs profound,
according to the greater or lefs intenfity of the
cold 5 and in this condition they remain, nearly life-
lefs, till the approach of fpring reanimates their dif-
fened frame.
Soon after its refufeitation, the ferpent works itfelf
out of its old epidermis, by rubbing itfelf againd the
ground, or by wedging itfelf between any two fubdan-
ces that are fudiciently clofe to each other. The exu-
vim come off entire, being loofened fird; about the
head •, and are always found turned infide out. It is
fome time before the feales acquire a fufficient degree
of hardnefs to defend the animal againd external in¬
jury •, and, during this interval, it generally confines it¬
felf to its retreat.
Generic and Specific Expofition of the Order.
Gen. 1. Crotalus. Rattle-Snake.
Scuta on the abdomen, (cuta and fquamae beneath the Generic
tail, rattle terminating the tail. ' characters.
The animals of this genus inhabit America, where
they prey on the fmalier birds, lizards, and infeCls.
They are furnifhed with poifonous fangs, and have a
broad head, covered with large feales. Their fnout is
obtufely rounded. 55-
Banded Rattle-Snake, Common Rattle-SDake, or Boi- Hon idut,
quira.—The characters are, 167 abdominal, and 23 Tub-
caudal feuta. The ordinary length of this fpecies is
from three to four or five feet, and the greaielt thick-
nefs that of a man’s arm. The prevailing colour is a
yellowilh brown, marked with crofs and irregular bands
of a deeper {hade, and two or three longitudinal ftripes
from the head down the neck; the under parts are of
a dingy brown, with many duiky variegations and frec¬
kles. The mouth is capable of great dillenfion. The
tongue is black, flender, bipartite, and inclofed in a kind
of {heath, from which the fnake darts forth the double
point, and vibrates it with great velocity. The rattle-
fnake is viviparous, producing in June about twelve
young, which, by September, acquire the length of
about twelve inches. Thefe, it is faid to preferve from
danger, like the viper in Europe, by receiving them in¬
to its mouth, and fwallowing them. In confirmation of
this affertion, we {hall quote the words of M. de Beau-
vois, who, during his refidence in America, bellowed
particular attention on the hiftory of amphibious rep¬
tiles.
“ Among the information which I endeavoured to
obtain in my travels with refpeft to ferpents in general,
there was one point which greatly excited my curiofity.
Several perfons, and one among the reft to whom I owe
a debt of gratitude for civilities and marks of friendftiip,
which will for ever reft engraven on my heart, had in¬
formed me, that the female rattlefhake concealed its
young ones in its body ; that when they were alarmed
by any noife, or by the approach of man, they took re¬
fuge in the body of their mother, into which they en¬
tered by her mouth. This faft had been already afeer-
tained with refpeft to the viper of Europe; but in con-
fequence of the unfavourable and repulfive difpofitions
inlpired by this kind of reptile, and in order to render
it ftill more hideous, an abfurd interpretation was given
to this fa£t. It was pretended, that this ferpent eats
its little ones after having given them birth. Curious
to verify this fad related of the boiquira, I was conftant-
ly occupied with this idea, and began to defpair of ever-
making the obfervation, when, at a moment in which
I thought the leaft of it, accident furniftied me the
means. Having fallen lick among the Indians, I found
myfelf obliged to remain a few days with one of them
in the neighbourhood of Pine-log. During my conva-
lefcence, I took a walk every morning in the neigh¬
bourhood, and one day when I was following a pretty
broad path, I perceived, at a diftance, a ferpent lying
acrofs the road in the fun. I had a flick in my hand,
and drew near to kill it; but what was my furprife, ,
wheo, in the moment that I was about to give the blow
Crotaius.
Crotalus.
152 O P H I O
. Crotaltls- the reptile perceived me, coiled up itfelf, and opened
" v" '' its large mouth, into which five ferpents, which I had
not till then obferved, becaufe they were lying along
its body, rallied into the gulf which I had conceived
opened for myfelf. I retired to one fide, and hid my-
felf behind a tree. The reptile had crawled a few paces,
but hearing no further noife, and not perceiving me,
ftretched itfelf out afrelh. In a quarter of an hour the
young ones came out again. Satisfied with this obferva-
tion, I advanced anew towards the animal, with intention
to kill it and examine the interior of its ftomach : but
it did not permit me to approach fo near as it did the
firft time, the young ones entered with flill greater pre¬
cipitation into their retreat, and the boiquira fled into
the grafs. My fatisfaclion and aftonifhment wrere fo
great, that I did not think of following it.”
The rattle confifts of a number of pieces, inferted in¬
to each other, all alike in fliape and fize, hollow, and
of a thin, elaftic, brittle fubltance, fimilar to the exte¬
rior part of the fcuta. Their form is nearly that of an
inverted quadrilateral pyramid, with the corners round¬
ed off". 1 he firfl: piece, or that nearefl: the body, may
be confidered as a kind of cafe, which contains the three
luft vertebrae of the tail, on which it appears to be
moulded, and has three convex, circular elevations cor-
refponding with them ; the two laft of thefe elevations
are fitted into the two firfl: of the next piece ; fo that of
every piece except the laft, the firfl: only of the eleva¬
tions is expofed to view, the two others being inclofed
in thofe of the following, in which they have room to
play from fide to fide. Thefe feveral pieces have no
mufcles, nerves, nor ligaments, nor are they connefted,
either with each other, or with the body of the ferpent
any otherwife than by the mode of infertion already de-
fcribed. Thus they derive no nourifhment from the
animal, and are merely an appendage which can have
no other motion than what is communicated to it by
that of the tail. Thefe feveral pieces of which the rat¬
tle confifts, appear to have been feparately formed.
Dr Van Meurs imagines them to be no other than the
old epidermis of the tail, which, when its nourifhment is
intercepted by the new fkin formed beneath it, grows
hard and brittle. Hence, he fuppofes, that wdienever
this part acquires a new fkin, a newr piece of the rattle
is added to the former, which is thus detached from the
Vertebrae, and fhoved farther from the tail. The num¬
ber of thefe pieces, however, affords no certain criterion
of the animal’s age, becaufe thofe which are moft re¬
mote from the tail, become fo dry and brittle, that they
are very liable to be broken off and loft.
The twm principal fangs are placed without the jaws,
on a feparate bone, and the fmaller ones attached to
mufcles and tendons. Thefe fangs may be couched, or
raifed, at the pleafure of the animal, and are fumifhed
with an opening near the root, and a flit rewards the
point, fo that on preffmg gently with the finger on the
fide of the gum, the poifon, wrhich is yellowifh, is per¬
ceived to iffue from the hollow of the tooth, through the
flit. The veficle which contains the poifbn, is external¬
ly of a triangular form, and of a tendinous texture 5
internally, it is cellular; and its anterior part termi¬
nates in a fmall du£f, communicating with the facculus
which covers the perforated teeth. It is fumifhed with
a conftrictor mufcle, for the purpofe of exprefling its
contents. The virulence of the latter may be inferred
4
LOG Y.
from various experiments reported in the Philoiophical Crctajus,
1 ranfiichons, and other publications. A rattlefnake of 1 v-“" 1
about four feet long, being faftened to a flake, bit three
dogs, the firfl of which died in lets than a quarter of a
minute; the fecond, which was bitten a fhort time
aftenyaids, in about two hours, and the third, which
w7as bitten about half an hour afterwards, fliowed the vi-
filfle effe&s of the poifon in three hours, and likewife
<hed. Other experiments were inflituted; and laftly,
in order to try if the fnake could poifon itfelf, it was’
provoked to bite a part of its own body, and adually
expired in lefs than twelve minutes. Our limits will
not permit 11s to enumerate various other inftances of
the almoft inftantaneous effeds of this poifon, which is
moft to be dreaded in hot wxather, and when the animal
is much irritated. The rattle-fnake, however, is rather
afraid of man, and will not venture to attack him un-
lefs provoked. It moves flowly, for the moft part with
its head on the ground; but if alarmed, it throws its
body into a circle, coiling itfelf, with the head ere61 in
the cemre, and with its eyes flaming in a terrific man¬
ner. In cafes of flight bites, the Indians ufually fuck
the wound. "I hey have likewife recourfe to the juices
of various herbs, and to the root ofpolygcla fencka $ but
thefe applications produce little effedl, without fcarifica-
tion and ligatures. According to Dr Barton, the rude and
fimple praclice of the weftern fettlers, is, firft, to throw
a tight ligature above the part into which the poifon
has been introduced, at leaft as often as the circum-
ftances of the cafe admit of fuch an application. The
wound is next fcarified, and a mixture of fait and gun¬
powder, or either of thefe articles, feparately, laid on
the part. Over the whole is put a piece of the bark of
juglans alba, or white walnut-tree, which a61s as a
blifter. At the fame time, a deco6fion or infufion of
one or more ftimulant vegetables, with large quantities
of milk, are adminiftered internally: the do6tor is
nevethelefs, of opinion, that the beneficial effeds of
this mode of treatment are chiefly to be aferibed to the
external applications. If the fang has penetrated a vein
or artery, or attacked the region of the throat, the bite
commonly proves fatal, and the patient expires in dread¬
ful agony. “ Where a rattle-fnake, (fays Catchy),
with full force, penetrates with his deadly fangs, and
pricks a vein, or artery, inevitable death enfues; and
that, as I have often feen, in lefs than twm minutes.”
“ The Indians, (he continues), know their deftiny the
minute they are bit; and, when they perceive it mor¬
tal, apply no remedy, concluding all efforts in vain.”
Dr Barton, however, inclines to think, that this afler-
tion ftiould be received with confiderable limitation, and
that the application of ligatures, &c. even in cafes ap¬
parently the moft defperate, ftiould not be negledled.
According to Clavigero, the moft ejledual method is
thought to be, the holding of the wounded part fome time
in the earth. But if the poifon be once received into
the general mafs of the blood, it is almoft needlefs to
have recourfe to medicines. A confiderable degree of
naufea is ufually the firft alarming fymptom ; the pulfe
becomes full, ftrong, and greatly agitated ; the whole
body fwells; the eyes are fuffufed with blood ; a he¬
morrhage frequently proceeds from the eyes, nofe and
ears ; large quantities of blood are fometimes throw n out
on the furface of the body, in the form of fweat; the
teeth vacillate in their fockets ; and the pains and groans
O P H I O
Crotalus. of the unhappy fufferer too plainly indicate, that the mo-
v~— ment of diflblution is near at hand.
The following remarkable cafe is related by Mr
He£tor St John. A farmer was one day mowing with
his negroes, when he accidentally trod on a rattle-fnake,
which immediately turned on him, and bit his boot. At
night, when he went to bed, he was attacked with fick-
nefs, his body fwelled, and before a phyfician could be
called in, he died. All his neighbours were furprifed
at his hidden death •, but the body was interred without
examination. A few days after, one of the fons put on
the father’s boots, and, at night, when he pulled them
off, he was feized with the fame fymptoms, and died on
the following morning. The phyfician arrived, and,
unable to divine the caufe of fo fmgular a diforder, fe-
rioufly pronounced both ihe father and fon to have been
bewitched. At the fale of the effects, a neighbour
purchafed the boots, and on putting them on, experien¬
ced the like dreadful fymptoms with the father and fon.
A fkilful phyfician, however, being fent for, who had
heard of the foregoing accidents, fufpedted the caufe,
and by applying proper remedies, recovered the patient.
The fatal boots were now carefully examined, and the
two fangs of the fnake were difcovered to have been
left in the leather, with the poifon-bladders adhering to
them. They had penetrated entirely through, and
both the father and fon had imperceptibly fcratched
themfelves with their point in pulling off the boots.
We are informed by Dr Barton, that a gentleman of
Philadelphia had a large rattle-fnake brought to him
alive, which he fo managed by a firing, that he could
■ eafily lead it into, or out of a clofe cage. On the firft
day, he fuffered this fnake to bite a chicken, which had
been allured to the mouth of the cage by crumbs of
bread. In a few hours, the bird mortified, and died.
On the fecond day, another chicken was bitten in the
fame manner, and furvived the injury much longer than
the firft. On the third day, the experiment was made
on a third chicken, which fwelled much, but, neverthe-
lefs, recovered. On the fourth day, feveral chickens
were fuffered to be bitten, without receiving any injury.
Thefe fimple experiments enable us to aflign a reafon,
why perfons who have actually been bitten by the rat¬
tle-fnake, have fometimes experienced very inconfider-
able, or no bad confequences from the wound; they
fhew in what manner many vegetables have acquired a
reputation for curing the bites of ferpents, without our
being obliged to impeach the veracity of thofe from
whom our information is derived •, and laftly, they teach
us the phyfiological fa£t, that the poifon of this reptile
is fecreted very (lowly.
It has been obferved by M. Gauthier, that the poifon
ftains linen with a green hue, which is deeper in propor¬
tion as the linen has been impregnated with lixivium.
The pretended fafcinating power of the rattle-fnake
is now generally difcredited 5 and Dr Barton, profeffor
of natural hiftory in the univerfity of Pennfylvania, re¬
duces the whole to the fluttering of old birds in defence
of their young, and too near an approach to the formi¬
dable enemy. In confirmation of this opinion, he ob-
ferves, that he can trace no allufion to the alleged faf¬
cinating faculty, in the ancient writers of Greece and
Rome •, that he doubts if it is credited by the American
Indians •, that Linnaeus was extremely credulous 5 that
the enchanting power of the rattle-fnake is queftioned
Vol. XV. Part I.
LOGY.
by fome eminent European naturalifts ; that the breath
of this reptile is not remarkably infeftious or pefiifer-
6us ; that it often fails in catching birds j that the laYer,
and fquirrels, are not its principal food j and that it is
even devoured by fome of the larger kinds of birds.
Mr Peale, an intelligent and zealous naturalift, kept
a rattle-fnake alive for five years and a half. “ Curious
to enquire, (fays M. Beauvois), how this animal Lizes
his prey, he (Mr Peale) has confined feveral birds in
the fame cage with him, and the hungry reptile has
made many attempts to take hold of the bird. This ex¬
periment has been repeated many times, and every time
with the fame effect. I have feen, myfelf, one of thefe
birds in the cage } but whether the reptile was not
hungry, or was fenfible of its want of power, it remain¬
ed perfedtly tranquil, while the bird was perfedtly at
eafe. It gave no indication wJiich could make it be
believed that it was either enchanted or affrighted ; and
the air did not appear different, if we might judge fiom
its behaviour, from that which it found in an ordinary
clofe cage. The bird remained two days in the fame
fituation, without the leaft attention paid to it by the
reptile, wdio, in the meantime, eat a dead one which was
prefented to him.
“ Another firing bird was put into the cage with
the ferpent: far from being alarmed, it amufed itfelf
with pecking in the bottom, and picking up a few grains
■which it found there : often changing place in its ac-
cuftomcd manner, and even refting itfelf on the back of
the boiquira, which made no extraordinary movements.
This experiment was made feveral times.
“ Mr Peale, his children, and myfelf, have often
examined the reptile. We never perceived it to fend
out the flighteft fuffocating odour. It is in vain to ob¬
ject, that the living birds thus given it were not of the
kind fitted for its nourifhment 5 for it has eaten the fame
birds, wftien prefented to it dead, and it is not ufelefs to
remark, that it never refufed one of them.”
Catefby mentions an individual of this fpecies, which
was about eight feet long, and weighed from eight to
nine pounds. It was feen gliding into a gentleman’s
houfe, and terrified all the domeftic animals.
Mr St. John, w7hom wre have quoted above, once faw
a tamed rattle-fnake, as gentle as it is poflible to con¬
ceive a reptile to be. It went to the water, and fwam
wherever it pleafed ; and when the boys to whom it be¬
longed called it back, their fummons was readily obey¬
ed. They often ftroked it with a foft brufh : and this
friction feemed to caufe the moft pleating fenfations ;
for it would turn on its back to enjoy it, as a cat does
before the fire. We need fcarcely add, that it had been
deprived of its fangs.
Rattle-fnakes abound in America, from Br&zil to near
Lake Champlain : but they are gradually difappearing
in the more populous diftridts. According to Pen¬
nant, they affect woods and lofty hills, efpecially where
the ftrata are rocky or chalky, as at the pafs near Nia¬
gara. They particularly frequent the fides of rills, to
prey on fuch fmall animals as refort thither to quench
their thirft. In Tummer, they are general1 y found in
pairs; in winter, they collect in multitudes-, and retire
underground, beyond the reach of froft. Tempted by
the warmth of a fpring day, they often creep out, weak
and languid. A perfon has feen 3 piece of ground
covered with them, and killed with a rod between fixty
U and
*54
Crotalu?
56
BuriJJ'us.
57
Bryinas.
5*
Miliaris.
59
Atricauda-
tits.
60
Boa.
61
Charafters.
O P H I O
^ Seventy, till, overpowered with the flench, he was
' obliged to retire. They are mofl eafily dil'patched by a
blow with a flick on the fpine.
The American Indians often regale on the rattle-
fhake. When they find it afleep, they put a fmall
forked flick over its neck, which they keep immove-
ably fixed to the ground, giving the fnake a piece of
leather to bite ; and this they pull back feveral times
with great force, until they perceive that the poifon
fangs are tom out. They then cut off the head, {kin
the body, and cook it, as we do eels. The flefh is faid
to be white and excellent. Hogs alfo fometimes de¬
vour the rattle-inake ; but horles, dogs, and moft other
animals, regard it with antipathy and horror.
Striped Ratt/e-fnahe, or White Rattle-fnake.—172 ab¬
dominal, and 21 fubcaudal fcuta. From a foot and a
half, to four feet and a half long. Diftinguiftied from
the prfeceding by a pattern of pale yellow flreaks, form¬
ing a feries of large rhombs, or lozenges, down the
back. Has often been confounded with the former,
on'account of the Tame general afpeft, conflitution, and
habits.
Wood Rattle-fnahe.—165 abdominal, and 30 fubcau¬
dal fcuta. Of a lighter tinge than the two preceding,
and marked with yellowifh variegations on the back. 
i his fpecies has been hitherto very imperfeftly de-
fcribed 5 and Seba erroneoufly quotes it as a native of
Ceylon.
Miliary, or Small Rattle-fnahe.—132 abdominal, and
32 fubcaudal fcuta. Gray, with a triple row of black
fpots, and a red fpot between each of the dorfal ones.
The fmalleft of the genus ; its ordinary length being
about. eighteen inches. From this circumftance, and
the faint found of its rattle, it is more dangerous than
the larger fpecies. It is alfo alleged, that its bite is
more aftive. Its poifon, according to Lebeau, is moft
fuccefsfully combated by the volatile alkali. It is con¬
fined to the temperate regions of North America, parti¬
cularly to Carolina, Louifiana, and Florida.
Black-tailed Rattle-fnake.—170 abdominal, and 26
fubcaudal fcuta. The head greenifh-gray, with two
brown and oblong fpots on the hinder part. The body
of a reddifti gray, fpeckled with brown points, and
crofted by 24 lengthened patches, or bands, brown, and
irregular, and accompanied, on each fide, by two fpots
of a brighter colour. The back is marked by a longi¬
tudinal, fawn-coloured ftripe. Scales very numerous,
rhomboidal, and carinated.—From three to four feet
long; a very venomous fpecies; difcovered by Bofc,
in Carolina, and defcribed in Daudin’s Natural Hiftory
of Reptiles.
Gen. 2. Boa.
Scuta on the abdomen, and under the tail; but no rat¬
tle.
The boa tribe of ferpents is very numerous, and con¬
tains fome fpecies which are remarkable for their huge
dimenfions. Their head is covered, like that of the
crotali; but their tail terminates in a point. Their im-
menfe fize has rendered them the objedls of terror rather
than of obfervation to mankind ; while the quantity of
food requifite for their fuftenance, has precluded their
multiplication within a limited range of country. Hence,
a confiderable degree of confufion attaches to their hi-
logy.
ftory ; and a rational fufpicion arifes, that, with the pro- Boa,
greis of culture and population, lome of the more for-(
midable forts have either been exterminated, or driven
riom the haunts of men. Some naturalifts have aflerted,
that individuals belonging to this genus have been found
in Spain, Italy, and the iouth of France ; but they ap¬
pear to have miftaken fome of the larger forts of co¬
luber for the boa, which laft is a native of Afia, Africa,
and America.
Great or ConJiriBor Boa—240 abdominal, and 60
fubcaudal fcuta. The more ordinary difpofition of its
colouring is yellowifh gray with a large, chefnut-colour-
ed, chain-like pattern down the back, and triangular
fpots on the fides. A confiderable degree of variety,
however, is occafioned by the circumftances of age, fex’
and climate ; and even the number of fouta is by no
means conftant. Nature has bellowed on this celebrat¬
ed reptile, uncommon ftrength and beauty, but has
wifely withholden from it the poifonous properties of
fome of the fmaller fpecies. It frequently attains to
twenty, or even thirty feet in length. Except, however,
when flimulated by the calls of hunger, it is a fluggifh
and harmlefs animal, affefting moift and lhady fituations,
and, occafionally, devouring large animals, which it
crufhes in its contorted folds. In the German Ephe-
meiides, ve have an account of a combat betvreen one
of thefe huge ferpents and a buffalo, by a perfon who
affures us, that he was himfelf a fpedtator. The ferpent
had for fome time, been waiting near the brink of a
pool, in expectation of prey, when a buffalo was the
firfl animal that appeared. Having darted on the af¬
frighted beaft, it inftantly began to wrap him round in
its voluminous twiftings, and, at every twill, the bones
of the buffalo were heard to crack almoft as loud as the
report of a gun. It w^as in vain that the quadruped
ftruggled and belkwed ; its enormous enemy twined it
fo clofely, that at length all its bones were cruftied to
pieces, like thofe of a malefaftor on the wheel, and
the whole body reduced to one uniform mafs. The fer¬
pent then untwined its folds, to fwallow its prey at lei-
fure. To prepare for this, and alfo to make it flip down
more fmoothly, it licked the whole body over, and
fmeared it with a mucilaginous matter. It then began
to fwallow it at the end that offered the leaft refiftance,
the throat dilating to fuch an extraordinary degree, as
to admit a fubftance which was thrice its own thick-
nefs.
6z
Conftriclor.
In the Bombay Courier, of Auguft 31, 1799, it is;
ftated, that as a Malay prow anchored for the night,
dofe under the iiland of Celebes, one of the crew went
on ftiore, in queft of betel nut in the w'oods, and on his
return, lay dowm to fleep, as it is fuppofed, on the
beach. In the courfe of the night, he was heard by his
comrades, to fcream out for afliftance. They imme¬
diately went on ftiore; but an immenfe fnake of this
fpecies had already crulhed him to death. The attention
of the monfter being entirely occupied with his prey,
the people wTent boldly up to it, cut off its head, and
took both it and the body of the man on board their
boat. The fnake had feized the poor fellow by the
right wrift, where the marks of the teeth were very di-
ftinft ; and the mangled corpfe bore evident figns of
being cruflied. The length of the fnake was about
thirty feet, its thicknefs equal to that of a moderately
fized man; and, on extending its jawTs, the gape was
found
O P H I O
Boa. found wide enough to admit a body of the fize of a man’s
The female depofits a confiderable number of eggs,
which feldom exceed three inches in their greateft dia¬
meter, on the fand, or under leaves expofed to the fun’s
rays.
In feme diftricts of Africa, the great boa is regard¬
ed as an object of veneration, and on the coaft of Mo¬
zambique, is worfhipped as a god.
In a very interefting notice of this fpecies, communi¬
cated to us by John Corfe Scott, Efq. mention is made
of a live individual, which was difeovered in a field,
near the cattle, by fome labourers, in the province of
Tipperah in Bengal. This fnake, which meafured
fifteen feet and three inches in length, and eighteen
inches in circumference, was ftunned by repeated blows,
before it could be fecured, and tied with cords to a
long bamboo. It was pretty aftive after it was untied,
and made frequent darts at any perfon Coming near it.
On prefenting a long ftick, it repeatedly feized and bit
it with great fiercenefs. On diflection, the heart was
found to be of the fize of a fheep’s, with the communi¬
cation open between the two ventricles. The liver was
fmall in proportion, being about the fize of the human
pancreas, and, like it, divided into feveral lobes. The
cefophagus, from the mouth to the pylorus, meafured
nine feet three inches, and its width was fufficient to
admit a man’s head with eafe. The head was fmall, in
proportion to the fize of the animal, the eyes were dark
and heavy, and the no Arils large ; but there was no per¬
ceptible organ of hearing. From the mechanifin of
the jaws, they were capable of being diitended fo as
to admit a fubllance or animal much thicker than the
fnake itfelf. This mechanifm, and the abfence of grin,
ders, obvioufly prove, that the food is fwallowed entire,
without maftication. In a gorged individual of this
fpecies, Mr S. found an entire guana, and in another,
a fawn, of a year old } but the bones of thefe quadru-
peds were unbroken.
Scytale. Spotted Boa.— 250 abdominal, and 70 fubcaudal
feuta. Cinereous, with large, round, black fpots
on the back, and fmaller ones, with white centres,
on the fides, and oblong markings, interfperfed with
fmaller variegations on the abdomen. Of a fize
fcarcely inferior to the preceding, and of fimilar man¬
ners. It is a native of feveral parts of South America,
and, like other fnakes, occafionally eaten by the In¬
dians.
Ringed Boa—265 abdominal, and 57 fubcaudal feu¬
ta. General call ferruginous, with large dark rings
on the back, and black!(h kidney-fliaped fpots, with
white centres on the fides. The aborna of feveral
writers. Grows to a large fize, and is a native of
South America, where it is treated with divine ho¬
nours.
Canine or Green Boa.—203 abdominal, and 77 fub¬
caudal feuta. Green, with crofs, waving, and white
dorfal bands. It has its fpecific name from the form of
its head, which refembles that of a dog. Though def-
titute of poifon fangs, it inflicts a fevere bite, when pro¬
voked. It meafures from four- to twelve feet in length,
inhabits South America, and is celebrated for its
66 beauty.
Phrygia. Embroidered Bo(i.—A remarkably elegant fpecies,
r 64.
Cenchris.
65
Canina.
LOGY.
native of the Eafl: Indies, and omitted by Linnaeus.
White, with a cinereous tinge on the back, and the bo¬
dy marked with black lace-like variegations.
Garden Boa.—290 abdominal, and 123 fubcaudal Hortuiar,n-
feuta. Yellowilh gray, with brown Variegations, re-
fembling in form the parterres of an old-fafhioned gar¬
den, the body fomewhat comprefied, and the fides
marked with cuneiform fpots. From two to three or
four feet long, and native of South America. 68
Fafciated Boa.—233 abdominal, and 36 fubcaudal Fafciata,
feuta. Yellow, with dulky blue tranfverfe bands. The
b5dy fomewhat triangular, upwards of five feet in
length, and five inches in the thickelt part. Native
of India, #nd very poifonous.
An individual of this fpecies was fent to Dr Rufiel,
in a very languid and extenuated ftate. Being fet at
liberty, it remained for fome time without moving, but
foon began to crawl fiowly towards a dark corner. A
chicken being prefented, it feemed not to regard it,
though the bird fluttered about it, and even refted a
toe on its head. The chicken was then put on the
fnake’s back, and clung fo fall with its toes, that, when
attempted to be feparated, the fnake was dragged a lit¬
tle way, without offering to refent the infult. An hour
after, the chicken was again prefented 5 but the fnake
fhewing no difpofition to bite, its jaws were forced afun-
der, and the naked thigh of the chicken fo placed, that
the jaws cloffcd on part of it. The chicken, when difen-
gaged, fliewed immediate fymptoms of poifon : it couch-
ed, purged once or twice, and was not able to Hand.
In the courfe of the firit ten minutes, after feveral inef-
fe&ual efforts to rife, it refted its beak on the ground ;
and the head was feized with paralyfis. After 15 mi¬
nutes, it Ihewed a frequent difpofition to lie down ; but
remained couched fome minutes longer. In 20 minutes,
it lay down on one fide, and, convulfions fupervening
foon after, it expired within 26 minutes.' ’ 69
Viperine B«a.—209 abdominal, and 19 fubcaudal Viperinm
feuta. Gray, with a black waving dorfal band, edged
witli white j the fides fpotted with black. About a foot
and a half in length, including the tail, which is only
one inch and a half long. Native of India, where its
bite is faid to produce a flow wafting of the fingers and
toes. As, however, it has no fangs, and produces no
deleterious effects on brute animals : the truth of the re¬
port feems to be very queftionable.
Lineated Boa.— 209 abdominal, and 47 fubcaudal Lineatia.
feuta. Blackilh line, with white dotted, tranfverfe,
arched lines, and whitilh abdomen. Slender, native of
India, and highly poifonous. ^r
Annu/ated Boa.—About two feet in length, fome- Annulate.
what ferruginous, with black rounded fpots, included
in rings, on the back, reniform ocellated fpots on the
fides, and waving dufley variegations on the abdomen.
Native of South America, figured by Madame Merian,
and preferved in the Hunterian Mufeum, at Glafgow.
The other fpecies belonging to this genus are, ehy-
dris, ophryas, regia, murina, horatta, hipnale, contor-
trix, and palpebrofa.
Gen. 3. Coluber, Snake (properly fo called).
72
Coluber.
Scuta, or undivided plates, under the abdomen 5 fquamae, Characters,
or broad alternate feales, under the tail. The lat-
U 2 ttf K
74
Berus.
75
Catodte-
O P H I O
ter, although alternate, are reckoned by pairs; but,
in many inftances, the number is ftill undetermined,
and it fometimes varies in the fame fpecies.
This tribe contains about 200 fpecies, which greatly
differ from one another in fize and habit. The poifon-
ous forts, which conftitute about one-fifth of the whole,
are generally diftinguhhed from the reit by their large,
ilattiih, fubcordate heads, and rather (hort bodies and
tails; whereas moft of the harmlefs fpecies have fmall
heads, with longer bodies and tails in proportion. Lau-
renti and Latreille have ranged the former under the
'genus Viper a, and the latter under that of Coluber 1 but
Linnaeus, Daubenton, La C6pede, &c. include both
forts under Coluber. This family of ferpents is widely
diffufed over various quarters of the world.
Common Viper.—146 abdominal fcuta, 39 fubcaudal
fcales. Attains to the length of two, or even of three
feet. The ground colour of the body is a dingy yellow,
deeper in the female than in the male. The back is
marked with rhomboidal, as the fides are with triangu¬
lar, black fpots. Its black belly, the greater thicknefs
of the head, and the more abrupt termination of the
tail, fufficiently diftinguilh it from the common fnake,
with which it has been often confounded.
The viper arrives at maturity in fix or feven years,
and produces 10 or 12 live young at the end of the fe-
cond or third. Mr White of Selborne killed and cut
up a pregnant female, and found in the abdomen 13
young ones, about the fize of full grown earth-worms.
No fooner were they freed from confinement, than they,
twifted and wriggled about, fet themfelves up, and
gaped very wide when touched with a flick, exhibiting
manifeft tokens of menace and defiance, though as yet
no fangs were vifible, even with the help of glaffes.—
That the young, for fome time after birth, retreat,
■when alarmed, into the mouth of the mother, feems to
be a fa£l fatisfadlorily afceiiained.
Vipers are capable of fupporting long abftinence, feed
on reptiles, worms, and young birds, and become tor¬
pid in winter. Their poifon rarely proves fatal to man,
and is moft fuccefsfully counteracted by olive oil, tho¬
roughly rubbed on the wounded part. They are ufual-
ly caught by wooden tongs, at the end of the tail, as,
in that petition, they cannot wind themfelves up to in¬
jure their enemy. Their flefh was formerly in high
elteem, as a remedy for-various difeafes, particularly as
a reftorative. Of late years, however, it has loft much
of its ancient credit, and is rarely preferibed by modem
practitioners.
The common viper inhabits Europe and Siberia, and
is by no means uncommon in Great Britain, being the
only poifonous animal in the illand, frequenting dry
and ftony diftriCls, and efpecially the chalky countries.
It abounds in fome of the Hebrides, and is called adder
by the Scots.
This fpecies is fubjeft to feveral varieties, which wTe
cannot flop to enumerate. The prejler, or blach viper,
refembles the berus, in almoft every particular but co¬
lour ; though Linnaeus, and other eminent naturalifts,
rank it as a diftinft fpecies.
American Black Viper.—About the length of the
preceding, but much thicker, black, and remarkable
for the largenefs of its head, which it diftends, with a
horrid hifs, when irritated. Its bite is reckoned as dan-
LOGY?
gerous as that of the rattlefnake. It is a native of Ca- Coluber,
rolina, chiefly frequenting higher grounds. -■
Egyptian Viper.—118 abdominal fcuta, and 22 fub- ytJ('
caudal fcales. Somewhat ferruginous, fpotted with
brown ; whitifh beneath, with a ihort mucronated tail.
Rather fmaller than the common fpecies. Imported in
confiderable quantities to Venice, for the ufe of the apo¬
thecaries in the compofition of theriaca, &c. Native
of Egypt, and fuppofed by fome to be the afp of Cleo¬
patra ; but it is very difficult to afeertain the true afp of
the ancients.
77
Charajian Viper.—Rufous, with the fnout acuminated Charajii.
above, and the body marked with ffiort, fubconfluent,
dulky, and tranfverfe ftreaks. Nearly allied to the
common fpecies, and deferibed by Charas, a celebrated
anatomift of ferpents, in his day, but wffio contended,
in oppofition to Redi, that the fymptoms caufed by the
viperine bite, proceeded from what he termed the enra¬
gedfpirits of the creature, and not from the fuppofed
poifonous fluid.
Redds Viper.—152 abdominal fcuta, and 32 fubcau-Redi.
dal fcales. Of an iron brown colour, w ith a quadruple
tranfverfe feries of Ihort, fubconfluent, browm ftreaks on
the back. In other refpedts nearly allied to the com¬
mon viper, but faid to be more poifonous. It occurs in
Auftria and Italy, and is the fort which Redi chiefly
employed in his experiments relative to animal poi-
fon. _ ?9
Afp.—155 abdominal fcuta, and 37 fubcaudal {cAzs. Afpis.
Somewhat rufous, with roundiffi, alternate, dulky fpots
on the back, and fubconfluent ones near the tail. A-
bout three feet long, the head rather large, and cover¬
ed with fmall carinated fcales. Native of France, par¬
ticularly of the northern provinces of that country. It
is very doubtful if this be the genuine coluber afpis
(Lin.) 5 and ftill more fo if it be the afp of the an¬
cients. ■> 80
Greek Viper.—155 abdominal fcuta, and 46 fubcau- Lcbetinu:.
dal fcales. Gray, with a fourfold feries of tranfverfe
fpots, thofe on the middle yellowilh, and thofe on the
fides dulky. Nearly a cubit in length, very thick to¬
wards the middle, and the head large and depreffed.
Inhabits Greece and the Grecian iflands. According
to Forlkal, its bite proves fatal by inducing infuperable
fleep. si
Ccrafes, or Horned Viper.—150 abdominal plates, Cerajtes.
and 25 fubcaudal fcales. Pale yellowilh, or reddilh
brown, wdth a few round, diftant, or oblong fpots, of
a deeper tinge, fcattered along the upper parts of the
body, and the belly of a pale leaden hue. The two
curved proceffes, fituated above the eyes, give the ani¬
mal a more than ordinary appearance of malignity. Its
length varies from about 15 inches to twro feet. It is
found in many parts of Africa, efpecially affefting dry
places, and fandy deferts, and inflidling a dangerous
wound on thofe who happen to approach it. s-j
Horn-nofe Snake.—127 abdominal plates, 32 fubcau- Nafuoniis.
dal fcales. Olive browm, with blackilh variegations, a
row of pale dorfal fpots, furrounded by black, and a
waving pale band on the fides. This fierce and forbid¬
ding fpecies, which has its denomination from two large
and pointed proceffes on the tip of the nofe, is fuppofed
to inhabit the interior parts of Africa. ' 8 3
Megcera, or Spear-headed Snake.—224 abdominal Megiera.
plates,
O P H I O
Coluber, plbtes, and 68 fubcaudal fcales. Brown, with yellow
—   variegations, Hat cordate head, and a large orifice on
each fide, between the eyes and noftrils. Native of
Martinico, whence it is frequently called yellow Marti-
nico fnake. Meafures, when full grown, five' or fix
feet, has very large fangs, and indicts a dangerous
- - wound. ~
vVb. Speclacle Snake, or Cobra de Capello.—193 abdominal
plates, 60 fubcaudal fcales. “ Its general length (fays
Dr Shaw), feems to be three or four feet, and the dia¬
meter of the body about an inch and a quarter : the
head is rather fmall than large, and is covered on the
fore part with large fmooth fcales \ refembling, in this
refpedt, the majority of innoxious ferpents : the back
part, fides, and neck, with fmaller ovate fcales ; and
the remainder of the animal, on the upper parts, with
fmall, diftinff, oval fcales, not ill refembling the gene¬
ral form of a grain of rice. At a fmall diftance beyond
the head is a lateral fwelling or dilatation of the fkin, >
which is continued to the diftance of about four inches
downwards, where the outline gradually finks into the
cylindric form of the reft of the body. This part is ex-
tenfile, at the pleafure of the animal \ and, when view¬
ed from above, while in its moft extended ftate, is of a
fomewhat cordated form, or wider at the upper than
at the lower part: it is marked above by a very large
and confpicuous patch or fpot, greatly refembling the
figure of a pair of fpedfacles •, the mark itfelf being
white, with black edges, and the middle of each of the
rounded parts black. This mark is more or lefs diftinift
in different individuals, and alfo varies occafionally in
fize and form, and in fome is even altogether wanting.
The ufual colour of the animal is a pale ferruginous
browrn above, the under parts being of a bluiftr white,
fometimes (lightly tinged with pale brown or yellow :
the tail, which is of a moderate length, tapers gra¬
dually, and terminates in a (lender (harp-pointed extre¬
mity.
“ This formidable reptile has obtained its Portuguefe
title of cobra de capello, or hoodedfnake, from the ap¬
pearance which it prefents when viewed in front in an
irritated ftate, or when prepared to bite \ at which time
it bends the head rather downwards, and feems hooded,
as it were, in fome degree, by the expanded (kin of
the neck. In India it is everywhere exhibited publicly
as a fliow, and is, of courfe, more univerfally known in
that country than almoft any other of the race of rep¬
tiles. It is carried about in a covered balket, and fo
managed by its proprietors as to affume, when exhibit¬
ed, a kind of dancing motion ; railing itfelf up on its
lower part, and alternately moving its head and body
from fide to fide for fome minutes, to the (bund of fome
mufical inftrument which is played during the time.
The Indian jugglers, who thus exhibit tbe animal, firft
deprive it of its fangs, by which means they are fecured
from the danger of its bite.”
The cobra de capello is one of the moft formidable
and dangerous of the ferpent tribe, though it is devour¬
ed with impunity by the viverra ichneumon. Dr Ruf-
fel deferibes ten varieties of this fpecies, and enters into
many curious details relative to the effecls of its poilbn
on dogs and other animals. He never knew it prove
mortal to a dog in lefs than 27 minutes, nor to a chick¬
en in lefs than half a minute. Hence its j^>ifon, fatal
LOGY. 157
as it is, feems to be lefs fpeedyin its operation than that Colube’*
of the rattlefnake. ' 'J
Rujfellian Snake.—168 abdominal plates, 59 fubcau-
dal fcales. Brownilh yellow ; fpots on the back acutely
ovate, blackhh, and edged with white ; thofe on the
fide? fmaller. About four feet long } native of India,
and very poifpnous. A chicken bitten in the pinion,
by an individual of this fpecies, was inftantly infefted,
feized with 1 convulfions, and expired in 3 8 feconds.
Immediately after the chicken, a (lout dog was bitten
in the thigh. Within lefs than five minutes he appear¬
ed ftupified ; the thigh was drawn up,, and he frequent¬
ly moved it, as if in pain. He remained, however,
(landing, and ate fome bread that was offered to him.
In about 10 minutes the thigh became paralytic •, in 1 ^
minutes he entirely loft the ufe of it, and lay down
howling, in a difmal manner, frequently licking the
wound, and making, at intervals, ineffetlual attempts
to rife. In 19 minutes, after a ftiort ceffalion, he again
began to howl, moaned often, and breathed laborioully,
till his jaws clofed. The few fucceeding minutes were
paffed, alternately, in agony and ftupor; and, in 26
mieutes after the bite, he expired. A fecond dog, of
much fmaller fize, was next bitten, and expired in the
fpace of fix hours. A rabbit w'as next expofed to the
bite, and died in lefs than an hour. After this, another
chicken was bitten in the pinion, and expired in lefs
than fix minutes. Thefe experiments were all made
with the fame fnake, in the courfe of the fame morn¬
ing. 86
Crimfoh-Jided Snake.—188 abdominal and 7 anal Porpby-
plates, 45 fubcaudal fcales. Violet black, with the ab- riacus‘
domen and fides of a beautiful crimlbn, the plates mar¬
gined with black. A lingular and elegant fpecies, with
the proportions nearly thofe of the common Englifti
fnake ; poifonous ; and a native of New Holland.
Hcemachate Snake.—132 abdominal plates, 43 fub-
caudal fcales. Red, clouded with white above, yellow- shales.
i(h w'hite beneath. Two feet or more in length; tail
extremely ihort, and tapering to a point. Native of
India ; elegant, and poifonous. gg
Water Viper.—Brown above, banded with black and Aquatints.
yellow beneath. “ This ferpent (fays Catefby) is call¬
ed, in Carolina, the, water rattlefnake ; not that it hath
a rattle, but is a large fnake, and coloured not much
unlike the rattlefnake, and the bite faid to be as mortal.
This fnake frequents the water, and is never feen at any
great diftance from it: the back and head are brovrn ;
the belly tranfverfely marked with black and yellow al¬
ternately, as are the fides of the neck; the neck is
fmall, the head large, and armed, with the like deftruc-
tive weapons as the rattlefnake. It is very nimble, and
particularly dexterous in catching fi(h. In fummer
great numbers are feen lying on the branches of trees
hanging over rivers, from wftiich, at the approach of a
boat, they drop dowm into the water, and often into
the boat, on the men’s heads. They lie in this manner
to furprife either birds or fi(h, after which laft they
plunge, and putfue them with great fwiftnefs, and catch
fome of a large fize, which they carry on (hore, and
fwallow whole. One of thefe I furprifed fwimming
alhore, with a large catfilh in its mouth. The tail is
fmall towards the end, and terminates in a blunt horny
point, about half an inch in length, and which, though
harmlcfs,
OPHIOLOGY.
s9
Elegantif-
Jimus.
90
Argus.
91.
yavarticus.
92
Natrix.
harmlefs, is confulered as of dreadful efficacy by the
credulous vulgar, who believe, that the animal is' able,
with this weapon, not only to kill men and other ani¬
mals, but even to deftroy a tree by wounding it with
it 5 the tree withering, turning black, and dying.”
Superb Snake—White, the head variegated with
black, and the body marked above by a quintuple feries
of ocellated red fpots. About two feet long, and poi-
fonous.
Argus Snake.—Chefnut brown, yellow beneath, and
banded above, by tranfverfe rows of ocellated red fpots.
Above five feet in length ; native of Arabia and Brazil,
and very poifonous.
Java Snake.—312 abdominal plates, 93 fubcaudal
fcales. Gray, the head ftriped with blue, and the bo¬
dy crolfed by blue ftripes, with gold-coloured edges.
Frequent in the rice fields of Java, where it grows to
the length of nine feet ; but, in the more elevated and
wooded fituations, it attains to a Hill greater fize, and
is capable of devouring fome of the larger animals.
Splendid and innoxious.
Common, or Ringed Snake.—170 abdominal plates,
60 fubcaudal fcales. Olive brown, with a black patch,
accompanied by a yellow one, on each fide of the neck,
a row of narrow black fpots down each fide, and dufky
abdomen.
This fpecies is pretty generally diffufed over Europe,
and is not uncommon in our own ifiand, affecting moift
and warm woods, balking or fleeping in the funlhine,
and. becoming torpid in winter. The female depofits a
chain of from 12 to 20 eggs, about the fize of thofe of
the blackbird, connefted by bunches of a gluey matter,
in dunghills, or warm receffes, near ffagnant waters.
I he youno- come forth in the following fpring. The
common fnake reappears in March or April, when it
calls its Ikin fo completely, that the fpoil exhibits even
the exterior pellicle of the eye. To adopt the language
of Mr White, in his Naturalift’s Calendar, “ It would
be a molt entertaining fight, could a perfon be an eye-
witnefs to fuch a feat, and fee the fnake in the act of
changing his garment. As the convexity of the eyes
in the Hough is now inward, that circumllance alone is
a proof that the Ikin has been turned ; not to mention
that now, the prefent infide is much darker than the
outer. If you look through the fcales of the fnake’s
eye from the concave fide, viz. as the reptile ufed them,
they leffen objefts much. Thus it appears, that fnakes
crawl out of the mouth of their own Houghs, and quit
the tail part lalt, juft as eels are Ikinned by a cookmaid.
While the fcales of the eyes are growing loofe, and a
new Ikin is forming, the creature, in appearance, muft
be blind, and find itfelf in a very awkward and uneafy
lituation.”
This fpecies occafionally frequents the water, and
preys chiefly on frogs, mice, fmall birds, infedts, worms,
&c. It is not only perfedtly harmlefs, but even capa¬
ble of being domefticated. Mr White mentions, that
he knew a gentleman who had one in his houfe quite
tame. Though ufually as fweet as any other animal,
yet, whenever a ftranger, or a dog or cat entered, it
would begin to hifs, and foon filled the room with an
almoft infupportable odour. Mr Revett Shepphard of
Caius college, Cambridge, had a common fnake in his
rooms near three months. “ He kept it (fays Mr Bing-
ley) in a box of bran; and, during all that time, he
never could difcover that it ate any thing, although he Coluber.
frequently put both eggs and frogs, the favourite food ‘ w—
of this fpecies, into the box. Whenever he was in the
toom he ufed to let the animal out of its prifon } it
would firft crawl feveral times round the floor, appa¬
rently vith a defire to efcape j and when it found its at¬
tempts fruitlefs, it would climb up the tables and chairs,
and not unfrequently even up the chair of its owner as
he fat at his table. At length it became fo familiar as
to he in a ferpentine form on the upper bar of his chair :
it would crawl through his fingers, if held at a little di-
ftance before its head, or lie at Fill length upon his
table, while he was writing or reading, for an hour or
more at a time. When firft brought into the room, it
ufed to hils and dart out its forked tongue j but in no
mftance emitted any unpleafant vapour. It was, in all
its actions, remarkably cleanly. Sometimes it was in¬
dulged with a run upon the grafs, in the court of the
college j and fometimes with a fwim in a large bafon of
water, which it feemed to enjoy very much. When
this gentleman left ‘the univerfity, he gave his bed-
maker orders to turn it out into the fields, which, he
believes, was done.” ' ^
B/ack Snake. 186 abdominal plates, 92 fubcaudal^0f{/iriclor.
kales. Gloffy black, with a very long Hender body.
Five or fix feet long, and not venomous, though often
confounded by the ignorant and the timid with the rat-
tlefnake. Native of North America. Its fpeed and
activity, according to Brickell, are aftonifliing. Some¬
times it will climb trees in queft of the tree-frog, or,
for other prey, glide at full length, along the ground :
on other occafions it prefents itfelf half erecft, and ap¬
pears to great advantage. It is fo fond of milk, that
it has been feen eating it out of the fame difli with chil¬
dren, though they often gave it blows with their fpoons
on the head when it was too greedy. It perfecutes rats
with wonderful agility, purfuing them even to the roofs
of barns and outhoufes, and is therefore a great favour¬
ite among the Americans.
Fafciated or Wampum Snake.—Blue above, paler, Fafciutus.
and variegated with brighter blue beneath. Its colours
refemble thofe of the firings of Indian money, called
’wampum, compofed of fhells cut into regular pieces,
and fining with a mixture of blue and white. Native
of Carolina and Virginia, fometimes growing to the
length of five feet, and perfectly innocent. pS
Blue Green Snake.—217 abdominal plates, 122
caudal fcales. Bright blue green, with a purple tinge
on the back, and whitifh abdomen. A very beauti¬
ful fpecies,_ about three feet long, harmlefs, and a na¬
tive of Surinam. ^
Coach-whip Snake.—Brown, with pale abdomen; very Flagellum.
long and flender, inoffenfive, and native of North Ame¬
rica. It runs with extreme fwiftnefs, in purfuit of flies,
&c. and is very eafily tamed.
Ornamented Snake.—Habit long, and very flender •, Ornatus.
colour jet black, with white flower-fhaped fpots, and
white abdomen. This very elegant fpecies inhabits
fome of the Weft India iflands, and, according to Seba,
is alfo found in Java and Ceylon. 9g
Domicella Snake.—118 abdominal plates, 60 fubcau- Fsomicella.
dal fcales. A very elegant and harmlefs fpecies, of a
flender habit, with many jet-black crofs bands, and a
blackifh line on the abdomen. It is alleged that the
Indian ladies fometimes carry it in their bofoms.
Boaform
Oolufccr.
JBoaJornis.
rco
Qomejlicus.
ioi
Fafciolatus.
102
Lineatus.
103
Elegans.
104
MyEleri-
'zans.
*05
Abcetulla.
O P H I O
Boaform Snahe.—252 abdominal plates, 62 fubcau-
dal fcales. Whitifh, with brown variegations 5 white
beneath, with very ftiort fcuta, the under part of the
tail variegated with black and white. Native of India,
and fo Itrong, that it can numb the hand by WTeathing
round the arm. Its bite, however, is not poifonous.
Domejlic Snake.—245 abdominal plates, 94 fubcaudal
fcales. Gray, fpotted with brown, and a double black
fpot between the eyes. Native of Barbary, where it is
domefticated for the purpofe of deftroying the fmaller
noxious animals.
Fafciolated Snake.—192 abdominal plates, 62 fubcau¬
dal fcales. Cinereous, with whitifh crofs bands, and
glaucous abdomen. Native of India, and not poifonous,
as vulgarly believed.
Lineated Snake.—169 abdominal plates, 84 fubcaudal
fcales. This beautiful and inoffenfive fpecies, though
fubjecl to confiderable variety of afpect, may be gene¬
rally diftinguifhed by its bluifh-green ground, and three
or five brown linear ftripes, of wfoich that in the middle
is broadeft. It inhabits feveral parts of India, and is
from tvTo to three feet long.
Elegant Snake.—202 abdominal plates, 146 fubcau¬
dal fcales. Yellowifh gray, with three broad reticulat¬
ed blackith bands, a broad fillet on the abdomen, and
the head freckled with brown. Length about two feet j
tail very long and narrow7. Native of South America.
Well figured by Seba.
Long-fnouted Snake.—192 abdominal plates, 167 fub¬
caudal fcales. Slender, wTith a (harp-pointed fnout; co¬
lour grafs green, with a yellow line on each fide of the
abdomen. About three feet and a half in length, and
half an inch in diameter. Native of North America,
where it is often feen on trees, running very quickly in
purfuit of infe&s.
Iridefcent Snake.—163 abdominal plates, 130 fubcau¬
dal fcales. Tinge blue green, and gilded, accompanied
with iridefcent hues, wfith pale abdomen, and black
Break acrofs the eyes. From three to four feet long.
Native of India, one of the moft beautiful of the ferpent
tribe, and perfeftly innocent.
To exhibit even fhort definitions, of the other fpecies
included in the genus Coluber, would extend this article
to a difproportionate length. Of moft of the omitted
lorts, however, we may obferve, that the hiftory is ei¬
ther not particularly interefting, or too little know n.
106
Hydrus.
Gen. 4. Hydros, Water-fnake.
107 Body (lender in front, gradually thickening, foaled j
Characters. tail compreffed.—This is a genus of recent inftitu-
tion, comprifing thofo fpecies of ferpents which natu¬
rally inhabit the water.
Colubrinus. Colubrine Hydrus.—Lead-coloured, with black fur¬
rounding bands. Ordinary length about tv7o feet and a
half. The fangs are very fmall in proportion to the
fize of the animal. It is the coluber laticaudatus (Lin.),
,C9 and inhabits the American and Indian feas.
Yajciatus. Eafciated Hydrus.—Long and llender } black, longi¬
tudinally marked by yellowifh white pointed bands 5 up¬
wards of two feet in length, poifonous, and native of the
r j o Indian feas.
Spiralis. Spiral Hydrus.—Yellowifh, wdth brown bands; bo¬
dy fpirally twdfted. A rare and elegant fpecies, thus
deforibed by Dr Shaw. -
LOGY.
“ Its length is about two feet, and its habit llender j
the body much compreffed throughout 5 the back rifing
into a very fharp carina ; the abdomen being alfo cari-
nated, but having a flattened edge of fcales fomewfoat
wider than the reft, and meafuring about the fifteenth
of an inch in diameter; the head is fmall, and covered
with large fcales ; the mouth wide ; the fcales on the
wrhole animal moderately fmall, ovate, and (lightly ca-
rinated 5 the ground colour is yellow, barred in a beau¬
tiful manner from head to tail with deep chefnut brown
or blackilh fafoise, each widening on the abdomen, and
thus forming a highly diftinct and handfome pattern
■when viewed on each fide, feeming to conftitute fo ma¬
ny large, round, yellow fpots on a blackifh ground :
the back, at about the middle, is marked along its up¬
per part with a row of rather large, round, blackifh
fpots, fituated between the fafoias, and fo placed as to
be in fome parts on one fide, and in others on the oppo-
fite fide of the dorfal carina, while fome few are feated
on the middle of the ridge itfelf: this variegation is
continued to the tail, which is about an inch and three
quarters long, black or deep brown, with a .few yellow
patches towards its beginning •, it is remarkably broad
for the fize of the animal, and very thin on the edges,
fo as to be femitranfparent on thofe parts. The mod
remarkable circumftance in this fnake is the Angular
obliquity of its form, the body in different parts being
alternately flatter on one fide than the other, and the
pattern completely expreffed on the flattened fide only j
the other, or more convex fide, being unmarked by the
round fpotsj and lying as it were beneath, thus confti-
tuting feveral alternately fpiral curves : this fnake feems
of an unufually (tiff and elallic nature, and the carina
on the back is fo fharp as to furpafs in this refpecl every
other fpecies of ferpent. The fpecimen is in the Brkilh
Mufeum •, but its particular hiftory feems to be un¬
known.” 11 j-
Black-backed Hydrus.—Head oblong, body black ^.Eicolor
bove, and yellowifh beneath ; tail fpotted. Anguis plat-
ma, Lin. Native of the Indian feas, and common
about the coafls of Otaheite, where it is ufed as an ar¬
ticle of food. Iia
Great Hydrus.—Livid, with brown bands, and hexa- JMajor.
gonal fcales abruptly carinated. Upwards of three feet
long. Native of the Indian feas. Its habits little
known.
The other Jiydri are, cafpius, gracilis, ccerulefcens,
curt us, airocceruleus, cine reus, pifcator, zwd palujlris.
”3
Langaya.
”4
Characters,
Gen. 5. Langaya.
Abdominal plates, caudal rings, and terminal fcales
There is only one fpecies known, viz. ^
Snouted Langaya.—184 abdominal plates, 42 caudal Afr/ka.
rings j but thefe numbers are fubjeft to vary. Length
between twro and three feet, and diameter about feven
lines, in the thickell part of the body. Colour of the
upper parts reddifh,* or violet, of the under parts pale
or whitifh. Teeth like thofe of the viper. Native of
Madagafcar, where it is much dreaded.
116 '
Gen. 6. ACROCHORDUS. - Acro-
. CHORDUS.
Body completely covered with warts. - 117
Character.
Javan Acrocliordus.—This reptile was difoovered in 118
a Jamnieus
i6o O P H I O
Acrochor- a pepper field, in the illand of Java, in 1784. It mea-
, [‘JS- fured eight feet in length, and 10 inches in diameter,
in the thickeft: part of the body. It was blackiih above,
wlilthh beneath, and marked by dufl>y fpots on the
fides. Five young ones, full formed, and each nine
inches long, were found in the belly. The Chinefe
eileem it as a food.
The dubius and fafciatus are fo nearly allied to the
preceding, that they may be regarded only as va¬
rieties.
Gen. 7. Anguis, Slow-worm.
xi9
Anguis.
120 Furnifhed with abdominal and fubcaudal fcales. Confor-
Characters. mation refembling that of fome of the lizard tribes,
the body being compofed of a feries of moveable rings,
which are eafily broken and eafaly reproduced. A
very harmlefs, and rather fluggilh genus.
121 .
Fmgilis. Common Slow-worm, Blind-worm, or Long Cripple.
—135 abdominal, and the fame number of fubcaudal
fcales. Black, yellowifh alb, or rufous gray \ belly
black, fides ftreaked with black and white, tail long
and obtufe, fcales fmall, foft, and compacl. The co¬
louring is fubjeft to confiderable variety. Length, from
10 to 12 inches, or more. Common in Europe and
Siberia, frequenting hollow ways, woods, paths, rubbilh,
&.c. Viviparous, fubjedt to hybernation, living on
worms and infedls, and perfedfly innoxious, It is ob-
ferved of this fpecies, as well as of fome others, that, if
Itruck with any degree of violence, the body not only
breaks abruptly on the ftruck part, but even fometimes,
at different places, and that the fragments will live a
long while afterwards. Though of very gentle difpofi-
tions,. the blind worm, like many of the family of fer-
pents, refufes to eat in captivity, unlefs it is tamed. M.
Daudin mentions that he kept one two months and a
half, during all which time it conftantly refufed nourifh-
ment of every kind.—It is preyed on by various birds,
hedgehogs, fnakes, frogs and toads.
According to Dr Shaw, the Blue-bellied Snake, or
Aberdeen Slow-worm (A. Eryx Lin.) is only a variety
of the Fragilis. It occurs in Scotland and North
jj2 America.
Scytale. Fainted Slow-worm.-—240 abdominal, and 13 fub¬
caudal fcales. Varies much in colour, but is generally
orange, with black blotches j lometimes black and white,
fometimes pale rofe and black, paler beneath, and ele¬
gantly fafciated -with bars of deep black. Native of
South America, particularly of Cayenne and Surinam.
In preferved fpecimens, the orange hue is very apt to
fade into white.
Coral Slozo-worm.—Ground colour pale red, with
coral red variegations. A very beautiful fpecies, native
of Brazil.
Glafs Slow-worm.—-x 21 abdominal, 22® fubcaudal
fcales. Blackifh green, fpeckled with yellow, with a
very fhort yellow abdomen, a deep furrow on each fide
of the body, from the corse’s of the mouth to the vent,
and a tail more than twice T ■ length of the abdomen.
Native of North America, and not uncommon in Caro¬
lina, where it is called the Glafs Snake. ‘ A fmall
blow of a flick1, fays Catefby, ‘ caiTes the body to fe-
parate, not only a' the '1 ace ft ruck, but at twp or hree
other ' laces, the raufcles being articulated quite through
the vertebrce.’
123
Corailinus,
124
Ventralis.
LOGY.
Snouted Slow-worm.—218 abdominal, and 12 fub- Acrochof-
caudal fcales. Greenifh black above, yellow beneath, dus. 
fnout elongated, tail terminating in a horny tip. Length V
about a foot. Native of Surinam. Najuta.
Jamaica Slow-worm, or Silver Snake.—Pale brown, i%6
with a filvery glofs on the fcales-, the body, which rarely Jar>iaicen-
exceeds fixteen inches in length, gradually thickening/^'
and the tail abruptly fubacuminate.
The other fpecies are, Meleagris, Ater, Maculata,
Leucomelas, Rufa, Reticulceta, and Clivioca.
Gen. 8. Amphisbjena. AmphL-
Body nearly cylindrical, with annular divifions round the
body and tail. Fhe {kin divided in a longitudinal Characters,
direction, by ftraight lines, forming with the wings fo
many fquare or parallelogrammic fcales. A haim-
lefs and oviparous genus, native of the warmer regions
of the new world, and not of Ceylon, as Seba has
erroneoully afferted.
I2<)
White Amphijb am a.— 223 abdominal, and 16 caudal,
fcaly rings. Pale white, verging on yellowifh, and
unfpotted. Two feet or more in length, and of a con¬
fiderable proportionate thicknefs. Is found in woods, in
Surinam, &c. where it preys chiefiy on infects and
w-orms. I30
Fuliginous Amphijbcena.— 200 abdominal, and 30 Fuliguiofa.
caudal, fcaly rings. Differs from the preceding chiefly
by its black and white variegations. Common in
Cayenne, Surinam, and Brazil 5 but Linnaeus, and other
naturalifts, milled by Seba, have falfely reprefented it
as a native of Libya, the illand of Lemnos, &c.
Gen. 0. C/ecilia. ^ 131
s CvECILIA.
Body cylindrical, wrinkles on the fides of the body I32
and tail. Chara&efs.
133
Eel-Jhaped Ccecilia.—Anguilliform, with dii\.x\MTentacu~
-wrinkles, and a very fmall cirrhus beneath each \\o\\n\.lata'
The Ikin of the whole body, when clofely infpetled, is
found to be covered with very minute granules. About
18 inches long, native of South America, and deftitute
of poifon fangs. x ^
White-fded Ccecilia.—340 wrinkles on the body, 10 Glutinofa.
on the tail. Brown, with very dole wrinkles, and a
whitifh lateral line. Native of South America. 1-55
Slender'■Ccecilia.—Brown, ftiaped like an earth-worm, Gracilis.
nearly 14 inches long, and one fifth of an inch in
diameter. The upper jaw is longer than the low-er, and
the teeth are fo fmall, as not to be diftindtly vifible.
We cannot clofe our deferiptive catalogue of the fer-
pent tribe, without remarking, that the fubjedt Hill
requires elucidation-, that the Linnaean characters are not
always to be ftriftly interpreted"; and that feveral fpecies
appear to have been overlooked, merely becaufe the
number of their fcales could not be afeertained.
Mifcellaneous Obfervations.
136
The formidable afnect of fome ferpents, and the poif-Worthip of
onous qualities of others, have probably infpired mankind, lerPe,:its-
in every age, wdth fentimen^s of terror and awe. In the
rude neriods of fociety, fear is akin to devotion, and
Bartram informs us, that the rattlefnake is worfhipp*d
b.v feveral of the favage tribes in North America. On
the
2
O P H I O
Mifceltane- tKe Gold and Slave coafls, a ftranger, on entering the
ous Obfer- cottages of the natives, is often furprifed to fee the roof
, Vitnon::- fwarming with ferpents, that cling there without molef-
ting, and unmolefted by, the natives. But his furprife
will increafe as he advances farther fouthward, to the
kingdom of Widah, when he finds that a ferpent is the
god of the country. This animal, which travellers de-
icribe as a huge overgrown creature, has its habitation,
its temple, and its prielfs. Thefe laft imprefs the vulgar
with an opinion of its virtues j and numbers are daily
feen to otfer, not only their goods, provifions, and
prayers, but even their wives and daughters, at the
(hrine of their hideous deity. The priefts readily accept
the proffered females, and after fome days of penance,
return them to their fuppliants, much benefited by the
ferpent’s fuppofed embraces.
Enchant- d'he ancients feem to have been aware, that certain
nv nt of fer- fpecies of ferpents were attracted by mufical founds, and
perns. have celebrated the Pfytti and Marji,
Ad quorum cantus mites jacutre cerajlce.
At this day, there are jugglers in India, who train fnakes
to move and gefticulate to the found of the flute j and
<ve have already mentioned, that they tame the Cobra de
Capello, and exhibit it to the populace. When the fnake-
man firfl: provokes the creature to attack him, he covers
his hand with an earthen jar, which he ufes as a ftrield,
and thus hurts the animal’s mouth, and knocks it back¬
wards, whenever it attempts to bite. He continues this
exercife for an hour, or longer, taking care, howeverj
not to fatigue the fnake too much, nor to hurt it fo as
to deter it from returning to the attack. Thus, the
animal is gradually taught to raife iifelf, on prefenting a
jar, a flick, or even the bare hand, the motions of which
-it follows with its head, without daring to bite, left: it
fhould again wound its mouth. The juggler accompanies
thisexercile with fingmg, fo that what is really a defenfive
war on the part of thfe lerpent, has the appearance of a
dance. To render this exhibition lefs dangerous, the
fangs are fometimes removed 3 but more frequently the
inake is deprived of its poifon, by being daily irritated to
bite on a piece of cloth, or any foft fpongy fubftance ;
nay, they have the addrefs and courage to prefs its head,
and thus provoke it, while biting, to make it feize the
cloth with greater violence, and more effectually exprefs
its poifon.
ihe Egyptian enchanters, however, appear to have
recourfe to more ingenious and myfterious artifices.
“ J hey take the moft poifonous vipers,” fays Haffelquift,
“ with their bare hands, play with them, put them in
their bofoms, and ufe a great many more tricks with
them, as I have often feen. I have frequently feen them
handle thofe that were three or four feet long, and of
the moft horrid fort. I inquired and examined if they
had cut out the viper’s poifonous teeth j but I have with
my own eyes feen they do not. We may, therefore,
conclude, that there are to this day Pfylli in Egypt;
but. what art they ufe is not eafily known. Some people
are very fuperftitious, and the generality believe this to
be done by fome fupernatural art which they obtain
' from invifible beings. I do not know whether their
power is to be afcribed to good or evil ; but I am
perfuaded that thofe who undertake it ufe many fuper-
ftitions.
Vol. XV. Part L
LOGY. 161
“ The circumftances relating to the fafcination of fer- Mifcellnie -
pents in Egypt, related to me,” he continues, “ were ous Obfer-
principally, 1. That the art is only known to certain . vatl°i s- ,
families, wdio propagate it to their offspring. 2. The
perfon who knows how to fafcinate ferpents, never
meddles with other poifonous animals, fuch as fcorpions,
lizards, &c. There arc different perfons wrho know
how to fafcinate thefe animals; and they again never
meddle with ferpents. 3. Thofe that fafcinate ferpents,
eat them both raw and boiled, and even make broth of
them, which they eat very commonly amongft them ;
but in particular, they eat fuch a dilh when they go out
to catch them. I have been told, that ferpents fried or
boiled are frequently eaten by the Arabians both in
Egypt and Arabia, though they know not how to faf¬
cinate them, but catch them either alive or dead.
4. After they have eaten their foup, they procure a lief-'
fing from their fcheik (prieft or lawyer), vTho ufes fome
fuperftitious ceremonies, and amongft others, fpits on
them feveral times wdth certain geftures. This manner
of getting a blefling from the prieft is pure fuperftition,
and certainly cannot in the leaft help to fafcinate fer¬
pents j but they believe, or at leaft perfuade others, that
the power of fafcinating lerpents depends upon this cir-
cumrtance.”
On this fubjeft, the celebrated Mr Bruce in his
travels to difcover the fource of the Nile, is alfo minute
and explicit. Among other paffages, we fttall be con¬
tent to quote the following.
“ I will not hefitate to aver, that I have feen at
Cairo (and this may be feen daily wdthout trouble or
expence) a man who came from above the catacombs,
where the pits of the mummy birds are kept, who has
taken a ceraftes with his naked hand from a number of
others lying at the bottom of the tub, has put it upon
his bare head, covered it with the common red cap he
wears, then taken it out, put it in his breaft, and tied
it about his neck like a necklace; after which it has
been applied to a hen, and bit it, winch has died in a
few minutes 5 and to complete the experiment, the man
has taken it by the neck and beginning at his tail, has
eaten it as one would do a carrot or a ftock of celery,
wiihout any feeming repugnance.”
“ I can myfelf vouch, that all the black people in the
kingdom of Sennaar, whether Funge or Nuba, are per-
fe<ftly armed againft the bite of either fcorpion or viper.
They take the ceraftes in their hands at all times, put
them in their bofoms, and throw them to one another
as children do apples or balls, without having irritated
them, by this ufage, fo much as to bite. The Arabs
have not this fecret naturally •, but from their infancy
they acquire an exemption from the mortal confequences
attending the bite of thefe animals, by chewing a certain
voot, and wafhing themfelves (it is not anointing) with
an infufion of certain plants in water.”
The teftimony of Savary is not. lefs precife. At the
feaft of Sidi Ibrahim, he faw a troop of people, feem-
ingly poffeffed, with naked arms and fierce looks, holding
in their hands enormous ferpents, which twined round
their body, and endeavoured to efcape. But thefe
enchanters avoided the bite, by grafping the animals
ftrongly by the neck, then tore them with their teeth,
and ate them alive, while the blood ftreamed from their
mouth.
The
X
j 62 O P H I O
Mil'cellane- The circumftance of felzlng them fail by the neck,
ousObfer- accorcis with the concluding part of the enfuing relation
• ot JJenon.
“ Having been always curious to obferve the means
by which feme men command the opinions of others, I
regretted that I was not at Rofetta, at the proceflion of
the feaft of Ibrahim, in which the convullions of the
PfylK form the moft entertaining part, to the populace,
of this religious ceremony. To make up for my lofs, I
addreffed myfelf to the chief of the fe£t, who was keeper
of the Okoi or tavern of the Franks j I flattered him •,
and he promifed to make me a fpeclator of the exaltation
of one of the Pfylli, as foon as he fliould have infpired
him. From my curiofity he thought I was likely to
become a profelyte, and he propofed to initiate me,
which I accepted •, but when 1 learned that in the cere¬
mony of initiation, the grand mailer fpits in the mouth
of the neophyte, this cireumftance cooled my ardour,
and I found that I could not prevail on myfeif to fubmit
to fuch a point of probation. I therefore gave my
money to the chief, and the high prieft promifed to let
me fee one of the infpired.
“ They had brought with them fome ferpents, which
they let loofe from a large leather fack in which they
were kept, and by irritation made them ere ft their
bodies, and hifs. I remarked that the light was the
principal caufe of their anger •, for as foon as they were
returned into the fack, their paflion ceafed, and they no
longer endeavoured to bite. They had a particular
quality, which was that when angry, the neck for fix
inches below the head was dilated to the fize of one’s
hand. I foon fawT, that I had no greater reafon to
dread the bite of thefe ferpents than their matters had ;
for having well remarked that the Pfylli, while they
were threatening the animal with one hand, feized it
on the back of the head with the other, I did the fame
with one of the ferpents with equal fuccefs, though much
to the indignation of thefe myfterious quacks.”
We have likewife heard of people in Europe who
allowed themfelves to be bitten by vipers, with im¬
punity, to the great aftonifhment of the fpeflators.
They firft made the animal eat of a prepared pafte,
which clofed the apertures in the fangs, and thus pre-
eluded the difeharge of the poifon.
Serpentine Various and contraditdory opinions, conjecdures, and
goifon. flfHons, have been advanced relative to the nature,
aflion, and cure of ferpentine poifon. Among the vul¬
gar errors connefded with this fubiecl, we may reckon
the fling, fixed in the ferpent’s tail, and the flowing of
venom from the blach forked tongue, and from the teeth
in general.
Towards the end of the 17th century, Ferdinand II.
Grand Duke of Tufcany, invited Steno, Redi, and fome
other eminent men of feienpe, to his court, with a view
to invefligate the hiftory of this important phenomenon
in the animal economy. Redi, in particular, inflituted
a great variety of experiments, and arrived at fome ufe-
ful difeoveries. When he either caufed a living viper
to bite a dog, or wounded the latter with the teeth of
one newly dead, the event was the fame. If the bite
was repeated, its effedf became weaker, and, at length
was loft, the poifon contained in the veftcle being ex-
haufted. Fie obferved, that when the teeth of ferpents
were extended to bite, they were moiftened over with a
LOG V.
certain liquor, and that when the veficle at the bale Mif-elJanev
was pretted, a drop of poifon flowed to the point of the ous
fang. When the poifon thus flowing from the veflcle ' t^unf'
was received in foft bread, or a fponge, an animal bitten '' ' v ~
by the ferpent received no more harm from the wound
than from the pinch of a needle, till after a few days,
when the venom was fecreted afrefli ; but when an ani¬
mal was wounded with the point of a needle dipped in
the poifon, it was tormented with the fame pains as if
it had been bitten by the viper itfelf. Having preferved
fome of this poifon in a glafs, and totally evaporated the
moifture in the fun, when the refiduum was diluted
with water, Redi found, to his great lurprife, that it had
the fame effect as when recent. Eut the boldnefs of
Jacob Sozzi, a viper charmer, excited the aftonifhment
of the learned. As they happened in the prince’s pre¬
fence to talk of the certain death which would attend
the fwallowing of viperine poifen, Sozzi, confiding in
his art, drank a confiderabie portion of it without hefi-
tation, and with the fame fafety as if he had drunk fo
much water. This refult, which fo much ftartled the grand
duke and his philofophic afibciates, was not unknown to
the ancients, as may be inferred from thefe lines in Lucan:
Noxia ferpentum efl admiflo Jenguine peflis :
Morfu virus habent et fatum dente minantur,
Pocuia morte carent.
"I he ingenious and indefatigable Fontana made no
fewer than 6oco experiments on this interefting fubjcCt.
Of thefe, our limits will not permit us to enumerate the
remits. In confequence, however, of his multiplied and
perfevering researches, we are enabled to date, that this
poifon is not fatal to all animals 5 that it kills neither vi¬
pers, fnakes, blind-worms, fnails, nor leeches; that it acts
very flightly on tortoifes; that it is neither an acid nor an
alkali; that it has no determined favour, and that it leaves
in the mouth merely a fenfation of aftringency and ftu-
por. It long retains its virulence in the cavity of the
tooth, whether the latter be feparated cr not from its
focket ; but when dried and kept in an expofed fitua-
tion, it lofes its deleterious qualities in lefs than a year.
Hence the propriety of caution in examining vipers that
are fluffed or preferved in fpirits, and in making ufe of
clothes that have been bitten by them. Fontana has alfo
proved that the poifon of the viper is not uniformly fa¬
tal except to very fmall animals, and that it is more dan¬
gerous to the larger forts, according to the quantity of
virus fecreted, the frequency of the bites, the different
parts of the body on which they have been inflicted, and
probably alfo, the higher temperature of the atmofphere.
A fparrow dies in five or eight minutes, a pigeon in
eight or twelve, a cat fome times recovers, and a flieep
very often ; fo that a man has little reafon to dread the
confequences of a fingle bite in the cliiaate of Italy,
and ftill lefs fo in France or Great Britain. The hun¬
dredth part of a grain of poifon applied to a mufcle will
kill a fparrow, whereas fix times that quantity are re¬
quired to kill a pigeon. According to this eftimate,
about three grains (hould prove fatal to a man, and 1 2
to an ox. But the veficles of an ordinarily fized viper
feldom contain more than two grains of poifon, and
even that quantity is not exhaufted till after repeated
bites. The poifon is of a gummy confiftency, and feems
to a£l by deftreying the irritability of the mufcular
fibre.
O P H I 0
Mifcellnne- fibre, and introducing into the fluids a principle of pu-
ous Obt'er- trefatHon. It may be h\ allowed with impunity, pro-
vanons. yijgrl there be no wound in the mouth •, but if intro-
duced into the blood, the moft violent and convulfive
agonies enfue, the fangu'iterous fyftem becoming coagu¬
lated, and the whole animal frame relaxed. Hence,
powerful ludorincs, as the flefli of the viper itfelf, of
fnakes and lizards, which contain a large proportion of
ammoniacal foap, the volatile alkali, and its various
preparations, with numerous plants which excite copious
perfpiration, have been recommended, and often fuc-
ceisfully ufed as antidotes, efpecially when their ex¬
hibition has been preceded by a tight ligature imme¬
diately above the wound, and by fcarificatien and cau-
Itics.
On the effefts and cure of the poifon of fnakes, feme
valuable obfervations and reflections occur in Dr RufFeli’s
fplendid work on Indian xerpents. The judicious au¬
thor remarks, that when the poifon is applied to brute
animals, its progrefs is often fo very rapid as hardly to
leave time for the operation of medicine, or the applica¬
tion of any means whatever, with a probability of fuc-
cefs. When the progrefs is flower, Ihculd the remedy
be admmiftered before unequivocal fymptoms have re¬
moved all doubt of the poifon having taken effeCt, re¬
covery may be aferibed to the medicine given, whilfl:,
in reality, no malady exilted ; and if deferred till doubts
are removed, the remedy which, if applied in time
might have proved efficacious, may be unjuftly regarded
as ufelefs. Eefides, it is well known that a bite of the
moll noxious fnake does not conftantly prove fatal, and
that even fome of the more tender animals, without the
ufe of any remedy, recover in cafes where the fymptoms
are apparently very formidable. Thefe fymptoms, in
the bodies of different animals are very much alike, and
proceed nearly in the fame order of progreffion, though
with different degrees of rapidity.
The American Indians either fuck the wound, or ap¬
ply to it chewed tobacco, or make feveral inciftons
around it, which they fill with gunpowder, and then
fire it off. During the progrefs of the cure they have
likewife recourfe to feveral pounded and bruifed plants,
as to fome of the fpecies of laciuca, the root of prenan-
thes alba, the Items and leaves of a fpecies of helianthus,
and in defperate cafes the radical bark of the tulip-tree.
In general they are partial to the ufe of the fyngenefious
plants, and to the bark of the trunk and roots of va¬
rious trees.
The experiments of Bernard de Juflieu, Lebeau, Son-
nini, and Bofc, feem to have eftablilhed that, of all
known remedies for the bite of the viper and the rattle-
fnake, the moff efficacious are, the volatile alkali, or
eau de luce, with faction and fcarification of the recent
wound.
In addition to thefe methods of cure, we ffiall quote
the prefeription of Dr Mofeley, who fpent 12 years in
the Welt Indies.
“ The bites and flings of all venomous animals arex
cured by the fame local means, which are very Ample
if they were always at hand. The injured part muft be
inftantly deftroyed or cut out. Deftroying it is the
moft fafe, and equally certain ; and the belt application
for that purpofe is the lapis infer nails, >r butter of an¬
timony. Thefe are preferable to a hot iron which the
ancients ufed, becaufe a hot iron forms a cruft, which
LOGY. 163
afts as a defence to the under parts inftead of deftroying Mifcel'ane-
them. The lapis infernalis is much better than any ous 9bfer'
other, as it melts and penetrates during its application. ,
The bitten' part muft be deftroyed to the bottom, and
where there is any doubt that the bottom of the wound
is not fafficiently expofed, butter of antimony ihould be
introduced to it on the following day, as deep as pof-
fible ; and incifions fhould be made to lay every part
open to the adlion of thele applications. Befides de¬
ftroying, burning, or cutting out the part, incifions
Ihould be made round the wound, to prevent the com¬
munication of the virus. The wound is to be dreffed
for fome lime with poultices, to affuage the inflamma¬
tion caufed by the cauftics ; and afterwards with acrid
dreflings and hot uigeftives to drain the injured parts.
“ Where the above-mentioned canities cannot be
procured, corrofive fublimate, oil of vitriol, aquafortis,
fpirit of fait, common cauftic, or a plalter made of
quicklime and foap, may be applied to the wound.
Gunpowder laid on the part and fired, has been ufed
with luccefs. When a perfon is bitten remote from
any afliftance, he Ihculd make a tight ligature above
the part until proper application can be made. The ,
Spanilh writers fay, that the liabilla de Cartlagena, or
Carthagena bean, is a fpecific for poifonous bites taken
inwardly.
Dr IVIofeley then proceeds to Hate the ample tefti-
mony of Ulloa in favour of this bean, which is found in
great abundance in the Weft India iflands, under the
name of antidote or cocoon antidote. “ I have been in¬
formed (adds he) by fome intelligent Indians, that any
of the red peppers, fuch as bird pepper or bell pepper,
or what is called Cayenne pepper, powdered, and taken
in a glafs of rum, as much as the ftomach can poffibly
bear, fo as to caufe and keep up for fome time great
heat and inflammation in the body, and a vigorous cir¬
culation, will flop the progrefs of the poifon of ferpents,
even after its effects are vilible ; and that the bitten
part only afterwards mortifies and feparates, and that
the patient, with bark, wane, and cordials, foon reco-
vers.” . • I39
The naturalift who collects ferpents for the purpofe Preferva-
of preferving them in his cabinet, Ihould have recourfetion of ler'
to various precautions, which, though feveral of them ^ent''
are fufficiently obvious, are, at the fame time, too often
negledfed. In general the hurtful forts are caught with
the greateft fafety and dexterity by natives of the coun¬
try in which they abound. The want of the head in
many of the larger fluffed fpecimens from Guiana, &c.
renders them of little value in a fcientific point of view,
and is the refult of fuperfluous trouble to travellers who
fend them to Europe in this mutilated condition. Col¬
lectors, therefore, fhould carefully inftrubf their agents
to preferve this part of the animal. As thefe larger
fpecimens cannot eafily be prepared without an incifion
in the fkin, it will be of confequence to make this inci¬
fion on the fide, beginning at the termination of the
plates, and not cutting acrofs them, as is too often done,
to the great prejudice of diftincl claflification. When
the Ikin is once ftripped, it may be carefully rolled up,
up, and fluffed in the preparation room in the ufual
manner.
The fmaller fpecies of ferpents may be kept in pre¬
pared fpirits. Pure alcohol and fpirituous liquors, efpe¬
cially when not reduced by water, frequently affect the
X 2 molt
i6+- O P H I O
Mifceilane- moft brilliant animal colours. Thus, in the ordinary
°vadw)^r” ca^net liquors, the fine red of the hsemachate fnake
» 1--' degenerates into a dark brown, fcales of a bright green
or blue become fomewhat pale, yellow always whitens,
and orange changes to red or pale. White, brown,
black, purple, mother of pearl, and metal-coloured
fcales are not liable to change. The following is an
approved recipe for preferving the various colours of
feypents entire.
Take very pure fpring wTater, faturate it with alum,
then mix with it about one-fifth of its bulk of very lim¬
pid fpirit of wine, pais the mixture through a paper
itrainer, and Jteep the liquor well corked up in bottles,
in fome cool and ihady fituation. Immerfe the animal
which you wiih to preferve in a veilel filled with this
liquor, and allow it to remain in it 24 hours. The vef-
fel and its included liquor ihould be referved for this
preliminary procefs. Then remove the reptile into a
cylindrical vefiel of fine glafs, filled to three-fourths of
ks height with the liquor above defcribed, and clofed
LOGY.
with a glafs cover. Lute the latter with mafiic and Mifcellanc,-
hogs greafe 5 put the veffel on a fhelf that is flieltered ous °bi'c:r-
frorn heat and the folar rays ; and at the end of two vatl'jns- ,
months, if the maltic be dry, and you wilb the jar to. v~”
remain clofed, paint the luting with an oil colour ; but
if you intend to open it frequently, ufe only the hogs
greafe.
Reptiles may alfo be conveniently preferved accord¬
ing to the method indicated by Chauffier, in the Bulle¬
tin des Sciences, (for Prairial, year 10, N° 63.), without
the previous trouble of preparing the Ikin. All that is
required, is to fluff the cavities with cotton, and to im¬
merfe the body in diftilled w^ater, faturated with fuper-
oxygenated muriate of mercury } and when it has, fuf-
ficiently imbibed the faline folution in all its parts, to
allow it to dry Howdy in a well aired fituation, fereened
from the fun and dull. All the parts of the animal
harden, and are thus defended from the voracitv of in¬
fers, and corruption of every land.
EXPLANATION of PLATES CCCLXXI, CCCLXXII, CCCLXXIII, and CCCLXXIV.
Fig. 1. Carinated Scale.
— 2. Plain Scale.
— 3. Tail of Coluber Snake.
— 4. Tail of Boa.
— 5. Fang or Tooth through which the poifon is
conveyed.
Fig. 6. The head of poifonous fnake furnifhed with
fangs, a a a a.
Fig. 7. The head of innoxious fnake without fangs.
— 8. llrotalus Horridus, Banded Rattle-Snake..
9. Bott ConftriBor..
Fig. 10. Coluber Berus, Common Viper.
— X i.   Cerq/lei.
— 12.   Laticaudatus, Colubrine Hydrus.
— 13. Langaya Nafuta, Snouted Langaya.
— 14. Acrochordus Javaniens, Javan Acrochor-
dus.
fig. 15. Angins Corallmus, Coral Slow-worm,
— 16. Amphijbcena Alba, White AmphifljEena.
— 17- Fuliginofa, Fuliginous Amphif-
baena. ,
Fig. 18. Cceeilia Tenlacnlata, Eel-fhaped Ctecilia,
INDEX.
jtcSOCHORDVS, charaefers and
fpecies of, N° 116
Anatomy of ferpents, 12—41
Anguis, charafters and fpecies of, 119—126
charafters, &c. 127—1,30
Asp, 7 9
B.
Banded rattle-fnake, hiftory of, 55
Boa, characters, fpecies, and hiftory
of,. 60—71
Black Snake, 93
Black-tailed TdXlleAxvake, 59
Blue and green fnake, 95
c.
Canine boa, 65
Cerajles>, 81
Crotalus, characters and fpecies of, 53—59
natural hiftory of, ib.
Cobra de Capello, 84
Coluber, characters, fpecies, and hiftory
of 72—101
CmJriFtor boa, 61
Coach-whip fnake, N° 96
Ccvcilia, characters, &c. 132—135
D.
Dome/1 ic fnake, 100
E.
Embroidered boa, 66
F.
Fafdated boa, 68
G.
Garden boa, 67
H.
Horn-no/e fnake, 82
Hydrus, characters and fpecies of, 106—112
I.
Iridefcent fnake 105
L.
Langaya, characters and fpecies, 114, 115.
Lmeated fnake, 102
M.
Miliary rattle-fnake, 58
°.
Ophiology, introduction to, I
hiftory of, 2—ir
Ophiology, writers on, N° 2—11
P.
Phyjiology of ferpents, 42—52
Poifon of ferpents, 138'
experiments on by Redi, ib,
by Fontana, ib.
cure of, ib.
R.
Rattle fnake, characters, fpecies, and hi¬
ftory of, 53—59
Ringed boa, 64
fnake, .92
Ruffe Ilian fnake, 85
S.
Serpents, anatomy of, 12—41*
phyfiology of, 42—52
worlhip of, 136
enchantment of, 137
poifon of, 138
prefervation of, 139
Striped rattle-fnake, 56
SpeElacle
OPHIOLO GY
Plate C C ChXXl
Plate CCCLXXn
f 0^0 °V00i
P'to 0 0 « 0® o o J
I-OnS 0 0 a® 0 °H
|o® o o o n 0 0/1
fo 0 0 6 00oOfffl
|c> o © oo o o;4i|
fiOOO 0 O0QiH|
© 0 o © 0 0 o o'M
fP00®0 0 0 0fflf
4o®OOO0^OJl
ftep ® ° •c4i
■mp ® 0 °o00l
immooo ®
?0%0oOO®°oI
0(\0 a 0 o 0 ™
0 i ® ®. ® 0 o 0 0 !
Plate C C CLXXIII
OPHIOLO & x .
r
O P HT OI. O G-Y. Plate C C C L XX1V.
I
o
Speciacle fnake, N° 84
Spotted boa, < 63
Slow-worm, characters and fpecies of,
119—126
common, 121
painted, 122
coral, 123
glafs, 124
P H I O
Slow-worm, fnouted,
Jamaica,
V.
Viper, common,
American black,
Egyptian,
Charafian,
Redi’s,
LOGY
N° 125
126
74
75
76
77
78
Viper, Greek,
horned,
water,
165
N° 80
81
88
W.
Water-fnake, characters and fpecies of,
116—112
Wood rattle-ihake, 57
Ophioman
cy
li
Ophir.
O P H
OPHIOMANCY, in antiquity, the art of making
predictions from ferpents. Thus Calchas, on feeing
a ferpent devour eight fparrows with their dam, fore¬
told the duration of the fiege of Troy : and the feven
coils of a ferpent that was feen on Anchifes’s tomb,
were interpreted to mean the feven years that Atneas
wandered from place to place before he arrived at
Latium.
OPHIORHIZA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stellatce. See Botany Index.
OPHIOXYLON, a genus of plants belonging to
the polygamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thole of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
Different OPHIR, a country mentioned in Scripture, from
hypothefes which Solomon had great quantities of gold brought
refpeeting home in drips which he fent out for that purpofe •, but
the litua- where to fix its fituation is the great difficulty, authors
ti°n ot running into various opinions on that head. Some
°phir' have gone to the Weft, others to the Eaft Indies, and
2, r the eaftern coaft of Africa, in fearch of it.—Mr Bruce,
ofMrBruce1*16 celebrated Abyffinian traveller, has difplayed much
learning and ingenuity in fettling this queftion of Bi¬
blical hiftory. To the fatisfaClion of moft of his
readers h« has determined Ophir to be Sofala, a king¬
dom of Africa, on the coaft of Mofambique, near Zan-
guebar (fee Sofala). His reafons for this determi¬
nation are fo generally known, that it would be im¬
proper to repeat them here at length; becaufe fuch
as are not already acquainted with them may con-
fult his book, which has been long in the hands of the
public. He juftly obferves, that in order to come to
a certainty where this Ophir wras, it will be neceffary
to examine what Scripture fays of it, and to keep
precifely to every thing like defcription wffiich we
can find there, without indulging our fancy farther.
\Jl, Then, the trade to Ophir w?as carried on from the
Elanitic gulf through the Indian ocean. idly, The
returns were gold, filver, and ivory, but efpecially
filver f. ^dly, The time of the going and coming of
the fieet was precifely three years J, at no period more
or lefs.
Nowr, if Solomon’s fleet failed from the Elanitic
gulf to the Indian ocean, this voyage of neceffity
rnuft’ have been made by monfoons, for no other winds
reign in that ocean. And what certainly ftiow^s this
was the cafe, is the precife term of three years in
which the fleet went and came between Ophir and
Ezion-gaber.
Thefe.mines of Ophir were probably what furniftied
f 1 Kings
x %%.
t11 King®.
X. 2 2.
2 C’hron.
ix. 21.
O P H
the Eaft with gold in the earlieft times: great traces of Ophir. ^
excavation muft therefore have appeared. "v
But John dos Santos fays, that he landed at Sofala
in the year 1586 p that he failed up the great river
Cuama as far as Tete, wherfi, always defirous to be in
the neighbourhood of gold, his order had placed their
convent. Thence he penetrated for about two hundred
leagues into the country, and law the gold mines then ^
working at a mountain called Afura. At a conli-Arguments'
derable diftance from thefe are the filver mines of Chi- in fupport
coua5 at both places there is a great appearance of01 a
ancient excavations 5 and at both places the houfes
of the kings are built with mud and ftraw, whilft
there are large remains of mafly buildings of ftone
and lime. - _ #
Every thing then confpires to fix the Ophir of Solo¬
mon in the kingdom of Sofala, provided it would necef-
farily require neither more nor lefs than three years to
make a voyage from Ezion-gaber to that place and Tar-
Ihiffi and return. To eftablifh this important fadft, our
author obferves, that the fleet or ftiip for Sofala, part¬
ing in June from Ezion-gaber (fee Ezion-gaber),
would run down before the northern monfcon to Mo¬
cha (fee Mocha). Here, not the monfoon, but the
direction of the gulf, changes j and the violence of
the fouth-w’efters, which then reign in the Indian ocean,
make themfelves at times felt even in Mocha roads.
The veffel therefore comes to an anchor in the harbour
®f Mocha; and here ffie waits for moderate weather
and a fair wind, wffiich carries her out of the ftraits of
Babelmandel, through the few leagues where the w4nd
is variable.
Her courfe from this is nearly fouth-weft, and flic
meets at Cape Guardafui,, a ftrong fouth-wefter that
blowTs directly in her teeth. Being obliged to return
into the gulf, flie miftakes this for a trade-wind } be-
caufe Are is not able to make her- voyage to Mocha
but by the fummer monlbon, wffiich carries her no far¬
ther than the ftraits of Babelmandel, and then leaves her
in the face of a contrary wind, a ftrong current to the
northward, and violent fwell.
The attempting this voyage with fails, in thefe cir-
cumftances, wras abfolutely impoflible, as their veil'ds
went only before the wind : if it wns performed at all,
it muft have been by oars 5 and great havock and lots
of men muft have been the confequence of the feveral
trials.
At laft, philofophy and obfervation, together with
the unwearied perfeverance of man bent upon his own
views and intereft, removed thefe difficulties, and ffiowed
the mariners of the Arabian gulf, that thefe periodical
winds, -
/
O P H [ 166 ] O P H
Opbir. winds, which in the beginning they looked upon as in-
' vincible barriers to the trading to Sofala, when once
underffcood, were the very means ot performing this
voyage fafely and expeditioufly.
The veffel trading to Sofala failed from the bottom
of the Arabian gulf in fummer, with the monfoon at
north, which carried her to Mocha. There the mon¬
foon failed her by the change of the direction of the
gulf. The fouth-weft winds, which blow without Cape
Guardafui in the Indian ocean,'torced themfelves round
the cape fo as to be felt in the road of Mocha, and
make it uneafy riding there. But thofe foon changed,
the weather became moderate, and the veffel, we fup-
pofe in the month of Auguft, was fafe at anchor un¬
der Cape Guardafui, where was the port which, many
years afterwards, was called Promontor’iim Aroma-
tum. Here the fliip wras obliged to flay all Novem¬
ber, becaufe all thefe fummer months the wand fouth
of the cape was a ftrong fouth-weftet, as hath been
before faid, directly in the teeth of the voyage to So¬
fala. But this time was not loft \ part of the goods
bought to be ready for the return was ivory, frankin-
cenfe, and myrrh' j and the ftiip was then at the princi¬
pal mart for thefe.
Our authorf uppofes, that in November the veffel
failed with ^e wind at north-eaft, with which flie
would foor have made her voyage : but off the coaft
of Meliir a, in the beginning of December, (he there
met an anomalous monfoon at fouth-weft, in our days
fir ft obferved by Dr Halley, which cut oft' her voyage
to Sofala, and obliged her to put into the fmall bar-
hour of Mocha, near Melinda, but nearer ftill to
Tarfhifti, which we find here by accident, and which
we think a ftrong corroboration that We are right as
to the reft of the voyage. In the annals of Abyffinia,
it is fa id that Atnda Sion, making war upon that
coaft in the 14th century, in a lift of the rebellious
Mooriftv vaffals, mentions the chief of Tarlhiflt as one of
them, in the very fituation where we have now placed
him.
Solomon’s veffel, then, was obliged to ftay at Tar-
fhilh till the month of April of the fecond year. In
May, the wind fet in at north-eaft, and probably carried
her that fame month to Sofala. All the time ftie
fpent at Tarfhifh was not loft, for part of her cargo
was to be brought from that place 5 and flue probably
bought, befpoke, or left it there. From May of the
fecond year, to the end of that monfoon in October, the
the veffel could not ftir } the wind was north-eaft. But
that time, far from being loft, w’as neceffary to the tra¬
ders for getting in their cargo, which we lhall fuppofe
was ready for them.
The (hip fails on her return, in the month of Novem¬
ber of the fecond year, with the monfoon fouth-’weft,
which in a very few weeks would have carried her into
the Arabian gulf. But off Mocha, near Melinda and
Tarfhifti, fhe met the north-eaft monfoon, and was obli¬
ged to go into that port and ftay there till the end of
that monfoon •, after which a fouth-wefter came to her
relief in May of the third year. With the May mon¬
foon (he ran to Mocha within the ftraits, and was there
confined by tbe fummer monfoon blowing up the Ara¬
bian gulf from Suez, and meeting her. Here fhe lay
till that monfoon which in fummer blows northerly
from Suez, changed to a fouth-eaft <?ne in October pr
3
November, and that very eafily brought her up into Gp*111-- i
the Elanitic gulf, the middle or end of December of
the third year. She had no need of more time to com¬
plete her voyagej and it was not poftible fhe could do
it in lefs.
Such is a very fhort and imperfetft abftraff of our
author’s reafons for placing Ophir in Sofala. If it
excite the curiofity of our readers to confult his work,
it will anfwer the purpofe for which we have made
it. , 4
We are now to give another ingenious conjedure Anomer
concerning the fituation of Ophir and Tarfhifh, with hyPothefis’
which we have been favoured by Dr Doig, the learn¬
ed author of Letters on the Savage State, addreffed to
Lord Kames.
This refpedable writer holds that Ophir was fome-
where on the weft coaft of Africa, and that Tarfhifh
was the ancient Bsetica in Spain. His effay is not
yet publifhed : but he authorifes us to give the follow¬
ing abftrad of it : “ The firft time that Ophir, or ra¬
ther Aujir, Occurs in Scripture, is in Gen, x. 29. where
the facred hiftorian, enumerating the fons of Joktan,
mentions Aufir as one of them.” According to his
account, the defeendants of thofe 13 brothers fettled
all in a contiguous fituation, from Media (the Mocha
of the moderns) to Sepharah, a mountain of the eaft.
Moies, as every one knows, denominates countries, and
the inhabitants of countries, from the patriarch from
whom thofe inhabitants defeended. In deferibing the
courfe of one of the branches of the river of paradife,
the fame Mofes informs us that it encompaffed the
whole land of Havilah, &c. which abounded with fine
gold, bdellium, and the onyx ftone j and this land had
its name from Havi’.h the 12th fon of the patriarch
Jotkan. Ophir ox Atifir wTas Havilah’s immediate elder
brother ; and of courfe the defeendants of the former,
in all probability, fixed their habitation in the neigh¬
bourhood of thofe of the latter. If, then, the land
of Havilah abounded with gold and precious ftones,
the land of Ophir undoubtedly produced the very fame
articles. g
Here then we have the original Ophir *, here wras The erigi-
found the primary gold of Ophir j and here lay thenjd Ophir
Ophir mentioned in Job xi. 24. But as navigation
was then in its infant ftate, the native land of gold Solomon;
mentioned by Job muft have been much nearer home of which
than that to which the fleets of Solomon and Hiram
made their triennial voyages. That feveral countries
on the fouth-eaft coaft of Africa abounded with gold
long after the era of Job, is evident from the teftimony
of Herodotus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Ptolemy, Pom-
ponius Mela, &c.; but that in thefe countries the Ophir
of Solomon could not be fituated, is plain, becaufe his
fhips in the fame voyage touched at Tarfhifh, which lay
in a very different quarter.
The Abyflinian traveller has placed this regio auri-
fera in Sofala on the eaftern coaft of Africa, nearly
oppoftte to the ifland of Madagafcar. This hypothefis
was current a hundred years before he was bom but
I am perfuaded (fays our author) that it is not tenable.
The Ophir of Solomon, in whatever part of Africa it
lay, muft have been w-ell known, prior to his reign, both
to the Phoenicians and the Edomites. Thefe people na¬
vigated that monarch's fleet, and therefore could be no
ftrangers to the port whither they were bound, That
©PH
Ophir.
6
the fitua-
tion mult
he afcer-
tained by
difcovenng
that ot
Tarlhilh.
[ 167 ]
O P H
J Pf. xlviii-
7. Ixxii. 10
$ Gen. ii.
a6.
[] If. xxiii.
JjaJfim.
The origi¬
nal Tar-
fliifli where
fituated.
it tvas an Africa is certain} and that it was on the
weft coaft of that immenfe peninfuia, will appear more
than probable, when we have afcertained the fituatioh
of Tanhifh, and the ufual courfe of Phoenician naviga-*
tion. I'o thefe objects, therefore, we fhall now diredl
our inquiries.
“ Javan, tlie fourth fon of the patriarch Japhet,
had four fons, Elifua, Tarjhifh, Kittim, and Dodanim
or Kodanim j among whole ‘ defcendants were the ifles
of the Gentiles divided.’ The city of Tarfus on the
coaft of Cilicia, at once afcertains the region colonized
by the defcendants of Tarfhilh. But as much depends
upon determining the pofttion of this country, I fhall
endeavour (fays the Eodtor) to fix it with all poffible
pieciiion.
“ In the firft place, J muft beg leave to obferve,
that there is not a ftngle paftage in any ancient author,
facred or profane, that fo much as alludes to any city,
diftricl, canton, or country, of the me of Tarfhifh in
the eaftern parts of the world. L he defcendants of
Javan, of whom Tarfhifh was one, are agreed on all
hands to have extended their fettlements towards the
north-weft, i. e. into Alia Minor, Italy, and Spain.
The inhabitants of Tarfhifh are everywhere in Scrip¬
ture faid to be addicled to navigation and commerce,
in rvhich they feem to have been connefled with the
Tyrians and Phoenicians f, who were always faid by
the Jews to inhabit the ifles of tlie fea. Indeed, in He¬
brew geography, all the countries toward the north and
weft, which were divided from Judea by the fea, were
called the illes of the fea J. Thus Ifaiah : ‘ The bur-
dm of Tyre. Howl ye fhips of Tarfhifh, for it is laid
wafte, fo that there is no lioufe, no entering in : from
the land of Chittim it is revealed unto them. Be ftill
ye inhabitants of the ifle, thou -whom the merchants of
Zidon, that pafs over the lea, have replenifhed.’ The
land of Chittim was Macedonia, and often Greece, from
which every one knows that the deftrucllon of Tyre
Came ; and that Tarfhifh wds not an unconcerned fpec-
tator of that deftmcfion, is obvious from the fame pro¬
phet, who proceeds to fay |j : ‘ As at the report con¬
cerning Egypt, fo {hall they be forely pierced at the re¬
port concerning Tyre. Pafs over to Tarfhifh ; howl
ye inhabitants of the ifle. Is this your joyous city r’
It appears likewife from Ezekiel xxvii. 12. that Tarfhifh
was the merchant with whom Tyre traded for fdver,
iron, tin, and lead, and that this trade was carried on in
fairs.
“ From all thefe paflages, it feems to he evident,
that the defcendants of Tarfhifh fettled on the weftern
coaft of Alia Minor \ that thefe people were add:£Ied
to navigation and commerce •, that in the courfe of
their traffic they were connecled with the Tyrians and
Phoenicians *, that the commerce they carried on confift-
ed of filver, iron, tin, and lead •, that the people of Tar¬
fhifh were connected with Kittim and the ifles of the
Gentiles, which are confefledly fituated toward the north
and weft of Judea.
“ But left, after all, a faff fo fully authenticated
fhould ftill be called in queitlon, I fhall add one proof
more, which will place the matter beyond the reach of
doubt and controverfy.
“ When the prophet Jonah intended to flee from the
prefence of the Lord, in order to avoid preaching at
Nineveh, let us fee where the peevifh deferter embark¬
ed. (Jonah i. 3.) “ And Jonah rofe up to flee unto Oprnr.
Tarfhifh, from the prefence of the Lord, and went dowm ~ v **
to Joppa j and he found a fliip going to Tarfhifh, and he
paid the fare thereof, and went down into it, to go with
them into Tarfhifh, from the prefence of the Lord.’
Every body knows that Joppa or Japhah flood upon the
fhore of the Mediterranean 5 of courfe the fugitive pro¬
phet had determined to go to fome very diftant region
weflward, and by that means to get as far from Nineveh
as poftible.” s
Having thus proved to a demonftration, that the This not
original Tarfhifh was a region on the weflern coaft of ^ie Tar-
Afia Minor, where either the patriarch of that name,j^*°^ ^D*
or fome of his immediate defcendants, planted a colo¬
ny, it remains to determine whether this was actually
the country from which Solomon imported the vatt
quantit'es of filver mentioned by the facred hiftorian.
That it was not, our author frankly acknowledges j and
therefore, fays he, we muft look out for Solomon’s Tar¬
fhifh in fome other quarter of the globe.
To pave the way for this difeovery, he very juftly ^
obferves, that it has at all times been a common prac-^- 01(e<
tice to transfer the name of one country to another, in country
confequence of fome analogy or refemhiance between transferred
them. It has likewife often happened, that when at0 another»
commodity was brought from a ■very diftant country by
a very diftant people, the people to whom it was import¬
ed have taken it for granted that it was produced in the
region from which it was immediately brought to them.
Of the truth of this pofttion no man acquainted vrith
the Greek and Roman poets can for a moment entertain
a doubt. Hence the Ajfyrium amomum of Virgil, and
the Ajfyrium malabathrum of Horace, though thefe ar¬
ticles were the product not of Aflyria but of India.
The Jews, who were as little acquainted with foreign
countries as the Greeks and Romans, had very probably
the fame notions with them refpefting articles of com¬
merce ; and if fo, they would undoubtedly fuppofe, that
the ftlver fold by the merchants of Tarfhilh was the
produfl of that country. When this miftake came to
be difeovered, they very naturally transferred the name
Tarjifh from the country of the merchants to that
of the articles which they imported, Let us now, fays
our author, try if we cannot find out where that country
was.
It has been already fhowh, by quotations from Ifaiah
and Ezekiel, that fhe merchants of Tarfhifh traded in
the markets of Tyre with ftlver, iron, lead, and tin.
To thefe authorities, we fhall add another from Jere¬
miah : “ Silver (fays that prophet) fpread into plates is
brought from Tarfhifh.” “ But in Spain (continues
our learned difiertator), all thofe commodities were found*
in the greateft abundance. All the ancient authors who
deferibe that region dwell with rapture on its ftlver
mines. This fact is too generally known to need to be
fupported by authorities. Spain was tlren the region
which fernHlied Solomon’s traders with the Immenfe
mafs of ftlver he is faid to have imported. This was,
one might fay, the modern Tarfhifh 3 and indeed both
Jofephus and Eufebius are pofttive that the pofteriiy
of Tarfhifh actually peopled that country. If this was
an early opinion, as it certainly was, the Jews would
of courfe denominate Spain from the patriarch in que-
ftion.
1 have fhown above, that the inhabitants of Tar-
ftiilh.;
o P H f t68
^ fliifh were ftrldly connefted with the Kittim, or Gre-
• cians : I (hall here produce an authority which will
prove lo a demonftration that the Kitcim had extend¬
ed their commerce into that part of Africa now called
Barbary.
“ prophet Ezekiel, (xxvii. 6.) defcribing the
Iplendour and magnificence of Tyre, tells us, ‘ that
the company of the Alhurites made her benches of ivo¬
ry, brought from the ifies of Kittim.’ In the firft place,
I mull obferve, that there is probably a fmall error in
the orthography of the word Alhurim. This term is
. everywhere in Scripture tranfiated Affyrians, which
tranflation is certainly juft. But how the Affyrians
could export ivory from the ifles of Kittim, and fa-
ihion it . into benches for the Tyrian mariners, is, in
my opinion, a problem of no eafy folution. The faft
is Afhurim Ihould be Aflierim, that is, the company
of the men of Aflier. The tribe of Aftier obtained
its inheritance in the neighbourhood of Tyre ; (fee
Jofti. xix. 28.) ‘ And Hebron, and Rehob, and Ham-
mon and Canah, unto Zidon the great.’ The compa¬
nies of the tribe of the Alherites then, and not the
Aftiurim, were the people who manufactured the bench*
es in queftion.
Be that as it may, the ivory of which the imple¬
ments were formed was imported from the ifles of
.Kittim, that is, from Greece and its neighbourhood.
Thefe iflands, it is certain, never produced ivory.
They muft therefore have imported it from fome other
. country, j but no other country, to which the Greeks
and their neighbours could have extended their com¬
merce, except the north of Africa, produced that com¬
modity. The conclufion then is, that the maritime
ftates of Afia Minor, Greece, and probably the He-
trufcans on the vyeft coaft of Italy, carried on a gain¬
ful. commerce with Spain and Barbary at a very early
period. ]
“ We have now feen that the original Tarfhilh on the
coaft of Afia Minor did not produce the metals im¬
ported. by Solomon’s fleet j that no Tarfhilh is to be
found in the eaftern parts .of the globe ; that the Tar-
ftiifh we are in queft of was undoubtedly fituated fome-
.where towards the Weft of Judea : we have fhown that
the mercantile people of . Afia Minor, Greece, and pro¬
bably of Italy, aftually imported fome of thofe articles
born the coaft of Africa j we have hazarded a con-
jefture, that Spain was the modern Tarfttifh, and that
very country from which Solomon imported his filver,
and the Tyrians their filver, iron, tin, and lead. Let
us now make a . trial whether we cannot exhibit fome
internal proofs in fupport of the hypothefis we have
above adopted.
“ The ancients divided Spain into three parts, Bfe-
tica, Lufitania, and Tarraconenfis. Baetica is the mo¬
dem Andalufia. It ftretched along the -Fretum Hercu-
leum, or Strafts.of Gibraltar, to the mouth of the Gua-
dalquiver. 1 his region is thought by fome to have
been the Elyfian Fields of the poets. The river Btetis
Which divides it, is called ‘Tartejfus by Ariftotle, Stefi-
fhorus, Strabo, Paufanias, Steph. Byzant. and Avianus.
Here too we have a city and a lake of the fame name.
But I arteffus is politively the very fame with Tar-
fhifh. . The Phoenicians, by changing /chin into thau,
made it Tartifh. The Greeks manufactured the reft,
] O P H
by changing Tanhh into Tartis, and in procefs of time Ophir.
into rotpwros. . That the Phoenicians actually changed *—^
Jc/nn into than is certain ; for Plutarch tells us, in the
1 e of Sylla, that in their language an ox was cal¬
led tkor, which is, no doubt, the lame with the Hebrew
Jhor.
leaft ^hTtlhlSqdedn?T’ ^ apPearshig% Probable atTarlhflh
ieait that the Spamlh Bsetica was originally called Jhr-SpanilhB*.
JhiJh. Indeed this fimilarity of names has operated fotica*
powerfully on the learned Bochart, and on fbrne other
moderns of no mean figure, that’ they have pofiiively
affirmed, as Jcfephus had done before them, that the
patriarch Tarfhifli atfually fettled in that country
lbs I ftiould think not altogether probable j but that
his defendants who fettled on the coaft of Afia Mi¬
nor colonized Ba;tica, and carried on an uninterrupted
commerce to that country, along with the Phoenicians,
for many centuries after It was peopled, and that from
the circumftances above narrated, it was denominated
Tarjhijh, are fafts too palpable to admit of contradic¬
tion.
“ Let us now fee whether this Baetica, where I have
endeavoured to fix the fituation of the Tarlhifh of the
Scriptures, was aftually furnifhed with thofe articles of
commerce which are faid to have been imported from
that country. To enlarge on this topic would be alto¬
gether fuperfluous. Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Polybius,
Pliny, Solinus, and, in one word, all the Greek and Ro¬
man hiftorians who have mentioned that region, have
unammoufly exhibited it as the native land of filver, iron,
and tin : to thefe, contrary to the ©pinions of the cele¬
brated modern traveller, they like wife add gold in very
large quantities.”
,r °u.r author having thus afcertained the fituation of
arfhifh, proceeds to prove, by a mafs of evidence too
large for our infertion, that the Edomites arid Ty¬
nans had doubled the Cape, and almoft encompaffed
Africa, long before the era of Solomon. Then refer¬
ring to 1 Kings, chap. ix. and x. 2 Chron, viii. ix.
2 Kings xxii. and 2 Chron. xx. he obferves, that from
thefe authorities it appears indubitable, that the fleets
of Solomon and Hiram failed from Eloth and Ezion-
geber j that the voyages to Ophir and Tarfhifh were
exaftly the fame, performed at one and the fame time,
by the very fame fleet $ which muft neceffatily have en-
compaffed the peninfula of Africa before it could ar¬
rive at the country of Tarfhifh. This being the cafe,
the traders might eafily enough collea the gold on the’
coaft of Guinea, or on what is now vulgarly called the
Go/J Coq/l. The ivory they might readily enough pro¬
cure on the Barbary coaft, oppofite to Tarfliifh. In
Africa, too, they might hunt apes, monkeys, baboons,
&c. 5 and peacocks., or rather parrots, and parroquets,
they might furprife in the forefts which abounded on the’
coaft. In Spain, filver, iron, lead, and tin, wTere, one
may fay, the native produce of the foil. Even at this
early period, the Phoenician navigators had difcovered
the CafTiterides or Scilly iflands, and Cornwall 5 and from
that region, in company with the merchants, may have
fupplied them with that rare commodity.
“ I have fuppofed that the navy of Solomon and Hi¬
ram collefted their gold in the courfe of their voyage
fomewhere on the coaft of Africa, beyond the Cape,
for the following reafons : Had .they found the golden
fleece
O P H [ 169 ] O P H
Ophir. fleece at Sofala (a), cr any part of the coaft of Afri-
—"v ' ca, they would have chofen to return and unlade at
Eloth or Ezion-geber, rather than purfue a long and
dangerous couife, quite round Africa, to Tar flu Ih ;
to which lad: country they might have lhaped their
courfe much more commonly from Zidon, Tyre, Jop¬
pa, &c. Eut being obliged to double the Cape in
quefl: of fome of thefe articles which they were en¬
joined to import, they puflied onward to Tarfhifli,
and returned by the Pillars of Hercules to Tyre, or
perhaps to Joppa, &c. '['heir next voyage commen¬
ced from one or other of thefe ports, from which they
directed their courfe to Tarftiifh } and having taken
in part of their lading there, they afterwards coafted
round Africa, and fo arrived once more at Eloth or
Ezion-geber.
“ Let us now attend to the fpace of time in which
thefe voyages were performed. We are told exprefs-
ly (2 Chron. ix. 21.) that once every three years
came the (hips of Tarfhifh, &c. This is exactly the
time one would naturally imagine neceffary to per¬
form fuch a diftant voyage, at a period when naviga¬
tion was ftill in its infancy, and mariners feldom ad¬
ventured to lofe fight of the coaft. Of this we have
an irrefragable proof in the hiftory of a voyage round
the very fame continent, undertaken and accomplifli-
ed in the very fame fpace of time, about two centuries
after.
“ We learn from Herodotus, lib. ii. cap. 149. that
Nechus, one of the latter kings of Egypt, whom the
Scripture calls "Pharaoh Necho, built a great number of
Ihips, both on the Red fea and the Mediterranean. The
fame hiftorian, lib. iv. cap. 42. informs us, that this en-
terprifing monarch projected a voyage round the conti¬
nent of Africa, which was actually accomplilhed in the
fpace of three years. In the conduct of this enterpriie,
he employed Phoenician mariners, as Solomon had done
before him. Thefe, we may fuppofe, were afiifted in
the courfe of this navigation by charts or journals, or at
leafl: by traditional accounts derived from their anceftors :
* Thefe navigators (fays the hiftorian) took their depar¬
ture from a port on the Red fea, and failing from thence
into the fouthern ocean, and, in the beginning of au¬
tumn, landing on the coaft of Africa, there they fowed
fome grain which they had carried out with them on
board their veflels. In this place they waited till the
crop was ripened •, and, having cut it down, they pro¬
ceeded on their voyage. Having fpent two years in this
navigation, in the third they returned to Egypt, by the
Pillars of Hercules. Thefe mariners, adds the author,
reported a faft, which, for his part, he could by no
means believe to be true *, namely, that in one part of
their courfe their fhadows fell on their right ; a circum-
ftance which gives confiderable weight to the truth of the
telation.’
“ Let it now be obferved, that Phoenician mariners
navigated the fleet of Solomon : the fame people con¬
duced that of Necho : the fleet of Necho fpent three
years in the courfe of its voyage •, that of Solomon
did the fame in its courfe about two centuries before :
Vol. XV. Part I.
the fleet of Necho failed from a port on the Red fea ; Ophir.
that of Solomon took its departure from Eloth or ‘ y——'
Ezion-geber, fituated on the fame fea : the fleet of the
former returned by the Pillars of Hercules j that of
the latter, according to the hypothefis, purfued the
very fame route. Such a coincidence of fimilar cir-
cumftances united with thofe adduced in the preced¬
ing part of this article, feem to prove almoft to a
demonftration, that the navy of Hiram and Solo¬
mon performed a voyage round Africa, in that age, in
the fame manner as that of Necho did two centuries
after.
“ Upon the whole, I conclude, that the original
Ophir, which is really Aufir or Aufr, was fituated on
the fouth of Arabia Felix, between Sheba and Havilah,
which laft was encompafled by one of the branches of
the river of Paradife : that the name Ophir, i. e. Aufr,
was, in confequence of its refemblance, in procefs of
time transferred to a region on the coaft of Africa ;
and that from it firft Afer and then Africa was deno¬
minated : that the primitive Tarftiiih was Cilicia, and
that the Jews applied this name to <ill the commercial
ftates on the coaft of Afia Minor, and perhaps of Italy,
there being ftrong prefumptions that the Tyrrhenians
were colonifts from Tarfhiih } that Baetica, and per¬
haps fome other regions of Spain, being planted with
colonies from Tarftiiih, likewife acquired the name of
Tarfhiih ; that the Tyrians were itrictly connected with
the merchants of Tarihiih in their commercial enter-
prifes •, that Tarihiih was certainly fituated weftward
from Judea, Phoenicia, &c. ; that no other country in
the weftern quarters produced the commodities imported
by the two kings, except Spain and the oppofite coafts j
that this country, in thofe ages, produced not only fil-
ver, iron, tin, and lead, but likewife gold in great abun¬
dance ; that the merchants of Kittim imported ivory, of
which the Afherites made benches for the Tyrians ;
which commodity they muft have purchafed on the coaft
of Barbary, where the Jews and Phoenicians would find
the fame article } that Tarftiiih being fituated in Spain,
it was impoflible for a fleet failing from Eloth or Ezion-
geber, to arrive at that country without encompafling ir
Africa ; that, of courfe, the fleet in queftion did actually Oplftr iitu-
encompafs that continent *, that the Ophir of Solomon ated on the
muft have been fituated fomewhere on the coaft of Afri- c,,alj:
ca, to the weft of the.Cape, becaufe from it the courfe tjie
to Tarfliifti was more eligible than to return the fame cape.
way back to Ezion-geber.”
Our author fupports this conclufion by many other
arguments and authorities, which the limits prefcribed
us will not permit us to detail } but perhaps the arti¬
cle might be deemed incomplete if we did not fhow
how he obviates an objection that will readily occur
to his theory. “ If the original Ophir wras feated on
the coaft of Arabia Felix, and the modern region of
the fame name on the weft coaft of Africa, it may
be made a queftion, how the latter country came to
be denominated from the former ? Nothing (fays our 12
author) can be more eafy than to anfwer this queftion. 4n objec“
The practice of adapting the name of an ancient country
Y to Were *
(a) That Sofala oppofite to the ifland of Madagafcar was Ophir, was an ancient conjefture. See Bochart,
chan. 1. ii. cap. 27. p. 160. qto. «
%
O P I [ 17© ] O P o
Gphir to a newly difcovered one, refetnbling the other In ap-
. *1. pearance, in fituation, in figure, in diflance, in the na-
ture of the climate, productions, &c. has ever been fo
common, that to produce inftances would be altoge¬
ther fupertluous. The newly difcovered region on the
coail of Africa abounded with the fame fpecies of com¬
modities by which the original one was diftinguilhed 5
and of courfe, the name of the latter was annexed to
the former.”
Whether Mr Bruce’s hypothefis, or Dr Doig’s, re-
fpecting the long-difputed fit nation of Solomon’s Ophir,
be the true one, it is not for us to decide. Both are
plaufible, both are fupported by much ingenuity and
uncommon erudition ; but we do not think that the
arguments of either writer fumifh a complete con¬
futation of thofe adduced by the other. Sub judice
/is ejl.
OPHIRA, a genus of plants belonging to the oftan-
dria clafs. See Botany Index.
OPHITES, in Natural Hiftory, an old term em¬
ployed to denote a mineral, of a dulky green ground,
fprinkled with fpots-of a lighter green, otherwife called
ferpentine. See Mineralogy Index.
OPHITES, in church hiftory, Chrifiian heretics, fo
called both from the veneration they had for the ferpent
that tempted Eve, and the worfhip they paid to a real
ferpent: they pretended that the ferpent was Jefus Chrift,
,and that he taught men the knowledge of good and evil.
They diftinguilhed betwreen Jefus and Chri/I: Jefus, they
faid, was born of the Virgin, but Chrift came down
from heaven to be united with him •, Jefus was crucified,
but Chrift had left him to return to heaven. They di-
ftinguifired the God of the Jews, whom they termed
Ja/dabaoth, from the fupreme God : to the former they
afcribed the body, to the latter the foul of man. They
had a live ferpent, which they kept in a kind of cage }
at certain times they opened the cage door, and called
the ferpent: the animal came out, and mounting upon
the table, twined itfelf about fome loaves of bread ; this
bread they broke and diftribuied it to the company,
who all killed the ferpent : this they called their Eu-
' charifl.
OPHRYS, twyblade } a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the gynandria clafs •, and in the natural method
ranking under the 7th order, Orchidece. See Botany
Jfidcx *
OPHTHALMOSCOPY, a branch of phyfiogno-
my, which deduces the knowledge of a man’s temper
and chara&er from the appearance of his eyes.
OPHTHALMIA, in Medicine, an inflammation of
the eye or of the membranes which inveft it •, efpecial-
ly of the adnata, or albugineous coat. See Medicine,
N° 174.
OPIATES, medicines which are adminiftered to
procure fleep, whether in the form of eledluaries, drops,
or pills.
OPINION ifr that judgement which the mind forms
of any propofition for the truth or falfehood of which
there is not fufficient evidence to produce fcience or ab-
fokite belief.
That the three angles of a plane triangle are equal to
two right angles, is not a matter of opinion, nor can it
with propriety be called an objedl of the mathemati¬
cian’s belief: he does more than believe it •, he knows
it to. be true. When two or three men, under no temp¬
tation to deceive, declare that they were watnefies of an Opbica
uncommon, though not preternatural event, their tefti- !l
mony is complete evidence, and produces abfoluie be- °:'o; ^
lief in the minds of thole to whom it is given ; but it
does not produce fcience like rigid demonftration. The
faft is not doubted, but thofe who have it on 1 eport do
not know it to oe true, as they know the truth of pro-
pofitions intuitively or demonftrably certain. W hen
one or twro men relate a ftory including many circura-
ftances to a third perfon, and another comes who pofi-
tively contradicts it either in whole or in part, he to
whom thofe jarring teftimonies are given, weighs all
the circumftances in his own mind, balances the cue
again!! the other, and lends an aflent, more or lei's wa¬
vering, to that fide on which the evidence appears to
preponderate. 1 his afl'ent is his opinion relpedling
the facts of which he has received inch different ac¬
counts.
Opinions are often formed of events not yet in being.
Were an officer from the combined armies, which are
juft now f befieging Valenciennes, to come into the f July 1793,
room where we are writing, and tell us that thofe armies
are in good health and high fpirits ; that every {hot
which they fire upon the fortrcfs produces fome efiedt •,
and that they har e plenty of excellent provifions, whilit
the befieged are periihing by hunger j wTe ihould abfo-
lutely believe every fact which he had told us upon the
evidence of his teffimony ; but we could only be of opi¬
nion that the garrifon mull foon iurrender. In forming
opinions of this kind, upon which, in a great meafure
depends our fuccefs in any purfuit, every circumfiance
ffiould be carefully attended to, and our judgements
guided by former experience. Truth is a thing of fucli
importance to man, that he Ihould always purfue the
bell methods for attaining it j and when the objedl
eludes all his refearches, he Ihould remedy the difap-
pointment, by attaching himfelf to that which has the
ftrongeft refemblance to it ; and that which moft re-
fembles truth is called probability, as the judgement
which is formed of it is termed opinion. See BrobABI¬
LITY.
OPIUM, in the Materia Medico, is an infpiflated
juice, obtained from the capfule of the while poppy,
partly of the refinous and partly of the gummy kind,
and poffefiing alfo a narcotic principle. See Materia
Medica, N° 612.
OPOBALSAMUM, in the Materia Medica, Opo-
balfam, or balm of Gilead, a refinous fubltance obtained
from a fpecies of Amyris. See Chemistry, N° 2472,.
and Materia Medica, N° 507.
OPOCALPASUM, Opocarbasum, or Apocal-
pasum ; a gummy refinous fubftance, which has a ftrong
refemblance to liquid myrrh, and which in the time of
Galen'was mixed with myrrh. It was difficult, accord¬
ing to this writer, to diftinguilh the one from the other
unlefs by their effefts, the former being of a poifonous
nature, which frequently produced lethargy.
OPOPONAX, in the Materia Medica, is a gummy
refinous fubftance brought from the Eaft Indies. See
Materia Medica, N° 455.
OPORTO, or Porto, a flourilhing city and fea-
port of Portugal, in the province of Entre-Douero-e-
Minho, with a bilhop’s fee. Nature has rendered it al-
moft impregnable ; and it is juftly celebrated feu the
ftrength of its wines, large quantities of which are ex¬
ported
O P O [I
Oporto ported to Britain, and on this account all red wines ei-
II ther from Spain or Portugal are denominated port wines.
Qixjun' , After the earthquake at Liihon in the year 1755, the
trade of this city increafed rapidly, before which memo¬
rable period its population did not exceed 20,000 ; but
it is now computed at upwards of 40,000. Oporto is
fituated on the declivity of a mountain, near the river
Douero, which forms an excellent and commodious har¬
bour ; and is about 147 miles north by eaft of Liihon.
W. Long. 8. 21. N. Lat. 41. 10.
OPOSSUM, in Zoology, a fpecies of didelphis. See
Didelphis.
OPOUN, one of the Navigators Iflands, of which
there are ten in number, firft difcovered by Bougain¬
ville, and fo called by him, becaufe the inhabitants do
not pafs from one village to another but in canoes.
This and the other iflands lie in 140 fouth latitude, and
from 1710 to 173° longitude weft from Paris, accord¬
ing to Peroufe. Here the fugar cane is to be met with
growing fpontaneoufly 5 but it is faid to contain lefs of
the faccharine fubftance than what is produced in the
Weft Indies. The men are pofieffed of uncommon
ftrength, and tatow their bodies in fuch a manner that,
although almoft naked, they have the appearance at a
little diftance of, being clothed. Ferocity and treachery
are charafteriftic marks of this people, of which the un¬
fortunate Peroufe had but too foon a melancholy proof,
11 out of 60 of his crew having been murdered by
them, although received at firft with an air of good
humour. This ought to ferve as a caution to future na¬
vigators, not to place implicit confidence in the appa-
'I ] OP T
rent kindnefs of thefe favages, which is frequently the Opeftheim
difmal prelude of ruin and deftru£tion. Among thefe H.
fell the celebrated naturalift Lamanon 5 fee Lama-, 0puc‘
NON. ^
OPPENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the lower
palatinate of the Rhine, and capital of a bailiwick of
the fame name 5 feated on the declivity of a hill near
the Rhine. E. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat. 49. 48.
OPPIANUS, a poet and grammarian of Anazarba
in Cilicia, in the fecond century. He compofed a poem
of hunting, and another of fiihing, for which Antoni¬
nus Caracalla gave him as many golden crowns as there
were verfes in his poems ; they were hence called Op-
plan's golden verfes. He died in the 30th year of his
age.
OPPILATION, in Medicine, the aft of obftruciing
or flopping up the paflage of the body, by redundant or
peccant humours. This word is chiefly for obftructions
in the lower belly.
OPTATIVE mood, in Grain mar, that which ferves
to exprefs an ardent defire or with for fomething.
In moft languages, except the Greek, the optative is
only exprefled by prefixing to the fubjunftive an adverb
of wifhing : as u tin am, in Latin j pint a Dieu, in
French ; and would to God, in Englifii.
OPTIC ANGLE, the angle which the optic axes of
both eyes make with one another, as they tend to meet
at fome diftance before the eyes.
OPTIC Axis, the axis of the eye, or a line going .
through the middle of the pupil and the centre of the
eye.
OPTICS.
Hiftory.
Definition.
OPTICS, from in-TopM, to fee, is that fcience which
confiders the nature, the compofition, and the
motion of light;—the changes whicli it fuffers from the
aflion of bodies ;—the phenomena of vifion, and the in-
ftruments in which light is the chief agent.
HISTORY.
, Sect. I. Difcoveries concerning the Refrallion of
Light.
2
Kefradion Though the ancients made few optical experiments,
known to they neverthelefs knew, that when light pafled through
cients •" media of different denfities, it did not move in a ftraight
’ line, but was bent or refra&ed out of its original di-
reftion. This was probably fuggefted to them by the
appearance of a ftraight rod partly immerfed in Water j
and accordingly we find many queftions concerning'this
and other optical appearances in the works of Arirtotle.
Archimedes is faid to have written a treatife on the ap¬
pearance of a ring or circle under water, and therefore
could not have been ignorant of the common phenomena
of refraftion. The ancients, however, were not only ac¬
quainted with thefe more ordinary appearances, but alfo
with the produftion of colours by refraction. Seneca
fays, that if the light of the fun ftiines through an an¬
gular piece of glafs, it will (how all the colours of the
rainbow. Thefe colours, he fays, are falfe, fuch as are Hiftory.
feen in a pigeon’s neck when it changes its pofition $  v~—i
and of the fame nature, he fays, is a fpeculum, which,
without having any colour of its own, affumes that of
any other body. It appears alfo, that the ancients were
not ignorant of the magnifying power of glafs globes
filled with water, though they do not feem to have
been acquainted with its caufe ; and the ancient engra- 3
vers are fuppofed to have ufed a glafs globe filled with ^ ;n
■water to magnify their figures. This indeed feems evi- power of S
dent, from their lenticular and fpherical gems of rock glat's globes,
cfyftal which are (till preferved, the effeCt of which, in
magnifying at lead, could fcarcely have efcaped the no¬
tice of thofe who had often occafion to handle them $
if indeed, in the fpherical or lenticular form, they
were not folely intended for the purpofes of burning.
One of thefe, of the fpherical kind, of about an inch
and a half diameter, is preferved among the foflils pre-
fented by Dr Woodward to the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. . 4
The firft treatife of any confequence written on the Refraction
fubjeCI of optics, was by the celebrated Ptolemy. Thefirft treated
treatife is now loft ; but from the accounts of others, we kientifical-
find that he treated of aftronomical refraftions. The Pt°*
firft aftronomers were not aware that the intervals be¬
tween ftars appear lefs near the horizon than near the -
meridian j but it is evident that Ptolemy was aware of
this circumftance, by the caution which he gives to allow
Y 2 fomething
172
OPTICS.
t something for it, upon every recourfe to ancient obfer-
vations.
His hypo- Ptolemy alfo advances a very fenfible hypothefis to
thefis con- account for the greater apparent fize of the fun and
cerning the moon when feen near the horizon. The mind, he fays,
judSes °* the fize of objecls by means of a preconceived
idea of their diftance from us : and this diftance is fan¬
cied to be greater when a number of objects intervene 5
which is the cafe when we fee the heavenly bodies near
the horizon. In his Almageft, however, he afcribes
this appearance to a refraction of the rays by vapours,
which actually enlarge the angle fubtended by the lu¬
minaries.
fun and
moon
I he nature of refraCtion was afterwards confider-
ed by Alhazen an Arabian writer; infomuch that,
having made experiments -upon it at the common fur-
6 face between air and water, air and glafs, water and
ofTlhazen ’ and’ kcing prepofieffed with the ancient opinion
lazen. 0f cryltailine orbs in the regions above the atmofphere,
lie even fufpeCted a refraCtion there alfo, and fancied he
could prove it by aftronomical obfervations. .Hence
this author concludes, that refraCtion increafes the alti¬
tudes of all oojeCts in the heavens } and he firit advan¬
ced, that the liars are fometimes feen above the horizon
by means of refraCtion, when they are really below it.
'This obfervation was confirmed by Vitellio, B. Walthe-
rus, and by the excellent obfervations of Tycho Brahe.
Alhazen obferved, that refraCtion contracts the vertical
diameters and diltances of the heavenly bodies, and that
it is the caufe of the twinkling of the liars. But we do
not find that either he, or his follower. Vitellio, fub-
jeCted it to menfuration. Indeed it is too finall to be
determined except by very accurate inftruments, and
therefore we hear little more of it till about the year
1500 5 when great attention was paid to the fubjeCt by
Bernard W alther, IMceltlin, and Tycho Brahe.
Alhazen luppofed that the refraCtion of the atmo¬
fphere did not depend upon the vapours, but on the dif¬
ferent tranfparency ; by which, as Montucla conjec¬
tures, he meant the denfity of the grofs air contiguous
to the earth, and the ether or fubtile air that lies be¬
yond it. We judge of diftance, he fays, by comparing
the angle under which objeCts appear, with their fup-
poied diftance j fo that if thefe angles be nearly equal,
and the diftance of one objeCl be conceived greater than
that of the other, it will be imagined to be larger. He
alfo obferves, that the tky near the horizon is always
imagined to be further from us than any other part of
the concave furface. Roger Bacon afcribes this account
of the horizontal moon to Ptolemy j and as fuch it is
examined, and objeCIed to by B. Porta.
- . In the writings of Roger Bacon, we find the firft di-
jtinCt account of the magnifying power of glalfes • and
it is not improbable, that what he wrote upon this fub¬
jeCt gave rife to the ufeful invention of fpeCIacles.
He fays, that if an cbjeCt be applied clofe to the bafe of
the larger fegment of a fphere of glafs, it will appear
magnified. He alfo treats of the appearance of an oh-
jeCt through a globe, and fays that he was the firft who
obferved the refraCtion of rays into it.
Of vlteHio. ydellio, 2. native of Poland, publiftied a treatife of
iijo. optics, containing all that was valuable in Alhazen.
He obferves, that light is always loft by refraCtion 5
but he does not pretend to eftimate the quantity of this
' kis. He reduced into a table the refult of his experi¬
ments on the refraCtive powers of air, water, and glafs, Hi (lor j.
correfponding to different angles of incidence. In his —v~“
account of the horizontal moon he agrees exaCtly with
Alhazen. He afcribes the twinkling of the ftars to
the motion of the air in which the light is refraCted;
and to illuftrate this hypothefis, he obferves, that they
twinkle ftill more when viewed in wnter put in motion.
He alfo (hows, that refraClion is neceffary as well as re-
lieCtion, to form the rainbow j becaufe the body which
the rays fall upon is a tranfparent fubftance, at the fur-
face of which one part of the light is' always reflected
and another refraCled. But he feems to confider re¬
fraClion as ferving only to condenfe the light, thereby
enabling it to make a ftronger impreffion upon the eye.
1 his writer alfo makes many attempts to afcertain the
law of refraClion. He likewife confiders the foci of glafs
fpheres, and the apparent fize of objeCls feen through
them : though upon thefe fubjeCts his obfervations are
inaccurate. It is fufficient indeed to fhow the Hate of
knowledge, at that time, to obferve, that both Vitellio,
and his mailer Alhazen, account for objeCls appearino"
larger when feen under water, by the circular figure of
its furface 5 fince, being fluid, it conforms to the fieure
of the earth.
Contemporary with Vitellio was Roger Bacon, a man0fRoS<TC
of extenfive genius, who wrote upon almoft every Bacon? ^
branch of fcience ; yet in optics he does not feem to
have made any coniiderable advances. Even fome of
the moil abfurd of the opinions of the ancients have had
the fanClion of his authority. He believed that vifual
rays proceed from the eye 5 becaufe every thing in na¬
ture is qualified to difcharge its proper fiinCtions by its
own powers, in the fame manner as the fun and other
celeftial bodies. In his Specula Mathematical he added
fome obfervations of little importance on the refraClion
of the light of the ftars ; the apparent fize of objeCls j
the enlargement of the fun and moon in the horizon.
In his Opus Majus he demonftrates, what Alhazen had
done before, that if a tranfparent body interpofed be¬
tween the eye and an objeCl, be convex towards the
eye, the objeCl will appear magnified.
from this time, to that of the revival of learning mof Maure
Europe, we have no treatife on optics. One of thelycus.
firft: who diftinguifhed himfelf in this way was Mauro-i57S.
lycus, teacher of mathematics at Meflina. In two
works, entitled Theoremata Lucis et Umbrcr, and Dia-
phanorum Partes, &c. he demonftrates that the cryftal-
line humour of the eye is a lens that colleCls the rays of
light iffuing from the objeCl, and throws them upon the
retina, where is-the focus of each pencil. From this
principle he difcovered the reafon why fome people were
Ihort-fighted and others long-fighted ; and why the for¬
mer are relieved by concave, and the others by convex,
glafles.
While Maurolycus made fuch advances towards the Difcoveries
difcovery of the nature of vifion, Baptifta Porta of Na-0f B. Pom.
pies invented the camera obfcura, which throws ftill Bom 1445.
more light on the fame fubjeCl. His houfe was reforted^ltd I515’
to by all the ingenious perfons at Naples, whom he
formed into an academy offecrets ; each member being
obliged to contribute fomething ufeful and not generally
known. By this means he was fumifhed with materials
for his Magia Natura/is, which contains his account of
Pitcamera obfcura, and which was publilhed, as he in¬
forms us, when he was not quite 15 years old. He alfo
gave
'1
OPTICS.
Hiftory. gave the firft hint of the magic lantern j which Kircher
'i..-—v afterwards improved* His experiments with the ccttici a
obfcura convinced him, that vifion, as Ariftotle fuppo-
fed, is performed by the intromiffion of fomething into
the eye, and not by vifual rays proceeding from the eye,
as had been formerly imagined by Empedocles *, and he
was the firft who hilly fatisfied himfelf and others upon
this iubjecl. The refemblance indeed between experi¬
ments with the camera obfcura and the manner in which
vifion is performed in the eye, was too linking to
efcape the obfervation of a lefs ingenious perfon. But
when he fays that the eye is a camera obfcura, and the
pupil the hole in the window fhutter, he was fo far
rnilfaken as to fuppofe that it was the cryllalline hu¬
mour that correfponds to the wall which receives the
images 5 nor was it dilcovered till the year 1604, tnat
this office is performed by the retina. He makes a va¬
riety of juft obfervations on vilion j and explains ieveral
cafes in which we imagine things to be without the eye,
when the appearances are occalioned by fome affection
of the organ itfelf, or fome motion within it. He re¬
marks alfo, that, in certain circumftances, vifion will be
aftifted by convex or concave glaffes j and he feems al¬
fo to have made fome fmall advances towards the dif-
covery of telefcopes. He obferves, that a round and
flat furface plunged into water, will appear hollow as
well as magnified to an eye above it} and he explains
by a figure the manner in which this effect is pro-
11 duced.
The law of The great problem concerning the meafure of re¬
refraction fractions was ftill unfolved. Alhazen and Vitellio, in-
diu overed. jeed, }lad attempted it 5 but failed, by trying to meafure
37' the angle inftead of its fine. At laft it was difeovered
by Snellius, profeffor of mathematics at Leyden, ihis
philofopher, however, did not perfedlly underftand his
own difeovery, nor did he live to publilh any account
of it. It was afterwards explained by Profeffor Hor-
tenfius before it appeared in the writings of Defcartes,
who publiftied it under a different form, without mak¬
ing any acknowledgement of his obligations to Snellius,
whofe papers Huygens affures us, were feen by Def¬
cartes. Before this time Kepler had publifhed a New
Table of Angles of Refra&ion, determined by his own
experiments, for every degree of incidence. Kircher
bad done the fame, and attempted a theory of refrac¬
tion, on principles, which, if conduced with precifion,
would have led him to the law difeovered by Snel-
12 lius.
Opinions Defcartes undertook to explain the caufe of refraftion
ot Defcartes gy the refolution of forces. Hence he was obliged to
nitz orTthis ^uPP°^e t^iat %ht paffes with more eafe through a denfe
fubjeft. medium, than through a rare one. The truth of this
explanation was firft queftioned by M. Fermat, who af-
ferted, contrary to the opinion of Defcartes, that light
fuffers more refiftance in water than air, and more in
glafs than in water ; and maintained, that the refiftance
of different media with refpect to light is in proportion
to their denfities. M. Leibnitz adopted the fame gene¬
ral idea, upon the principle that nature accomplifties her
ends by the fliorteft methods, and that light therefore
ought to pafs from one point to another, either by the
ftrorteft road, or that in which the lead: time is^ re¬
quired.
At a meeting of the Royal Society, Aug. 31. 1664,
it was found, with a new inftrument prepared for that
purpofe, that the angle of incidence being 40 degrees,
that of refraction is 30. About this time alfo we find
the firft mention of media not refraCting the light in an
exact proportion to their denfities. For Mr Boyle, in
a letter to Mr Oldenburgh, dated Nov. 3. 1664, ob¬
ferves, that in fpirit of wine, the proportion of the fines
of the angles of incidence to the fines of the angles of
refraCtion was nearly the fame as 4 to 3 5 an<^ that, as
fpirit of wine occafions a'greater refraCtion than common
water, fo oil of turpentine, which is lighter than fpirit
of wine, produces not only a greater refraCtion than
common water, but a much greater than fait water.
And at a meeting held November 9. the fame year, Dr
Hooke mentioned, that pure and clear falad oil produ¬
ced a much greater refraCtion than any liquor which he
had tried •, the angle of refraCtion that anfwered to an
angle of incidence of 30° being no lefs than 40° 30',
and the angle of refraCtion that anfwered to an angle of
incidence of 20° being 290 —M. de la Hire alfo
made feveral experiments to alcertain the refraCtive
power of oil, and found the fine of the angle of inci¬
dence to that of refraCtion as 60 to 42 ; which, he ob¬
ferves, is a little nearer to that of glals than to that of
water, though oil is much lighter than water, and glafs
much heavier.
The members of the Royal Society finding that the
refraCtion of fait water exceeded that of freih, purfued
the experiment farther with aqueous folutions of vitriol,
faltpetre, and alum. They found the refraction of the
folution of vitriol and fallpetre a little more, but that of
alum a little lefs, than common water.
Dr Hooke made an experiment before the Royal So¬
ciety, Feb. 11. 1663, which clearly proves that ice re~
fraCts the light lefs than water. M. de la Hire alfo
took a good deal of pains to determine whether the re¬
fraCtive power of ice and water were the fame 3 and he
found as* Dr Hooke had done before, that ice refraCts
lefs than water.
By a moft accurate experiment made in 1698, in
which a ray of light was tranfmitted through a Torri¬
cellian vacuum, Mr Lowthorp found, that the refrac¬
tive power of air is to that of water as 36 to 34-4°®*
He obferves, that the refraCtive power of bodies is not
proportioned to the denfity, at leaft not to the fpecific
gravity, of the refracting medium. For the refraCtive
power of glafs to that of water is as 55 to 34? whereas
its fpecific gravity is as 87 to 34 j that is, the fquares
of their refraCtive powers are very nearly as their re-
fpeCtive gravities. And there are fome fluids, which,
though they are lighter than water, yet have a greater
power of refraCtion. Thus the refraCtive power of fpi¬
rit of wine, according to Dr Hooke’s experiment, is to
that of water as 36 to 33, and its gravity reciprocally
as 33 to 36, or 361. But the refraCtive powers of air
and water ieem to obferve the fimple direCt proportion
of their gravities.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris endeavour¬
ed to repeat this experiment in 1700 i hut they did not
fucceed.—For, as they faid, beams of light paffed
through the vacuum without fuffering any refraCtion.
The Royal Society being informed of this, ordered Mr
Hawkfbee to make an inftrument for the purpofe, under-
the direction of Dr Halley, for the purpofe of repeating
the experiment. It confifted of a ftrong brafs /pri'm,
two ftdes of which had fockets to receive two plane
glaffes,
13
Difcoveries
concerning
the refrac¬
tion of dif¬
ferent fub-v
dances.
- I
*74
OPT
, 1Iift0,'y glaffes, whereby the air in the prifm might either be
v exhaufted or condenfed. The prifm had alfo a mercu¬
rial gage fixed to it, to difcover the denfity of the con¬
tained air j and turned upon its axis, in order to make
the refractions equal on each fide when it was fixed to
the end of a telefcope. The refracting angle was near
64° ; and the length of the telelcope, having.a fine hair
in its focus, was about 10 feet. The event of this ac¬
curate experiment was as follows :—Having ehofen a
proper obje£t, whofe diltance was 2588 feet, June 15.
O. S. 1708, in the morning, the barometer being then
at 29.74-, and the thermometer at 60, they fit ft ex¬
haufted the prifm, and then applying it to the telefcope,
the horizontal hair in the focus covered a mark on the
obje6t diltinctly feen through the vacuum, the two
glalfes being equally inclined to the vifual ray. Then
admitting the air into the prifm, the objett was feen to
rile above the hair gradually as the air entered, and
when the prifm was full, the hair was obferved to hide
a mark io^ inches below the former mark.
After this they applied the condenfing engine to the
prifm; and having forced in another atmofphere, fo that
the denfity of the included air was double to that of
the outward, they again placed it before the telefcope,
and, letting out the air, the objeft which before feem-
ed to rife, appeared gradually to defcend, and the hair
at length relied on an obje£t higher than before by the
fame interval of io| inches. They then forced in
another atmofphere; and upon difcharging the con¬
denfed air, the objeft was feen near 21 inches lower
than before.
Now the radius in this cafe being 2588 feet, io^-
inches wail fubtend an angle of T 8", and the angle of
incidence of the vifual ray being 3 2 degrees (becaufe
the angle of the glafs planes was 64°), it follows from
the known lawrs of refraction, that as the fine of 390 is
to that of 310 59' 26", differing from 320 by 34" the
half of 1' 8"; fo is the fine of any other angle of incidence,
to the fine of its angle of refraction ; and fo is radius, or
1000000, to 999736 ; which, therefore, is the propor¬
tion between the fine of incidence in vacuo and the fine
of refraftion from thence into common air.
Rtfradive It appears, by thefe experiments, that the refraClive
power of power of the air is proportional to its denfity. And
termined6" ^nce ^ie denfity of the atmofphere is as its weight direCt-
^rmine.. ^ temperature inverfely, the ratio of its denfity, at
any given time, may be had by comparing the heights
of the barometer and thermometer \ and thence he con¬
cludes that this will alfo be the ratio of the refraCtion of
the air. But Dr Smith obferves, that, before we can
depend upon the accuracy of this conclufion, we ought
to examine whether heat and cold alone may not alter
the refradive power of air, while its denfity continues
, the fame.
The French academicians, being informed of the re¬
fill t of the above-mentioned experiment, employed M.
De Plfle the younger to repeat the former experiment
with more care : He prefently found, that their opera¬
tors had never made any vacuum at all, there being
chinks in their inftrument, through which the air had
infinuated itfelf. He therefore annexed a gage to his
„ inftrument, by which means he was fure of his vacuum;
and then the refult of the experiment was the fame with
that of the Boyal Society. The refraclion was always
I G S.
proportional to the denfity ef the air, excepting when
the mercury was very low, and confequently the air
very rare; in which cafe the whole quantity being very
fmall, he could not perceive much difference in them.
Comparing, however, the refraClive power of the at¬
mofphere, obferved at Paris, with the refult of his
experiment, he found, that the beft vacuum he could
make was far Ihort of that of the regions above the at-
molphere.
Hi (lory.
Dr Hooke firft fuggefted the idea of making allow¬
ance for the effeCl of the refraCtion of light, in palling
from the rarer to the denfer regions of the atmolphcre,
in the computed height of mountains. To this he
afcribes the different opinions of authors concerning the
height of feveral very high hills. He could not ac¬
count for the appearance of very high mountains, at fo
great a diftance as that at which they are aCtualiy feen,
but upon the fuppofition of the curvature of the vifual
ray, that is made by its pafiing obliquely through a me¬
dium of fuch different denfity, from the top of them to
the eye, very far diftant in the horizon. All calcula¬
tions of the height of mountains that are made upon
the fuppofition that the rays of light come from the tops
of them, to our eyes, in ftraight lines, he confiders very
erroneous.
Dr Hooke afcribes the twinkling of the ftars to the
irregular and unequal refraClion of the rays of light,
which is alfo the reafon why the limbs of the fun, moon,
and planets, appear to wave or dance. That there is
fuch an unequal dirtribution of the atmofphere, he fays,
w-ill be evident by looking upon diftant objeCls, oyer a
piece of hot glafs, which cannot be fuppofed to throw
out any kind of exhalation from itfelf, as well as through
afcending fteams of water.
About this time Grimaldi firft obferved that the co-Co,nuis
loured image of the fun refraCled through a prifm is al-
ways oblong, and that colours proceed from refraCtion. iromVe-
—The way in which he firft difcovered this was by Vi- fraction,
tellio’s experiment already mentioned,’ in which a piece
of white paper placed at the bottom of a glafs veflel
filled with water, and expofed to the light of the fun,
appears coloured. However, he obferved, that in cafe
the two furfaces of the refraCled medium were exactly
parallel to each other, no colours were produced. But
of the true caufe of thofe colours, he had not the leaft 16 .
fulpicion. This difcovery was referved for Sir Ifaac New-Different.
ton. Having procured a triangular glafs prifm to fa-
tisfy himfelfconcerning the phenomena of colours; herays'of 16
was furprifed at the oblong figure of the coloured fpec- light difco-
trum, and the great difproportion betwixt its length andvfre^by
breadth ; the former being about five limes the meafure ^
of the latter. After various conjeClures refpeCling the
caufes of thefe appearances, he fufpefted that the colours
might arife from the light being dilated by fome un-
evennefs in the glafs, or fome other accidental irregula¬
rity ; and to try this, he took another prifm like the for¬
mer, and placed it in fuch a manner, that the light, puf¬
fing through them both, might be refraCled in oppofite
directions, and thus be returned by the latter into the
fame courfe from which it had been diverted by the for¬
mer. In this manner he thought that the regular ef-
feCls of the firll prifm would be augmented by the mul¬
tiplicity of refraClions. The event was, that the light,
diffufed by the firft prifm into an oblong form, was
by
2
OPTICS.
HHtory.
T7
Mr Dol-
lond's dif-
covery of
l v the fecond reduced into a circular one, with as much
regularity as if it had not paffed through either of them.
then hit upon what he calls the expenmentum cru-
ds and found that light is not fimilar, or homogeneous j
but that it confifts of rays, fome of which are more re-
frangible than others : fo that, without any difference
in their incidence on the fame medium, fome of them
fhall be more refrafted than others } and therefore, that,
according to their particular degrees of refrangibility,
they will be tranfmitted through the prifm to diuerent
parts of the oppofite wall. t
Since it appears from thefe experiments that differ¬
ent rays of light have different degrees of refrangibili-
tv, it follows, that the rules laid down by preceding
philofophers concerning the refractive power of water,
olafs, &c. muff be limited to the mean rays of the fpec-
trum. Sir Ifaac, however, proves, both geometrically and
by experiment, that the fine of the incidence ot every
kind of light, confidered apart, is to its fine of refraction
in a givcvi ratio. .
The moft important difeovery concerning retrattion
fmee the time of Sir Ifaac Newton is that of Mr Dol-
covery m lond, who found out a method of remedying the defects
the method ()f refrafting telefcopes arifing from tlie dine rent re-
«ftor/e&- frano-ilfility of li'dit. Sir Ifaac Newton imagined that
the different raysVre refraeffed in the fame proportion
Sin. te-by every medium, fo that the refrangib.lity of the ex-
lefcopes. treme rays might be determined if that ot the mean
ones were given. From this it followed, as Mi Doliond
obferves, that equal and contrary refraftions muft not
only deilroy each other, but that the divergency of the
colours from one refraftion would likewife be correfted
by the other, and that there could be no pofiibility of
producing any fuch thing as refraftion witnout colour.
Hence it was natural to infer, that all objeft glades of
telefcopes muft be equally affected by the different re¬
frangibility of light, in proportion to their apertures, of
whatever materials they may be formed.
For this reafon, philofophers defpaired of bringing re¬
flating telefcopes to perfection. They therefore ap¬
plied themfelves chiefly to the improvement of the re¬
flecting telefcope; till 1747, when M. Euler, improv¬
ing upon a hint of Sir Ifaac Newton’s, propofed to make
object glaffes of water and glafs ; hoping, that by their
difference of refrative powers, the refractions would
balance one another, and thereby prevent the difperfion
of the rays that is occaiioned by their difference of re-
frangibility. This memoir of M. Euler excited the at¬
tention of Mr Dollond. He went over all M. Euler’s
calculations, fubftituting for his hypothetical laws of re-
fraCtion thofe which had been afeertained by Newton ;
ami found, that, it followed from Euler’s own. princi¬
ples, that there could be no union of the foci of all
kinds of colours, but in a lens infinitely large..
Euler did not mean to controvert the experiments of
Newton : but afferled, that, if they were admitted in all
their extent, it would be impoffible to correft the dihe-
rence of refrangibility occafioned by the tranfmiflion of
the rays from one medium into another of different den-
fity; a correftion which he thought was very pofiible,
fince he fuppofed it to be effected in the eye, which.he
confidered as an achromatic inftrument. I. o.this reafoning
Mr Dollond made no reply, but by appealing to the ex¬
periments of Newton, and the circumfpeflion with which
it was known that he conduced all his inquiries.
Hi
This paper of Euler’s was particularly noticed by M.
Kiingenftierna of Sweden, who found that, from New¬
ton’s own principles, the refult of his 8th experiment
could not anfwer his defeription of it. Newton found,
that when light paffes out of air through feveral media,
and thence goes out again into air, whether the refract¬
ing furfaces oe parallel or inclined to one another, this
liglit, as often as by contrary refractions it is fo correct¬
ed as to emerge in lines parallel to thofe in which it
was incident, continues ever after to be white; but if
the emergent rays be inclined to the incident, the wflfite-
nels of the emerging light will, by degrees, become
tinged at its edges with colours. This he tried, by re-
fracting light with prifms of glafs, placed within a,
prifmatic veffel of water.
By theorems deduced from this experiment he infers,
that the refractions of the rays of every ibrt, made out
of any medium into air, are known by having the re-
fra&ion of the rays of my one fort ; and alio that the
refraction out of one medium into another is found as
often as we have the refractions cut of them both into
any third medium.
On the contrary, the Swedifh philofopher obferves,
that, in this experiment, the rays of light, after palling
through the water and the glafs, though they come out
parallel to the incident rays, will be coloured ; but
that the fmaller the giafs prifm is, the nearer will the
refult of it approach to Newton’s defeription.
This paper of M. Ivlingenltierna being communica¬
ted to Dollond, made him entertain doubts concerning
Newton’s report, and induced him to have recourfe to
experiment.
He therefore cemented together tvro plates of glafs
at their edges, fo as to form a prifmatic veffel, when
flopped at the ends ; and the edge being turned down- •
wards, he placed in it a glafs prifm, with one of its
edges upwards, and filled up the vacancy with clear wa¬
ter ; fo that the refraction of the prifm rvas contrary to
that of the water, in order that a ray of light, tranfmit¬
ted through both thefe refrafting media, might be af¬
fected by the difference only between the two refrac¬
tions. As he found the water to refiaft more or lefs
than the glafs prifm, lie diminilhed or increafed the an¬
gle between the glafs plates, till he found the two con¬
trary refraftions to be equal; which he difeovered by
viewing an objeCt through this double prifm. For when
it appeared neither raifed or depreffed, he was fatisfied-
that the reflations were equal, and that the emergent
and incident rays were parallel.
But according to the prevailing opinion, the objeCt
fhould have appeared of its natural colour ; for if the dif¬
ference of refrangibility had been equal in the two equal
refraCtions, they would have retified each other. This
experiment, therefore, fully proved the fallacy of the' re¬
ceived opinion, by fliowing the divergency of the light
by the glafs prifm to be almoft double of that by the
water ; for the image of the object was as much infect¬
ed with the prifmatic colours, as if it had been feen
through a glafs wedge only, whofe refrafting angle was
near 30 degrees.
Mr Dollond was convinced that if the refraCting an¬
gle of the water veffel could have admitted of a fuffi-
cient increafe, the divergency of the coloured rays would '
have been greatly diminiihed, or entirely rectified ; and
that there would have been a very great refraCtion with¬
out
OPT
out colour j but the inconvenience of fo large an an¬
gle as that of the prifmatic veffel mull have been, to
bring the light to an equal divergency with that of the
glals prifm whole angle was about 60 degrees, made it
neceiTary to try fome experiments of the fame kind with
fmaller angles.
He, therefore, got a wedge of plate glafs, the angle
of which was only nine degrees ; and 'tiling it in the
fame circumliances, he increafed the angle of the water
wedge, in which it was placed, till the divergency of the
light by the water was equal to that by the glafs; that
is, till the image of the object, though confiderably re¬
fracted by the excefs of the refraction of the water, ap¬
peared quite free from any colours proceeding from the
-different refrangibility of the light j and as near as he
could then meafure, the refraction by the water was
about ^ of that by the glafs.
As thefe experiments proved, that different fubltances
caufed the light to diverge very differently in proportion
to their general refraftive power, Mr Dollond began to
fufpect that fuch a variety might poilibly be found in
different kinds of glafs.
His next object, therefore, was to grind wedges of
different kinds of glafs, and apply them together ; fo
that the refraftions might be made in contrary direc¬
tions, in order to difcover whether the refraction and the
divergency of the colours would vanilh together.
From thefe experiments, wdiich were not made till
1757, he difcovered a difference far beyond his hopes in
the refractive qualities of different kinds of glafs, with
refpecl to the divergency of colours. The yellow or
Itraw-coloured kind, commonly called Venice glafs, and
the Eng/ifh crown glafs, proved to be nearly alike in
that refpedt •, though, in general, the crowm glafs feemed
to make light diverge lefs than the other. The com¬
mon Englifh plate glafs made the light diverge more 5
and the white cryifal, or Englifh flint glafs, molt of
all.
Fie then examined the particular qualities of every
kind of glafs that he could obtain, to fix upon twro kinds
in which the difference of their difperlive powers Ihould
be the greatelt ; and he foon found thefe to be the
yrown glafs and the white flint glafs. He therefore
ground one wedge of white flint, of about 25 degrees;
and another of crown glafs, of about 29 degrees 5
which refracted very nearly alike, but their power of
making the colours diverge was very different. He
then ground feveral others of crown glafs to different
angles, till he got one which was equal, wdth refpeft to
the divergency of the light, to that in the white flint
glafs 5 for when they were put together, fo as to refract
in contrary directions, the refradted light was entirely
free from colours. Then meafuring the refraction of
each wedge with thefe different angles, he found that of
the white glafs to be to that of the crown glafs nearly
as two to three: fo that any two wedges made in this
proportion, and applied together, that they might refradt
in a contrary diredcion, would tranfmit the light without
any difperlion of the rays. He found alfo, that the fine
of incidence in crown glafs is to that of its general refrac¬
tion as 1 to r.53, and in flint glafs as 1 to i.^8q.
In order to app=y thefe difcoveries to the conilrudtion
of telefccpes, Mr JDollond confidercd, that, in order to
rpake two fpherical glaffes that fhould refradt the light
I c s.
in contrary directions, the one mufi be concave and the Hiflory.
other convex j and as the rays are to converge to a real
focus, the excefs of refradtion mufl: be in the convex
lens. Alio, as the convex glafs is to refradt the moft,
it appeared from his experiments, that it mufl be made
of crown glafs, and the concave of white flint glafs.
Farther, As the refradtions of fpherical glaffes are in the
mverfe ratio of their focal diitances, it follows, that the
focal diftances of the two glaffes lhall be inverfely as
the ratios of the refradtions of the wedges 5 for beino
thus proportioned, every ray of light that paffes through
this combined glafs, at whatever diftance it may pals
from its axis, will conftantly be refradted, by the dif¬
ference between two contrary refradtions, in the propor¬
tion required ; and therefore the different refrangibility
of the light will be entirely removed.
The difficulties which occurred in the application of
this reafoning to pradtice, arofe from the following cir-
cumftances. In the firft place, The focal diftances, as
well as the particular furfaces, muft be very nicely pro¬
portioned to the denfities or refradting powers of the
glaffes, which are very apt to vary in the fame fort of
glafs made at different times. Secondly, The centres
of the two glaffes muft be placed truly in the common
axis of the teleicope, otherwife the defired effedt will
be in a great meafure dertroyed. And thirdly, The
difficulty of forming the four furfaces of the lenfes exact¬
ly fpherical. At length, however, after numerous trials,
he was able to conrtrudt refradting telefcopes, wdth fuch
apertures and magnifying powers, under limited lengths,
as far exceeded any thing that had been produced be¬
fore, reprefenting objects with great diftindtnefs, and in
their natural colours.
As Mr Dollond did not explain the method by which
he determined the curvatures of his lenfes, the celebrated
M. Clairaut, who had begun to inveftigate this fubjedt,
endeavoured to reduce it to a complete theory, from
which rules might be deduced, for the benefit of the
pradtical optician.
With this view, therefore, he endeavoured to afeer-
tain the refractive power of different kinds of glafs, and
alio their property of difperfing the rays of light. For
this purpofe he made ufe of two prifms, as Mr Dollond
had done : but, inftead of looking through them, he
placed them in a dark room 5 and when the tranfmitted
image of the fun was perfedtly white, he concluded that
the different refrangibility of the rays was corrected.
In order to afeertain more eafily the true angles that
prifms ought to have in order to deftroy the effedt of the
difference of refrangibility, he conftrudted a prifoi which
had one of its furfaces cylindrical, with feveral degrees
of amplitude. By this means, without changing his
prifms, he had the choice of an infinity of angles j
among which, by examining the point of the curve
furface, which, receiving the folar ray, gave a white
image, he could eafily find the true one. He alfo afeer-
tained the proportion in which different kinds of glafs
fepaxated the rays of light, by meafuring, with proper
precautions, the oblong image of the fun made by tranf-
mitting through them a beam of light.
. In thefe experiments M. Clairaut was affiffed by M.
de Tournieres, and the refults. agreed with Mr Dol-
lond’s in general; but whereas Mr Dollond had made
the difperffon of the rays in glafs and in water to be as
five
3
'Hiftofy.
OPT
five to four (acknowledging, however, that he did net
pretend to do it with exactnefs), thefe gentlemen, who
took more pains, found it to be as three to two. For
the theorems and problems deduced by M. Clairaut from
thefe new principles of optics, with a view to the per¬
fection of telefcopes, we mult refer the reader to Mem.
Acad. Par. 1756, 1757. . ir.
The fubject of achromatic telefcopes was alio mveiti-
gated by the illuftrious D’Alembert. This excellent
mathematician propofed a variety of new conltructions,
the advantages and difadvantages of which he diftinCtly
notes ; at the fame time that he points out feveral
methods of correcting the errors to which thefe telefcopes
are liable : as by placing the object glaffes, in fome
cafes, at a fmall diftance from one another, and fome-
times by ufing eye glaffes of different refractive powers *,
which is an expedient that does not feem to have occur¬
red to any perfon before him. He even (hows, that
telefcopes may be made to advantage, confifting of only
one object glafs, and an eye glafs of a different refra&ive
power. Some of his conftruCtions have two or more
eye glaffes of different kinds of glafs. This fubject he
conlidered at large in one of the volumes of his Qpufcules
Mathematiques. We have alfo three memoirs of M.
D’Alembert upon this’fubjedt, among thofe of the
French Academy 5 in the years 1764? I7^5? and I7^7*
The inveftigations of Clairaut and D’Alembert do not
feem to have affiffed the exertions of foreign artifts.
The telefcopes made in England, according to nonexact
rule, as foreigners fuppoled, were greatly fuperior to
any that could be made elfewhere, though under the
•immediate direction of thofe able calculators.
M. Euler, whb firft gave occafion to this inquiry,
having perfuaded himfelf, both by reafoning and calcula¬
tion, that Mr Dollond had difeovered no new principle
in optics, and yet not being able to controvert Mr
Short’s teftimony in favour of the achromatic telefcopes,
■concluded that this extraordinary ettedf was partly
•owing to the crown glafs not tranfmitting all the red
light, which would otherwife have come to a different
focus, and have difforted the image •, but principally to
his giving a juft curvature to his glafs, which be did not
doubt would have produced the fame eftedf if tne lenfes
had all been made of the fame kind of glafs. At ano¬
ther time he imagined that the goodnefs of Mr Doliond s
telefcopes might be owing to the eye glafs. If my
theory, fays he, be true, this difagreeable ccnfequence
follows, that Mr Dollohd’s objeft glaffes cannot be
exempt from the difperfion of colours: yet a regard to
fo refpedfable a teftimony embarraffes me extremely, it
being as difficult to queftion fuen expiefs authority, as
to abandon a theory which appears to me well founded,
and to embrace an opinion which is as contrary to all
the eftablifhed laws of nature as it is flrange and feem-
ingly abftrrd. He even appeals to experiments made in
a darkened room \ m which he fays, he is confident that
Mr Dollond’s objecbglaffes would appear to have the
fame defefts to which others are fubjeft.
Not doubting, however, but that Mr Dollond had
-made fome improvement in the conftrudfion of tele¬
fcopes, by the combination of glaffes, he abandoned his
former projeft, in which he had recourfe to different
media, and confined his attention to the correction of
the errors which arife from the curvature of lenfes. But
while he was proceeding, as he imagined, upon the true
Vol. XV. Part I.
ICS. . _ 177
principles of optics, he could not help exprefling his ,
furprife that Mr Dollond fhould have been led to lb ‘_v
important a difeovery by reafoning in a manner quite
contrary to the nature of things. At length, however,
M. Euler was convinced of the reality and importance
of Mr Dollond’s difeoveries ; and frankly acknowledges,
that perhaps he fhould never have been brought to affent
to it, had he not been affured by his friend M. Clairaut
that the experiments of the Englifh optician might be
depended upon. The experiments of M. Zeiher,^ how-*
ever, gave him the moft complete fatisfaction with re*
fpeft to this fubjedt. This gentleman demonftrated, that
it is the lead in the compofiticn of glafs which produces
the variation in its difperfive power j and, by increafing
the quantity of lead in the mixture, he produced a kind
of glafs, which occafioned a much greater leparation of
the extreme rays than the flint glafs which Mr Dollond
had made ufe of.
From thefe new principles M. Euler deduces theo¬
rems concerning the combination of the lenfes, and,
in a manner fimilar to M. Clairaut and D’Alembert,
points out methods of conftrudbng achromatic tele-
fcopes. #
While he wTas employed upon this fubject, he informs Different
us, that he received a letter from M. Zeiher, dated
Peterfhurgh 30th of January 1764, in which he gives giafs for the
him a particular account of the fuccefs of his experi- purpofe of
ments on the compofition of glafs •, and that, having correcting
mixed minium, and fand in different proportions, the™^.1™^-
refult of the mean refraction and the difperfion of the teiefCOpe£v
rays varied according to the following table.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Proportion
of minium
to flint.
Ratio of the mean
refradlion from
air into glafs.
2028
1830
1787
1732
1724
1664
1000
1000
xoco
IOCO
IOOO
IOCO
Difperfion of
the rays in
comparifon of
crown glafs.
4800
355°
3259
2207
1800
I354
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
ICOO
From this table it is evident, that a greater quantity
of lead not only produces a greater difperfion of the
rays, but alfo increafes the mean refraction. The firft
of thefe kinds of glafs, which contains three times as
much minium as flint, will appear very extraordinary j
fince, hitherto, no tranfparent fubftance has been known,
■whofe refractive powTer exceeded the ratio of two to one,
and fince the difperfion occafioned by this glafs is almoft
five times as great as that of crown glafs, which could
fcarcely be believed by thofe wTho entertained any doubt
concerning the fame property in flint glafs, the effect of
which is three times as great as crown glafs.
Here, however, M. Euler announces to us another
difeovery of M. Zeiher, no lefs furprifing than the for¬
mer, and which difconcerted all his fchemes for recon¬
ciling the above-mentioned phenomena. As the fix
kinds of glafs mentioned in the preceding table were com-
pofed of nothing but minium and flint, M. Zeiher hap¬
pened to think of mixing alkaline falts with them, in
order to give the glafs a confiftence more proper for
dioptric ufes ; This mixture, however, greatly diminilk-
Z ed
OPT
cd tne mean refraiiionj almoft without xnahing any
' change in the difperfion. After many trials, he is faid
to have ootained a kind ot glafs, which occafioned three
times as great a d’fperlion of the rays as the common
glafs, at the fame time that the mean refraction was only
as i.61 to i. j though we have not heard that this kind
of giafs was ever uled in the conitruftion of telefcopes.
IvTr Dollond was not the only optician who had the
merit of dilcovering the achromatic telefccpe, as this
mftrument appears to have been conitru£led by a private
gentleman—Mr Cheiter More Hall. He obferved
that prifms of flint glafs gave larger fpectra than prifms
of water, when the mean refraction was the fame in both.
He tried prifms of other glafs, and found fimilar differ¬
ences ; and he applied this difcovery to the fame pur-
pofes as Mr Doliond. Thefe faCts came out in a procefs
raifed at the inftance of Watkins optician, as alio in a
publication of Mr Ramfden. There is, however, no
evidence that Dollond hole the idea from Mr Hall, or
that they had not both claims to the difcovery.
The belt refraCting telefcopes, conftructed on the
principles of Mr Dollond, are itill defective, on account
of that colour which, by the aberration of the rays,
they give to objeCts viewed through them, unlefs the
objeCt glafs be of fmall diameter. This defeCt philofo-
phers have endeavoured to remove by various contrivan¬
ces, and Bofcovich has, in his attempts for this purpofe,
oifplayed much ingenuity j but the philofopher whole
exertions have been crowned with moft fuccefs, and
who has perhaps made the molt important difcovery in
this fcience, is Dr Robert Blair profefibr of pradical af-
tronomy in the college of Edinburgh. By a judicious fet
of experiments, he has proved, that the quality of difper-
  fing the rays in a greater degree than crown glafs, is not
for this pur- confined to a few media, but is poffeffed by a great variety
r9
Difcovery
of Dr Ro¬
bert Blair
pofe
of fluids, and by feme of thefe in a moft: extraordinary de¬
gree. He has fhown, that though the greater refrangibili-
ty of the violet rays than of the red rays, when light paffes
from any medium whatever info a vacuum, may be con-
fidered as a law of nature; yet in the paflage of light
from one medium into another, it depends entirely on
the qualities of the media which of thefe rays fhall be
the molt refrangible, or whether there fhall be any
difference in their refrangibility. In order to correft
the aberration arifing from difference of refrangibility
among the rays of light, he inftituted a fet of experi¬
ments, by which he deteCled a very lingular and im¬
portant quality in the muriatic acid. In all the dif-
perfive media hitherto examined, the green rays, which
are the mean refrangible in crown glafs, were found
among the lefs refrangible ; but in the muriatic acid,
thefe fame rays were found to make a part of the more
refrangible. This difcovery led to complete fuccefs in
removing the great defect of optical inftruments, viz.
that diflipation or aberration of the rays which arifes
from their unequal refrangibility, and has hitherto
rendered it impoffible to converge all of them to one
point either by Angle or oppoftte refractions. A fluid,
in which the particles of marine acid and metalline par¬
ticles hold a due proportion, at the fame time that it
feparates the extreme rays of the fpeCtrum much more
than crown glafs, refraCts all the orders of the rays in
the fame proportion that glafs does : and hence rays of
all colours made to diverge by the refraction of the
I c s.
glafs, may either be rendered parallel by a fubfequent Hiftory.
re.raCtion in the confine of the glafs and this fluid j or, "—
by weakening the refractive denfity of the fluid, the
refraCtion which takes place in the confine of it and
glafs may be rendered as regular as reflection, without
the lealt colour whatever, ihe doCtor has a telefcope,
not exceeding inches in length, with a compound
objed glafs of this kind, which equals in all refpeds, if
it does not furpals, the belt of Dollond’s 42 inches lonef.
See Phil. Tranf. Edin. vol. iii.
We fliall conclude the hiltory of the difeoveries con-of the°re-
cermng refraCtion, with fome account of the refraCtion fraction of
ot the atmofphere.—Tables of refraCtion have been cal-^e atmo-
culated by Mr Lambert, with a view to correCt inac- iP^eie‘
curacies in determining the altitudes of mountains geome¬
trically. The obfervations of Mr Lambert go upon
the fuppofition that the refraCtive power of the atmo¬
fphere is invariable : But as this is by no means the
cafe, his rules mult be eonfidered as true only for the
mean Hate of the air.
Dr Nettlelon obferved a remarkable variety in the
refraCtive power of the atmofphere, which demonltrates
how little we can depend upon the calculated heights of
mountains, when the obfervations are made with an in-
ftrument, and when the refraCtive power of the air is to
be taken into the account. Being defirous to learn, by
obfervation, how far the mercury would defeend in the
barometer at any given elevation, he propofed to meafure
the height of fome of their highelt hills; but when he
attempted it, he found his obfervation fo much di-
fturbed by refraCtion, that he could obtain no certain
refult. Having meafured one hill of a confiderable
height, in a clear day, and obferved the mercury at the
bottom and at the top, he found, that about 19 feet or
more were required to make the mercury fall Tl5th of
an inch; but afterwards, repeating the experiment,
when the air was rather grofs and hazy, he found the
fmall angles fo much increafed Ly refraCtion as to make
the hill much higher than before. He afterwards fre¬
quently made obfervations at his own houfe, by point¬
ing a quadrant to the tops of fome neighbouring hills,
and obferved that they would appear higher in the
morning before funrife, and alfo late in the evening,
than at noon in a clear day, by feveral minutes. In one
cafe the elevations of the fame hill differed more than 30
minutes.
M. Euler confidered the re fra Clive power of the
atmofphere, as affeCfed by different degrees of heat and
elafticity ; in which he fhows, that its refraClive power,
to a confiderable diftance from the zenith, is fuffieiently
near the proportion of the tangent of that diftance, and
that the law of refraClion follows the diredt ratio of the
difference marked by the thermometer j but when ftars
are in the horizon, the changes are in a ratio fomewhat
greater than this, more elpecially on account of the
variation in the heat.
As the denfity of the atmofphere varies with its La Place
altitude, and as the irregular curvature of the earth refolves the
caufes a conftant change in the inclination of the ftrata !)roblem
through which any ray of light paffes to the eye, the c^rtfrac”
refraClion cannot be obtained from the denfity of the tion.
atmofphere, and the angular direClion of the refraCted
ray. By comparing aftronomical with meteorological
obfervations, however, the celebrated M. La Place has
given.
OPT
Hiilory. given a complete folution of this very important pro-
v blem. . . r
22 The phenomena knowm by the names of mirage,
of1 irregular looming, ’xeA fata morgana, have been traced to nre-
refradbons. gularities of refractions anting from accidental changes
in the temperature of the atmofphere. From the rare-
faftion of the. air near the furface of water, buildings, or
the earth itfelf, a diftant objeft feen through this rare¬
fied air fometimes appears depreffed mftead ot railed by
refraction j at other times it appears both elevated and
depreffed, fo that the objeft feems double, and iome-
times triple, one of the images being m an inverted
petition. This fubjeft is much indebted to the refear-
ches of the ingenious Dr Wollafton, who has imitated theie
natural phenomena by viewing objeCts through the rare¬
fied air contiguous to a red-hot poker, or through a
faline or faccharine folution with water and ipint ot
wine floating upon its furface. This branch of optics
has alfo been well illuftrated by Mr Vince and Mr Hud-
dart.
Sect. II. Difcoveries concerning the Reflection of Light.
,3 • The followers of Plato were acquainted with the
of the'"an-S equality between the angles of incidence and refleaion 5
Cients. and it is probable that they difeovered this, by obfervmg
a ray of the fun reflefted from Handing water, or tome
other polithed body •, or from attending to the images oi
obi efts reflected by fuch furfaces. If philofophers paid
any attention to this phenomenon, they could not but
perceive, that, if the ray fell nearly perpendicular upon
fuch a furface, it was reflefted near the perpendicular j
and if it fell obliquely, it was reflected obliquely : and
obfervations upon thefe angles, the moll rude and imper-
feCt could not fail to convince them ot their equality,
and'that the incident and reflected rays werem the lame
PlTriftotle was fenfible that it is the reflection of light
from the atmofphere which prevents total darknels alter
the fun lets, and hi places where he does not Ihme in the
day time. He was alfo of opinion, that rainbows, halos,
and mock funs, were occafioned by the reflexion .of the
funbeams in different circumltances, by which an imper-
feCt image of his body was produced, the colour only
being exhibited, and not his proper figure. The image,
he fays, is not Angle, as in a mirror j for each drop ol
rain is too fmall to refleCt . a yifible image, but the con-
,. iunCHon of all the images is vilible. _ r ,
Treatife of Without inquiring any farther into the nature of light
optics by or vilion, the ancient geometers contented themielves
Euclid- with deducing a fyItem of optics from two fafts, the
rectilineal progrefs of light, and the equality of the
angles of incidence and refleaion. The treatffe ot optics
aferibed to Euclid is employed in determining the ap¬
parent fize and figure of objeas, from the angle which
they fubtend at the eye, and the apparent place ot the
image of an objea refleaed from a pohlhed miror. This
place he fixes at the point where the refleaed ray meets
a perpendicular to the mirror drawn through the objeCt.
But this work is fo imperfea and inaccurate, that it
,c does not feem to be the produaion of Euclid.
Burning It appears from Pliny and.Laaantius, that burning
glafies of glaffes were known to the ancients. In one ot the plays
the anci- Ariftophancs, indeed, a perfon is introduced who pro-
-ents. pofes to deflroy his adyerfary’s papers by means of this
I G S. 179
inftrument •, and there is feafon to believe that the Hiflory- ^
Romans had a method of lighting their facred fire by w
means of a concave fpeculum. It feems indeed to have
been known A. C. 433, that there is an increafe of heat
in the place where the rays of light meet, after refleftion
from a concave mirror. The burning power of concave
mirrors is noticed by the author of the work aferibed to
Euclid. If we give any credit to what fome ancient
hiftorians are faid to have written concerning the exploits
of Archimedes, We (hall be induced to think that he
conftrufled fome very powerful burning niirrors : but
nothing being faid of other perfons making ule of his
inventions, the whole account is very doubtful. It ys
allowed, however, that this eminent geometer did write
a treatife on the fubjeft of burning mirrors, which has
not defeended to Our times.
B. Porta fuppofes that the burning mirrors of the
ancients were parabolic and made of metal. It follow s
from the properties of this curve, that all the rays which
fall upon it, parallel to its axis, will meet in the fame
point at the focus. Cctfifequently, if the vertex of the
parabola be cut off, as in fig. 1. it will make ^ con-
venient burning mirror. In fome drawings of this, m- ^ ^
ftrument the fruftum is fo fmall, as to look like a ring.
With an inftrument of this kind, it is thought, that the
Romans lighted their facred fire, and that with a fimilar
mirror Archimedes burnt the Roman fleet *, ufing a lens,
to throw the rays parallel, when they had been brought
to a focus j or applying a fmaller parabolic mirror for lS
this purpofe, as is reprefented fig. 2. 26
The nature of refle&ion was, however, very far from Of fcemg
being underftood. Even Lord Bacon, who made much ’
greater advances in phyfics than his .predecefiors, iup-
pofed it poflible to fee the image refieaed from a look-
ing glafs, without feeing the glafs itfelf j and to this
purpofe he quotes a ftory of Friar. Bacon, who is re¬
ported to have apparently walked in the air between
two fteeples, and which was thought to have been ef-
fected by refle&ion from glaffes while he walked upon
the ground. . .
Vitellio had endeavoured to fhow that it is poffible,
by means of a cylindrical convex fpeculum, to fee the
images of objects in the air, out of the fpecnlum, when
the objefts themfelves cannot be feen. But from his
defeription of the apparatus, it will be feen that the. eye
vvas to be dire&ed towards the fpeculum placed within
a room, while the objecl and the fpe&ator were with¬
out it. But as no fuch effeft can be produced by a
convex mirror, Vitellio muft have been under fome de
ception with refpeft to his experiment.
B. Porta fays, that this effeft may be produced by
a plain mirror only j and alfo by the combination of a
plain and a concave mirror.
Kircher alfo fpeaks of the poffibility of exhibiting
thefe pendulous images, and fuppofes that they are re-
fledtfcd from the denfe air: But the moft perfect and
pleafing deception, depending upon the images in the
air, is one of which this writer gives a particular ac¬
count in his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbra-, p. 783. In
this cafe the image is placed at the bottom of a hollow
polifhed cylinder, by which means it appears like a real
folid fubftance, fufpended within the mouth of the
veffel. . 27
It was1 Kepler who firft difeovered, that the apparent Di(covenes
places of objeas feen by refkaing mirrors depended of Kepler
Z 2 upon
i 8o
Ililtory.
2S
Difcoveries
of Mr
Boyle.
,
Of the in-
fnfion of
lignum ne¬
phritic um.
upon the angle which the rays of light, iffuing from the
refleSow311 ^ ^ 0^ea’ make W1'th one mother after
: jV“' Bo>'1f ™ade 1'ome curious obfervations concern¬
ing the retlefhng powers of differently coloured fub-
ilances. In order to fliew that fnow Ihines by a bor¬
rowed znd not by a native light, he placed a quantity
rl 1, “Z a Bom which all foreign light was ex-
• tided, and found that it was completely invifible To
try whether white bodies refleft more light than others
te held a fheet of white paper in a funbeam admit¬
ted mto^ a darkened room ; and obferved that it relleft-
t'J much more light than a paper of any other colour,
a confiderable part of the room being enlightened by it.
Jo fliow that white bodies reflet the rays outwards he
adds, that common burning glaffes require a long time
to burn or difcolour white paper j that the image of the
un was not fo well defined upon white paper as upon
black j that when he put ink upon the paper the
moifture would be quickly dried up, and the paper
wmcn he could not burn before, would prefently take
hle^~amd t,hat ?y exP°ring his hand to the fun, with
a thin black glove upon it, it would be fuddenlv
and more confiderably heated, than if he held his
leather and ^ ^ °T PUt °n 3 §1°Ve °f thin white
° ProYe that black is the reverfe of white, with
rclpect to its property of reflecting the rays of the fun
ue procured a large piece of black marble, ground into
the torm of a large concave fpeculum, and found that
tiw image of the fun refle&ed from it w as far from
offending or dazzling his eyes, as it would have done
from another fpeculum ; and though this was large, he
could not for a long time fet a piece of wood on fire
with it; though a far lefs fpeculum, of the fame form
and m a more reflecting fubflance, would prefently have
made it flame.
r J°nfa[isfy llimfdf ftin farther with refpecT: to this
iubject, he took a tile ; and having made one half of
its furface white and the other black, he expofed it to
the fummer fun. Having let it lie there fome time,
he found, that while the whitened part remained cool,
the black part was very hot. He fometimes left part
of the tile of its native red ; and, after expofing the
whole to the fun obferved that this part grew hotter
than the white, but not fo hot as the black part.
A remarkable property of lignum nephriticum fa
fpecies of guilandma) was firft obferved by Kircher.
?r. ? has defcnbed this lignum nephriticum as a
wnitiih kind, of wood, which was brought from Mexi¬
co, and which had been thought to tinge water of
a green, colour only; but he fays that he found it to
communicate all kinds of colours. If an infufion of this
wood be put into a glafs globe, and expofed to a ffrong
light, it. wdl be as colourlefs as pure water ; but if it be
carried into a place a little fhaded, it will be a beauti¬
ful green. In a place flill more fhaded, it will incline
to red ; and in a very fhady place, or in an opaque veffel
it will be green again. ’
Mr Boyle firft dillinclly noted the two very different
colours which this remarkable tinaure exhibits by tranf
mitted and refleaed light. If it be held direaiy between
the light and the eye, it will appear tinged (excepting
the very top of it, where a fky-coloured circle fome
times appears) almoft of a golden colour, except the in-
OPTICS.
reddil^VT ftr0”S’ inwhich cafe ^ will be darker Hiftory.
reddiih, and requires to be diluted with water. But if v—
the i;hSd fr(?m. the %ht, fo that the eye be between
the light and the phial, it will appear of a deep lively
When a little of this tinaure tvas poured upon a
Ae fun fl^ Pap"’,and Pla“d in a window where
the fun fltone upon it, he oblerved, that if he turned his
baekupon the fun, the lhadow of any body proiefled upon
the liquor would not be all dark, like’othel lhadows •
ut that part of it would be curioully coloured, the edse
of tt next the body being almoft of a lively golden
colour, and the more remote part blue
Obferving that this tindure, if it were too deep,
was not tinged m fo beautiful a manner, and that the
impregnating virtue of the wood did, by frequent in-
A Water’-gTaduallydecay’ he corJjedured
that the tinaure contained much of the effential fait of
e wood ; and to try whether the fubtle parts, on which
the colour depended, were volatile enough to be diflilled,
without diflolvmg their texture, he applied fome of it
o xe gentle heat of a lamp furnace; but he found all
Bia came over was as limpid and colourlefs as rock
MMer, while that which remained behind M-as of fo
aeep a blue, that it was only in a very ftrong light that
it appeared of any colour.
nh^/°m?T.S brCUSht a round long-necked
’ s6.11^ Tth thlSr rtndlure, into a darkened room,
into which a beam of the fun M-as admitted by a fmall
aperture; and holding the phial • fometimes LarThe
unbeams, and fometimes partly in them and partly
out of them, changing alfo the pofition of the glafs
and viewing it from foveral parts of the room, it exhi’
bxted a much greater variety of colours than it did in an
enlightened room. Befides the ufoal colours, it was
led in fome places and green in others, and vithin were
intermediate colours produced by the different mixtures
ot light and fliade.
It was not only in this tinflure of lignum nephriti-
CU“ th,at B°yle perceived the difference between
refleaed and tranfmitted light. He obferved it even
m gold, though no perfon explained the caufe of thefe
appearances before Sir Ifaac Newton. He took a piece
ol leaf gold and holding it betwixt his eye and the light,
obferved, that it did not appear of a golden colour, but
of a greemfh blue. He alfo obferved the fame change
of colour by candle light; but the experiment did not
lucceed M-ith a leaf of filver.
The conftitution of the atmofphere and of the fea,
wefoall 5n1d? ra°rc recent obfervations, to be fimilar
to that of this infufion ; for the blue rays, and others of
a faint colour, do not penetrate fo far into them as the
red, and others of a ftronger colour.
. I he firft diftinff account of the colours exhibited by^- , ,
thm plates of various fubftances is to be found among of
the obfervations of Mr Boyle. To Hum that colours the colours
may be made to appear or vanifli, M-here there is no ac-of thin
ceflion or change either of the fulphureous, the faline
or the mercurial principle of bodies, he obforves, that
all. chemical effential oils, as alfo good fpirit of wine
being fliaken till they rife in bubbles, appear of various
colours; which immediately vanifli when the bubbles
burlt, fo that a colourlefs liquor may be immediately
made to exhibit a variety of colours, and lofe them in a
moment,
OPT
Riffory.
It
Dr Hooke’s
account of
thefe co¬
lours.
moment, without any change in its eilential principles.
He then mentions the colours that appear in bubbles of
foap and water, and alfo in thofe of turpentine. He
fometimes got glafs blown fo thin as to exhibit fimilar
colours; and obferves, that a feather, and alfo a black
ribbon, held at a proper diftance, between his eye and
the fun, fhowed a variety of little rainbows, with very
vivid colours, none of which were conftantly to be feen
in the fame objects.
This fubject was more carefully inveftigated by Dr
Hooke, who promifed, at a meeting of the fociety on
the 7th of March 1672, to exhibit, at their next meet¬
ing, fomething which had neither reflection nor refrac¬
tion, and yet’ was diaphanous. Accordingly he produ¬
ced the famous coloured bubble of foap and water of
which fuch ufe was aftenvards made by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton, but which Dr Hooke and his contemporaries feem
to have overlooked in Mr Boyle’s treatife on colours,
though it was publiflied nine years before. It is no
wonder that fo curious an appearance excited the at¬
tention of that inquilitive body, and that they fliould
deflre him to bring an account of it in writing at their
next meeting.
By the help of a fmall glafs pipe, there were blown
feveral fmall bubbles, out of a mixture of foap and wa¬
ter. At flrft, they appeared white and clear; but,
after fome time, the film of wTater growing thinner,
there appeared upon it all the colours of the rainbowr:
Firft, a pale yellow; then orange, red, purple, blue,
green, &c. with the fame feries of colours repeated; in
which it was farther obfervable, that the firft and laft
feries were very faint, and that the middlemolt feries
was very bright. After thefe colours had pafied
through the changes above mentioned, the film of the
bubble began to appear white again ; and prefently, in
feveral parts of this fecond white film, there were feen
feveral-holes, which by degrees grew very large, feveral
of them running into one another.
Dr Hooke was the firft who obferved the beautiful
colours that appear hr thin plates of Mufcovy glafs.
With a microfcope he could perceive that thefe colours
were ranged in rings furrounding the white fpecks or
flaws in this thin fubltance, that the order of the colours
was the very fame as in the rainbow, and that they
were often repeated ten times. But the colours were
difpofed as in the outer rainbow. Some of them alfo
were much brighter than others, and fome of them very
much broader. He alfo obferved, that if there was a
part where the colours were very broad, and confpicu-
ous to the naked eye, they might be made, by prefling
the part with the finger, to change places, and move
from one part to another. Laftly, He oblerved, that
if great care be ufed, this fubftance may fplit into plates
i or "I an inch in diameter, each of which will ap¬
pear through a microfcope to be uniformly adorned with
feme one vivid colour, and that thefe plates will be found
upon examination to be of the fame thicknefs throughout.
A phenomenon fimilar to this was noticed by Lord
Brereton, who at a meeting of the Royal Society in
1666, produced fome pieces of glafs taken out of a
church window, both on the north and on the fouth
fide of it ; they were all eaten in by the air, but the
piece taken from the fouth fide had fome colours like
thofe of the rainbow upon it, which the others on the
north fide had not. It cannot be doubled; but that in
I c s.
181
all thefe cafes, the glafs is divided into thin plates, History,
which exhibit colours, upon the fame principle with v “J
thofe which Dr Hooke obferved in the bubble of foap
and water, and in the thin plate of glafs, which we
{hall find more fully explained by Sir Ifaac Newton.
The enquiries of M. Bouguer concerning the reflec¬
tion of light are worthy of particular notice. They
are fully detailed in his Traite d'Ofitique, a polthumous
work publiflied by La Caille in 1760.
In order to compare different degrees of light, he al- Difeoveries
ways contrived to place the radiant bodies or other °fh°'*-
bodies illuminated by them, in fuch a manner that he
could view them diftindliy at the fame time; and he
either varied the cuftances of thefe bodies, or modified
their light in fome other way, till he could perceive no
difference between them. Then, confidering their dif¬
ferent diftances, or the other circuruitances by which
their light was affefted, he calculated the proportion wliich
they would have borne to each other at the fame di-
ffanee, or in the fame ciiournfiances.
To afeertain 'he quantity of light loft by reflexion,
he placed the mirror, or reflefting furface, B, on which ^
the experiment was to be made, truly upright; and
having taken two tablets, of precifely the fame colour,
or of an equal degree of whiten efs, he placed them ex¬
actly parallel to one another at E and D, and threw
light upon them by means of a lamp or candle, P,
placed in a right line between them. He then placed
himfelf fo, that with his eye at A he could fee the
tablet E, and the image of the tablet D, reflected
from the mirror R, at the fame time,; making them
as it were, to touch one another. Pie then moved the
candle along the line ED, fo as to throw more or lefs
light upon either of them, till he could perceive no
difference in the ftrength c‘ the two lights that came to
his eye. After this, he had nothing more to do than
to meafure the dirtances EP and DP, and then the in-
tenfity of the lights was as EP* to DP*.
To find how much light is loft by oblique refle£Hon, p;^
he took two equally polilhed plates, D and E, and
caufed them to be enlightened by the candle P.
While one of them, D, was feen at A, by reflection
from B, placed in a pofition oblique to the eye, the
other, E, was fo placed, as to appear contiguous to it; ■
and removing the plate E, till the light which it re¬
flected was no ftronger than that which came from the
image D, feen by reflection at B, he eftimated the quantity
of light that was loft by this oblique reflection, by the
fquares of the diftances of the two objeCts from the candle.
In order to afeertain the quantity of light loft by
reflection with the greateft exaCtnefs, M. Bouguer in¬
troduced two beams of light into a darkened room, as
by the apertures P and £) ; which he had fo contrived, Fig. 5.
that he could place them higher and lower, and enlarge
or contraCt them at pleafure ; and the reflecting fur-
face (as that of a fluid contained in a veflel) was
placed horizontally at O, from which the light com¬
ing through the hole P, was reflected to R, upon the
fereen GH, where it was compared with another beam
of light that fell upon S, through the hole ; which
he made fo much lefs than P, as that the fpaces S and
R were equally illuminated ; and by the proportion
that the apertures P and Q bore to each other, he
calculated what quantity of light was loft by the re¬
flection at O.
It
ii 82 OPT
. IIiflor-y- , _ It was neceflary, he obferves, that the two beams of
^ light PO and QS (which he ufually made 7 or 8 feet
long) fhould be exaclly parallel, that they might come
from two points of the Iky of the fame altitude, and
having precifely the fame intenfity of light. It was
alfo neceffary that the hole £ Ihould be a little higher
than P, in order that the two images fhould be at the
fame height, and near one another. It is no lefs necef-
fary, he fays, that the fcreen GH be exactly vertical, in
order that the direft and reflefted beams may fall upon
it, with the fame inclination; fince, otherwife, though
the two lights were perfectly equal, they would not il¬
luminate the fcreen equally. This difpofition, he fays,
ferves to anfwer another important condition in thefe
experiments j for the direft ray OS muft be of the fame
length with the fum of the incident and reflefled rays,
PO and OR, in order that tha quantity of light intro¬
duced into the room may be fenfibly proportional to the
lizes of the apertures.
Before we proceed to detail the other experiments of
Bouguer, we fhall notice fome which were made previ¬
ous to them by Buffon on the diminution of light by
reflection, and the tranfmiffion of it to confiderable di-
33 fiances through the air.
iExperi- By receiving the light of the fun in a dark room, and
Euffon M comParjng it with the fame light of the fun refle&ed
by a mirror, he found that at fmall ’diftances, as four
or five feet, about one half was loft by reflection.
When the diftances were 100, 200, and 300 feet, he
could hardly perceive that it loft any of its intenfity by
being tranfmitted through fuch a fpace of air.
He afterwards made the fame experiments with
candles, in the following manner : He placed himfelf
oppofite to a looking glafs, with a book in his hand, in
a dark room ; and having one candle lighted in the next
room, at the diftance of about 40 feet, he had it brought
nearer to him by degrees, till he could juft diftinguifh
the letters of the book, which was then 24 feet from
the candle. He then received the light of the candle,
reflected by the looking glafs, upon his book, carefully
excluding all the light that was reflected from any thing
elfe $ and he found that the diftance of the book from
the candle, including the diftance from the book to
the looking glafs (which was onV half a foot) was in
all 15 feet. He repeated the experiment feveral times,
with nearly the fame refult *, and therefore concluded,
that the quantity of direft is to that of reflefted light
as 576 to 225 5 fo that the light of five candles reflefted
from a plain mirror is about equal to that of two candles.
From thefe experiments it appeared, that more light
was loft by reflexion of the candles than of the fun,
which M. Buffon thought was owing to this circum-
ftance, that the light iffuing from the candle diverges,
and therefore falls more obliquely upon the mirror than
the light of the fun, the rays of which are nearly parallel.
Thefe experiments and obfervations of M. Buffon,
though curious, are inferior to thofe of M. Bouguer,
both in extent and accuracy.
Mr B.ni- or<ier to afcertain the* difference in the quantity of
guer’s dif- light reflected by glafs and polifhed metal, he ufed a
voveries fmooth piece of glafs one line in thicknefs, and found
tlwreflec^ t^iat Vk^!en ^ was placed at an angle of 15 degrees with
tion of glafs ^ incident rays, it reflefted 628 parts of 1000 which
and polifli- fell upon it j at the fame time that a metallic mirror,
ed metal, which he tried in the fame circumftances, reflected only
4
1 c s.
561 of them. At a lefs angle of incidence much more Hi dory,
light was reflected : fo that at an angle of three degrees '' v—”
the glafs reflected 700 parts, and the metal femething
lefs, as in the former cale.
In the cafe of unpolilhed bodies, he found that a piece
of white plafter, placed at an angle of 7 50, with the
incident rays, refledted part of the light that is re¬
ceived from a candle nine inches from it. White paper,
in the fame circumftances, refledted in the fame propor¬
tion ; but at the diftance of three inches, they both re-
fledted 150 parts out of 1000.
Proceeding to make farther obfervations on the fub-
jedt of refledted light, he premifes the two following
theorems, which he demonftrates geometrically. 1. W hen
the luminous body is at an infinite diftance, and its
light is received by a globe, the furface of which
has a perfedt polilh, and abforbs no light, it refledts
the light equally in all diredtions, provided it be re¬
ceived at a confiderable diftance. He excepts the
place vfliere the fhadow of the globe falls : becaufe this
is no more than a Angle point, with refpedt to the im-
menfity of the fpherical furface which receives the light.
2 . The quantity of light refledted in one certain direc¬
tion will always be exadtly the fame, whether it be re¬
fledted by a very great number of fmall poliflied he-
mifpheres, by a lefs number of larger hemifpheres, or by
a Angle hemifphere, provided they occupy the fame bafe,
or cover the fame ground plan.
The ufe he propofes to make of thefe theorems is to
aflift him in diftinguiftiing whether the light refledted
from bodies be owing to the extindtion of it wnthin
them, or whether the eminences wdiich cover them have
not the fame effedl as the fmall poliftied hemifpheres
above mentioned.
He begins wnth obferving, that, of the light refledt¬
ed from mercury, 4 at leaft is loft, and that probably
no fubftances refledt more than this. The rays were
received at an angle of 1x4 degrees of incidence, that
is meafured from the furface of the reflecting body, and
not from the perpendicular, which, he fays, is what we
are from this place to underftand whenever he mentions
the angle of incidence.
With regard to the quantities of light refledted at Great dif
different angles of incidence, M. Bouguer found in ge- ferences in
neral, that refledtion is ftronger at fmall angles of inci- the reflec-
dence, and weaker at large ones. The difference is ex-tlv^ Power
ceflive when the rays ftrike the furface of tranfparent fub- ces accord"
ftances, with different degrees of obliquity j but it is ing to the
almoft as great in fome opaque fubftances, and it wTas angle of in-
ahvays more or lefs fo in every thing that he tried. c*dence.
He found the greateft inequality in black marble, which,
though not perfedtly polifhed, yet with an angle of 30
3 5' of incidence, it refledted almoft as well as quick-
filver. Of 1000 rays which it received, it returned
600 : but w?hen the angle of incidence w'as 140, it re¬
fledted only 156 ; when it wras 30°, it refledted 51 ; and
wdien it w7as 8o°, it refledted only 23.
Similar experiments made with metallic mirrors al¬
ways gave the differences much lefs confiderable. The
greateft was hardly ever an eighth or a ninth part of
it, but they were ahvays in the fame wray.
The great difference between the quantity of light
refladted from the furface of water, at different angles
of incidence, is truly furprifing. M. Bouguer fome-
times fufpedted, that, when the angles of incidence were
vfixy
OPTICS.
18
Hiftorv. very fmall, tne renection from w-ater was even greater
 r—J than from quickfilver ) though he rather thought that
it was fcarcely fo great. In very fmall angles, he fays,
that water retle£ls nearly ^ of the hired light.
The light refleded from a lake is fometimes y or 4,
or even a greater proportion, of the light that comes di-
redly from the fun, which is an addition to the hired
rays of the fun that cannot fail to be very fenfible. The
hired light of the fun diminiihes gradually as it ap¬
proaches the horizon, while the refleded light at the
fame time grows ttroager : fo that there is a certain al¬
titude of the fun, in which the united force of the hi¬
red and refleded light will be the greatell poflible, and
this he fays is 12 or 13 degrees.
The light refleded from water at great angles of in¬
cidence is extremely fmall. M. Bouguer was aflured,
that, when the light was perpendicular, it refleded no
more than the 37th part that quickfllver does in the
fame circumftances 5 for it did not appear that wTater re-
fleds more than the 60th, or rather the 55th, part of
perpendicular light. When the angle of incidence was
50°, the light refleded from the furface of water was
about the 3 2d part of that which mercury refleded j
and as the refledion from water increafes as the angle of
incidence diminiflies, it -was twice as ftrong in proportion
at 390 ; for it was then the 16th pare of the quantity
refleded from mercury.
In order to procure a common flandard by which
to meafure the proportion of light refleded from va¬
rious fluid fubftances, he feleded water as the moft com¬
modious j and partly by obfervation and calculation he
drew up the following table of the quantity of light
refleded from its furface at different angles of incidence.
Angles of
incidence.
1
1
2
2
5
7
10
12
r5
Rays re¬
fleded of
721
692
669
639
614
50!
4°9
333
271
211
Angles of
incidence.
17 4
20
25
3°
40
50
60
70
80
90
Rays re¬
fleded. of
1000
178
H5
97
65
34
22
*9
18
18
18
In the fame manner, he conftruded the following
table containing the quantity of light refleded from the
looking glafs not quickfllvered.
Angles of
incidence.
24-
5
7v
10
12!
x5
20
25
Rays re¬
fleded of
584
5^3
474
412
356
299
222
*57
Angles of
incidence.
3°
40
5°
60
70
80
90
Rays re¬
fleded of
1000.
112
57
34
27
25
25
25
When water floats upon mercury there will be two Hiftory.
images of any objed feen by refledion from them, one ' ~ 'v
at the furface of the water, and the other at that of the
quicklilver. In the large!! angles of incidence, the
image at the furface of the water will difappear, which
will happen when it is about a 60th or an 80th part
lefs luminous than the image at the furface of the
quickfilver. Deprefling the eye, the image on the wra-
ter wall grow llronger, and that on the quickfilver
weaker in proportion 5 till at laft, the latter will be
incomparably weaker than the former, and at an angle
of about 10 degrees they will be equally luminous.
According to the table, ToeV °f the incident rays are
refleded from the water at this angle of 10 degrees.-
At the furface of the mercury they were reduced to
500 5 and of thefe, part being refleded back upon it
from the under furface of the w^ater, only 333 remained
to make the image from the mercury.
It has been frequently obferved, that there is a remark-
ably Itrong refledion into water, With refped to rays 0f images
iffuing from the W’ater ; and perfons under water have by the air-r
feen images of things in the air in a manner peculiarly'
diftind and beautiful. In order to account for thefe
fads, M. Bouguer obferves that from the fmallell anglg£
of incidence, to a certain number of degrees, the greateft
part of the rays are refleded, perhaps, in as great a pro¬
portion as at the furface of metallic mirrors, or of quick¬
filver ; while the other part, which does not efcape into
the air, is extinguiflied or abforbed j fo that the furface
of the tranfparent body appears opaque on the infide.
If the angle of incidence be increafed only a few degrees,
the ffrong refledion ceafes altogether, a great number of
rays efcape into the air, and very few* are abforbed. As
the angle of incidence is farther increafed, the quantity
of the light refleded becomes lefs and lefs •, and wrhen
it is near 90 degrees, almofl: all the rays efcape out of
the tranfparent body, its furface lofing almoll all its
powder of refledion, and becoming nearly as tranfparent
as when the light falls upon it from without.
This property belonging to the furfaces of tranfpa- jrx(:;n^;0.r
rent bodies, of abforbing the rays of light, is truly re- of the rays
markable, and, as there is reafon to believe, had notof I'gh1 at
been noticed by any perfon before M. Bouguer. t^e ^ur^ace
That all the light is refleded at certain angles of itt^rcntToaies.
cidence from air into denfer fubftances, had frequently
been noticed, efpecially in glafs prifms j. fo that Newr-gtrong re
ton made ufe of one of them, inftead of a mirror, in the fleftion by
conftrudion of his refleding telefcope. If a beam of a prifm,
light fall upon the air from within thefe prifms, at an
angle of 10, 20, or 30 degrees, the effed wall be nearly
the fame as at the furface of quickfilver, one-fourth or
one-third of the rays being extinguiftied, and two-thirds
or three-fourths refleded. This property retains its full
force as far as an angle of 490 49', (the proportion of
the fines of the refradion being 31 and 20) •, but if the
angle of incidence be increafed but one degree, the
quantity of light refleded inwards fuddenly decreafes,
and a great part of the rays efcape out of the glafs, fo
that the furface becomes fuddenly tranfparent.
All tranfparent bodies have the fame property, with
this difference, that the angle of incidence at which the
ftrong refledion ceafes, and at wdiich the light which
is not refleded is extinguiftied, is greater in fome than
in others. In wrater this angle is about 410 32'; and
in every medium it depends fo much on the invariable
proportioi*.
♦
384 OPT
Hiftory. proportion of the fine of the angle of refraction to the
fine of the angle of incidence, that this law alone is
fufficient to determine all the phenomena of this new
circumftance, at leaft as to this accidental opacity of
the furface.
When M. Bouguer proceeded to meafure the quanti¬
ty of light reflected by thefe internal furfaces at great
angles of incidence, he had to ftruggle with many dif¬
ficulties j but by ufing a plate of cryftal, he found, that
at an angle of 75 degrees, this internal reflection dimi-
nifhed the light 27 or 28 times •, and as the external re¬
flection at the fame angle diminifhed the light only 26
times, it follows that the internal reflection is a little
Itronger than the other.
Repeating thefe experiments with the fame and dif¬
ferent pieces of cryftal, he fometimes found the two re¬
flections to be equally ftrong 5 but, in general, the in¬
ternal was the ftronger.
^ ^ Re fuming his obfervations on the diminution of light,
P'Tht-e^ 0t occafioried by the reflection of opaque bodies obliquely
fiefterl by fituated, he compared it with the appearances of fimilar
different fubftances which reflected the light perpendicularly.
Jubilances. Ufing pieces of filver made very white, he found, that,
when one of them was placed at an angle of 7 5 degrees
with refpeCt to the light, it reflected only 640 parts out
of 1000. He then varied the angle, and alfo ufed white
plafter and fine Dutch paper, and drew up the follow¬
ing table of the proportion of the light reflected from
each of thofe fubftances at certain angles.
39
Of the
Quantity of Light reflected from
Angles of
incidence.
90
75
60
45
3°
J5
Silver.
1000
802
640
455
3‘9
209
Plafter.
1000
762
640
529
352
194
Dutch
Paper.
971
743
5°7
332
203
Suppofing the afperities of opaque bodies to confift
,of very fmall planes, it appears from thefe obferva¬
tions, that there are fewer of them in thofe bodies which
refleCt the light at fmall angles of incidence than at
greater. None of them had their roughnefs equivalent
to fmall hemifpheres, which would have difperfed the
light equally in all directions 5 and, from the data in the
preceding table, he deduces mathematically the number
of the planes that compofe thole furfaces, and that are
inclined to the general furface at the angles above-men¬
tioned, fuppofing that the whole furface contains iooo
of them that are parallel to itfelf, fo as to refleft the
light perpendicularly, when the luminous body is fituat¬
ed at right angles with refpeCt to it. His conclufions
reduced to a table, correfponding to the preceding, are
jas follow:
I c s.
Inclinations of
the fmall fur¬
faces with re
fpeCt to the
large one.
o
*5
3°
45
60
75
The diftribution of the imall
planes that conftitute the af¬
perities of the opaque furface
in the
Silver. Plafter.
ICOO
777
554
333
161
53
1000
736
554
374
176
5°
Paper.
1000
937
545
353
166
52
Hiftory.
Thefe variations in the number of little planes, he ex-
preffes in the form of a curve 7 and afterwards fhows,
geometrically, what would be the effeCl if the bodies
were enlightened in one direction, and viewed in ano¬
ther. Upon this fubjeCt he has feveral curious theorems
and problems j but for thefe we muft refer to the work
itfelf.
Since the planets are more luminous at their edges obferva-
than at their centres, he concludes, that the bodies tions con-
which form them are conftituted in a manner different cerning
from ours 5 particularly that their opaque furfaces confiftthe Planet*»
of fmall planes, more of which are inclined to the gc-&'C‘‘
neral furface than they are in terreftrial fubftances 3 and
that there are in them an infinity of p.oints, which have
exaClly the fame fplendour.
M. Bouguer next proceeds to afeertain the quantity
of furface occupied by the fmall planes of each particu¬
lar inclination, from confidering the quantity of light
reflected by each, allowing thofe that have a greater in¬
clination to the common iurface to take up proportion-
ably lefs fpace than thofe which are parallel to it. And
comparing the quantity of light that would be reflected
by fmall planes thus difpofed, with the quantity of light
that was actually reflected by the three fubftances above-
mentioned, he found that plafter, notwithftanding its
extreme whitenefs, abforbs much light 3 for that, of
1000 rays falling upon it, of which 166 or 167 ought
to be reflected at an angle of 770, only 67 are in faft
returned3 fo that 100 out of 167 were extinguifhed, that
is, about three-fifths.
With refpeft to the planets, Bouguer concludes, that
of 300,000 rays which the moon receives, 172,000, or
perhaps 204,100, are abforked.
Having confidered the furfaces of bodies as confifting 4T
of planes only, he obferves that each fmall furface, fe-^ces^of be°
parately taken, is extremely irregular, foine of them dies,
really concave, and others convex 3 but, in reducing
them to a middle ftale, they are to be regarded as
planes. Neverthelefs he confiders them as planes only
with refpeft to the reception of the rays 3 for as they
are almoft all curves, and as, befides this, many of thofe
wdiofe fituation is different from others contribute to the
fame effecls, the rays always iffue from an adlual or ima¬
ginary focus, and after refleftion always diverge from
another.
The experiments of Lambert, related in his Photome-
tria, have laid open to us many curious obfervations
concerning the natural hiftory of light. He was .'e
firft wTho determined that a radiating furface emits its
light with nearly the fame intenfity in all directions, fo
2 that
Httlory-
42
Mr Mel¬
ville’s cb-
fervations
on the
manner in
which bo¬
dies are
heated by
light.
43
Abbe Nol-
let’s experi¬
ments with
burning
ghtfics.
OPT
that every portion of it appears equally bright to an ob-
" ferver placed in any direction.
We are obliged to Mr Melville for fome ingenious
obfervations on the manner in which bodies are heated
by light. He obferves, that, as each colorific particle
of an opaque body muit be fomewhat moved by the
reflection of the particles of light, when it is reflected
backwards and forwards between the fame particles,
it is manifeft that they mult likewife be agitated with
a vibratory motion, and the time of a vibration will
be equal to that which light takes up in moving from
one particle of a body to another adjoining. This
diftance, in the molt folid opaque bodies, cannot be
fuppofed greater than XT|-o6th of an inch, which fpace
light deferibes in the Tyxooooerooo5occrth of a fecond.
With fo rapid a motion, therefore, may the internal
parts of bodies be agitated by the influence of light, as
to perform 125,000,000,000,000 vibrations, or more, in
a fecond of time.
The arrival of different particles of light at the fur-
race of the fame colorific particle, in the fame or dif¬
ferent rays, may dilturb the regularity of its vibrations,
but will evidently increafe their frequency, or raife
ftill fmaller vibrations among the parts which compofe
thofe particles *, whence the inteftine motion will be¬
come more fubtle, and more thoroughly diffufed. If the
quantity of light admitted into the body be increafed,
the vibrations of the particles muff likewife increafe in
magnitude and velocity, till at laft they may be fo
violent, as to make all the component particles dafh
one another to pieces by their mutual collifion ; in which
cafe, the colour and texture of the body muff be de-
itroyed.
Since there is no reflection of light but at the fur-
face of a medium, the fame gentleman obferves, that the
greateft quantity of rays, though crowded into the
fmalleft fpace, will not of themfelves produce any heat.
Hence it follows, that the portion of air which lies in
the focus of the molt potent fpeculum, is not at all af-
fecled by the paffage of light through it, but continues
of the fame temperature with the ambient air •, though
any opaque body, or even any tranfparent body denfer
than air, when put in the fame place, would, in an in-
ftant be intenfely heated.
The eafieft way to be fatisfied of this truth experi¬
mentally is, to hold a hair, or a piece of down, imme¬
diately above the focus of a lens or fpeculum, or to blow
a ftream of fmoke from a pipe horizontally over it *, for
if the air in the focus were hotter than the furrounding
fluid, it would continually afeend on account of its ra-
refadion, and thereby fenfibly agitate thofe flender bo¬
dies. Or a lens may be fo placed as to form its focus
within a body of water, or fome other tranfparent fub-
ftance, the heat of which may be examined from time
to time with a thermometer ; but care muff be taken
in this experiment, to hold the lens as near as poflible
to the tranfparent body, left the rays, by falling clofer
than ordinary on its furface, fhould warm it more than
the common funbeams. See Prieftley on Vifion.
The attempts of the Abbe Nollet to fire inflam¬
mable fubftances by the concentration of the folar rays,
have a near relation to the prefent fubjecl. He attempt¬
ed to fire liquid fubftances, but he was not able to do it
either wilh fpint of wine, olive oil, oil of turpentine,
or ether ; and though lie could fire fulphur, yet he could
VOL. XV. Part I.
I C S.
not fucceed with Spaniih wax, rofin, black pitch, or met.
He both threw the focus of theie mirrors upon the
fubftances themfelves, and alfo upon the fumes that
rofe from them; but the only effeft was, that the li¬
quor boiled, and was difperfed in vapour or very fir.all
drops. When linen rags, and other folid fubftances,
were moiftened with any of thefe inflammable liquids,
they would not take fire till the liquid was difperfed in
a copious fume; fo that the rags thus prepared were
longer in burning than thofe that were dry. ^
M. Beaume, who affifted M. Nollet in fome of thefe M. Beau-
experiments, obferved farther, that the fame fubftances me’s exPe-
which were eafily fired by the flame of burning bodies, ”ments'
could not be fet on fire by the contacft of the hotteft bo¬
dies that did not aftually flame. Neither ether nor fpi-
rit of wine could be fired with a hot coal, or even red-hot
iron, unlefs they w-ere of a white heat.
By the help of optical principles, and efpecially by Bodies
obfervatiohs on the reflection of light, Mr Melville de- w^'ch feem
monftrated that bodies which feem to touch one anothert0 touc^
are not. always in actual contact. Upon examining the "her'are"
volubility and luftre of drops of rain that lie on the not in ac-
leaves of colewort, and fome other vegetables, he foundtual
that.the luftre of the drop is produced by a copious re-tat^*
fleCtion of light from the flattened part of its furface
contiguous to the plant. He found alfo, that, when the
drop rolls along a part which has been wetted, it imme¬
diately lofes all its luftre, the green plant being then feen
clearly through it 3 whereas, in the other cafe, it is hard¬
ly to be difeerned.
From thefe two obfervations, he concluded, that the
drop does not really touch the plant, when it has the
mercurial appearance, but is fufpended in the air at fome
diftance from it by a repulfive force. For there could
not be any copious reflection of white light from its un¬
der furface, unlefs there were a real interval between it
and the furface of the plant.
If that furface were perfectly fmooth, the under
furface of the drop would be fo likewife, and would
therefore fliow an image of the illuminating body by
reflection, like a piece of poliftied ftlver 3 but as it is
confiderably rough, the under iurface becomes rough
likewife, and thus by reflecting the light copioufly xn
different directions, affumes the brilliant hue of unpo-
liihed filver.
It being thus proved by an optical argument, that
the drop is not really in contaCl with the' leaf, it may
.eafily be conceived whence its volubility arifes, and why
it leaves no moifture where it rolls. ^
Before we conclude the hiftory of the obfervationsTw° cu-
concerning the reflection of light, we muft not omit tori°llSmii"
take notice of two fingular mifcellaneous obfervations. obfe™e°US
Baron Alexander Funk, viliting fome filver mines muons.™"
Sweden, obferved, that, in a clear day, it was as dark as
pitch below ground, in the eye of a pit, at 60 or 70 fa¬
thoms deep 3 whereas, in a cloudy or rainy day, he could
even fee to.read at the depth of 106 fathoms. He ima¬
gined that it arofe from this circumftance, that when
the atmofphere.is. full of clouds, light is refleaed from
them into the pit in all direaions, and that thereby a con-
fiderable proportion of the rays are refleaed perpendicu¬
larly upon the earth 3 whereas, when the atmofphere is clear,
there are no opaque bodies to reflea the light in this man¬
ner,, at leaft in a fufficient quantity 3 and rays from the
fun itfelf can never fall perpendicularly in that country.
A a ^ The
/
OPT
The other ohfervaaon was that of the ingenious Mr
Grey. He took, a piece of ftiff brown paper, and prick¬
ing ""a fmall hole in it, he held it at a little diftance be¬
fore him 5 when, applying a needle to his eye, he was
furprifed to fee the point of it inverted. The nearer
the needle was to the hole, the more it was magnified,
but the lefs diftina; and if it was fo held, that its image
was near the edge of the hole, its point icemed crooked.
Trom thefe appearances he concluded, that tnele fmall
holes, or fomething in them, produce the effeas of con¬
cave fpeculums; and from this-circumftance he took the
liberty to call them aerialfpecuhunu
This method of accounting for the inverted linage of
the pin is evidently erroneousj for the fame effea is pio-
duced, when the fmall aperture is formed of two femi-
apertures at different diftances from the eye, or when a
fmall opening is made in the pigment on a piece of
fmoked glafs. We have found indeed that the fame
phenomenon will appear, if, inffead of looking at a hole
in a piece of paper, we view a fmall luminous point fo
that it is expanded by indiflinbt vifion into a circular
image of light. The pin always increafes in magnitude
in proportion to its diftance from the luminous point.
Sect. III. Difcoveries concerning the InjleElion of Light.
This property of light was not difcovered till about
the middle of the 17th century. The perfon who firit
made the difcovery was Father Grimaldi 5 at leaf! he
firit publifhed an account of it in his treatife De lu-
mine, colonbus, et inde, printed in 1666. Dr Hooke,
however, laid claim to the fame difcovery, though he
did not make his obiervations public till fix years after
Grimaldi.
D'- Hooke’s Dr Hooke having darkened his room, admitted a
(iueovenes. beam of the fun’s light through a very fmall hole in a
brafs plate. This beam fpreading itfelf, formed a cone,
the vertex of which was in the hole, and the bafe was
on a paper, fo placed as to receive it at fome diitance.
In the image of the fun, thus painted on the papei, he
obferved that the middle was much brighter than the
edges, and that there was a kind of dark penumbi a
‘about it, of about a 16th part of the diameter of the
circle *, which he afcribed to a property of light, that
he promifed to explain.—Having obferved this, at the
diftance of about two inches from the former he let in
another cone of light} and receiving the bafes of them,
at fuch a diftance from the holes that the circles in-
tcrfefted each other, he obferved that there was not on-
pl&te ]y a darker ring, encompafTmg the lighter circle, but a
flCCLXXV manifeft dark kne? or circle? as in fig. 6. which appear-
T ig* G cd even where the limb of the one intei fered rvith that
of the other. ,
In the light thus admitted, he held an opaque body
Tig. 7. BB, fig. 7. fo as to intercept the light that entered at a
hole inthe window fhutter O, and was received on the
fcreen AP. In thefe circumftances, he obferved, that
the fliadow of the opaque body (which was a round
piece of wood, not bright or poliflied) was all over
fomewhat enlightened, but more efpecially towards the
cdoe. In order to {how that this light was not produ¬
ced by reflection, he admitted the light through a hole
burnt in a piece of pafteboard, and intercepted it .\ith
a razor which had a very {harp edge 5 but ftill the ap¬
pearances were the very fanre as before } fo that he con-
47
I c s.
eluded that they were occafioned by foms new property Hiftory,
of light. v
He diverfified this experiment, by placing the razor
fo as to divide the cone of light into two parts, and
placing the paper fo that none of the enlightened part
of the circle fell upon it, but only the fliadow of the
razor •, and, to his great iurprife, he obferved what he
calls a vert/ br/jk and vijible radiation ftriking down up¬
on the paper, of the fame breadth with the diameter of
the lucid circle. This radiation always ftruck perpen¬
dicularly from the line of fhadow, and, like the tail of
a comet, extended more than 10 times the breadth of
the remaining part of the circle. He found, wherever
there was a part of the interpofed body higher than the
reft, that, oppofite to it, the radiation of light into the
fhadow was brighter, as in the figure ; and wherever
there rvas a notch or gap in it, there would be a dark
ftroke in the half-enlightened lhadow. From all thefe
appearances, he concluded, that there is a defleftion
of light, differing both from refle&ion and refradtion,
and feeming to depend on the unequal denfity of the
conftituent parts of the ray, whereby the light is dif-
perfed from the place of condenfation, and rarefied, or
gradually diverged into a quadrant; that this defledlion
is made towards the fuperficies of the opaque body per¬
pendicularly ; that thole parts of the diverged radiations
which are deflefted by the greateft angle from the
ftraight or direff radiations are the fainteft, and thofe
that are defiecled by the leaf! angles are the ftrongeft *,
that rays cutting each other in one common aperture do
not make the angles at the vertex equal j that colours
may be made wuthout refradlion ; that the diameter of
the fun cannot be truly taken with common fights 5 that
the fame rays of light, falling upon the fame point of
an objefr, will turn into all forts of colours, by the va¬
rious inclinations of the objedt j and that colours begin
to appear wftien two pulfes of light are blended fo
well, and fo near together, that the fenfe takes them for
one. _ _ 48
We {ball now proceed to give an account of the dif- Grimaldi’s
coveries of Father Grimaldi. Having introduced a ray Tlc°venes*
of light, through a very fmall hole, AE, fig. 8. into a Fig. 8.
darkened room, he obferved that the light w as diffufed in
the form of a cone, the bafe of which w as CD 5 and that
if any opaque body, FE, w^as placed in this cone of light,
at a confiderable diftance from the hole, and the ftia-
dowT received upon a piece of white paper, the boundaries
of it were not confined within GH, or the penumbra
IL, occafioned by the light proceeding from different
parts of the aperture, and of the difk of the fun, but
extended to MN : At this he was very much furprifrd,
as he found that it V’a^ broader than it ought to have
been made by rays pafling in right lines by the edges
of the objeft.
But the moft remarkable circumftance in this ap¬
pearance was, that upon the lucid part of the bafe,
CM and ND, ftreaks of coloured light were plainly
diftinguifhed, each being terminated by blue on the
fide next the flradowq and by red on the _ other ^
and though thefe coloured ftreaks depended, in feme
meafure on the fize of the aperture AB, becaufe they
could not be made to appear if it was large, yet he
found that they were not limited either by it, or by the
diameter of the fun’s difk.
He farther obferved, that thefe coloured ftreaks
OPT
Hiftory. Were not all of the fame breadth, but grew narrower as
' ""v " 1 they receded from the lhadow, and were each of them
broader the farther the lhadow was received from the
♦ opaque body, and alio the more obliquely the paper
on which they were received was held with refpe’ft
to it. He never obferved more than three of thefe
ftreaks.
Fig- 9. To give a clearer idea of thefe coloured ftreaks, he
drew the reprefentation of them, exhibited in fig. 9. in
which NMO reprefents the largeft and moft luminous
ftreak, next to the dark fhadow X. In the fpace in
which M is placed there was no diftimftion of colour,
but the fpace NN was blue, and the fpace OO on the
other fide of it was red. The fecond ftreak (XPK was
narrower than the former ; and of the three parts of
which it confifted, the fpace P had no particular colour,
but £)£) was a faint blue, and RR a faint red. The
third ftreak, TSV, was exactly fimilar to the two others,
but narrower than either of them, and the colour ftill
fainter.
Thefe coloured ftreaks he obferved to lie parallel to
the ftiadow of the opaque body ; but when it was of an
angular form, they did not make the fame acute an¬
gles, but were bent into a curve, the outermoft being
rounder than thofe that were next the fliadow, as is re-
j,. ^ prefented in-fig. 10. If it was an inward angle, as DCH,
k' ‘ the coloured ftreaks, parallel to each other of the two
lides croffed without obliterating one another 5 only
the colours were thus rendered either more intenfe or
mixed.
Within the fliadow itfelf, Grimaldi fometimes per¬
ceived coloured ftreaks, fimilar to thofe above mentioned
on the outfide of the ftiadow. Sometimes he faw more
of them, and fometimes fewer ; but for this purpofe it
was neceffary to have ftrong light, and to make the
opaque body long and moderately broad. A hair, for
inftance, or a fine needle, did not anfwer fo ivell as a
thin and narrow plate : and the ftreaks were moft dif-
tinguiftiable when the ftiadow was taken at the greateft
diftance j though the light grew fainter in the fame pro¬
portion.
The numbers of thefe ftreaks increafed with the
breadth of the plate. They were at leaft two, and
fometimes four, if a thicker plate were made ufe of.
But, with the fame plate, more or fewer ftreaks appear¬
ed, in proportion to the diftance at which the ftiadow
was received ; but they were broader when they were
few, and narrower when there were more of them ; and
they were all much more diftinct when the paper was
held obliquely.
'Thefe coloured ftreaks, like thofe on the outfide of
the ftiadow, were bent in an arch, round the acute an-
Fig. 11. gles of the fliadow, as they are reprefented in fig. 11.
At this angle alfo, as at D, other ftiorter lucid ftreaks
were vifible, bent in the form of, a plume, as they are
draivn betwixt I) and C, each bending round and meet-
mg again in D. Thefe angular ftreaks appeared, though
the plate or rod was not wholly immerfed in the beam
of light, but the angle of it only; and they increafed
in number with the breadth of the plate. If the plate
w7as very thin, the coloured ftreaks bent round from the
oppofite Tides, and met one another as at B.
In order to obtain a more fatisfaftory proof, that
rays of light really bend, in pafling by the edges of bo-
I c s. is?
dies, he admitted a beam of light into a dark room, as Hiftory.
before 5 and, at a great diftance from it, he fixed a plate ^——1
EF, (fig. 12.) with a fmall aperture, GH, which admit-Fig. 12.
ted only a part of the beam of light, and found, that wdien
the light tranfmitted through this plate wTas received at
fome diftance upon a white paper, the bafe IK was con-
fiderably larger than it could poflibly have been made by
rays iffuing in right lines through the tvto apertures;
Grimaldi generally made the aperture CD T^- or -5-^
part of a foot, and the fecond aperture, GH, or
To%- J and the diftances DG and GN, were, at leaft, 12
feet. The obfervation wras made about mid-day in the
fummer time, when the atmofphere was free from all
vapours.
Grimaldi alfo made the fame experiment that has
been recited from Dr Hooke, in wftiich two beams of
light, entering a dark room by two fmall apertures near
one another, projected cones of light, which, at a cer¬
tain diftance, in part coincided ; and he particularly ob¬
ferved, that the dark boundaries of each of them were
vifible within the lucid ground of the other.
To thefe difeoveries of Grimaldi, we fliall fubjoin obfetva-
an additional obfervation of Dechales ^ vtho found, tion of De-
that if a piece of poliftied metal, with fmall fcratches in chales.
it, be expofed to the beams of the fun in a darkened
room, it will reflett the rays rtreaked with colours in
the direftion of the fcratches 5 as will appear, if the re-
flefted light be received upon a piece of white paper.
That thefe colours are not produced by refra&ion, he
fays, is manifeft; for if the fcratches be made upon
glafs, the effeft wall be the fame; and in this cafe, if the
light had been refradted at the furface of the glafs, it
would have been tranfmitted through it. From thefe
and many other obfervations, he concluded, that colour
does not depend upon the refradtiori of light only, nor
upon a variety of other circumftances, which he particu¬
larly enumerates, but upon the intenfity of the %ht
only.
_ We fliall here give an account of a phenomenon of of ^°de u
vifion obferved by M. de la Hire, as being connedled Hi/e! 'C ?
with the fubjedl of this fedtion. When we look at a
candle, or any luminous body, with our eyes nearly flint,
rays of light are extended from it, in feveral diredf ions, to
a confiderable diftance, like the tails of comets. This ap-
pearafice exercifed the fagacity of Defcartes and Rohault,
as well as of De la Hire ; but all thefe phiiofophers feem
to have been miftaken with regard to its caufe. Defcartes
aferibed 'this effedl to certain wrinkles in the furface of
the humours of the eyes. Rohault fays, that when the
eye-lids are nearly clofed, the edges of them adl like,
convex ienfes. But De la Hire obferves, that the moi-
fture on the furface of the eye, adhering partly to the
eye itfelf, and partly to the edge of the eye-lid, makes
a concave mirror, and fo difperfes the rays at their en¬
trance into the eye. The true account of the phenome¬
non, however, is this. 'There are three different kinds
of radiations diftindtly vifible ; the moft brilliant, which
diverge diredlly from the candle, are formed by the re-
fraction of the light of the candle through the moifture
that lubricates the eye, and. which is brought oppofite
the pupil by one of the eye-lids. Another kind of ra¬
diation, which appears at a diftance from the candle in
the form of imall luminous fpecks, is produced by re-
JleEUon from the part of the eye-lid in which the lalhes
A a £ . are
i88
OPTICS.
Hiftory. are inferted. The third kind of radiation is horizontal,
and is caufed by the infleBion of the light in paiTmg
between the eye-iafhes.
The experiments of Grimaldi and Hooke were re¬
peated and extended by Sir Ifaac Newton, and were in
fome rneafure explained by that diftinguiihed philofo-
pher.
He made in a piece of lead a fmall hole the 4 2d
part of an inch in diameter. Through this hole he let
into his dark chamber a beam of the fun’s light} and
found, that the fhadows of hairs, and other flender fub-
flances, placed in it, were confiderably broader than
Pla(;e they would have been if the rays of light had pafled by
ccclxxvi. thofe bodies in right lines. He therefore concluded, that
%• r. they muft have palfed as they are reprcfefnted in fig. 1.
in which X reprefents a feftion of the hair, and AD,
BE, &c. rays of light palling by at different diltances,
and then falling upon the wall GQ. Since, when the
paper which receives the rays is at a great diftance
from the hair, the lhadow is broad, it mull: follow, that
the hair a£ts upon the rays at fome confiderable diflance
from it, the action being llrongeft on thofe rays which
are at the leaft diftance, and growing weaker and weaker
on thofe which are farther off, as is reprefented in this
figure ; and hence it comes to pafs that the lhadow of the
hair is much broader in proportion to the diftance of the
paper from the hair when it is nearer than when it is at
a greater diftance.
By wetting a polilhed plate of glafs, and laying the
hair in the water upon the glafs, and then laying ano¬
ther polifhed plate of glafs upon it, fo that the water
might fill up the fpace between the glaffes, he found
that the lhadow at the fame diftance was as big as be¬
fore, fo that this breadth of lhadow muft proceed from
fome other caufe than the rcfraftion of the air.
The lhadows of all bodies placed in this light were
bordered with three parallel fringes of coloured light,
of which that which was neareft to the lhadow was the
broadeft and moft luminous, while that which was far-
theftfrom it was the narroweft, and fo faint as to be fcarce-
ly vifible. It was difficult to diftinguilh thefe colours,
unlefs when the light fell very obliquely upon fome
fmooth white body, fo as to make them appear much
broader than they would otherwife have done •, but in
thefe circumftances the colours were plainly vifible,
and in the following order. The firft or innermoft
fringe was violet, and deep blue next the fhadow, light
blue, green, and yellow in the middle, and red without.
The fecond fringe was almoft contiguous to the firft,
and the third to The fecond ; and both were blue with¬
in, and yellow and red without •, but their colours were
very faint, efpecially thofe of the third. The colours,
therefore, proceeded in the following order from the
ffiadow •, violet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red;
blue, yellow, red ; pale blue, pale yellow, and red. The
fhadows, made by fcratches and bubbles in poliihed
plates of glafs were bordered with the like fringes of
coloured light.
Meafnring thefe fringes and their intervals with the
greateft accuracy, he found the former to be in the pro-
greffion of the numbers 1, \/T, j, and their inter¬
vals to be in the fame progreffion with them, that is, the
fringes and their intervals together to be nearly in con¬
tinual progreffion of the numbers, 1, vG, \/j, vV*
Having made the aperture £ of an inch in diameter,
and admitted the light as formerly, Sir Ifaac placed, at the Hijlory.
diftance of two or three feet from the hole, a Iheet of
pafteboard, black on both fides 5 and in the middle of it
he made a hole about ^ of an inch fquare, and behind
the hole he faftened to the pafteboard the blade of a (harp
knife, to intercept fome part of the light which paffed
through the hole. The planes of the pafteboard and
blade of the knife were parallel to each other, and
perpendicular to the rays j and when they were fo
placed that none of the light fell on the pafteboard, but
all of it paffed through the hole to the knife, and there
part of it fell upon the blade of the knife, and part of it
paffed by its edge, he let that part of the light which
paffed fall on a white paper, 2 or 3 feet beyond the
knife, and there he faw two ftreams of faint light ihoot
out both ways from the beam of light into the ftiadow.
But becaufe the fun’s direii light, by its brightnefs upon
the paper, obfeured thefe faint ftreams, lb that he could
fcarcely fee them, he made a little hole in the mldft of
the paper for that light to pals through and fall on a
black cloth behind it; and then he fawr the two ftreams
plainly. They wrere fimilar to one another, and pretty
nearly equal in length, breadth, and quantity of light.
Their light, at that end which was next to the fun’s di¬
rect light, w'as pretty ftrong for the fpace of about 4 of
an inch, or of an inch, and gradually decreafed till it
became infenfible.
The whole length of either of thefe ftreams, mea-
fured upon the paper, at the diftance of 3 feet from
the knife, was about 6 or 8 inches ; fo that it fubtend^
ed an angle, at the edge of the knife, of about 10 or
12, or at moft 14, degrees. Yet lometimes be thought
he faw it ffioot 3 or 4 degrees farther ; but with a light
fo very faint, that he could hardly perceive it. This
light he fufpedted might, in part at leaft, arife from
fome other caufe than the two ftreams. For, placing
his eye in that light, beyond the end of that ftream
which was behind the knife, and looking towards the
knife, he could fee a line of light upon its edge 5 and
that not only when his eye was in the line of the ftreams,
but alfo when it was out of that line, either towards
the point of the knife, or towards the handle. This
line of light appeared contiguous to the edge of the
knife, and was narrower than the light of the inner¬
moft fringe, and narroweft when his eye w7as fartheft
from the dire£t light 5 and therefore feemed to pafs be¬
tween the light of that fringe and the edge of the knife-,
and that which paffed neareft; the edge feemed to be
moft bent.
He then placed another knife by the former, fo that
their edges might be parallel, and look towards one
another, and that the beam of light might fall upon
both the knives, and fome part of it pafs between their
edges. In this fituation he obferved, that when the
diftance of their edges rvas about the 400th of an
inch, the ftream divided in the middle, and left a
ftiadow between the two parts. This ftiadow was fo
dark, that all the light which paffed between the knives
feemed to be bent to the one hand or the other and as
the knives ftill approached each other, the ftiadow grew
broader and the ftreams ftiorter next to it, till, upon the
contaft of the knives, all the light vaniftied.
Hence Sir Ifaac concluded, that the light which is
leaft bent, and which goes to the inward ends of the
ftreams, paffes by the edges of the knives at the greateft
diilance;
Hiftory.
OPT
diftance -7 and tills diitance, when the lhadow began to
appear between the dreams, was about the Sooth of an
inch; and the light which palled by the edges of the
knives at diftances dill lefs and lefs, was more and more
faint, and went to thofe parts of the dreams which were
farther from the direct light 5 becaufe, when the knives
approached one another till they touched, thofe parts of
the dream vanithed lad which were farthed from the
direct line.
In the experiment of one knife only, the coloured
fringes did not appear •, but, on account of the breadth
of the hole in the window, became fo broad as to run
into one another, and, by joining, to make one continual
light in the beginning of the dreams; but in the lad
experiment, as the knives approached one another, a
little before the diadow appeared between the twTo
dreams, the fringes began to appear on the inner ends
of the dreams, on either fide of the dire ft light; three
on one fide, made by the edge of one knife, and three
on the other fide, made by the edge of the other knife.
They were the mod diitmct when the knives were
placed at the greated didance from the hole in the win¬
dow, and became dill more didindt by making the hole
lefs •, fo that he could fometimes fee a faint trace of a
fourth fringe beyond the three above mentioned : and
as the knives approached one another the fringes grew
more didinft and larger, till they vanilhed} the outer-
mod vanifhing fird, and the innermod lad. Alter they
were all vanilhed, and the line of light in the middle
between them was grown very broad, extending itfelf
on both fides into the dreams of light defcribed before,
the above-mentioned lhadow began to appear in the
middle of this line, and to divide it along the middle
into two lines of light, and increafed till all the light
vanilhed. This enlargement of the fringes was fo great,
that the rays which went to the innermod fringe feem-
ed to be bent about 20 times more when the fringe was
ready to vanilh, than when one of the knives was taken
away.
From both thefe experiments Newton concluded, that
the light of the fird fringe pafied by the edge of the
knife at a didance greater than the 800th of an inch }
that the light of the fecond fringe pafled by the edge
of the knife at a greater didance than the light of the
fird fringe, and that of the third at a greater didance
than that of the fecond ; and that the light of which the
dreams above mentioned confided, paffed by the edges
of the knives at lefs didances than that of any of the
fringes.
He then got the edges of two knives ground draight,
and fixed their points into a board, fo that their edges
might contain a rectilinear angle. The didance of the
edges of the knives from one another, at four inches
from the angular point, was the 8th of an inch •, lo that
the angle contained by their edges was about i° 54'.
The knives being thus fixed, he placed them in a beam
of the fun’s light let into his darkened chamber, through
a hole the 42d of an inch wide, at the didance of 10 or
13 feet from the hole ; and he let the light which paf¬
fed between their edges fall very obliquely on a fmooth
white ruler, at the didance of l inch, or an inch, from
the knives; and there he faw the fringes made by the
two edges of the knives run along the edges of the Iha-
dows of the knives, in lines parallel to thofe edges, with-
I C S. 189
out growing fenfibly broader, till they met in angles H'flary. .
equal to the angle contained by the edges of the knives; *
and where they met and joined, they ended, without
eroding one another. But if the ruler was held at a
much greater didance from the knives, the fringes,
where they were farther from the place of their meeting,
were a little narrower, and they became fomething
broader as they approached nearer to one another, and
after they met they eroded one another, and then be¬
came much broader than before.
From thefe obfervations he concluded, that the di¬
dances at which the light compofing the fringe^paffed
by the knives were not increafed or altered by the ap¬
proach j and that the knife which was neared to any
ray determined which wray the ray diould be bent, but
that the other knife increafed the bending.
When the rays fell very obliquely upon the ruler, at.
the didance of \ of an inch from the. knives, the dark
line between the fird and fecond fringe of the Ihadow
of one knife, and the dark line between the fird and fe¬
cond fringe of the lhadow of the other knife, met one
another, at the didance of k of an inch from the. end q£.
the light which pafled between the knives, where their
edges met; fo that the didance of the edges of the
knives, at the meeting of the dark lines, wras the 160th of
an inch j and one half of that light pafled by the edge
of one knife, at a didance not greater than the 3201b
part of an inch, and, falling upon the paper, made the
fringes of the lhadow of that knife } while the other
half palled by the edge of the other knife, at a diflance
not greater than the 320th part of an inch, and, falling
upon the paper, made the fringes of the lhadow of the
other knife. But if the paper was held at a diflance
from the knives greater than y of an inch, the dark
lines above mentioned met at a greater didance t an h
of an inch from the end of the light which pafied be¬
tween the knives, at the meeting of their edges; fo that
the light which fell upon the paper where thofe dark
lines met pafled between the knives, where their edges
were farther diflant than the 160th of an inch. For at
another time, when the twro knives were 8 feet 5 inches
from the little hole in the window, the light which fell
upon the paper where the above-mentioned dark lines
met pafled between the knives, where the diflance be-
twreen their edges was, as in the following table, at the
diflances from the paper noted.
f the paper from
s in inches.
Diftance between the edges
sfthe knives in thiufandth
parts of an inch.
3
8
32
96
131
0,0x2
0,020
0,034
0,057
0,081
0,087
From thefe obfervations he concluded, that the
light which forms the fringes upon the paper is not
the fame light at all didances of the paner from the
knives; but that when the paper is held hear the
knives, the fringes are made by light which pafles- by
the
Plate
ccclxxvi.
fig- 2-
OPT
the edges of the knives at a lefs didance, and is more
bent than when the paper is held at a greater diitance
from the knives.
When the fringes of the Ihadows of the knives fell
perpendicularly upon the paper, at a great diftance from
the knives, they were in the form of hyperbolas, of the
following dimenfions. Let CA, CB, (fig. 2.) reprefent
lines drawn upon the paper, parallel to the edges of the
knives j and between which all the light would fall if it
luffered no inflection. DE is a right line drawn through
C, making the angles ACD, BCE, equal to one an¬
other, and terminating all the light which falls upon the
paper, -from the point where the edges of the knives
meet.. Then eis,fkt, andg/v, will be three hy¬
perbolic lines, reprefenting the boundaries of the Iha-
dow of one of the knives, the dark line between the firft
and fecond fringes of that fliadow, and the dark line
between the fecond and third fringes of the fame flia¬
dow. Alfo. x 1 p,y k q, and 2. / r, will be three other
hyperbolic lines, reprefenting the boundaries of the flia¬
dow of the other knife, the dark line between the firft
and fecond fringes of that ihadow, and the dark line
between the fecond and third fringes of the fame fliadow.
fhefe three hyperbolas which are fimilar, and equal to
the former, crofs them in the points /, h, and l; fo that
the fliadows of the knives are terminated, and diftin-
guiflied from the firft luminous fringes, by the lines
e z s and x 1 fi, till the meeting and crofling of the
fringes ; and then thofe lines crofs the fringes in the
form of dark lines terminating the firft luminous fringes
on the infide, and diftinguiftiing them from another
1'ght, .which begins to appear at /, and illuminates all
the triangular (pace z/>DEj-, comprehended by thefe
dark lines and the right line DE. Of thefe hyperbolas
one aiymptote is the line DE, and the other afymptotes
are parallel to the lines CA and CB.
Before the fmall hole in the window Newton placed
a prifm, to form on the oppofite wall the coloured image
of the. fun ) and he found that the fliadows of all bodies
held in the coloured light, were bordered with fringes
of the colour of the light in which they were held ; and
he found that thofe made in the red light were the lar-
geft, thofe made in the violet the leaft, and thofe made
in the green of a middle bignefs. The fringes with
which the fliadow of a man’s hair were furrounded, be¬
ing meafured acrofs the ftiadow, at the diftance of fix
inches from the hair, the diftance between the middle
and moft luminous part of the firft or innermoft fringe
on one fide of the fliadow, and that of the like fringe
on the other fide of the Ihadow, was, in the full red
light of an inch, and in the full violet -rV The
37*5
like diftance between the middle and moft luminous
parts of the fecond fringes, on either fide of the ftiadow,
was in the full red light ~ and in the violet of an
inch 5 and thefe diftances of the fringes held the fame
proportion at all diftances from the hair, without afcy
lenfible variation.
From thefe obfervations it was evident, that the rays
which formed the fringes in the red light, paffed by the
hair at a greater diftance than thefe which made the like
fringes in the violet ; fo that the hair, in caufing thefe
fringes, afted alike upon the red light or leaf! refran¬
gible rays at a greater diftance, and upon the violet or
I C s.
moft refrangible rays at S lefs diftance ; and thereby oc- Hlftory.
cafioned fringes of difterent fizes, without any change  v 
m the colour of any fort of light.
It may therefore be concluded, that when the hair
was held m the white beam of light, and caft a fliadow
bordered with three coloured fringes, thofe colours arofe
not from any new modifications impreffed upon the
rays of light by. the hair, but only from the various
inflections by which the feveral forts of rays were fepa-
rated from one another, which before feparation, bv the
mixture of all their colours, compofed the white beam
of the fun’s light 5 but, when feparated, compofed
hghts of the feyeral colours which they are originally
dilpofed to exhibit.
, j. he perfon who firft made any experiments fimilar to Maraldi’s
thole of Newton on infleefted light is M. Maraldi. His fiil'covenes.
obfervations chiefly refpea the infle&ion of light to¬
wards other bodies, whereby their ftiadows are partially
illuminated. J
He expofed in the light of the fun a cylinder of Expeii-
wood three feet long, and 61- lines in diameter, when meats con¬
its fliadow was everywhere equally black and well de- cerning th«
fined, even at the diftance of 23 inches from it. At a ot
greater diftanc.e the ftiadow appeared of two different ^ ^
denfities ; for its two extremities, in the dire&ion of the
length of the cylinder, w^ere terminated by two dark
ftrokes, a little more than a line in breadth. Within
thefe dark lines there was a faint light, equally difper-
fed through the fliadow, which formed an uniform pen¬
umbra, much lighter than the dark ftrokes at the ex¬
tremity, or than the fliadow received near the cylinder.
This appearance is reprefented in Plate CCCLXXVI
%• 3- _ ’p-
As the cylinder was removed to a greater diftance " '
from the paper, the two black lines continued to be
nearly of the fame breadth, and the fame degree of ob-
feurity 5 but the penumbra in the middle grew lighter,
and its breadth diminiflied, fo that the two dark lines at
the extremity of the fliadow approached one another,
till at the diftance of 60 inches, they coincided, atH
the penumbra in the middle entirely vaniftied. At a
ftill greater diftance a faint penumbra was vifible ; but
it was ill defined, and grew broader as the cylinder was
removed farther off, but was fenfible at a very great di¬
ftance.
Befides the black and dark fliadow which the cylin¬
der formed near the opaque body, a narrow and faint
penumbra was feen on the outfide of the dark fliadow.
And on the outfide of this there'was a tract more ftronu-
ly illuminated than the reft of the paper.
The breadth of the external penumbra increafed with
the diftance of the ftiadow from the cylinder, and the
breadth of the traft of light on the outfide of it was
alfo enlarged j but its fplendour diminiflied with the di¬
ftance.
He repeated thefe experiments with three other cy¬
linders of difterent dimenfions j and from all of them he
inferred, that every opaque cylindrical body, expofed
to the light of the fan, makes a fliadow which is black
and dark to the diftance of 38 to 45 diameters of the
cylinder which forms it ; and that, at a greater di¬
ftance, the middle part begins to be illuminated in the
manner deferibed above.
In explaining thefe appearances, Maraldi fuppofes
that
4
OPT
Hi (lory, that the light which diluted the middle part of the fha-
u""~v  1 dow was occafioned by the inflexion of the rays, which,
bending inwards on their near approach to the body,
did at a certain diftance enlighten all the lhadow, ex¬
cept the edges, which were left undifturbed. At the
fame lime other rays were deflected from the body,
and formed a flrong light on the outfide of the lha¬
dow, and which might at the fame time contribute to
dilute the outer lhadow, though he fupppfed that pen¬
umbra to be occafioned principally by that part of the
paper not being‘enlightened, except by a part of the fun’s
dilk only, according to the known principles of optics.
54 . The fame experiments he made with globes of feveral
tiiofe of 8 diameters y but he found, that the lhadows of the
globes. globes were not vilible beyond 15 of their diameters j
which he thought was owing to the light being infiedl-
ed on every fide of a globe, and confequently in fuch a
quantity as to difperfe the lhadows fooner than in the
cafe of the cylinders.
In repeating the experiments of Grimaldi and New¬
ton, he obferved that, befides the enlarged fhadow of a
hair, a fine needle, &c. the bright gleam of light that
bordered it, and the three coloured fringes next to this
enlightened part, when the fhadow was at a confiderable
diftance from the hair, the dark central lhadow was di¬
vided in the middle by a mixture of light; and that it
was not of the fame denfity, except when it was very
near the hair.
A briftle, at the diftance of nine feet from the hole,
made a lhadow, which, being received at five or fix
feet from the objedft, he obferved to confift of feveral
ftreaks of light and lliade. The middle part was a faint
fhadow, or rather a kind of penumbra, bordered by a
darker lliadow, and after that by a narrower penum¬
bra ; next to which was a light ftreak broader than the
dark part, and next to the ftreak of light, the red,
violet, and blue colours were feen as in the lhadow of
the hair.
A plate, two inches long, and about half a line
broad, being fixed perpendicularly to the rays, at the
cerningthe diftance of nine feet from the hole, a faint light was
fliadowsol feen uniformly difperfed over the lhadow, when it was
received perpendicularly to it, and very near. The
lhadow of the fame plate, received at the diftance of
two feet and a half, was divided into four narrow black
ftreaks, feparated by fmall lighter intervals equal to
them. The boundaries of this lhadow on each fide had
a penumbra, which was terminated by a very ftrong
light, next to which were the coloured ftreaks of red,
violet, and blue, as before. This is reprefented in
Plate CCCLXXVL fig. 4.
The lhadow of the fame plate, at 4^ feet diftance
from it, was divided into two black ftreaks only, the
two outermoft having difappeared, as in fig. if. j but
thefe two black ftreaks which remained were broader
than before, and feparated by a lighter lhade, twice as
broad as one of the former black ftreaks, when the lha¬
dow was taken at 2-f feet. This penumbra in the
middle had a tinge of red. After the two black
ftreaks there appeared a pretty ftrong penumbra, ter¬
minated by the two ftreaks of light, which were now
broad and fplendid, after which followed the coloured
ftreaks.
A*, fecond plate, 2 inches long and a line broad, be-
55
Experi¬
ments eon
plates.
Fig. 4.
Fi
£• 5-
I c s.
ing placed, 14 feet from the hole, its lhadow was re¬
ceived perpendicularly very near the plate, and was
found tb be illuminated by a faint light, equally difper¬
fed, as in the cafe of the preceding plate. But being re¬
ceived at the diftance of 13 feet from the plate, fix Imall
black ftreaks began to be vifible, as in fig. 6. At 17 Fig. 5.
feet the black ftreaks were broader, more diftindt, and
more feparated from the ftreaks that were lefs dark. At
< 42 feet, only two black ftreaks were feen in the middle
of the penumbra, as in fig. 7. This middle penumbra Fi
between the two black ftreaks was tinged with red. Next
to the black ftreaks there always appeared the ftreaks of
light, which were broad, and the coloured ftreaks next
to them. At the diftance of 7 2 feet, the appearances
were the fame as in the former fituation, except that
the two black ftreaks were broader, and the interval,
between them, occupied by the penumbra, was broader
alfo, and tinged with a deeper red. With plates from
4 line to 2 lines broad, he could not obferve any of the
ftreaks of light, though the fnadows were in fome cafes
56 feet from them.
The extraordinary fize of the fliadows of finall fub-
ftances M. Maraldi thought to be occafioned by the iiia-
dow from the enlightened part of the Iky, added to that
which was made by the light of the fun, and alfo to a
vortex occafioned by the circulation of the infie&ed light,
behind the objedft.
Maraldi having made the preceding experiments up¬
on fingle long fubftances, placed two of them fo as to
crofs one another in a beam of the fun’s light. The
ftiadows of two hairs placed in this manner, and re¬
ceived at fome diftance from them, appeared to be
painted reciprocally one upon the other, fo that the ob-
fcure part of one of them was vifible upon the obfcure
part of the other. The ftreaks of light alfo crofted one
another, and the coloured ftreaks did the fame.
He alfo placed in the rays of the fun a briftle and a
plate of iron a line thick, fo that they crofted one an¬
other obliquely 5 and when their ftiadows were received
at the fame diftance, the light and dark ftreaks of the
fliadow of the briftle were vifible fo far as the middle of
the lhadow of the plate on the fide of the acute angle,
but not on the fide of the obtufe angle, whether the
briftle or the plate were placed next to the rays. The
plate made a lhadow fufficiehtly dark, divided into fix
black ftreaks 5 and thefe were again divided by as many
light ones equal to them ; and yet all the ftreaks be-
longing to the lhadow of the briftle were vifible upon it,
as in fig. 8. To explain this appearance, he fuppofed
that the rays of the fun glided a little along the briftle F'£‘ S*
fo as to enlighten part of that which was behind the
plate. But this feems to be an arbitrary and improbable
fuppofition.
M. Maraldi alfo placed fmall globes in the folar
light, admitted through a fmall aperture, and compared
their ftiadows with thofe of the long fubftances, as he had
done in the day light, and the appearances were ftill fi-
milar. It was evident, that there was much more light
in the lhadows of the globes than in thofe of the cylin¬
ders, not only when they were both of an equal diame¬
ter, but when that of the globe was larger than that of
the cylinder, and the ftiadows of both the bodies were
received at the fame diftance. He alfo obferved, that
he could percei\«2 no difference of light in the ftiadows"
ofef
5?
Expeii
fliadows.
?7_
I'T. Mai-
ran’s the¬
ory.
OPT
of the plates which were a little more than one line
broad, though they were received at the diftance of 72
feet •, but he could obferve a difference of fliades in
thofe of the globes, taken at the fame diftance, though
they were 2^ lines in diameter.
In order to explain the colours at the edges of thefe
fhadows, he threw fome of the fliadows upon others.
He threw the gleam of light, which always intervened
a mi x t u reof weeT1 col°urs and the darker part of the fhadow,
coloured upon different parts of other fhadows 5 and obferved,
that, when it fell upon the exterior penumbra made by
another needle, it produced a beautiful fky-blue colour,
almoft like that which was produced by two blue co¬
lours thrown together. When the fame gleam of light
fell upon the deeper fhadow in the middle, it produced
a red colour.
He placed two plates of iron, each three or four lines
broad, at a very fmall diftance : and having placed
them in the rays of the fun, and received their fhadows
at the diftance of 15 or 20 feet from them, he faw no
light between them but a continued fhadow, in the mid¬
dle of which were fome parallel ftreaks of a lively pur¬
ple, feparated by other black ftreaks; but between
them there were other ftreaks, both of a very faint
green, and alfo of a pale yellow.
The fubjeft of inflection was next inveftigated by M.
Mairan : but he only endeavoured to explain the fads
which were known, by the hypothefts of an atmofphere
furrounding all bodies $ and confequently making two
refledions and refradions of the light that falls upon
them, one at the furface of the atmofphere, and the
other at that of the body. This atmofphere he fuppo-
fed to be of a variable denfity and refradive power,
like the atmofphere.
M. Du Tour thought the variable atmofphere fuper-
fluous, and attempted to account for all the phenomena
by an atmofphere of an uniform denfity, and of a lefs
refradive power than the air furrounding all bodies.
Only three fringes had been obferved by preceding
authors, but M. Du Tour was accidentally led to ob-
ierve a greater number of them, and adopted from Gri¬
maldi the following ingenious method of making them
all appear very diftind.
He took a circular board ABED, (fig. 9.) 13 inches
in diameter, the furface of which was black, except at
the edge, where there was a ring of white paper about
three lines broad, in order to trace the circumference of a
circle, divided into 360 degrees, beginning at'the point
A, and reckoning 180 degrees on each hand to the
point E ; B and D being each of them placed at 90 de¬
grees. A flip of parchment 3 inches broad, and difpo-
fed in the form of a hoop, was fattened round the board,
and pierced at the point E with a fquare hole, each fide
being 4 or 5 lines, in order to introduce a ray of the
fun’s light; and in the centre of the board C, he fixed
a perpendicular pin about y of a line in diameter.
This hoop being fo placed, that a ray of light enter¬
ing the chamber, through a vertical cleft of 24 lines in
length, and about as wide as the diameter of the pin,
went through the hole at E, and pafling parallel to the
plane of the board, projefled the image of the fun and
the fhadow of the pin at A. In thefe circumftances he
obferved, 1. That quite round the concave furface of
this hoop, there were a multitude of coloured ftreaks 5
but that the fpace m A n, of about 18 degrees, the
2
55 .
Difcoveries
ot M. Du
Tour.
Plate
CCCLXXVI.
fig. 9.
I c s.
middle of which was occupied by the image of the fun, Hiftory.
was covered with a faint light only. 2. The order of * 'u/
the colours in thefe ftreaks was generally fuch that the
moft refrangible rays were the neareft to the incident
ray EGA 5 fo that, beginning from the point A, the
violet was the firft and the red the laft colour in each of
the ftreaks. Ifi fome of them, howrever, the colours
were difpofed in a contrary order. 3. The image of the
fun, projedled on each fide of the point A, was divided
by the ftiadow of the pin, which was bordered by two
luminous ftreaks. 4. The coloured ftreaks were nar¬
rower in fome parts of the hoop than ethers, and gene¬
rally decreafed in breadth in receding from the point A.
5. Among thefe coloured ftreaks, there were fometimes
others which were white, x or 14 lines in breadth,
which were generally bordered on both fides by a ftreak
of orange colour.
From this experiment he thought it evident, that the
rays which pafled beyond the pin were not the only ones
that were decompofed, for that thofe which were re-
fledled from the pin were decompofed alfo ; whence he
concluded that they muft have undergone fome refrac¬
tion. He alfo imagined that thofe which went beyond
the pin fuffered a refleftion, fo that they were all affect¬
ed in a fimilar manner.
In order to give fome idea of his hypothefis, M. Du Account of
Tour (hows that the vay a b, fig. 10. after being refratt-Du Tom’s
ed at b, reflefted at r and «, and again refra&ed at s hypothefis.
and t, will be divided into its proper colours) the leaft Fig. ie.
refrangible or the red rays iffuing at x, and the moft re¬
frangible or violet at y. Thofe ftreaks in which the co¬
lours appear in a contrary order he thinks are to -be
afcribed to inequalities in the furface of the pin.
The coloured ftreaks neareft the ihadow of the pin,
he fuppofes to be formed by thofe rays which, entering
the atmofphere, do not fall upon the pin ; and, without
any reflection, are only refrafted at their entering and
leaving the atmofphere, as at b and r u, fig. n. In Fig. n.
this cafe, the red or leaft refrangible rays will iffue at r,
and the violet at u.
To diftinguifh the rays which fell upon the hoop in
any particular direftion, from thofe that came in any
other, he made an opening in the hoop, as at P, fig. 9.
by which means he could, with advantage, and at any
diftance from the centre, obferve thofe rays unmixed
wath any other.
To account for the coloured ftreaks being larger next
the ftiadow of the pin, and growing narrower to the
place where the light was admitted, he ftiows, by fig. 12. Fig. iz.
that the rays a b are farther feparated by both the re¬
fractions than the rays c d.
Sometimes M. Du Tour obferved, that the broader
ftreaks were not difpofed in this regular order 5 but then
he found, that by turning the pin they changed their
places, fo that this circumftance muft have been an ac¬
cidental irregularity in the furface of the pin.
The white ftreaks mixed with the coloured ones he
afcribes to fmall cavities in the furface of the pin ; for
they alio changed their places wdien the pin was turned
upon its axis.
He alfo found, that bodies of various kinds, and of
different fizes, always produced fringes of the fame di-
menfions.
Expofing two pieces of paper in the beam of light,
fo that part of it paffed between two planes formed by
them.
OPT
Hiftory. them, M. Du Tour obferved, that the edges of this
' v  light were bordered with two orange ftreaks. To ac-
j.. count for them, he fuppofes, that the more refrangible
lg- I3> 0£ rayS which enter at b are fo refracted, that they
do not reach the furface of the body at Ft: fo that the
red and orange light may be refledled from thence in
the direftion d M, where the orange ftreaks will be
formed ; and, for the fame reafon, another ftreak of
orange will be formed at m, by the rays which enter
the atmofphere on the other fide of the chink. In a
fimilar manner he accounts for the orange fringes at the
borders of the white ftreaks, in the experiment of the
hoop. He fuppofes, that the blue rays, which are not
refle&ed at R, pafs on to I j and that thefe rays form
the blue tinge obfervable in the ftiadows of fome bodies.
60 This, however, is mere trifling.
Tins hypo- We may here make a general obfervation, applicable
left and ill- to ^ attempts of philofophers to explain thefe phe-
faunded. nomena by atmofpheres. Thefe attempts give no expla¬
nation whatever of the phyfical caufe of the phenomena.
A phenomenon is fome individual fa£F or event in na¬
ture. We are faid to explain it, when we point out the
general fafft in which it is comprehended, and fhow the
manner in which it is fo comprehended, or the particu¬
lar modification of the general fadt. Philofbphy re-
fembles natural hiftory, haring for its fubjedt the events
of nature 5 and its inveftigations are nothing but the
claflification of thefe events, or the arrangement of them
under the general facts of which they are individual in- ,
ftances. In the prefent inftance there is no general fadt
referred to. The atmofphere is a mere-gratuitous fup-
pofition 5 and all that is done is to fhow a refemblance
between the phenomena of infledlion of light to what
would be the phenomena were bodies furrounded with
fuch atmofpheres ; and even in this point of view, the
difcuflions of Mairan and Du Tour are extremely defi¬
cient. They have been fatisfied with very vague refem-
blances to a fadt obferved in one fingle inftance, and not
fufficiently examined or defcribed in that inftance, name¬
ly, the refradfion of light through the atmofphere of this
globe.
The attempt is to explain how light is turned out
of its diredfion by paffing near the furface of bodies.
This indicates the adfion of forces in a diredtion tranf-
verfe to that of the light. Newton took the right road
of inveftigation, by taking the phenomenon in its origi¬
nal fimplicity, and attending merely to this, that the
rays are defledFed from their former courfe ; and the foie
aim of his inveftigation was to difcover the law's, or the
more general fadts in this defledlion. He deduced from
the phenomena, that fome rays &re more deflected than
others, and endeavoured to determine in what rays the
deflediions are moft remarkable : and no experiment of
M. Du Tour has fhowm that he was miftaken in his mo¬
dified affertion, that thofe rays are moft infledted w'hich
pafs neareft to the body. We fay modified affertion j
for New'ton points out w'ith great fagacity many in-
ftances of alternate fits of infledtion and deflection 5 and
takes it for granted, that the law of continuity is obfer¬
ved in thefe phenomena, and that the change of inflec¬
tion into defledtion is gradual.
But thefe analogical difcuflions are eminently deficient
in another refpedt: They are held out as mechanical ex¬
planations of the changes of motion obferved in rays of
light. When it (hall be fhown, that thefe are precifely
Vol, XV. Part I.
I c s.
193
fuch as are obferved in refradling atmofpheres, nothing Hiftory.
is done towards deciding the original queftion ; for the v'-——
adfion of refradting atmofpheres prefents it in all its dif¬
ficulties, and we muft ftill afk how do thefe atmofpheres
produce this effedt ? No advance whatever is gained in
fcience by thrufting in this hypothetical atmofphere 5
and Newton did wifely in attaching himfelf to the Am¬
ple fadt: and he thus gives us another ftep in fcience,
by fhowing us a fadt unknown before, viz. that the ac-,.^^^*
tion of bodies on light is not confined to tranfparent bo- and inflec-
dies. He added another general fadt to our former tion pro-
ftock, that light as well as other matter is a&ed on at a ')ably Pro“
dijltmce ; and thus he made a very important deduction,
that rejle&ion, refra&ion, and inflexion, are probably forces.
brought about by the fame forces.
M. Le Cat has well explained a phenomenon of vi- objects
fion depending upon the infledtion of light, which ftiows,fometimer.
that, in fome cafes objedts by this means appear magni-
fied. Looking at a diftant fteeple, when a ware, of a j^11 ec’
lefs diameter than the pupil of his eye, was held near to
it, and drawing it feveral times betwixt his eye and that
objedt, he found, that, every time the wire paffed before
his pupil, the fteeple feemed to change its place, and
fome hills beyond the fteeple appeared to have the fame
motion, juft as if a lens had been drawm betwixt his eye
and them. He found alfo, that there wras a pofition of
the wire in which the fteeple feemed not to have any
motion, when the wire was pafled before his eye ; and
in this cafe the fteeple appeared lefs diftindt and magni¬
fied. He then placed his eye in fuch a manner with re¬
fpedt to the fteeple, that the rays of light by which he
faw it muft come very clofe to the edge of a window,
where he had placed himfelf to make his obfervations •,
and palling the wire before his eye, he obferved, that,
when it was in the vifual axis, the fteeple appeared near¬
er to the window, on whichever fide the wire was made
to approach. He repeated this experiment, and always,
with the fame refult, the objedt being by this means mag¬
nified, and nearly doubled.
This phenomenon he explains by fig. 14. in which B Plate
reprefents the eye, A the fteeple, and C a fedtion of the CCCLXXV,!
wire. The black lines exprefs the cone of light byfiS- M-
which the natural image of the fteeple A is formed,
and which is much narrower than the diameter of the
wire C •, but the dotted lines include not only that cone
of light, flopped and turned out of its courfe by the
wire, but alfo more diftant rays infledted by the wire,
and thereby thrown more converging into the pupil ;
juft as would have been the effedt of the interpofition
of a lens between the eye and the objedt.
Sect. IV. Difcoveries concerning Vi/ton.
Maurolycus was the firft who demonftrated that the Difcoveries
cryftalline humour of the eye is a lens which colledts the of Mauro-
light iffuing from external objedts, and converges them fecus. Kep-
upon the retina. He did not, however, feem to beler’&'r'.
aware that an image of every vifible objedt was thus v^fion™'112
formed upon the retina, though this feems hardly to have
been a ftep beyond the difeovery he had made. Mon- .
tucla conjedtures, that he was prevented from mention¬
ing this part of the difeovery by the difficulty of ac¬
counting for the upright appearance of objedts. This
difeovery was made by Kepler ; but he, too, was much
puzzled with the inverfion of the image unon the reti-
B b na.
194 OPT
Hiftory. na. The rectification of thefe images, he fays, is the
_ jjUgne:cs 0£ the mind j which, when it perceives an im-
preffion on the lower part of the retina, confiders it as
made by rays proceeding from the higher parts of ob¬
jects 5 tracing the rays back to the pupil, where they
crofs one another. This is the true explanation of the
difficulty, and is exaCtly the fame as that which was
64 lately given by Dr Reid.
Difcbveries Thefe difcoveries concerning vifion were completed
of Schemer. ^ Schemer. For, in cutting away the coats of the
back part of the eyes of iheep and oxen, and prefenting
feveral objeCts before them, he faw their images diftinct-
ly painted upon the retina. Fie did the fame with the
human eye, and exhibited this experiment at Rome in
1625.
Scheiner took a good deal of pains to afcertain the
deniity and refractive power of all the humours of the
eye, by comparing their magnifying power with that of
water or glafs in the fame form and circumftances. The
refult of his inquiries was, that the aqueous humour does
not differ much from water in this refpeCt, nor the cry-
ffalline from glafs ; and that the vitreous humour is a
medium between both. He alfo traces the progrefs of
the rays of light through all the humours 5 and after
difcuffing every poffible hypothefis concerning the feat
of vifion, he demonftrates that it is in the retina, and
ffiows that this was the opinion of Alhazen, Vitellio,
Kepler, and all the moft eminent philofophers. He
advances many reafons for this hypothefis j anfwers ma¬
ny objections to it} and, by a variety of arguments, re¬
futes the opinion that the feat of viion is in the cryltal-
g, line lens.
Difcoveries The fubjeCt of vifion occupied the attention of Defi-
of Defcar- cartes. He explains the methods of judging of the
magnitudes, fituations, and diftances, of objeCts, by the
direction of the optic axes j comparing it to a blind
man’s judging of the fize and diltance of an objeCt, by
feeling it with two flicks of a known length, when the
hands in which he holds them are at a known diftance
from each other. He alfo remarks, that having been
accultomed to judge of the fituation of objeCts by their
images falling on a particular part of the eye j if by
any diftortion of the eye they fall on a different place,
we are apt to miftake their fituation, or imagine one ob-
jeCt to be two, in the fame way as we imagine one flick
to be two, when it is placed between two contiguous
fingers laid acrofs one another. The direction of the
optic axes, he fays, will not ferve us beyond 15 or 20
feet, and the change of form of the cryftalline not more
than three or four feet. For he imagined that the eye
conforms itfelf to different diftances by a change in the
curvature of the cryftalline, which he fuppofed to be a
mufcle, the tendons of it being the ciliary proceffes. In
another place, he fays, that the change in the conforma¬
tion of the eye is of no ufe to us for the purpofe of
judging of diftances beyond four or five feet, and the
angle of the optic axes not more than 100 or 200 feet:
for this reafon, he fays, that the fun and moon are con¬
ceived to be much more nearly of the fame fize than
they are in reality. White and luminous objeCts, he ob-
ferves, appear larger than others, and alfo the parts con¬
tiguous to thofe on which the rays aCtually impinge •,
and for the fame reafon, if the objeCts be fmall, and
placed at a great diftance, they will always appear round,
the figure of the angles difappearing.
I c s.
The celebrated Dr Berkeley, bifliop of Clcyne, pub- Biftory.
liihed, in 1709, An fLffay towards a New Theory of v J
Vifion, in which he fclves many difficulties. He does 6<J
not admit that it is by means of thofe lines and angles,
which are ufeful in explaining the theory of optics, that vifion.
different diftances are eftimated by the fenfe of fight ;
neither does he think that the mere direction of the op¬
tic axes or the greater or lefs divergency of the rays of
light are fufficient for this purpofe. “ I appeal (fays
he) to experience, whether any one computes its diftance
by the bignefs of the angle made by the meeting of the
two optic axes ; or whether he ever thinks of the great¬
er or lefs divergency of the rays which arrive from any
point to his pupil: Nay, whether it be not perfectly
impoffible for him to perceive, by fenfe, the various
angles wherewith the rays according to their greater or
leffer divergency fell upon his eye.” That there is a
neceffary connexion between thefe various angles, &c.
and different degrees of diftance, and that this con¬
nexion is known to every perfon {killed in optics, he
readily acknowledges j but “ in vain (he obferves) ffiall
mathematicians tell me, that I perceive certain lines and
angles, which introduce into my mind the various no¬
tions of diftance, fo long as I am confcious of no fuch
thing.” He maintains that diftance, magnitude, and
even figure, are the objeCts of immediate perception on¬
ly by the fenfe of touch j and that when we judge of
them by fight, it is from different fenfations felt in the
eye, which experience has taught us to be the confe-
quence of viewing objeCts of greater or lefs magnitude,
of different figures, and at different diftances. Thefe
fenfations, with the refpeCtive diftances, figures, and
magnitudes by which thay are occafioned, become fo
clofely affociated in the mind long before the period of
diftxnCl recolleCtion,; that the prefence of the one in-
ftantly fuggefts the other ; and we attribute to the fenfe
of fight thofe notions which are acquired by the fenfe of
touch, and of which certain vifual fenfations are merely
the figns or fymbols, juft as words are the fymbols of
ideas. Upon thefe principles he accounts for fingle and
ereCt vifion. Subfequent writers have made confidera-
ble difcoveries in the theory of vifion j and among them
there is hardly any one to whom this branch of fcience
is fo much indebted as to Dr Reid, and Dr Wells, whofe
reafonings we ftiall afterwards have occafion to detail.
SectI V. Of Optical Injlruments.
Glass globes, and fpecula, feem to have been the cm-Invention
ly optical inftruments known to the ancients. Alhazen of fpedta%r
gave the firft hint of the invention of fpeCtacles. From cles*
the writings of this author, together with the obferva-
tions of Roger Bacon, it is not improbable that fome
monks gradually hit upon the conftruCtion of fpeCtacles ;
to which Bacon’s leffer fegment was a nearer approach
than Alhazen’s larger one.
It is certain that fpeCtacles were well known in the
13 th century, and not long before. It is faid that
Alexander Spina, a native of. Pifa, who died in 1313,
happened to fee a pair of fpeCtacles in the hands of
a perfon who would not explain them to him j but
that he fucceeded in making a pair for himfelf, and im¬
mediately made the conftruCtion public. It is alfo in-
feribed on the tomb of Salvinus Armatus, a nobleman of
Florence, who died 1317, that he was the inventor of
IpeCtacles.
Though
optics:
«p
CHher ac¬
counts.
70
The fir ft
telefcope
an exceed-
ingly good
One.
71
A telefcope
made by
Galileo
without
feeing one.
Though both convex and concave lenfes were fuffi-
ciently common, yet no attempt was made to combine
them into a telefcope till the end of the 16th century.
Defcartes confiders James Metius as the firft conftruftor
of the telefcope : and fays, that as he was amufmg him-
felf with mirrors and burning glaffes, he thought of
looking through two of his lenfes at a time 5 and that
happening to take one that was convex and another that
was concave, and happening alfo to hit upon a pret¬
ty good adjuftment of them, he found, that, by looking
through them, diftant objefts appeared very large and
diflindh. In faft, without knowing it, he had made a
telefcope.
Other perfons fay, that this great difcovery was firfl:
made by John Lipperfheim, a fpeftacle-taaker at Mid-
dleburgh, or rather by his children ; who were diverting
themfelves with looking through two glalfes at a time,
and placing them at different diftances from one another,
liut Borellus, the author of a book- entitled De vero
telefcopii inventore, gives this honour to Zacharias Joan-
nides, i. e. Janfen, another fpedlacle-m@ker at the fame
place, who made the firft telefcope in 1590.
J his ingenious mechanic had no fooner found the ar¬
rangement of glaffes that magnified diftant objefts, than
lie enclofed them in a tube, and ran with his inftrument
to Prince Maurice 5 who, immediately conceiving that
it nrght be ufeful in his wars, deftred the author to keep
it a fecret. But this was found impoflible ; and feveral
perions in that city immediately applied themfelves to
the making and felling of telefeopes. One of the moft
diftinguilhed of thefe was Hans Laprey, called Lipper-
^fheim by Sirturus. Some perfon in Holland being very
early fupplied by him with a telefcope, he paffed with
many for the inventor 5 but both Metius above men¬
tioned, and Cornelius Drebell of Alcmaar, in Holland,
applied to the inventor himfelf in 1620 ; as alfb did
Galileo, and many others. The firft telefcope made
by Janfen did not exceed 15 or 16 inches in length ;
but Sirturus, who fays that he had feen it, and made
ufe of it, thought it the beft that he had ever exami¬
ned.
_ Janfen direfling his telefcope to celeftial objefls, di-
ftinftly viewed the fpots on the furface of the- moon 3
and difcovered many new ftars, particularly feven pretty
confiderable ones in the Great Bear. His fon, Joannes
Zacharias, obferved the lucid circle near the limb of the
moon, from wrhence feveral bright rays feem to dart in
different direflions: and he fays, that the full moon,
Viewed through this inftrument, did not appear flat, but
was evidently globular. Jupiter appeared round, and
rather fpherical 3 and fometimes he perceived two, fomc-
times three, and at other times even fotir fmall ftars, a
little above or below him 3 and, as far as he could ob-
ferve, they performed revolutions round him.
I here are fome who fay that Galileo was the inven¬
tor of telefcopes 3 but he himfelf acknowledges, that he
firft heard of the inftrument from a German"; but, that
being informed of nofhing more than the effefls of it,
firft by common repdrt, and a few days after by a French
nobleman, J. Badovere, at Paris, he himfelf difcovered
the conftruflion, by confidering the nature of refraflion :
and thus he had much more real merit than the inventor
himfelf.
t About April or May, in 1609, it wras reported at
\ enice, where Galileo (who was profelior of mathcma-
195
tics in the umverfity of Padua) then happened to be, Hiftory.
that a Dutchman had prefented to Count Maurice of
Naffau, a certain optical inftrument, by means of which, of
diftant objects appeared as if they were near 3 but no hisdifeo-0
farther account of the difcovery had reached that place, veries.
though this was near 20 years after the firft difcovery of
the telefcope. Struck, however, with this account, Ga¬
lileo returned to Padua, confidering what kind of an
inftrument this muft be. The night following, the con-
ftru&ion occurred to him 3 and the day after, putting
the parts of the inftrument together, as he had previoui-
ly conceived it 3 and notwithftanding the imperfection
of the glaffes that he could then procure, the effeft an-
fwered his expiations, as he prefently acquainted his
friends at Venice, where, from feveral eminences, he
ft l owed to fome of the principal fenators of that repu¬
blic a variety of diftant objects, to their very great afto-
nifhment. \Vhen he had made farther improvements in
the inftrument, he made a prefent of one of them to the
Doge, Leonardo Donati, and at the fame time to all the
fenate of Venice ; giving along with it a written paper,
in which he explained the ftruclure and wonderful ufes
that might be made of the inftrument both by land and
fea. In return for fo noble an entertainment, the re¬
public, on the. 25th of Auguft, in the fame year, more
than tripled his falary as profeffor.
. Galileo having amufed himfelf for fome time with the
view of terreftrial obje&s, at length direffed his tube
towards the heavens 3 and found, that the Surface of the
moon was diverfified with hills and valleys, like the
earth. He found that the milky wTay and nebulce con-
fifted of a colleflion of fixed ftars, which, pn account
either of their vaft diftance, or extreme fmallnefs, were
invifible to the naked eye. He alfo difcovered innume¬
rable fixed ftars difperfed over the face of the heavens,
which had been unknown to the ancients ; and examin¬
ing Jupiter, he found him attended by four ftars, which,
at certain periods, performed revolutions round him.
This difcovery he made in January 1610, new ftyle ;
and continuing his obfervations the whole of February
following, he publilhed, in the beginning of March, an
account of all his difeoveries, in his Nuncius Sidereus,
printed at Venice.
. The extraordinary difeoveries contained in the Nun¬
cius Sidereus, which was immediately reprinted both '
in Germany and France, were the caufe of much debate
among the philofophers of that time ; many of whom
could not give any credit to Galileo’s account, while
others endeavoured to decry his difeoveries as nothing
more than mere illufions.
In the beginning of July, 1610, Galileo'being ftill
at Padua, and getting an imperfecl view of Saturn’s
ring, imagined that that planet confifted of three
parts 3 and therefore, in the account which he gave of
this difcovery to his friends, he calls it planetam ter-
geminam.
Whilft he was ftill at Padua, he obferved fome fpots
on the face of the fun : but he did not choofe, at that
time, to publifh his difcovery 3 partly for fear of incur¬
ring more of the hatred of many obftinate Peripatetics 3
and partly in order to make more exa£t obfervations oil
this remarkable phenomenon, as well as to form feme
conje&ure concerning the probable caufe of it. He
therefore contested himfelf with communicating his ob-
fervations to fome of his friends at Padua and Venice,
B
0 2
amor >3-
396
OPT
Hiftory.
73
Account
of his te-
lefcopes.
'74
The ratio¬
nale of the
inftrument
fu ft difco-
vered by
Kepler.
General
reafon of
the effedts
of tele-
fccpes.
among whom we find the name of Father Paul. This
delay, however, was the caufe of this difcovery being
contefted with him by the famous Scheiner, who like-
wile made the fame oblervation in Odlober 1611, and
we fuppofe had anticipated Galileo in the publication
of it.
In November following Galileo was fatisfied, that,
from the September preceding, Venus had been conti¬
nually increaling in bulk, and that Ihe changed her pha-
fes like the moon. About the end of March 1611, he
went to Rome, where he gratitied the cardinals, and all
the principal nobility, with a view of the new wonders
which he had difcovered in the heavens.
Twrenty-nine years Galileo enjoyed the ufe of his tele-
fcope, continually enriching aftronomy with his obfer-
vations : but by too clofe an application to that inltru-
ment, and the detriment he received from the nocturnal
air, his eyes grew gradually weaker, till in 1639 he be¬
came totally blind 5 a calamity which, however, nei¬
ther broke his fpirits, nor interrupted the courfe of his
fludies.
The firfl telefcope that Galileo conftrudled magni¬
fied only three times 5 but prefently after, he made
another wdtich magnified 18 times ; and afterwards,
with great trouble and expence, he conlfructed one
that magnified 33 times 5 and with this it w^as that he
difcovered the fatellites of Jupiter and the fpots of the
fun.
The honour of explaining the rationale of the tele¬
fcope is due to the celebrated Kepler. He made feve-
ral difeoveries relating to the nature of vifion •, and not
only explained the theory of the telefcope w7hich he
found in ufe, but alfo pointed out methods of conftrucl¬
ing others of fuperior powers and more commodious ap¬
plication.
It was Kepler who finl gave a clear explication of the
etfeers of lenfes, in converging and diverging the rays
of a pencil of light. He thowed, that a plano-convex
lens makes rays that were parallel to its axis, to meet at
the ditlance of the diameter of the fphere of convexity }
but that if both fides of the lens be equally convex, the
rays will have their focus at the diftance of the radius of
iJbe circle, correfponding to that degree of convexity.
He did not, however, inveftigate any rule for the foci of
lenfes unequally convex. He only fays, in general, that
they will fall fomewhere in the middle, between the
foci belonging to the two different degrees of convexity.
We owe this inveftigation to Cavalieri, who laid down
the following rule : As the fum of both the diameters
is to one of them, fo is the other to the diftance of the
focus.
The principal effefts of telefcopes depend upon thefe
fimple principles, viz. That obje&s appear larger in
proportion to the angles which they fubtend at the eye •,
and the effect is the fame whether the pencils of rays,
by which objefts are vifible to us, come direftly from
the objects themfelves, or from any place nearer to the
eye, where they may have been converged fo as to form
an image of the objeft j becaufe they iffue again from
thofe points where there is no real fubftance, in certain
directions, in the fame manner as they did from the
correfponding points in the objects themfelves.
In fa£t, therefore, all that is effected by a tekfeope
is, firft, to make fuch an image of a diftant objeft, by
means of a lens or mirror j and then to give the eye
I c s.
fome afliftance for viewing that image as near as pof-
fible : fo that the angle wdfich it ftrall fubtend at the
eye, may be very large, compared with the angle which
the object itfelf would fubtend in the fame fituation.
f his is done by means of an eye-glafs, which fo re-
fra£ts the pencils of rays, that they may afterwards be
brought to their feveral foci by the humours of the eye.
But if the eye was fo formed as to be able to fee the
image with fufficient diftinCtnefs at the fame diftance
Hiftory.
without any eye-glafs, it would appear to him as much
magnified as it does to another perfon wrho makes ufe of
a glafs for that purpofe, though he would not in all
cafes have fo large a field of view.
If, inftead ,oi an eye-glafs, an object be looked at
through a fmall hole in a thin plate or piece of paper,
held clofe to the eye, it may be viewed very near to the
eye, and, at the fame diftance, the apparent magnitude
of the object will be the fame in both cafes. For if the
hole be fo fmall as to admit but a fingle ray from every
point of the object, thefe rays will fall upon the retina
in as many other points, and make a diitinft image.
They are only pencils of rays, which have a fenfible
bafe, as the breadth of the pupil, that are capable, by
their fpreadmg on the retina, of producing an indi-
ftindft image. As very few rays, horyever, can be
admitted through a fmall hole, there will feldom be
light fufficient to view any objedt to advantage in this
manner.
If no image be formed by the foci of the pencils
without the eye, yet if, by the help of a concave eye-
glafs, the pencils of rays fhall enter the pupil, juft as
they would have done from any place without the eye,
the vifual angle will be the fame as if an image had
actually been formed in that. place. Objects will not
appear inverted through this telefcope, becaufe the pen¬
cils which form the images of them, only crofs one an¬
other once, viz. at the object glafs, as in natural vi¬
fion they do in the pupil of the eye.
Such is the telefcope that wns firft difcovered and Galilean
ufed by philofophers. The great inconvenience attend-telel'C0Pe
ing it is, that the field of view is exceedingly fmall.
For fince the pencils of rays enter the eye very much ftrudtion
diverging from one another, but few of them can be than others,
intercepted by the pupil. This inconvenience increafes
with the magnifying power of the telefcope 5 fo that it
is a matter of furprife howr, with fuch an inftrument,
Galileo and others could have made fuch difeoveries.
No other telefcope, however, than this, wTas fo much as
thought of for many years after the difcovery. Defcar-
tes, who wrote 30 years after, mentions no others as
adlually conftrufted. ^
It is to the celebrated Kepler that we are indebted Telefcoprs
for the conftruftion of what we now call the ojlronomi- improved
cal telefcope. The rationale of this inftrument is ex- Kepler,
plained, and the advantages of it are clearly pointed out,
by this philofopher, in his Catoptrics \ but, what is very
furprifing, he never actually reduced his theory into
praclice. Montucla conjectures, that the reafon why he
did not make trial of this new conftru&ion w^as, his not
being aware of the great increafe of the field of view 3 fo
that being engaged in other purfuits, he might not
think it of much confequence to take any pains about
the conftruction of an inftrument, which could do little
more than anfwer the fame purpofe with thofe which he
already poffeffed. He muft alfo have forefeen, that the
length
Hiftory.
7«
His method
firft put in
practice by
Sdieiner.
Huy gens
improves
the tele-
fcopes of
Seheiner
Rheita
80
Binocular
tclefcope.
O P ‘ T
length of this telefcope muft have been greater in pro¬
per lion to its magnifying power, fo that it might appear
to him to be upon the whole not quite fo good a con-
ftruclion as the former.
The firlt perfon who actually made an inftrument of
Kepler’s conftruclion was Father Schemer, who lias
given a defeription of it in his Rofa Utjina, published in
1630. If, fays he, you infert two fimilar lenfes in a
tube, and place your eye at a convenient diftance, you
will fee all lerreitnal objects inverted, indeed, but mag¬
nified and very diltinct, with a comiderable extent of
view. He afterwards fubjoins an account of a telefcope
of a different conftrudtion, with two convex eye glaifes,
which again reverfes the images, and makes them appear
in their natural pofition. This difpofition of the lenfes
had alfo been pointed out by Kepler, but had not been
reduced to practice. This conllru&ion, however, an-
fwered the end very imperfectly ; and Father llheita
prefently after difeovered a better conitruction, uling
three eye glaifes inftead of two.
The only difference between the Galilean and the
aftrouomical telefcope is, that the pencils by which the
extremities of any object are feen in this fafe, enter the
eye diverging ; whereas, in the other, they enter it con¬
verging •, but if the fphere of concavity in the eye-glafs
of the Galilean telefcope be equal to the fphere of con¬
vexity in the eye-glafs of another telefcope, their mag¬
nifying power will be the fame. The concave eye-giafs,
however, being placed between the object-glafs and its
locus, the Galilean telefcope will be fliorter than the
other, by twice the focal length of the eye-glafs, Con-
fequently, if the length of the telefcopes be the fame,
the Galilean will have the greater magnifying power.
Huygens was particularly eminent for his fyHematic
knowledge of optics, and is the author of the chief im¬
provements which have been made on all the dioptrical
inftruments till the difeovery of the achromatic telefcope.
He was well acquainted with the theory of aberration
arifing from the fpherical figure of the glaffes, and has
fhown feveral ingenious methods of diminilhing them
by proper conftruftions of the eye-pieces. He firfl:
pointed out the advantages of two eye-giaffes in the
aftronomical telefcope and double microfcope, and gave
rules for tbis conllmflion, which both enlarges the field
and fhortens the inftrument. Mr Dollond adapted his
conftruftion to the terreftrial telefcope of De Rheita ;
and his five eye-glaffes are nothing but the Huygenian
eye-piece doubled. This conftrubtion has been too haftily
given up by the ax tills of the prefent day for another,
alfo of Mr Dollond’s, of four glaffes.
The fame Father Rheita, to whom we are indebted
for the conftruftion of a telefcope for land objebls, in¬
vented a binocular telefcope, which Father Cherubin,
of Orleans, afterwards endeavoured to bring into ufe.
It confifts of two telefcopes faftened together, pointed
to the fame objeft. When this inftrument is well fixed,
the object appears larger, and nearer to the eye, when
it is feen through both the telefcopes, than through one
of them only, though they have the very fame magnify¬
ing power. But this is only an illufion, occafioned by
the ftronger impreffion made upon the eye, by two equal
images, equally illuminated. This advantage, however,
is counterbalanced by the inconvenience attending the
ufe of it.
The firft who diftinguifhed thenjfelves in grinding
ICS. 297
telefcopic glaffes were two Italians, Euftachio Divini Hiftory.
at Rome, and Campani at Bologna, whole fame was
much fuperior to that of Divini, or that of any other xddeopes
perfon of his time j though Divini himfelf pretended, ofCampani
that, in all the trials that were made with their glaffes, arid Divini,
his, of a great focal length, performed better than
thofe of C ampani, and that his rival was not willing
to try them with equal eye-glaffes. It is generally fup-
pofed, however, that Campani really excelled Divini,
both in the goodnefs and the focal length of his objecl-
glaffes. It was with telefcopes made by Campani that
Caffini difeovered the neareft fatellites of Saturn. They
were made by the exprefs order of Louis XIV. and were
of 86, 100, and 136 Paris feet in focal length.
Campani fold his lenfes for a great price, and took
every poffible method to keep his art of making them
fecret. His laboratory was inacceffible, till after his
death ; when it was purchafed by Pope Benedift XIV.
who prefented it to the academy called the Inftitute,
eftabliihed in that city ; and by the account which M.
Fougeroux has given of what he could difeover from it,
we learn, that (except a machine, which M. Campani
conftructed, to work the bafens on which he ground his
glafl.es) the goodnefs of his lenfes depended upon the
clearnefs of his glafs, his Venetian tripoli, the paper
with which he polilhed them, and his great Ikill and
addrefs as a workman. It was alfo the general opi¬
nion that he owed much of his reputation to the fecrecy
and air of myftery which he affected ; and that he made
a great number of objedl-glaffes which he rejected, (bow¬
ing only thofe that were very good. Fie made few
lenfes of a very great focal diftance; and having the
misfortune to break one of 141 feet in two pieces, he
took incredible pains to join the two parts together,
which he did at length fo eftedlually, that it was ufed as
if it had been entire ; but it is not probable that he
would have taken fo much pains about it, if, as he pre->
tended, he could very eaflly have made another as good.
Sir Paul Neille, Dr Hooke fays, made telefqopes of
of 36 feet, pretty good, and one of 50, but not of pro¬
portional goodnefs. Afterwards Mr Reive, and then
Mr Cox, wrho were the rnoft celebrated in England as
grinders of optic glaffes, made fome good inftruments of
50 and 60 feet focal length, and Mr Cox made one of
100.
Thefe, and all other telefcopes, were far exceeded by Extraordi-
an objeft-glafs of 600 feet focus made by M. Auzout; nary object
but he wras never able to manage it. Hartfocker is even g'afsmade
faid to have made fome of a ftill greater focal length ;M' Au”>
but this ingenious mechanic, finding it impoflible to Z°Ut’
make ufe of objed-glaffes the focal diftance of which
was much lefs than this, wrhen they were enclofed in a
tube, contrived a method of ufing them without a tube*
by fixing them at the top of a tree, a high wTall, or the
roof of a houfe.
Mr Huygens, who was alfo an excellent mechanic, made Telefcopes
confiderable improvements on this contrivance of Hart- u^e(1
focker’s. He placed the objedl-glafs at the top of along out tubes,>
pole, having previoufly enclofed it in a (hort tube, Much
was made to turn in all direftions by means of a ball and
focket. The axis of this tube he could command with
a fine filken firing, fo as to bring it into a line with the
axis of another fhort tube which he held in his hand,
and which contained the eye-glafs. In this method he
could make ufe of objeft-glaffes of the greateft magni-
Plate
CCCLXXVII
ftp. x.
S4
Of the a-
jrertures of
refracting
telefcopes.
• ,
Hiftory of
the reflect-
ing tele-
fcope.
OPT
fying power, at whatever altitude his objeS was, and
even in the zenith, provided his pole was as long as
his telefcope ; and to adapt it to the view of objects ox
different altitudes, he had a contrivance, by which he
could raife or deprefs at pleafure, a ftage that fupported
his objeft-glafs.
M. de la Hire, made fome improvement in this method
of managing the objeft-glafs, by fixing it in the centre of
a board, and not in a tube } but as it is not probable that
this method will ever be made ufe of, fince the difcovery
of both reflefting and achromatic telefcopes, which are
now brought to great perfection, and have even micro¬
meters adapted to them, we (hall not defcribe the ap¬
paratus minutely •, but (hall only give a drawing of M.
Huygen’s pole, with a fhort explanation. In fig i. a
reprefents a pulley, by the help of which a ftage c, </, e,
f (that fupports the objeCt-glafs h, and the apparatus
.belonging to it), may be raifed higher or lower at plea¬
fure, the whole being counterpoifed by the weight /^,
fattened to a firing g. n, is a weight, by means of
which the centre of gravity of the apparatus belonging
to the objeft-glafs is kept in the ball and focket, fo that
it may be eafily man-aged by the firing /u, and its axis
brought into a line with the eye-glafs at o. When it
was very dark, M. Huygens was obliged to make his
objeft-glafs vifible by a lantern, y, fo conttruCled as to
throw up to it the rays of light in a parallel direction.
Before leaving this fubjeCl, it mutt be obferved,
that M. Auzout, in a paper delivered to the Royal
Society, obferved, that the apertures which the objeft-
glaffes of refraCting telefcopes can bear with diftinCt-
nefs, are in the fub-duplicate ratio of their lengths; and
upon this fuppofition he drew up a table of the aper¬
tures of objeCt-glaife^of a great variety of focal lengths,
from 4 inches to 400 feet. Upon this occafion, how¬
ever, Dr Hooke obferved, that the fame glafs will bear
a greater or lefs aperture, according to the lefs or greater
light of the objed.
But all thefe improvements were diminifhed in value
by the difcovery of the refleBing telefcope. For a refrac-
tifig telefcope, even of 1000 feet focus, fuppofing it
poflible to be made ufe of, could not be made to mag¬
nify with diftinClnefs more than xooo times •, whereas a
refleCling telefcope, not exceeding 9 or 10 feet will
magnify 1200 times.
“ It mutt be acknowledged, fays Dr Smith, that Mr
James Gregory of Aberdeen was the firft inventor of the
refleCling telefcope j but his conflruClion is quite dif¬
ferent from Sir Ifaac Newton’s, ai)d not nearly fo ad¬
vantageous.”
According to Dr Pringle, Pvlerfennus was the man
who entertained the firft thought of a refleClor. He cer¬
tainly propofed a telefcope with fpecula to the celebrated
Defcartes many years before Gregory’s invention, though
indeed in a manner fo very unfatisfaClory, that Defcar-
tes was fo far from approving the propofal, that he
endeavoured to convince Merfennus of its fallacy. Dr
Smith, it appears, had never perufed the two letters
of Dt'carles to Merfennus which relate to that fubjeCl.
Gregory, a young man of uncommon genius, was led
to the invention, in trying to correCl two imperfeClions
-of the common telefcope : the firft was its too great
length, which made it lefs manageable ; the fecond, the
incorreClnefs of the image. Mathematicians had de-
monftrated, that a pencil of rays could not be coilefted
4
1 c s.
in a Angle point by a fpherical lens j and alio, that the Hiftoryv
image tranfmitted by fuch a lens would be in fome de- —w—-
gree incurvated. Thefe inconveniences he believed
would be obviated by fubftituting for the objeCl-glafs a
metallic fpeculum, of a parabolic figure, to receive the
incident rays, and to refieCl them towards a fmall fpecu¬
lum of the fame metal; this again was to return the
image fo an eye-glafs placed behind the great fpeculum,
which for that purpofe was to be perforated in its
centre. This conftruction he publiihed in 1663, in his
Optica Promote. But as Gregory, by his own account,
was endowed with no mechanical dexterity, nor could
find any workman capable of conftrudling his inftrument,
he was obliged to give up the purfuit: and probably,
had not fome new difeoveries been made in light and
colours, a refleftiitg telefcope would never more have
been thought of.
At an early period of life, Newton had applied him-
felf to the improvement of the telefcope ) but imagin¬
ing that Gregory’s fpecula were neither very neceffary,
nor likely to be executed, he began with profecuting
the views of Defcartes, who aimed at making a more
perfeft image cf an object, by grinding lenfes, not ^to
the figure of a fphere, but to that of one of the conic
feftions. Whilft he was thus employed, three years
after Gregory’s publication, he happened to examine the
colours, formed by a prifm, and having by means of that
Ample inftrument difeovered the different refrangibility
of the rays of light, he then perceived that the errors
of telefcopes arifing from that caufe alone, were
fome hundred times greater than thofe which were
occafioned by the fpherical figure of lenfes. This cir-
cumftance forced, as it were, Newton to fall into Gre¬
gory’s track, and to turn his thoughts to refle£lors.
“ The different refrangibility of the rays of light (fays
he in a letter to Mr Oldenburg, fecretary to the Royal
Society, dated Feb. 1672) made me take refleftions
into confideration •, and finding them regular, fo that
the angle of reflection of all forts of rays was equal to
the angle of incidence, I underftood that by their me¬
diation optic inftruments might be brought to any de¬
gree of perfection imaginable, providing a refleCling
fubftance could be found which would poliih as finely as
glafs, and refleCt as much light as glafs tranfmits, and
the art of communicating to it a parabolic figure he alfo
obtained. Amidft thefe thoughts I was forced from
Cambridge by the intervening plague, and it was more
than two years before I proceeded further.”
It was towards the end of 1668, or in the beginning
of the following year, when Newton being obliged to
have recourfe to refleClors, and not relying on any arti¬
ficer for making his fpecula, fet about the wTork himfelf,
and early in the year 1672 completed two fmall reflect¬
ing telefcopes. In thefe he ground the great fpeculum
into the concave portion of a fphere ; not but that he
approved of the parabolic form propofed by Gregory,
though he found himfelf unable to accomplifh it. In the
letter that accompanied one of thefe inftruments which
he prefented to the Society, he writes, “ that though
he then delpaired of performing that wyork (to wit,
the parabolic figure of the great fpeculum) by geome¬
trical rules, yet he doubted not but that the thing
might in fome meafure be accompliftied by mechanical
devices.”
Not lefs did the difficulty appear to find a metallic
fubftance.
OPT
Hiltory. fubftance that would be of a proper hardnefs, have the
 v fewcft pores, and receive tlie fmootheft polifh ; a diffi¬
culty which he deemed ahnoft unfurmountable, when
he confidered, that every irregularity in a reftefting fur-
face would make the rays of light ftray five or fix times
more out of their due courfe, than fimilar irregularities
in a refracting one. In another letter, written foon af¬
ter, he informs the fecretary, “ that he was very fenfi-
ble that metal xetlecis lefs light than glafs tranfmits 5 but.
as he had found fome metallic fubftances more ftrongly
reflective than others, to poliih better, and to be freer
from tarniffiing than others, fo he hoped that there might
in time be found out fome fubftances much freer from
thefe inconveniencies than any yet known.” New¬
ton therefore laboured till he found a compofition that
anfwered in fome degree, and left it to thofe who
Ihould come after him to find a better. Huygens, one
of the greafeft geniufes of the age, and a diitinguiffied
improver of the refracting telefcope, no fooner was in¬
formed by Mr Oldenburg of the difcovery, than he
wrote in anfwer, “ that it was an admirable telefcope ;
and that Mr Newton had well confidered the advantage
which a concave fpeeulum had over convex glaffes in
collecting the parallel rays, which, according to his own
calculation, was very great: Hence that Mr Newton
could give a far greater aperture to that fpeculum
than to an objedl glafs of the fame focal length, and
confequently produce a much greater magnifying power
than by an ordinary telefcope : Befides, that by the re-
fleCtor he avoided an inconvenience infeparahle from
objeCt glaiTes, which was the obliquity of both their fur-
faces, which vitiated the refraCtion of the rays that pafs
towards the fide of the glafs : Again, That by the mere
reflection of the metalline fpeculum there were not fo
many rays loft as in glaffcs, which reflected a confider-
able quantity by each of their furfaces, and befides in¬
tercepted many of them by the obfcurity of their fub-
ftance : That the main buiinefs would be, to find a fub-
ftance for this fpeculum that would bear as good a po-
lilh as glafs. Laftly, He believed that Mr Newton had
not omitted to confider the advantage which a para¬
bolic fpecrdum would have over a fpherical one in this
conftruCtion ; but had defpaired, as he himfelf had done,
of working other furfaces than fpherical ones with ex-
aClnefs.” Huygens was not fatisfied with thus expref-
fing to the fociety his high approbation of the inven¬
tion j but drew up a favourable account of the new te¬
lefcope, which he publiffied in the Journal des Spavans
for 1672, by which channel it was foon known over
Europe.
Excepting an unfuccefsful attempt which the fociety
made, by employing an artificer to imitate the Newto¬
nian conftruClion, but upon a larger fcale, and a dif-
guifed Gregorian telefcope, fet up by Caflegrain abroad
as a rival to Newton’s, no refleCtor was heard of for
nearly half a century after. But when that period was
elapfed, a reflecting telefcope of the Newtonian form
was at laft produced by Mr Hadley, the inventor of the
reflecting quadrant. The two telefcopes which Newton
had made were but fix inches long ; they were held in
the hand for viewing bbjeCts, and in power were com¬
pared to a fix feet refraCtor; whereas Hadley’s was
about five feet long, was provided with a well-contrived
aparatus for managing it, and equalled in performance
the famous aerial tekfeope of Huygens of 123 feet in
I C S. 199
length. Excepting the manner of making the fpecula, ( Hiftory.
we have, in the Philofophical TranfaCtions of 1723, a ““"v
complete defeription, with a figure of this telefcope, to¬
gether with that of the machine for moving it \ but, by
a ftrange omiffion, Newton’s name is not once mention¬
ed in that paper, fo that any perlbn not acquainted
with the hiitory of the invention, and reading that ac¬
count only, might be apt to conclude that Hadley had
been the foie inventor.
The fame celebrated artift, after finiihing two tele¬
fcopes of the Newtonian conftruClion, accomplithed a
•third of the Gregorian form j but, it would feem, lefs
fuccefsfully. Mr Hadley {pared no pains to inftruCt Mr
Mo-yneux and the Reverend Dr Bradley j and when
thofe gentlemen had made a fufficient proficiency in the
art, being defirous that thefe telefcopes fhould become
more public, they liberally communicated to fome of
the principal inftrument-makers of London the know¬
ledge they had acquired from him.
Mr James Short, as early as the year 1734, had
fignalized himfelf at Edinburgh by the excellence of
his telefcopes. Mr Maclaurin wrote that year to Dr
Jurin, “ that Mr Short, who had begun with making
glafs fpecula, was then applying himfelf to improve the
metallic; and that, by taking care of the figure, he
was enabled to give them larger apertures that others
had done 5 and that upon the whole they furpaffecT in
perfection all that he had feen of other workmen.”
He added, “ that Mr Short’s telefcopes were all of the
Gregorian conftruClion 5 and that he had much im¬
proved that excellent invention.” This character of
excellence Mr Short maintained to the lall 3 and with
the more facility, as he was well acquainted with the
theory of optics. It wras fuppofed that he had fallen
upon a method of giving the parabolic figure to bis-
great fpeculum; a point of perfection that Gregory
and New’ton had defpaired of attaining 3 and that Had¬
ley had never, as far as we know, attempted. Mr Short
indeed affirmed, that he had acquired that faculty, bu1?;
never w-ould tell by what peculiar means he effected it;
fo that the fecret of working that configuration, wffiat-
ever it wTas, died with that ingenious arthl. Mr Mudge,
however, has lately realized the expectation of Sir Ifaac
Newton, who, above xoo years ago, prefaged that the
public would one day poffefs a parabolic fpeculum, not
accomplilhed by mathematical rules, but by mechanical
devices.
This was a dejideratuni, but it was not the only
want fupplied by this gentleman: he has taught uS'
likewife a better compofition of metals for the fpecu¬
la, how to grind them better, and how to give them a
finer polifh 3 and this laft part (namely, the polifh),
he remarks, was the moll difficult and eflential of the
wfliole operation. “ In a word (fays Sir John Pringle)^
I am of opinion, there is no optician in this great city
(which hath been fo long and fo juftly renowmed for
ingenious and dexterous makers of every kind of ma¬
thematical inftruments) fo partial to his own abilities
as not to acknowfledge, that, Mr Mudge has opened to
them all fome new and important lights, and has
greatly improved the art of making refleCling tele-
fcopes.” Mr Fd-
The late reverend and ingenious John Edwrards de- war<^’s UiI*’
voted much of his time to the improvement of re'‘
fleCling telefcopes, and brought them to fuch per- fleeting ta»-
feflion, kfcope.
8*7
HerfchePs
improve¬
ments.
200 OPT
Hiftory. fection, that Dr Mafltelyne, the aftronomer royal,
found telefcopes conftru&ed by him to furpafs in
brightnefs, and other refpefts, thofe of the fame fize
made by the beft artifts in London. The chief ex¬
cellence of his telefcopes arifes from the compofition,
which, from various trials on metals and femimetals,
he difcovered for the fpecula, and from the true pa¬
rabolic figure, which, by long practice, he had found
a method of giving them, preferable to any that was
known before him. His diretlions for the compofition
of fpecula, and for cafting, grinding, and polilhing
them, were publilhed, by order of the commifiioners
of longitude, at the end of the Nautical Almanack
for the year 1787. To the fame almanack is alfo an¬
nexed his account of the caufe and cure of the tremors
which particularly affeft refiecling telefcopes more than
refrafting ones, together with remarks on thefe tremors
by Dr Malkelyne.
But in cOnflrufting reflefting telefcopes of extra¬
ordinary magnifying powers, Dr Herfchel has dif-
played ikill and ingenuity furpaffing all his predecelfors
in this department of mechanics. He has made them
from 7, 10, 20, to even 40 feet in length j and with
inftruments of thefe dimenfions he is now employed in
making difcoveries in aftronomy. Of the conltruflion,
magnifying powers, and the curious colleftion of ma¬
chinery by which his 40 feet telefcope is fupported and
moved from one part of the heavens to another, accounts
will be given under the word Telescope.
The greateil improvement in refra&ing telefcopes
hitherto made public is that of Mr Dollond, of which
an account has already been given in a preceding fec¬
tion, in which his difcoveries in the fcience of Optics
were explained. But, befides the obligation we are
under to him for correcting the aberration of the rays
of light in the focus of objeft-glaiTes, he made another
confiderable improvement in telefcopes, viz. by correct¬
ing, in a great meafure, both this kind of aberration,
and alfo that which arifes from the fpherical form of
lenfes, by an-,expedient of a very different nature, viz.
increafing the number of eye-glafies.
If any perfon, fays he, would have the vifual angle
of a telefcope to contain 20 degrees, the extreme pen-
provements c^s t^ie muft he bent or refrafted in an angle
of 10 degrees •, which, if it be performed by one eye-
glafs, will caufe an aberration from the figure, in pro¬
portion to the cube of that angle} but if two glaffes
be fo proportioned and fituated, as that the refraCtion
may be equally divided between them, they will each
of them produce a refraction equal to half the required
angle ; and therefore, the aberration being proportion¬
al to the cube of half the angle taken twice over,
will be but a fourth part of that which is in propor¬
tion to the cube of the wThole angle ; becaufe twice
the cube of 1 is but ^ of the cube of 2 ; fo the aber¬
ration from the figure, where two eye-glafles are right¬
ly proportioned, is but a fourth of what it mull un¬
avoidably be, where the whole is performed by a fingle
eye-glafs. By the fame way of reafoning, when the re-
fra&ion is divided between three glafles, the aberra¬
tion will be found to be but the ninth part of what
would be produced from a fingle glafs 5 becaufe three
times the cube of 1 is but one-ninth of the cube of 4.
Whence it appears, that by increafing the number of
eye-glafies, the indifiinftnefs which is obferved near the
S8
Account of
Mr Dol-
iond’s im
I c s.
borders of the field of a telefcope Way be very much di- Hiltory.
mhmhed. ' '  v 
1 he method of correcting the errors arifing from
the different refrangibility of light is of a different con-
fideration from the former. For, whereas the errors
from the figure can only be diminifhed in a certain
proportion according to the number of glaffes, in this
they may be entirely correfted by the addition of only
ifme glafs. Alfo in the day-telefcope, where no more
than twro eye-glaffes are abfolutely neceffary for erect¬
ing the objeft, we find, that by the addition of a third,
rightly fituated, the colours, wfiiich would otherwife
make the image confufed, are entirely removed. This,
however, is to be underftood with feme limitation : for
though the different colours into which the extreme
pencils muit neceffarily be divided by the edges of the
eye-glafles, may in this manner be brought to the eye in
a direftion parallel to each other, fo as to be made to
converge to a point on the retina 5 yet, if the glaffes ex¬
ceed a certain length, the colours may be fpread too
wude to be capable of being admitted through the pu¬
pil or aperture of the eye •, which is the reafon, that in
long telefcopes, conftructed in the common manner,
with three eye-glaffes, the field is always very much con¬
tracted.
Thefe confiderations firft fet Mr Dollond on contri¬
ving howr to enlarge the field, by increafing the num¬
ber of eye-glafi.es without affecting the diftinCtnefs or
brightnefs of the image •, and though others had been
about the fame wmrk before, yet, obferving that fome
five-glafs telefcopes which -were then made wrould ,admit
of farther improvement, he endeavoured to conftruCt
one with the fame number of glaffes in a better manner
which fo far anfwered his expectations, as to be allowed
by the beft judges to be a confiderable improvement on
the former.
Encouraged by this fuccefs, he refolved to try if he
could not make fome farther enlargement of the field,
by the addition of another glafs, and by placing and
proportioning the glafies in fuch a manner as to correct
the aberrations as much as poffible, without injuring the
diftinCtnefs 5 and at laft he obtained as large a field as is
convenient or neceffary, and that eveiff in the longeit
telefcopes that can be made.
Thefe telefcopes writh fix glaffes having been well
received, and fome of them being carried into foreign
countries, it feemed a proper time to the author to fettle
the date of his invention j on which account he drew up
a letter, which he addrefled to Mr Short, and which was
read at the Royal Society, March 1. 1753.
To Mr Short wTe are indebted for the excellent con- Equiuxaial
trivance of an equatorial telefcope, or, as he likewfife telefcope,
called it, a portable obfervatonj ; for vrith it pretty ac-or portable
curate obfervations may be made with very little trouble, °^^erva'
by thofe who have no building adapted to the purpofe.ror^‘
The inftrument confifts of a piece of machinery, by
which a telefcope mounted upon it may be diredfed to
any degree of right afoenfion or declination, fo that the
place-of any of the heavenly bodies being knowm, they
may be found without any trouble, even in the day-time.
As it is made to turn parallel to the equator, any object
is eafily kept in view7, or recovered, without moving the
eye from its fituation. By this inftrument moft of the
liars of the firll and fecond magnitude have been feen
even at mid-day, when the fun was Ihining bright; as
OPT
, Hiftory- alfo Tvlercun’, Venus, and Jupiter. Saturn and Mars
are not fo eafy to be feen, on account ox the faintnefs of
their li^ht, except when the fun is but a few hours above
the horizon. This particular effed depends upon the
telefcope excluding almofi all the light, except what
- comes from the objech itfelf, and which might other-
wife efface the impreflion made by its weaker light upon
the eye. Any telefcope of the lame magnifying power
would have the fame effeft, could we be fure of pointing
it right. Mr namfden invented a portable or equatorial
telefcope, which may perhaps fuperfede the ufe of Mr
90 Short’s.
fervl the°b~ In 0rder t0 ^ ^ i'ixed ftars m the day-time, it is
ftarTin the nece^ary to exclude the extraneous light as much as
daytime. poflible. for this reafon the greater the magnifying
power of any telefcope is, the more eafily a fixed ftar
will be diftinguilhed in the day-time ; the light of the
flar remaining the fame in all magnifying powers of the
fame telefcope, but the ground upon which it is feen
becoming darker by increafing the magnifying power ;
and the vilibility of a flar depends very much upon
the difference between its own light and that of the
ground upon which it is obferved. A fixed ftar will be
very nearly equally vifible with telefcopes of very dif¬
ferent apertures, provided the magnifying power remains
the fame.
Mr Epi- M. fEpinus propofes to bend the tubes of long te-
11 us’s pro- lefcopes at right angles, fixing a plane mirror in the
bendirnuhe a^gular P°int’ ,in order to make them more commo-
tubes of te- d!ous ^or viewing objefls near the zenith j and he
lefcopes. gives particular inftruftions how to make them in
this form, efpecially when they are furnifhed with mi¬
crometers. We are alfo informed that a little plane
fpeculum is fometimes placed betwixt the lafl eye-glafs
and the eye in the rededing telefcopes, at an angle of
450, for the fame purpofe.
92
Hiftory of The invention of Microscopes was not much later
raicrofcopes. than that of telefcopes 5 and, according to Borellus,
we are indebted for them to the fame author, at leafl to
Zacharias Janfen, in conjundion with his fon.
The Janfens, however, have not always enjoyed,
undiflurbed, that fhare of reputation to which they
feem to be entitled, with refped either to the telefcope
or the microfcope. The difcovery of the latter, in par¬
ticular, has generally been confidered as more uncer¬
tain than that of the former. All that many writers
fay we can depend upon is, that microfcopes were 4wft
ided. in Germany_ about the year 1621. Others fay
pofitively, that this inftrument was the contrivance of
Cornelius Drebell, a man of ingenuity, who alfo invent-
- cd the thermometer.
According to Borellus, Zacharias Janfen and his fon
prefented the firlf microfcopes they had conftruded to
Prince Maurice, and Albert archduke of Auftria. Wil-
harh Borell, who gives this account in a letter to his brother
Peter, fays, that when he was ambaffador in England, in
93 1619, Cornelius Erebcll, with whom he was intimately ac-
Microfcope quainted, Ihowed him a microfcope, which he faid was the
made by fame that the archduke had given him, and had been made
Janfea. by Janfen himfelf. This indrument wras not fo fhort as
they are generally made at prefent, but was fix feet long,
confilling of a tube of gilt copper, an inch in diameter,
fupported by three brafs pillars in the lhape of dolphins, on
a baie of ebony, on which the fmall objedls were placed
VOL. XV. Part I.
ICS. 20
This microfcope was evidently a compound one, or Hiftory.
rather fomething betwixt a telefcope and a microfcope ,' — y-—
lo that it is polhble that fingle microfcopes might have
been known, and in ule, fome time before : but perhaps
nobody thought of giving that name to fingle lenfes j
though, from the firlt ufe of lenfes, they could not
but havv. been uled for the purpofe of magnifying
finall objects. In this fenfe wre have feen, that even
tne ancients were in poffeflion of microfcopes j and it
appears from Jamblicus and Plutarch, quoted by Dr
Rogers, that they gave fuch inftruments as they ufed
for this purpofe the name of dioptra. At what time
lenfes were made fo fmall as we now generally ufe them
tor magnifying in fingle microfcopes, we have not found.
But as this mult neceffarily have been done gradually,
the onfy proper objedt of inquiry is the invention of the’
double microfcope 5 and this is clearly given, by the
evidence of Borellus above mentioned, to Z. Janfen or
his fon.
ihe invention of compound microfcopes is claimed
by the fame Fontana who arrogated to himfelf the dif¬
covery of telefcopes j and though he did not publifh
any account of this invention till the year 1646 (not-
withftanding he pretended to. have made the difcovery
m 1618), Montucla, not from attending perhaps to the
tefhmony of Borellus, is willing to allow his claim, as
he thought there was no other perfon who feemed to
have any better title to it.
Euftachio Divini made microfcopes with two com- By Ditir.i.
mon objedt-glalfes, and two plano-convex eye-glades
joined together on their convex fides fo as to meet in
a point. The tube in which they were inclofed was
very large, and the eye-glaffes almoft as broad as the
-palm of a man’s hand. Mr Oldenburg, fecretary to the
royal fociety, received an account of this inftrument
from Rome, and read it at one of their meetings,
Auguft 6. 1668. 8 ’
It was about this time that Hartfocker improved % Hart-
fingle microfcopes, by ufing fmall globules of glafs focker’
made by melting them in the dame of a candle, in-
ftead of the lenfes which had before been made ufe of
for that purpofe. By this means he firft difcovered the
animalcula in femme mafculino, which gave rife to a
new^fyftem of generation. A microfcope of this kind
confifting of a globule of te. of an inch in diameter’
M. Huygens demonftrated to magnify ico times; and
fince it is eafy to make them of lefs than half a line in
diameter, they may be made to magnify 300 times.
But no man diftinguilhed himfelf fo much by micro-By Leeu-
copical dncoveries as the famous M. Leeuwenhoek wenhoek.
though he ufed only fingle lenfes with fhort foci pre¬
ferring diftinclnefs of vifion to a large magnifying power.
M. Leeuwenhoek’s microfcopes were all fingle ones"
each of them confifting of a fmall double convex glafs’
fet m a focket between two filver plates rivetted too-e’
ther, and pierced with a fmall hole; and the obiecft
was fixed on the point of a needle, which could be
placed at any diftance from the lens. If the obieds
were folid, he feftened them with glue; and if thev
were fluid, or required to be fpread upon glafs he
placed them on a fmall piece of Mulcovy talc, or thin
glafs; which he afterwards glued to his needle. He
had, however, a different apparatus for viewing the
circulation of the blood, which he could attach to the
fame microfcopes.
Cc
M.
OPTICS.
M. Leeuwenhoek bequeathed the greateft part of his
■' microfcopes to the Royal Society. They were placed
fmall Indian cabinet, in the drawers of which
111 Cl 1J11CIAX ^•**'**'~—  7 .
were 13 little boxes, each of which contained two mi¬
crofcopes, neatly fitted up in filver.
The glafs of all thefe lenfes is exceedingly clear, but
none of them magnifies fo much as. thole globules
which are frequently ufed in other microfcopes. IV r
Folkes, who examined them, thought that they Ihowed
objefts with much greater diftin&nefs, a circumftance
which M. Leeuwenhoek principally valued. His di co-
veries, however, are to be aferibed not fo much to the
goodnefs of his glaffes, as to his great experience muling
them. . r .
Mr Baker, who alfo examined thefe rmcrofcopes, and
reported concerning them to the Royal Society, found
that the greateft magnifier enlarged the diameter Oi an
obi eft about 160 times, but that all the reft fell much
Ihort of that power. He therefore concluded that Ivi.
Leeuwenhoek mull have had other microfcopes of a much
greater magnifying power for many of his difeovenes.
It appears from M. Leeuwenhoek s writings, that
he was not unacquainted with the method ot viewing
opaque objefts by means of a fmall concave rellefting
mirror, which was afterwards improved by M. Lie-
berkbun. For, after deferibing bis apparatus for_ view¬
ing eels in glafs tubes, be adds, that he had an inftru-
mer.t to which he ferewed a microfcope let inbraiS,
upon which microfcope he faftened a little diin obbras,
probably that his eye might be thereby aflifted to fee
objefts better; for he fays he bad filed the brafs
which was round his microfcope _ as bright as he could,
that the light, while he was viewing objefts, might
be reflefted from it as much as pofiible. T his micro-
fcope, with its diih, is conftrufted upon principles o
fimilar to thofe which are the foundation 01 our tingle
microfcope by*refleftion (fee Microscope,) that n may
well be fuppofed to have given the bint to the ingenious
inventor of it. , .
Wilion’s In 170 2, Mr Wilfon made feveral ingenious improvc-
niicrofcope. ments in the method of ufing fingle magnifiers, lor the
purpofe of vierving tranfparent objefts •, and bis micro¬
fcope, which is alfo a neceffary part of the lolar micro¬
fcope, is in very general ufe at this day, (See Micro¬
scope, feft. 1.) , - , „ . .
In 1710, Mr Adams gave to the Royal Society the
   following account of his method of making, fmall glo-
makingglo-bules for large magnifiers. He took a piece o fine
hules for window-glafs, and cut it with a diamond into leveral
!a7JLmas‘ Hips, not exceeding | of an inch in breadth*, then
holding one of them between the fore-finger and thumb
of each hand over a very fine flame, till the glafs began
to foften, be drew it out till it was as fine as a hair,
and broke ; then putting each of the ends into the pureft
part of the flame, be bad two globules, which be could
increafe or diminilb at pleafure. If they were held a
]on<y time in the flame, they would have fpots in them,
fo that he drew them out immediately after they be¬
came round. He broke off the ftem as near to the
globule as be could, and lodging the remainder between
the plates, in which holes, were drilled exaftly.round,
the microfcope, he fays, performed to admiration.
Through thefe magnifiers the fame thread of very fine
muffin appeared three or four times bigger than it did
in the largeft of Mr Wilfolvs magnifiers.
57
Wilton’
98
A clams’s
method of
The ingenious Mr Grey hit upon a very eafy expe- Hiftory. ^
dient to make very good temporary microlcopes, at a
very little expence. They confift of nothing but imall p,n.)y. a)y
drops of W’ater, taken up with a point ol a pin, and put microkopts
into a fmall bole made in a piece of metal. Thefe glo- by Mr
hides of water do not, indeed, magnify fo much as thofe Grey,
which are made of glafs of the fame fize, becaufe the re-
fraftive power of water is not fo great *, but the fame
purpofe will be anfwered nearly as well by making them
fomewbat fmaller.
The fame ingenious perfon, obferving that fmall he¬
terogeneous particles inclofed in the gifts of which nu-
crofcopcs are made, were much magnified when thefe
glaffes were looked through, thought of making his
microlcopes of water that contained living animalcula,
to fee how they would look in this new iituation.; and
be found his fcheme to anfwer beyond his expectation, !o
that he could not even account for their being magnifi¬
ed fo much as they were : for it wras much more than
they would have been magnified if they had been placed
beyond the globule, in the proper place ioi viewing ob¬
jefts. But Montuclu obferves, that, when any otjeft
is inclofed within this fmall tranfparent globule,. the
hinder-part of it afts like a concave minor, provided
they be fituated between that lurface and the focus
and that, by this means, they are magnified above 3 b
times more than they would have been in the muai way. TCC)
Temporary microfcopes of a different kind have been Micmfoopcs
conftrufted by Dr Brewfter. They were compofed of ftturper-
turpentine varniffi, which was formed into a piano-a
convex lens, by laying a drop of it upon a piece cu plain gvewfler.
glafs : the under lurface of the glafs was then fmoked,
and the black pigment removed immediately below the
fluid lens. T hefe- lenfes lafted for a long time, and fhewed
objefts diftinftly, even when combined into a compound
microfcope. See Appendix to Yevgufoti s Leclut cj , \ cl. ii.
and Microscope, p. 19. . icx
After the fuccefsful conftruftion of the refleftmg te-Reflecting
lefcope, it was natural to expeft that attempts would mievofeope,
alfo be made to render a fimilar fervice to microfcopes.
Accordingly we find twTo plans of tins kind. JTv
firft was that of Dr Robert Barker. His inftrument
^differs in nothing from the reflefting telefcope, ex¬
cepting the diftance of the two fpeculums, m order to
adapt it to thofe pencils of rays which enter the im-
crofcope diverging *, whereas they come to tne te.cfcope
from very diftant objefts nearly parallel to each oihei.
r't his microfcope is not fo eafy to manage as thofe of
the common kind. For vifion by refleftion, as it is
much more perfeft, foit is far more difficult than that by
refraftion. Nor is this microfcope fo ufeful for any
but very fmall or tranfparent objefts. For 'the object,
being between the fpeculum and image,.would, if it were
large and opaque, prevent a due refleftion. 102
Dr Smith invented a double reflefting microfcope, Dr Smith’s •
of which a theoretical and practical account is gifen^ec
in his remarks at the end of the fecond volume ot his by- fuperior 'tJ
ftem of Optics. As it is conftrufted on principles dn.erent au other*,
from all others, and, in the opinion of tome, fupenor to
them all, the reader wall not be difpleafed wita the 10I-
lowing praftical 'defeription.
A feft ion of this microfcope is {hewn m fig. 2. where plate
ABC and abc are two fpecula, the former concave, and ccclxxvh.
the latter convex, inclofed within the tube DEFG. ft 2*
The fpeculum ABC is perforated, and the objeft to be
Hiftory.
viv.^vcd is ij placed bcL^een tlie centre a.nd principal
focus of that fpeculum, that the rays flowing from it to
ABC are refle&ed towards an image /> q. °But before
that image is formed, they are intercepted by the con-
i ex fpeculum a u c, and thence reflected through the
hole m the \ ertex ot the concave to a feeond imap'e
wx, to ^ be viewed through an eye-glafs /. The object
may either be iituated between the two fpecula, or,
which is perhaps better, between the principal focus
and vertex <r of the convex fpeculum a b c, a fmall hole
being made m its vertex for the tranfmiflion of the in¬
cident rays. When the microfcope is ufed, let the ob-
jefl be included between two little round plates of
Mufcovy-glafs, fixed, in a hole of an oblong brafs plate
it m, intended to Hide clofe to the back fide of the con¬
vex fpeculum : which mull therefore be ground flat on
that fide,, and fo thin that the object may come pre-
cifely to its computed diltance from the vertex of the
fpeculum. The Aider mull be kept tight to the back
of the metal by a gentle fpring. ‘ The diftance of the
object being thus determined, ditiinct vifion to different
eyes, and through different eye-glaffes, mult be procur¬
ed by a gentle motion of the little tubes that contain
thele glaffes. Thefe tubes muff be made in the ufual
form of thofe that belong to Sir Ifaac Newton’s refled-
mg telefcope, having a fmall hole in the middle of each
plate, at the ends of the tube, fituated exadly in each
focus ot the glafs: d he ufe of thefe holes and plates is to
limit the vifible area, and prevent any flragglino- rays
trom entering the eye. To the tube of the°eye-glafs is
radened the arm g, on which the adjufting fcrew turns.
A fimilar arm u is attached to the fixed tube X, in wdiich
the neck of the fcrewr turns } and by turning the button
.V’ eye-tube is moved farther from or nearer to the
object:, by wdiich means different forts of eyes obtain di-
Bind vifion.
The rays which flow from the objed diredly through
the hole in the concave fpeculum and through the
eye-glafs, by mixing with the refleded rays, would
dilute the image on. the retina, and therefore muff be
intercepted, i bis is done by a very fimple contri¬
vance. t he little hole in the convex fpeculum is
ground conical as in the figure ; and a conical folid P,
of which che bafe is larger than the orifice in the back
of the convex fpeculum, fupported on the flender pil-
lar PO, is fo placed as to intercept all the direct rays
fsom the eye-glafs. I he tubes are flrongly blacked on
toeir infides, and likewife the conical °folid, to hin¬
der all refledion of rays upon the convex fpeculum
J ne little bafe, too, of the folid fhould be made concave
that whatever light it may ftill refled, may be thrown’
back upon the objed j and its back-fide being conical
and blacked all over, will either abforb or laterally
difpe^fe any draggling rays which the concave fpeculum
may matter upon it, and fo prevent their coming to the
eye-glafs. °
Notwithflanding the interpofition of this conical
fohd, yet when the eye-glafs is taken out, diflant ob-
feds may be diflindly feen through the microfcope,
by rays refleded fiom the metals, and diverging upon
Me eye from an image behind the convex fpeculum.
.Kut this mixture of foreign rays with thofe of the ob-
j.,. which is common to all kinds of microfcopes in
new mg tranfparent objeds, is ufually prevented by
OPTICS.
Hilton
placing before the objed a thick double convex lens /,
to colled the fky-light exadly upon the objed. This
lens fhould be juft lb broad as to fubtend the oppofite
angle to that which the concave fpectilum fubtends at
the objed. d he annular frame of the lens muft be
very narrow, and conneded with the microfcope by two-
or three (lender wares or blades, whofe planes produced
may pafs through the objed, and intercept from it as
little fky-light as poftible.
This is not the place for explaining the principles of
this microfcope, or demonftrating its fuperiority over
moft others 5 nor are fuch explanation and demonftra-
tion neceffary. . Its excellence, as well as the principles
upon which it is conftruded, will be perceived by the
reader, when he has made himfelf mailer of the law s of
rcfradion and refiedion as laid down m the fecjuel
of this article.
I\l. Lieberkuhn, in 173^ or made two capi-SoIar mi-
tal improvements in microfcopes, by the invention ofcrofcof>e>
the/o/tfr rhicrofcope, and the microfcope for opaque objects.and tha\fo?
When he was in England in the winter of 1739, he^ds!16° *
flowed an apparatus for each of thefe purpofes, made by
himfelf, to feveral gentlemen of the Royal Society, as
well as to fome opticians.
1 he. microfcope for opaque objeds remedies the in¬
convenience of having the dark fide of an objed next
the eye. For by means of a concave fpeculum of fil-
ve.r, highly polifhed, in the centre of which a magni¬
fying lens .is placed, the objed is fo ftrongly illumi¬
nated that it may be examined with all imaginable eafe
and pleafure. A convenient apparatus' of this kind,
with four different fpecula and magnifiers of different
powers, was brought to perfedion by Mr Cuff in Fieet-
ftieet. M. Lieberkuhn made confiderable improvements
in his folar microfcope, particularly in adapting it to
the view- of opaque objeds 5 but in what manner this
W71S effeded, M. TEpinus, who was highly entertained
with the performance, and who mentions the fad, was
not able to recoiled j and the death of the ingenious in¬
ventor prevented his publiftiing any account of it him¬
felf. M. Afpinus invites thofe who came into the pof-
. feftion of M. Lieberkuhn’s apparatus to publifh an ac-
count of this inftrument j but it does not appear that his
method was ever publifhed.
This improvement of M. Lieberkuhn’s induced M.
Aipinus himfelf to attend to the fubjed ; and he thus
produced a very valuable, improvement in this inftru¬
ment. . For by throwing the light upon the forefide of
any objed by means of a mirror, before it is tranfmit-
ted through the objed-lens, all kinds of objeds are
equally well reprefented by it. 1 >
M.. Euler propofed to introduce vifion by refleded 1? 1
light into the magic lantern and folar microfcope, by ligfn intro,
which many inconveniences to which thofe inftruments duced into
are fubjed might be avoided. For this purpofe, he fays -he micro-
that nothing is neceffary but a large concave mirror’fc°P-a,nd
perforated as for a telefcope j and the light fliould be foterT
fituated, that none of it may pafs diredly through the
perforation, fo as to fall on the images of the objeds
upon . the fcreen. He propofes to have four different
machines, for objeds of different fizes ; the firft for thofe
of.fix feet long, the fecond for thofe of one foot, the
third for thofe of two inches, and the fourth for thofe of ,
two lines ^ but it is needlefs to be particular in the de-
c 2 ' fcription
:o4
Hillary,
IOS
Mr Mar¬
tin’s im¬
provement
in the lolar
microfcope.
106
Di Torre’s
extraordi¬
nary mag¬
nifying mi¬
crofcope.
toy
Could not
be ufed by
Mr Baker.
OPT
fcription of tViefe, as more perfect mflxuments are de-
fcribed under the article Microscope.
Several improvements rvere made in the apparatus
to the lolar microfcope, as adapted to view opaque
objedts, by M. Zeiher, who made one conftruclion tor
the larger kind of objects, and another for the fmall
ones.
Mr Martin having conftradted a folar microfcope of
a larger fize than common, for his own ufe, the illumi¬
nating lens being 4^- inches in diameter, and all the
other parts of the inftrument in proportion, found, that
by the help of an additional part, which he does not
defcribe, he could lee even opaque objedis very well.
If he had made the lens any larger, he was aware that
the heat produced at the focus would have been too
great for molt objedts to bear. The expence of this in-
llrument, he fays, does not much exceed the price of the
common folar microfcope.
The fmalleft globules, and confequently the greateft
magnifiers, for microlcopes, that have yet been execu¬
ted, were made by T. Di Torre of Naples, who, in
1765, fent four of them to the Royal Society. The
largeit of them was only two Paris points in diameter,
and it was faid to magnify the diameter of an object
640 times. The fecond was the frze of one Paris point,
and the third was no more than half of a Paris point,
or the 144th part of an inch in diameter, and was faid
to magnify the diameter of an objedt 2560 times. One
of thefe globules was wanting when they came into the
hands of Mr Baker, to whole examination they were
fubmitted by the Royal Society. This gentleman, how-
I c s.
ever, was not able to make any 'ufe of thefe. With Hiftory.
that which magnifies the leaft, he was not able to fee
any objedt with fatisfadlion •, and he concludes his ac¬
count with exprefling his hopes only, that, as his eyes
had been much ufed to microfcopes, they were not in¬
jured by the attention he had given to them, though he
believed there were few perfons who would not have
been blinded by it.
The conltrudtion of a telefcope with fix eye-glaflcs
led M. Euler to a fimilar conftrudtion of microfcopes, •
by introducing into them fix lenfes, one of which ad¬
mits of fo fmall an aperture, as to ferve, inftead of a
diaphragm, to exclude all foreign light, though, as he
fays, it neither lefl'ens the field of view, nor the bright-
nefs of objedts. ’ icS
The improvement of all dioptric inftruments is great-Difficulties
ly impeded by inequalities in the lubftance of the glafs^‘tcn(ling
of which they are formed } but though many attempts ^0£
have been made to make glafs without that imper-cp0ptrjc jn_
fedtion, none of them have been hitherto quite effec-ftruments.
tual. M. A. D. Merklein, having found Ibme glafs
which had been melted when a building was on fire,
and which proved to make excellent objedl-glaffes for
telefcopes, concluded that its peculiar goodnefs arofe
from its not having been diiturbed when it was .in a
fluid ftate ; and therefore he propofed to take the metal
out of the furnace in iron veffels, of the fame form
that was wanted for the glafs \ and after it had been
perfedtly fluid in thofe veffels, to let it Hand to cool,
without any difturbance. This, however, is not always,
found to anfwer.
Part I. THEORY of OPTICS.
THE fcience of optics is commonly divided into
three parts, Dioptrics, which treats of the laws of
refradlion, and the phenomena depending upon them;
Catoptrics, which treats of the laws of refledlion, and
the phenomena connedled with them •, and, laffly,
Chromatics, which treats of the phenomena of colour.
But this divifion is of no ufe in a treatiie of Optics, as
moft of the phenomena depend both on refraction and
reflexion, colour itfelf not excepted. For this reafon,
thoup-h we have given detached articles under the words
Dioptrics, Catoptrics, and Chromatics •, we have
referved for this place the explanation of the laws of
refleftion and refraction, by which all optical phenome¬
na may be explained.
Chap. I. On Light.
Under the article Light we have given fome ac¬
count of the controverfies concerning its nature. The
opinions of philofophers may, in general, be arranged
I0 under thefe two : 1. That light is produced by the un-
Dlfferent dulations of an elaftic fluid, nearly in the fame manner
opimo ,s as found is produced by the undulations of the air.
concerning q-gjg 0piniOn was firft offered to the public by Des
offiHht1116 Cartes, and afterwards by Mr Huyghens. It was re-
° !g> L' yived by Euler, and has lately found an able and inge¬
nious defender in Dr Thomas Young.—2d, That the
phenomena of vifion are ' produced by the motion and
a£Hon of matter emitted from the (Inning body with
immenfe velocity, moving uniformly in ftraight lines,
and a£led on by other bodies *, fo as to be refle&ed, re-
fra&ed, or infle&ed, in various ways, by means of forces
which act on it in the fame manner as on other inert
matter. Sir Ifaac Newton has ably drown the diflimila-
rity between the phenomena of vifion and the legitimate
confequences of the undulations of an elaftic fluid. All
M. Euler’s ingenious and laborious difeuflions have not
removed Newton’s obj eft ions in the fmalleft degree.
Sir Ifaac adopts the vulgar opinion, therefore, becaufe
the difficulties attending this opinion are not inconfiftent
with the eftabliftied principles of mechanics, and are
merely difficulties of conception to limited faculties like
ours. We need not defpair of being able to decide, by
experiment, which of thefe opinions is neareft to the
truth •, becaufe there are phenomena where the refult
ffiould be fenfibly different in the two hypothefes. At
prefent, we (hall content ourfelves with giving fome ac¬
count of the legitimate confequences of the vulgar opi¬
nion, as modified by Sir Ifaac Newton, viz. that light
confifts of fmall particles emitted with very great velo¬
city, and attrafted or repelled by other bodies at very no
fmall diftances. _ _
Every vifible body emits or reflefts inconceivably^™^1
fmall particles of matter from each point of its fur face,
which iffue from it continually, not unlike fparks from,n a hum-
a coal, in ftraight lines and in all direftions. Thefe nous fur.
particles face“
Theory. OPT
Refraction, particles entering the eye, and ftriking upon the retina
(an expantion of the optic nerve over the back part of
the eye to receive their impulfes), excite in our minds
the idea of light. And according as they dift'er in
fubltance, denfity, velocity, or magnitude, they produce
in us the ideas of different colours j as will be ex¬
plained in its proper place.
That the particles which conftitute light are ex¬
ceedingly fmall, appears from this, that if a hole be made
through a piece of paper with a needle, rays of light
from every objeft on the farther fide of it are capable
ol being tranfmitted through it at once without the leaft
confufion j for any one of thofe objefls may as clearly be
feen through it, as if no rays pafied through it from any
of the reil. Befides, if a candle is lighted, and there
be no obftacle in the way to obltruft the progrefs of its
rays, it wall fill all the fpace within fome miles of it
every way with luminous particles, before it has loft the
leaft fenfible part of its iubftance in confequence of this
copious cmiiTion.
It is evident that thefe particles proceed from every
point of the furface of a vifible body, and in all di-
reftions, becaufe wherever a fpeftator is placed with
regard to the body, every point of that part of the
furface which is turned towards him is vifible. That
they proceed from the body in right lines, we are
affured, becaufe juft fo many and no more will be in¬
tercepted in their paflage to any place by an interpofed
obje<ft, as that objedt ought to intercept, fuppofing them
to come in fuch lines.
The velocity with which they proceed from the fur¬
face of the vifible body is no lefs furprifing than their
minutenefs: the method by which philofophers eftimate
their velocity, is_ by obfervations made on the eclipfes
of Jupiter’s fatellites ; which eclipfes appear to us about
feven minutes fooner than they ought to do by calcula¬
tion, when the earth is placed between the fun and him,
that is, when we are neareft to him ; and as much later-,
when the fun is between him and us, at which time we
are fartheft from him. Hence it is concluded, that they
require about feven minutes to pafs over a fpace equal
to the diftance of the earth f$om the fun.
A ftream of thefe particles ilfuing from the furface
of a vifible body in one and the fame direction, is called
a ray of light.
As rays proceed from a vifible body in all diredtions,
they neceffarily become thinner and thinner, continually
fpreading themfelves as they pafs along into a larger
fpace, and that in proportion to the ujuares of their
diftances from the body ; that is, at the diftance of two
fpaces, they are four times thinner than they are at one ;
at the diftance of three fpaces, nine times thinner, and
fo on.
Chap. II. On RefraElion.
in T
Refraction . Tight, w-hen proceeding from a luminous body, is
defined. invariably found to proceed in ftraight lines, without the
leaft deviation. But, if it happens to pafs obliquely
from one medium to another, it always leaves the direc¬
tion it had before, and affumes a new one; and this
change of courfe is called its rcfraElion. After having
taken this new diredfion, it then proceeds invariably in
a ftraight line till it meets w-ith a different medium,
when.it is again turned out of its courfe. It muff be
A V_M D. 20^
ooferved, however, that though by this means wre may Caufe oT
caufe the rays of light to make any number of angles Refi action.-
in their courfe, it is impoffible to make them defcribe ^ "
a curve, except in one fingle cafe, namely, where they
pafs through a medium, the denfity of which uniformly
either increafes or decreafes. This is the cafe with the
light of the celeltial bodies, wdnch paffes downwards
through our atmofphere, and likewnfe with that which'
is refledled upwards through it by terreftrial objedls. In-
both thefe cafes, it defcribes a curve of the hyperbolic
kind; but at all other times it proceeds in ftraight lines,-
or in what may be taken for ftraight lines without any-
fenfible error.
Sect. I. On the Caufe of Refraclion, and the Law hj
which it is performed.
I I 2
J HE phenomena of reiradlion are explained by an at-Phenomena
tradlive powder in the medium through which light paf-of :efrac-
fes, in the following manner. All bodies being endow- !lon folved
ed with an attradlive force, which is extended ’to fome tradftw"
diftance beyond their furfaces 5 when a ray of light paf-power in
fes out of a rarer into a denfer medium (if this latter the rne-
has a greater attradlive force than the former, as is com- ^u,rn-
monly the cafe), the ray, juft before its entrance, will
begin to be attradled towards the denfer medium; and
this attraction will continue to adl upon it, till fome
time after it has entered the medium ; and therefore, if
a ray approaches a denfer medium in a diredfion perpen¬
dicular to its furface, its velocity w-ill be continually ac¬
celerated during its paffage through the fpace in which
that attradlion exerts itfelf ; and therefore, after it has
paffed that fpace, it will move on, till it arrive at the
oppofite fide of the medium, with a greater degree of
velocity than it had before it entered. So that in this
cafe its velocity only will be altered. Whereas, if a
ray enters a denier medium obliquely, it wall not only
have its velocity augmented thereby, but its diredtion
wall become lefs oblique to the furface. Juft as when
a ftone is thrown downwards obliquely from a precipice,
it falls to the furface of the ground in a diredtion near¬
er to a perpendicular one, than that with v/hich it was- .
thrown from the hand. Hence we fee a ray of light,
in^ palling out of a rarer inco a denfer medium, is-
refracted towards the perpendicular; that is, fuppgfing
a line drawn perpendicularly to the furface of the
medium, through the point where the ray enters, and
extended both ways, the ray in paffmg through the fur--
face is .refracted or bent towards the perpendicular line j
or, which is the fame thing, the line which it defcribes-
by its motion after it has paffed through the furface,
makes a lefs angle w-ith the perpendicular, than the line
w?hich it defcribed before. Thefe politions may be il-
luftrated in the following manner.
Let us fuppofe firft, that the ray paffes out of a va- Plata
cuum into the denfer medium ABCD (fig. 3.), andCCCLXXVI1’
that the attradlive'force of each particle in the medium ^ ^
is extended from its refpeaive centre to a diftance
equal to that which is between the lines AB and EF
or AB and GH; and let KL be the path deferibed by
a ray of light in its progrefs towards the denfer medi¬
um. This ray, when it arrives at L, wall enter the
fphere of attradlion of thofe particles which lie in AB
the furface of the denfer medium, and will therefore
ceafe to proceed any longer in the right line KLM, but
will be diverted from its courfe by being attradled to¬
wards s
6
O P T I
c s.
Part I.
ife of
a £t ion
wards tlic line AB, and will begin to defcribe the curve
LN, pafTmg through the furface AB in feme new di-
reclion, as making a lefs angle with a line PR,
drawn perpendicularly through the point N, than it
would have done had it proceeded in its firlt direction
KLM.
As we have fuppofed the attraftive force of each par¬
ticle to be extended through a fpace equal to the di-
ftance between AB and EF, it is evident that the ray,
after it has entered the furface, will ft ill be attracted
downwards, till it has arrived at the line EF ; for, till
then, there will not be fo many particles above it
which will alt raft it upwards, as below, that will attraft
it downwards. So that after it has entered the furface
at N, in the direftion 00, it will not proceed in that
direftion, but will continue to defcribe a curve, as NS 5
after which it will proceed ftraight on towards the op-
polite fide of the medium, being attrafted . equally
every way •, and therefore will at laft proceed in the
direftion XST, flill nearer the perpendicular PR than
before.
If we fuppofe ABZY not to be a vacuum, but a ra¬
rer medium than the other, the cafe will ftill be the
fame •, but the ray will not be fo much refrafted from
its reftilineal courfe, becaufe the attraction of the par¬
ticles of the upper medium being in a contrary direc¬
tion to that of the attraftion of thofe in the lower one,
the attraftion of the denfer medium will in feme mea-
fure be deftroyed by that of the rarer.
When a ray, on the contrary, piffes out of a denfer
into a rarer medium, if its direftion-be perpendicular to
the furface of the medium, it will only lofe fomewhat
of its velocity, in palling through the ipaces of attrac¬
tion of that medium (that is, the fpace^wherein it is at¬
trafted more one way than it is another.) If its direc¬
tion be oblique, it will continually recede from the per¬
pendicular during its pafiage, and by that means have its
obliquity increafed, juft as a ftone thrown up obliquely
from the furface of the earth increafes its obliquity all
the time it rifes. Thus, fuppofmg the ray TS palling
out of the denfer medium ABCD into the rarer
ABZY, when it arrives at S it will begin to be attraft¬
ed downwards, and fo will defcribe the curve SNL, and
then proceed in the right line LK ) making a larger
angle with the perpendicular PR, than the line TSX in
which it proceeded during its paffage through the other
medium.
We may here make a general obfervation on the for¬
ces which produce this deviation of the rays of light
from their original path. They arife from the joint
action of all the particles of the body which are fuffi-
ciently near the particle of light •, that is, whofe diftance
from it is not greater than the line AE or GA ; and
therefore the whole force which afts on a particle in its
different lituations between the planes GH and EF, fol¬
lows a very different law from the force exerted by one
particle of the medium.
The fpace through which the attraftion of cohefion
of the particles of matter is extended is fo very fmall,
that in conffdering the progrefs of a ray of light out of
one medium into another, the curvature it deferibes in
palling through the fpace of attraftion is generally
neplefted ; and its path is fuppofed to be bent, or re¬
frafted, only in the point where it enters the denfer
medium.
Now the line which a ray deferibes before it enters Law uf
a denfer or a rarer medium, is called the incident roij ; ^enaction.
and that which it deferibes after it has entered, is the
I'efraSlcd ray.
The angle comprehended between the incident ray
and the perpendicular, is the angle of incidence; and
that between the refrafted ray and the perpendicular, is
the angle of refraSion.
There is a certain and immutable law, by which
refraftion is always performed} which is this : What¬
ever inclination a ray of light has to the furface of
any medium before it enters it, the degree of refrac¬
tion will always be fuch, that the line oi the angle of
incidence and that of the angle of refraftion, will al¬
ways have a conftant ratio to one another in that me¬
dium.
To illuftrate this : Let us fuppofe ABCD (fig. 4.) Plate
to reprefent a rarer, and ABEF a denfer medium : letCCCLXXV11-
GH be a ray of light palling through the firft and en-
tering the fecond at H, and let HI be the refrafted
ray: then fuppoffng the perpendicular PR drawn through
the point H, on the centre H, and with any radius, de¬
fcribe the circle ABPR; and from G and I, where the
incident and refrafted rays cut the circle, let fall the
lines GK and IL perpendicularly upon the line PR ,
the former of thefe will be the line of the angle of in¬
cidence, the latter of refraftion. , Now7 if in this cafe
the ray GH is fo refrafted at H, that GK is double or '
triple, &c. of IL, then, whatever other inclination the
ray GH might have had, the fine of its angle of inci¬
dence would have been double or triple, &c. to that of
its angle of refraftion, For inftance, had the ray pal-
fed in the line MH before refraftion, it would have puf¬
fed in feme line as HN afterwards, fo fituated that MO
Ihould have been double or triple, &c. of NQ.
The folkwing table contains the refraftive denffties
of feveral bodies.
Diamond, - 2.500
Flint-glafs, - 1.585
Plate glafs, - - 1-502
Crown glafs, - I.525
Sulphuric acid, *
Solution of potalli, 1-39°
Olive oil, - 1.469
Alcohol, - I-37°
Atmofpheric air, 1.COO276
Ice, - - 1.31
Water, - 1.336
This relation of the fine of the angle of incidence to
that of refraftion, which is a propofition of the moft ex-
tenfive ufe in explaining the optical phenomena on phy~
fical or mechanical principles, may be demenftrated in
the following eafy and familiar manner.
Lemma I.
The augmentations or diminutions of the fquares
of the velocities produced by the uniform ac¬
tion of accelerating or retarding forces, are pro¬
portional to the forces, and to the fpaces along
which they aft, jointly ; or are proportional to
the products of the forces multiplied by the
fpaces.
Let two bodies be uniformly accelerated from a ftate
of reft in the points A a, along the fpaces AB, a b, fig. pjg. 5,
5-
2
Theory.
1 Law of 5. by the accelerating forces Y f, and let AC, a c, be
Refrartnn. fpaces defcribed in equal times j it is evident, from what
v has been faid under the articles Gravity and Accelf.-
Fig. 5. ration, that becaufe thefe fpaces are defcribed with
, " motions uniformly accelerated, AC and ac are reflec¬
tively the halves of the fpaces which would be uniform¬
ly defcribed during the fame time with the velocities
acquired at C and c, and are therefore mealures of thele
velocities. And as ihefe velocities are uniformly acquired
in equal times, they are meafures of the accelerating
forces. Therefore, AC : : f. Alfo, from the
nature of uniformly accelerated motion, the fpaces are
proportional to the fquares of the acquired velocities.
Tnereiore, (ufing the fymbols \/zC, \/2c, &c. to ex-
prefs the iquares or the velocities at C c, &c.) we
have
x/zB : ^ C=x^B : AC
V* C : c — AC2 : ac2
c : yjx b —ac : ab
Therefore, by equality of compound ratios
y2 B : v/23= AB X AC : ab X ac, — AB X F : ^ x/
And m like manner F> : X/A D X F : ad X/;
and V/J B—v/2 1) ; ^ b—V'2 d—BD XF : bd X f.
O. E. D. J
Corollary. If the forces are as the fpaces inverfe-
ly, the augmentations or diminutions of the fquares of
the velocities are equal.
Remark If DB, db, be taken extremely finall, the
produces BD >< F and bdXf may be called the momen¬
tary aftions of the forces, or the momentary increments
Oi tiie fquares of the velocities. It is ufually expreffed,
by the writers on the higher mechanics, by the fymbol
or fds, where f means the accelerating force, and
r 01 r/r means the indefinitely fmall fpace along -which it
is uniformly exerted. And the propofition is exprefied
by the fiuxionary equation fs—vv becaufe vv is half the
.increment of v~, as is well known. '
Lemma II.
re™™ ^ a, P31-*1'016 of Matter, moving with any velocity
fig 6. aloug the Iine AC» be Spelled by an accelerat¬
ing or retauling force, a£ling in the lame or
m the oppofite direction, and if the intenfi-
ty of the force in the different points B, F, H,
C, &c. be as the ordinates BD, FG, &'c. to the
line DGE, the areas BFGD, BHKD, &c. will
be as the changes made on the fquare of the
velocity at R, when the particle arrives at the
points F, H, &c.
. -b'Qr bc divided into innumerable fmall por¬
tions, of which let FH be one, and let the force be fup-
nofed to ad uniformly^ or to be of invariable intenfity
durngihe motion along FH ; draw GI perpendicular
Jo HE : It is evident that the red angle FHIG will
be as the produd of the accelerating force by the fpace
along which it ads, and will therefore exprefs the mo¬
mentary increment of the fquare of the velocity. (Lem-
Tiw .The fame may be Lid of every fuch redangle.
And il toe number of the portions, fuch as FH, be m-
creafccl, and their magnitude diminifhed without end
tne redangles will ultimately occupy the whole curvili-
area, and the force will therefore be as the finite
OPTICS. ' 2 C 7-
changes made on tne fquare of the velocity, and the I.aw of
propofition is demonftrated. Re fra ft ioru
Corollary. The whole change made on the fquare v '
of the velocity, is equal to the fquare of that velocity
which the accelerating force would communicate to the
particle by impelling it along EC from a date of reft in
13. I 01 die aiea will lull exprefs the fquare ot
this velocity, and it equally expreffes the change made
on the fquare of any velocity wherewith the particle
may pafs through the point B, and is independent on the
magnitude of that velocity.
Remark. The figure is adapted to the cafe where
the forces all confpire with the initial motion of the
particle, or all oppoie it, and the area exprelTes an aug¬
mentation or a diminution of the fquare of the initial
velocity. But the reafoning would have been the fame,
although, in fome parts of the line BC, the forces had
confpired with tlie initial motion, and in other parts had
oppeued it. In fuen a cale, the ordinates which exprefs
the mtenfity of the forces mult lie on different fides of
the abfeiffa Ij^, and that part of the area which lies on
one fide mult be confidered as negative with refpect to
the other, and be fubtrafted from it. Thus, if the for¬
ces be reprefented by the ordinates of the dotted curve /
line l)hff, which croffes the abfeiffa in H, the fivure
will correfpond to the motion of a particle, which, after
moving uniformly along AB, is fubjefted to the adion
01 a variable accelerating force during its motion along
BH, and the fquare of its initial velocity is increafed
by the quantity BHD ; after which it is retarded during
i!s motion along HC, and the fquare of its velocity m
H is diminifhed by a quantity H(A. Therefore the
RLTn °fx!r initiA velo^gJs changed by a quantity
JiTiD—HCe, or HO—BHD.
This propofition, which is the 39th of the iff book
of the Prineipia, is perhaps the moft important in the
whole fcience of mechanics, being the foundation of
every application of mechanical theory to the explana¬
tion of natural phenomena. No traces of it are to be
found in the writings of philofophers before the publi¬
cation of Newton’s Principia, though it is affumed by
john Bernoulli and other foreign mathematicians, as an
elementary truth, without any acknowledgment of their
obligations to its author. It is ufually expreffed by the
equation/;~u v and ff s-v\ i. e. the fum of the mo¬
mentary actions is equal to the who/e or finite increment
of the fquare cf the velocity.
Proposition.
When light paffes obliquely into or out of a tr.mf-TlJratb
parent lubftance, it is refracted fo that the of the fine
"trf the angle of incidence is to the tine of the
angie of refraction in the contiant ratio of theefrtfiac-
velocity of the refracted light to that of thf^L"-
incident light. ~ p!ate
0 CCCLTXV1I*.
ST>TR> reprefent two planes (parallel to, and f‘s 7‘
eqiudiftant from,, the refradting furface XY) which
bound, the fpace in which the light, during its pafiWe
is acted on by the refraffing forces. * P ’
Ihe intenfity of the refracting forces being fijppofed
equal at equal diftances from the bounding planes ‘ -
though anyhow different at different diftances from
them, may be reprefented by the ordinates T a,nq,p r,
r ‘b &c- of the curve a bn pc, of which the form mult
' be •
2oS OPT
. Law of be determined from obfervation, and may remain for
Refraction ever unknown. The phenomena of inflected light Ihow
' us that it is attracted by the refracting fubltance at fome
diltances, and repelled at others.
Let the light, moving uniformly in the direction
AB, enter the refradting ftratum at B. It will not
proceed in that direction, but its path will be incur-
vated upwards, while adted on by a repulfive force,
and downwards, while impelled by an attradtive force.
It will deferibe fome curvilineal path B d o CDE,
which AB touches in B, and will finally emerge from
the refradting ftratum at E, and move uniformly in a
ftraight line' EE, which touches the curve in E. If,
through b, the interfedtion of the curve of forces with
its abfeiffa, we draw b e, cutting the path of the light
in o, it is evident that this path will be concave up¬
wards between B and o, and concave downwards. be¬
tween o and E. Alfo, if the initial velocity of the light
h&s been fufficiently fnw.lL, its path may be fo much
bent upwards, that in fome point d its diredtion may
be parallel to the bounding planes. In this cafe it is
evident, that being under the influence of a repulfive
force, it will be more bent upwards, and it will de-
1 bribe df equal and fimilar to d B, and emerge in an
angle gfs, equal to AEG. In this cafe it is refiedted,
making the angle of reflection equal to that of inci¬
dence. By which it appears how refledtion, refrac¬
tion, and infledtion, are produced by the fame forces
and performed by the fame laws.
But let the velocity be fuppofed fufficiently great to
enable the light to penetrate through the refradting
flratum, and emerge from it in the direction EF •, let
AB and EF be fuppofed to be deferibed in equal times:
They will be proportional to the initial and final velo¬
cities of the light. Nov;, becaufe the refracting for¬
ces tnujl adt in a diredtion perpendicular to the refradt¬
ing furface (fince they arife from the joint adtion of
all the particles of a homogeneous fubftance which
are within the fphere of mutual adtion), they cannot af-
fedt the motion of the light eftimated in the diredtion of
the refradting furface. if, therefore, AG be drawm per-
dicular to ST, and FK to KR, the lines GB, EK, muft
be equal, becaufe they are the motions AB, EF, eftL
mated in the diredtion of the planes. Draw now EL
■parallel to AB. It is alfo equal to it. Therefore, EL,
EF, are as the initial and final velocities of the light.
But EF is to EL as the fine of the angle ELK to the
fine of the angle EFK ; that is, as the fine of the angle
ABH to the fine of the angle FEI ; that is, as the fine
of the angle of incidence to the fine of the angle of re-
fradiion.
By the fame reafoning it will appear that light, mov¬
ing in the diredtion and with the velocity FE, will de¬
feribe the path EDB, and will emerge in the diredtion
and with the velocity BA.
Let another ray enter the refradting ftratum perpen¬
dicularly at B, and emerge at (L Take two points
N, P, in the line B£L extremely near to each other, fo
that the refradting forces may be fuppofed to adt uni¬
formly along the Ipace NP : draw NC, PD, parallel to
ST, CM perpendicular to DP, and MO perpendicular
to CD, which may be taken for a ftraight line. Then,
becaufe the forces at C and N are equal, by fuppofition
they may be reprefented by the equal lines CM andNP.
The force NP is wholly employed in accelerating the
3
I C S. Part I.
light along NP j but the force CM being tranfverfe to Law of
the motion BD, is but partly fo employed, and may be Rldra<fnon.
conceived as ariling from the joint adtion of the forces
CO, OM, of which CO only is employed in accelerat¬
ing the motion of the light, while OM is employed in
incurvating its path. Now it is evident, from the fimi-
larity of the triangles DCM, MCO, that DC : CM—
CM : CO, and that DC X CO=CM X CMnrNP X NP.
But DC X CO and NP X NP are as the produdts of the
fpaces by the accelerating forces, and exprefs the mo¬
mentary increments of the fquares of the velocities at C
and N. (Lemma i.) Thefe increments, therefore, are
equal. And as this muft be faid of every portion of the
paths BCE and BNO, it follows that the whole incre¬
ment of the fquare of the initial velocity produced in
the motion along BCE, is equal to the increment pro¬
duced in the motion along BNCfl. And, becaule the
initial velocities were equal in both paths, their fquares
were equal. Therefore the fquares of the final veloci¬
ties are alfo equal in both paths, and the final velocities
themfelves are equal. I he initial and final velocities
are therefore in a conftant ratio, whatever are the di-
redfions ; and the ratio of the fines of the angles of
incidence and refradlion being the ratio of the veloci¬
ties of the refradled and incident light, by the former
cafe of Prop. I. is alfo conftant.
Remark. The augmentation of the fquare of the
initial velocity is equal to the fquare of the velocity
which a particle of light would have acquired, if im¬
pelled from a ftate of reft at B along the line BO.
(Corol. of the Lemma 2.), and is therefore indepen¬
dent on the initial velocity. As this augmentation is
exprefled by the curvilineal area a T b npc\{, it depends
both on the intenfity of the refradting forces, exprefled
by the ordinates, and on the fpace through which they
adt, viz. TR. Thefe circumltances arife from the na¬
ture of the tranfparent fubftance, and are charadteriftic
of that fubftance. Therefore, to abbreviate language,
we ffiall call this the Specific velocity.
This fpecific velocity is eafily determined for any
fubftance in which the refraftion is obferved, by draw¬
ing L i perpendicular to EL, meeting in i the circle
deferibed with the radius*EF. For E i being equal to
EF, will reprefent the velocity of the refradted light,
and EL reprefent the velocity of the incident light,
and Ef—EL* + L/% and therefore LP is the aug¬
mentation of the fquare of the initial velocity, and L i
is the Ipecific velocity.
It will now be proper to deduce fome corollaries
from thefe prepofitions, tending to explain the chief
phenomena of refradlion. 114
Cor. 1. When light is refradled towards the perpen- The motion
dicular to the refraaing furface, it is accelerated j and it of light ac-
is retarded when it is refraded from the perpendicular, ^or
In the firft cafe, therefore, it muft ^ be confidered refradtion.
having been aded on by forces confpiring (in part at
leaft) with its motion, and vice verfa. Therefore, be¬
caufe we fee that it is always refraded towards the per¬
pendicular, when paffing from a void into any tranfpa¬
rent fubftance, we muft conclude that it is, on the
whole, at traded by that fubftance. \Ve muft draw
the fame conclufion from obferving, that it is refraded
from the perpendicular in its paffage out of any tranf¬
parent fubftance whatever into a void. It has been at-
traded backwards by that fubftance.
This
Law of
liefraftion
Theory.
This acceleration of light in refraction is contrary
to the opinion of thofe philofophers who maintain,
that illumination is produced by the undulation of an
elaftic medium. Euler attempts to prove, by mecha¬
nical laws, that the velocities of the incident and re-
fi-aCted light are proportional to the fines of incidence
and retraction, while our principles make them in this
ratio inverfely. Bofcovich propofed a fine experiment
for deciding this queftion. The aberration of the fixed
fiars arifes from the combination of the motion of light
vvitn the motion of the telefcope by which it is obferv-
ed. 1 herefore this aberration fhould be greater or lefs
when obferved by means of a telefcope filled with water,
according as light moves flower or fwifter through -wa¬
ter than through air. He was miftaken in the manner
in which the conclufion fhould be drawn from the ob-
fervation made in the form prefcribed by him : and the
experiment has not yet been made in a convincing man¬
ner 3 becaufe no fluid has been found of fufficient tranf-
parency to admit of the neceffary magnifying power. It
is an experiment of the greateft importance to optical
fcience.
Cor. 2. If the light be moving within the tranfparent
fubftance, and if its velocity feifimated in a direction
perpendicular to the furface) do not exceed the fpecific
velocity of that fubftance, it will not emerge from it,
but will be refleffed backwards in an angle equal to
tnat of its incidence. For it muft be obferved, that in
the figure of laft propofition, the excefs of the fquare
of EF above the fquare of EL, is the fame with the
OPTICS.
PI at 2
t!ie Taare of KF above the fquare of KL.
7. herefore the fquare of the ipecific velocity is equal to
the augmentation or diminution of the fquare of the per¬
pendicular velocity. If therefore the initial perpendi¬
cular^ velocity FK be precifely equal to the fpecific
velocity, the light will juft reach the farther fide of
the attrading ftratum, as at B, where its perpendicular
velocity will be completely extinguifhed, and its motion
will be in the dire&ion BT. But it is here under the
influence of forces tending towards the plane KR, and
its motion wall therefore be ftill incurvated towards it 3
and it will deferibe a curve BD equal and fimilar to
EB, and finally emerge back from the refrading ftra-
lum into the tranfparent fubftance in an angle RDA
equal to KEF.
If. the diredion of the light be ftill more oblique, fo
that its perpendicular velocity is lefs than the fpecific
velocity, it will not reach the plane ST, but be re-
lleded as foon as it has penetrated fo far that the fpe¬
cific velocity of the part penetrated (eftimated by the
compounding part of the area of forces) is equal to its
perpendicular velocity. Thus the ray/E wall deferibe
the path JLdY) a penetrating to b d, fo that the corre-
fponding area of forces a b c e is equal to the fquare of
fk, its perpendicular velocity.
The extreme brilliancy of dew drops and of jewels
had often excited the attention of philofophers, and it
always appeared a difficulty how light was refleded at
all from the pofterior furface of tranfparent bodies. It
afforded ^ Sir liaac Newton his ftrongeft argument
againft the ufual theory of refledion, viz. that it was
produced by impad on iblid elaftic matter. He was
the. firft. who took notice of the total refledion in g’-eat
obliquities 3 and very properly afked how it can be laid
Vol. XV. Part I.
2°9
that, there is any impad in this cafe, or that the re- Law of
fledtxng impad fhould ceaie at a particular obliquity ? Refradhon,
It muft be acknowledged that it is a very curious v   f
ciicum.iance, that a body which is perfedly traniba-i? 11
rent fhould ceafe to be fo at a certain obliquity 3 that renain ob-
a great opliquity fhould not hinder light from paffingliquity are
from a void into a piece of glaf's 3 but that the fame wholly re-
obliquity. fhould prevent it from paffing from the vial's flcTcl by
into a void. The find! experiment for illuftrating the fubftance^
fad is, to take two pieces of mirror-glafs, n ?t fiivered,
and put them together with a piece of paper between
them, forming a narrow margin all round to keep them
apart. Plunge this apparatus into w ater. When it is
held nearly parallel to the furface of the water, every
thing at the bottom of the veffel will be feen ’clearly
through tne glaffes 3 but when they are turned fo as to
be inclined about 50 degrees, they will intercept the
light as much as if they w^ere plates of iron. It will be
proper to foak the paper in varnifh, to prevent water
from getting between the glaffes. ^ „
\\ hat is called the brilliant cut in diamonds, is fuch The bril-
a difpofition ol: the pofterior facets of the diamond, hant cut in
that the light is made to fall upon them fb obliquelydiamonds
that none of it can go through, but all is refleded. Pr°du^es t0-
1° produce this effed in the greateft poffible degree is aJS,
mattei ct calculation, and merits the attention of the la¬
pidary. When diamonds are too thin to admit of this
form, they are cut in what is called the rofe falhicn.
This has a plain back, and the facets are all on the
front, and fo difpofed as to refrad the rays into fuffici¬
ent obliquities, to be ftrongly refleded from the pofterior
plane. Doublets are made by cutting one thin diamond
loje fafhion, and another fimilar one is put behind it,
with their plane furfaces joined. Or, more frequently’
the outlide diamond has the anterior facets of the bril-
fiant, and the inner has the form of the inner part of a
brilliant. If they be joined with very pure anil ftrono-.
ly refrading varnifh, little light is refleded from the
ieparating plane, and their brilliancy is very confider-
able, though ftill inferior to a true and deep brilliant,
if no varnifh be ufed, much of the light is refleded
from the flat fide, and the efted of the pofterior facets
is much diminifhed. But doublets might be conftmd-
ed, by making the touching furfaces of a fpherical
form (of which the curvature fhould have a due pro¬
portion to the fize of the ftone), that would produce
an effed nearly equal to that of the moil perfed:
brilliant.
. 1CoK- 3- Since the change made on the fquare of the ReTl-^
velocity of the incident light is a conftant quantity, it din,indies
toifows,. that the reiradion wail diminifh as the velocity as the inci-
°f tlie incident light increafes. For if L i in fig. h c*ert veloei-
be a co iftant quantity, and EL be increafed, it is^evi-ty iacreafcs*
dent that the ratio of E i, or its equal EF, to EL wall
be dimmilhed, and the angle LEE, which conltitutes
the refradion, will be diminifhed. The phyfical caufe
of this is eafily feen : When the velocity of the incident
light is increafed, it employs lefs time inpaffmg through
the refrading ftratum or fpace between the planes ST
and KR, and is therefore lefs influenced by the refrac-
tmg forces. A fimilar effed would follow if the tranf¬
parent body rvere moving with great velocity towards
the luminous body.
Some naturalifts have accounted fer the different re-
d frangibility
2 10
Law of
Refraction.
OPTICS.
Parti
118
The refrac¬
tion of a
ftar greater
in the even¬
ing than m
the morn-
iug*
up
All light
fubjeft to
the fame
■laws.
frangibiiity of the differently coloured rays, by fappo-
fing that the red rays move with the greateit rapidity,
and they have determined the difference of original ve¬
locity which would produce the obferved difference of
refraction. But this difference would be obferved in
the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites. They fhould be ruddy
at their immerfions, and be fome feconds before they at¬
tain their pure whitenefs; and they fhould become bluifli
immediately before they vanifh in immerfions. T his is
not obferved. Befides, the difference in refrangibility is
much greater in flint glafs than in crown glafs, and this
would require a proportionally greater difference in the
original velocities. The explanation therefore muff be
given up.
It fhould follow, that the refraCHon of a ftar which
is in our meridian at fix o’clock in the evening fhould
be greater than that of a ftar which comes on the me¬
ridian at fix in the morning ; becaufe we are moving
away from the firft, and approaching to the laft. But
the difference is but 3-^5- of the whole, and cannot be
obferved wifti fufficient accuracy in any way yet prac-
tifed. A form of obfervation has been propofed by Dr
Blair, profeffor of praCHcal aftronomy in the univerfity
of Edinburgh, which promifes a very fenfible difference
of refraction. It is alfo to be expefted, that a differ¬
ence will be obferved in the refraftion of the light from
the eaft and weftern ends of Saturn’s ring. Its diame¬
ter is about 26 times that of the earth, and it revolves
in 1 oh. 32'} fo that the velocity of its edge is about
of the velocity of the fun’s fight. If therefore
the fight be refledted from it according to the laws of
perfedt elafticity, or in the manner here explained, that
which comes to us from the weftem extremity will
move more flowly than that which comes from the eaft-
em extremity in the proportion of 2500 to 2501. And
if Saturn can be feen diftinCtly after a refraCtion of 30°
through a prifm, the diameter of the ring will be in-
creafed one half in one pofition of the telefcope, and
will be as much diminifhed by turning the telefcope
half round its axis} and an intermediate pofition will
exhibit the ring of a diftorted ftiape. This experiment
is one of the moft interefting to optical fcience, as its
relult will be a fevere touchftone of the theories which
have been attempted for explaining the phenomena on
mechanical principles.
If the tail of a comet be impelled by the rays of the
Em, as is fuppofed by Euler and others, the fight by
which its extreme parts are feen by us muft have its ve¬
locity greatly diminiftied, being refleCled by particles
t^hicb are moving away from the fun with immenfe
rapidity. This may perhaps be difcovered by its great¬
er aberration and refrangibility.
As common day fight is nothing but the fun’s fight
refleCled from terreftrial bodies, it is reafonable to ex-
pecl that it will fuffer the feme refraClion. But no¬
thing but obfervation could affure as that this would
be the cafe with the fight of the ftars ; and k is rather
furprifing that the velocity of their fight is the feme
with that of the fun’s fight. It is a circumitance of con¬
nexion between the folar fyftem and the reft of the uni-
verfe. It was as little to be looked for on the fight of
terreftrial luminaries. If light be conceived as fmall
particles of matter emitted from bodies by the aClion of
accelerating forces of any kind, the vaft diverfity which
we obferve in the conftitution of fublunary bodies fhould
make us expeCt differences in this particular. \ et it is ^aviiV4
found, that the fight of a candle, of a glow-worm, &c. R<
fuffers the feme refraCtion, and confifts of the feme co¬
lours. This circumftance is adduced as an argument
againft the theory of emiflion. It is thought more
probable that this femenefs of velocity is owing to the
nature of the medium, which determines the frequen¬
cy of its undulations and the velocity of their propa¬
gation. _ _
Cor. 4. When two tranfparent bodies are contiguous, t aw ^rre-
the fight in its paffage out of the one into the other will fraction
be refraCled towards or from the perpendicular, accord- when light
ing as the refraCling forces of the fecond are greater Paffes out
or lefs than thofe of the firft, or rather according as the
area exprefting the fquare of the fpecific velocity is jnt0 an_
greater or lefs. And as the difference of thefe areas is other con-
a determined quantity, the difference between the velo-tiguous to
city in the medium of incidence and the velocity in thelt’
medium of refraClion, will alfo be a determined quantity.
Therefore the fine of the angle of incidence will be in
a conftant ratio to the fine of the angle of refraCtion}
and this ratio will be compounded ol the ratio of the
fine of incidence in the firft medium to the fine of re¬
fraClion in a void } and the ratio of the fine of incidence
in a void to the line of refraClion in the fecond medium.
If therefore a ray of fight, moving through a void in
any direction, fhall pafs through any number of media
bounded by parallel planes, its direClion in the laft me¬
dium will he the feme as if it had come into it from a
void.
Cor. 5. It alfo follows from thefe propofitions, that
if the obliquity of incidence on the pofterior furface of
a tranfparent body be fuch, that the light ftiould be
refleCled back again, the placing a mafs of the feme or
of another medium in contaCl with this furface, will
caufe it to be tranfmitted, and this the more completely,
as the added medium is more denfe or more refraClive j
and the refleClion from the feparating furface will be
the more vivid in proportion as the pofterior fubftance is
lefs denfe or of a fmaller refraClive power. It is not
even necefiary that the other body be in contaCl ; it is
enough if it be fo near, that thofe parts of the refraCling
llrata which are beyond the bodies interfere with or co¬
incide with each other.
All thefe confequences are agreeable to experience.
The brilliant refleClion from a dew-drop ceafes when
it touches the leaf on which it refts : T he brilliancy of
a diamond is greatly damaged by moifture getting be¬
hind it : The° opacity of the combined mirror plates,
mentioned in Cor. 2. is removed by letting water get
between them : A piece of glafs is diftinClly or clearly
feen in air, more faintly when immerfed in water, ftill
more faintly amidft oil of olives, and it is hardly per¬
ceived in fpirits of turpentine. Ihefe phenomena are
incompatible with the notion that refleClion is occafioned
by impaCl on folid matter, whether of the tranfparent
body, or of any ether or other fancied dihd behind it;
and their perfeCl coincidence with the legitimate confe¬
quences of the affumed principles, is a ftrong argument
in favour of the truth of thofe principles. . ^ ^
It is worth while to mention here a faCl taken notice An 0^jec,
of by Mr Beguelin, and propofed as a great difhculty in (-lon
the Newtonian theory of refraClion. In order to get Newton an
the greatefl: poffible refraClion, and the fimplell meafure theory of
of the refraCling power at the anterior furface of anyre uiL 1'11'
tranfparent
122
Shown to
be the ne-
Theory. OPT
u trahfparent fubflance. Sir Iiaac Newton enjoins us to
r etiaetion. employ a ray of light falling on the furface quam obli-
quiffime. _ Eut Mr Beguelin found, that when the obli¬
quity of incidence in glafs was about 89° 50', no light
•was refrafted, but that it was wholly reflefted. He al-
fo obferved, that when he gradually increafed the obli¬
quity of incidence on the pofterior furface of the glafs
the light which emerged laft of all did not Ikim a-
long the furface, making an angle of 90° with the per¬
pendicular, as it fhould do by the Newtonian theory,
but made an angle of more than ten minutes with the
pofterior furface. Alfo, when he began with very great
obliquities, fo that all the light was refledted back into
the glafs, and gradually diminifhed the obliquity of in¬
cidence, the firft ray of light which emerged did not
ikim along the furface, but was raifed about 10 or 1 c
minutes. J
But all thefe phenomena are neceffary conlequences of
cHThrv ron OUr PrinciPles> combined with what obfervation teaches
fequence ’ uil concerning the forces which bodies exert on the rays
of that °* h§ht* It is evident, from the experiments of Gri-
theory, and maldi and Newton, that light is both attraded and re-
3 Pcelrd by folid bodIes- Newton’s fugacious analyfis of
tl0n ont; the[e. experiments difeovered feveral alternations of ac¬
tual inflection and defledion j and he gives us the pre-
cife diftance from the body when fome of thefe attrac¬
tions end and repulfion commences ; and the moft re¬
mote adion to be obferved in his experiments is repul¬
fion. Let us fuppofe this to be the cafe, although it be
not abfolutely neceffary. Let us fuppofe that the forces
Piate are reprefented by the ordinates of a curve abntc
ccclxxvii.which crofles the abfcifl’a in A Draw bo parallel to
the refrading furface. When the obliquity of incidence
of the ray AB has become fo great, that its path in the
glafs, or in the refrading ftratum, does not cut, but on¬
ly touches the line 0 b, it can penetrate no further, but
is totally refleded ; and this muft happen in all eweater
obliquities. On the other hand, when the ray LE
moving within the glafs, has but a very fmall perpendi¬
cular velocity, it will penetrate the refrading ftratum
no further than till this perpendicular velocity is extin-
guiflied, and its path becomes parallel to the furface
and it will be refleded back. As the perpendicular ve¬
locity increafes by diminifhing the obliquityof incidence
it will penetrate farther; and the laft refledion will
happen when it penetrates fo far that its path touches
the line ob. Now diminilh the obliquity by a Angle
iecondj the light will get over the line ’ o b. will de¬
scribe. an arch od~R concave upwards, and will emerge
in a diredion BA, which does not Ikim the furface, but
is ienfibly raifed above it. And thus the fads obferved
by M. Beguelm, inftead of being an objedion againft
this theory, aflord an argument in its favour.
Cor. 6.. Thofe philofophers who maintain the theory
undulation “ neceffity of connecling the
contrary to dllPerflve P°wers of bodies with their mean refradive
powers. M. Euler has attempted to deduce a neceflary
difference in the velocity of the rays of different colours
atom the different frequency of the undulations, which
he affigns as the caufe of their different colorific powers.
His reafoning on this fubjed is of the moft delicate na¬
ture, and unintelligible to fuch as are not completely
mnfter of the infinitefimal calculus of partial differences
and is unfatisfadory to fuch as are able to po through
its intricacies. Jt is contradided by fad. He fays
I c s.
7-
123
Euler’s
theory of
fact;
2 1 1
that mufical fountfi which differ greatly in acutenefs are l aw of
propagated through the air with different velocities : but Refradtion.
one of the fmalleit bells in the chimes of St Giles’s v ‘
church in Edinburgh was ftruck againft the rim of the
very deep-toned bell on which the hours are ftruck.
When the found was liftened to by a nice obferver at
the diftance of more than two miles, no interval what¬
ever could be obferved. A fimilar experiment w^as ex¬
hibited to M. Euler himfelf, by means of a curious in-
ftrument ufed at St Peterlburgh, and which may be.
heard at three or four miles diftance. But the experi¬
ment with the bells is unexceptionable, as the two founds
were produced in the very fame inftant. This connec¬
tion between the refrangibility in general and the velo¬
city muft be admitted, in its full" extent, in every at¬
tempt to explain refradion by undulation ; and Euler
was forced by it to adopt a certain conlequence which
made a neceflary connedion between the mean refrac¬
tion.and the dilperfion of heterogeneous rays. Confident
of his analyfis, he gave a deaf ear to all that w^as told
him of Mr Dollond’s improvements on telefcopes, and
aflerted, that they could not be fuch as wTere related j
for an increafe of mean refradion muft always be ac¬
companied with a determined increafe of difperfion.
Newton had faid the fame thing, being mifled by a li¬
mited view of his own principles; but the difperfion af-
figned. by him w-as different from that afligned by Eu¬
ler. 1 he difpute betwreen Euler and Dollond was con¬
fined to the decifion of this queftion only 5 and when
fome. glaffes made by a German chemift at Peterlburgh
convinced Euler that his determination was erroneous,
he did not give up the principle which had forced him
to this determination of the difperfion, but immediately
introduced a new theory of the achromatic telefcopes of
Dollond 5 a theory which took the artifts out of the
track marked out by mathematicians, and in which
they had made confiderable advances, and led them in¬
to another path, propofing maxims of conftruclion hi¬
therto untried, and inconliftent with real improvements
which they had already made. The leading principle in. d124(-
this theory.is to arrange the different ultimate images ofSsTrtffb.
a point which arife either from the errors of a fpherical
figure or different refrangibility, in a ftraight line pal¬
ling through the centre of the eye. The theory itfelf
is ipecious 5 and it requires great mathematical Ikill to
accomplilh this point, and hardly lefs to decide on the
propriety of the conftruftion which it recommends. It
is therefore but little known. But that it is a falfe
theoiy, is. evident from one fimple conlideration. In
the moft indiHindi vifion arifing from the worft con-
ftrudlion, this redlilineal arrangement of the images ob¬
tains completely in that pencil which is lituated in the
axis, and yet the vifion is indiftincl. But, what is to
our prefent purpofe, this new theory is purely mathema¬
tical, fuiting any obferved difperfive power, and has no
connexion with the phyfical theory of undulations, or
indeed with any mechanical principles whatever. But,
by admitting any difperfive power, whatever may be
the mean refradlion, all the phyfical dodlrines in his
Nova Theoria Lads et Co/orum are overlooked, and
therefore never once mentioned, although the effedls of
M. Zeiher’s glafs are taken notice of as inconfiftent with
that mechanical propofition of Newton’s which occa-
fioned the whole difpute between Euler and Dollond.
They are indeed inconfiftent with the univerfality of
. E) d 2 that ■
2 r 2
OPTIC S.
Part I.
i.sw of that prcpofii-ion. Newton advances it in his Optics
irachon, merely as a mathematical proportion highly probable,
' “ but fays that it will be corrected it' he jhaiifind it falfe.
The ground on which he fee ms (for he does not exprefsly
fry fo) to reft its probability, is a limited view of his own
principle, the action of bodies on light. He (not know¬
ing any cauie to,the contrary) fuppofed that the action
of all bodies was fimilar on the different kinds of light,
that is, that the fpecinc velocities of the differently co¬
loured rays had a determined proportion to each other.
This was gratuitous} and it might have been doubted
by him who had obferved the analogy between the
chemical adlions of bodies by elective attractions and
fepuiiions, and the funilar aftions on light. Not only
have different menftrua unequal actions on their folids,
but the order of their affinities is alfo different. In like
manner, we might expect not only that fome bodies
would attract light in general more than others, but al¬
fo might differ in the proportion of their actions on the
different kinds of light, and this fo much, that fome
ni ight even attract the red more than the violet. The
late dlfcoveries in chemiftry fim'.v us fome very diftinbt
proofs, that light is not exempted from the laws of che¬
mical a (Ton, and that it is iufceptible of chemical com¬
bination. The changes produced by the fun’s light on
\egetable colours, ftiow the neceflity of illumination to
produce the green fecula •, and the aromatic oils of
plants, the irritability of their leaves by the action of
light, the curious effects of it on the mineral acids, on
manganefe, and the calces of bifmuth and lead, and
the imbibition and fubfequent emiflion of it by phof-
phorefeent bodies, are ftrong proofs of its chemical affi¬
nities, and are quite inexplicable on the theory of undu¬
lations.
All thefe con fide rations taken together, had they
been known to Sir Ifaac Newton, would have made him
expeCt differences quite anomalous in the difperlive
powers of different trani parent bodies; at the fame time
that they wmuld have afforded to his fagacious mind the
ftrongeft arguments for the actual emiflion of light from
the luminous body.
Having in this manner eftabliftied the obferved law
of refraction on mechanical principles, (bowing it to be
a neceflary confequence ot the known action of bodies
on light, we proceed to trace its mathematical confe-
quences through the various cafes in which it may be
exhibited to our obfervation. Thefe conftitute that part
of the mathematical branch of optical (Hence w hich is
-[2c; called dioptrics.
The varia- We are quite unacquainted with the lawr of action of
tion of the lj0ffies on light, that is, with the variation of the inten-
intcpiity of 0r gie attractions and repulfions exerted at different
and repul- diflances. All that we can fay is, that from the expe-
fiors un- nments and obfervations of Grimaldi, Newton, and
known, others, light is deflected towards a body, or is attracted
by it, at (bme diftances, and repelled at others, and
this with a variable intenfity. The action may be ex¬
tremely different, both in extent and force, in different
uodies, and change by a very different law with the
lame change of diftance. Eut, amidft all this variety,
there is a certain flmilarity arifing from the joint aftion
of many particles, which (liould be noticed, becaufe it
tends both, to explain the ftmilarity obferved ip the re¬
flations of light, and alfo its connexion with the phe- i-aw of
nomena of rdietion. Retraction.
The law oi variation in the joint aclion of many par- 'W
ticies adjoining to the furface of a retracting medium, is The law of
extremely different from that of a (ingle particle ; but variation in
when this laft is known, the other may be found out. '-he action
We ihall illuftrate this matter by a very Ample cafe. ot'™a>?y
Let DE be the furface of a medium, and let us fuppofe different
that the a6lion of a particle of the medium on a particle ffom that
of light extends to the diftance EA, and that it is pro- ofone.
portional to the ordinates ED, Yf G v, K Ji, &c. of *>ial;c
the line A h C g/’D ; that is, that the action of the "Cf]gXy V U*
particle E of the medium on a particle of light in F, is
to its aftion on a particle in H as F f to 11 h, and that
it is attracted at E but repelled at H, as expreffed hv
the fituation of the ordinates rvirh refpeft to the abfeiffa.
In the line AE produced to B, make EE, E^, Ex,
E y, E <p, &c. refpectively equal to EA, EH, EC,
EG, EF, See.
It is evident that a particle of the medium at B will
exert no action on the particle of light in E, and that •
the particles of the medium in xy <p E, will exert on it
aftions, proportional to FI A, G^, Ff, ED. There-,
fore, fuppofrng the matter of the medium continuous,
the whole aftion exerted by the row of particles EB
will be reprefented by the area A h CDE ; and the ac¬
tion of the particles between B and <p will be reprefent¬
ed by the area A fi Cf F, and that of the particles be¬
tween. E and cp by the area F/ DE.
Now let the particle of light be in F, and take F o
= AE. It is no iefs evident that the particle cf licht
iii F wall be afted on by the particles in Ee alone, and
that it will be acted on in the fame manner as a particle
in E is afled on by the particles in <p B. Therefore
the aflion cf the whole row of particles EB on a parti¬
cle in F will be reprefented by the area A h C fF.
And thus the action on a particle of light in any point
of AE will be reprefented by the area which lies be¬
yond it.
But let us fuppofe the particles of light to be within
the medium, as at <p, and make <p ff—AE. It is again
evident that it is acled on by the particles of the me¬
dium between p and d with a force repiefented by the
area A h CDE, and in the oppofite dircHion by the
particles in E <p with a force reprefented by the, area
Ff DE. This balances an equal quantity of action,
and there remains an allien expreffed by the area
A // C/F, Therefore, if an equal and flmilar line to
A h CDE be deferibed on the abfeiffa EB, the action
of the medium on, a particle of light in <p will be repre-
fented by the area <$f x h B, lying beyond it.
If we now draw a line AKLMRNPB, whole ordi¬
nates CK, FO, <p R, 8cc. are as the areas of the other
curve, eftimated from A and B ; thefe ordinates will
reprefent the whole forces which are exerted by the par¬
ticles in EB, on a particle of light moving from A to
B. This curve,will cut the axis in points L, N fuch,
that the ordinates drawn through them intercept areas
of the firft curve, which are equal on each (ide of the
axis ; and in thefe points the particle of light fuftains no
allien from the medium. Thefe points are very differ¬
ent from the (imilar points of the curve expreffing the
allion of a (ingle particle. Thefe laft; are in the very
places where the light fuftains the gredteft repullive ac¬
tion
Theory.
bfpiS" tbn 0ftLc Wlr0le roW ^P^les. In the fame man-
Su; faces T" may 3 CUr.Ve be conftrufted, whofe ordinates exprefs
'   the united aftion of the whole medium.
From thefe obfervations we learn in general, that a
particle of light within the fpaee of afticn is aided on
v.ith equal jorces, and in the fame direction, when at
c-qua1 difiances on each fide of the furface cf the me¬
dium.
OPTICS.
bECT. II. Of the focal di/lance of rays refraBed by fiaf-
Jw? out of one medium into another of different den lily
ana through a plane furface.
Lemma.
Fh e indefinitely frosll variation of the anple of in¬
cidence is to the fimultaneous variation of the
angle of refraciion as the tangent of incidence
is to the tangent of refraaion ; or, the cotem-
pornneous variations of the angles of incidence
and refraaion are proportional to the tangents
of thefe angles.
Plate Let H vT, r Vf (fig. 10.) he the progrefs of the
ccclxxvii. f-ys remained at \ (the angle rVR being confidered in
fi" " its nafeent or evanefeent date), and VC perpendicular
to the refrafling furface VA. From C draw CD CE
laces.
fig. TO
LawVofre- ~ .v^- -^om L, draw CD, CB
fraction in Perpendicular to tae incident and refrafted rays RV
plane fur- VF, cutting r V, V/ inA and fS, and let C^, C ^ be
perpendicular to r V, \f
Becaufe the fines of incidence and refra&ion are in
a con 11 ant ratio, their fimultaneous variations are in
the fame conftant ratio. Now the angle RVr is to the
a„gle rv/in the ratio of tte iSj of |C
. of
to
BY DV ’
F)C . fin. incid. fin. refr.
tnat is, or ———-7— to
that
DV ’ ^ ’ cof. incid. ^ cof. refr.
tan. incid. to tan. refr.
, Corollary. The difference of thefe variations is to
trie greateil or leafbof them as the difference of the tan¬
gents to the greatefl or leafi; tangent.
Problem.
ecchxvir Lct tW0 ra7s RV’ RP diverge from, op converge
figs. 1,2, 3, a Pomt and pafs through the plane fur-
4- Cice PV, feparating two refradling mediums
AB, of which let B be the molt reLattin^, ami
let RV be perpendicular to the furfa'ce. ' It is
required to determine the point of difperfion or
cmivergence, F, of the refraded rays VD,
Pylake VR to VG as the fine of refraffion to the fine
of incidence, and draw GIK parallel to the furface,
cutting the incident ray in I. About the centre p'
witn the radius PI, deferibe an arch of a circle IF, cut-
r ^ 7 ’ draw pL tending from or towards F.
VS e lay PE is the refrafled ray, and F the point of dif¬
perfion or convergence of the rays RV, RP, or the con¬
jugate focus to R.
For fince GI and FV are parallel, and PF equal to
PI, we have PF : PR-PI : PR — VG : VR =fm.
mcid. : fin. refr. But PF : PR—fin. PRV : fin. PFV
and RRV is equal to the angle of incidence at P •
^refore PFV is the correfponding angle of refraaion,
n r E is the remaCled ray, and F the conjugate focus
to R. 0
Cor. 1. If diverging or converging rays fall on the
lur.ace of a more refracling medium, they will divenje
or converge lefs after refrafrion, F being farther from
tne furface than R. The contrary mult happen when
the diverging, or converging rays fall on th? furface of
a leis refrafhng medium, becaufe, in this cafe, F is
nearer to the furface than R.
Cor. 2. Let R/. be another ray, more oblique than
, ! ’the refracting point p being farther from V, and
Ictfpebe the refraded ray, determined by the/ame
conftruaion. Becaufe % arches FI, //, are perpendi¬
cular to their radii, it is evident that they will converge
to fome point within the angle RIS, and therefore will
not crofs each other between F and Ij therefore Rf
wdl be greater than RF, as RF is greater than RG,
for fimilar reafons. Hence it follows, that all the rays
which tended from or towards R, and were incident on
the whole of VPp, will not diverge from or converge
F’ but Wl11 be diirufed over the line GFjfi This
dirrufion is called aberration from the focus, and is fo
much greater as the rays are more oblique.’ No rays
flowing from or towards R will have ooint of concourfe
wnh RV nearer to R than F is : But if the obliquity be
mconfiderable fo that the ratio of RP to FP does not
diner fennby from that of RV to FV, the point of con¬
courfe will not be fenfihly removed from G. G is there
fore ufually called the conjugate focus to R. It is the
conjugate focus of an indefinitely fiender pencil of ravs
-ailing perpendicularly on the furface. The conjugate
focus of an oblique pencil, or even of two oblique rays
whole miperfion on the furface is confiderable is of
more dEficult inveftigatidn. See Gravefande's Natural
s tnlojophy for a very neat and elementary determina¬
tion (r).
In.a worK of this kind, it is enougli to Jiave pointed
out, m an eafy and familiar manner, the nature of on
jical aberration. But as this is the chief caufe of the
imperfection of optical inflruments, and as the on|v me¬
thod of removing this imperfefrinn is to diminiflr this
aberration, or. correfr it by a fubfequent aberration in
tne oppofite direction, we (hall here give a fundamental
and very fimple propofition, which will (with obvious ,
alterations) apply to all important cafes. This is th~
determination of the focus of an infinitely flender pencil
01 oblique rays RP, R
“ Retaining the former conflruftion for the ray PF,
(%• I-)
ned, and therefore its pofition is alfo determinprl TB f ' • h ' r f ijC T F oi the line PF are determx-
feason f of the two KnVh W “ rf ‘he ^ M -.d therefore the Inter. .
Reflation
by Flare
Surfaces.
214 OPT
Refraction (fig. x.) fuppofe the other ray R/> Infinitely near to RP.
by Spheri- J)raw pg perpendicular to PV, and R/- perpendicular
to RP, and make Pr : PS~VR : VF. On Pr defcribe
the femicircle rRP, and on PS the femicircle S <p P,
cutting the refrafted ray PF in <p, drawer,
It follows from the lemma, that if <p be the focus of re¬
fracted rays, the variation P<p/> of the angle of refrac¬
tion is to the correfponding variation PR/> of the angle
of incidence as the tangent of the angle of refrac¬
tion VFP to the tangent of the angle of incidence
YRP. Now P/> may be confidered as coinciding with
the arch of the femicircles. Thereffere the angles PR/>,
Pr/> are equal, as alfo the angles P<p/>, PS/>. But
PS/> is to Pr/> as Pr to PS ; that is, as VR to VF j
that is, as the cotangent of the angle of incidence to
the cotangent of the angle of refraftion 5 that is, as
the tangent of the angle of refradlion to the tangent of
the angle of incidence. Therefore the point <p is the focus.
Sect. III. Of RefraBion btj Spherical Surfaces.
Problem.
I G S.
Part L
Plate
ccclxxviii.
figs. 5, 6,
&c.
128
The focus
of rays re-
fradttd by
fpherical
furfaces
alcertained
To find the focus of refracted rays, the focus of
incident rays being given.
\
Let PVsr (figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13,14,) be
a fpherical furface whole centre is C, and let the incident
light diverge from or converge to R. Draw the ray RC
through the centre, cutting the furface in the point V,
which we (hall denominate the ‘vertex, while RC is call¬
ed the axis. This ray pafies on without refradlion, be-
caufe it coincides with the perpendicular to the furface.
Let RP be another incident ray, which is refra&ed at P,
draw the radius PC. In RP make RE to RP as the fine
of incidence m to the fine of refra&ion n ; and about
the centre R, with the diftance RE, defcribe the circle
EK, cutting PC in K } draw RK and RF parallel to
it, cutting the axis in F. PF is the refra&ed ray, and
F is the focus.
For the triangles PCF, KCR are fimilar,.and the
angles at P and K are equal. Alfo RK is equal to
RE, and RPD is the angle of incidence. Now
m : »—RK : RP, rrfin. DPR : fin. RKP, = fin. DPR :
fin. CPF. Therefore CPF is the angle of refra&ion
correfponding to the angle of incidence RPD, and PF is
the refrafted ray, and F the focus. Q. E. D.
CP v CR
Cor. 1. CK : CP=CR : CF, and CF= 
Now CP X CR is a conftant quantity j and therefore CF
is reciprocally as CK, which evidently varies with a va¬
riation of the arch VP. Hence it follows, that all the
rays flowing from R are not collefted at the conjugate
focus F. The ultimate fituation of the point F, as the
point P gradually approaches to, and at laft coincides
with, V, is called the conjugate focus of central rays, and
the diftance betw een this focus and the focus of a lateral
fay is called the aberration of that ray, arifing from the
fpherical figure.
There are, howTever, two fituations of the point R
fuch, that all the rays which flow' from it are made to
diverge from one point. One of thofe is C (fig. 5.), be-
caufe they all pafs through without refraffion, and there¬
fore (till diverge from C j the other is when rays in
the rare medium with a convex furface flow from a
point R, fo fituated beyond the centre that CV is to
4
CR as the fine of incidence in the rare medium is to Refra&ion
the fine of refraction in the denfer, or when rays in by Spheri-
• 'nr _ . ^ I v 11 »*
the rare medium fall on the convex furface or the den¬
fer, converging to F, fo fituated that CF : CV—
m : n. In this cafe they will all be difperfed from F, lb
fituated that CV : CY=n : m, =CR : CV for fine RPC :
fine PKC—« : m, -CR : CP, =fine RPC : fine PRC.
Therefore the angle PRC is equal to PKC, or to FPC
(by conftruftion of the problem), and the angle C is
common to the triangles PRC, FPC ; they are therefore
fimilar, and the angles PRC, FPC are equal, and n : w—
CP : CF, =CK : CR, =rCR ; CPj therefore CP : CK~
CP* : CR* : but CP and CR are conftant quantities,
and therefore CK is a conftant quantity, and (by the
corollary) CF is a conftant quantity, and all the rdys
flowing from R are difperfed from F by refrsflion. In
like manner rays converging to F will by refraftion con¬
verge to R. This w'as firft obferved by Huygens.
Cor. 2. If the incident ray R’P is parallel to the axis Fig. 5.
RC, we have PO to CO as the fine of incidence to the
fine of refraftion. For the triangles R’PK’PCO are fi¬
milar, and PO : CO—R’K’ : R’P, rrrwz : n.
Cor. 3. In this cafe, too, we have the focal diftance
of central parallel rays reckoned from the vertex —
—-— X VC. For fince PO is ultimately VO, wre have
m—n
m : «—VO : CO, and m-
-n
m
m—ft
™=VO—CO : VO, =
XVC. This is called the
VC : VO, and VO=
principal focal diftance, or focal diftance of parallel rays.
Alfo CO, the principal focal diftance reckoned from the
centre, —-
XVC.
m—n
N. B. When m is lefs than n, tn—ft is a negative
quantity.—Alfo obferve, that in applying fymbols to
this computation of the focal diftances, thofe lines are
to be accounted pofitive which lie from their begin¬
nings, that is, from the vertex, or the centre, or the
radiant point, in the direftion of the incident rays.
Thus when rays diverge from R on the convex fur¬
face of a medium, VR is accounted negative and VC
pofitive. If the light pafles out of air into glafs, m
is greater than n ; but if it paffes out of glafs into air,
m is lefs than n. If, therefore, parallel rays fall on
the convex furface of glafs out of air, in which cafe
wz : « = 3 : 2 very nearly, we have for the principal focal
diftance —VC, or 4.3VC. But if it pafs out of glafs
2
into the convex furface of air, we have VOrr- ^ C,
2—31
or —2VC that is, the focus O will be in the fame
fide of the furface with the incident light. In like
manner, wre (hall have for thefe two cafes COrr -}- 2VC
and —3 VC.
Cor. 4. By conftruftion we have RK: RP—tzz : n
by fimilarity of triangles PF: RK—CF : CR
therefore PF: PR—rwCF: nCR
and m PR X CF=» CR X PF
therefore m PR ■ ft CR—PF ‘ Cl
and m PR—n CR : m PRrrPF—CF : PF
ultimately m VR—n CR : m VR—VC : VF
This is a very general optical theorem, and a herds an
eafy method for computing the focal diftance of refract¬
ed rays.
For
Theory. OPT
L'spSrT .F°rtthiS PUrP?rf Llet Y^’r the dIftance of radiant
cal Sur- P°mt’ hre e?Preffed by the fymbol r, the diftance of the
faces. locif °t refraaed rays by the fymbol f, and the radius
I C S.
of the fpherical furface by a ; we have
tn r—n r—a : m r~a/, and
y__ mar tn a r
m r—n r—a m—n r-\-nJ
In its application due attention muft be paid to the
qualities of r and 4, whether they be pofitive or nega¬
tive, according to the conditions of laft corollaiy. 6
Plate Cor. 5. If £) be the focus of parallel rays coming
ccckxvm. from the oppofite fide, we {hall have RO : QC~Rv1
S’ ' VF- For draw Cq parallel to PF, cuttmg RP in q;
taen J{q •. q C—RP : PF. Now q is the focus of the
parallel rays FP, C q. And when the point P ultimate¬
ly coincides wdth the point V, q muft coincide with O
and we have RQ : QC=RV : VF.
This is the moft general optical theorem, and is
equally applicable to lenfes, or even to a combination
ot them, as to fimple furfaces. It is alfo applicable to
renechons, with this difference, that £) is to be affumed
the^ focus of parallel rays coming the fame wray with the
incident rays. It affords us the moft compendious me¬
thods of computing fymbolically and arithmetically the
focal diftances in all cafes.
Cor 6. We have alfo Rq: RP—RV : RF, and ulti¬
mately for central rays R£: RV=RV : RF, and RF=
rp, •
* -Ihis proportion is true in lenfes and mirrors, but
not in {ingle refracting furfaces.
Cor. 7. Alfo R q : RC—RP : RF, and ultimately RQ^;
RV=rc : RF, and RF--^RC, N. B. Thefe four
points Q, V, C, F, either lie all one way from P, or two
ot them forward and two backward.
Cor. 8. Alfo, making O the principal focus of rays
coming the fame way, we have Rq:q C—C 0: oY, and
ultimately R& : Qcz=c O : OF, and OF=S£>iS2,
and therefore reciprocally proportional to RQ, bSaufe
OC X ^ 0 is a conftant quantity.
Thefe corollaries or theorems give us a variety of
methods for finding the focus of refracted rays, or the
other points related to them ; and each formula contains
lour points, of which any three being given, the fourth
may be found. Perhaps the laft is the moft fimple as
t ie quantity oc-f-cQ is always negative, becaufe 0 and
are on different fides.
Cor. 9. From this, conftru&ion we may alfo derive a
very ealy and expeditious method of drawing many re¬
traded rays. Draw' through the centre C (fig. j r. jg.)
a line to the point of incidence P, and a line CA pa¬
rallel to the incident ray RP. Take VQ to VC as
the fine of incidence to the fine of refradion, and
about A, with the radius VO, defcribe an arch of a
circle cutting PC produced in B. Join AB : and PF
parallel to AB is the refraded ray. When the in
odent light is parallel to fiC, the point A coincides"
with V , and a circle defcribed round V with the di
fiance VO will cut the lines PC, ^C, &c. in the p0i£s
1 he demonftration is evident.
Haying thus determined the focal diftance of re-
fraded rays, it will be proper to point out a little
21
more particularly its relation to its conjugate focus Refradio
of incident rays. We {hall confider the four cafes of lT sPheri-
hght incident on the convex or concave furface of a cf Sur-
demer or a rarer medium. , kces.
1. Let light moving in air fall on the convex 1%!!^
iuriace of glais. Let us fuppofe it tending to a point H-
beyond the. glafs infinitely diftant. It will be colled-
ed to its principal focus 0 beyond the vertex V. Now
let the incident light converge a little, fo that R is
at a great diftance beyond the furface. The focus
of refraded rays F will be a little within O or nearer
to V. As the incident rays are made to converge
more and more, the point R comes nearer to V, and
the point F alfo approaches it, but with a much flower
motion, being always fituated between O and C
till it is overtaken by R at the centre C, when
the incident. light is perpendicular to the furface-
eTrry P°^nf> and therefore fuffers no refradion.
As R has overtaken F at C, it now pafi'es it, and is
agam overtaken by it at V. Now the point R is on.
the nde from which the light comes, that is, the rays
diverge from R. After refradion they will diverge
from F a little without R 5 and as R recedes farther
rom V, I recedes ftill farther, and with an accelerated
motion, till, when R comes to Q, F has gone to an
infinite diftance, or the refraded' rays are parallel.
VVhen R ftill recedes, F now appears on the other
fide, or beyond V; and as R recedes back to an in
finite diftance, F has come to O : and this completes
the ienes of variations, the motion of F during the
whole changes of fituation being in the fame diredion
with the motion of R.
2. Let the light moving in air fall on the concave
uiface of glafs ; and let us begin with parallel inci¬
dent rays, conceiving, as before, R to lie beyond the
glafs at an infinite diftance. The refraded rays will
move as if they came from the principal focus O, lying
on thfit .fide of the glafs from which the light corned
As the incident rays are made gradually more conver¬
ging, and the point of convergence R comes toward
the glafs, the conjugate focus F moves backward
10m O; the refraded rays growing lefs and lefs di-
yergmg, till the point R comes to Q, the principal
ocus on the other fide. The refraded rays growing
parallel,, or F has retreated to an infinite diftance. The
incident light converging ftill more, or R coming
between Q and V, F will appear on the other fide, or- ;
beyond the .furface, or within the glafs, and will an-
proach it with a retarded motion, and finally overtake <
K at the furface of the glafs. Let R continue its mo¬
tion backwards , (for it has all the while been moving
backwards, or in a diredion contrary to that of the
‘8 Lj let R now be a radiant point, moving .?
backwards from the furface of the glafs. F will at
firft be without it, but will be overtaken by it at the :
centre C when the rays will fuffer no refradion. R ?
ftill receding will get without F j and while R recedes
to an infinite diftance, F will recede to O, and the feries
will be completed.
3. Let the light moving in glafs fall on the convex
luriace of air ; that is, let it . come out of the Concave
lurtace of glafs, and let the incident rays be parallel
or tending to R,. infinitely diftant : they will be dif-
peried by refradion from the principal focus O with¬
in the glafs. As they are made more converging, R
comes
to e
216 OPT
On Lenfes. comes nearer, and F retreats backward, till R comes
v - to the principal focus without the glafs ; when F
is now at an infinite diitance within the glafs, and the
refracted rays are parallel. R ftiil coming nearer, F
now appears before the glafs, overtakes R at the centre
C, and is again overtaken by it at N. R now becom¬
ing a radiant point within the glafs, F follows it back¬
wards, and arrives at O, when ii has receded to an in¬
finite diftance, and the feries is completed.
4. Let the incident light, moving in glafs, fall on the
concave furface of air, or come out of the convex furface
of glafs. Let it tend to a point R at an infinite diftance
without the glafs. The refracted rays will converge to
O, the principal focus without the glafs. As the inci¬
dent light is made more converging, R comes towards
the glafs, while F, fetling out from v, alfo approaches
the glafs, and R overtakes it at the furface V. R now
becomes a radiant point withht the glafs, receding back-
wards from the furface. F recedes flower at firft, but
overtakes R at the centre C, and paffes it wnth an ac¬
celerated motion to an infinite diftance; while R re¬
treats to £), the principal focus within the glafs. R ftiil
retreating, F appears before the glafs ; and while R re¬
treats to an infinite diftance, F comes to V, and the
feries is completed.
Sect. IV. On Lehfes. „
Lenfes, Lenses for optical purpofes may be ground into nine
how many, diiferent lhapes. Lenfes cut into five of thofe ftiapes,
together with their axes, are deferibed in vol. vi. page
Plate 33. (See Dioptrics). The other four are,
ccclxxix. j > plane glafs, which is fiat on both fidos, and of
^ ‘ I’ 2’ equal thicknefs in all its parts, as EF, fig. 1.
2. A flat plano-convex, whofe convex fide is ground
into feveral little flat furfaces, as A, fig. 2.
3. A pnflm, which has three flat fides, and when
viewed end wife appears like an equilateral triangle, as B.
4. A concavo-convex glafs, or menifeus, as C, which
is feldom made ufe of in optical inftruments.
Fig. r. A ray of light Gh falling perpendicularly on a plane
glafs EF, will pafs through the glafs in the fame direc¬
tion hi, and go out of it into the air in the fame
ftraight line zH.
A ray of light AB falling obliquely on a plane
glafs, will go cut of the glafs in the fame direction,
but not in the fame ftraight line : for in touching the
glafs, it wall be refracted in the line EC j and in leav¬
ing the glafs, it will be refracted in the line CD.
Lemma.
Fig. 3. to 6.There is a certain point E within every double
convex or double concave lens^ through which
every *ay that pafTes will have its incident and
emergent parts QA, aq parallel to each other :
but in a plano-convex or plano-concave lens, that
point E is removed to the vertex of the concave
or convex furface ; and in a menifeus, and in
that other concavo-convex lens, it is removed a
little way out of them, and lies next to the fur¬
face which has the greateft curvature.
For let REr be the axis of the lens joining the cen¬
tres B, r of its f^rfaces A, a. Draw any two of their
. 3
I c s.
Part I.
femidiameters RA, ra parallel to each other, and join On Lenfes.
the point, A, a, and the line A<z will cut the axis in v"
the point E above deferibed. For the triangles REA,
rEr being equiangular, RE will be to Er in the given
ratio of the femidiameters RA, ra j and confequently
the point E is invariable in the fame lens. Now fup .
pofing a ray to pafs both ways along the line Ka, it
being equally inclined to the perpendiculars to the
furfaces, will be equally bent, and contrariwife in go¬
ing out of the lens; fo that its emergent parts Ap
aq will be parallel. Now any of thefe lenfes will be¬
come plano-convex or plano-concave, by conceiving
one of the femidiameters RA, ra to become infinite,
and confequently to become parallel to the axis of the
lens, and then the other lemidiam: ver will coincide
with the axis ; and fo the points A, E or a, E will
coincide. £). E. D.
Coroe. Hence when a pencil of rays falls almoft per-
pendicu1a:ly upon any lens, whofe thicknefs is incon-
fiderable, the courfe of the ray which paiTes through
E, above deferibed, may be taken for a ftraight line
pafling through the centre of the lens without fen-
fible error in fenfible things. For it is manifeft from
the length of Ka, and from the quantity of the refrac¬
tions at its extremities, that the perpendicular diftance-
of Ap, aq, when produced, will be diminilhed both
as the thicknefs of the lens and the obliquity of the
ray is dimimihed.
Prop. I.
To find the focus of parallel rays falling almoft:
perpendicularly upon any given lens.
Let E be the centre of the lens, and r the centres of Fig. 7. to
its furfaces, Rr its axis, ^EG a line parallel to the inci-12-
dent rays upon the lurface B, whofe centre is R. Paral-
lei to gE draw a femidiameter BR, in which produced paiaiiei
let V be the focus of the rays after their firft refraclion ra>s falling
at the furface B, and joining Vr let it cut ^E produced PerPen<hcu*
in G, and G will be the focus of the rays that emerge ^ar]y,upon
xrorn tire rens.
For fince V is alfo the focus of the rays incident
upon the fecond furface A, the emergent rays mult
have their focus in fome point of that ray which paiTes
ftraight through this furface j that is, in the line Vr,
drawn through its centre r; and fince the whole courfe
O m , ,
of another ray is reckoned a ftraight line J, its j Corol.
interfeclion G with Vr determines the focus of them from Lem-
all. O. E. D.
Corol. i. When the incident rays are parallel to the
axis rR, the focal diftance EF is equal to EG. For
let the incident rays that were parallel to ^E be gra¬
dually more inclined to the axis till they become
parallel to it; and their firft and fecond foci V and
G will defyibe circular arches NT and GF whofe
centres are R and E. For the line RV is invariable ,
being in proportion to RB in a given ratio of the let-
fer of the fines of incidence and refra&ion to their
difference (by a former propoiition); confequently the line
EG is alio invariable, being in proportion to the given
line RV in the given ratio of rE to rR, became the
triangles EGr, RVr are equiangular.
Coroe. 2. The laft proportion gives the following
rule for finding the focal diftance of any thin lens. As
Rr, the interval between the centres of the fur faces,
is
Theory. - OPT
, °f Lenfes- ^ t0 femidiameter of the fecond furface, To is
' ?;V,or RT» the continuation of the firlt femidiameter
to the firlt focus, to EG or EF the focal diltar.ce of
toe lens 5 which,_ according as the lens is thicker or
thinner m the middle than at its edges, mult lie on
die fame fide as the emergent rays, or on the oppofite
CoROL. 3 Hence when rays fall parallel on both
fides of any lens the focal diltances EF, E/ are equal,
for iet r/ be the continuation of the femidiameter Er
to the firlt focus / of rays falling parallel upon the
^ ’ ant* 1 le ^ame rule that gave r R • r Err
iri : iEF’ ?ivef alf° rR : nE=,v : Ef- Whence E/rr
Ef, becaufe the reftangles rE X BTrrRE X rt. For
rE ls to ri and alfo RE to RT in the fame given
Corol. 4. Hence in particular in a double convex
or double concave lens made of glafs, it is as the fum
ot their lemidiameters (or in a menifcus as their dif-
erence) to either of. them, fo is double the other, to
the focal d,fiance of the glafs. For the continuations
r ".aye/eJ,eral,y double their femidiameters : be-
caule m glafs E F : TR and alfo E> : tr—3 • 2
Corol. 5. Hence if the femidiameters of the furfaces
of the glafs be equal, its focal diftance is equal to one of
them , and is equal to the focal diftance of a plano-con¬
vex or plano-concave glafs whofe femidiameter is as foort
* or confidering the plane furface as having an
infinite femidiameter, the firft ratio of the laft mentioned
proportion may be reckoned a ratio of equality.
1.3*
The focus
of emergent
rays found.
Plate
CCCLXXX.
%• x- to 6.
^ By Co¬
rol. from
former
Prop.
Prop. II.
The focus of incident rays upon a fingle furface,
Iphere, or lens, being given, it is required to
liiici the focus of the emergent rays*
Let any point ^ be the focus of incident rays upon
a Thermal furface, lens, or fphere, whofe centre is E;
and let other rays come parallel to the line OE? the
contrary way to the given rays, and after refraaion let
hem belong to a focus F 5 then taking E/equal to EF
the lens or fphere, but equal to FC in the fingle furface
fay as OF to FE fo E/to/y; and placing J the torn
'-■uV7 /ft° that fr°m E’ the Point y
. ii be the focus of the refraded rays, without fenfible
error ; provided the point £ be not fo remote from the
axis, nor the furfaces fo broad, as to caufe any of the rays
to tail too obliquely upon them. J
for with the centre E and femidiameters EF and
E/ defcribe two arches EG,yj cutting any ray QAaq
m G and ^ and draw EG and E^. Then foppofing
G to be a focus of incident rays (as GA), the emer-
gent rays (as y§-y) will be parallel to GE *5 and on the
other hand fuppofmg ^ another focus of incident rays
r 11 1* rhC MIMergrnt "T8 ^lS AGT) will be pa¬
rallel to fE. 1 herefore the triangles OGE, Ejrq are
equiangular, and confequently Q G : GE=E v : p-yy •
OfVfF-fV1? r\MAal'ls the: neareft to ()Ey’
^5 ' EE—Ef:/g- Now when f) accedes to F and
coincides with it, the emergent rays become parallel
that is, y recedes to an infinite difiance : and confe¬
quently when Q pafies to the other fide of F, the fo-
cus y will alfo pafs-through an infinite fpace from one
fide of/bo the other fide of it. O. E D
VOL. XV. Part I. ^
ICS. ^ 21;
Corol. i In a fphejre or lens the focus y may be Of Lenfes.
found by this rule : QF : OE=OE : Qy, to be ^ v—
placed the fame way from Q as OF lies from Q 
lor let the incident and emergent rays QA, qa be'pro¬
duced till they meet m e; and the triangles QGE
q being equiangular, we have QG : QE—O /
and when the angles of thefe tmngleT are va-
nitfong, the point ^ will coincide with E - becaufe in
the Iphere the triangle Aea is equiangular at the bafe
and confequently A<? and ae will at lail become
femidiameters of the fphere. In a lens the thicknefs
Aa is inconfiderable.
may alfo be found by this rule
^E1 : E(]' for TG GErrQA ; Ay 
And then the rule formerly demonflrated for fingle fur-
taces holds good for the lenfes.
Corol. 2. In all cafes the diflance^/y varies recipro-
ca„y as b Q does 5 and they lie contrariwife from /and
, becaufe the redangle or the fquare under EF and
inVariablemiddle termS ^ the foreSoing Proportions, is
The principal focal diftance of a lens may not only
be found by colleding the rays coming from the fun,
confidered as parallel, but alfo (by means of this pro-
pofition) ,t may be found by the light of a candle or
window For becaufe Qy : yA~QE : EG, we
have (when A coincides with E) Qy : yE=OE :
Eb ; that is, the diftance obferved between the ra¬
diant objeft and its pitfure in the focus is to the di¬
ftance of the lens from the focus as the diftance of
the lens from the radiant is to its principal focal di-
ftance lHultiply therefore the diftances of the lens from
fum radlant and foCUS’ antl diwlde the product by their
Corol. 3. Convex lenfes of different fhapes that have
equal focal diffance when put into each others places
have equal powers upon any pencil of rays to refradt
t em to the fame focus. Becaufe the rules above-
mentioned depend only upon the focal diftance of the
ofils furfaces ^ pr0p°rtion of the ^diameters
Corol. 4. The rule that was given for a fphere of an
uniform denfity, will ferve alfo for finding the focus o^
a pencil of rays refrafted through any number of coni
centric furfaces, which feparate uniform mediums of any
different denfities For when rays come parallel to any
ne drawn through the common centre of thefe mediums
and are refracted through them all, the diftance of their
fpher" fr°m t lat Centfe 18 invariable> as in an uniform
fideofAe 5' fWien r16,- f°Cuf^ (1 He on foe fame
fd n refoadfing furfaces, if the incident rays flow
f om Q the refraaed rays will alfo flow from y/and if
the incident rays flow towards Q, the .refraaed will alfo
flow towards y ; and the contrary will happen when O
pd on contrary fides of the refracting furfacelT
Becaufe the rays are continually going forwards.
brom this propofition we alfo derive an eafy method
of drawing the progrefs of rays through any number of
femes ranged on a common axis.
on bC ^ lenfeS’ and RA a ray incident FiS‘ 7*
on the firft of them. Let /3, ,, be their foci for pa-
xallel rays coming m the oppofite direaion : draw the
perpendicular a d, cutting the. incident ray in d, and
dmv da through the centre of the lens ; AB parallel
Ee to
218 OPT
Of Vifion. io, d a will be the ray refracled by the fir it lens.
y Through the focus of the fecond lens draw the perpen¬
dicular /3 c, cutting AB in e; and draw e b through the
centre of the fecond lens. BD parallel to £ ^ will be
the next refracted ray. Through the focus a of the
third lens draw the perpendicular r-f, cutting BD inf,
and draw fc through the centre of the third lens. Cii
parallel to fc, will be the refracted ray j and fo on.
Sect. V. On Vifion.
Having defcribed how the rays of light, flowing from
objects, and pailing through convex glalfes, are collect¬
ed into points, and form the images of external objects;
it will be eafy ,to underhand how the rays are refracted
by the humours of the eye, and are thereby collected
into innumerable points on the retina, on which they
form the images of the objects from which they flow.
For the different humours of the eye, and particularly
the cryltalline, are to be coniidered as a convex glafs 5
and the rays in palling through them as affefted in the
fame manner in the one as in the other. A defcrption
.of the coats and humours, &c. has been given in ana¬
tomy ; but it will be proper to repeat as much of
the defcription as will be fufficient for our prefent pur-
pofe.
Plate The eye is nearly globular, and con fids of three coats
CoCLXXXand three humours. The part DHHG of the outer
S‘ coat, is called thefilerotica; the red, D11FG, the cornea.
Defcription Next within this coat is that called the choroides, which
of the eye. ferves as it were for a lining to the other, and joins
with the iris, in 11, m n. The iris is compoied of two
fets of mufcular fibres ; the one of a circular form, which
contracls the hole in the middle called the pupil, when
the light would otherwife be too itrong fer the eye ; and
the other of radical fibres, tending everywhere from the
circumference of the iris towards the middle of the
pupil; which fibres, by their contraCrion, dilate and
enlarge the pupil when the light is weak, in order to
let in a greater quantity of it. The third coat is only a
fine expanfion of the optic nerve L, which fpreads like
net work all over the infide of the choroides, and is
therefore called the retina ; upon which are thrown the
images of all vifible objects.
Under the cornea is a fine tranfparent fluid like water,
thence called the aqueous humour. It gives a protube¬
rant figure to the cornea, fills the two cavities m m and
n n, which communicate by the pupil P ; and has the
fame limpidity, fpecinc gravity, and refracting power,
as water. At the back of this lies the cryftaliine hu¬
mour II, which is Ihaped like a double convex glafs j
and is a little more convex on the back than the fore
part. It converges the rays, which pafs through it
from every vifible object to its focus at the bottom of the
eye. This humour is tranfparent like cryftal, is of the
confiftence of hard jelly, and is to the fpecific gravity
of water as 11 to 10. It is enclofed in a fine tranfparent
membrane, called the capfule of the cryttaliine lens,
from which proceed radial fibres 0 0, called the ciliary
ligaments, all around its edge, and join to the circum¬
ference of the iris.
At the back of the cryltalline, lies the vitreous hu¬
mour KK, which is tranfparent like glafs, and is largelt
qf all in quantity, filling the whole orb of the eye, and
I G S.
Part I,
giving it a globular lhape. It is much of a confiltence Of Vifion.
with the white of an egg, and very little exceeds the v '
fpecific gravity and refractive power of water.
, As. everf P°‘nt ot~ an object ABC, fends out rays in Theobjecfis
all directions, fame rays, fx-om every point on fohe fide n the red-
next the eye, will fall upon the cornea between D and na of the
F; and by paiUng on through the pupil and humours of^^je m'
the eye, they will be converged to as many points on
the retina or bottom of the eye, and will form upon it a
diitindt inverted picture c b a, of the objedt. Thus, the F; s
pencil of rays qrs that flows ffom the point 7k of the ‘ ^
objeft, will be converged to the point a on the retina*
thofe from the point B will be converged to the point
b ; ihofe from the point C will be converged to the point
c; and fo of ail the intermediate points : by which
means the whole image a be is formed, and the obiedt
made viiible j though it muft be owned, that "the
method by which this fenfation is conveyed by the optic
nerve from the eye to the brain, and there difeeraed, is
above the reach of our comprehenfion.
That vifion is efl’etled in this manner, may be de-
monilrated experimentally. Take a bullock's eye whilff
it is freffi; and having cut off the three coats from the
back part, quite to the vitreous humour, put a piece
of white paper over that part, and hold the eye to¬
wards any bright object, and you will fee an inverted
picture of the object upon the paper, or the fame thing
may be better accompiiihed by paring the fclerotic coat
fo thin tiiat it becomes a little traniparent, and retains
the vitreous humour. ^
Since the image is inverted, many have wondered why whv ther
the objeCt appears uptight. But we are to confider, are feen iip-
1. That inverted is only ’a relative term : and, 2. ThatnSllt*
there is a very great difference between the real object
and the image by which we perceive it. When all
the parts of a diitanl profpect are painted upon the
retina, they are all light with refpeCt to one another,
as well as the parts of the profpect itfelf; and we can
only judge of an object’s being inverted, when it is
turned reverfe to its natural petition with refpect to other
objects which we fee and compare it with.—If we lay
hold of an upright Itick in the dark, we can tell which
is the upper or lower part of it, by moving our hand
downward or upward ; and know very well that we can¬
not feel the upper end by moving our hand downward.
In the fame manner we find by experience, that upon
directing our eyes towards a tall object, we cannot fee
its top by turning our eyes downward, nor its foot by
turning pur eyes upward ; but mult trace the objech the
fame way by the eye to fee it from head to foot, as we
do by the hand to feel it} and as the judgement is in¬
formed by the motion of the hand in one cafe, fo it is
alfo by the motion of the eye in the other.
In fig. 9. is exhibited the manner of feeing the fame ^
objeft ABC, by both the eyes D and E at once.
When any part of the image cb a falls upon the op-
tic nerve L, the correfponding part of the objefil be-when view-
comes invifiblc. On this account, the optic nerve is ed with
wifely placed, not in the middle of the bottom of the !’ot*1 e^es
eye, but towards the fide next the nofe 5 fo that what-
ever part of the image falls upon the optic nerve of onehecaufe
eye, may not fall upon the optic nerve of the other, the optic
Thus the point a of the image c b a falls upon the optic n< rve 1S
nerve of the eye D, but not of the eye E 3 and the pointc'
Theory. OPT
OfYifioi!. c falls upon tke optic nerve of tlie eye E, but not of the
' v eye D ; and therefore to both eyes taken together the
whole objeft AEC is vitible.
The nearer that any object is to the eye, the larger is
the angle under which it is feen, and'the magnitude
of which it appears. Thus to the eye T>, the objeft
AEG is feen under the angle APC 5 and its image cba
is very large upon the retina : but to the eye E, at a
double diitance, the fame object is feen under the angle
A/>C, which is equal only to half the angle APC as is
Plate
cccLxxxr
%• x.
evident by the figure. The image c b a 1$ likewife\wice
n c f ri 1* • .1
experi¬
ment.
Fig. 2.
 ^ ^ w ad xirvcmic iwice
as large m the eye D, as the other image c b ah in the
eye E. In both thefe reprefentations, a part of the
image falls on the optic nerve, and the objedt in the cor-
refpondmg part is invifible.
As the feme of feeing is allowed to be occafioned
by che^ nnpulfe of the rays from the vilible objeft upon
the retina, and thus forming the image of the object
upon it, and that the retina is only the expanfion of
the optic nerve all over the choroides ; it fhould feem
urpiifing, that the jiart of the image which falls on the
optic nerve ihculd render the like part of the object in-
vifible; efpecially as that nerve is allowed to'be the
mftrument by which the impulfe and image are convey¬
ed to the common fenfory in the brain.
*36 r fhat pfrt of the image which falls upon the middle
Prcved by of the optic nerve is loft, and confequently the corre-
expen- fponding part of the object is rendered invifible, is plain
by experiment. For if a perfon fixes three patches,
A, E, C, (fig. 2.) upon a white wall, at the height of
the eye, and at the diftance of about a foot from each
other, and places himfelf before them, {hutting the right
eye, and direfting the left towards the patch C, he will
lee the patches A and C, but the middle patch B will
difappear. Or, if he {huts his left eye, and directs the
right towards A, he will fee both A and C, but B will
dxfappear; and if he direfts his eye towards B, he will fee
both B and A, but not C. For whatever patch is di-
rectly oppofite to the optic nerve N, vanilhes. This re¬
quires a little praftice ; after which he will find it eafy
to direft his eye fo as to lofe the fight of whatever
patch he pleafes.
uiipuie This experiment, firft tried by M. Marriott e, occa-
concerning fioned a new hypothefis concerning the feat of vifion
therein ol which he fuppofed not to be in the retina, but in the
choroides. An improvement on the experiment was af-
terwards made by M. Picard, who contrived that an
cbject ftiould difappear when both the eyes were kept
open. He faftened upon a wall a round white paper
an inch or two in diameter; and by the fide of it be fixed
two marks, one on the right hand, and the other on the
left, each ay about two feet diftance from the paper and
lomewhat higher. He then placed himfelf direcftly be¬
fore the paper, at the dhlance of nine or ten feet,’ and
putting the end of his finger over againft both his’eyes
lo that the left-hand mark might be hid from the right
eye, and the right-hand mark from the left eye. Re¬
maining firm in this pofture, and looking iteadily, with
both eyes, on the end of his finger, the paper which
was not at all covered by it would totally difappear.
’ he. IS more furprifing, becaufe, without
this particular encounter of the optic nerves, where no
vifion is made, the paper will appear double, as is the
cale when the finger is not rightly placed.
. H7
Difpute
I c s.
M. Marnotte obferves, that this improveme'nt on his
experiment, by M. Picard, is ingenious, but difficult
execute, imee the eyes mutt be confiderably {trained
looking at any objeeft fo near as four inches 5 and pro-
poies another not iefs furpnfing, and more eafy. Place
ays he, on a dark ground, two round pieces of whit'-
paper, at the fame height, and three feet from one ano¬
ther 5 then Hand oppofite to them, at the diftance
ol 12 or 13 feet, and hold your thumb before vour
eyes, at the diftance of about eight inches, fo that it
may conceal from the right eye the paper that is to
the left hand, and from the left eye the paper to the
right hand, i hen, if you look at your thumb fteadily
with both eyes, you will lofe fight of both the papers -
tne eyes being io difpofed, that each of them receives
the image of one of the papers upon the bafe of the optic
nerve, while the other is intercepted by the thumb.
M. Le Cat purfued this curious experiment a little
farther than M. Marriotte. In the place of the fecond
paper, he fixed a large white board, and obferved, that
at a proper diftance he loft fight of a circular fpace
m the centre of it. He alfo obferved the fize of the
paper which is thus concealed from the fight, correfpond
mg to feveral diftanefes, which enabled him to afeertain
ieveralcircumftances relating to this part of the ftriKW
of the eye more exactly than had been done before
I he following is the manner in which this curious
experiment is now generally made. Let three pieces of
paper be faftened upon the fide of a room, about two
feet aiunder 5 and let a per/on place himfelf oppofite
o the middle paper, and, beginning near to it, retire
giadually backwards, all the while keeping one of his
eyes {hut, and the other turned obliquely towards that
outfide paper which is towards the covered eye, and he
ui find a fituation (which is generally at about five
tunes the diftance at which the papers are placed from
one anotner), when the middle paper will entirelv dif¬
appear while tlie two outermoft continue plainly vi-
i )ie ; became the rays which come from the middle
papei will fall upon the retina where the optic nerve is
inlerted.
It is not furprifing that M. Marriotte was led, by this
remarkable obfervation, to fuffieff that the retina was
the feat of vifion. He not only did fo ; but, in confe-
quence of attentively confide^ng tlie fubjeeft, a variety
of other arguments in favour of the choroides occurred
to mm, particularly his obfervation, that the retina is
transparent, a1s .wel1 as lhe cryftalline and other humours
ox the eye, which he thought could only enable it to
tranfmit the rays farther 5 and he could not perfuade
himfelf that any fuoftance could be confidered as b-ing
the termination of the pencils and the proper feat of vi
lion, at which the rays are not flopped in their progrefs.
He was farther confirmed in his opinion of the final]
degree of fenfibility in the retina, and of the greater
fenfibihty of the choroides, by obferving that the pupil
dilates itfelf in the {hade, and contrafts itfelf in a great
hgnt 5 which involuntary motion, he thought, was a
clear proof that the fibres of the iris are extremely
.en -° tiie ach°n of light 5 and this part of the eye
is only a continuation of the choroides. He alfo
thought that the dark colour of the choroid coat was
“ t0 makC ^ m°re fufcePtible of thc impreffion
219
Of Vifon*
E e 2
M.
1
S' &
223 OPT
Pecquet, in anfwer to M. Marriotte’s obfervation
concerning the tranfparency of the retina, fays, that
it is very imperfectly fo, refembling only oiled paper, or
the^ horn that is ufed for lanterns j and befides, that its
wliitenefs demonltrates it to be lufhciently opaque lor
flopping the rays of light, as much as is neceffary for
the purpofe of vifion 5 whereas, if vilion be performed
by means of thofe rays which are tranfmitted through
fuch a fubltance as the retina, it mult be very indillindt.
i he retina refembles very much the thin white film which
intervenes between the white of an egg and its fnell.
As to the blacknefs of the choroides, which M. Pvlar-
riotte thought to be neceffary for the purpofe of vifion,
M. Pecquet obferves, that it is not the fame in all eyes,
and that there are very different fhades of it among the
individuals of mankind, as alfo among birds, and fome
other animals, whole choroides is generally black 5 and
that in the eyes of lions, camels, bears, oxen, flags,
Iheep, dogs, cats, and many other animals, that part of
the choroides which is the moll expofed to light, very
often exhibits colours as vivid as thofe of mother-of-
pearl, or of the iris. He admits that there is a defedl
of vifion at the infertion of the optic nerve ; but he
thought that it was owing to the blood-veffels of the
retina, the trunks of which are fo large in that place as
to obltrudl all vifion.
To M. Pecquet’s obje&ion, founded on the opacity
of the retina, M.-Marriotte replies, that there mull be
a great difference betwixt the llate of that fubftance in
in living and dead fubjedls-j and as a further proof of
the tranfparency of the retina, and the power of the
choroides beyond it to refiedl light, he fays, that if a
lighted candle be held near to a perfon’s eyes, and a
dog, at the dillance of eight or ten Heps, be made to
look at him, he would fee a bright light in the dog’s
eyes, which he thought to proceed from the refle&ion
of the light of tire candle from the choroides of the
dog, fince the fame appearance cannot be produced
in the eyes of men, or other animals, whofe choroides is
black.
M. Marriotte obferves, in oppofition to Pecquet’s re¬
mark concerning the blood-veffels of the retina, that
they are not large enough to prevent vifion in every part
of the bafe of the nerve, fince the diameter of each of
the two veffels occupies no more than -^th part of it.
Befides, if this were the caufe of this want of vifion, it
would vanifh gradually, and the fpace to which it is
confined would not be fo exa6lly terminated as it appears
to be.
We mull add, that M. Pecquet alfo obferved, that
notwithilanding the infenfibility of the retina at the in¬
fertion of the optic nerve when the light is only mode¬
rate j yet luminous objefls, fuch as a bright candle pla¬
ced at the diltance of four or five paces, do not abfo-
lutely difappear, in the fame circumftances in which a
white paper would ; for this ftrong light may be per¬
ceived though the piclure fall on the bafe of the nerve.
Dr Prieftley, however, found that a large candle made
no imprefiion on that part of his eye, though by no
means able to bear a llrong light.
The common opinion wTas alfo favoured by the ana¬
tomical defeription of fevgral animals by the members
of the French academy, and particularly their account
f of the fea calf and porcupine ; in both of which the
0ptic nerve is inferted in the very axis o£ the eye, ex-
1 v *5* Part L
aflly oppofite to the pupil, which wax thought to leave Of Vifion.
no room to doubt, but that in thefe animals the retina —■‘J
h perfectly fenfible to the impreffion of light at the in-
fertion ol the nerve.
. la Hire look part with M. Pecquet, arguing
m favour of the retina from the analogy of the lenfes,
in all of which the nerves are the proper feat of fenfa-
tion. I nis philofopher, however, fuppofed that the cho¬
roid coat receives the impreffions of images, in order to
trahfmit them to the. retina.
I\l. errauj.t alio took the part of 3YI. Pecquet ao'ainf’t
M. ivlarriotte, and in M. Perrault’s works we have fe-
veral letters that paffed between thefe two gentlemen
upon this iubject.
This difpute was revived by an experiment of M.
Mery, recorded in the Memoirs of the French AcadeJ
my for 1704. He plunged a cat in water, and expofing
hex eye to tne llrong light of the fun, obferved that the
pupil was not at all contra£ted by it} whence he con¬
cluded, that the contra£lion of the iris is not produced by
the aiflion of the light. For he contended that the eye
receives more light in this fituation than in the open
air. At the fame time he thought he obferved that the
retina of the cat’s eye was tranfparent, and that he
could fee the opaque choroides beyond it: from which
he concludes, that the choroides is the fubftance intend¬
ed to receive the rays of light, and to be the chief in-
ftrument of vifion. But M. De la Hire, in oppofition
to this argument of M. Mery, endeavours to fhow that
fewer rays enter the eye under water, and that in
thofe circumftances it is not fo liable to be affedled
by them. Befides, it is obvious, that the cat mull be in
great terror in this fituation $ and being an animal that
has a very great voluntary power over the mufcles of
the iris, and being now extremely attentive to every
thing about her, fhe might keep her eye open notwith-
ftanding the aflion of idle light upon it, and though it
might be very painful to her. We are informed, that
when a cat is placed in a window through which the
fun is fhining, and confequently her iris nearly clofed„
if file hear a ruffling, like that which is made by a
moufe, on the outfide of the window, fhe will immedi¬
ately open, her eyes to their greateft extent, without in
the leaft turning her face from the light.
M. Le Cat took the fide of M. Marriotte in this con-
troverfy, it being peculiarly agreeable to his general hy-
pothefis, viz. that the pia mater, of which the choroides
is a production, and not the nerves themfelves, is the
proper inftrument of fenfation. He thought that the
change which takes place in the eyes of old people (the
choroides growing lefs black with age) favoured his hy-
pothefis, as they do not fee with the fame diftindlnefs as
young perfons. M. Le Cat fuppofed that the retina
anfwers a purpofe fimilar to thq. of the fcarf-lkin, cover¬
ing the papillae pyramidales, which are the immediate-
organs of feeling, or that of the porous membrane which
covers the glandulous papillae of the tongue. The re¬
tina, he fays, receives the impreflion of fight, moderates
it, and prepares it for its proper organ, but is not itfelf
fenfible of it.
It mull be obferved, that M. Le Cat had difeovered
that the pia mater, after clofely embracing the optic
nerve, at its entrance into the eye, divides into two
branches, one of which clofely lines the cornea, and at
length is loft in it, while the fecond branch forms what
Theory. OPT
vlIT;!!! caPed the choroides, or uvea. Pie alfo ftowed that
the fclerotic coat is an expanfion of the dura mater-
and he lent diffeaions of the eye to the Royal Academy
of Sciences m 1739, to prove thefe afferlions, and feve-
ral others contrary to the opinions of the celebrated
Wmilow, which he had advanced in his Traite de
sens.
T° thefe arguments in favour of the choroides, we
may add the following given by Mr Michell.
In order that vifion^be diftinft, the pencils of rays
which Auefrom the feveral points of any object, mull
be collected either accurately, or at lealt very nearly, to
correfpondmg points m the eye, which can only be done
upon fome uniform furface. But the retina being of a
confiderable thicknefs, and the whole of it being uni¬
formly nervous and at leall nearly, if not perfeftly '
tranfparent, prefents no particular furface: f0 tliat in
whatever part of it the pencils be fuppofed to have their
foci, the rays belonging to them will be feparated from
one another, either before or after they arrive there, and
oonlequently vdlon would be confufed.
e1/ we fuPP°fe the feat of vifion to be at the interior
fb u f J-6 netma’ and the ima8es of obj^s to be
formed by diredt rays a confiderable degreeJ of confu-
fion could not but anfe from the light refleaed by the
choroides, in thole animals in which it is white, or co-
^c16 ir 1 j ,t le otber hand, it would be impoffible that
vifion Ihould be performed at this place by light reflea-
veriZ? W6 lch°r0ldeS’ becauf« bi many animals it is
yet uch ammals fce evcn more di-
If the feat of vifion be at the farther furface of the
tma, and if vilion be performed by diredl rays, a
white choroid coat could be of no ufe 5 and if it were
byreMed rays, a black one could not anfwer the pur-
It is likewife an argument in favour of the. choroides
being the organ of vifion, that it is a fubftance whfch
receives a more diftma impreffion from the rays of light
than any other membrane in any part of the animal V
under th,at white cudcle which lies
under the fcales or filhes j whereas the retina is a fub-
amnce on which the light makes an exceedingly faint
mprelhon, and perhaps no impreffion at all j finee light
• f i°Ut °f-0ne tranfParent medium into another
immediately contiguous to it, fuffers no refradion or re-
fledion nor are a of the r ^ J
is fome difference m the refracling power of the two
media which probably is not the cafe between the reti
na and the vitreous humour which is in contad with if
And wherever the light is not affeded by the medium
on which it falls, we can hardly fuppofe the medium to
rrobablvd1^ °n?r0mithe IJght’ theaai°n being
probably always mutual and reciprocal. 8
elides, the retina is fo fituated, as to be expofed to
many rays befides thofe which terminate in it, and which
therefore, cannot be fubfervient to vifion, if it be per’
formed there _ Now this is not the cafe Mth the cho
- -
iveriky „f lts colour in d!ffere,lt animals, acccjd l »
hey are arcumftanced „lth refpea to T’irion. 7/“
‘e 'r“ amma s’;vd,ctl ufc their eyes by night, the
1 C S' 221
choroides is either of a bright white, or of fome very vivid Of Vilioa,
colour, which refleas the light very flrongly. On this   '
account vifion may be performed with lef$ light, but it
cannot be with great diftindnefs, the tefledion of the
mys ouo ing their effed, fince it mull extend over fome
fpace^all refledion being made at a diltance from the
receding body. Befides, the choroides in brutes is not
m general perfedly white, but inclined to blue : and is
therefore probably, better adapted to fee by the fainter
coloured light, which chidly prevails in the night; and'
we would add, is on the fame account more liable to be
ftrongly impreffed by the colours to which they are
On the other hand, the choroides of birds in general-
eipecially eagles, hawks, and other birds of prey is
black ; by which means they are able to fee with the
greateil diftmdnefis, but only in bright day light. The
owl, however, feeking her food by night, has the cho¬
roides white, like that of a ca*. In the eyes of man
which are adapted to various ufes, the choroides is nei¬
ther io black as that of birds, nor fo white as that of
hole animals who make the greateft ufe of their eyes in
the night.
1\/tAA tC! aAird b^pothefis, which is in effeft that of
M. De la Hire, and which makes both the retina and
ie choroides equally neceffary to vifion, and fuppofes it
to be performed by the impreffion of light on the cho¬
roides communicated to the retina j Mr Michell ob-
lerves, that the perceptions can hardly be fuppofed to be
lo acute, when the nerves do not receive the imprest ons
immediately, but only after they have been communica¬
ted to another fubflance. Befides, it muff be more na¬
tural to fuppofe, that, when the principal impreffion is
made upon the choroides, it is communicated to the
brain by its own nerves, which are fufficient for the pur-
TUe dimenfions and precife form of the fpot in the DimenLs
eye in which there is no vifion, were more accurately the
calculated by Daniel Bernouilli, in the following man-1 Vhe eye
“dtSf 2 P:eCf\°f ,Mney’ Si »»
and then ffiuttmg one of his eyes, and making a pendu-vifion.
um to living, fo that the extremity of it might be near- PIate
iy m the line AO_ bf nbfbrvrd  /~< . ccclxxxx.
i .. 07 . ~ ; — '-'"ovwxiuLj, ux it uiigni oe near¬
ly m the line AO, he obferved at what place C it be-^CLX
gan to be invifible, and where it again emerged into lg’ 3‘
view at A. Raffing the pendulum higher and lower
he found other points, as H, N, P, G, B, at which it
began to be mvifible j and others, as M, L, E A at
which it began to be vifible again j and drawing a curve
through them, he found that it was elliptical; and, with
reipcct to his own eye, the dimenfions of it were as fol¬
low jOC was 23, AC 10, ED 3, DH 13, and EG
14, fo that the centre being at F, the greater axis was
to the Ids as 8 to 1.
from thefe data the plane on which the figure was
drawn being obliquely fituated with refpeft to the eye
le found, that the place in the eye that correfponded to
it was a circle, the diameter of which was a foventh
part ot the diameter of the eye, the centre of it' being
-7 parts of the diameter from the point oppofite to the
pup11 a little above the middle. In order, therefore,
that this fpace m which there is no vifion may be as
,1 as poffible, it is neceffary that the nerve fiiould en¬
ter tne eye perpendicularly, and that both this end, and
alfo its entering the eye at a diftance from its axis, are
gamed by the particular manner in which the two optic
nerves
'7 0'*
OPTICS.
Part I-
Of Vifior. nerves unite and become feparate again, by crofiing
v one another.
In lupport of one of the obfervations of Mr Ivlichell,
Dr Priertley obferves, that Aquapendente mentions the
cafe of a perfon at Pifa, who could fee very well in the
night, but very little or none at all in the day time.
This is alfo fai'd to be the cafe with thole white people
among the blacks of Africa, and the inhabitants of the
ifthmus of America, who, from this circumflance, are
called moon-eyed. Dr Prieuley thinks it probable that
their choroides is not of a dark colour, as it is in others
of the human fpecies } but white or light-coloured, as
in thofe animals which have molt occafion for their eyes
in the night.
Arguments Dr Porterfield obferves, that the reafon why there is
for the re- no vifion at the entrance of the optic nerve into the eye,
thTf may ,3e 'lts want of tiiat f°ftne-s ancl delicacy which it
vifion*11 01 ^as when it is expanded upon the choroides } and that,
in thofe animals in which that nerve is inferted in the
axis of the eye, it is obferved to be equally delicate, and
therefore probably equally fenfible, in that place as in
any other part of the retina. In general, the nerves,
when embraced by their coats, have but little fenlibility
in comparifon of what they are endued with when they
are divelted of them, and unfolded in a foft and pulpy
fubftance.
Haller obferves, that the choroides cannot be univer-
fally the feat of vifion, becaufe, fometimes in men and
birds, but efpecially in fifhes, it is covered internally with
a bljfck mucus, through which the rays cannot pene¬
trate. This waiter fpeaks of a fibrous membrane in the
retina diftinft from its pulpy fubftance. On thefe fi¬
bres, he conjeftures, that the images of objects are
painted.
M. De la Hire’s argument in favour of the retina,
from the analogy of the fenfes, is much itrengthened
by confidering that the retina is a large nervous appa¬
ratus, immediately expofed to the impreflion of light •,
whereas the choroides receives but a {lender fupply
of nerves, in common with the fclerotica, the conjunc¬
tiva, and the eyelids, and that its nerves are much lefs
expofed to the light than the naked fibres of the optic
nerve.
That the optic nerve is of principal ufe in vifion, is
' farther probable.from feveral phenomena attending fome
of the difeafes of the eve. When an amaurofis has af-
fefted one eye only, the optic nerve of that eye has been
found manifeltly altered from its found ftate. Dr Prieft-
ley was prefent when Mr Hey examined the brain of a
young girl, who had been blind of one eye, and farv
that the optic nerve belonging to it was confiderably
fmaller than the other 5 and he informed him, that up¬
on cutting into it it rvas much harder, and cineritious.
Morgagni mentions two cafes, in one of which he found
the optic nerves fmaller than ufual, and of a cineritious
colour, when, upon inquiry, he was informed that the
perfon had not been blind, though there might have
been fome defied! in the fight of one of the eyes. In
the other cafe, only one of the optic nerves was affedted
in that manner, and the eye itfelf rvas in other refpedts
very perfect. Here, alfo, he was exprefsly told, that
the perfon wras not blind of that eye.
Befides, as the optic nerve is folely fpent in forming
the retina, fo no fundlion of the eye not immediately
fubfervient to vifion, is a fife died by an amaurofis. On
3
the contrary, thofe nerves which go to the choroides Of Vifion.
are found to retain, in this difeale, their natural in- '™* v
fluence. The ills will contradl in a recent gutta lerena
of one eye, if the other remains found, and is fuddenly
expofed to a llrong light. The fclerotica, conjunctiva,
and eyelids, which receive their nerves from the fame
branches as the choroides, retain their fenfibility in this
dilbrder.
The manner in which perfons recover from an amau-
rofis, favours the fuppofition oi the ieat of vifion being
in the retina : fih'ce thofe parts which are the moll di-
llant from the infertion of the nerve recover their fenfi¬
bility the fooneft, being in thole places the moil pulpy
and foft) whereas there is no reafon to think that
there is any difference in this reipedt in the different
parts of the choroides. Mr Pley has been repeatedly
f, formed, by perfons labouring under an imperfedt amau¬
rofis, or gutta ferena, that they could not, when look¬
ing at any object with one eye, lee it fo diitindtly when
it wras placed in the axis of the eye, as when it was fi-
tuated out of the axis. And thole perlbns whom he had
known to recover from a perfedl amaurofis, firlt dilco-
vered the objects whofe images fell upon that part of
the retina which is at the greateft diltance from the op¬
tic nerve.
We lhall conclude thefe remarks wdth obferving, that
if the retina be as tranfparent as it is generally reprefent-
ed to be, fo that the termination of the pencils mult ne-
ceffarily be either upon the chorcides, or fome other
opaque fubflance interpofed betw een it and the retina,
the adtion and reaction occafioned by the rays of light
being at the common furface of this body and the retina,
both thefe mediums (fuppofing them to be equally fenfi¬
ble to light) may be equally affedted } but the retina,
being naturally much more fenfible to this kind of im¬
preflion, may be the only inftrument by which the len-
fation is conveyed to the brain, though the choroides,
or the black fubltance wdth which it is fometimes lined,
may alfo be abfolutely neceffary to vifion. This is not
far "from the hypothefis of M. de la Hire, and wall com¬
pletely account for the entire defedt of vifion at the in¬
fertion of the optic nerve.
Vifion is diltinguilhed into bright and obfeure, diJlinB of
and indiJHnB.—It is faid to be bright, when a Sufficient aiJdob?cure,
number of rays enter the pupil at the fame time ; ob- diftindl and
/cure, when too few. It is difiinB wffien each pencil cf mdiftinCl
rays is colledted into a focus exadtly upon the retina;vlfl0n*
indiJlinB, when they meet before they come at it, or
when they wmuld pafs it before they meet; for, in ei¬
ther of thefe lalt cafes, the rays flowing from different
parts of the objedt wall fall upon the fame part of the
retina, which mult neceffarily render the image indi-
ftindt.—Now, that cbjedts may appear with a due
brightnefs, whether more or fewer rays proceed from
them, wre have a powrer of contradling or dilating the
pupil, by means of the mufcular fibres of the iris, in or¬
der to take in a greater or fmaller number of rays. But
this powTer has its limits. In fome animals it is much
greater than in others , particularly in fuch as are obli¬
ged to ffiek their food by night as well as by day, as in
cats, &c. . 141
In order that the rays be colledted into points exadtly of diitmdt
upon the retina, that is, in order that ohjedts may ap- vifion at
pear di/hncl, whether they be nearer or farther off, i. e.
whether the rays proceeding from them diverge more or
lefs,
ed people.
Theory. OPT
Of Villon, left;, feme cLmge muil neceTaiily take place in the eye.
—v~~' 'i'he nature of tliis change has been a fubjefl of great
difpute among philofophers. While fome have main¬
tained, that the eye accommodates ilfelf to different di-
ftances, by the mufcular power of the ciliary ligament,
which makes the cryftalline lens approach to, or recede
from, the retina} others are cf opinion, that the form
of the cryflalline is altered by the ciliary ligament, or
by the mufcular power of the laminae of which it is
compbfed. M. de la Hire fuppofes, that the eye is
adapted to various diHances by the contra&ion and di¬
latation of the pupil j and Dr Monro imagines, that its
erlecf is produced by the preffure of the orbicular
mufcles upon the upper and under parts of the cornea,
or by the aclion of the reel! mufcles, which elongate the
axis of the eye, by preding chiefly upon the fides of the
eyeballs.—This fubjeft has lately been accurately exa¬
mined by Mr Ramlden, and Mr Everard Home, who
found, that the adjuflment of the eye is effechd by
three changes in the organ : i. By an increafe of cur¬
vature in the cornea, occafioncd by the add ion of the
redid mufcles, which produces -r of the cfiecl. 2. J3y
an elongation ox the eyeball; and, 3. By a motion of
T, 2 the cryilalline lens.
Of thort- thofe eyes where the cornea is very protuberant,
lighted and the rays of light fyffer a connderable refraction at their
long-fight- entrance into the aqueous humour, and are therefore
collected into a focus before they fall upon the retina,
unleis the objeft be placed very near, lb that the rays
which enter the eye may hare a confiderable degree of
divergency. People that have fuch eyes are faid to be
purblind. Now*, flnee the nearer an object is to the
eye, the greater is its image, thefe people can fee much
Imaller objects than others, as they fee much nearer ones
with the lame diftinftnefs ; and their fight continues
good longer than that of other people, becaufe the cor¬
nea, as they grow old, becomes Ids protuberant, from
the want of that redundancy of humours wdlh which
they ryere filled before. On the contrary, old men
having the cornea of their eyes too flat, for want of a
fufldcient quantity of the aqueous humour, if the rays
diverge too much before they enter the eye, they can¬
not be brought to a focus when they reach the retina :
on which account thofe people cannot fee diftinctly, un¬
leis the object be fituated at a greater diitance from the
eye than is required for thofe whofe eyes are of a due
form. i he latter require the afliftance of convex glaf-
fes to make them fee objects diftincliy ; the former of
concave ones. For if either the cornea a b c, (fig. 4). or
cryftaliine humour e, or both of them, be too flat, as in
the eye A, their focus will not be on the retina as at A,
where it ought to be, in order to render vision dillinct ;
but beyond the eye, as at/! This is remedied by pla¬
cing a convex glafs g h before the eye, which makes
the rays converge fooner, and forms the image exafliy
on the retina at d. Again, If either the cornea, or cry-
ftalline humour, or both of them, be too convex, as in
the eye B, the rays that enter it from the object C will
be converged to a focus in the vitreous humour, as at /;
and by diverging from thence to the retina, will form a
very confufed image upon it 5 fo that the obferver will
have as confufed a view of the object as if his eye had
been too flat. 'Phis inconvenience is remedied by pla¬
cing a concave glafs g h be'ore the eye ; which glafs,
by eaufing the rays to diverge between it and the eye,
I c s.
223
Plate
CCCLXXXI.
ri5.4.
lengthens the focal diflance, and makes the rays unite OfVifion
at the retina, and form a diAJnft image of the ob- 1   
je£t. ^
Such eyes as are of a proper convexity, cannot fee ofthMeali
any object diftinctly at lefs ditiance than fix inches ; and angle of
there are numberlefs objects too final! to be feen at that vifion.
diflance, becaufe they cannot appear under any fenfible
angle—Concerning the leaft angle under which any ob¬
ject is vifible, there was a debate between Dr Hooke
and Hevelius. The former afierted that no object could
well be feen if it lubtended an angle lefs than one mi¬
nute ; and, if the object be round, as a black circular
fpet upon a white ground, or a white circle upon a black
ground, it follows, from an experiment made by Dr
Smith, that this is near the truth j and from this he
calculates, that the diameter of the picture of fuch leart
vifible point upon the retina is the 8000th part of an
inch j which he therefore calls a fevjible point of the re¬
tina. On the other hand, Mr Courtivrcn found, by
experiment, that the final’eft angle of vifion was 40 fe-
conds. According to Dr Jurin, there are cafes in which-
a much fmaller angle than one minute can be discerned
by die eye ; and he obferves, that in order to our per¬
ceiving any imprefiion upon our fenfes, it mull either be
of a certain degree of force, or of a certain degree of
magnitude. For this reafon, a ftar, which appears only
as a lucid point through a telefcope fubtending not lo
much as an angle of one feccnd, is vifible to the eye 5 144
though a white or black fpot of 25 or feconds, is not ^nes can
perceptible. Alfo a line of the fame breadth with the be feen un”
circular fpot will be vifible at fuch a diftance as the fpot
is not to be perceived at*, becaufe the quantity of im-fpots'and
preflion from the line is much greater than that from why.
the fpot j and a longer line is vifible at a greater di-
flance than a'fhorter one of the fame breadth. He
found by experience, that a filver wire could be feen
when it fubtended an angle of three feconds and a half 5
and that a filk thread could be feen w*hen it fubtended
an angle of two feconds and a half.
This greater vifibility of a line than of a fpot feems
to arife only from the greater quantity of the impreffion ;
but without the limits of perfecl vifion, Dr juiin ob¬
ferves, that another caufe concurs, whereby the differ¬
ence of vifibility between the fpot and the line is render¬
ed much more confiderable. For the imprefiion upon
the retina made by the line is then not only much great¬
er, but alfo much ftronger, than that of the fpot \ be¬
caufe the taint image, or penumbra, of any one point of
the line, when the hole is placed beyond the limits of
diflinff vifion, will fall within the faint image of the
next point, and thereby much increafe the light that
comes from it.
In fome cafes Dr .Turin found the caufe of indiftincl
vifion to be the unfleadinefs of the eye $ as our being
able to fee a fingle black line upon a white ground or
a fingle white line upon a black ground, and not a white
line between two black ones on a white ground. In
viewing either of. the former objefts, if the eye be im¬
perceptibly moved, all the effeft will be, that the ob~
jeef will be painted upon a different part of the retina ;
but wherever it is painted, there will be but one pidhire,
fingle and uncompounded with any other. But in view- '
ing the other, if the eye fluctuate ever fo little, the
image of one or other of the black lines will be fo fhift-
ed to that part of the retina which was before pofiefied
by.
224
OPT
Of Vifion. by the white line j and this muft occafion fuch a daz-
^ v zling in the eye, that the white line cannot be diftincl-
ly perceived, and diftinguilhed from the black lines •,
which, by a continual flu&uation, will alternately oc¬
cupy the fpace of the white line, whence mult arife an
appearance of one bro'ad dark line, without any manifeft
feparation.
By trying this experiment with two pins of known
diameters, let in a window againft the Iky light, with a
fpace between them equal in breadth to one of the pins,
he found that the diftance between the pins could hard¬
ly be diftingui fhed when it fubtended an angle of lefs
than 40 feconds, though one of the pins alone could be
diltinguifhed when it fubtended a much lefs angle. But
though a fpace between two pins cannot be diftinguifh-
ed by the eye when it fubtends an angle lefs than 40 fe-
ccnds, it does not follow that the eye muft neceffarily
commit an error of 40 feconds in eflimating the diftance
between two pins when they are much farther from one
another. For if the fpace between them fubtend an
angle of one minute, and each of the pins fubtend an
angle of four feconds, which is greater than the leaft
angle the eye can diftinguifh, it is manifeft that the eye
may judge of the place of each pin within two feconds
at the moft *, and confequently the error committed in
taking the angle between them cannot at the moft ex¬
ceed four feconds, provided the inftrument be fufft-
ciently exaft. And yet, fays he, upon the like mif-
take was founded the principal objeftion of Dr Hooke
againft the accuracy of the celeftial obfervations of He-
welius.
A black fpot upon a white ground, or a white fpot
upon a black ground, he fays, can hardly be perceived by
the generality of eyes when it fubtends a lefs angle than
one minute. And if two black fpots be made upon
white paper, with a fpace between them equal in breadth
to one of their diameters, that fpace is not to be diftin-
guiihed, even within the limits of perfect vifion, under
fo fmall an angle as a fingle fpot of the fame fize. To
fee the two fpots diftintftly, therefore, the breadth of
the fpace between them muft fubtend an angle of more
than a minute. It would be difficult, he fays, to make
this experiment accurately, within the limits of perfect
vifion; becaufe the objects muft be extremely fmall:
blit by a rude trial, made with fquare bits of white pa¬
per, placed upon a black ground, he judged, that the
leaft angle under which the interval of two objects could
he perceived, was at leaft a fourth part greater than the
leaft angle under which a fingle objedt can be perceived.
So that an eye which cannot perceive a fingle object un¬
der a fmaller angle than one minute, will not perceive
the interval between two fuch objects under a lefs angle
than 7 5 feconds.
Without the limits of perfect vifion, the diftance at
which a fingle objeft ceafes to be perceptible will be
much greater in proportion than the diftance at which
a fpace of equal breadth between two fuch obj efts ceafes
to be perceptible. For, without thefe limits, the image
of each of the objefts will be attended with a penumbra,
and the penumbra of the two near objefts will take up
part of the fpace between them, and thus render it lefs
perceptible 5 but the penumbra will add to the breadth of
the finale objeft, and will thereby make it more percep¬
tible, unlefs its image be very faint. Upon the fame
I C S. Part I.
principles he likewife accounts for the radiation of the Of Vifion.
liars, whereby the light feems to projeft from them dif- '
ferent ways at the fame time.
Mr Mayer made many experiments in order to afcer-
tain the fmalleft angle of vifion in a variety of refpefts.
He began with obferving at what diftance a black fpot
was vifible on white paper-, and found, that when it
could barely be diftinguilhed, it fubtended an angle of
about 34 feconds. When black lines were difpofed with
intervals broader than themfelves, they were diftinguilh¬
ed at a greater diftance than they could be -when the ob¬
jefts and the intervals were equal in breadth. In all thefe
cafes it made no difference whether the objefts were
placed in the lhade or in the light of the fun } but when
the degrees of light -were fmall, their differences had a
confiderable effect, though by no means in proportion
to the differences of the light. For if an objeft was il¬
luminated to fuch a degree as to be juft vifible at the di¬
ftance of nine feet, it would be vifible at the diftance of
four feet, though the light was dimini fhed above 160
times. It appeared in the courfe of thefe experiments,
that common daylight is, at a medium, equal to that of
25 candles placed at the diftance of one loot from the
objeft.
As an image of every vifible objeft i$ painted on the
retina of each of our eyes, it thence becomes a natural vifion with
queftion, Why we do not fee every thing double ? It two eyes,
was the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton and others, that
objefts appear fingle, becaufe the two optic nerves unite
before they reach the brain. But Dr Porterfield fhows,
from the obfervation of feveral anatomifts, that the op¬
tic nerves do not mix, or confound their fubftance, be¬
ing only united by a clofe cohefion j and objefts have
appeared fingle where the optic nerves were found to be
disjoined. ^
Dr Briggs fuppofed that fingle vifion was owing to Solutions
the equal tenfion of the correfponding parts of the op- of this dif-
tic nerves, whereby they vibrated in a fynchronous man-Acuity by
ner. But, befides feveral improbable circumftances mDrBllSSs'
this account, Dr Porterfield fhows that fafts do by no
means favour it.
To account for this phenomenon, this ingenious writ¬
er fuppofes, that by an original law in our natures, we
imagine objefts to be fituated fomewhere in a right line
drawn from the pifture of it upon the retina, through T _
the centre of the pupil. Confequently, the fame objeft £)r porter.
appearing to both eyes to be in the fame place, the field,
mind cannot diftinguifh it into two. In anfwer to an
objeftion to this hypothefis, from objefts appearing
double when one eye is diftorted, he fays the mind mif-
takes the pofition of the eye, imagining that it had mo¬
ved in a manner correfponding to the other, in which
cafe the conclufion would have been juft.
This principle, however, has been thought fufficient
to account for this appearance. Originally, every ob¬
jeft, making two piftures, is imagined to be double ;
but by degrees, we find, that when two correfponding
parts of the retina are impreffed, the objeft is but one ;
but if thofe correfponding parts be changed, by the dif-
tortion of one of the eyes, the objeft muft again appear
double as at the firft. This has been thought verified
by Mr Chefelden ; who informs us, that a gentleman,
who from a blow on his head had one eye diftorted,
found every object to appear double 3 but by degrees
4
Theory.
148
Dr Reid,
a*id
,Qi Vlfion fhe molt familiar ones came to appear Angle again, and
“ in time all objects did lo, -without any amendment of
the diftortion.
On the other hand, Dr Reid is of opinion, that the
correfpondence of the centres of the two eyes, on which
Angle villon depends, does not arife from cultom, but
from fome natural conftitution of the eye and of the
mind. He makes leveral jult objections to the cafe of
Mi Forder, recited by Dr Smith and others} and thinks
that the cale of the young man couched by Chelelden,
y» ho law lingly with both eyes immediately upon receiv¬
ing his fight, is nearly decilive in proof of his fuppoli-
tion. He alio found that three young gentlemen, whom
he endea/oured to cure ot fquintiiig, law objects fingly,
as foon as ever they were brought to direCt the centres
or ucth tneir eyes to the fame object, though they had
never been ufed to do fo from their infancy 5 and he ob-
ierves, that there are cafes, in which, notwithltanding
t ire fullelt conviction of an objeCt being fingle, no prac¬
tice oj looking at it will ever make it appear fo, as when
it is feen through a multiplying glafs.
Fo all thefe folutions of the difficulty refpeCting
fingle vifion by both eyes, objections have been lately
made which feem infurmountable. By judicious experi¬
ments, Dr Wells has Ihown, that it is neither by cultom
alone, nor by the original property of the eyes alone,
that objeCts appear fingle; and having demolilhed the
tneories of others, he thus endeavours to account for the
phenomenon.
. the vifible place of an objeCt being compofed of
its vifible diltance and vifible direction, to Ihow how it
may appear the fame to both eyes, it will be neceffary
* EJhyon (fays he *) to explain in what manner the diltance and
J * direction, which are perceived by one eye, may co¬
incide with thofe which are perceived by the other.”
With refpeCt to vifible diltance, the author’s opinion
feems not to differ from that which we have Hated elfe-
where (fee Metaphysics, N° 49, 50.) ; and therefore
we have to attend only to what he fays of vifible direc¬
tion.
. When a fmall objeCt is fo placed with refpeCt to
either eye, as to be feen more diltinCtly than in any
other fituation, our author fays that it is then in the
cfitw axis, or the axis of that eye. When the two
optic axes are directed to a fmall objeCt not very di-
itant, they may be conceived to form two fides of a
triangle, of which the bafe is the interval between the
points ot the corners where the axes enter the eyes.
1 his bafe he called the vifual bafe; and a line drawn
from the middle of it to the point of interfedion of
the optic axis he calls the common axis. He then pro¬
ceeds to Ihow, that objeCls really fituated in the ohtic
axis do not appear to be in that fine, but in the cotnmon
OPTICS.
22^
149
Dr Wells.
axis.
Every perfon (he obferves) knows, that if an objeCt
be viewed through two fmall holes, one applied to eacn
eye the two holes appear but as one. The theories
hitherto invented afford two explanations of this faCt.
According to Aguilonius, Dechales, Dr Porterfield, and
Dr Srmth, the two holes, or rather their borders, will
be feen in the fame place as the objeCt viewed through
tnem, and will confequemly appear united, for the fame
reafon that the objeCt itfelf is feen fingle. But whoever
makes the experiment wall diltinCtly perceive, that the
united hole is much nearer to him than the objeCt 3 not
to mention that any fallacy on this head might be cor- Cf Vifion^
rected by the information from the fenfe of touch that'
the card or other fubltance in which the holes have been
made is within an inch or lefs of our face. The other
explanation is that furnilhed by the theory of Dr Reid
According to it, the centres of the retinas, which in
this experiment receive the piClures of the holes, will
by an original property, reprefent but one. This theory’
however, though it makes the two holes to appear one’
does not determine where this one is to be feen. It can¬
not be feen in only one of the perpendiculars to the
images upon the retinas, for no reaion can be given why
this law, of vifible direction, which Dr Reid thinks
eftabhihed beyond difpute, if it operates at all, ihould
not operate upon both eyes at the fame time 3 aad if it
be feen by both eyes in fuch lines, it muff appear where
thofe lines crofs each other, that is, in the fame place
with the objeCt viewed through the holes, which, as I
have already mentioned, is contrary to experience. Noi¬
ls it feen in any direction, the coniequence of a law af-
feCting both eyes confidered as one organ, but fufpend-
ed when each eye is ufed feparately. For when the
two holes appear one, if we pay attention to its fitua¬
tion and then clofe one eye, the truly fingle hole will
be feen by the eye remaining open in exaCtly the fame
direction as the apparently fimfe hole was by both
eyes.
Hitherto I have luppofed the holes aim oft touching
the face. But they have the fame unity of appearance
m whatever parts of the optic axes they are placed •
whether both be at the fame diftance from the eyes or
one be clofe to the eye in the axis of which it is, and
the other almoft contiguous to the objeCt feen througn
them. It a line, therefore, be drawn from the objeCt
to one of the eyes, it will reprefent all the real or tan¬
gible pofitions of the hole, wdiich allow the objeCt to be
feen by. that eye, and the whole of it will coincide with
the optic axis. Let a fimilar line be drawn to the other
eye, and the two muff appear but as one line ; for if
they do not, the two holes in the optic axes will not,
at every diftance,^ appear one, whereas experiments prove’
that they do. this united line will therefore reprefent
the vifible direction of every objeCt fituated in either of
the optic axes. But. the end of it, which is toward the
face, is feen by the right eye to the left, and by the left
eye as much to the right. It muff be feen then in the
middle between the two, and confequently in the com¬
mon axis. And as its other extremity coincides with
the point where the optic axes interfea each other, the
whole of it muff lie in the common axis. Hence’ the
truth of the propofition is evident, that objeds fituated
m the optic axis, do not appear to be in that line, but
m the common axis.
. then proves, by experiments, that objeCts fituated
m th£ common axis do not appear to be in that line
but in the axis of the eye by which they are not feen :’
that is, an objaCt fituated in the common axis appears
to. the right eye m the axis of the left, and vice verfa.
His next .propofition, proved likewife by experiments is
that “ objects, fituated in any line drawn through the
mutual interfeCHon of the optic axes to the vifual bafe
do not appear to be in that, line, but in another, drawn
through the fame iiiterfeCHon, to a point in the vifual
bafe diftant half this bafe from the fimilar extremity
0. the former line -towards the left, if the objeCts be
F i feen
226
OPTICS.
Part I.
Of Vifion.
*5°
Objects
fben with
bath eyes
appear
brighter
than when
ieen with
one.
feen by the right eye, but towards the right if feen by
the left eye.”
From thefe proportions he thus accounts for fmgle
vifion by both eyes. “ If the queftion be concerning
an objedt at the concourfe of the optic axes, it is feen
fingle, becaufe its two fimilar appearances, in regard to
fize, ihape, and colour, are feen by both eyes in one
and the fame direction, or if you will, in two directions,
which coincide with each other through the whole of
their extent. It therefore matters not whether the di-
ftance be truly or falfely eftimated ; whether the object
be thought to touch our eyes, or to be infinitely remote.
And hence we have a realbn, which no other theory of
viable direction affords, why objects appeared fingle to
the young gentleman mentioned by Mr Chelelden, im¬
mediately after his being couched, and before he could
have learned to judge of diftance by fight.
“ When two fimilar objetls are placed in the optic
axes, one in each, at equal diftances from the eyes,
they will appear in the fame place, and therefore one,
for the fame reafon that a truly fingle objetit, in the con¬
courfe of the optic axes, is feen fingle.
“ To finifh this part of my fubjeft, it feems only
neceiTary to determine, whether the dependence of vifi-
ble direction upon the adtions of the mufcles of the
eyes be eftablifhed by nature, or by cuftom. But fadts
are here wanting. As far as they go, however, they
ferve to prove that it arifes from an original principle of
our conititution. For Mr Chefelden’s patient law ob-
jedls fingle, and confequently in the fame diredtions with
both eyes, immediately after he was couched •, and per-
fons affedted with fquinting from their earlieft infancy
fee objects in the fame diredtions with the eye they have
never been accuftomed to employ, as they do with the
other they have conftantly ufed.”
We are indebted to Dr Turin for the following cu¬
rious experiments, to determine whether an object feen
by both eyes appears brighter than when feen with one
only.
He laid a flip of clean white paper diredtly before
him on a table, and applying the fide of a book dole
to his right temple, fo that the book was advanced con-
fiderably farther forward than his face, he held it in
, fuch a manner, as to hide from his right eye that half
of the paper which lay to his left hand, while the left
half of the paper was feen by both eyes, without any
impediment.
Then looking at the paper with both eyes, he ob-
ferved it to be divided, from the top to the bottom, by
a dark line, and the part which was feen with one eye
only was manifeftly darker than that which was feen
with both eyes ■, and, applying the book to his left
temple, he found, by the refult of the experiment, that
both his eyes were of equal goodnefs.
He then endeavoured to determine the excefs of this
hrightnefs ; and comparing it with the appearance of an
objecl illuminated partly by one candle and partly by
two, be was furprifed to find that an object feen with
two eyes is by no means twice as luminous as when it is
feen with one ^ and, after a number of trials, be found,
that when one paper was illuminated by a candle placed
at the diftance of three feet, and another paper by the
fame candle at the fame diftance, and by another candle
at the diftance of 11 feet, the former feen by both eyes,
and the latter with one eye only, appeared to be of
equal whitenefs j fo that an objecl feen with both eyes Of Viiion.
appears brighter than when it is feen with one only by
about a 13th part.
He then proceeded to inquire, whether an object ieen
with both eyes appears larger than when feen with one
but he concluded that it did not, except on account of
fome particular circumftances, as in the cafe of the bi¬
nocular telefcope and the concave fpeculum.
M. du Tour maintains, that the mind attends to no
more than the image made in one eye at a time; and
produces feveral curious experiments in favour of this
hypothefis, which had alfo been maintained by Kepler
and almoft all the firft opticians. But, as M; Buffbn
obferves, it is a fufficient anfvver to this hypothefis, how¬
ever ingenioufly it may be lupported, that we fee more
,diftinelly with two eyes than with one 5 and that when
a round objecl is near us, we fee more of the furface in
one cafe than in the other.
With refpedl to fingle vifion with two eyes, Dr
Hartley obferves, that it deferves particular attention,
that the optic nerves of men, and fuch other animals as
look the fame way with both eyes, unite in the cella
turcica in a ganglion, or little brain, as one may call ft,
peculiar to themielves; and that the affbeiations between
fynchronous impreffions on the two retinas mull be made
fooner and cemented ftronger on this account : aifo that
they ought to have a much greater power over one ano¬
ther’s images, than in any other part of the body. And
thus an impreftion made on the right eye alone, by a
fingle objedl, may propagate itfelf into the left, and
there raife up an image almoft equal in vividnefs to it¬
felf; and confequently when we fee with one eye only,
we may, however, have pictures in both eyes.
A curious deception in vifion, arifing from the ufe
of both eyes, was oblerved and accounted for by Dr
Smith. It is a common obfervation, he fays, that ob¬
jects feen with both eyes appear more vivid and ftrong¬
er than they do to a fingle eye ; efpecially when both of
them are equally good. A perfon not fhort-fighted
may foon be convinced of this faft, by looking at¬
tentively at objects that are pretty remote, firft with
one eye, and then with both. This cbfervation gave
occafion to the conftru£lion of the binocular telefcope,
in the ufe of which the phenomenon is itill more ftrik-
ing.
Befides this, Dr Smith obferves, that there is another
phenomenon obfervable with this inftrument, which is
very remarkable. In the foci of the two telefcopes there
are two equal rings, as ufual, which terminate the pic¬
tures of the objecls there formed, and confequently the
vifible area of the objects themfelves. Thefe equal
rings, by reafon of the equal eye-glaffes, appear equal
and equidiftant when feen feparately by each eye; but
when they are feen with both eyes, they appear much
larger, and more diftant alfo ; and the objects feen
through them alfo appear much larger, though circum-
feribed by their united rings, in the fame places as when
they "were feen feparately.
He obferves that the phenomenon of the enlarged
circle of the vifible area in the binocular telefcope, may
be feen very plainly in looking at diftant objects through
a pair of fpeftacles, removed from the eyes about four
or five inches, and held fteady at that diftance. The
two innermoft of the four apparent rings, which hold
the glaffes, will then appear united in one larger and
more
Theory. OPT
Of Vifion. more dill ant ring than the two outermofl, which will
' v~ hardly be vifible unlefs the fpedlacles be farther re¬
moved.
A curious circumilance relating to the effect of one
eye upon the other, was noticed by M. Alpinus, who
obferved, that, when he was looking through a hole
made in a plate of metal, about the loth part of a
line in diameter, with his left eye, both the hole itfelf
appeared larger, and alfo the field of view feen through
it was more extended, whenever he ihut his right eye ;
and both thele effects were more remarkable when that
eye was covered with his hand. He found confider-
able difficulty _ in meafuring this augmentation of the
apparent diameter of the hole, and oi the field of view •,
but at length h? found, that, when the hole was half
an inch, and the tablet which he viewed through it wTas
three feet from his eye, if the diameter of the field when
both his eyes were open was I, it became i t when the
other eye was Ihut, and nearly 2 when his hand was
T^x laid upon it.
ttlien one Upon examining this phenomenon, it prefently ap-
eye is clo!-, peared to depend upon the enlargement of the pupil
nil’of the"* °*' one e} e w^len other is clofed, the phyfical caufe
Other is en- °*' which he did not pretend to affign ; but he obferves,
larged. that it is wifely appointed by Providence, in order that
when one eye fails, the field of view in the other may
be extended. That this effect tliould be more fenfible
when the eye is covered rvith the hand, is owing, he ob¬
ferves, to the eyelids not being impervious to the light.
But the augmentation of the pupil does not enlarge the
field of view, except in looking through a hole, as in
this particular cafe ; and therefore perfons who are blind
of one eye can derive no advantage from this circum¬
ilance.
A great deal has been written by Gaffendi, Le Clerc,
Muffchenbroek, and Du Tour, concerning the place to
which we refer an object vieAved by one or both eyes.
But the moil fatisfaclory account of this matter that we
have met with, will be found in Dr Wells’s Effay above
quoted.
Sect.VI. Of the Appearance of Objecls feen through Me¬
dia of different Forms.
XS2
Theva- For the more eaiy apprehenfion of what relates to
rious ap- this fubject, we (hall premife the five following particu-
pearances parS) which either have been already mentioned, or fol-
feen'thro’ *ow ^rom what has been before laid down,
media of i. That as each point of an object, when Auewed by
different the naked eye, appears in its proper place, and as that
forms place is always to be found in the line in which the axis
invefti a-it a Fenc^ rays flowing from it enters the eye, or elfe
ed. 6 in the line which Dr Wells calls the common axis ; A\re
hence acquire a habit of confidering the point to be fi-
tuated in that line : and, becaufe the mind is unacquaint¬
ed with Avhat refractions the rays fufl'er before they en¬
ter the eye, therefore, in cafes Avhere they are diverted
from their natural courfe, by paffing through any me¬
dium, it judges the point to be in that line produced
back in Avhich the axis of a pencil of rays flowing from
it is fituated the inflant they enter the eye, and not in
that it was in before refraction. We ffiall, therefore,
in Avhat follows, fuppofe the apparent place of an ob-
jeCt, Avhen feen through a refracting medium, to be
iomeAvhere in that line produced back in Avhich the axis
ICS. 227
of a pencil of rays flowing from it proceeds after they Appear-
have paffed through the medium. ance of Gb-
2. ihat we are able to judge, though imperfectly, of
the distance of an object by the degree of divergency, ViSrent
wherein the rays flowing from the fame point of the Forms,
objedt enter the pupil ot the eye, in cafes where that1 ■1 v 1
divergency is confiderable ; but becaufe in what follows
it will be neceffary to fuppofe an objeCt, when feen
through a medium whereby its apparent diitance is al¬
tered, to appear in fome determinate fltuation, in tliofe
cafes where the divergency of the rays at their entrance
into the eye is confiderable, aa'c will fuppofe the objeCl
to appear where thole lines which they deferibe in en-
tering, if produced back, Avould crofs each other :
though it mull; not be afferted, that this is the precile
diftance; becaufe the brightnefs, diftinftnefs, and ap¬
parent magnitude of the objeCt, on which its apparent
diftance in fome meafure depends, will alfo fuffer an al¬
teration by the refraction of the rays in paflinn through
that medium.
3. Ihat we eftimate the magnitude of an object by
that of the optic angle.
4. I hat vifion is the brighter, the greater the number
of rays is which enter the pupil.
5. And that, in fome cafes, the apparent brightnefs,
diftindtnefs, and magnitude of an object, are the only
means by xvhich our judgement is determined in eftimat-
ing the diftance of it.
Prop. I.
An obje£t placed within a medium terminated by
a plane furface on that fide which is next the
eye, if the medium be denfer than that in which
the eye is (as we ihall fuppofe it to be, un¬
lefs where the contrary is exprefled), appears
nearer to the furface of the medium than it
is.
Thus, if A ( fig. 5.) be a point of an object placed within Plate
the medium BCDE, and A A c be two rays proceed- ccclxxxi.
ing from thence, thefe rays paffing out of a denfer into FiS‘ 5-
a rarer medium, will be refracted from their refpective
perpendiculars b d, c e, and will enter the eye at H,
fuppofe in the directions bfcg: let then thefe lines be
produced back till they meet in F; this Avill be the ap¬
parent place of the point A ; and becaufe the refracted
rays bf, eg will diverge more than the incident ones
A b, A c, it Avill be nearer to the points b and c than
the point A } and as the fame is true of each point in
the objeft, the Avhole will appear to an eye at H, near¬
er to the furface BC than it is.
Hence it is, that when one end of a ftraight flick
is put under water, and the (tick is held in an oblique
pofition, it appears bent at the furface of the Ava-
ter ; viz. beoRufe each point that is under water ap¬
pears nearer the furface, and confequently higher than
it is.
From this likewife it happens, that an object at the
bottom of a veffel may be feen when the vefiel is filled
with water, though it be fo placed with refpect to the eye,
that it cannot be feen when the veffel is empty. To
explain this, let ABCD (fig. 6.) reprefent a veffel, and Fle 6
let E be an «bje£t lying at the bottom of it. This ob- S’
je&, Avhen the veffel is empty, Avill not be feen by an
22S OPT
Appear- eye at F, becai.-Te TIE, tlie uppei part cf the veffel, will
^tibflruft the ray EH j but when it is filled with water
"V.ledia of ^ie height GH, the ray at EK being refracted at the
different farface of the water into the line KF, the eye at F fliall
Forms, fee the object by means of that.
1 v In like manner, an objeft fituated in the horizon
Anob^eft aPPears above its true place, on account of the re-
fituated in fraction of the rays which proceed from it in their
the horizon paffage through the atmofphere. For, firft, If the ob-
appears je^- he fituated beyond the limits of the atmofphere,
true 'Ve *tS ra^S enteiang ^ whl be refrafted towards the per-
' u 'e’ pendicular ; that is, towards a line drawn from the point
where they enter, to the centre of the earth, which is
the centre of the atmofphere : and as they pais on, they
will be continually refracted the fame wray, becaufe they
are all along entering a denfer part, the centre of whofe
convexity is ftill the fame point j upon which account
the line they deferibe will be a curve bending dowm-
wards: and therefore none of the rays that come from
that object can enter an eye upon the furface of the
earth, except what enter the atmofphere higher than
they need to do if they could come in a right line
from the objedt : confequently the objedt mult appear
iibove its proper place. Secondly, If the objedt be
placed within the atmofphere, the cafe is ftill the fame;
for the rays wdiich flow from it mult continually enter
a denfer medium whofe centre is below the eye } and
therefore being refradted towards the centre, that is,
downwards as before, thofe which enter the eye muft
neceflarily proceed as from fome point above the ob¬
jedt ; whence the objedi will appear above its proper
place.
H^nce it is, that the fun, moon, and ftars, appear
above the horizon, when they are juft below it j and
higher than they ought to do, wdien they are above it :
Likewife diftant hills, trees, &c. feem to be higher than
they are.
Befides, The lower thefe objedts are in the horizon,
the greater is the obliquity wuth which the rays which
flow from them enter the atmofphere, or pafs from the
rarer into the denfer parts of it; and therefore they ap¬
pear to be the more elevated by refradtipn : on w’hich
account the lower parts of them are apparently more
elevated than the reft. This makes their upper and
under parts feem nearer than they are *, as is evident
from the fun and moon, which appear of an oval form
when they are in the horizon, their horizontal diame¬
ters appearing of the fame length that they would do
if the rays fuffered no refradtion, while their vertical
ones are thus fhortened.
Prop. II.
An objedl feen through a medium terminated by
plane and parallel furfaces, appears nearer,
brighter, and larger, than with the naked eye.
An objedl jror inftance, let AB (fig. 7.) be the objedt, CDEF the
Ren t iro jjUTn antj gjj t]ie pUpH 0f an eye which is here
dium ap drawn large to prevent contuhon m the figure.—And,
pears nearer 1. Let RK, RL, be two rays proceeding from the point R,
and bright- ant} entering the denfer medium at K and L •, thefe rays>
bVtl^na^wiR' here by refradtion be made to diverge lefs, and to
ked eye. proceed afterwards, fuppofe in the lines K L Z> ; at o
Plate and h, where they pafs out of the denfer medium, they
ccclxxxi. will be as much refradted the contrary wav, proceeding
Fig. 7.
ICS. » Part I.
in the lines a c,d, parallel to their firfl directions. Appear-
Produce thefe lines back till they meet in c : this willan^
be the apparent place of the point R ; and it is evident oj*
from the figure, that it muft be nearer the eye than that diftbrent
point 5 and becaufc the fame is true of all other pencils Forms,
ftowing from the objedt Ali, the whole will be feen in 'v ' ''
the fituation fg, nearer to the eye than the line AB.
2. As the rays RK, RL would not have entered the
eye, but have paffed by it in the diredtions K r, L /, had
they not been refradted in pafling through 4he me¬
dium, the objedt appears brighter. 3. The rays A/’,
B f, will be refradted at h and 1 into the lefs conver¬
ging lines h d, / /, and at the other furface into h M,
1M, parallel to A h and B i produced j fo that the ex¬
tremities of the objedt w ill appear in tke lines MT, M /
produced, viz. in f and g, and under as large an angle
fMg, as the angle A q B under which an eye at q
would have feen it had there been no medium inten-
pofed to refradt the rays : and therefore it appears
larger to the eye at GH, beir^g feen through the in-
terpofed medium, than otherwiie it would have done.
^ut it is here to be obferved, that the nearer the point
e appears to the eye on account of the refradtion of
the rays RK, RL, the fhorler is the image fg, becaule
it is terminated by the lines M/"and Mj1', upon which
account the objedt is made to appear lefs j and there¬
fore the apparent magnitude of an objedt is not much
augmented by being feen through a medium of this
form.
Farther, it is apparent from the figure, that the ef-
fedt of a medium of this form depends wholly upon its
thicknefs ; for the diftance between the lines R r and
ec, and confequently the diftance between the points e
and R, depends upon the length of the line K a:—
Again, The diftance between the lines AM andy’M
depends on the length of the line h k ,• but both K u
and k h depend on the diftance between the furfaces
CE and DF, and therefore the effedt of this medium
depends upon its thicknefs.
Prop. III.
An. objedft feen through a convex lens, appears
larger, brighter, and more diftant, than with the
naked eye.
To illuftrate this, let AB (fig. 8.) be the objedt, CD SeerAhro'
the lens, and EF the eye. 1. From A and B, the extre- a convex
mities of the objedt, draw the lines AY r, EXr, croflingiens, ap-
each other in the pupil of the eye the angle ArB com-
prehended between thefe lines, is the angle under which an| morg
the objedt wrould be feen wfith the naked eye. But by diftant.
the interpofition of a lens of this form, whofe property pjg.
it is to render converging rays more fo, the'rays AY
and BX will be made to crofs each other before they
reach the-, pupil. There the eye at E wall not perceive
the extremities of the objedt by means of thefe rays (for
they will pafs it without entering), but by fome others
which muft fall without the points Y and X, or be¬
tween them 3 but if they fall between them, they will
be made to concur fooner than they themfelves w:ould
have done : and therefore, if the extremities of the ob¬
jedt could not be feen by them, it will much lefs be feen
by thefe. It remains therefore, that the rays which
■will enter the eye from the points A and B after refrac¬
tion, muft fall upon the lens without the points Y and
Forms.
Theory. OPT
Apprar- X j let then the rays AO and BP be fuch. Thefe af-
an''e of Ob-ter entering the eye at r, the extremities of
^ ^le objed will be feen in the lines r Q,r T, produced,
different anti under the optic angle Q r T, which is larger than
A r B, and therefore the apparent magnitude of the ob-
jcdl will be increafed. — 2. Let GHI be a pencil of rays
flowing from the point G j as it is the property of this
lens to render diverging rays lefs diverging, parallel, or
converging, it is evident that fome of tholq rays, which
would proceed on to F and E, and mifs the eye were
they to fuffer no refraction in pafhng through the lens,
will nowr enter it; by which means the object will ap¬
pear brighter. The apparent diftance of the objebt
wall vary according to the fituation of it with refpect to
the focus of parallel rays of the lens. I. Then, let us
ftippofe the object placed fo much nearer the lens than
its focus of parallel rays, that the refraCted rays KE and
LF, though rendered lefs diverging by palling through
it, may yet have a confiderable degree of divergency,
fo that we may be able to form a judgement of the dif¬
tance of the objeCt thereby. In this cafe, the objedt
ought to appear where EK, FL, produced back concur^
which, becaufe they diverge lefs than the rays GH, GI,
will be beyond G, that is, at a greater diitance from
the lens than the objeCt is. But becaufe both the
brightrvefs and magnitude of the objeft will at the fame
time be augmented, prejudice wall not permit us to
reckon it quite fo far off as the point wdiere thofe lines
meet, but fomewdiere between that point and its proper
place. 2. Let the objeCt be placed in the focus of pa¬
rallel rays, then will the rays KE and LF become pa¬
rallel 5 and though in this cafe the object would appear
an immenfe diffance, if that diitance were to be
judged of by the direction of the rays KE and LF, yet
on account of its brightnefs and magnitude, wTe lhall not
think it much farther from us than if it wTere feen by
the naked eye. 3. If the object be lituated beyond the
focus of parallel rays, as in BA, the rays flowing from
it, and falling upon the lens CD, will be collected into
their refpective foci at a and b, find the intermediate
points m, n, &c. and wall there form an image of the
object AB ; and after croffing each other in the feveral
points of it, as expreffed in the figure, will pafs on di¬
verging as from a real object. Now if an eye be fitua-
ed at c, where A c,B c, rays proceeding from the ex¬
treme points of the objeft, make not a much larger
angle A c B, than they would do if no lens were inter-
pofed, and the rays belonging to the fame pencil do not
converge fo much as thofe w’hich the eye*would receive
if it were placed nearer to a or b, the objeCl upon thefe
accounts appearing very little larger or brighter than
with the naked eye, is leen nearly in its proper place :
but if the eye recede a little way towards a b, the objeCl
then appearing both brighter and larger, feems to
approach the lens : wdiich is an evident propf of what
has been fo often afferted, viz. that we judge of the
diftance of an objeCl in fome meafure by its bright¬
nefs and magnitude ; for the rays converge the more-
the farther the eye recedes from the lens 5 and there¬
fore if we judged of the diftance of the objeCl by the
direClion of the rays which flow from it, wre ought in
this cafe to conceive it at a greater diftance, than when
the rays were parallel, or diverged at their entrance
into the eye.
That the objeCl ftiould feem to approach the fens in
Plate
CCCLXXXI
fig. 9.
I C S. 229
this cafe, was a dithculty that puzzled Dr Barrow, and Appear-
which he pronounces infuperable, and not to be ac-an';^ ^ (
counted for by apiy theory we have of vifion. Mo- of
lineux alfo leaves it to the folution of others, as that different
W’hich wall be inexplicable, till a more intimate know- Forms,
ledge of the vifive faculty, as he expreffes it, he obtained
by mortals.
They imagined, that fince an objeCl appears farther
off, the lefs the rays diverge which fall upon the eye,
if they fhould proceed parallel to each other, it ought
to appear exceeding remote \ and if they ftiouid con¬
verge, it ftiouid then appear more diftant ftill: the rea-
fon of this wTas, becaufe they looked upon the apparent
place of an objeCl, as owing only to the direClion of the
rays whatever it was, and not at all to its apparent
magnitude or fplendour.
Perhaps it may proceed from our judging of the dif¬
tance of an objeCl in fome meafure by its magnitude,
that the deception of fight commonly obferved by tra¬
vellers may arife ; viz. that upon the firft appearance of
a building larger than ufual, as a cathedral church, or
the like, it generally feems nearer to them, than they'
afterwards find it to be.
Prop. IV.
If an obje£l be placed farther from a convex lens
than its focus of parallel rays, and the eye be
fituated farther from it On the other fide than
the place where the rays of the feveral pencils
are colle6led into their proper foci, the objedt
appears inverted, and pendulous in the air, be¬
tween the eye and the lens.
155
To explain this, let AB reprefent the objeCl, CD the In certain
lens 5 and let the rays of the pencil ACD be colleCled ^ircum-
in a, and thofe of BCD in b, forming there an inverted
image of the objeCl AB, and let the eye be placed in through a
F : it is apparent from the figure, that fome of the re-convett lena
fraCted rays which pafs through each point of the image aPP^ars
will enter the eye as from a real objeCl in that place ; pendulous
and therefore the objeCl AB will appear there, as the in the air.
propofition afferts. But wre are fo little accuftomed to F-
fee objeCls in this manner, that it is very difficult to 9
perceive the image with one eye ; but if both eyes are
fituated in fuch a manner, that rays flowdng from each
point of the image may enter both, as at G and FI, and
we direCl our optic axes to the image, it is eafy to be
perceived.
If the eye be fituated in a or b, or very near them
on either fide, the objeCl appears exceedingly indiftinCl,
viz. if at c/, the rays which proceed from the fame
point of the objeCl converge fo very much, and if at e,
they diverge fo much, that they cannot be colleClcd
together upon the retina, but fall upon it as if they
wrere the axes of fo many diftinCl pencils coming through
every point of the lens ; wherefore little more than
one fingle point of the object is feen at a time, and that
appears all over the lens j whence nothing but indiftinCt-
nefs arifes.
If the lens be fo large that both eyes may be ap¬
plied to it, as in h and k, the objeCl wall appear double 3
for it is evident from the figure, that the rays which
enter the eye at h from either extremity of the objeft
A or B. do not proofed as from the fame point with
that
I c s.
than with
the naked
eye.
Pig. to.
230 OPT
Appear- tit at from whence thofe which enter the other at k
an dVs°d ^"^eem to fl°w ? the mind therefore is here deceived, and
"Media of ^00^s upon the objedd as fituated in two different places,
different and therefore judges it to be double.
Forms.
' v ' Prop. V.
15,7
Anobjtft An objedt feen through a concave lens appears
through a nearer, fmaller, and lefs bright, than with the
concave , , a >
lens is feen naked eye.
nearer
fmailer, and Thus, let AB (fig. 10.) be the objeft, CD the pupil of
lefs bright an eye, and EF the lens. Now, as it is the property of a
lens of this form to render diverging rays more fo, and
converging ones lefs fo, the diverging rays GH, GI,
proceeding from the point G, will be made to diverge
more, and fo to enter the eye as from fome nearer point
g; and the rays AH, BI, -which converge, will be
made to converge lefs, and to enter the eye as from the
points a and b ; wherefore the objects will appear in the
fituation //, lefs and nearer than without the lens.
Further, As the rays which proceed from G are render¬
ed more diverging, fome of them wall pafs by the pu¬
pil of the eye, which otherwife would have entered it,
and therefore each point of the object will appear lefs
bright.
Prop. VI.
An obje6t feen through a polygonal glafs, that is,
one which is terminated by ieveral plain furfa-
ces, is multiplied thereby.
Plate Let A be an object, and BC a polygonous glafs ter-
•eccLxxxi. minated by the plane furfaces BD, DE, &c. and let
the fltuation of the eye F be fuch, that, the rays AB be¬
ing refrafted in paffmg through the glafs, may enter it
in the direction BF, and the rays AC in the direction
CF. Then will the eye, by means of the former, fee
the objeft in G, and by the latter in H ; and by means
of the rays AI, the objeft wall alfo appear in its proper
fftuation A.
Fig. n.
Sect. VII. On the Reflection of Light.
T ^ 8
"Some por- When a ray of light falls upon any body, however
tion of light tranfparent, the whole of it never paffes through the
always re- body, but fome part is always retlefted from it; and
fleeted from |s ^ refledled Kght that aB bodies which
bodies!1 ei t have no light of their own become vifible to us. Of
that part of the ray which enters, another part is alfo
redefted from the fecond furface, or that which is
fartheft from the luminous body. When this part ar¬
rives again at the firft furface, part of it is refleiffed
back from that furface; and thus it continues to be
reflefted between the two furfaces, and to pafs back¬
wards and forwards within the lubftance of the me¬
dium, till fome part is totally extinguilhed and loft.
Befides this inconliderable quantity, however, which
is loft in this manner, the fecond furface often reftefts
much more than the firft •, fo that, in certain pofitions,
fcarcely any rays will pafs through both fides of the me¬
dium. A very confiderable quantity is alfo unac¬
countably loft at each reflecting furface; fo that no
body, however tranfparent, can tranfmit all the rays
W'hich fall upon it •, neither, though it be ever fo well
fitted for refle&ion, will it refleft them all.
2
ICS. ' Part T.
On the Caufe of Refection.
The reflection of light is not fo eafily accounted for as
refraction. This laft property may be accounted for
in a fatisfactory manner, by the fuppofition of an attrac¬
tive power diffufed throughout the^ medium, and extend¬
ing a very little way beyond it; but with regard to the
reflection of light, there feems to be no fatisfaClory
hypothefis hitherto invented. Of the principal opinions
on this fubjeCt Mr Rowning has given us the following
account.
I. It was the opinion of philofophers, before Sir Ifaac Lightns
Newton difeovered the contrary, that light is reflected not refled-
by impinging upon the folid parts of bodies. But thate(l
this is not the cafe is evident from the following reafons. I”n^n1?,on
Firft, It is not reflected at the firft furface of a body parts°0f
by impinging againft it. For’in order that the light bodies at
may be regularly reflected, there fliould be no afperi-d’6 fidt for¬
ties or unevennel's in the reflecting furface large enoughtace’
to bear a fenfible proportion to the magnitude of a ray
of light; becaufe if the furface abound with thefe, the
incident rays wmuld be irregularly fcattered rather than
reflected with that regularity with which light is ob-
ferved to be from a well poliftied furface. Now thofe
furfaces, which to our fenfes appear perfectly finooth
and well polithed, are far from being fo j for to polilh,
is only to grind off the larger protuberances of the me¬
tal with the rough and {harp particles of emery, which
muft of neceffity leave behind them an infinity of afperi-
ties and fcratches, which, though inconfiderable with re¬
gard to the former roughneffes, and too minute to be
difeemed by us, muft neverthelefs bear a large propor¬
tion to, if not vaftly exceed, the magnitude of the par¬
ticles of light. J^o
Secondly, It is not refleCled at the fecond furface bynoratthe
impinging againft any folid particles. That it is not fecond.
refleCled by impinging upon the folid particles which
conftitute this fecond furface, is fufficiently obvious from
the foregoing argument •, the fecond furfaces of bodies
being as incapable of a pcrfcCl polifti as the firft : and it
is farther confirmed from this, viz. that the quantity of
light refleCled differs according to the different denfity
of the medium behind the body. It is likewife not re¬
fleCled by impinging upon the particles which conftitute
the furface of the medium behind it, becaufe the ftrong-
eft reflection at the fecond furface of a body, is when
there is a vacuum behind it. 161
II. It has been the opinion of fome, that light is re-Suppofition
fleCled at the iiril furface of a body, by a repuliive force
equally diffufed over it: and at the fecond, by an at- ’
traClive force. ^
1. If there be a repulfive force diffufed over the fur-objected to.
face of bodies that repels the rays of light, then, fince
by increafing the obliquity of a ray we dimmiih its per¬
pendicular force (which is that only whereby it muft
make its way through this repulfive force), however
weakly that force may be fuppofed to aCl, rays of light
may be made to fall with fo great a degree of obliquity
on the reflecting furface, that there fliall be a total re¬
flection of them there, and not one particle of light be
able to make its way through : which is contrary to
obfervation; the reflection of light at the firft furface
of a tranfparent body being never total in any obliquity ^
whatever. _ Attractive
2. As to the reflection at the fecond furface by theforcefup-
attra Clive l)0feci >
Theory* OPT
Caufe of attractive force of the body ; this may be confidered
Refleelion jn two re{pe(^;s: firft, when the reflection is total j fe-
' ^ condly, when it is partial.
Firft, In cafes where the refleftion is total, the caufe
of it is undoubtedly that fame attractive force by which
light would be refracted in patting out of the fame
body. This is manifett from that analogy which is
obfervable between the reflection of light at the fecond
furface, and its refraction there. For, other wife, what
can be the reafon that the total reflection fhould begin
}uft when the obliquity of the incident ray, at its arrival
at the fecond furface, is fuch, that the refraCted angle
ought to be a right one 5 or when the ray, were it not
to return in reflection, ought to pafs on parallel to the
furface, without going from it ? For in this cafe it is
evident, that it ought to be returned by this very power,
and in fuch a manner that the angle of reflection ihall
be equal to the angle of incidence j juft as a ftone
thrown obliquely from the earth, after it is fo far turn¬
ed out of its courfe by the;attraction of the earth, as to
begin to move horizontally, or parallel to the furface of
the earth, is then by the fame pov/er made to return in
a curve fimilar to that which is defcribed in its depar¬
ture from the earth, and fo falls with the fame degree of
164 obliquity that it was thrown with.
Objectin'). But, fecondly, As to the reflection at the fecond fur¬
face, when it is partial j an attractive force uniformly
fpread over it, as the abettors of this hypothefis
conceive it to be, can never be the caufe thereof.
Becaufe it is inconceivable, that the fame force, aCting
in the fame circumftances in every refpeCt, can fome-
times refleCt the violet-coloured rays, and tranfmit the
red, and at other times reflect the red and tranfmit the
violet.
This objection, however, is not well founded for
in each colour, the reflection takes place at that angle,
and no other, where the redaction of that ray would
make it parallel to the pofterior furface.
This partial reflection and refraCtion is a great dif¬
ficulty in all the attempts which have been made to
give a mechanical explanation of the phenomena of
optics. It is equally a defideratum in that explana¬
tion which wms propofed by Huygens, by means of the
undulations of an elaftic fluid, although a vague con-
fideration of undulatory motions feems to offer a very
fpecious analogy. But a rigid application of the know¬
ledge we have acquired of thefe motions, will convince
ns that the phenomena of undulation are effentially
diflimilar to the ‘phenomena of light. The inflection
and refraCtion of light, demonftrate that light ts aEied on
by moving forces in a direction perpendicular to the
furface; and it is equally demonftrable that fuch forces
rauft, in proper circumftances, produce reflections pre-
cifely fuch as we obferve. The only difticulty is to fhow
how there can be forces which produce both reflec¬
tion and refraCtion, in circumftances which are fimilar.
The faCt is, that fuch effeCts are produced : the firft
logical inference is, that with refpeCt to the light
which is reflected and that which is refraCted, the
circumftances are not fimilar; and our attention fhould
be direCted to the difeovery of that diftimilarity. All
the phenomena of combined refleClion and refraCtion
fhould be examined and claffed according to their ge¬
nerality, 'not doubting but that thefe points of re-
fenjblance will lead to the difeovery of their caufes.
I C S. 231
Now the experiments of M. Bouguer fhow that bodies Caufe of
differ in their powers of thus feparating light by reflec- Refledbon.
tion and refraCtion. It is not therefore a general proper- v
ty of light to be partly reflected and partly refraCted,
but a df in Hive property of different bodies; and fince
we fee that they poffefs it in different degrees, we are
authorized to conclude that fome bodies may want it al¬
together. We may therefore expeCl fome fuccefs, bv
confidering how bodies are affected by light, as well as
how light is affeCted by bodies. Now, in all the phe¬
nomena of the material world we find bodies connected
by mutual forces. We know no cafe where a body A
tends towards a body B, or, in common language, is at¬
tracted by it, without, at the fame time, the body B
tending towards A. This is obferved in the phenomena
of magnetifm, eleCtricity, gravitation, corpufcular at¬
traction, impulfe, &c. We fhould therefore conclude
from analogy, that as bodies change the motion of
light, light alfo changes the motion of bodies 5 and
that the particles near the furface are put into vibra¬
tion by the paffage of light through among them.
Suppofe a parcel of cork balls all hanging as pendu-The objec-
lums in a fymmetrical order, and that an electrified tion cbviat-
ball paffes through the midft of them ; it is very eafyeti"
to fhow that it may proceed through this affemblage
in various directions with a finuated motion, and with¬
out touching any of them, and that its ultimate direc¬
tion will have a certain inclination to its primary direc¬
tion, depending on the outline of the affemblage, juft as
is obferved in the motion of light ; and, in the mean
time, the cork balls will be varioufly agitated. Juft fo
muft it happen to the particles of a tranfparent body, if
we fuppofe that they aCt on the particles of light by
mutual attractions and repulfions.
An attentive confideration of what happens here will
fhow us that the fuperficial particles will be much more
agitated than the reft ; and thus a ftratum be produced,
which, in any inftant, will aft on thofe partiefes of
light which are then approaching them in a manner
different from that in which they will aft on fimilarly
fituated particles of light, which come into the place
of the firft in the following moment, when thefe aft-
ing particles of the body have (by their motion of
vibration) changed their own fituation. Now it is
clearly underftood, that, in all motions of vibration,
fuch as the motions of pendulums, there is a moment
when the body is in its natural fituation, as when the
pendulum is in the vertical line. This may happen in
the fame inftant in each atom of the tranfparent body.
The particles of light which then come within the fphere
of aftion may be wholly reflefted ; in the next moment,
particles of light in the very fituation of the firft may be
refrafted.
Then will arife a feparation of light; and as this
will depend on the manner in which the particles of
bodies are agitated by it during its paffage, and as
this agairTwill depend on the nature of the body, that
is, on the law of aftion of thofe forces which conneft
the particles with each other, and with the particles of
light, it will be different in different bodies. But in all
bodies there will be this general refemblance, that the
feparation will be moft copious in great obliquities of
incidence, which gives the repulfive forces more time for
aftion, while it diminifhes the perpendicular force of the
light. Such a refemblance between the phenomena and
the
2J2 OPT
Caufe of the legitimate confequences of the affumption (the agi-
• iR-eflec^1°n- tation of the parts of the body), gives us fome authority
for afligning this as the caufe ; nor can the affump¬
tion be called gratuitous. To fup\3ofe that the par¬
ticles of the tranfparent body are not thus agitated, would
be a moil gratuitous contradiction of a law of nature to
which we know no other exception.
Thus the objection ftated in N° 164. is obviated, be-
caufe the reflection and refraCtion are not here conceived
X55 as fimultaneous, but as fucceflive.
Anotfcer HI. Some have fuppofed, that, by the action of light
liypotheils. upon the furface of bodies, their parts are put into an
undulatory motion; and that where the furface of it is
fubfiding light is tranffnitted, and in thofe places where
^ it is riflng light is reflected.
But to overlook the objections which we have juft
made to this theory of undulation, we have only to ob-
ferve, that, were it admitted, it does not feem to ad¬
vance us a ftep farther; for in thofe cafes, fuppofe
where red is reflected and violet tranfmitted, how comes
it to pafs that the red impinges only on thofe parts
when the waves are rifing, and the violet when they are
'167 fubfiding ?
in I. New- IV. The next hypothefis is that remarkable one of
thefls Ifaac Newton’s fits of eafy reflection and tranfmif-
fion, which we fhall now explain and examine.
That author, as far as we can apprehend his mean¬
ing in this particular, is of opinion, that light in its
paifage from the luminous body, is difpofed to be alter¬
nately reflected by, and tranfmitted through, any re-
fraCting furface it may meet with ; that thefe difpofi-
tions, which he calls Jits of eafij refeBion and eafy tranf-
mijjion, return fucceflively at equal intervals ; and that
they are communicated to it at its firft emifiion out of
the luminous body, from which it proceeds probably by
fome very fubtile and elaftic fubftance diffufed through
the univerfe, and that in the following manner. As
bodies falling into water, or gaffing through the air, pro¬
duce undulations in each, fo the rays of light may excite
vibrations in this elaftic fubftance. The quicknefs of
thefe vibrations depending on the elafticity of the me¬
dium (as the quicknefs of the vibrations in the air,
which propagate found, depend folely on the elafticity
of the air, and not upon the quicknefs of thofe in the
founding body), the motion of the particles of it may be
quicker than that of the rays, and therefore, when a ray
at the inftant it impinges upon any furface, is in that
part of a vibration of this elaftic fubftance Which con-
fpires with its motion, it may be eafily tranfmitted ; and
when it is in that part of a vibration which is contrary
to its motion, it may be reflected. He further fuppofes,
that when light falls upon the furface of a body, if it be
not in a fit of eafy tranfmiflion, every ray is there put
into one, fo that when they come at the other fide
(for this elaftic fubftance, pervading the pores of bodies,
is capable of the fame vibrations within the body as
without it), the rays of one colour fhall be in a fit of
eafy tranfmiflion, and thofe of another in a fit of eafy
reflection, according to the thicknefs of the body, the
intervals of the fits being different in rays of a different
kind. This feems to account for the different colours
of the bubble and thin plate of air and water j and like-
wife for the reflection of light at the fecond furface of a
thicker body; for the light thence reflected is alfo ob-
ferved to be coloured, and to form rings according to
I C S. Parti.
the different-thicknefs of the body, when not intermixed Caufe of
and confounded with other light, as will appear from R-rfleCtioo.
the following experiment. If a piece of glafs be
ground concave on one fide and convex on the other,
both its concavity and convexity having one common
centre 3 and if a ray of light be made to pafs through
a fmall hole in a piece of paper held in that common
centre, and be permitted to fall on the glafs 3 befides
thofe rays which are regularly reflected back to the
hole again, there will be others reflected to the paper,
and form coloured rings furrounding the hole, not un¬
like thofe occafioned by the reflection of light from thin
plates. 1(r3
It is ever with extreme reluctance that we venture This hjpe-
to call in queftion the doCtrines of Newton 3 but totlief'ls un"
his theory of reflection there is this infuperable ob-tenabie’
jeCtion, that it explains nothing, unlefs the caufe of the
fits of more eafy reflection and tranfmiflion be held as
legitimate, namely, that they are produced by the undula¬
tions of another elaflic fluid, incomparably more fubtile
than light, aCting upon it in the way of impulfe. The
fits themfelves are matters of faB, and no way different
from what we have endeavoured to account for 3 but to
admit this theory of them would be to tranfgrefs every
rule of philofophizing.
Of the Laws of RefleBion.
The fundamental law of the reflection of light, is,The funda-
that the angle of reflection is always equal to the anglemental Aw
of incidence. This is found by experiment to be the°.frefle<>
cafe, and befides may be demonftrated mathematically11012'
from the laws of impulfe in bodies perfectly elaftic.
The axiom therefore holds good in every cafe of reflec¬
tion, whether it be from plane or fpherical furfaces;
aud hence the feven following propofitions relating to
the reflection of light from plane and fpherical furfaces
may be deduced.
I. Rays of light refleBed from a plane furface have
the fame degree of inclination to one another that their
refpeBive incident ones have.—For the angle of reflec¬
tion of each ray being equal to that of its refpeCtive in¬
cident one, it is evident, that each reflected ray will
have the fame degree of inclination to that portion of
the furface from which it is reflected that its incident one
has; but it is here fuppofed, that all thofe portions of
furface from which the> rays are reflected, are fituated
In the fame plane 3 confequently the reflected rays will
have the fame degree of inclination to each other that
their incident ones have, from whatever part of the fur¬
face they are reflected.
II. Parallel rays refleBed from a concave furface are LavvJof rt*
rendered converging.—To illuftrate this, let AF, CD, EB, flection
(fig. 1.) reprelent three parallel rays falling upon the con-fr°ni a cc^
cave furface FB, whofe centre is C. To the points F^ave ^ur~ '
and B draw the lines CF, CB 3 thefe being drawn from ace'
the centre, will be perpendicular to the furface at thofe 1 ‘ate
points. The incident ray CD alfo palling through the
centre, will be perpendicular to the furface, and there¬
fore will return after reflection in the fame line 3 but
the oblique rays AF and EB will be reflected into the
lines FM and BM, filuated on the contrary fide of
their refpective perpendiculars CF and CB. They will
therefore proceed converging alter reflection towards
fome point, as 1VI, in the line CD.
III. Converging rays falling o;n a concave furface, are
made
Theory. q p -p
Laws ot made to converge more.—Yor, every tiling remaining
RtiA^Kjn. as above? let GF) HE5 be the incident ravs_ Now? be6_
caufe thefe rays have_ greater angles of incidence than
the^ parallel ones A I* and EB in the foregoing cafe
tneii angles ol rellection will alio be larger than thofe
oi the others; they will therefore converge after retiec-
tion, fuppofe in the lines FN and BN, having their
point of concourfe N farther from the point C than M,
that to which the parallel rays AF and EB converged
tom tne foregoing cafe *, and their precife degree°of
convergency will be greater than that wherein they con¬
verged before reflection.
IV. Diverging rmjs falling upon a concave fur face,
rrT a- {er. refleDion, parallel, diverging, or converging.
It they diverge from the focus of parallel rays, they
tnen become parallel 5 if from a point nearer to the
Hir.ace tnan that, they will diverge, but in a lefs de-
gree than before reflection ; if from a point between
Mat and the centre, they will converge after reflection,
to lome point on the contrary fide of the centre, but fi-
tuated farther from it than the radiant point. If the in¬
cident rays diverge from a point beyond the centre, the re¬
jected ones will converge to one on the other fide of it
but nearer to it than the radiant point; and if they di¬
verge from the centre, they will be reflected thither again.
. ^ Lct diverge in the lines MF, MB, proceed¬
ing from the radiant point M, the focus of parallel rays ;
then, as the parallel rays AF and EB were reflected in¬
to the lines I'M and BM (by Prop, ii.), thefe rays will
now on the contrary be reflected into them.
2. Let them diverge from N, a point nearer to the
furface than the focus of parallel rays, they will then
be reflected into the diverging lines FG and BH, which
Uie incident rays GF and HB defcribed that were
mown to be reflected into them in the foregoing pro-
pofitmn ; but the degree of their divergency will be lefs
than their divergency before reflection.
3. Let them diverge from X, a point between the
focus of parallel rays and the centre ; they then make
lets angles of incidence than the rays MF and MB
which became parallel by reflection; they will confe-
quently have lefs angles of reflection, and therefore pro¬
ceed converging towards forne point, as Y ; which point
will always fall on the contrary fide of the centre, be-
caufe a reflected ray always falls on the contrary fide of
the perpendicular with refpect to that on which its in¬
cident one falls ; and of Confequence it will be farther
ailt mt from the centre than X.
4. If the incident rays diverge from Y, they will,
after reflection, converge to X ; thofe which were the
incident rays m the former cafe being the reflected ones
m this. 0
.the .11nci1de.nt ra7s proceed from the centre,
they fall m with their refpective perpendiculars; and for
171 that reafon are refleded thither again
vexTurfece" Z' ^ reJe£ied from COnvex farfaces are
Plat n fM W^-F°r’ let AB’ GD’ EF, be three
ccci.xxxii.^t ee srC SaS rf BF’ whofe
, 7 rZ °ne °f them’ Vlz- GD’ be Perpendi-
of refied B’ D’ and F’ points
of refledion, draw the lines CV, CG, and CT ; which
will be perpendicular to the furface at thefe points!
ie incident ray GD being perpendicular to the fur-
face, will return after refledion in the fame line, but
^VouXVPartf5^ EFwi11 retUrniU theHueS
I C S. 233
BE anu FL, fituated on the contrary fide of their re- Laws of
fpedive perpendiculars BV and FT. They will there- Rehedion.
fore diverge, after refledun, as from fome point M in '
the line GD produced; and this point will be in the
middle between D and C.
VI. Diverging rays ref tiled from convex furfaces
are rendered more diverging.—For, things remaining as
above, let GB, GF, be the incident rays. Thefe ha¬
ving greater angles of incidence than the parallel ones
AB and EFinthe preceding cafe, their angles of reflec¬
tion will alfo be greater; they will therefore diverge
after refledion, fuppofe in the lines BP and F£), as
from fome point N, farther from C than the point M;
and the degree of their divergency will exceed their
divergency before refledion.
VIL Converging rays refected from convex furfaces
are parallel, converging, or diverging.—If they tend to¬
wards the focus of parallel rays, they then become pa¬
rallel ; if to a point nearer the furface, they converge,
but in a lefs degree than before refledion ; if to a point
between that and the centre, they will diverge after re¬
fledion, as from fome point on the contrary fide of the
centre, but fituated farther from it than the point to
which they converged; if the incident rays converge
to a point beyond the centre, the refleded ones will di¬
verge^ as from one on the contrary fide of it, but near¬
er to it than the point to which the incident ones con¬
verged ; and if the incident rays converge towards the
centre, the refleded ones will feem to proceed from it.
1. Let them converge in the lines KB and LF, tend¬
ing towards M, the focus of parallel rays ; then, as the
parallel rays AB, EF were refleded into the lines BK
and ! L (by Prop, v.), thofe rays will now onrrhe con¬
trary be refleded into them.
2. Let them converge in the lines PB, £>F, tending
towards N a point nearer the furface than the focus of
parallel rays, they will then be refleded into the conver¬
ging lines BG and FG, in which the rays GB, GF pro¬
ceeded that w’ere Ihown to be refleded into them by the
kill piopofition : but the degree of their convergency
will exceed their convergency before refledion.
3*. Let them converge in the lines RB and SF pro¬
ceeding towards X, a point between the focus of pa¬
rallel rays and the centre; their angles of incidence
will then be lefs than thofe of the rays KB and LF,
which became parallel after refledion: their angles of
refledion will therefore be lefs; on which account
they muft neceffariiy diverge, fuppofe in the lines BH
and FI, from fome point, as Y; which point (by
Prop, iv.) will fall on the contrary fide of the centre
with refped to X, and will be farther from it than that.
4. If the incident rays tend towards Y, the refleded
ones will diverge as from X ; thofe which were the in¬
cident ones in one cafe being the refieded ones in the
other.
If the incident rays converge towards the centre,
they coincide with their refpedive perpendiculars; and
wall therefore proceed after refledion as from that
centre.
We have already obferved, that in fome cafes there
is a very great refledion from the fecond furface of a
tranfparent body. The degree of inclination necelfaiy
to caufe a total refiedion of a ray at this furface, is that
v.Lich requires- that the refraded angle (fuppofing the
nay to pais out thefe} fhould be equal to or greater than
G g a
234-
L".ws of
Refitciion.
OPT
a right one ■, and confequently it depends on the refrac¬
tive power of the medium through which the ray paffes,
and is therefore different in afferent media. When a
ray paffes through glafs furrounded with air, and is in¬
clined to its fecond furface under an angle of 42° or
more, it will be wholly reflefted there. 1‘ or, as 11 is
to 17 (the ratio of refraction out of glafs into air), fo is
the line of an angle of 42° to a fourth number that will
exceed the line of a right angle. Hence it follows, that
when a ray of light arrives at the fecond furface of a
tranfparent fubftance with as great or a greater degree
of obliquity than that which is neceffary to make a total
reflection, it will there be all returned back to the firft :
and if it proceeds towards that with as great an obli¬
quity as it did towards the other (which it will do if the
furfaces of the medium be parallel to each other), it will
there be all reflected again, &c. and will therefore never
get out, but pafs from fide to fide, till it be wholly ex-
tinguifhed within the body.—From this may arife an
obvious inquiry, how it comes to pafs, that light f alling
very obliquely upon a glafs window from without, fhould
be tranfmitted into the room. In anfwer to this it muff
be confidered, that however obliquely a ray falls upon
the furface of any medium whofe fides are parallel as
thofe of the glafs in a window7, it will fuffer fuch a degree
of refraction in entering there, that it fhall fall upon the
fecond with a lefs obliquity than that which is neceffary
to caufe a total reflection. For fince the medium be
glafs : then, as 17 is to 11, fo is the fine of the greateft
angle of incidence with which a ray can fall upon any
furface to the fine of a lefs angle than that of total re¬
flection. Therefore, if the fides of the glafs be parallel,
the obliquity wdth wdiich a ray falls upon the firff fur¬
face cannot be fo great, that it {hall pafs the fecond
without fufieiing a total reflection there.
When light paffes out of a denfer into a rarer medium,
the nearer the fecond medium approaches the firft in its
refraCtive power, the lefs of it wrill be refraCted in pafling
from one to the other j and when their refracting powers
are equal, all of it will pafs into the fecond medium.
The above propofitions may be all mathematically
demonftrated in the following manner :
Prop. I.
Of the reflection of rays from a plane furface.
Thepreced- When rays fall upon a plane furface, if they diverge,
ing propo- tge focus 0f the reflected rays will be at the fame di-
monflrated ftance behind the furface, that the radiant point is before
mathemati- it : if they converge, it will be at the fame diftance be-
caliy. fore the furface that the imaginary focus of the incident
rays is behind it.
This propofition admits of two cafes.
Case i . Of diverging rays.
Let AB, AC be two diverging rays incident on the
ccclxxxit Plane furface DE> tbe one perpendicularly, the other
FL. 3. obliquely : the perpendicular one AB will be reflected
to A, proceeding as from fome point in the line AB
produced ; the oblique one AC will be refleCled into
fome line as CF, fo that the point G, where the line
FG produced interfeas the line AB produced alfo,
fhall be at an equal diftance from the furface DE with
the radiant point A. For the perpendicular CH being
drawn, ACH and HCF will be the angles of incidence
and refleaion •, which being equal, their complements
ACB and FCE aft alfo equal: but the angle BCG is
I * C S. Part T.
equal to its vertical angle FCE: therefore in the triangles Laws of
ABC and GBC the angles at C are equal, the fide BC Reflc cl ion.
is common, and the right angles at B are equal} there- ~ v
fore AB—EG : and confequently the point G, the
focus of the incident rays AB, AC, is at the fame
diftance behind the furface, that the'point A is before it.
Case 2. Of converging rays.
This is the converfe of the former cafe. For fup-
pofing FC and AB to be twTo converging incident rays,.
CA and BA will be the reflefted ones (the angles of
incidence in the former cafe being now the angles of
reflection, and vice ve?j'a), having the point A for their
focus; but this is at an equal diftance from the reflecting
furface with the point G, which in this cafe is the ima¬
ginary focus of the incident rays FC and AB.
It is not here, as in the cafe of rays pafling through
a plane furface, where fome of the refra61ed rays proceed
as from one point, and fome as from another : but they
all proceed after reflection as from one and the fame
point, however obliquely they may fall upon the furface j
for what is here demonftrated of the ray AC holds-
equally of any other, as AI, AK, &.c.
The caff; of parallel rays incident, on a plane furface
is included in this propofition : for in that cafe we are
to fuppofe the radiant point infinitely diftant from the
furface, and then by the propofition the focus of the-
reflefted rays will be fo too : that is, the rays -will 'be
parallel after refleclicn, as they were before it.
Prop. II.
Of the reflection of parallel rays from a fpherical
furface.
When parallel rays are incident upon a fpherical fur¬
face, the focus of the refle&ed rays will be the middle
point between the centre of convexity and the furface.
This propofition admits of two cafes.
Case I. Ofparallel rays falling upon a convex furface.
Let AB, DH, represent two parallel rays incident pig. 4.
on the convex furface BH, the one perpendicularly, the
other obliquely and fft C be the centre of convexity.
Suppofe HE to be the reflefted ray of the oblique one
DH, proceeding as from F, a point in the line AB pro¬
duced. Through the point H draw the line Cl, which
will be perpendicular to the furface at that point •, and
the angles DHI and IHE, being the angles of incidence
and reflexion, will be equal. But HCFrrDHI, the
lines AC and DH being parallel 5 and CHF=IHE j
wherefore the triangle CFH is ifofceles, and eonff-
quently CF=FH : but fuppofing BK to vaniih, IH=
FB and therefore upon this fuppofition FC—FB } that
is, the focus of the refle&ed rays is the middle point
between the centre of convexity and the furface.
Case 2. Of parallel rays falling upon a concave fur-
face.
Let AB, DH, be two parallel rays incident, the one Fig s_
perpendicularly, the other obliquely, on the concave
furface BH, whoie centre of concavity is C. Let BF
and HF be the refleaed rays meeting each oilier in F >
this will be the middle point between B and C. For
drawing through C the perpendicular CH, the angles
DHGrzFHC, being the angles of incidence and reflec¬
tion 5 but HCF—DPIC its alternate angle, and there¬
fore the triangle CFH is ifofceles. Wherefore CF=
FH ; but if we fuppofe BPI to vanifti, FBzrFH, and
therefore
Theory.
OPTICS.
T73
Reflected
rays from
Laws oi therefore CF—FB ; that is, the focal diilance of the re-
feftecbon. fle(^e(j rayS is the middle point between the centre and
v the furface.
It is here obfervable, that the farther the line DH,
either in fig. 4. or 5. is taken from AB, the nearer the
point F falls to the furface. For the farther the point
H recedes from B, the greater the triangle CFH will
become $ and confequently, fince it is always ifofceles
and the bafe CH, being the radius, is everywhere of
the fame length, the equal legs CF and FH will
lengthen •, but CF cannot grow longer unlefs the point
F approach towards the furface. And the farther H is
.removed from B, the fafter F approaches to it.
This is the reafon, that whenever parallel rays are
confidered as refiedled from a fpherical furface, the
diilance of the oblique ray from the perpendicular one
is taken fo linall with relpefl to the focal diftance of
that furface, that without any phyfical error it may be
fuppofed to vaniih.
Hence it follows, that if a number of parallel rays,
• 1 as CD, EG, &c. fall upon a convex furface, and
furface ne- the reflected rays of the incident ones AB,
ver proced proceed as from the point F, thofe of the incident
from the ones CD, EG, viz. DK, GL, will proceed as from N,
fame point, thofe of the incident ones EG, HI, as from O, &c. be-
Fig. 6. caufe the farther the incident ones CD, EG, &c. are
from AB, the nearer to the furface are the points Y,ff
in. the line BF, from which the^ proceed after reflection;
fo that properly the foci of the refledted rays BA, DK,
GL, &c. are not in the line AB produced, but in a
curve line palling through the points F, N, O, &c.
I he fame is applicable to the cafe of parallel rays
refledted from a concave furface, as expreffed by the
dotted lines on the other half of the figure, where
PQ, RS, TV, are the incident rays ; ^)F, Sy Vf,
the refledted ones, interfedting each other in the points
X, \ , and F j lb that the foci of thofe rays are not
in the line FB, but in a curve palling through thofe
points.
Had the furface BH in fig. 4. or 5. been formed by
the revolution ot a parabola about its axis having its
   focus in the point F, all the rays relledled from the
falling on a convex furface would have proceeded as from the point
parabolic F, and thofe refledled from the concave furface would
fubace6 are ^lave ^a^en upon it, however diftant their incident ones
all reflected might have been from each other. For in
from one the parabola, all lines drawn parallel to the axis make
point. angles with the tangents to the points where they cut
the parabpla (that is, with the furface of the parabo¬
la) equal to thofe which are made with the fame tan¬
gents . by lines drawn from thence to the focus 5 there¬
fore, if the incident rays deferibe thofe parallel lines,
the refledted ones will neceflarily deferibe thefe other,
and lo will all proceed as from, or meet in, the fame
point.
Prop. III.
Of the vefledHon of diverging and converging rays
T75 from a fpherical furfacc.
Proper- ' r
fiance of . ^rken rays ^ upon any fpherical furface, if they
the focus of diverge, the diltance of the focus of the refledled rays
rays refleft- h'om the furface is to the diltance of the radiant point
ed (rom a from the lame (or, if they converge, to that of the
huface'11 imaglnary fucus'of the incident rays), as the diltance
*74
Rays pro¬
ceeding
from one
point, and
of the focus of the reflected rays from the centre is to laws of
the diltance of the radiant point (or imaginary focus pf Reflection-^
the incident rays) from the fame. „ v
This propolition admits of ten cafes.
Case i. Of diverging rays failing upon a convex fur¬
face.
Let RB, RD, reprefent two diverging rays flowing
from the point R as from a radiant, and falling the one
perpendicularly, the other obliquely, on the convex fur-
face BD, whofe centre is C. Let DE be the reflected
ray of the incident one RD ; produce ED to F, and
through R draw the line RH parallel to FE till it meets
CD produced in H. Then RHDzrEDH the angle of
reflection, and RHD~RDH the angle of incidence j
wherefore the triangle DRH is ifofceles, and DR—RH.
Now the lines FD and RH being parallel, the triangles
FDC and RHC are fimilar, or the tides are cut propor-
tionably, and therefore FD : RH or RD—CF : CR j
but BD vanilhing, FD and RD differ not from FB and
RB : wherefore FB : RB=CF : CR; that is, the di¬
ftance of the focus from the furface is to the diftance of
the radiant point from the fame, as the diftance of the
focus from the centre is to the diftance of the radiant
point from it.
Case 2. Of converging rays falling upon a concave
furface.
Let KD and CB be the converging incident rays, hav¬
ing their imaginary focus in the point R, which was the
radiant point in the foregoing cafe. Then as RD was
in that cafe reflected into DE, KD will in this be re¬
flected into DF ; for, lince the angles of incidence in
both cafes are equal, the angles of reflection will be
equal alfo ; fo that F will be the focus of the reflected
rays : but it was there demonftrated, that FB : RB=r
CF : CR ; that is, the diftance of the focus from the
furface is to the diftance (in this cafe) of the imaginary
focus of the incident rays, as the diftance of the focus
from the centre is to the diftance of the imaginary focus
of the incident rays from the fame.
Case 3. Of converging rays falling upon a convex fur-
foce, and tending to a point between the focus of parallel
rays and the centre.
Let B reprefent a convex furface whofe centre is C, Fig. S.
and whofe focus of parallel rays is P ; and let AB, KD,
be two converging rays incident upon it, and having
their imaginary focus at R, a point between P and C.
Now becaufe KD tends to a point between the focus of
parallel rays and the centre, the refledted ray DE will
diverge from fome point on the other fide the centre,
fuppofe F ; as explained above. Through D draw the
perpendicular CD and produce it to H; then will
KDHzrHDE being the angles of incidence and re¬
flexion, and confequently RDC=CDF too. Therefore
the triangle RDF is bifected by the line DC : where¬
fore (3 El. 6.) FD and DR, or BD vanilhing, FB :
BR—FC : CR •, that is, the diftance of the focus of
the refleXed rays is to that of the imaginary focus of
the incident ones, as the diftance of the former from
the centre is to the diftance of the latter from thfe
centre. ‘ ,
Case 4. Of diverging rays falling upon a concave fur¬
face, and proceeding from a point between the focus of
parallel rays and the centre.
Let RB, RD, be the diverging rays incident upon Fig.
the concave furface BD, having their radiant point in
G g 2 R,
236 OPT
Laws of R, tlie imaginary focus of the incidentrays in the preceding
Refection cafe> Then as KD was in that cafe reflected into DE,
v RD will now be reflected into DF. But we had
T'B : RB=iCF : CR •, that is, the diftance of the focus
is to that of the radiant as the diftance of the former
from the centre is to the diitance of the latter from the
centre.
The angles of incidence and reflection being equal,
it is evident, that if, in any cafe, the reflected ray be
made the incident one, the incident will become the
reflected one; and therefore the four following' cafes
may be confidered refpedtively as the converfe of the
four preceding ; for in each of them the incident rays
are fuppofed to coincide with the reflected ones in the
other. Or they may be thus demonllrated independently
of them.
Case 5. Of converging raijs falling upon a convex'
forface, and tending to a point nearer the furface than
the focus ofparallel rays.
7- Let ED, RB be the converging rays incident upon
the convex furface BD whofe centre is C, and principal
focus P 1 let the imaginary focus of the incident rays be
at F, a point between P and B j and let DR be the re-
fiected ray. From C and R draw the lines CH, RH,
the one paffing through D, the other parallel to FE.
Then RHD—HDE the angle of incidence. But
RHB—HDR, the angle of reflection : wherefore the
triangle HDR is ifofceles, and DR—RH. Now the
lines FD and RH being parallel, the triangles FDC
and RHC are fimilar ; and therefore RH or RD :
FD—CR : CF 5 but BD vanilhing, RD and FD coin¬
cide with RB and FB, wherefore RB : FB—CR : CF;
that is, the diftance of the focus from the far face is to
the diftance of the imaginary focus of the incident rays,
as the diftance of the focus from the centre is to the
diftance of the imaginary focus of the incident rays from
the centre.
Case 6. Of diverging rays falling upon a concave
furface, and procecdng from a point between the focus of
parallel rays and the furface.
Let FD and FB be two rays diverging from the
point F, which was the imaginary focus of the incident
rays in the preceding cafe. Then as ED was in that
cafe refledted into DR, FD will be refle£ted into DK
(for the reafon mentioned in cafe 2.), fo that the re¬
flected ray will proceed as from the point R : but it was
demonftrated in cafe 5. that RB : FB=:CR : CF-, that
is, the di(lance of the focus from the furface is to that
of the radiant from the furface, as the diftance of the
former from the centre is to that of the latter from the
centre. t
Case 7. Of converging rays falling upon a convex
furface, and tending towards a point beyond the centre.
Fig. 8. Let AB, ED be the incident rays tending to F, a
point beyond the centre C, and let DK be the reflected
ray of the incident one ED. Then becaufe the incident
ray ED tends to a point beyond the centre, the refle£ted
ray DK Trill proceed as from one on the contrary fide,
funpofe R •, fee Prop. vii. Through D draw tbe perpen¬
dicular CD, and produce it to H. Then will EDHzr
HDK, being the angles of incidence and reflection ;
but CDF—CDR, being their verticals: confequently
the angle FDR is bifefted by the line CD : wherefore,
RD : DF. or (2 Elem. 6.) BD vanifhing, RB : BF—
RC : CF} that is, the diftance of the focus of the re-
^ C S. -N Part I,
fleeted rays is to that of the imaginary focus of the Laws of
incident rays, as the diftance of the former from the ^ fefeion.
centre is to the diftance of the latter from the centre. * ~J
Case 8. Of diverging rays falling upon a concavefur¬
face, and proceeding from, a point beyond the centre.
Let h B, FD be the incident rays radiating from F,
the imaginary focus of the incident rays in the cafe.
Then as ED was in that cafe relledted into DK, FD
will now be reflected into DR j fo that R will be the
focus of the reflected rays. • But it was demonftrated in
the cafe 7. that RB : FB—RC : CF; that is, the di¬
ftance of the focus of the reflected rays from the furface
is to the diftance of the radiant from the furface, as the
diitance of the focus of the reflected rays from the centre
is to the diftance of the radiant from the centre.
The two remaining cafes may be confidered as the
converfe of thofe under Prop. ii. (p. ), becaufe
the incident rays in thefe are the reflected ones in them',
or they may be demonftrated in the fame manner with
the preceding, as follows.
Case 9. Converging rays falling upon a convex furface,
and tending to the focus ofparallel rays, become parallel
after reflection.
Let ED, RB reprefent two converging rays incident Hate
on the convex furface BD, and tending towards F,CCCLXXXI*'’
which we (hall now fuppofe to be the focus of parallel fig. 7.
rays ) and let DR be the reflected ray, and C the centre
of convexity of the reflecting furface. Through C draw
CD, and produce it to fi, drawing RH parallel to ED
produced to F. Now it has been demonitraied (cafe 5.
where the incident rays are fuppofed to tend to the point
F), that RB : FB—RC : CF 5 but F in this cafe being
fuppofed to be the focus of parallel rays, it is the
middle point between C and B (by Prop, ii.) and there¬
fore FB—FC, confequently RB—RC ; which can only
be upon the fuppofition that R is at an infinite diftance
from B ; that is, that the reflected rays BR and DR be
parallel.
Case 10. Diverging rays falling upon a concave fur-
face, and proceeding from the focus of parallel rays, be¬
come parallel after reflection.
Let RD, RB be two diverging rays incident upon gj
the concave furface BD, as fuppofed in cafe 4. where it
was demonftrated that FB : RB—CF : CR. But in the
prefent cafe RB—CR, becaufe R is fuppofed to be the
focus of parallel rays •, therefore FB — FC j which cannot
be unlefs F be taken at an infinite diftance from B *, that
is, unlefs the reflected rays BF and DF be parallel.
It may here be obferved that in the cafe of diverging
rays falling upon a convex furface, the farther the point Fig.»».
D is taken from B, the nearer the point F, the focus of
the reflefted rays, approaches to B, while the radiant
point R remains the fame. For it is evident from the Fig. ip.
curvature of a circle, that the point D may be taken fo
far from B, that the reflefted ray DE ftiall proceed as
from F, G, H, or even from B, or from any point between
B and R; and the farther it is taken from B, the fafter the
point from which it proceeds approaches towards R: as-will
appear if we drawfeveral incident rays with their refpeftive
reflefted ones, in fuch a manner that the angles of reflection
may be equal to their refpeCtive angles of incidence,as is
done in the figure. The like is applicable to any of the
other cafes of diverging and converging rays incident
upon a fpherical furface. This is the reafon, that,
when rays are confidered as reflected from a fpherical
furface,
Theory.
OPT
Fig 7-
Fig. 8.
L?.ws of furface, the di(lance of the oblique rays from the per-
Rtflection.pencJicular one is taken fo fmall, that it may be fuppoled
v to vanifh.
From this it follows, that if a number of diverging
rays are incident upon the convex furface BJD at the
feveral pcints B, 1), D, &c. they will not proceed after
redeclion as from any point in the line RB produced,
but as from a curve line pa fling through the feveral
points F, ff &c.
Flad the curve BD been a hyperbola, having its foci
in R and F, then R being the radiant (or the imaginary
focus of incident rays), F would have been the focus of
the reflected ones, and vice verfa, however di A ant the
points B and D might be taken from each other. In
like manner, had the curve BD been an ellipfe having
its foci in F and R, the one of thefe being made the
radiant (or imaginary focus of incident rays), the other
would have been the focus of reflected ones, and vice
verfa. For both in the hyperbola and ellipfe, lines
drawn from each of their foci through any point make
equal angles with the tangent to that point. Therefore,
if the incident rays proceed to or from one of their foci,
the reflected ones will all proceed as from or to the
other focus. Therefore, in order that diverging or con¬
verging rays may be accurately reflected to or from a
point, the reflecting furface muft be formed by the revo¬
lution of an hyperbola about its longer axis, when the
incident rays are fuch, that their radiant or-imaginary
focus of incident rays fhall fall on one fide of the fur¬
face, and the focus of the refiefted ones on the other j
when they are both to fall on the fame fide, it muft be
formed by the revolution of an ellipfe abouti ts longer axis.
However, as fpherical furfaces are more ealily formed,
than thofe which are generated by the revolution of any
of the conic fections about their axes, the latter are very
rarely ufed.
Now, becaufe the focal diftance of rays reflected from
find,i r the a Spherical furxace cannot be found by the analogy laid
foe a di- down in the third proportion, without making ufe of
fiance of the quantity fought; we (hail here give an example
tedVmm'a' w^ere^y ^ method of doing it in all others will readily
convex fuJ- appear,
face* Problem.
Let it be required to find the focal diftance of di¬
verging rays incident upon a convex furface,
whofe radius of convexity is five parts, and the
diftance of the radiant from the furface is 20.
176
Method of
Call x the focal diftance fought j then will the di¬
ftance of the focus from the centre be ^—x, and that of
the radiant from the fame 2 t, therefore by Prop. iii. we
have the following proportion, x : 2ocr c—x : 25 5
and multiplying extremes together and means together,
we have 25 ,v—100—lox, or x— 'ff.
If it fhould happen in any cafe that the value of x is
a negative quantity, the focal point muft then be taken
on the contrary fide of the furface to that on which it
was funpofed it would fall in dating the problem.
Becanfe it was obferved in the preceding feci ion, that
different incident rays, though tending to or from one
point, would after refraction proceed to or from different
points, a method was there given of determining the
diftindt point which each feparate ray entering a fpheri¬
cal furface converges to. or diverges from, after refjrac-
I C S. 237
tion : the fame has been obferved herewith regard to Appearance
rays reflected from a fpherical furface (fee cafe 2. and
cafe 10.) But the method of determining the diftinct '
point to or from which any incident ray proceeds after w—y—J
reflection, is much more Ample. It is only neceffary to
draw the reflefted ray fuch, that the angle of reflection
may be equal to the angle of incidence, v/hich will
determine the point it proceeds to or from in any cafe
whatever.
Sect. VIII. Of the Appearance of Bodies feen by Light
refeiled from plane andfpherical Surfaces.
WHATEVER has been faid concerning the appearance -
of bodies feen through lenfes, by refraCted light, refpeCts
alfo the appearance of bodies feen by reflection. But
beftdes thefe, there is one thing peculiar to images by
reflection, viz. that each point in the reprefentation off
an objeCt made by reflection appears fituated fomewhere
in a right line that paffes through its correfpondent’
point in the object, and is perpendicular to the reflecting
furface.
The truth of this appears fufficiently from the pro-
pofitions formerly laid down : in each of which, rays
flowing from any radiant point, are fhown to proceed
after reflection to or from feme point in a line that
paffes through the radiant point, and is perpendicular to
the reflecting furface. For inftance (fig. 1.), rays flow¬
ing from Y are-colleCted in X, a point in the perpendi- pja,e
cular CD, which, being produced, paffes through Y ;cccrxxxn*
again (fig. 2.), rays flowing- from G, proceed, after re- Fig. 2.
fleCtion, as from N, a point in the perpendicular CD,
which, being produced, paffes through G.
This obfervaiion, however, except where an objeCt
is feen by reflection from a plain fiirface, relates only
to thofe cafes where the reprefentation is made by
means of fuch rays as fall upon the reflecting furface
with a very fmall degree of obliquity j becaufe fuch as-
fall at a confiderable diftance from the perpendicular,
do not proceed after reflection as from any point in that
perpendicular, but as from other points fituated in a cer¬
tain curve, on which account thefe rays are negleCted,
as making an indiftinCt and deformed reprefentation.
And therefore it is to be remembered, that however the
fituation of the eye with refpeCt to the object and reflect¬
ing furface may be repreiented in the following figures,-
it is to be fuppofed as fituated in fuch a manner with re¬
fpeCt to the objeCt, that rays flowing from thence and
entering it after reflection, may be fuch only as fall
with a very fmall degree of obliquity upon the. furface $
that is, the eye muft be fuppofed to be placed almcfb
directly behind the objeCt, or between it and the reflect¬
ing furface. The reafon why it is not always fo placed,
is only to avoid confufion in the figures.
I. When an objeSl is feen by refeBio n from a plane
furface, the image of it appears at the fame dijlance
behind the furface that the objeB is before it, of the fame
magnitude, and direBly oppofite to it. T„
ff ° explain this, let AB reprefent an object feeh by The ?.p-
reflection from the plane ftuface SV ■ and let the rays Fe?rance of
A F, AG, be fo inclined to the furface, that they fhall^^^ re‘
enter an eye at H after reflection -, and let AE be per-frcinpJane
pendicular to the furface : then, by the observation juft Surfaces.
mentioned, the point A will appear in feme part of theFiS- IO“
line AE produced, fuppofe 13 that is, the oblique rays
AF. .
238 OPT
Alf>Rarrf-nCe^ anc^ Pr0Cee^ after reflection as from that
fen by Re-po;nt ’ and further» becaufe the reflected rays FH, GK,
flection have. the fame degree of inclination to one another
from differ- that their incident ones have, that point mufl: neceflarily
ent Sur- be at the fame diftance from the furface that the point
. A is ; the reprefentation therefore of the point A will
be at the fame diltance from the furface that the point
itfelf is before it, and directly oppofite to it : confe-
quently, lince the like may be Ihown of any other point
E, the whole image IM will appear at the fame diftance
, behind the furface that the object is before it, and
directly oppoftte to it 5 and becaufe the lines AI, BM,
perpendicular to the plain furface, are parallel to each
other, the image will alfo be of the fame magnitude with
178 the object
from con- II. When an ohjeci is feen bij rcjleclion from a convex
facel'11" furface, its image appears nearer to the furface, and lefs
than the object.
Fig. i2. Let AB reprefent the objedft, SV a reflecting furface
whofe centre of convexity is C : and let the rays AF,
AG, be fo inclined to the furface, that after reflection
from it, they lhall enter the eye at H : and let AE be
perpendicular to the furface ; then will the oblique rays
Ah, AG, proceed after reflection as from fome point in
the line AE produced, fuppofe from 15 which point,
Becaufe the reflected rays will diverge more than the in¬
cident ones, muft be nearer to the furface than the point
A. And ftnce the fame is alfo true of the rays which
flow from any other B, the reprefentation IM will be
nearer to the furface than the objeCt 5 and becaufe it is
terminated by the perpendiculars AE and BF, which
incline to each other, as concurring at the centre, it
will alfo appear lefs.
From ccffi- III. When an object is feen by reflection from a con-
cave fur- cave furface, the reprefentation of it is various, both with
regard to its magnitude and fltuation, according as the
diflance of the object from the reflecting furface is greater
or lefs.
1. When the objeCt is nearer to the furface than its
principal focus, the image falls on the oppofite fide of
the furface, is more diftant from it, and larger than the
objeCE
I&‘ Thus let AB be the objeCl, SV the reflecting fur¬
face, F the principal focus, and C its centre. Through
A and B, the extremities of the objeCt, draw the lines
CE, CR, which will be perpendicular to the furface;
and let the rays AR, AG, be incident upon fuch points
of it that they thall be reflected into an eye at H. Now,
becaufe the radiant points A and B are nearer the fur-
face than the principal focus F, the reflected rays will
diverge, and therefore proceed as from fome points on
the oppofite fide of the furface ; wdiich points, by the
obfervation laid dowm at the beginning of this feCtion,
will be in the perpendiculars AE, BR, produced, fup¬
pofe in I and M : but they will diverge in a lefs degree
than their incident ones ; and therefore the faid points
will be farther from the furface than the points A and
B. The image therefore will be on the oppofite fide of
the furface with refpeCl to the objeCt: it will be more
diftant than it ; and confequently, being terminated
by the perpendiculars Cl and CM, it will alfo be
larger.
2. When the objeCt is placed in the principal focus,
the reflefted rays enter the eye parallel ; in wdiich cafe
the image ought to appear af an infinite diftance behind
2
I c s.
Part I.
Plate
the reflecting furface : but the reprefentation of it, for Appearance
the realons given in the foregoing caie, being large and bodies
diftinCt, wre do not reckon it much farther from the fur-le a” A
face than the image. fledlon
3. When the objeCt is placed between the principal
focus and the centre, the image falls on the oppofite fide
ot tne centre, is larger than the objeCt, and in an invert¬
ed pofition.
Thus let AB be the objecft, SV the reflecting furface, ccclxxxiJ.
F its principal focus, and C its centre. Through A jrjo- j.
and B, draw the lines CE and CN, which will be per- °
pendicular to the furface ; and let AR, AG, be a pen¬
cil qf rays flowing from A. Thefe rays proceeding
from a point beyond the principal focus, will after re¬
flection converge towards fome point on the oppofite
fide the centre, which will fall upon the perpendicular
EC produced, but at a greater diftance from C than
the radiant A from which they diverged. For the
fame reafon, rays flowing from B w-ill converge to a
point in the perpendicular NC produced, which ftiall
be farther from C than the point B ; whence it is
evident, that the image IM is larger than the object
AB, that it falls on the contrary fide of the centre, and
that their pofitions are inverted with refpect to each
other.
4. If the object be placed beyond the centre of con¬
vexity, the image is then formed between the centre
and the focus ol parallel rays, is lefs than the object,
and its pofition is inverted.
This propofition is the converfe of the preceding •,
for as in that cafe rays proceeding from A were reflected
to I, and from B to M) fo rays flowing from I and M
will be reflected to A and B : if therefore an object be
fuppofed to be fituated beyond the centre in IM, the
image of it will be formed in AB between that and the
focus of parallel rays, will be lefs than the object, and
inverted.
5. If the middle of the object be placed in the centre
of convexity of the reflecting furface, the object and
its image will be coincident ; but the image will be in¬
verted with refpect to the object.
That the place of the image and the object ftiould
be the fame in this cafe requires little explication ; for
the middle of the object being in the centre, rays flow¬
ing from it will fall perpendicularly upon the furface,
and therefore neceffarily return thither again 5 fo that
the middle of the image will be coincident with the
middle of the object. But that the image fliould be in¬
verted is perhaps not fo clear. To explain this, let AB Fig. r c.
be the object, having its middle point C in the centre *
of the reflecting furface from SV ; through the centre
and the point n draw the line CR, which will be per¬
pendicular to the reflecting furface 5 join the points AR
and BR, and let AR reprefent a ray flowing from A ;
this will be reflected into RB : for C being the middle
point between A and B, the angle ARC=rCRB ; and a
ray from B will likewife be reflected to A ; and there¬
fore the pofition of the image tvill be inverted with re¬
fpect to that of the object.
In this propofition it is to be fuppofed, that the
object AB is fo fituated wflth refpect to the reflecting
furface, that the angle ACR may be right; for other-
wfife the angles ARC and BRC will not be equal, and
part of the image only will therefore fall upon the ob-
ject.
6. If
Theory.
OPTICS:
239
Fi-. 16.
Appearance 6. If in any of the three lall cafes, in each of
of Bodies vchich the image is formed on the fame lide of the re-
** fl^cn6" ^ec^n§ furface with the object, the eye be filuated far-
frcm differ-ther from the furface than the place where the image
ent Snr- falls, the rays of each pencil, eroding each other in
faces. the feveral points of the image, will enter the eye as
~v~'—■" from a real object fituated there } fo that the image
will appear pendulous in the air between the eye and
the reflecting furface, and in the pofition wherein it
is formed, viz. inverted with refpect to the object, in
the fame manner that an image formed by refracted
light appears to an eye placed beyond it j wrhich was
fully explained under Prop. iv. and therefore needs not
be repeated.
But as what relates to the appearance of the object
when the eye is placed nearer to the furface than the
image, was not there fully inquired into, that point
ihall now be more ftrictly examined under the folio-w¬
ing cafe, which equally relates to refracted and reflect¬
ed light.
7. If the eye be fituated between the reflecting fur¬
face and the place of the image, the object is then
feen beyond the furface j and the farther the eye re¬
cedes from the furface towards the place of the image,
the more confufed, larger, and nearer, the object ap¬
pears.
To explain this, let AB reprefent the object •, IM its
Jtmage, one of whofe points M is formed by the concur¬
rence of the reflected rays DM, EM, &c. which before
refle&ion came from B j the other, I, by the concur¬
rence of DI, El, &c. which came from A : and let
ab he the pupil of an eye, fituated between the furface
DP and the image. This pupil will admit the rays
H tf, K £ ; which, becaufe they are tending towards I,
are fuch as came from A, and therefore the point A
will appear diffufed over the fpace RS. In like manner
the pupil will alfo receive into it the reficcled rays K a
and L b, which, becaufe they are tending towards M,
by fuppofition came from B ; and therefore the point
B will be Teen fpread as it were over the fpace TV, and
the objeft will feem to fill the fpace RV 5 but the re-
prefentation of it will be confufed, becaufe the interme¬
diate points of the object being equally enlarged in ap¬
pearance, there will not be room for them between the
points S and T, but they will coincide in part one with
another : for imtance, the appearance of that point in
the objeft, whoie reprefentation falls upon c in the
image, will fill the fpace in n ; and fo of the reft. Now,
if the fame pupil be removed into the fituation e f the '
reflected rays E e and G f will then enter the eye, and
therefore one extremity of the objecl will appear to co¬
ver the fpace XV ; and becaufe the rays O f and L e
will alfo enter it in their pxogrefs towards M, the point
B, from which they came', will appear to cover ZV 5
the object therefore will appear larger and more confuf¬
ed than before. When the eye recedes quite to the
image, it fees but one fingle point of the object, and
that appears diffufed all over the refledting furface : for
inftance, if the eye recedes to the point M, then rays
flowing from the point B enter it upon whatever part
of the furface they fall. The objeft alfo appears nearer
to the furface the farther the eye recedes from it to¬
wards the place of the image •, probably becaufe, as the
appearance of the object becomes more and more con-
fiifed, itii place is not fo eafily diftinguilhed from that
of the reflecting furface icfelf, till at laft when it is Appearance
quite confufed (as it is when the eye is arrived at M)
they both appear as one, the furface affuming the colour ' fi*-xtion
of the cbjeCE from difl'er-
As to the precife apparent magnitude of an object ent Sur-
feen after this manner, it is fuch that the angle it ap- <a^£S‘ ,
■pears under (hall be equal to that which the image of ip0
the fame objeCt would appear under were we to fup- The appa-
pofe it feen from the fame place : that is, the apparent rent niag-
object (for fuch we muft call it, to diftinguiih it from r,‘tu^e
the image of the fame object) and the image fubtend py re¬
equal angles at the eye.
Here we muft fuppofe the pupil of the eye to be a fiom a con-
point only, becaufe the magnitude of it caufes a fmallfGr-
alteration in the apparent-magnitude of the object. Let ^a'e'
the point a reprefent the pupil, then will the extreme
rays that can enter it be H a and K a ; the objeft there¬
fore will appear under the angle the
angle under which the image IM would appear were it
to be feen from a. Again, If the eye be placed in jc,
the objedt appears under the angle G fO~ I/ M, which
the image fubtends at the fame place, and therefore the
apparent cbjedt and image of it fubtend equal angles at
the eye.
Now if we fuppofe the pupil to have any fenfible mag¬
nitude a b; then the objedt feen by the eye in that fitua¬
tion will appear under the angle HXL, which is larger
than the angle H « K, under which it appeared before
becaufe the angle at X is nearer than the angle at a, to
the line IM, which is a fubtenfe common to them
both.
From this propofition it follows 5 that, were the
eye clofe to the flurface at K, the real and apparent
objedf would be feen under equal angles (for the real
objedl appears from that place under the fame angle
that the image does, as will be fhown at the end of
this fedtion) ; therefore, when the eye is nearer to the
image than that point, the image will fubtend a larger
angle at it than the objedl: does 5 and confequently,
fince the image and apparent object fubtend equal
angles at the eye, the apparent object muft neceffarily
be feen under a larger angle than the object itfelf,
wherever the eye be placed, between the furface and
the image.
As each point in the reprefentation of an object made
by reflection is fituated fomewhere in a right line that
pafies through its correfpondent point in the object,
and is perpendicular to the reflecting furface; we may
hence deduce the following eafy and expeditious method
of determining both the magnitude and fituation of the
image in all cafes whatever.
Through the extremities of the object AB and the Plate
centre C (fig. 17, 18, 19.) draw the lines AC BC, and CCCLXXXir.
produce them as the cafe requires 5 thele lines will be Fig. 17, iS,
perpendicular to the reflecting lurface, and therefore 19-
the extremities of the image will fall upon them.
Through F the middle point of the object and the
centre, draw the line FC, and produce it till it palies
through the reflecting furface } this will alfo be per¬
pendicular to the furface. Through G, the point where
this,line cuts the furface, draw the lines AG and BG,
and produce them this way or that, till they crofs the
former perpendiculars 5 and where they crofs, there I
and M the extremities of the image will fall. For fup-
nofing AG to be a ray proceeding from the point A
and
240 OPT
Appearatice and falling upon G, it will be reflefted to B j becaufe
fe°n liyRe-^ an<^ PerPendicular to the reflecting fur-
fiedtion -a.ce ’ anc- therefore the reprefentation of the point A
from difter-will be in LG produced as well as in AC coniequent-
ein Sur- iy it will rail on the point I, where they crofs each
. trl^cs' other. Likewife the ray BG will for the fame reafcn
be reflected to A 5 and therefore the reprefentation of
the point B wall be in AG produced, as well as in fome
part of BC, that is, in M where they crofs. Hence
the propofition is obvious.
If it happens that the lines will not crofs which
way foever they are produced, as in fig. 20. then is
the object in the focus of parallel rays of that furface,
and has no image formed in the place whatever. For
in this cafe the rays AH, AG, flowing from the point
A, become parallel after reflection in the lines HC, GB,
and therefore do not flow as to or from any point: in
like manner, rays flowing from B are refledted into the
parallel lines KB an_d GA 5 to that no reprefentation
can be formed by fuch reflection.
Irorn this we learn another circumftance relating to
the magnitude of the image made by reflection ; viz.
that it iubtends the lame angle at the vertex of the re¬
flecting furface that the objeCt does. This appears by
inipection of the 17^ 18 th, or 19th figure, in each of
which the angle IGM—AGB, the angles which the
image fubtends at G the vertex of the reflecting liirface,
and which the object fubtends at the fame place } for in
the two firlt of thofe figures they are vertical, in the
third they are the fame.
I he angle ICM, which the image fubtends at the
centre, is alfo equal to the angle ACB which the ob¬
ject fubtends at the fame place •, for in the two firft fi¬
gures they are the fame, in the lalt they are vertical to
each other.
Whence it is evident, that the object and its image
are to each other in diameter, either as their refpective
diflances from the vertex of the reflecting furface, or as
their diftances from the centre of the fame.
IV. As objects are multiplied by being feen through
tranfparent media, vohofe furfaces are properly dijpojed,
Plate fo they may alfo by reflecling furf aces.
ccclxjoui. pf two reflecting furfaces be difpofed at right
Fig. 31. angles, as the furfaces AB, BC, an objeCt at 13 may be
feen by an eye at E, after one .reflection at F, in the
line EF produced ; after two refleftions, the firft at
G, the fecond at H, in the line EH produced ; and
alfo, after one reflection made at A, in the line EA
produced.
'2. If the furfaces be parallel, as AB, CD, (fig. 22.),
and the objeCl be placed at E and the eye at F, the ob-
jeCt will appear multiplied an infinite number of times :
thus it may be feen in the line FG produced, after one
reflection at G $ in the line FH produced, after two re¬
flections, the firft at I, the fecond at H; and alfo in
FP produced, after feveral fucceflive reflections of the
ray EL, at the points L, M, N, O, and P : and fo on
in infinitum. But the greater the number of reflections
are, the weaker their reprefentation will be.
Fig. 33.
Sect. IX. Of the apparent Place. Difiance, Magnitude,
and Motion of Objects.
It had in general been taken lor granted, that the
place to which the eye refers any vifible objeCt feen
3
1 c s.
Tart I.
by reflection or refraCtion, is that in which the vi- Apparent
final rays meet a perpendicular from the objeCt upon P'ace> &-c-
the reflecting or refraCting plane. But this method ot
°f judging of the place of objects was called in que-
ftion by Dr Barrow, who contended that the argu¬
ments brought in favour of the opinion were not con- jgr
clufive. Thefe arguments are, that the images of Dr Bar-
objects appeared itraight in a plane miror, but curved in ‘'ow^theo-
a convex or concave one : that a ftraight thread, when V rejPe<a-
partly immerfed perpendicularly in water, does not “yf^ ap'
appear crooked as when it is obliquely plunged into place of ob-
the fluid ; but that which is within the water feems to jtcb.
be a continuation of that which is without. With re-
fpect to the reflected image, however, of a perpen¬
dicular right line from a convex or concave mirror,
he lays, that it is not eafy for the eye to diftinguiih
the curve that it really makes; and that if the ap¬
pearance of a perpendicular thread, part of which is
immerfed in water, be clofely attended to, it will not
favour the common hypothefis. If the thread is of any
fhining metal, as filver, and viewed obliquely, the
image of the part immerfed will appear to detach it-
felf fenfibly from that part wdrich is without the wrater,
fo that it cannot be true that every object appears to
be in the fame place where the refracted ray meets the
perpendicular 5 and the fame obfervation, he thinks,
may be extended to the cafe of reflection. According
to Dr Barrow, we refer every point of an object to the
place from which the pencils of light, that give us the
image of it, ifliie, or from wdrich they would have
iflued if no reflecting or refracting fubftance intervened.
Purfuing this principle, he proceeds to inveftigate the
the place in w’hich the rays iffuing from each of the
points of an object, and which reach the eye after one
reflection or refraction, meet; and he found, that if the
refracting furface was plane, and the refraction was made
from a denfer medium into a rarer, thofe rays would al¬
ways meet in a place between the eye and a perpendi¬
cular to the point of incidence. If a convex mirror be
ufed, the cafe will be the lame} but if the mirror be
plane, the rays will meet in the perpendicular, and be¬
yond it if it be concave. He alfo determined, accord¬
ing to thefe principles, what form the image of a right
line will take, when it is prefented in different manners
to a fpherical mirror, or when it is feen through a re¬
fracting medium.
Though Dr Barrow’ reckoned the maxim which he
endeavoured to ellablilh, concerning the fuppofed place
of vifible objects, highly probable, he has the candour to
mention an objection to it, of which he was not able to
give a fatisfactory folution. It is this. Let an object
be placed beyond the focus of a convex lens; and if the
eye be clofe to the lens, it will appear confufed, but
very near to its true place. If the eye be a little with¬
drawn, the confufion will increafe, and the object will
feem to come nearer ; and when the eye is near the fo¬
cus, the confufion will be exceedingly great, and the
object will feem to be clofe to the eye. But in this ex¬
periment the eye receives no rays but thofe that are con¬
verging ; and the point from which they iffue is fo far
from being nearer than the object, that it is beyond it j
notwithftanding which, the object is conceived to be
much nearer than it is, though no very diftinct idea can
be formed of its precife diftance. It may be obferved,
that in reality, the rays falling upon the eye in this cafe
in
i8z
M. de la
Hirers ob-
fi-rv^tions.
Theory. OPT
Apparent in a manner quite different from tliat in which they fall
Place: ^-c- upon it in other circumftances, we can form no judge-
.°‘ !)1)Je ment about the place from which they iffue. This fub-
ject was afterwards taken up by Berkeley, Smith, Mon-
tucla, and others.
M. de la Hire made feveral obfervations concerning
the diftance of vifible objects, and various other pheno¬
mena of vrfion, which are worthy of notice. He alfo
took particular pains to afcertain the manner in which
the eye conforms itfelf to the view of objects placed at
different diftances. He enumerates five circumftances,
which affift us in judging of the diilance of objects,
namely their apparent magnitude, the ilrength of the
colouring, the direction of the two eyes, the parallax of
tne objects, and the diftinctnefs of their fmall parts.
Painters, he fays, can only take advantage of the two
firft-mentioned circumftances, and therefore pictures can
never perfedlly deceive the eye ; but in the decorations
of theatres, they, in fome meafure, make ufe of them
all. The fize of objecls, and the ftrength of their co¬
louring, are diminifhed in proportion to the diftance at
which they are intended to appear. Parts of the fume
objedt which are to appear at different diftances, as co¬
lumns in an order of architecture, are drawn upon dif¬
ferent planes a little removed from one another, that
the two eyes may be obliged to change their direction,
in order to diftingufth the parts of the nearer plane
from thofe of the more remote. The fmall diftance
of the planes ferves to make a fmall parallax, by chan¬
ging the pofition of the eye ; and as we do not preferve
a diftindt idea of the quantity of parallax, correfpond-
ing to the different diftances of objects, it is fufficient
that we perceive there is a parallax, to be convinced
that thefe planes are diftant from one another, with¬
out determining what that diftance is; and as to the
laft circumftance, viz. the diftinctnefs of the fmall parts
of objects, it is of no ufe in difcovering the deception,
on account of the falfe light that is thrown upon thefe
decorations.
... □ d o thefe obfervations concerning deception of fight,
account of we (hall add a fimilar one of M. le Cat, who took no-
tue large- tice that the reafon why we imagine objects to be
larger when they are feen through a mift, is the dim-
nefs or obfcurity with which they are then feen 5 this
circumftance being affociated with the idea of great di¬
ftance. This, he lays, is confirmed by our being fur-
prifed to find, up6n approaching fuch objects, that they
are fo much nearer to us, as well us fo much fmaller,
than we had imagined.
Among other cafes concerning vilion, which fell
under the confideration of M. de la Hire, he men¬
tions one which it is difficult to folve. It is when a
candle, in a dark place, and fituated beyond the li¬
mits of diftinct vifion, is viewed through a very nar¬
row chink in a card ; in which cafe a confiderable num¬
ber of candles, fometimes fo many as fix, will be feen
along the chink. This appearance he afcribes to fmall
irregularities in the furface of the humours of the eye,
the effect of which is not fenfible when rays are ad¬
mitted into the eye through the whole extent of the pu¬
pil, and confequently one principal image effaces a num¬
ber of fmall ones •, whereas, in this cafe, each of them
is formed feparately, and no one of them is fo confider¬
able as to prevent the others from being perceived at
the fame time.
Vol. XV. Part L
133
M. le Cat’s
nefs of ob¬
jects in
mi it.
ICS. 241
There are few perfons, M. de la Hire remarks, who Apparent
have both their eyes exactly equal, not only with re- P|.ace; & c'
fpect to the limits of diftinct vifion, but alfo with re- ot
gard to the Colour with which objects appear tinged 'f~~“
when they are viewed by them, efpecially if one of the
eyes has been expofed to the imprefticn of a ftrong light.
To compare them together in this refpect, he directs us
to take two thin cards, and to make in each of them a
round hole of a third or a fourth of a line in diameter,
and, applying one of them to each of the eyes, to look
through the holes on a white paper, equally illuminated,
when a circle of the paper will appear to each of the
eyes, and, placing the cards properly, thefe two circles
may be made to touch one another, and thereby the
appearance of the fame object to each of the eyes may
be compared to the greateft advantage. To make this
experiment with exactnefs, it is neceflary, he fays, that
the eyes be kept fhut fome time before the cards be ap¬
plied to them.
By the following calculation, M. de la Hire gives
us an idea of the extreme fenfibility of the optic nerves.
One may fee very eafily, at the diftance of 4000 toifes,
the fail of a wind mill, 6 feet in diameter; and the eye
being fuppofed to be an inch in diameter, the picture
of this fail, at the bottom of the eye, will be -g-oVo °f
an inch, which is lefs than the 666th part of a line, and
is about the 66th part of a common hair, or the 8th
part of a fingle thread of filk. So fmall, therefore,
muft one of the fibres of the optic nerve be, which, he
fays, is almoft inconceiveable, fince each of thefe fibres
is a tube that contains fpirits. lg^
The perfon who particularly noticed Dr Barron ’s 'Berkeley's
hypothefis was the ingenious Dr Berkeley, bilhop of‘iCC0.unt ot'
Cloyne, who diftinguifhed himfelf fo much by the ob-^entfofm
jedlious which he ftarted to the reality of a material eTconcera-
world, and by his oppofition to the Newtonian doc-ing diftance
trine of fluxions. In his Effay towards to a new Theory confuted
of Vifion, he obferves, that the circle formed upon the V^10U‘
retina, by the rays which do not come to a focus,
produce the fame confufion in the eye, whether they
crofs one another before they reach the retina, or tend
to do it afterwards; and therefore that the judgement
concerning diftance will be the fame in both the cafes,
without any regard to the place from which the rays
originally iffued j fo that in this cafe, as, by receding
from the lens, the confufipn, which always accompanies
the nearnels of an objecf, increafes, the mind will judge
that the objeft comes nearer. rj ,.
But, lays Dr Smith, if this be true, the objefl: Smith’s ac-
ought always to appear at a lefs diftance from the eyecount-
than that at which objects are feen diltinftly, which
is not the cafe : and to explain this appearance, as wHl
as every other in which a judgement is formed concern¬
ing diftance, he maintains, that we judge of it .chiefly if
not only, by the apparent magnitude of objects, fo that,
fince the image groxvs larger as we recede from the lens
through which it is viewed, wre conceive the objedft to
come nearer. He alfo endeavours to ftiow, that in all
cafes in which glaffes are ufed, we judge of diftance by
the fame rule 5 from which he concludes, that the ap¬
parent diftance of an objeft feen in a glafs is to its ap¬
parent diftance feen by the naked eye, as the apparent
magnitude in the naked eye is to its apparent magnitude
in the glafs.
But that we do not judge of diftance merely by the
H h angle
242
Apparent
place, &c.
of objects.
iS6~
Objected
to by Mr
Robins.
OPT
angle under which obje£ls are Teen, is an obfervation
as old as Alhazen, who mentions feveral indances, in
which, though the angles under which objeds appear
be different, the magnitudes are univerfally and in-
ftantaneoufly deemed not to be fo. Mr Robins clearly
fho.ws the hypothefis of Dr Smith to be contrary to
fa<!d: in the molt common and fimple cafes. In mi-
crofcopes, he fays, it is impoffible that the eye Ihculd
judge the objedt to be nearer than the diilance at
■which it has viewed the objedl itfelf, in proportion to
the degree of magnifying. Fcr when the microfcope
magnifies much, this rule would place the image at a
diftance, of which the fight cannot poflibJy form any
opinion, as being an interval from the eye at which
no objedt can be feen. In general, be fays, he believes,
that Whoever looks at an object through a convex
glafs, and then at the objedt itfelf without the glafs,
will find it to appear nearer in the latter cafe, though
it be magnified in the glafs j and in the fame trial with
the concave glafs, though by the glafs the objedt be di-
minifiied, it will appear nearer through the glnfs than
without it.
But the following experiment is the moft convincing
proof that the apparent diftance of the image is not de¬
termined by its apparent magnitude. If a double con¬
vex glafs be held upright before fome luminous objedf,
as a candle, there wall be feen two images, one eredl,
and the other inverted. The firft is made fimply by
reflection from the neareft furface,. the fecond by reflec¬
tion from the farther furface, the rays undergoing a re-
fradtion from the firft furface both before and after the
refledtion. If this glafs has not too fhort a focal di¬
ftance when it is held near the objedt, the inverted
image will appear larger than the other, and alfo near¬
er 5 but if the glafs be carried off from the object,
though the eye remain as near to it as before, the in¬
verted image will diminifli fo much falter than the other,
that, at length, it will appear very much lefs than it,
but Itill nearer. Here, fays Mr Robins, two images of
the fame objedt are feen under one view, and their ap¬
parent diftances, when immediately compared, feem to
have no neceffary connexion with the apparent mag-
. nitude. He alfo firows how this experiment may be made
Itill more convincing, by flicking a piece of paper on the
middle of the lens, and viewing it through a Ihort tube.
M. Bouguer adopts the general maxim of Dr Bar-
guer adopts row, in fuppofing that we refer objedts to the place
Dr Ear- from which the pencils of rays feemingly converge at
their entrance into the pupil. But when rays iffue
from below the furface of a veffel of water, or any
other refradting medium, he finds that there are always
two different places of this feeming convergence ■; one
of them of the rays that iffue from it in the fame ver¬
tical circle, and therefore fall with different degrees of
obliquity upon the furface of the refradting medium ;
and another, of thole that fall upon the furface with
the fame degree of obliquity, entering the eye laterally
with refpedt to one another. Sometimes, he fays, one
of thefe images is attended to by the mind, and fome-
times the ether, and different images may be obferved
by different perfons. An objedt immerfed in water
affords an example, he fays, of this duplicity of images.
If BA b be part of the furface of water, and the ob-
iedl be at O, there will be two images of it in two dif¬
ferent places 3 one at G, on the caultic by refraction,
187
M. Bou-
sow s
' maxim,
Plate
ecc Lfcxxxv.
fiff. 1.
I c S. Fait I.
and the other at E, in the perpendicular AO, which is Apparent
as much a cauftic as the other line. The former image p!ace> ^c*
is vilible by the rays ODM, O dr/;, which are one high- 01 object^
er than the other, in their progrefs to the eye 3 whereas
the image at E is made by the rays ODM, Oef, which
enter the eye laterally. This, lays he, may feive to ex¬
plain the difficulty of Father Tacquet, Barrow, Smith,
and many other authors.
G. W. Kraft has ably fupported the opinion of Dr
Barrow, that the place of any point, feen by reflec¬
tion from the furface of any medium, is that in which
rays iffuing from it, infinitely near to one another,
would meet 3 and confidering the cafe of a diftant ob-
jedl, viewed in a concave minor, by an eye very near
to it, when the image, according to Euclid and other
writers would be between the eye and the object, and
the rule of Dr Barrow cannot be applied 3 he fays
that in this cafe the fpeculum may be confidered as a
plane, the effedt being the fame, only the image is more
obfeure.
Dr Porterfield gives a diftindt view of the natural
methods of judging concerning the difiance of objedts. iSS
The conformation of the eye, lie obferves, can be of®1' Porier-
no ufe to us with refpedt to objedts placed wfilhout the
limits of diftindt vilicn. As the objedt, however, doeSj^
then appear more or lefs confufed, according as it is
more or lefs removed from thofe limits, this confufion
affifts the mind in judging of the dittance of the objedt 5
it being always eftimated fo much the nearer, or the
farther off, as the confufion is greater. But this con- •
fulicn hath its limits alfo 3 for when an objedt is placed
at a certain diftance from the eye, to which the breadth
of the pupil bears no fenfible proportion, the rays of
light that come from a point in the objedt, and pals the
pupil, are fo little diverging, that they may be ccr •''tier¬
ed as parallel. For a pidture on the retina w ill not be
fenlibly more confufed, though the objedt be removed to
a much greater diftance.
The moft general, and frequently the moft certain,
means of judging of the diftance of objedts is, he fays,
by the angle made by the optic axis. For our two eyes
’are like two different ftations, by the afliftance.of which
diftances are taken 3 and this is the reafon why thofe
perfons who are blind of one eye, fo frequently mifs
their marks in pouring liquor into a glafs, fnuffing a
candle, and fuch other adtions as require that the di¬
ftance be exactly diftinguilhed. To be convinced of'
the utility of this method of judging of the diftance of
objedts, he diredts us to fufpend a ring in a thread, fo
that its fide may be towards us, and the hole in it to the
right and left hand 3 and taking a fmall rod, crooked
at the end, retire from the ring two or three paces,
and having with one hand covered one of cur eyes,
to endeavour with the other to pafs the crooked end of
the rod through the ring. This, fays he, appears very
eafy 3 and yet, upon trial, perhaps once in 100 times
we lhall not fucceed, efpecially if we mo\re the rod a
little quickly.
The ufe of this fecond method of judging of diftances
Dechales limited to 1 20 feet 3 beyond winch, he fays,
we are not fenfible cf any difference in the angle of the
optic axis.
A third method of judging of the diftance of objefts,
confifts in their apparent magnitudes, on which fo much
ftrefs was laid by Dr Smith. From this change in the
magnitude
Theory. OPT
Apparent magnitude of the image tlpoti the retina, we eftfily
place, See. judge of the diftance of objects, as often as we are other-
of objgcl:-^ wjre acqUainted with their magnitude j but as often as
v we are ignorant of the real magnitude of bodies, we can
never, from their apparent magnitude, form any judge¬
ment of their diftance.
Hence we may fee why we are fo frequently deceived
in our eftimates of diftance, by any extraordinary mag¬
nitudes of ob]e£ls feen at the end of it 5 as, in travelling
towards a large city, or a caftle, or a cathedral church,
or a mountain larger than common, we fancy them to
be nearer than they really are. This alfo is the reafon
why animals, and little objects, feen in valleys, conti¬
guous to large mountains, appear exceedingly fmall.
For we think the mountain nearer to us than if it were
fmaller 5 and we ftiould not be furprifed at the fmallnefs
of the neighbouring animals, if we thought them farther
off. For the fame reafon, we think them exceedingly
fmall, when they are placed upon the top of a moun¬
tain, or a large building; which appear nearer to us
than they really are, on account of their extraordinary
lize.
Dr Jurin accounts for our imagining objefts, when
feen from a high building, to be fmaller than they are,
from a high and fmaller than we fancy them to be when we view
building them at the fame diftance on level ground. It is, fays
he, becaufe we have no diftinft idea of diftance in that
direftion, and therefore judge of things by their piftures
upon the eye only •, but cuftom will enable us to judge
rightly even in this cafe.
Let a boy, fays he, who has never been upon any
high building, go to the top of a lofty fpire, and
look down into the ftreet 5 the objedls feen there, as
men and horfes, will appear fo fmall as greatly to fur-
prife him. But 10 or 20 years after, if in the mean
time he has ufed himfelf now and then to look down
from that and other great heights, he will no longer
find the fame objefts to appear fo fmall. And if he
were to view the fame objects from fuch heights as fre¬
quently as he fees them upon the fame level with
himfelf in the ftreets, he fuppofes that they would ap¬
pear to him juft of the fame, magnitude from the
top of the fpire, as they do from a window one ftory
high. For this reafon it is, that ftatues placed upon
very high buildings ought to be made of a larger fize
thaji thofe which are feen at a nearer diftance ; becaufe
all perfons, except architefts, are apt to ijnagine the
height of fuch buildings to be much lefs than it really
tSp
my ob¬
jects feen
appear
fmaller
than they
are.
The fourth method by which Dr Porterfield fays
that we judge of the diftance of objefts, is the force
with which their colour ftrikes upon our eyes. For if
xve be affured that two objefls are of a fimilar and like
colour, and that one appears more bright and lively
t han the other, we judge that the brighter object is the
nearer of the two.
The fifth method confifts in the different appearance
of the fmall parts of objects. When thefe parts appear
diftindt, we judge that the object is near; but when
they appear confufed, or when they do not appear at
all, we reckon the objedt to be at a greater diftance.
For the image of any objedt, or part of an objedt, dimi-
nifhes as its diftance increafes.
The fixth and laft method by which we judge of
the diftance of objedts is, that the eye does not repre-
I C S. . 243
fent to our mind one objedl alone, but at the fame Apparent:
time all thofe that are placed betwixt us and the prin-
cipal objedl, whofe diftance we are confide ring j and ,Q '
the more this diftance is divided into feparate and di-
ftindt parts, the greater it appears to be. For this
reafon, diftances upon uneven lurfaces appear lefs than
upon a plane : for the inequalities of the ftirfaces,
fuch as hills, and holes, and rivers, that lie low and
out of fight, either do not appear, or hinder the parts *
that lie behind them from appearing ; and fo the whole
apparent diftance is diminifhed by the parts that do
not appear in it. This is the reafon that the banks of
a river appear contiguous to a diftant eye, when the
river is low and not feen. jpo
Dr Porterfield very well explains feveral fallacies in Several fa!-
vifion which depend upon cur miftaking the diftances oFy010’5 v'1"
objects. Of this kind, he fays, is the appearance of
parallel lines, and long villas confifting of parallel rows
of trees; for they feem to converge more and more as
they are farther extended from the eye. The reafon
of this, he fays, is becaufe the apparent magnitudes of
their perpendicular intervals are perpetually diminiflj •
ing, while, at the fame time, we miftake their di¬
ftance. Hence we may fee why, when two parallel
rows of trees ftand upon an afeent, whereby the more
remote parts .appear farther off than they really are,
becaufe the line that meafures the length of the villas
now appears under a greater angle than when it was
horizontal, the trees, in fuch a cafe, will feem to con¬
verge lefs, and fometimes, inftead of converging, they
will be thought to diverge.
For the fame reafon that a long villa appears to
converge more and more the farther it is extended
from the eye, the remoter parts of a horizontal walk
or a long door will appear to afeend gradually ; and
objects placed upon it, the more remote they are the
higher they will appear, till the laft: be feen on a level
with the eye > whereas the ceiling of a long gallery
appears to defeend towards a horizontal line, drawn
from the eye of the fpeclator. For this reafon, alfo,
the furface of the fea, feen from an eminence, feems
to rife higher and higher the farther we look j and the
upper parts of high buildings feem to ftoop, or incline
forwards over the eye below, becaufe they feem to ap¬
proach towards a vertical line proceeding from tha
fpedlator’s eye; fo that ftatues on the top of fuch build¬
ings, in order to appear upright, muft recline, or bend
backwards.
Dr Porterfield alfo fliows the reafon why a windmill,
feen from a great diftance, is fometimes imagined to
move the contrary way from what it really does, by
our taking the nearer end of the fail for the more re¬
mote. The uncertainty we fometimes find in the
courfe of the motion of a branch of lighted candles,
turned round at a diftance, is owing, he fays, to the
fame caufe 5 as alfo our fometimes miftaking a convex
for a concave furface, more efpecially in viewing feals
and impreffions with a convex glafs or a double mi-
crofcope and laftly, that, upon coming in a dark
night into a ftreet, in which there is but one row
of lamps, we often miftake the fide of the ftreet they
are on.
Far more light was thrown upon this curious fubject
by M. Bouguer.
The proper method of drawing the appearance of
H h 2 two
244
Apparent
place, &c.
of objedts.
I9T
Great light
thrown up¬
on this fub-
jeft by M.
iSouguer.
Plate
QCCLXXXIV-
OPT
two rows of trees that fhall appear parallel to the eye,
is a problem which has exercifed the ingenuity of fe-
veral philofophers and mathematicians. That the ap¬
parent magnitude of objects decreafes with the ano-le
under which, they are feen, has always been acknow-
jedged. It is aljo acknowledged, that it is only by
cuftom and experience that we learn to form a judge¬
ment both of magnitudes and diltances. But in the
application of thefe maxims to the above-mentioned
pioblem, all perfons, before M. Bouguer, made ufe
of the real diftance inftead of the apparent one 5 by
which only the mind can form its judgement. And
it is manifeft, that, if any circumftances contribute to
make the dittance appear otherwife than it is in reality,
the.apparent magnitude of the objed will be affeaed’
by It; for the fame reafon, that, if the magnitude be
mifapprehended, the idea of the diftance will vary.
For want of attending to this diftinaion, Tacquet
pretended to demonftrale, that nothing can give the
idea of I wro parallel lines (row's of trees for inftance) to
an eye fituated at one of their extremities, but twro hy¬
perbolical curves, turned the contrary w'ay; and M. Va-
rignon maintained,, that in order to make a villa appear
of tne fame width, it muft be made narrower, inftead of
wider, as it recedes from the eye.
M. Bouguer obferves, that very great diftances, and
thofe that are confiderably lefs than they, make nearly
the fame impreftion upon the eye. We, therefore, al-
ways imagine great diftances to be lefs than they are 5
and for this reafon the ground plan of a long villa al¬
ways appears to rife. The vifual rays come in a deter¬
minate diredlion 5 but as we imagine that they termi¬
nate fooner than they do, we neceflarily conceive that
the place from which they iffue is elevated. Every
large plane, therefore, as AB, viewed by an eye at O,
will feem'to lie in fuch a dire&ion as A/;; and confe-
quently lines, in order to appear truly parallel on the
plane AB, muft be drawn fo as that they would appear
parallel on the plane A </, and be from thence projected
to the plane AB.
To deteimme the inclination of the apparent ground-
plan A d to the true ground-plan AB, our ingenious
author diretfts us to draw upon a piece of level ground
two ftraight lines of a fufficient leng'th (for which pur-
pofe.lines faftened to fmall fticks are very convenient),
making an angle of. 3 or 4 degrees with one another!
Then a perfon, placing himfelf within the angle, wdth
his back towards the angular point, muft walk back¬
wards and forwards till he can fancy the lines to be
parallel. In this fituation, a line drawn from the point
of the angle through the place of his eye, will contain
the fame angle with the true ground-plan which this
does with the apparent one.
M. Bouguer then ftiows other more geometrical
methods of determining this inclination; and fays \
that by thefe means he has often found it to be 4 or 5
degrees, though fometimes only 2 or 24- degrees. The
determination of this angle, he obferves, is variable 5
depending upon the manner in which the ground is il¬
luminated and the intenfity of the light. The colour
of the foil is alfo not without its influence, as well as
the ^articular conformation of the eye, by which it is
more or lefs affected by the fame degree of light, and
alfo the part of the eye on which the object is painted.
^ hepr by a flight motion of his head, he contrived,
I c S, Part I.
that certain parts of the foil, the image of which fell Apparent
towards the bottom of his eye, fliould fall towards the P!ace.> &:c-
top of the retina, he always thought that this apparent ot °kje(fts..
inclination became a little greater. v
But what is very remarkable, is, that if he look to- .
wards a rifing ground, the difference between the ap¬
parent ground-plan and the true one will be much more
confldeiable, fo that they will fometimes make an angle
of 25 or 30 degrees. Of this he had made frequent ob-
fervations. Mountains, he fays, begin to be inacceflible
when their Tides make an angle from 35 or 37 degrees
xvith the horizon, as then it is not poflible to climb them
but by means of Hones or flirubs, to ferve as Heps to fix
the reet on. In theie cafes, both he and his companions
always agreed that the apparent inclination of the lide of
the mountain was 60 or 70 degrees.
Thefe deceptions are reprefented in fig. 3. in which, plate
when the ground-plan AM, or AN, is much inclined!cccixxxiv.
the apparent ground-plan A m, or A «, makes a very Fig- 3-
large angle with it. On the contrary, if the ground
dips below the level, the inclination of the apparent to
the true ground-plan diminilhes, till, at a certain degree
of the flope, it becomes nothing at all j the two plans
AP and Ap being the fame, fo that parallel lines drawn
upon them would always appear fo. If the inclina¬
tion below the horizon is carried beyond the fituation
AP, the error will increafe; and what is very remark¬
able, it. will be on the contrary fide ; the apparent plan
A r being always below the true plan AH, fo that if a
perfon would draw upon the plan AR lines that lhall
appear parallel to the eye, they muft be drawn conver¬
ging, and not diverging, as is ufual on the level ground :
becaufe they muft be the projeftions of two lines ima¬
gined to be parallel, on the plan A r, which is more in¬
clined to the horizon than AR.
Thefe remarks, he obferves, are applicable to differ¬
ent planes expofed to the eye at the fame time. For if
4‘ bf the fyont. of a building, at the diftance Fig. 4.
oi AB from the eye, it will be reduced in appearance to
the diftance. A b ; and the front of the building will be
b h, rather inclined towards the fpe&ator, unlefs the di¬
ftance be inconfiderable.
After, making a great number of obfervations upon
this fubjeft, our author concludes, that when a man
Hands upon a level plane, it does not feem to rife fenftbly
but at fome diftance from him. R he apparent plane,
therefore, has a curvature in it, at that diftance, the
form of which is not very eafy to determine ; fo that a
man Handing upon a level plane, of infinite extent, will
imagine that he Hands in the centre of a bafon. This is
alfo, in fome meafure, the cafe with a perfon Handing
upon the level of the fea. &
He. concludes with obferving, that there is no diffi¬
culty in drawing lines according to thefe rules, fo as to
have any given effeft upon the eye, except when fome
parts of the profpeft are very near the fpeflator, and
others very diftant from him, becaufe, in this cafe, re¬
gard muft be had to the conical or conoidal figure of a
fiirface. A right line pafling at a fmall diftance from
the obferver, and below7 the level of his eye, in that cafe
almoft always appears fenfibly curved at a certain di¬
ftance from the eye; and almoft all figures in this cafe
are. fubjeft to fome complicated optical alteration to
which the rules of perfpe&ive have not as yet been ex¬
tended. If a circle be drawn near our feet, and within
th3t
Theory. OPT
Api. are:it that part of the ground which appears level to us, it
place, &lc. always appear to be a circle, and at a very confi-
.ot °^'eas- derable difiance it will appear an ellipfe ; but between
thefe two fituations, it will not appear to be either the
one or the other, but will be like one of thofe ovals of
Defcartes, which is more curved on one of its Tides than
the other.
On thefe principles a parterre, which appears dxf-
torted when it is feen in a low fituation, appears per¬
fectly regular when it is viewed from a balcony or
any other eminence. Still, however, the apparent ir¬
regularity takes place at a greater diftsace, while the
part that is near the fpeClator is exempt from it. If
Fig. 5- AB, fig-5. be the ground-plan, and A be a per¬
pendicular, under the eye, the hierher it is fituated, at
O, to the greater diftance will ’I, the place at which
the plane begins to have an apparent afeent along T b,
I9Z be removed.
Vifible mo- All the varieties that can occur with refpeCl; to the
tion of ob- vifible motion of objects, are thus fuccinCtly fummed
jeeb. Up ky j)r porterfield under eleven heads.
x. An object moving very fwiftly is not feen, nnlefs
it be very luminous. Thus a cannon ball is not feen if
it is viewed tranfverfely : but if it be viewed accord¬
ing to the line it deferibes, it may be feen, becaufe its
picture continues long on the fame place of the retina $
which, therefore, receives a more fenfible impreflion
from the object.
2. A live coal fwung brifkly round in a circle ap¬
pears a continued circle of fire, becaufe the irnpreflions
made on the retina by light, being of a vibrating, and
confequently of a laiting nature, do not prefently pe-
rifli, but continue till the coal performs its whole circuit,
and returns again to its former place.
3. If two objects, unequally diltant from the eye,
move with equal velocity, the more remote one will
appear the flower } or, if their celerities be propor¬
tional to their diftances, they will appear equally fwift.
4. If two objects, unequally dilfant from the eye,
move with unequal velocities in the fame direction, their
apparent velocities are in a ratio compounded of the
direct ratio of their true velocities, and the reciprocal
one of their diftances from the eye.
5. A vifible object moving with any velocity appears
to be at reft, if the fpace deferibed in the interval of
one fecond be imperceptible at the diftance of the eye.
Hence it is that a near obje£t moving very flowly, as
the index of a clock, or a remote one very fwiftly, as a
planet, feems to be at reft. ^
6. An object moving with any degree of velocity
will appear at reft, if the fpace it runs over in a fe¬
cond of time be to its diftance from the eye as 1 to
1400.
7. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to
another, a lateral object, not too far off, whether on the
right or left, will feem to move the contrary way.
8. The eye proceeding ftraight from one place to
another, and being fenfible of its motion, diftant objects
will feem to move the fame way, and with the fame ve¬
locity. Thus, to a perfon running eaftwards, the moon
on his right hand appears to move the fame way, and
with equal ftviftnefs; for, on account of its diftance, its
image continues fixed upon the fame place of the retina,
from whence we imagine that the object moves along
with the- eye.
I C S. 2*45.
9. If the eye and the object move both the fame way, Apparent
only the eye much fwifter than the object, the lalt will
appear to go backwards. .j- ^ <
10. If two or more objects move with the fame velo¬
city, and a third remain at reft, the moveable ones will
appear fixed, and the quiefeent one in motion the con¬
trary way. Thus when clouds move very fwiftly, their
parts feem to preferve their fituation, and the moon to
move the contrary way.
11. If the eye be moved with great velocity, lateral
objects at reft appear to move the contrary way.
Thus to a perfon fitting in a coach, and riding brifkly
through a wood, the trees feem to retire the contrary
way 5 and to people in a fhip, &c. the fhores feem to
recede. 193
At the conclufion of thefe obfervations, Dr Porter-Br Porter¬
field endeavours to explain another phenomenon of
tion, which, though common and well known, had not ;cc^ a,)_
been explained in a fatisfadlory manner. It is this : If pearing to
a perfon turns fwiftly round, without changing his move to a
place, all objects about will feem to move round in a S'cl(’y Per-
circle the contrary way; and this deception continues j^n
not only while the perfon himfelf moves round, but, are both at
which is more furprifing, it alfo continues for fome time reft,
after he ceafes to move, when the eye, as well as the. ob-
jeft, is at abfolute reft.
The reafon why objects appear to move round the
contrary way, when the eye turns round, is not fo diffi¬
cult to explain : for though, properly fpeaking,. motion
is not feen, as not being in itfelf the immediate object
of fight; yet by the fight we eafily know when the
image changes its place on the retina, and thence con¬
clude that either tile obje£t,.the eye, or both, are moved.
But by the fight alone we can never determine how far.
this motion belongs to the objecl, how far to the eye,
or how far to both. If we imagine the eye at reft, we
aferibe the whole motion to the objedt, though it be tru¬
ly at reft. If we imagine the objedt at reft, we aferibe
the whole motion to the eye, though it belongs entire¬
ly to the object; and when the eye is in motion, though
we are fenfible of its motion, yet, if we do not imagine
that it moves fo fwiftly as it really does, we aferibe on¬
ly a part of the motion to the eye, and the reft of it
we aferibe to the object, though it be adtually at reft.
This laft, he fays, is what happens in the prefent cafe,
when the eye turns round; for though wTe are fenfible
of the motion of the eye, yet we do not apprehend that
it moves fo faft as it really does ; and therefore the bo¬
dies about appear to move the contrary way, as is agree¬
able to experience.
But the great difficulty ftill remains, viz. Why, after
the eye ceafes to move, objedts ffiould, for fome time,,
ftill appear to continue in motion, though their pictures
on the retina be really at reft, and do not at all change
their place. This, he imagined, proceeds from a miftake
we are in with refpedl to the eye, which, though it be..
abfolutely at reft, we neverthefefs conceive as moving
the contrary way to that in which it moved before ;
from which miftake, with refpedl to the motion of the
eye, the objedts at reft will appear to move the fame way
which the eye is imagined to move ; and, confequently,
will feem to continue their motion for fome time after
the eye is at reft. jjr \Veii5
This is ingenious, but perhaps not juft. An ac-accounts
count of this matter, which feems to us more fatisfac- for this phe-
tcry, noinenon‘
246
Apparent
place, &c.
.of objects.
195 ^
XJpon what
data we
judge vifi-
ble objedls
to be i;i
motion or
at reft.
tory, has been lately given to the public by Dr Wells.
“ Some of the older writers upon optics (fays this inge-
_ nious philofopher) imagined the vifive fpirits to be con¬
tained in the head, as water is in a vefiel 5 which, there¬
fore, when once put in motion by the rotation of our bo¬
dies, muft continue in it for (bme after this has ceafed ;
and to this real circular movement of the vilive fpirits,
while the body is at reft, they attributed the apparent
motions of obje&s in giddinefs. Dechales faw the
weaknefs of this hypothefis ; and conje&ured, that the
phenomenon might be owing to a real movement of the
eyes 5 but produced no faft in proof of his opinion.
Dr Porterfield, on the contrary, fuppofed the difficulty
of explaining it to confift in ftiowing, why obje&s at
reft appear in motion to an eye which is alfo at reft.
The folution he offered of this reprefentation of the
phenomenon, is not only extremely ingenious, but is, I
believe, the only probable bne which can be given. It
does not apply, however, to the fadt which truly exifts j
for I ffiall immediately ffiow, that the eye is not at reft,
as he imagined. The laft author I know of who has
touched upon this fubjeef is Dr Darwin. His words
are, ‘ When any one turns round rapidly on one foot
till he becomes dizzy, and falls upon the ground, the
fpeftra of the ambient objedls continue to prefent them-
felves in rotation, or appear to librate, and he feems to
behold them for feme time in motion.’ I do not in¬
deed pretend to underftand his opinion fully 5 but this
much feems clear, that if fuch an apparent motion of
the lurrounding objedls depends in any way upon their
fpeclra, or the illufive reprefentations of thofe objects,
occafioned by their former impreffions upon the retinas,
no fimilar motion would be obferved, were we to turn
ourfelves round with our eyes ffiut, and not to open them
till we became giddy ; for in this cafe, as the furround¬
ing objedfs could not fend their pidlures to the retinas,
there would confequently be no fpedlra to prefent them-
felves afterward in rotation. But whoever will make
the experiment, will find, that objedts about him appear
to be equally in motion, when he has become giddy by
turning himfelf round, whether this has been done with
his eyes open or ffiut. I ffiall now venture to propofe
my own opinion upon this fubjedt.
“ If the eye be at reft, we judge an objedl to be in
motion when its pidlure falls in fucceeding times upon
different parts of the retina; and if the eye be in mo¬
tion, we judge an objedl to be at reft, as long as the
change in the place of its pidlure upon the retina holds
a certain correfpondence with the change of the eye’s
pofition. Let us now ffippofe the eye to be in motion,
while, from fome diforder in the fyftem of fenfation, we
are either without thofe feelings which indicate the va¬
rious pofitions of the eye, or are not able to attend to
them. It is evident, that in fuch a ftate of things an
objedl at reft muft appear to be in motion, fince it fends
in fucceeding times its pidlure to different parts of the
retina. And this feems to be what happens in giddi¬
nefs. I was firft led to think fo from obferving, \hat,
during a flight fit of giddinefs I was accidentally feized’
•with, a coloured fpot, occafioned by looking fteadily at
a luminous body, and upon which I happened at that
moment to be making an experiment, was moved in a
manner altogether independent of the pofitions I conceiv¬
ed my eyes to poffefs. To determine this point, I again
produced the fpot, by looking fome time at the flame o'f
4
OPTICS.
* Part I.
a candle : then turning myfelf round till I became gid- Apparent
uy, 1 luddenly difeontinued this motion, and directed place, &c.
my eyes to the middle of a ffieet of paper, fixed upon of ol)Je^s-<
the nail of my chamber, d'he fpot now appeared upon v
the paper, but only for a moment 5 for it immediately
alter feemed to move to one fide, and the paper to the
other, notwithftanding I conceived the pofition of my I0(;
eyes to e m the mean while unchanged. To go on Curious ex-
nun the experiment, when the paper and fpot had pro-Pe'’me,,ts
ceedfed to a certain diftance from each other, they ffid-to.af<:ertain
denly came together again j and this feparation and con-t^3'
jundlion jvere alternately repeated a number of times,
the limits of the feparation gradually becoming lefs, till
at length the paper and fpot both appeared to be at’reft
and the latter to be projeded upon the middle of the
former. I found alfo, upon repeating and varying the
experiment a little, that when I had turned myfelffrom
left to right, the paper moved Tom right to left, and
the fpot confequently the contrary way 5 but that when
I had turned from right to left, the paper would then
move from left to right. Lhefe were the appearances
obferved while I flood ered. When I inclined, how¬
ever, my head in fuch a manner as to bring the fide of
my face parallel to the horizon, the fpot and paper would
then move from each other, one upward and the other
downward. But all thefe phenomena demonftrate, that
there was a real motion in my eyes at the time I imagi¬
ned them to be at reft 5 fbr the apparent fituation of
the fpot, with refped to the paper, could not poffibly
have been altered, without a real change of the pofition
of thofe organs. I o have the fame thing proved in
another way, I defired a perfon to turn quickly round,
till he became very giddy 5 then to flop himfelf, and’
look ftedfaftly at me_ He did fo, and I could plainly
fee, that although he thought his eyes were fixed, they
were in reality moving in their fockets, firft toward one
fide and then toward the other.”
M. Le Cat well explains a remarkable deception, by a remark-
which a perfon ffiall imagine an objeft to be on the op- able deeep-
pofite fide of a board, when it is not fo, and alfo invert- don ex-
ed and magnified. It is illuftrated by fig. 6. in which Plai,neiby
D reprefents the eye, and CB a large black board,
pierced with a fmall hole. E is a large white board, ccclxxxiv.
placed beyond it, and ftrongly illuminated ; and r/ a pin, Fig. 6.
or other fmall objeft, held betwixt the eye and the firft
board. In thefe circumftances, the pin ffiall be imagi¬
ned to be at F, on the other fide of the board, where it
win appear inverted and magnified 5 becaufe what
is in fadt perceived, is the ftiadow of the pin upon the
iciina j and the light that is flopped by the upper part
of the pin coming from the lower part of the enlighten¬
ed board, and that which is flopped by the lower part
coming from the upper part of the board, the ffiadow
muft neceffarily be inverted with refpect to the objedt.
1 his is nothing more than Mr Grey’s experiment, in
which he faw an inverted image of the pin, and which we
have already noticed.
There is a curious phenomenon relating to vifion,
which fome perfons have aferibed to the infledtion of
light, but which Mr Melville explains in a very diffe¬
rent and very firnple manner. Iog
When any opaque body is held at the* diftance of A curimis
three or four inches from the eye, fo that a part of fome phenome-
more diftant luminous objedt, fuch as the window, or the
flame of a candle, may be feen by rays paffing near its Melville.*
edge,
V
Theory. OPT
Apparent edge, if another opaque body, nearer to the eye, be
P ace-’ ^ ' brought acrois from the oppofite fide, the edge of the
.0l H'~1eL firfl body will feem to fwell outwards, and meet the lat¬
ter ; and in doing fo will intercept a portion of the lu¬
minous objedl that was feen before.
This appearance he explains in the following manner :
Fig. 7. Let AB reprefent the luminous obi eel to which the fight
is dire£led, CD the more difiant opaque body, GH the
nearer, and EF the diameter of the pupil. Join ED,
ED, EG, EG, and produce them till they meet AB in
K, N, M, and L. It is plain that the parts AN, MB,
of the luminous objeft cannot bi» feen. But taking any
point a between N and K, and drawing aT) d, fince the
portion d Y oi the pupil is filled with light flowing from
that point, it mufit be vifible. Any point Z>, between a
and K, mull fill fY, a greater portion of the pupil, and
therefore muft appear brighter. Again, Any point c
between b and K, mult appear brighter than b, becaufe
it fills a greater portion g F with light. The point K
itfelf, and every other point in the fpace KL, mufl ap¬
pear very luminous, fince they fend entire pencils of
rays EKF, ELF, to the eye;- and the vifible bright-
nefs of every point from L towards M, mufl decreafe
gradually, as from K to N, that Is, the fpaces KN, LM,
will appear as dim fliadowy borders, or fringes, adja¬
cent to the edges of the opaque bodies.
When the edge G is brought to touch the right line
KF, the penumbras unite •, and as foon as it reaches
NDF, the above phenomenon begins ; for it cannot pafs
that right line without meeting fome line a D d, drawn
from a point between N and K, and, by intercepting all
the rays that fall upon the pupil, render it invifible. In
advancing gradually to the line KDE, it will meet
other lines bY)f cD g, &c. and therefore render the
points b, c, &c. fromi N to K, fucceflively invifible ; and
therefore the edge of the fixed opaque body CD muft
feem to fwell outwards, and cover the whole fpace NK ;
while Gfl, by its motion, covers MK. When GH is
placed at a greater diitance from the eye, CD continu¬
ing fixed, the fpace OP to be paffed over in order to in¬
tercept NK is lefs; and therefore, with an equal motion
of GH, the apparent fwelling of CD mull be quicker ;
which is found true by exjienence.
If ML reprefent a luminous obje£l, and REFQ any
plane expofed to its light, the fpace FO will be entire¬
ly fhaded from the rays, and the fpace FE will be oc¬
cupied by a penumbra, gradually darker, from E to F.
Let now GH continue fixed, and CD move parallel to
the plane EF ; and as foon as it pafles the line LF, it
is evident that the fhadow OF will feem to fwell out¬
wards j and when CD reaches ME, io as to cover with
its lhadow the fpace RE, QF, by its extenfion, will co¬
ver FE. I his is found to hold true likewife by experi¬
ment.
Sect. X. On Aberration of Figure or Sphericity.
*99 .
Theory of THE great practical ufe of <be fcience of optics is to
aberration. aH human fight 5 but it has been repeatedly obferved
during the progrefs of this article, that in confirucling
dioptrical infiruments for this purpofe, great difficulties
arife from the aberration of light. It has been fhown
Plate bow to determine the concourfe of any refracted ray
ccdxxvni. PF’ with the ray RVCF’, which pafles through the
centre C, and therefore falls, perpendicularly on the
I c s.
fpherical furface at the vertex V, and fuffers no refrac¬
tion. Ihis is the conjugate focus to R for the two rays
RP, RV, and for another ray flowing from R and
falling on the furface at an equal diftance on the op-
ponte fide to P. In fhort, it is the conjugate focus
for all the rays flowing from R and falling on the fphe¬
rical furface in the circumference of a circle deferibed
by the revolution of the point P round the axis RVCF:
that is, of all the rays which occupy the conical fiirl
face deferibed by the revolution of RP, and the re-
fraclet! rays occupy the conical furface produced by thg
revolution of PF\
But no other rays flowing from R are collefted at F’ y.
for it appeared in the demonftration of that propofition,
that rays incident at a greater diftance from the axis RC
were colledled at a point between C and F’; and then
the rays which are incident on the whole arch PC, or
the fpherical furface generated by its revolution round,
RC, although they all crofs the axis RC, are diffufed
over a certain portion of it, by what has been called
the aberration of figure. It is called alfo (but impro¬
perly) the aberration from the geometrical focus, by
which is meant the focus of an infinitely fiender pencil
of rays, of which the middle ray (or axis of the pencil)
occupies the lens RC, and fuffers no refraflion. But
there is no fuch focus. But if we make wzRV—«RC ;
raRV~VC : VF, the point F is called the geometrical
facus, and is the remoteft limit from C of all the fool
(equally geometrical) of rays flowing from R. The
other limit is eafily determined by conftrucling the pro¬
blem for the extreme point of the given arch.
It is evident from the conftrudion, that while the
point of incidence P is near to V, the line CK increafes
but very little, and therefore CF diminiihes little, and
the refracted rays are but little diffufed from F ; and
therefore they are much denfer in its vicinity than any
other point of the axis. It will foon be evident that
they are incomparably denfer. It is on this account
that the point F has been called the conjugate focus to
R, and the geometrical focus, and the diffufion has been
called aberration. A geometrical point R is thus repre-
fented by a very fmall circle at F, and F has drawn the
chief attention. And as, in the performance of optical
inftruments, it is neceffary that this extended reprefen-
tation of a mathematical point R be very fmall, that it
may not fenfibly interfere with the reprefentations of
the points adjacent to R, and thus caufe indiftindl vifion,
a limit is thus fet to the extent of the refradling furface
which muft be employed to produce this reprefentation.
But this evidently diminiihes the quantity of light, and
lenders the vifion obfeure though diftindl. Artifts have
therefore endeavoured to execute refracting furfaces of
forms not fpherical, v.hich colleCt accurately to one
point the light iffuing from another, and the mathema¬
ticians have furniflied them with forms having this pro*
perty : but their attempts have been fruitlefs. Spheri¬
cal furfaces are the only ones which can be executed
with accuracy. All are done by grinding the refradting
fubftance in a mould of proper materials. When this
is fpherical, the two work themfelves, with moderate at¬
tention, into an exadl fphere 5 becaufe if any part is
more prominent than another, it is ground away, and
the whole gets of neceffity one curvature. And it is"
aftonifliing to what degree of accuracy this is dene. An
-error of the millionth part of an inch would totally de-
ftrey
248
Of
Aberration
Plate
ccclxxkiv,
Fig. 1.
200
How to re¬
medy the
evils of ab¬
erration.
OPT
fttoy the figure of a mirror of an inch focal diftance,
_ ‘0 as make it ufelefs for the coarfelf inftrument.
J herefore all attempts to make other figures are given
up. Indeed other reafons make them worfe than iphe-
lical, even when accurately executed. They would not
colledl to accurate focufes the rays of oblique pencils.
It is‘evident from thefe obfervations, that the theory
of aberrations is abfolutely neceffary for the fuccefsful
conltruftion of optical inftruments ; and it muft be ac¬
ceptable to the reader to have a fhort account of it in
this place. Enough fliall be faid here to ihow the
’general nature and effedls of it in optical inftruments,
-and in fome of the more curious phenomena of nature.
Under the article Telescope the fubjeft will be refum-
ed, in fuch a manner as to enable the reader who pof-
fieffes a very moderate ftiare of mathematical knowledge,
n.ot .01?tyto unfierftand how aberrations are increafed and
diminiftied, but alfo how, by a proper employment of
contrary aberrations, their hurtful eftefts may be almqfl
entirely removed in all important cafes. And the man¬
ner m which the lubjecl ftiall be treated in the prefent
general iketch, will have the advantage of pointing out
at the fame time the maxims of conftrudtion of the
greateft part of optical inftruments, which generally
produce their effects by means of pencils of rays which
are either out of the axis altogether, or are oblique to
it j cafes which are feldom confidered in elementary
treatifes of optics.
Let PV tt be a fpherical furface of a refracting fub-
ftance (glafs for inftance), of which C is the centre, and
let an indefinitely {lender pencil of rays AP #/> be inci¬
dent on it, in a direction parallel to a ray CV palling
through the. centre. It is required to determine the
locus f of this pencil.
Let AP be refraded into PE. Draw Cl, CR the
fines of incidence and refra&ion, and CP the radius.
Draw RB perpendicular to CP, and B/ parallel to
AP or CV. I fay, firft, / is the focus of the inde¬
finitely flender pencil, or, more accurately fpeaking, f
is.the remoteft limit from P of the concourfe of rays
'with PF’ refracted by points lying without the arch
VP, or the neareft limit for rays incident between V
and P.
Draw the radius Cpc\ the line pf; and draw pg
parallel to ¥f, and P 0 perpendicular to ¥f It is
■evident, that if / be the focus, c'p f is the angle of
refraaion correfponding to the angle of incidence, apC
as C’P/is the angle correfponding to APC. Alfo
PC/> is the increment of the angle of incidence, and
the angle c'pg is equal to the fum of the angle C’P/
and C’Cc, and the angle gpf h equal to the angle
pfV. Therefore .c>/=C,P/-j-P, C/>,4- P//.. There¬
fore PC/>-f- ¥fp is the correfponding increment of the
angle of refraaion. Alfo, becaufe RPo—CP/> (being
right angles) the angle />Po=rRPC, and Po : P/,—
PR : PC. 1
Therefore by a preceding Lemma in this article,
we have PC/.-f P//.: PC/-tan. ref. : tan. incid.=
T, R : T, I; and ¥fp : PC/—T, R—T, I : T, I,
rrdiff. : T, I j but P// : PC/=^:-^-^-^
7 P/ Pc~P/ PC’
— PR : Py^rrDR : DB (becaufe DP is parallel to By'
by conftruaion)—tan. CPR—tan. CPI: tan. CPI. Now
-CPI is the angle of incidence j and therefore CPR is
^ Part I,
the angle properly correfportdihg tG It as an angle df re- Of
xraaion, and the point yds properly determined. Aberration.
Hence tire following rule. Ar the difference of the ~l
tangents of incidence arid refradlion is to the tangent of
incidence, fo is the radius of the furface multiplied by the
cojine of refraaion to the difance of the focus of an inf-
nitely fender pencil ofparallel incident rays.
A. B. We here confider the cofine of refraaion as a
number. This was firft done by the celebrated Euler,
and is one of the greateft improvements in mathematics
which this century can boaft of. The fines, tangents,
lecants, &c. are confidered as fraaional numbers, of
which the radius is unity. Thus, CP x fin. 30°, is the
lame thing with--CP, or—. And in like manner,
2 2 '
32
urawn perpendicular to tire axis xhn. if 2(6' it"
is the fame thing with - of CB. Alfo —   
. , r ,. . 3 cof. 6o°
is the lame thing with ttvice CB, &c.
In this manner, BEzrBC x fin. BCE, and alfo BE
^CE x tan. BCE, and CB=CExfec. BCE, &c. &c.
iriis manner of confidering the lines which occur in.
geometrical conftruftions is of immenfe ufe in all parts
of mixed mathematics; and nowhere more remarkably
than in optics, the moft beautiful example of them. Of
this an important inftance ihall notv be given.
Cor. 1. ’} he diftance y'G of this lateral focus from
the axis CV (that is, from the line drawn through the
centre parallel to the incident light) is proportional to
the cube of the femi-aperture PH of the fpherical fur¬
face.
For/G=BE. Now BE—CB x fin. BCE, =CB
Xfin. CPA; and CB = RCx cof. RCB, =RCxlin.
Cx R, and RCrrCPxfin. CPR : Therefore BEzrPC
X fin.2 CPR x fin. PCA, =: PC x fin.2 refr. x fin. incid.
m*
but fin.2 refr.rr—j-fin.2 incid. Therefore, finally, BE,
77}^
or-^'C~PC x-^-Xfin.3 incid. : But PC, fin. incid. is
evidently PH the femi-aperture ; therefore the propofi-
tion is manifeft.
Cor. 2. Now let this {lender pencil of rays be inci¬
dent at the vertex V. The focus will now be a point
F in the axis, determined by making CV : C¥~in 
n : m.. Let the incident pencil gradually recede from
the axis Cl, ftill, however, keeping parallel to it. The
focus/will always be found in a curve line DC'F, fo
conftituted that the ordinate G will be as the cube of
the line PH,, perpendicular to the axis intercepted be¬
tween the axis and that point of the furface which is cut
by a tangent to the curve in/
All the refrafted rays will be tangents to this curve,
and the adjacent rays wall crofs each other in thefe la¬
teral foci f; and wall therefore be incomparably more
denfe along the curve than anywhere within its area.
Lhis is finely illuftrated by receiving on white paper
the light of the fun refra&ed through a globe or cylin¬
der of glafs filled with water. If the paper is held pa¬
rallel to the axis of the cylinder, and clofe to it, the il¬
luminated part wall be bounded by twm very bright pa¬
rallel lines, where it is cut by the curve ; and theie lines
wall gradually approach each other as the paper is with¬
drawn from the veffel, till they coalefce into one very
bright
2
Theory.
OPT
Of bright line at F, or near it. If the paper be held with
Aberration. jts en(j touching the veffel, and its plane nearly perpen-
v dicular to the axis, the whole progrefs of the curve will
be diftinftly feen.
As fuch globes were ufed for burning glafles, the
point of greateit condenfation (which is very near but
not exactly in F) was called the focus. When thefe
curves were obferved by Mr Tchirnhaufs, he called them
caujlics ; and thole formed by refradlion he called dia-
caujtics, to diftinguilh them from the catacanf ics formed
by reflection.
It is fomewhat furprifing, that thefe curves have been
fo little fludied fmce the time of Tchirnhaufs. The doc¬
trine of aberrations has indeed been confldered in a man¬
ner independent on their properties. But whoever con-
fiders the progrefs of rays in the eye-piece of optical in-
Itruments, will fee that the knowledge of the properties
of diacauitic curves determines directly, and almoft ac¬
curately, the foci and images that are formed there.
I-or, let the objeCt-glafs of a telefcope or microfcope be of
any dimenfions, the pencils incident on the eye-glaffes are
almolt all of this evanefcent bulk. Thefe advantages will
be fhown in their proper places : and we proceed at pre-
fent to extend our knowledge of aberrations in general,
firlt confidering the aberrations of parallel incident
rays.
^Abiding by the inftance reprefented by the figure,
it is evident that the cauftic will touch the furface in a
point <p, fo lituated that c(p : $x,—m : n. The refract¬
ed ray <p<l> will touch the furface, and will crofs the
axis in <P, the neareft limit of diffufion along the axis.
It the furface is of fmaller extent, as PV, the cauftic
begins at^ when the extreme refracted ray P f touches
the cauftic, and croffes the axis in F’, and the oppofite
branch of the cauftic in K. If there be drawn an ordi¬
nate KO£ to the cauftic, it is evident that the whole
light incident on the furface PVn pafles through the
circle whofe diameter is K£, and that the circle is the
fmalleft fpace which receives all the refrafted light.
It is of great importance to confider the manner in
which the light is diftributed over the furface of this
circle of fmalleft diffufion : for this is the reprefenta-
drcS16^1!011 0ne P°*nt t^le ^finitely diftant radiant object,
diffufion. Each point of a planet, for inftance, is reprefented by
this little circle ; and as the circles reprefenting the dif¬
ferent adjacent points muft interfere with each other, an
indiftm&nefs muft arife fimilar to what is obferved when
we view an objedft through a pair of fpe&acles which do
not fit the eye. The indiftindftnefs muft be in propor¬
tion to the number of points whofe circles of diffufion
interfere ^ that is, to the area of thefe circles, provided
that the light is uniformly diffufed over them : but if it
be very rare at the circumference, the impreflion made
by the circles belonging to the adjacent points muft be
lefs fenfible. Accordingly, Sir Ifaac Newton, fuppofing
it incomparably rarer at the circumference than towards
the centre, affirms that the indiftinftnefs of telefcopes,
arifing from the fpherical figure of the obje<ff-glafs, was
fome thoufand times lefs than that arifing from the un¬
equal refrangibility of light; and therefore, that the at¬
tempts to improve them by diminilhing or removing this
aberration were needlefs, while the indiftinftnefs from
unequal refrangibility remained. It is furprifing, that a
philofopher fo eminent for fagacity and for mathematical
knowledge ftiould have made fuch a miftake, and un-
Vol. XV. Part I.
201
How light
is diftribu¬
ted over
I C S.
fortunate that the authority of his great name hindered Of
others from examining the matter, trufting to his af- Aberration.
fertion that the light was fo rare at the border of this v
circle. His miftake is furprifing, becaufe the very na¬
ture of a cauftic ffiould have {bowed him that the light
was infinitely denfe at the borders of the circle of
fmalleft diffufion. The firft perfon who detefted this
overfight of the Britiffi philofopher was the Abbe Bof-
covich, who, in a differtation publiffied at Vienna in
1767, fhowed, by a very beautiful analyfis, that the
diftribution was extremely different from what Newton
had afferted, and that the fuperior indiftimftnefs arifing
from unequal refragibility was incomparably lefs than
he had faid. We {hall attempt to make this delicate
and interefting matter conceived by thofe who have but
fmall mathematical preparation.
Let the curve DVZCI c%v d he the cauftic (magni- Plate
fied), El its axis, I the focus of central rays, B the fo-CCCLXXXVI.
cus of extreme rays, and IB the line containing the foci 2*
of all the intermediate rays, and CO c the diameter of
the circle of fmalleft diffufion.
It is plain, that from the centre O there can be
drawn two rays OV, O v, touching the cauftic in V, v.
Iherefore the point O will receive the ray EO, which
paffes through the vertex of the refracting furface, and
all the rays which are incident on the circumference of
a circle defcribed on the refracting furface by the extre¬
mity of the ray OV, or O The denfity of the light
at O will therefore be indefinitely great.
From the point C there can be drawn two rays 5 one
of them CX touching the cauftic in C, and the other
C, touching it at d on the oppofite fide. The rays
which touch the cauftic in the immediate vicinity of Cy,
both in the arch CV and the arch Cl will cut OC in
points indefinitely near to each other y becaufe their di-
ftance from each other in the line OC will be to their
uniform diftance on the refracting furface as the diftance
between their points of conta<ft with the cauftic to the
diftance of thefe points from the refracting furface.
Here therefore at C the denfity of the light will alfo be
indefinitely great.
From any point H, lying between O and C, may
be drawn three rays. One of them LHT, P, touching
the arch CD of the cauftic in 1, cutting the refradting
furface -in P, and the axis in L: another t H/>, touch¬
ing the arch Cl of the cauitic in t. The third is H r w,
touching the arch c d of the oppofite branch of the cau¬
ftic in r.
It will greatly affift our conception of this fubjedl, Fig. r.
if we confider a ray of light from the refrading fur¬
face as a thread attached at I of this figure, or at F
of fig. 1. and gradually unlapped from the cauftic
■DVCI on one fide, and then lapped on the oppofite
branch 1 cvd; and attend to the point of its interfec-
tion with the diameter c OC of the circle of fmalleft
diffufion.
Iherefore, 1. Let the ray be firft fuppofed to pafs
through the refra&ing furface at F, the right hand
extremity of the aperture. The thread is then folded
up on the whole right hand branch ICVD of the
cauftic j and if the ftraight part of it FD be produced,
it will cut the diameter of the circle of fmalleft diffu¬
fion in the oppofite extremity c. Or fuppofe a. ruler
in place of the thread, applied to the cauftic at D and
to the refracting furface at* F, the part of it D c,
I i which
I
250 OPT
Of which is detached from the cauftic, cuts COi1 in the
Aberration, pyhw c. 2. No’v fuppofe.the ruler to revolve gra¬
dually, its extremity moving acrofs the arch FAf of
the refracting furface while the edge is applied to the
cauftic; the point of contact with the caultic will
ftrift gradually down the branch BV of the cauftic,
while its edge paiTes acrofs the line c C \ and when the
point of contact arrives at V, the extremity will be at
Y on the refracting furface, and the interfection of the
edge will be at O. 3. Continuing the motion, the
point of contact fhifts from V to Z, the extremity
from Y to O’, and the interfection from O to Q, fo
OQ*
that OQ2= —, as will prefently appear. 4. After
this, the point of contact will fhift from Z to C,
the extremity from O’ to X, halfway from F to A,
as will foon be fhown, and the interfection from O to
C. 5“. The point of contact will now fhift from C
down to I, the extremity will pafs from X to A, and
the interfection will go back from C to O. 6. The
ruler muft now be applied to the other branch of the
cauftic I czvd, and the point of contact will at end
from I to c, the extremity will pafs from A to x, half
way to f from A, and the interfection from O to c,
7. The point of contact will afcend from C to 3, the
extremity pafles from x to 71, and the interfection from
Or*
C to y, Oy* being — . 8. While the contact of
the ruler and cauflic fhifts from 2 to v, the extremity
fhifts from y’ to y, and the interfection from y to O.
9. The contact rifes from v to d, the extremity pafles
from y to f and the interfection from O to C 5 and then
the motion acrofs the refracting furface is completed,
the point of contact fhifting down from D to I along
the branch DVZCI, and then afcending along the other
branch \ c % v d, while the interfection paflfes from c to
C, back again from C to c, and then back again from c
to C, where it ends, having thrice pafled through every
20Z intermediate point of c C.
Denfity of We may form a notion of the density of the light
light. in any point H, by fuppoftng the incident light of uni¬
form denfity at the refracting furface, and attending
to the conftipation of the rays in the circle of fmalleft
diflfufion. Their vicinity may be eftimated both in the
direction of the radii OH, and in the direction of the
circumference defcribed by its extremity H, during its.
revolution round the axis •, and the denfity muft be con¬
ceived as proportional to the number of originally equidi-
ftant rays, which are collected into a fpot of given area.
Thefe have been collected from a correfponding fpot or
area of the refracting furface ; and as the number of rays
is the fame in both, the denfity at H will be to the
denfity of the refracting furface, as the area occupied
of the refracting furface to the correfponding area at H.
The vicinity of the rays in the direction of the radius
depends on the proportion between PT and TH.
For the ray adjacent to PTH may be fuppofed to crofs
it at the point of contact T ; and therefore the uniform
diftance between them at the furface of that medium
is to the diftance between the fame rays at H as the
diftance of T from the refracting furface to its diftance
from H. Therefore the number of rays which occupy
a tenth of an inch, for example, of the radius AP, is
to'the number which would occupy a tenth of an inch
H as TH to TPj and the radial denfity at P is to the
I CS. part x,
radial denfity at H, alfo as TH to TP. In the next place, Of
The circumferential denfity at P is to that at H as the ra- Aberration,
dius AP to the radius OH. For fuppofing the figure to
turn round its axis AI, the point P of the refracting
furface will defcribe a circumference whofe radius is
AP, and H will defcribe a circumference vchofe radius
is OH ; and the whole rays which pafs through the firft
circumference pafs alfo through the laft, and therefore
their circumferential denfities wall be in the inverfe
proportion of the fpaces into which they are collected.
Now the radius AP is to the radius OH as AL to
OL; and circumferences have the fame proportion
with their radii. Therefore the circumferential den¬
fity at P is to that in H as AL to OL inverfely 5 and
it was found that the radial denfity w7as as AN to
ON inverfely, being as TH to TP, which are very
nearly in this ratio. Therefore the abfolute denfity
(or number of rays collected in a given fpace) at P
wall be to that at H, in the ratio compounded of thefe
ratios j that is, in the ratio of ON X OL to AN X AL.
But as NL bears but a very fmall ratio to AN or AL,
AN x AL may be taken as equal to AO* without any
fenfible error. It never differs from it, in telefcopes 100th
part, and is generally incomparably fmaller. Therefore
the denfily at H may be confidered as proportional to
ON x OL inverfely. And it will afterwards appear
that NS is =zr 30L. Therefore the denfity at H is in¬
verfely as ON X NS.
Now defcribe a circle on the diameter OS, and
draw NT<p cutting the circumference N^rrON x NS,
and the denfity at H is as Nip* inverfely. This gives
us a very eafy eftimation of the denfity, viz. drawr a line
from the point of contacff of the ray which touches the-
part VC of the cauftic, and the denfity is in the inverfe
fubduplicate ratio of the part of this line intercepted
between the axis and the circumference S<pO. It
will afterwards appear that the denfity correfponding
to this ray is one half of the denfity correfponding
to all the three : or a better expreffion will be had
for the denfity at H by drawing R/3 perpendicular to
Rp, and /3 0 perpendicular to <p /3, making <pf{ in 0;
then tp 0 is as^^-j, or is proportional to the denfity, as is
evident.
When H is at O, N is at S, and p 0 is infinite. As
H moves from O, N defcends, and <p 0 diminifties, till
H comes to £), and T to z, and <p to and 0 to R.
When H moves from C) towards C, T defcends below
z, <p 0 again increafes, till it is again infinite, when H
is at C, T at C, and N at O.
Thus it appears, without any* minute confideration,
that the light has a denfity indefinitely great in the
centre O ; that the denfity decreafes to a minimum
in fome intermediate point Q, and then increafes
again to infinity at the margin C. Hence it follow's,
that the indiftinclnefs arifing from the fpherical figure
of the refrafting furfaces is incomparably greater than
New'ton fuppofed ; and that the valuable difcovery of
Mr Dollond of achromatic lenfes, muft have failed of
anfwering his fond expectations, if his very method of
producing them had not, at the fame time, enabled
him to remove that other indiftinCtnefs by employing
contrary aberrations. And now, fince the difcovery
by Dr Blair of fubftances which difperfe the different
colours in the fame proportions, but very different de-
* grees,
Theory. OPT
Ot grees, has enabled us to employ much larger portions
Aberration 0f t}!c fphere than Mr Dollond could introduce into his
v objeft-glaffes, it becomes abfolutely neceffary to Itudy
this matter completely, in order to difcover and afcertain
the amount of the errors which perhaps unavoidably re-
20, main.
Contrary This flight Iketch of the moft Ample cafe of aber-
aberrations ration, namely, wrhen the incident rays are parallel,
correct wpi ferve to give a general notion of the iubject j and
each other. ^ rea(jer can now {'ce how contrary aberrations may
be employed in order to form an ultimate image which
(hall be as diftinft as poflible. For let it be propofed
Plate to converge parallel rays accurately to the focus A
cccLxxxvi-ky t]le refra£tion of fphefical furfaces of which V
Fig- 3- js vertex. Let P\' be a convex lens of fuch a
form that rays flowflng from A’ and palling through it
immediately round the vertex V are colleded to. the
conjugate focus R, while the extreme ray FP, inci¬
dent on the margin of the lens P, is converged to r,
nearer to V, having the longitudinal aberration . Rr.
Let />V be a plano-concave lens, of luch fphericity
that a ray A/>, parallsl to the axis CV, and incident
on the point p, as far from its vertex V as P in fhe
other lens is from its vertex, is difperfed from r, the
diftance g V being equal to r V, while the central rays
are difperfed from P, as far from V as R is from V.
It is evident, that if thefe lenfes be joined as in Eg. 4.
a ray A’/>, parallel to the common axis CV, will be
coilecled at the diftance VF equal to VF in the fig. 4.
and that rays palling through both lenfes in the neigh¬
bourhood of the axis will be collefted at the lame
point F.
This compound lens is faid to be without Ipheri-
cal aberration; and it is true that the central and the
extreme rays are cob efted in the fame point F : but
the rays which fall on the lens between the centre and
margin are a little diffufed from A', and it is not pof-
fible to colleft them all to one point. For in the rules
for computing the aberration, quantities are neglefted
which do not preferve, in different apertures, the fame
ratio to the quantities retained. The diffuhon is leaft
when the aberration is correfted, not for the very ex¬
tremity, but for a certain intermediate point (varying
wdth the aperture, and having no known ratio.to it) }
and when this is done the compound lens is in its ftate
of greateft perfeftion, and the remaining aberration is
quite infenfible. See Telescope.
Sect. VI. On the different Refrangibility of Light. .
As this property of light folves a great number of the
phenomena which could not be underftood by former
opticians, w'e lhall give an account of it nearly in the
words of Sir Ifaac Newton, who Aril difcovered it; efpe-
cially as his account is more full and perfpicuous than
thole of fucceeding writers.
Pl vte “ In a d»u'k chamber, at a round hole F, about one
cccLKxxm. third of an inch broad, made in the Ihutter of a window,
Fig. x. I placed a glafs prifm ABC, whereby the beam of the
fun’s light, SF, which came in at that hole, might be
refrafted upwards, towrard the oppoAte wTall of the cham¬
ber, and there form a coloured image of the fun, repre-
fented at PT. The axis of the prifm w^as, in this and
the following experiments, perpendicular to the incident
rays. About this axis I turned the prifm flowly, and
I c s.
2 VI
law the refracted or coloured image of the fun, Arft to On the dir-
defcend, and then to afcend. Between the defcent and
afcent, when the image leemed ftationary, I Hopped the '0f £jgtlt,
prifm and Axed it in that pofture. -*—v—'
“ Then 1 let the refracled light fall perpendicularly
upon a Iheet of white paper, MN, placed at the oppo¬
Ate wall of the chamber, and oblerved the Agure and
dimenAons of the folar image, PT, formed on the pa¬
per by that light. This image was oblong, and not
oval, but terminated by tv o reftilinear and parallel Ades
and two femicircular ends. On its Ades it was bounded
pretty diftinftly •, but on its ends very indtftinftly, the
light there vanilhing by degrees. At the diftance ot
18 t feet from the prifm the breadth of the image was
about 2} inches, but its length was about io4 inches,
and the length of its reftilinear fides about 8 inches •,
and ACE, the refrafting angle of the prifm, by which
fo great a length was made, was 64 degrees. With a
lefs angle the length of the image was Ids, the breadth
remaining the fame. It is farther to be obferved, that
the rays went on in ftraight lines from the prifm to the
image, and therefore at their going out of the prifm had
all that inclination to one another from wnich the length
ot the image proceeded. This image PI was coloured,
and the more eminent colours lay in this order from
the bottom at T to the top at P ; red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, violet } together with all their in¬
termediate degrees in a continual fucceflion perpetually
varying.” 204
Our author concludes from this and other experi-i;Lht con-
ments, “ that the light of the fun confifts of a mixture
of feveral forts of coloured rays, fome of wfliich at equal^0i0^re<j
incidences are more refrafted than others, and therefore rays
are called more refrangible. The red at T, being near-iently re-
eft to the place Y, where the rays of the fun would go frangible,
direftly if the prifm was taken away, is the leaft refraft¬
ed of all the rays 5 and the orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet, are continually more and more re¬
frafted, as they are more and more diverted from the
courfe of the direft light. For by mathematical rea--
foning he has proved, that v.’hen the prifm is Axed in
the pofture above mentioned, fo that the place of the
image fhall be the low^eft poflible, or at the limit be-,
tween its defcent and afcent, the Agure of the image
ought then to be round like the fpot at Y, if all the
rays that tended to it were equally refrafted. There¬
fore, Ance it is found by experience that this image is
not round, but about Ave times longer than broad, it
follows, that all the rays are not equally refrafted.
This concluAon is farther conArmed by the following
experiments.
“ In the funbeam SF, which wras propagated into the Fig. 4.
room through the hole in the windowT-flmtter EG, at
the diftance of fome feet from the hole, I held the prifm
ABC in fuch a pofture, that its axis might be perpendi¬
cular to that beam : then I looked through the prifm
upon the hole F, and turning the prifm to and fro about
its axis to make the image p t oi the hole afcend and
delcend, when between its two contrary motions it
feemed ftationary, I flopped the prifm ; in this Atuation
of the prifm, viewing through it the faid hole E, I ob¬
ferved the length of its refrafted image pt to be many
times greater than its breadth; and that the moft re¬
frafted part thereof appeared violet at p; the leaft re¬
frafted. at t; and the middle parts indigo, blue, green,
I i 2 yellow,
252
aTnd 0range’ ln °rder- The fame thing happen-
frangibSty fd 1 removed the prifm out of the fun’s fight, and
of Light, looked through it upon the hole fhining by the light of
<   the clouds beyond it. And yet if the refraftions of all
the rays were equal according to one certain proportion
or the lines of incidence and refraftion, as is vulgarly
mppofed, the refra&ed image ought to have appeared
round, by the mathematical demonllration above men¬
tioned. So then by thefe two experiments it appears
that in equal incidences there is a confiderable inequality
of refractions.” ^ J
. For the difcovery of this fundamental property of
light, which has unfolded the whole myftery of colours
we fee our author was not only beholden to the experi¬
ments themfelves, which many others had made before
him, but alfo to his Ikill in geometry ; which was abfo-
lutely neceffary to determine what the figure of the re-
fraCted image ought to be upon the old principle of an
equal refraftion of all the rays : but having thus made
the difcovery, he contrived the following experiment to
prove it at fight.
Plate “ In the middle of two thin boards, DEi/e I
cccLxxxm. made a. round hole in each, at G and g, a third part
3- of an inch in diameter j and in the window-fhut a much
larger hole being made, at F, to let into my darkened
chamber a large beam of the fun’s light, I placed a
prifm, ABC, behind the {hut in that beam, to refraCf
it towards the oppofite wall; and clofe behind this prifm
I fixed one of the boards DE, in fuch a manner that the
middle of the refra&ed light might pafs through the
hole made in it at G, and the reft be intercepted by the
board. Then at the diftance of about 12 feet from the
firft board, I fixed the other board, </e, in fuch manner
that the middle of the refraaed light, which came
through the hole in the firft board, and fell upon the
oppofite wall, might pafs through the hole g in this
other board de, and the reft being intercepted by the
board, might paint upon it the coloured fpearum of the
fun. And clofe behind this board I fixed another prifm
abc, to refraa the light which came through the hole
g. Then I returned fpeedily to the firft prifm ABC,
and by turning it flowly to and fro about its axis, I
caufed the image vchich fell upon the fecond board d e,
to move up and down upon that board, that all its parts’
might pafs fucceflively through the hole in that board,
and fall upon the prifm behind it. And in the mean
time I noted the’places, M, N, on the oppofite wall, to
which that light after its refraCtion in the fecond prifm
did pafs ; and by the difference of the places at M and
N, 1 found that the light, which being moft refrafted
in the firft prifm ABC, did go to the blue end of the
image, vras again more refrafted by the fecond prifm
abc, than the light which went to the red end of that
image. For when the lower part of the light which
fell upon the fecond board de, was call through the
hole^, it went to a lower place M on the wall; and
when the higher part of that light was caft through the
fame hole g, it went to a higher place N on the wall;
and when any intermediate part of the light was caft
through that hole, it went to fome place in the wall be¬
tween M and N. The unchanged pofition of the holes
in the boards made the incidence of the rays upon the
fecond prifm to be the fame in all cafes. And yet in
that common incidence fome of the rays were more re-
fra&ed and others lefs: and thofe were more refra&ed
° P T .X C . S- . Part I.
m this prifm, which by a greater refra&ion in the firft On the dif-
pri m were more turned out of their way ; and therefore, fcrent re-
r , . •-‘awax w j emu. Liicrciuie.
tor their conftancy of being more refra&ed, are defer-{,anS!billT
vedly called more refrangible.’1'' of Light.
Sir Ifaac (hows alio, by experiments made with con-' ^
V<? j t ^t 18hts> reflected from natural bodies RefleJed
which differ m colour, differ alfo in reffangibility ; and<hffer-
that they differ m the fame manner as the rays of ther"^-^'
fun do. I Lllcfrangible.
“ 1 he fm’s light confifts of rays differing in reflexibi-
hty, and thofe rays are more reflexible than others which
are more .refrangible. A prifm, ABC, whofe two Fig. 4.
angles, at its bale BC, were equal to one another and
haft right ones, and the third at A a right one, I pla-
ced m a beam FM of the fun’s light, let into a dark
chamber through a hole F one third part of an inch
broad. And turning the prifm flowly. about its axis un¬
til the light which went through one of its angles ACB
and was refra&ed by it to G and H, began to be re’-
ne&ed into the line MN by its bafe BC, at which till
™vtWT- ^U1 of the glafs ’ 1 observed that thofe rays,
as MH, which had fuffered the greateft refra&ion, were
fooner refle&ed than the reft. To make it evident that
the rays which vamflied at H were refle&ed into the
beam MN, I made this beam pals through another
pn.m VXY, and being refra&ed by it to fall afterwards
upon a meet of white paper pt placed at fome diftance
behind it, and there by that refra&ion to paint the ufual
colours at p t. Then caufmg the firft prifm to be turned
about its axis according to the order of the letters ABC.
1 oolerved that when thofe rays MH, which in this
pnfm had fuffered the greateft refra&ion, and appeared
blue and violet, began to be totally refle&ed, the blue
and violet light on the paper which was moft refra&ed
m the fecond prifm received a fenfible increafe at ft
above that of the red and yellow at t: and afterwards’
nhen the reft of the light, which was green, yellow’
and red began to be totally refle&ed and vaniftied at
M thie ]lght of t^ofe colours at t, on the paper p t re¬
ceived as great an increafe as the violet and blue’had
received before. Which puts it paft difpute, that thofe
rays became firft of all totally refle&ed at the bafe BC
^hrlcll before at equal incidences with the reft upon the
bale BC had fuffered the greateft refra&ion. I do not
here take any notice of any refraftions made in the
fides AC, AB, of the firft prifm, becaufe the light en¬
ters almoft perpendicularly at the firft fide, and goes*
out almoft perpendicularly at the fecond ; and therefore
fuffersnone orfo little that the angles of incidence
at the bafe BC are not fenfibly altered by it : efpecially
if the angles of the prifm at the bafe BC be each about
4° degrees. For the rays FM begin to be totally re-
flefted when the angle CMF is about 50 degrees, and.
therefore they will then make a right angle of 00 de¬
grees with AC.
“ I* aPpears alfo from experiments, that the beam
of light MN, reflefted by the bafe of the pr^ be;n
augmented firft by the more refrangible rays and after¬
wards by the lefs refrangible, is compofed of rays dif¬
ferently refrangible.
“ The light whofe rays are all alike refrangible, I call
fimple, homogeneous, and fimilar; and that whofe rays
are fome more refrangible than others, I call compound,
heterogeneous, and diffimilar. The former light I call
homogeneous, not becaufe I would affirm it fo in all re-
fpe&s y
Theory. OPT
On the dif- fpe&s 5 but becaufe the rays which agree in refrangibi-
kieiit re- i;(-y agree at leafl in all their other properties which I
oTSght!y c°nfider in the following difcourfe.
1   1 “ The colours of homogeneous lights I call primary,
homogeneous, and Jimple ; and thole of heterogeneous
lights, heterogeneous and compound. For thefe are always
compounded of homogeneous lights, as will appear in the
following difcourfe.
“ The homogeneous light and rays which appear red,
or rather make objefts appear fo, I call ruhrific or red-
making ; thofe which make objects appear yellow, green,
blue, and violet, I call yellow-making, blue-making, vio¬
let-making^ ; and fo of the reft. And If at any time I
fpeak of light and rays as coloured or endowed with co¬
lours, I would be underftood to fpeak not philofophical¬
ly and properly, but grofsly, and according to fuch
conceptions as vulgar people in feeing all thefe experi¬
ments would be apt to frame. For the rays, to fpeak
properly, are not coloured. In them there is nothing
elfe than a certain power and difpolition to ftir up a
fenfation of this or that colour. For as found, in a bell
or mufical firing or other founding body, is nothing but
a trembling motion, and in the air nothing but that
motion propagated from the objedl, and in the fenforium
it is a fenfe of that motion under the form of found $ fo
colours in the objeft are nothing but a difpofition to re¬
flect this or that fort of rays more copioufly than the
reft : in rays they are nothing but their difpofitions to
propagate this or that motion into the fenforium •, and
in the fenforium they are fenfations of thofe motions un¬
der the forms of colours. See Chromatics.
“ By the mathematical propofition above mentioned,
it is certain that the rays which are equally refrangible
het-ro" eby ^ uP°n a c*rc^e anfwering to the fun’s apparent difk,
neous rays a^f° be proved by experiment by and by.
paffing Now let AG reprefent the circle which all the moft re-
through a frangible rays, propagated from the whole difk of the
oblon’n-13 ^Un’ illuminate and paint upon the oppofite wall if
° Plate the)T were alone 5 EL the circle, which all the leaft re-
aecLxxxin frangible rays would in like manner illuminate if they
Fig. 5. were alone ; BH, Cl, DK, the circles which fo many
intermediate forts would paint upon the wall, if they
were fingly propagated from the fun in fucceflive order,
the reft being intercepted ; and conceive that there are
other circles without number, which innumerable other
intermediate forts of rays would fucceflively paint upon
the wall, if tne fun ftiould fucceflively emit every fort
apart. And feeing the fun emits all thefe forts at once,
they muft all together illuminate and paint innumerable
equal circles ; of all which, being according to their
degrees of refrangibility placed in order in a continual
feries, that oblong fpeftrum PT is compofed, which was
defcribed in the firft experiment.
“ Now if thefe circles, whilft their centres keep their
diftances and pofitions, could be made lefs in diameter,
their interfering one with another, and confequently the
mixture of the heterogeneous rays, would be propor-
tionably diminiflied. Let the circles AG, BH, Cl,
&c. remain as before ; and let ag, b h, c i, &c. be fo
many lefs circles lying in a like continual feries, between
tween two parallel right lines a e and g l, with the
fame diftance between their centres, and illuminated
, with the fame forts of rays : that is, the circle ag with
the fame fort by which the correfponding circle AG was
illuminated : and the reft of the circles b h, ci, dk, el,
206
Colours
fimple or
compound
207
Why the
image of
I c s.
253
refpectively with the fame forts of rays by which the On the dif-
correfponding circles BH, CI, DK, EL, were illumi- fereift.re-
nated. In the figure PT, compofed of the great circles/TfTj,1}'. ^
three of thole, AG, ELI, CI, are fo expanded into each J —v° " ■
other, that three forts of rays, by which thofe circles
are illuminated, together with innumerable other forts
of intermediate rays, are mixed at OR in the middle of
the circle BH. And the like mixture happens through¬
out almoft the whole length of the figure PT. But in
the figure p t, compofed of the lefs circles, the three
lefs circles ag, b h, c i, which anfwer to thofe three
greater, do- not extend into one another ; nor are there
anywhere mingled fo much as any two of the three forts
of rays by which thofe circles are illuminated, and which
in the figure PT are all of them intermingled at QR.
So then, if we would diminifti the mixture of the rays,
■we are to diminilh the diameters of the circles. Now
thefe would be diminiflied if the fun’s diameter, to which
they anfwer, could be made lefs than it is, or (which
comes to the fame purpofe) if without doors, at great
diftance from the prifm towards the fun, fome opaque
body were placed with a round hole in the middle of it
to intercept all the fun’s light, except fo much as com¬
ing from the middle of his body could pafs through that
hole to the prifm. For fo the circles AG, BH, and
the reft, would not any longer anfwer to the whole diik
of the fun, but only to that part of it which could be
feen from the priiin through that hole j that is, to the
apparent magnitude of that hole viewed from the prifm.
But that thefe circles may anfwer more dillinctly to
that hole, a lens is to be placed by the prifm to caft the
image of the hole (that is, every one of the circles AG,
BH, &c.) diftinflly upon the paper at PT 5 after fuch
a manner, as by a lens placed at a window the pifiures
of objefts abroad are call: diftinflly upon a paper within
the room. If this be done, it will not be necelfary to
place that hole very far ofF, no not beyond the window.
And therefore, inftead of that hole, I ufed the hole in
the window-fhut as follows.
“ In the fun’s light let into my darkened chamber
through a fmall round hole in my window Ihut, at about
10 or 12 feet from the window, I placed a lens MN, Fig. 6.
by which the image of the hole F might be diftin&ly
caft upon a flieet of white paper placed at I. Then im¬
mediately after the lens I placed a prifm ABC, by which
the trajecled light might be refracled either upwards or
fidewife, and thereby the round image which the lens
alone did caft upon the paper at I, might be drawn out
into a long one with parallel fides, as reprefented at pt.
1 his oblong image I let fall upon another at about the
fame diftance from the prifm as the image at I, moving
the paper either towards the prilm or from it, until I
found the juft diftance where the rectilinear fides of the
images ^ t become moft diftintft. For in this cafe the
circular images of the hole, which compofe that image,
after the manner that the circles ag, b h, c i, &c. do
the figure p t, were terminated moft diftinftly, and-
therefore extended into one another the leaft that they
could, and by confequence the mixture of the heteroo-e-
neous rays was now the leaft of all. The circles as?,
b h, c 1, &c. which compofe the image p t, are each
equal to the circle at I ; and therefore, by diminifhing
the hole F, or by removing the lens farther from it, may
be diminiftied at pleafure, whilft their centres keep the
fame diftances from each other. Thus, by diminithing
the.-
254-
On the dif¬
ferent re-
O P T
tlie breadth of tire image p t, the circles of heterogeneal
rays that compofe it may be fepafated from each other
as much as you pleafe. Yet inftead of the circular hole
c——— F, it is better to fubftitute an hole lhaped like a pa-
• rallelogram, with its length parallel to the length of
«the prifm. For if this hole be an inch or two long, and
but a 10th or 20th part of an inch broad, or narrower,
the light of the image p t will be as iimple as before,
or Ampler ; and the image being much broader, is
therefore fitter to have experiments tried in its light
than before.
“ Homogeneal light is refrafled regularly without any
dilatation, Iplitting, or fhattering of the rays 5 and the
confufed vifion of objects feen through refracting bodies
by heterogeneous light, arifes from the different refrangi-
2o8 bility of 1'everal forts of rays. This will appear by the
The image experiments which will follow. In the middle of a
of the fun, black paper I made a round hole about a fifth or a fixth
by iimple part Gf
an inch in diameter. Upon this part I caufed
Aeneous10" ^le fpe&rum °f homogeneous light, defcribed in the for-
fight, cir- mer article, fo to fall that fome part of the light might
cular. pafs through the hole in the paper. This tranfmitted
part of the light, I refradted with a prifm placed be¬
hind the paper: and letting the refracted light fall per¬
pendicularly upon a wdfite paper, tw7o or three feet di-
llant from the prifm, I found that the fpechum formed
on the paper by this light was not oblong, as wrhen it
is made in the firft experiment, by refrafting the fun’s
compound light, but was, fo far as I could judge by
my eye, perfeftly circular, the length being nowhere
greater than the breadth ; which fhows that this light
is refradled regularly without any dilatation of the rays,
and is an ocular demonflration of the mathematical pro-
pofition mentioned above.
“ In the homogeneous light I placed a paper circle of
.a quarter of an inch in diameter : and in the fun’s un-
refracied, heterogeneous, white light, I placed another
■paper circle of the fame bignefs ; and going from thefe
papers to the diftance of fome feet, I view-ed both cir¬
cles through a prifm. The circle illuminated by the
fun’s heterogeneous light appeared very oblong, as in the
fecond experiment, the length being many times greater
Than the breadth. But the other circle, illuminated
with homogeneous light appeared circular, and diilindlly
defined, as when it is viewed by the naked eye \ which
proves the whole propofition mentioned in the beginning
of this article.
“ In the homogeneous light I placed flies and fuch
like minute objedls, and viewing them through a prifm
I faw their parts as diltindlly defined as if I had viewed
homogene- them with the naked eye. The fame objefts placed in
ous than m unrefracled heterogeneous light, which was
leterogene j viewred alfo through a prifm, and faw them
moft confufedly defined, fo that I could not diftinguifh
their fmaller parts from one another. I placed alfo the
letters of a fmall print one wdiiie in the homogeneous
light, and then in the heterogeneous ; and viewing them
through a prifm, they appeared in the latter cafe fo
confufed and indiftin£l that I could not read them ; but
in the former, they appeared fo diftinft that I could read
readily, and thought I faw them as diiiinft as when I
viewed them with my naked eye : in both cafes, I view7-
ed the fame objects through the fame prifm, at the fame
diftance from me, and in the fame fituation. There
w7as no difference but in the lights by which the objects
209
Vifion
more di-
ftindl in
ous light.
ICS. Part I.
were illuminated, and w hich in one cafe was Ample, in On thedif-
tke other compound ; and therefore the diftinct vifion ‘erent re¬
in the former cafe, and confufed in the latter, could lra”^,iity
arife from nothing elfe than from that difference in the ° ^ t’ f
lights. Which proves the whole propofition.
“ In thefe three experiments, it is farther very re¬
markable, that the colour of homogeneous light was
never changed by the refradlion. And as thefe colours
were not changed by refra&ions, fo neither were they
by reflections. For all white, gray, red, yellow7, green,
blue, violet bodies, as paper, allies, red lead, orpi-
ment, indigo, bice, gold, lilver, copper, grafs, blue
flowers, violets, bubbles of wuter tinged wdth various
colours, peacock feathers, the tinfture of lignum ne-
phiiticum, and fuch like, in red homogeneous light ap¬
peared totally red, in blue light totally blue, in green
light totally green, and fo ol other colours. In the
homogeneous light of any colour they all appeared to¬
tally of that fame colour $ with this only difference, that
fome of them reflefted that light more ftrongly, others
more faintly. I never yet found any body which by
reflecting homogeneous light could lenfibly change its
colour.
“ From all wdiich it is manifeft, that if the fun’s light
confifted of but one fort of rays, there w7ould be but
one colour in the world, nor would it be poflible to pro¬
duce any new colour by reflections and refraCtions } and
by confequence, that the variety of colours depends up¬
on the ccmpofition ot light.
“ The folar image p t, formed by the feparated rays
in the 6th experiment, did in the progrefs from its end
/>, on which the moft refrangible rays tell, unto its end
/, on which the leaft refrangible rays fell, appear tinged
with this feries of colours 5 violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange, red, together with all their intermedi¬
ate degrees in a continual lucceffion perpetually vary¬
ing \ lo that there appeared as many degrees of colours
as there were forts of rays differing in refrangibility.
And fince thefe colours could not be changed by re¬
fraCtions nor by reflections, it follow7s, that all homoge¬
neal light has its proper colour anlwering to its degree
of refrangibility.
“ Every homogeneous ray confidertd apart is refraCt-
ed, according to one and the fame rule ; fo that itSTiogeneous
fine of incidence is to its fine of refraCtion in a given ray is re-
ratio : that is, every different coloured ray has a dif-tra<^ed ac-
ferent ratio belonging to it. This our author has ^ t0
proved by experiment, and by other experiments has the fame
determined by w7hat numbers thofe given ratios are ex-rule,
preffed. For inftancc, if an heterogeneous white ray of
the fun emerges out of glafs into air } or, which is the
fame thing, if rays of all colours be fuppofed to fucceed
one another in the fame line AC, and AD their com- p]ate
mon fine of incidence in glafs be divided into 50 equalccclxxxiii.
parts, th“n EF and GH, the fines of refraCtion into Fig. 15.
air, of the leaft and moft refrangible rays, wrill be 77
and 78 fuch parts refpeCtively. And fince every co¬
lour has feveral degrees, the fines of refraCtion of all
the degrees of red will have all intermediate degrees
of magnitude from 77 to 77T, of all the degrees of
orange from 77! to 77^-, of yellow from 774 to 774,
of green from 77-f to 77t> blue from 774 to 77-r*
of indigo from 777- to 77^, and of violet from 77T
to 78.”
Part
OPTICS,
Part II.
Of the
Rambew.
Part II. EXPLANATION of OPTICAL PHENOMENA.
255
Of the
Rainbow.
Sect. I. Of the Rainbow.
THE obfervations of the ancients, and the philo fophers
of the middle ages, concerning the rainbow, were Inch as
could not have efcaped the notice of the moil illiterate
hufbandmen*, and their various hypothefes deferve no
Knowledge notice. It is a confiderable time, even after the dawn of
of the na- true philofophy, before we find any difcovery of impor-
ture of the tance on this fubjeft. Mauroiycus was the firft who
rainbow a preten(jecj to }iave rrteafured the diameters of the two
cover™ 1 rainbows with much exaclnefs 5 and he found that of
the inner bow to be 450, and that ofth“ outer bow 56° j
from which Defcartes takes occafion to obferve, how
little we can depend upon the obfervations of thofe
who were not acquainted with the caufe of the pheno¬
mena.
Clichtovaeus, who died in 1543, had maintained, that
the fecond bow is the image of the firft, which he thought
was evident from the inverted order of the colours. lor,
faid he, when we look into the water, all the images
that we fee reflected by it are inverted with refpect to
the objects themfelves; the tops of the trees, for in-
ftance, that ftand near the brink, appearing lower than
the roots.
As the rainbow was oppofite to the fun, it was
2i2 natural to imagine, that its colours were produced by
Approach fome kind of refie£li«n of the rays of light from the
towards it flr0pS 0f rain. No perlbu feems to have thought of
Fletcher of ^ri^ing thefe colours to refraction, till one Fletcher
Breflaw. of Brefiaw, in a treatife publiihed in I57I> endeavoured
to account for them by means of a double refraction and
one refiedtion. But he imagined that a ray of light,
after entering a drop of rain, and fuffering a refraction
both at its entrance and exit, was afterwards refledled
from another drop, before it reaches the eye of the fpec-
tator. He feems to have overlooked the refledtion at
the pofterior furface of the drop, or to have imagined
that all the bendings of the light within the drop would
not make a fufficient curvature to bring the rays of the
fun to the eye of the fpedlator. That he fhould think
of two refradlions, was the neceffary confequence of his
fuppofing that the ray entered the drop at all. This
fuppofition, therefore, was all that he inftituted to ex¬
plain the phenomena. B. Porta fuppofed that the rain¬
bow is produced by the refradlion of light in the whole
body of rain or vapour, but not in the feparate drops.
The'difco- It is to a man who had no pretenfions to philofophy,
very made that we are indebted for the true explanation. This was
by Antonio Antonio De Dominis, bifhop of Spalatro, whofe treatife
de^Dominis j^e Rae/xS Vifus et Lucis, was publiftied by J. Bartolus
Spalatro. 1611 • He firft maintained, that the double refrac¬
tion of Fletcher, with an. intervening rededlion, was
fafficient to produce the colours of the bow, and alfo to
bring the rays that formed them to the eye of the fpec-
tator, without any fubfequent refledlion. He diftindtly
deferibes the progrefs of a ray of light entering the up¬
per part of the drop, where it fuffers one refradtion,
and after being thereby thrown upon the back part of
the inner lurface, is thence refledled to the lower
part of the drop ; at which place undergoing a fecond
refradlion, it is thereby bent, fo as to come diredtly to
the eye. To verify' this hypothefis, De Dominis pro¬
ceeded in a very fenfible and philofophicai manner. Pie
procured a fmall globe of folid glafs, and viewing it
when it was expoled to the rays of the fun, in the fame
manner in which he had iuppofed that the drops of
rain were ftLuated with refpedt to them, he adtually
obferved the fame colours which he had feen in the true
rainbow, and in the fame order.
Thus the circumftances in which the colours of the
rainbow were formed, and the progrels of a ray of light
through a drop of water, were clearly underftood j but
philolophers were a long time at a lofs when they endea¬
voured to atlign reafons for all the particular colours, and
for the order of them. Indeed nothing but the dodtrine
of the different refrangibility of the rays of light, could
furnifti a complete folution of this difficulty. De Domi¬
nis fuppofed that the red rays were thole which had tra-
verfed the leaft fpace in the infide of a drop of water, and
therefore retained more of their native force, and confe-
quenily, ftriking the eye more brilkly, gave it a ftronger
fenfation 5 that the green and blue colours were produ¬
ced by thofe rays, the force of which had been, in fome
meafure, obtunded in palling through a greater body of
water ; and that all the intermediate colours were com-
pofed (according to the hypothefis which generally pre¬
vailed at that time) of a mixture of thefe three primary
ones. That the different colours were produced by fome
difference in the impulfe of light upon the eye, was an
opinion which had been adopted by many perfons, who
had ventured to depart from the authority of Ariftotle.
Afterwards the fame De Dominis obferved, that all
the rays of the fame colour muft leave the drop of wa¬
ter in a part fimilarly fituated with refpeft to the eye,
in order that each of the colours may appear in a circle,
the centre of which is a point of the heavens, in a line
drawn from the fun through the eye of the fpedlator.
The red rays, he obferved, muft iffue from the drop
neareft to the bottom of it, in order that the circle of
red may be the outermoft, and the moft elevated in the
bow.
Though De Dominis conceived fo juftly the manner in
which the inner rainbow is formed, he was far from
having as juft an idea of the caufe of the exterior bow.
This he endeavoured to explain in the very fame manner
as the interior, viz. by one refledlion of the light within
the drop, preceded and followed by a refradlion ; fup¬
pofing only that the rays which formed the exterior bow.
were returned to the eye by a part of the drop lower
than that which tranfmitted the red of the interior bow.
He alfo fuppofed that the rays which formed one of the
bows came from the upper limb of the fun, and thofe
which formed the other from the lower limb, without
confidering that the bows ought thus to have been con¬
tiguous j or rather, that an indefinite number of bows
would have had their colours all intermixed.
When Sir Ifaac Newton difeovered the different
frangibility of the rays of light, he immediately applied
the difcovery to the phenomena of the rainbow, taking
up v,
2^6
Of the
Rainbow.
214
The true
OPT
up lire fubjea where De Domlras and Defcartes were
obliged to leave their inveftigations imperfect.
Let a be a drop of water, and S a pencil of light;
r f\ r °n ltS ^eav*ng the drop reaches the eye of the
coT.'L0f„tfhe[Pe?at0r- ThiS ray> « entrance into the drop!
the rain- be£m® to. be decompofed into its proper colours ; and
bow. upon leaving the drop, after one refle&ion and a fecond
Piate refrachon, it is farther decompofed into as many fmall
CC^II-?lfantl^C0l0Ured pencils as there are primitive co¬
lours m the light. Three of them only are drawn in
tins figure, of which the blue is the molt, and the red
the leall, refradled.-
The theory of the different refrangibility of light
enables us to alfign a reafon for the fize of a bow of each
particular colour. Newton, having found that the fines
of refraction of the molt refrangible and leaft refrangible
rays, in paffing from rain water into air, are in the ratio
of i85 f° i82, when the fine of incidence is 138, com¬
puted the fize of the bow ; and found, that if the fun
was only a phyfical point, the breadth of the inner bow
would be 2 j and if to this 30' were added for the ap-
-parent diameter of the fun, the whole breadth wTould be
. But as the outermoft colours, efpecially the
violet, are extremely faint, the breadth of the bow wall
not appear to exceed two degrees. He found, by the
fame principles, that the breadth of the exterior bow, if
it was everywhere equally vivid, would be 40 20'. But
in this cafe there is a greater deduction to be made, on
account of the faintnefs of the light of the exterior bow;
fo that it will not appear to be more than 2 degrees
broad. J 5
The principal phenomena of the rainbow^ are explain¬
ed on Sir Ifaac Newton’s principles in the following
propofitions.
Prop. I.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop of rain
and enter into it, fome of them, after one re¬
flexion and two refraXions, may come to the
eye of a fpeXator who has his back towards the
fun, and his face towards the drop.
Explan a- If XY be a drop of rain, and if the fun Ihine upon it in
iion of the any lines sfs(t,s a, &c. moft of the rays will enter
5“-to the drop 4 Lome of them only will be reflected from
bow on the tbe firft furface 1 thofe rays which are thence reflefted
principles o{fl° no^ come under our prefent confideration, becaufe
Newton, they are never refrafted at all. The greateft part of the
Fl£- 9- rays then enter the drop, and thofe paffing on to the fe¬
cond furface, will moft of them be tranfmitted through
the drop. At the fecond furface, or hinder part of the
drop, at fig, fome few rays will be refleXed, whilft the
reft are tranfmitted ; thofe rays proceed in fome fuch
lines as nr,nq: and coming out of the drop in the
lines rv,qt, may fall upon the eye of the fpeXator, wdio
is placed anywhere in thofe lines, writh his face towards
the drop, and confequently with his back towrards the
fun, which is fuppofed to ffiine upon the drop in the
lines sf, s d, s a, &c. Lhefe rays are twice refraXed
and once refleXed; they are refraXed when they pafs
out of the air into the drop 5 they are refleXed from the
fecond furface, and are refraXed again when they pafs
out of the drop into the air.
Def. When rays of light refleXed from a drop of
2
\ u Part II.
rain come to the eye, thofe are called ejfeclual which Of the
are aole to excite a lenfation. Raiubow.
Prop. II.
Wnen rays of light come out of a drop of rain,
they will not be efteXual, unlefs they are paral¬
lel and contiguous.
1 here are but few rays that can come to the eve at
all : lor fmce the greateft part of thofe rays which enter
the drop XY between X and a, pafs out of the drop r. ,
through the hinder furface fig ; only few are thence re- g'
fleXed, and come out through the neisrer lurface between
a and Y. Now, fuch rays as emerge, or come out of
the drop, between a and Y, will be ineffeXual, unlefs
they are parallel to one another, as rv and y / are ;
becaufe fuch rays as come out diverging from one ano¬
ther will be fo far afunder when they come to the eye,
that all of them cannot enter the pupil; and the very
few that can enter it will not be fufficient to excite any
fenfation. But even rays, which are parallel, as rv,
q t, will not be effeXual, unlefs there are feveral of them
contiguous or very near to one another. The two rays
r v and y1 alone will not be perceived, though both of
them enter the eye 5 for fo very few rays are not fufficient
to excite a fenfation.
Prop. III.
When rays of light come out of a drop of rain
after one refleXion, thofe will be effeXual which
are refleXed from the fame point, and 'which
entered the drop near to one another.
Any rays, as s b and c d, when they have pafled out Plate
o the air into a drop of water, will be refraXed towards ccclxxxiii,
the perpendiculars b/, dl; and as the ray falls far- FiS- I0-
ther from the axis a v than the ray c d, s b wall be more
1 efraXed than ; fo that thefe rays, though parallel
to one another at their incidence, may defcribe the lines
b e and de after refraXion, and be refleXed from the
fame point e. Now all rays, which are thus refleXed
from the fame point, when they have defcribed the lines
eI egi ar»d after refleXion emerge at /and g, will be
fo refraXed, when they pafs out of the drop into the
ah, as to defcribe the parallel lines ///, g i. If thefe
rays were to return from e in the lines c b, ed, and were
to emerge at b and d, they would be refraXed into the
lines of their incidence b s, dcs But if thefe rays, in-
ftead of being returned in the lines e b, ed, are refleXed
from the fame point e in the lines e g, ef the lines of
refleXion eg and ef wall be inclined to one another and
to the furface of the drop, juft as much as the lines e b
and e d are. Firft, e b and eg make the fame angle
with the furface of the drop : for the angle b e x, which
e b makes with the furface of the drop, is the comple¬
ment of incidence, and the angle g e v, which e g makes
wflth the furface, is the complement of refleXion ; and
thefe two are equal to one another. In the fame manner
it might be ffiown, that e d and cf make equal angles
with the furface of the drop. Secondly, The angle
bed—feg; or the refleXed rays ef, and the inci¬
dent rays be, de, are equally inclined to each other.
For the angle of incidence b e l—g e l, the angle of re¬
fleXion, and the angle of incidence del—fel, the
angle
Part IT. OPTICS.
Of the angle of reflection : confequently, the difference between behind the drop. For, in explaining the rainbow, we
. H auyjow- the angles of incidence is equal to the difference between have no further reafon to confider thofe rays which go
t he angles of redecdon, or b e l—de l~g e l—-f e /, or through the drop j iince they can never come to the eye
bed=zgef Since therefore either the lines'c^, ef or of a fpe&ator placed anywhere in the lines rv ox qt
the lines e b, e d, are equally inclined both to one an- with his face towards the drop. Now, as there are
other and. to the furface of the drop ; the rays will be many rays which pafs out of the drop between ^ and />,
refrafted m the fame manner, whether they return in fo fome rays will be thence leileeled : and confequently
the lines eb, e d, or are redefled in the lines eg, ef. the feveral points between g and/>, which are the points
But if they return in the lines eb,ed, the refraction, where fome of the rays pals out of the drop, are like-
when they emerge at b and d, would make them parallel, wife the points of refle&ion for the reft which do not
Therefore, if they are rellecled from one and the fame pafs out. Therefore in refpeft of thofe rays which are
point <? in the lines eg, ef, the refra&ion, when they refle&ed we may call gp the arc of reflexion ; and may
emerge at g and/, will likewife make them parallel. fay, that this arc of reileftion increafes, as the diftance
.But though, fuch rays as are reflected from the fame of the incident ray from the axis s a increafes, till we
point in the hinder part of a drop of rain, are parallel come to the ray r d; the arc of reflexion is g n for the
to one another.when they emerge, and fo have one ray sb, it is go for the ray j-c, and gp for the ray s d.
condition that is requifite towards making them effec- But after this, as the diftance of the incident ray from
tual, yet there is another condition neceffary ; for rays the axis s a increafes, the arc of reflection decreafes j for
that are effectual, mull be contiguous as well as paral- og lefs than p g is the arc of reflexion for the ray j- e, and
lei. And though rays, which enter the drop in different rig is the arc of refle&ion for the ray sf.
places, may be parallel when they emerge, thofe only will Hence it is obvious, that fome ray, which falls above
be contiguous which enter it nearly at the fame place. s d, may be refleaed from the fame point with fome
fig. 9. Let 136 a droP rain, ag the axis or diameter other ray which falls below s d. Thus, for inftance, the
of the drop, and ra a ray of light that enters the drop ray sb will be refleaed from the point n, and the rays
atrz. This ray r a, being perpendicular to both the furfa- j/will be reSeaed from the fame point 5 and conie¬
ces, will pafs through the drop in the line ag h without quently, when the refleaed rays n r,n q, are refraaed
being refraaed j but any collateral rays, fuch as thofe as they pafs out of the drop at r and q, they will be pa-
that fall about j- b, will be made to converge to the rallel. But fince the intermediate rays, which enter
axis, and paffmg out at n will meet the axis at h: Rays the drop between j-/ and s b, are not refleaed from the
which fall farther from, the axis, than s b, fuch as thofe fame point n, thefe two rays alone will be parallel
which fall about sc, will likewife be made to converge j to one another when they come out of the drop, and the
but their focus will be nearer to the drop than h. intermediate rays will not be parallel to them. And
Suppofe therefore i to be the focus of the rays that fall confequently thefe rays r v, q t, though they are parallel
about s c, any ray sc, when it has deferibed the line after they emerge at randy, will not be contiguous,
c 0 within the drop, and is tending to the focus i, will and for that reafon will not be efleaual j the ray r d is
pais out of the drop at the point 0. The rays that fall reflefted from p, which has been fliown to be the limit
upon the drop about s d, will converge to a focus ftill of the arc of refleclion •, fuch rays as fall juft above sd
nearer than 1, as. at k. Thefe rays therefore go out of and juft below j d, will be reflefted from nearly the
the drop at/). The rays, that fall about j-e, will con- fame point p, as appears from what has been already
verge to a focus nearer than h, as fuppofe at l; and the ftiown. Thefe rays therefore will be parallel, becauie
ray ,r e, when it has deferibed the line e 0 within the they are refleaed from the fame point p; and they will
drop, and is tending , to /, will pafs out at the point 0. likewife be contiguous, becaufe they all of them enter
J he rays that fall ftill more remote from the axis will the drop at the fame place very near to d. Confe-
converge to. a focus ftill nearer. Thus the ray r/will quently, fuch rays as enter the drop at / and are re-
aiter refr-adion converge to a focus at m, which is fleaed from p the limit of the arc of refkaion, will
near er than /.; and having deferibed the line f n with- be effectual 5 fince, when they emerge at the part of the
in the drop, it will pafs out to the point n. Now' we drop between a and y, they will be both parallel and
may here obferve, that as any rays sb or s c, fall farther contiguous.
above the axis s a, the points n, or 0, where they pafs out If it can be fliown that the rainbow is produced by
behind the drop, will be farther above g; or that, as the rays of the fun which are thus reflected from drops
Lie incident ray rifes from the axis j- a, the arc g no of rain as they fall while the fun fhines upon them, this
increafes, till w e come to fome ray r d, which paffes out. propofition may ferve to fliow us, that this appearance
of the drop at />; and this is the higheft point wdiere is not produced by any rays that fall upon any part, and
any ray that falls upon the quadrant or quarter ax can are reflected from any part of thofe drops : fince this
pafs out : jor any rays s e, or sf, that fall higher than appearance cannot be produced by any rays but thofe
sd, will not pals out on any point abovep, but at the which are effectual; and effectual rays muft always en-
ponits 0, or n, which . are below it. Confequently, ter each drop at one certain place in the anterior part of
though, the arc gti op increafes, whilft the diftance of it, and muft likewife be reflected from one certain place
the incident ray from the axis s a increafes, till we come in the pofterior furface.
to the ray sd; yet afterwards, the higher the ray falls
above the axis r a, this arc pong wall decreafe. Prop. IV.
We have hitherto fpoken of the points on the pof¬
terior part of the drop, where the rays pafs out of it j ^ rays that are effedlual emerge from a d-rop.
but this, was for the fake of determining the points rain after one reflection and two refrac-
fr-om which thofe rays are refle&ed, which do not pafs cut tions, thofe which are moft refrangible will,
Vol. XV. Part I. K k at
257
Of the
Rainbow.
OPT
nt their emerfion, make a lefs angle with the
incident rays than thofe which are lead re¬
frangible ; and by this means the rays of dif¬
ferent colours will be feparated from one ano¬
ther.
Let/7^ and ^/be effectual vielet rays emerging from
ccclxxxui. the drop at/jf; n.n&fn,gp, effectual red rays emer-
F’g- Ic- ging from the fame drop at the fame place. Now,
though all the violet rays are parallel to one another,
becaufe they are fuppofed effectual, and though all the
red rays are likewife parallel to one another for the fame
reafon j yet the violet rays will not be parallel to the
red rays. Thefe rays, as they have different degrees of
refrangibility, will diverge from one another ; any vio
let ray g /, which emerges at g, 'will diverge from any
red ray g/>, which emerges at the fame place. Now,
both the violet ray g /, and the red ray g/>, as they pafs
out of the drop of water into the air, will be refracted
from the perpendicular / o. But the violet ray is more
refrangible than the red one ; and for that reafon g z,
or the refracted violet ray, will make a greater angle
with the perpendicular than gp the refracted red ray ;
or the angle ig o'wiM be greater than the angle pgo.
Suppofe the incident ray s b to be continued in the di¬
rection ,r k, and the violet ray ig to be continued back¬
ward in the direction ik, till it meets the incident ray at k.
Suppofe likewife the red raypg to be continued backwards
in the fame manner, till it meets the incident ray at w.
The angle i k s is that which the violet ray, or moft re¬
frangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the incident
ray ; and the angle pwsis that which the red ray, or
leaft refrangible ray at its emerfion, makes with the in¬
cident ray. The angle ik s is lefs than the angle pzvs.
For, in the triangle, g w £, g w s, orp w s, is the exter-
nal angle at the bafe, and g k w or i k r is one of the in¬
ternal oppofite angles. (Euc. B. I. Prop, xvi.) What
has been fhown to be true of the rays ^ z’and 'might
be fhown in the fame manner of the rays fh and fn, or
of any other rays that emerge-refpectively parallel to gi
and gp. But all the effectual violet rays are parallel to
g z’, and all the effectual red rays are parallel to gp.
Therefore the effectual violet rays at their emerfion
make a lefs angle with the incident ones than the effec¬
tual red ones. For the fame realon, in all the other
forts of rays, thofe which are moll; refrangible, at their
emerfion from a drop of rain after one reffection, will
make a lefs angle with the incident rays, than thofe do-
which are lefs refrangible.
Otherwife : When the rays g i and gp emerge at
the fame point g, as they both come out of water into
air, and confequently are refracted from the perpen¬
dicular, inilead of going ffraight forwards in the line
e g continued, they will both be turned round upon the
point g from the perpendicular g o. Now it is eafy to
conceive, that either of thefe lines might be turned in
this manner upon the point g as upon a centre, till
they became parallel to s b the incident ray. But if
either of thefe lines or rays were refracted fo much
from ^ o as to become parallel to s b, the ray thus re¬
fracted, would, after emerfion, make no angle with s k,
becaufe it would be parallel to it. Confequently that
ray which is moft turned round upon the point g, or
that ray which is moft refrangible, will after emer¬
fion be neareft parallel to the incident ray, or will make
Plate
ICS.
Part 11,
the leaft angle with it. The fame may be proved of Of the
all other rays emerging parallel to gi and gp ref- Rainbow
pec lively, or of all effectual rays j thole which are moft v~~~"
refrangible will after emerfion make a lefs angle with
the incident rays, than thofe do which are leaft refran¬
gible.
But fince the effectual rays of different colours make
different angles with jT at their emerfion, they will be
feparated from one another : fo that if the eye were
placed in the beam fg Zi z, it would receive only rays of
one colour from the drop x a gv ; and if it were placed
in the beam fg n p, it would receive only rays of fome
other colour.
The angle s wp, which the leaft refrangible or red
rays make with the incident ones when they emerge fo
as to be effieftual, is found by calculation to be 4 2° 2'.
And the angle ski, which the moft refrangible rays
make with the incident ones when they emerge fo as to
be effedhial, is found to be 40° 17'. The rays which
have the intermediate degrees of refrangibility, make
with the incident ones intermediate angles between 4 2°
2', and 40° 17'.
Prop. V.
If a line is fuppofed to be drawn froffi the centre
of the fun through the eye of the fpe&ator, the
angle which any effe&ual ray, after two refrac¬
tions and one refledtion, makes with the inci¬
dent ray, will be equal to the angle which it
makes with that line.
Let the eye of the fpeftator be at i, and let q t bt Plate
the line luppofed to be drawn from the centre of the fun£5CLXXXIII>
through the eye of the fpeftator ; the angle g i t, which !^‘ IC*
any effeftual ray makes with this line, will be equal to
the angle ik's, which the fame ray makes with the inci¬
dent ray s b or s k. If j is a ray coming from the
centre of the fun, then fince q t is fuppofed to be drawn
from the fame point, thefe two lines, upon account of
the remotenefs of the point from whence they are drawn,
may be looked upon as parallel to one another. But
the right line k i crofting thefe two parallel lines will
make the alternate angles equal. (Euc. B. I. Prop,
xxix.) Therefore kit or zfcrj- k i.
Prop. VI.
When the fun fhines upon the drops of rain as
they are falling, the rays that come from thofe
drops to the eye of a fpedlator, after one re-
fledlion and two refradtions, produce the pri¬
mary rainbow'.
216
If the fun fhines upon the rain as it falls, there are Two rain-
commonly feen two bows, as AFB, CHE) 5 or if the bows feen
cloud and rain does not reach over that whole fide Dfat once-
the fky where the bows appear, then only a part of oneFlg 'I1‘
or of both bows is feen in that place where the rain
falls. Of thefe two bows, the innermoft AFB is the
more vivid of the two, and this is called the primanj
bow. The outer part TFY of the primary bow is red,
the inner part VEX is violet; the intermediate parts,
reckoning from the red to the violet, are orange, yel¬
low, green, blue, and indigo. Suppofe the fpeftator’s-
eye to be at O, and let LOP be an imaginary line
drawn
Fart II. , OPT
Of the drawn from the centre of the fun through the eye of the
, Ra|nhow. fpe£atC)r . jf a beam of light S coining from the fun
fall upon any drop F ; and the rays that emerge at F
in the line FO, fo as to be effectual, make an angle
FOP of 42° 2' with the line LP ; then thefe effeftual
rays make an angle of 4 2° 2' with the incident rays, by
the preceding propolition, and confequently thele rays
will be red, fo that the drop F will appear red. All
the other rays, which emerge at F, and would be ef¬
fectual if they fell upon the eye, are refracted more
than the red ones, and confequently will pafs above the
eye. If a beam of light S fall upon the drop E, and
the rays that emerge at E in the line EO, fo as to be
effectual, make an angle of 40° 17' with the line LP j
then thefe effe&fcal rays make likewife an angle of
40° 17' with the incident rays, and the drop E will
appear of a violet colour. All the other rays, which
emerge at E, and would be effectual if they came to
the eye, are refraCted lefs than the violet ones, and
therefore pafs below the eye. The intermediate drops
between F and E will for the fame reafons be of the
intermediate colours.
Thus we have fhown why a fet of drops from F to
E, as they ate falling, fhould appear of the feven pri¬
mary colours. It is not neceffary that the feveral drops,
' “which produce thefe colours, fhould all of them fall at
exaClly the fame diftance from th^. eye. The angle
FOP, for example, is the fame whether the diftance of
the drop from the eye is OF, or whether it is in any
other part of the line OF fomething nearer to the eye.
And whilft the angle FOP is the fame, the angle made
by the emerging and incident rays, and confequently
the colour of the drop, will be the fame. This is equal¬
ly true of any other drop. So that though in the figure
the drops F and E are reprefented as falling perpendicu¬
larly one under the other, yet this is not neceffary in or¬
der to produce the bow.
But the coloured line FE, which we have already
accounted for, is only the breadth of the bow. It ftill
remains to be IheWn, why not only the drop F ftiould
appear red, but why all the other drops , from A to B in
i he arc ATFYB ftiould appear of the fame colour. Now
it is evident, that wherever a drop of rain is placed, if
the angle which the effeftual rays make with the line
LP is equal to the angle FOP, that is, if the angle which
the effeCfual rays make with the incident rays is 420 2',
any of thofe drops will be red, for the fame reafon that
the drop F is of this colour.
If FOP were to turn round upon the line OP, fo that
one end of this line ftiould always be at the eye, and
the other be at P oppoftle to the fun ; fuJn a motion
of this figure would be like that of a pair of compaffes
turning round upon one of the legs OP with the open¬
ing FOP. In this revolution the drop F would de-
fcribe a circle, P would be the centre, and ATFYB
would be an arc in this circle. Now fince, in this mo¬
tion of the line and drop OF, the angle made by FO
with OP, that is the angle FOP, continues the fame ;
if the fun were to ftiine upon this drop as it revolves,
the effeftual rays would make the fame angle with the
incident rays, in whatever part of the arc ATFYB the
drop was to be. Therefore, whether the drop be at
A, or at T, or at Y, or at B, or wherever elfe it is in
this whole arc, it would appear red, as it does at F—
The drops of rain, as they fall, are not indeed tuqjed
I G S.
259
round in this manner : but then, as great numbers of Of the
them are falling at once in right lines from the cloud, ^-ainl)QW' i
whilft one drop is at F, there will be others at Y, at i
T, at B, at A, and in every other part of the arc
ATFYB : and all thefe drops will be red for the fame
reafon that the drop F would have been red, if it had
been in the fame place. Therefore, when the fun (hines
upon the rain as it falls, there will be a red arc ATFYB
oppofite to the fun. In the fame manner, becaufe. the
drop E is violet, we might prove that any other drop,
which, whilft it is falling, is in any part of the arc
AVEXB, will be violetand confequently, at the fame
time that the red arc ATFYB appears, there will like¬
wife be a violet arc AVEXB below7 or within it. FE
is the diftance between thefc tw7o coloured arcs 5 and
from what has been faid, it follows, that the interme¬
diate fpace between thefe twd arcs will be filled up
with arcs of the intermediate colours, orange, yellow,
blue, green, and indigo. All thefe coloured arcs to¬
gether make up the primary rainbow.
Prof. VII.
The primary rainbow is never a greater arc than a
femicircle.
Since the line LOP is drawn from the fun through
the eye of the fpeftator, and fince P is the centre of the Plate
rainbow 5 it follows, that the centre of the rainbow is cccLxxxnr.
always oppofite to the fun. The angle FOP is an angle lb'
of 420 2', as was obferved, or F the higheft part of the^y^y^he
bow is 420 2' from P the centre of it. If the fun isarcofthe
more than 42° 21 high, P the centre of the rainbow,primary
which is oppofite to the fun, will be more than 42° T rainbow is
below the horizon : and confequently F the top of thenever
bow, which is only 420 2' from P, will be below the a
horizon j that is, when the fun is more than 420 2' high, circle,
no primary rainbow will be feen. If the altitude of the
fun be fomething lefs than 4 2° 2', then P will be
fomething lefs than 42° 2' below the horizon ; and
confequently F, which is only 420 2! from P, will
be juft above the horizon; that is, a fmall part of the
bow at this height of the fun will appear clofe to the
ground oppofite to the fun. If the fun be 20° high,
then P will be 20° below7 the horizon and F the top
of the bow7, being 42° 2' from P, will be 2 2° 2! above
the horizon ; therefore, at this height of the fun, the
bow w7ill be an arc of a circle w!hofe centre is below the
horizon ; and confequently that arc of the circle W7hich
is above the horizon, or the bow, w7iil be lefs than a
femicircle. If the fun be in the horizon, then P, the
centre of the bow, will be in the oppofite part of the
horizon ; F, the top of the bow7, will be 4 2° 2' above
the horizon ; and the bow itfelf, becaufe the horizon
paffes through the centre of it, will be a femicircle.
More than a femicircle can never appear 5 btcaufe if
the bow were more than a femicircle, P the centre of it
muft be above the horizon 5 but P is ahvays oppofite to
the fun, therefore P cannot be above the horizon, un-
lefs the fun is below it j and when the fan is fet,‘ or is
below the horizon, it cannot fliine upon the drops of
rain as they fall 5 and confequently, when the fun is
below7 the horizon, no bow at all can be feen.
. Prof. VIII.
When the rays of the fun fall upon a drop of rain,
fome of them, after two reflections and two re-
K k -2 frafticns,
OPT
fractions, may come to tlie eye of a fpechtor,
who has his back towards the fun and his face
towards the drop.
If HGW is a drop of rain, and parallel rays coming
from the fun, as 2; v, y w, fall upon the lower part of
it, they will be refraated towards the perpendiculars v /,
/, as they enter into it, and will defcribe fome fuch
lines as v hy w 7. At /i and z great part of thefe rays
will pafs out of the drop but fome of them will be re¬
flected from thence in the lines /i f ig. At f and j?-
again, great part of the rays that were reflefted thither
will pafs out of the drop. Eut thefe rays will not come
to the eye of a fpeflator at 0. Here, however, all
■the rays will not pafs out j but fome will be reflefted
from/and^, in fome fuch lines z?,fd,gh; and thefe,
when they emerge out of the drop of water into the air
at b and <f, will be refrafted from the perpendiculars,
and, defcribing the lines d t,bo, may come to the eve
of the fpeclatpr who has his back towards the fun and
his face towards the drop.
. Prop. IX.
Thofe rays, which are parallel to one another af¬
ter they have been once refra£ted and once re-
fledled in a drop of rain, will be effe£lual when
they emerge after two refractions and two re¬
flections.
No rays can be effectual, unlefs they are contiguous
and parallel. It appears from what was faid, that when
rays come out of a drop of rain contiguous to one ano¬
ther, either after one or after two reflections, they muft
enter the drop nearly at the fame place. And if fuch
rays as are contiguous are alfo parallel after the firft re¬
flection, they will emerge parallel, and therefore wall
be effectual. Let % v and y w be contiguous rays which
come from the fun, and are parallel when they fall upon
the lower part of the drop, fuppofe thefe rays to be re-
fraCted at v and iv, and to be reflected at /z and i; if
they are parallel, as hfg i, after this firft reflection,
then, after they are reflected a fecond time from f and
g, and refraCted a fecond time as they emerge at d and
£, they will go out of the drop in the parallel lines dt
@nd b 0, and will therefore be effectual.
The rays %v,yw, are refraCted towards the perpen¬
diculars v 4 w /, when they enter the drop, and will be
made to converge. As thefe rays are very oblique,
their focus will not be far from the furface v w. If this
focus be at k, the rays, after they have paffed the focus,
will diverge from thenice in the directions k /z, k f; and
if k i is the principal focal diftance of the concave
reflecting furface h i, the reflected rays hf ig, will be
parallel. Thefe rays ef, ig, are reflected again from
the concave furface fg, and will meet in a focus at e,
fo that g e will be the principal focal diftance of this
reflecting furface/^. And becaufe h i and fg are parts
of the fame fphere, the principal focal diftances g e and
h i will be equal. When the rays have paffed the focus
e, they will thence diverge in the line ed,eb: and
we are to fhow, that when they emerge at d and b, and
are refraCted there, they will become parallel.
Now if the rays vk,wk, when they have met at k,
were to be turned back again in the directions kv,k w,
sind were to emerge at and w, they would be refraCt-
1 Li b. Part IT.
ed into the lines of their incidence, v z, ivy, and there- Of the
fore would be parallel. Eut fines g e~i k, as has al- Rainbow.
ready been fhown, the rays ed,eb, that diverge from  v  
e, fail in the lame manner upon the drop at d and b, as
the rays k v, k w, would fall upon it at v and w ; and
e d,eb, are juu as much inclined to the refraCting fur-
tace d b, as k v, k w would be to the furface v w.
Hence it follows, that the rays ed,eb, emerging at d
and b, will be refraCted in the fame manner, and will
have the fame direction in refpeCt of one another, as
hv,k w would have. But k v and b w would be paral¬
lel after refraCtion. Therefore the rays e d and e b will
emerge in the lines dp, b 0, parallel to one another, and
confequently effectual.
Prop. X.
When rays that are effectual emerge from a drop
of rain after two reflections and two refraCtions,
thofe which are molt refrangible will at their
emerfion make a greater angle with the incident
rays than thofe do which are leaft refrangible;
and by this means the rays of different colours
will be feparated from one another.
If rays of different colours, which are differently re- Plate
frangible, emerge at any point b, thefe rays will not be cccLxsxifx.
all of them equally refraCted from the perpendicular.i li‘
1 hus, if 0 is a red ray, which is of all others the leaft
refrangible, and b m is a violet ray, which is of ail
others the moft refrangible ; when thefe tw-o rays
emerge at b, the violet ray will he refraCted more from
the perpendicular bx than the red ray, and the refraCted
angle xbm will be greater than the refraCted angle
xbo.< Hence it follows, that thefe two ravs, after
emerfion, will diverge from one another. In like man¬
ner, the rays that emerge at d will diverge from one
another ; a red ray will emerge in the line dp, a violet
ray in the line dt. So that though all the effectual red
rays of the beam b dm t are parallel to one another, and
all the effectual red rays of the beam b dop are likewife
parallel, yet the violet rays wall not be parallel to the red
beam. Thus the rays of different colours will be fepa¬
rated from one another.
This will appear farther, if we confider what the
propofition affirms, That any violet or moft refran¬
gible ray will make a greater angle with the incident
rays, than any red or leaft refrangible ray makes with
the fame incident rays. Thus if y w be an incident ray,
b mz violet ray emerging from the point b, and b 0 3.
red. ray emerging from the fame point ; the angle
wTxch the violet ray makes with the incident one is
y r m, and that which the red ray makes with it is y j- 0.
Now yrm is greater than y j- 0. For in the triangle
br s the internal angle b r s is lefs than bs y the exter¬
nal angle at the bafe. (Fuel. B. I. Prop, xvx.) But
yrm is the complement of ^ r j1 or of brylo two right
ones, and y r 0 is the complement of b stj to two right
ones. Therefore, fince b r t) is lefs than b sy, the com¬
plement of b ry to two right angles will be greater than
the complement of bsy to two right angles ; or y r m
will be greater than y r 0.
Otherwife: Both the rays b 0 and b m, when they are
refrafted in pafling out of the drop at b, are turned
round upon the point b from the perpendicular bx.
Now either of thefe lines b 0 or b m might be turned
round.
260
Of the
Rainbow.
Fig. 12.
•Part II.
Of the round in this manner, till it made a right angle with
Rainbow. „ UK Confequently, that ray which is moil: turned round
v unon b, or which is moil refracted, will make an angle
with y iv, that will be nearer to a right one than that
ray makes with it which is lead turned round upon b,
or which is lead refradled. Therefore that ray which is
mod refradled will make a greater angle with the in¬
cident ray than that which is lead refracted.
But fince'tHe emerging rays, being differently refran¬
gible, make different angles with the fame incident ray
y w, the refraction which they differ at emerfion will
feparate them from one another.
The angle ?/ r in, which the mod refrangible or vio¬
let rays make with the incident ones, is found by cal¬
culation to be 540 7' j and the angle y s o, which the
lead refrangible or red rays make with the incident ones,
is found to be 50° 57': the angles, which the rays of
the intermediate colours, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
and orange, make with the incident rays, are intermedi¬
ate angles between 540 7' and 50° 57'.
Prop. XI.
If a line is fuppofcd to be drawn from the centre
of the fun through the eye of the fpedlator;
the angle which, after two refractions and two
reffeClions, any effectual ray makes with the in-
* cident ray, will be equal to the angle which it
makes with that line.
Fif 12. Ifyw is an incident ray, bo an effedlual ray, and
o 12 r line drawn from the centre of the fun though 0
the eye of the fpeclator; the angle yso, which the
effectual ray makes with the incident ray, is equal to
son the angle which the fame effectual ray makes with
the line q n. ■ For y w and q n, conddered as drawn
from the centre of the fun, are parallel; b 0 croffes them,
and confequently makes the alternate angles y s 0, so n,
equal to one another. Fuel. B. I. Prop. xxix.
Prop. XII.
261
line OP, will fall below7 the eye at O. For the fame t*16
reafon, the rays emerging from the intermediate drops mwon *,
between H and G, and coming to the fpedlator’s^eye
at O, will emerge at intermediate angles, and therefore
will have the intermediate colours. Thus if there are
feven drops from H to G inclufively, their colours
will be violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and
red. This coloured line is the breadth of the fecondary
rainbow.
Now, if HOP were to turn round upon the line OP,
like a pair of compafles upon one of the legs OP with
the opening HOP, it is plain from the fuppofftion,
that, in fuch a revolution of the drop H, the angle
HOP would be the fame, and confequently the emer¬
ging rays would make the fame angle with the inci¬
dent ones. But in fuch a revolution the drop would
deferibe a circle of which P would be the centre, and
CNHRD an arc. Confequently, fince, when the drop
is at N, or at R, or anywhere eife in that arc, the
emerging rays make the fame angle with the incident
ones as when the drop is at H, the colour of the drop
will be the fame to an eye placed at O, whether the
drop is at N, or at H, or at R, or anywhere elfe in
that arc. Now, though the drop does not thus turn
round as it talk, and does not pafs through the feveral
parts of this arc, yet, flnee there are drops of rain fall¬
ing everywhere at the fame time, when one drop is at
H, there null be another at R, another at N, and others
in all parts of the arc 5 and thefe drops vrill all be vio¬
let-coloured, for the fame reafon that the drop H wrould
have been of this colour if it had been in any of thofe
places. In like manner, as the drop G is red when it
is at G, it would likewife be red in any part of the arc
CWGQD •, and fo will any other drop when, as it is
falling, it comes to any part ol that arc. Thus as the
fun ftiines upon the rain, whilft it falls, there will be
two arcs produced, a violet-doloured arc CNHRD, and
a red one CWGQD4 and for the fame reafons the in¬
termediate fpace between thefe two arcs will be filled
up with arcs of the intermediate colours. All thefe arcs-
together make up the fecondary rainbow.
OPTICS.
When the fun {bines upon the drops of rain as
they are falling, the rays, that come from thefe
drops to the eye of a fpedlator, after two reflec¬
tions and two refractions, produce the fecondary
rainbow.
^ The fecondary rainbow is the outermoft, CHD.
TLe feron- When the fun fhines upon a drop of rain FI; and the
dary rain- rays HO, which emerge at H fo as to be effectual,
bow produ- make an angle HOP of 540 7' with LOP a line drawn
ced by two rrom ^ fun through the eye of the fp eft a tor ; the fame
arnHwo'15 effeftual rays will make likewife an angle of 540 7' with
reflations, the incident rays Sj and the rays which emerge at this
Fig ii angle are violet ones, by what was obferved above.
' ’ Therefore, if the fpeftator’s eye is at O, none but violet
ravs will enter it : for as all the other rays make a lefs
angle with OP, they will fall above the fpeftator’s eye.
In like manner, if the effeftual rays that emerge from
the drop G make an angle of 50° 57' with the line OP,
they will likewife make the fame angle with the inci¬
dent rays S ; and confequently, from the drop G no
rays will come to the fpeftator’s eye at O but red ones j
for all the other rays making a greater angle with the
Prop. XIII.
The colours of the fecondary rainbow are fainter
than thofe of the primary rainbow ; and are
arranged in the contrary order.
The primary rainbow is produced by fuch rays as t^g
have been only once reflefted j the fecondary rainbow coiours 0f
is produced by fuch rays as have been twice reflefted. the fecon-
But at every refleftion fome rays pafs out of the dropsy ra‘n-
of rain without being reflefted j fo that the oftener the |?ow
rays are reflefted, the ’fewer of them are left. There-thofeof the
fore the colours of the fecondary bow are produced by primary,
fewer rays, and confequently will be fainter, than the anc| arrang-
colours of the primary bow.
In the primary bow, reckoning from the outfide of " ^
it, the colours are arranged in this order •, red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In the xecondary
bow, reckoning from the outfide, the colours are violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. So that the
the red, which is the outermoft or higheft colour in the
primary bow, is the innermoft or loweft colour in the
fecondary one.
Now the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effeftual'
262
OPT
Concavity effeclual after one reflection, piake a lefs angle with
.° the incident rays than the red ones; confequently the
Plate v‘olet rays make a lefs angle with the lines OP than
ccclxxxiii. the red ones. But, in the primary rainbow, the rays
fig. u. are only once refle&ed, and the angle which the effec¬
tual rays make with OP is the diftance of the colour¬
ed drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore the
violet drops, or violet arc, in the primary bow, will be
nearer to the centre of the bow than the red drops or
red arc 5 that is, the innermoft colour in the pri¬
mary bow will be violet, and the outermoft colour will
be red. And, for the fame reafon, through the whole
primary bow, every colour will be nearer the centre P,
as the rays of that colour are more refrangible.
But the violet rays, when they emerge fo as to be
effeftual after two reflections, make a greater angle
with the incident rays than the red ones ; confequently
the violet rays will make a greater angle with the line
OP, than the red ones. But in the fecondary rainbow
the rays are twice reflected, and the angle wdiich the
effectual rays make with OP is the diftance of the co¬
loured drop from P the centre of the bow. Therefore
the violet drops or violet arc in the fecondary bow will
be farther from the centre of the bow, than the red
drops or red arc ; that is, the outermoft colour in the
fecondary bow will be violet, and the innermoft co¬
lour will be red. And, for the fame reafon, through
the whole fecondary bow, every colour will be farther
from the centre P, as the rays of that colour are more re¬
frangible.
Sect. II. Of Coronas, Parhelia, <h'c.
Under the articles Coroka and Parhelion, a pret-
rty full account is given of the different hypothefes con¬
cerning thefe phenomena, and likewife of the method by
which thefe hypothefes are fupported, from the known
laws of refraClion and reflection. To thefe articles there¬
fore, in order to avoid repetition, we muft refer.
Sect. III. Of the Concave Figure of the Shy.
"Bxtentof apparent concavity of the Iky is only an optical
the vifible deception founded on the incapacity of our organs of vi-
horizon on lion to take in very large diftances. Dr Smith, has de-
a plane fur- monftrated, that, if the furface of the earth were perfect¬
ly plane, the diftance of the viable horizon from the eye
would fcarcely exceed the diftance of 5000 times the
height of the eye above the ground : beyond this di¬
ftance, all objeCts would appear in the vifible horizon.
For, let OP be the height of the eye above the line PA
drawn upon the ground ; and if an objeCt AB — PO,
be removed to a diftance PA equal to 5000 times that
height, it will hardly be vifible by reafon of the fmall-
nefs of the angle AOB. Confequently any diftance
AC, however great, beyond A, will be invifible. For
fince AC and BO are parallel, the ray CO will always
Fate cut fome p0jnt jy between A and B ; and there-
Fig!*8*XIV ^ore ang^e A-OC, or AOD, will always be lefs than
AOB, and therefore AD or AC will be invifible. Con
fequently all objeCts and clouds, as CE and FG, placed
12I at all diftances beyond A, if they be high enough to be
Why a long vifible, or to'fubtend a bigger angle at the eye than
tow of ob- AOB, will appear at the horizon AB ; becaufe the di-
jeCts ap- fiance AC is invifible.
C!rCU~ Hence, if we fuppofe a long row of obje&s, or a long
Tig. 9. wail ABZY, built upon this plane, and its ^erpendku-
4
ICS. Part n.
lar diftance OA from the eye at O to be equal to or Concavity
greater than the diftance O of the vifible horizon, it ot~the Sky*
will not appear ftraight, but circular, as if it were built
upon the circumference of the horizon a c eg y: and if
the wall be continued to an immenfe diftance, its ex¬
treme parts YZ will appear in the horizon at yta,
where it is cut by a line Qy parallel to the wall. For,
fuppofing a ray YO, the angle YOy will become in-
fenfibly fmall. Imagine this infinite plane OAY y,
with the wall upon it, to be turned about the horizontal
line O like the lid of a box, till it becomes perpendicu¬
lar to the other half of the horizontal plane LMy, and
the wall parallel to it, like a vaft ceiling overhead ;
and then the wall will appear like the concave figure
of the clouds overhead. But though the wall in the
horizon appear in the figure of a femicircle, yet the
ceiling will not, but much flatter. Becaufe the hori¬
zontal plane was a vifible furface, which fuggefted the
idea of the fame diftances quite round ' the eye : but in
the vertical plane extended between the eye and the
ceiling, there is nothing that affefts the fenfe with an
idea of its parts but the common line Oy; confequently
the apparent diftances of the higher parts of the ceiling
will be gradually diminilhed in afeending from that line.
Now' when the Iky is overcaft with clouds of equal
gravities, they will all float in the air at equal heights
above the earth, and confequently will compofe a fur¬
face refembling a large ceiling, as flat as the vifible *
•furface of the earth. Its concavity therefore is only
apparent: and when the heights of the clouds are un¬
equal, fince their real fhapes and magnitudes are all
unknown, the eye can feldom diftinguifti the unequal
diftances of thofe clouds that appear in the fame di-
reftions, unlefs when they are very near us, or are
driven by contrary currents of the air. So that the
vifible ftiape of the whole furface remains alike in both
cafes. And when the iky is either partly overcaft or
partly free from clouds, it is matter of fact that we re¬
tain much the fame idea of its concavity as when it was
quite overcaft.
The concavity of the heavens appears to the eye,-wfiy t]ie
wFich is the only judge of an apparent figure, to be a concavity
lefs portion of a fpherical furface than a hemifphere.of the tky
Dr Smith fays, that the centre of the concavity is
much below the eye: and by taking a medium amongmFpjierc:*
feveral obfervations, he 'found the apparent diftance of
its parts at the horizon to be generally between three
and four times greater than the apparent diftance of
its parts overhead. For let the arch ABCD repre-Fig. 10.
fent the apparent concavity of the Iky, O the place of
the eye, OA and OG the horizontal and vertical ap¬
parent diftances, whole proportion is required. Firft
obferve when the fun or the moon, or any cloud or
ftar, is in fuch a fituation at B, that the apparent arches
BA, BC, extended on each fide of this objedt towards
the horizon and zenith, feem equal to the eye; then
taking the altitude of the objedl B with a quadrant,
or a crofs ftaff, or finding it by aftronomy from the
given time of obfervation, the angle AOB is known.
Drawing therefore the line OB in the pofition thus
determined, and taking in it any point B, in the ver¬
tical line CO produced down-wards, find the centre E
of a circle ABC, vrhofe arches BA, BC, intercepted
between B and the legs of the right angle AOC, fliall
be equal to each other j then will this arch ABCD re-
preienf
Part II.
OPTIC S.
263
Bine colour prefent the apparent figure of the fky. For by the eye
,°f ^ we eflimate th^ dirtance between any two objects in the
v ' heavens by the quantity of fky that appears to lie be¬
tween them \ as upon each we eftimate it by the quan¬
tity of ground that lies between them. The centre E
may be found geometrically by conilrubting a cubic
equation, or as quickly and fufficiently exa£t by trying
whether the chords BA, BC, of the arch ABC drawn
by conjecture are equal, and by altering its radius BE
till they are fo. Now in making feveral obfervations
upon the fun, and fome others updn the moon and ftars,
they leemed to our author to bifect the vertical arch
ABC at B, when their apparent altitudes or the angle
AOB was about 23 degrees ; which gives the propor¬
tion of OC to OA as 3 to 10 or as 1 to 3-^ nearly.
When the altitude of the fun was 30°, the upper arch
feemed always lefs than the under one ; and, in our au¬
thor’s opinion, always greater when the fun was about
3 8 or 20 degrees high.
Sect. IV. Of the Blue Colour of the Shy, and of Blue
and Green Shadows.
223
Opinions of The opinions of ancient writers concerning the co-
the ancients }our 0f qie Iky merit no notice. The fir ft who gave
the'coloiir an^ rabonal explanation was Fromondus. He fuppofed
of the fky. that the bluenefs of the fky proceeded from a mixture
of the white light of the fun with the black fpace be¬
yond the atmofphere, where there is neither refraction
nor reflection. This opinion very generally prevailed,
and was maintained by Otto Guerick and all his contem¬
poraries, who afterted, that white and black may be
mixed in fuch a manner as to make a blue. M. Bou-
guer had recourfe to the vapours diffufed through the
atmofphere, to account for the reflection of the blue rays
rather than any other. He feems however to fuppofe,
that it arifes from the conftiiution of the air itfelf, from
which the fainter-coloured rays are incapable of making
their way through any confiderable tract of it. Hence
he is of opinion, that the colour of the air is properly
blue ; to wdnch opinion Dr Smith feems alfo to have
inclined.
To this blue colour of the Iky is owing the appear¬
ance of blue and green fnadows in the mornings and
Crccn^fha evening-—Thefe were firft obferved by M. Buffon in
dows obfer-1742> when he noticed that the fhadows of trees which
ved by fell upon a white wall were green. He was at that
}M, BufFon. time ftanding upon an eminence, and the fun was fet-
ting in the cleft of a mountain, fo that he appeared con-
fiderably lower than the horizon. The fky was clear,
excepting in the weft, which, though free from clouds,
was lightly fhaded with vapours, of a yellow colour,
inclining to red. Then the fun itfelf was exceedingly
red, and was apparently at leaft four times as large as
he appears to be at mid-day. In thefe circumftances
he faw very diftinclly the fhadows of the trees, which
were 30 or 40 feet from the white wall, coloured
with a light green inclining to blue. The fhadow of
an arbour which was three feet from the wall, was
exactly drawn upon it, and looked as if it had been
newly painted with verdigrife. 'Phis appearance laft-
ed near five minutes; after which it grew fainter,
225 and vanifhed at the fame time with the light of the fun.
rihiL fna- The next morning at funrife, he went to obferve
vul by him.0,;her ihadows, upon another white wail ; but imtead
of finding them green as before, he obferved that they
The fky was fe- Blue c lour
• n • nfl-bf. Sky.
were of the colour of lively indigo  
rene, except a flight covering of yellowifh vapours in
the eaft ; and the fun rofe behind a hill, fo that it was
elevated above his horizon. In thefe circumftances, the
blue fhadows were only vifible three minutes 5 after
which they appeared black, and in the evening of the
fame day he obferved the green fhadows exactly as be¬
fore. On another day at funfet he obferved, that the
fhadows were not green, but of a beautiful fky-blue.
He alfo obferved, that the fky was in a great mea-
fure free from vapours at that time, and that the fun
fet behind a rock, fo that it difappeared before it came
to his horizon. Afterwards he often obferved the
fhadows both at funrife and funfet; but always per¬
ceived them to be blue, though with a great variety of
fhades. , 22g
The firft perfon who attempted to explain this phe-Explana-
nomenon was the Abbe Mazeas. He obferved, that tion of theft
when an opaque body was illuminated by the moon and a phenomena,
candle at the fame time, and the-two ihadows were caft^
upon the fame white wall, that which was enlightened Mazeas.
by the candle was reddiih, and that which was enlight¬
ened by the moon was blue. He -fuppofed, hpwever,
the change of colour to be occafioned by the diminu¬
tion of the light 5 but M. Melville, and M. Bouguer, 22^
both independent of one another, feem to have hit up-MelvilleV
on the true caufe of this curious appearance, and which and Bou-
has been already hinted at. The former of thefe gentle-Sj161 s .ex"
men, in his attempts to explain the blue colour of the P-aiUltK,IV
fky, obfbrves, that fince it is certain that no body af-
fumes any particular colour, but becaufe it rellefls one
fort of raysArore abundantly than the reft ; and lince it
cannot be fuppofed that the conftituent parts of pure air
are grofs enough to feparate any colours of themfelves ;
we muft conclude with Sir Ifaac Newton, that the violet
and blue making rays are reflefted more copioirfly than
the reft, by the finer vapours diftufed through the at¬
mofphere, whofe parts are not big enough to give them
the appearance of vilible opaque clouds. And he fhows
that in proper circumftances, the bluilh colour of the
fky light may be actually feen on bodies illuminated by
it, as, he fays, it is objected fhould always happen upon
this hypothefis. For that if, on a cloudlefs day, a fheet
of white paper be expofed to the fun’s beams, when any
opaque body is placed upon it, the lhadow which is illu¬
minated by the Iky only will appear remarkably bluifh
compared with the reft of the paper, which receives the
fun’s direct rays.
M. Bouguer, who has taken the molt pains with
this fubjeft, obferves, that as M. Buffon mentions the
fiiadows appearing green only twice, and that at all
other times they were blue, this is the colour which
they regularly have, and that the blue was changed in¬
to green by fome accidental circumftance. Green, he
fays, is only a compofition of blue and yellow, fo that
this accidental change may have arifen from the mixture
of fome yellow rays in the blue fhadow ; and that per¬
haps the walls might have had that tinge, fo that the
blue is the only colour for which a general reafon is re¬
quired. This, he fays, muft be derived from the colour
of pure air, which always appears blue, and which al¬
ways reflects that colour upon all objects without diftinc-
tion 5 but which is too faint to be perceived when our
eyes are ftrongly affected by the light of the fun, reflect¬
ed from other objects around us.
To
264 OPT
^thetk1'' J° cPnfirm hypothef^, lie adds fome interefting
l ‘ ^ obfervations of his own, in which this appearance is
agreeably diverlified. Bein^ at the village of Boucholtz
in .inly 1764, he obferved the Pnadows pro]e£fed on the
white paper of his pocket-book when the Iky was clear.
228 ^ At half an hour pair fix in the evening, when the fun
fr'rvlniohs'0' WaS a^0llt' 4° high, he obferved that the fliadow of his
(fn thbAib- hnger i^s of a dark gray, while he held the paper op-
jcot. polite to the fun ; but w’hen be inclined it altnoft hori¬
zontally, the paper had a bluilli caft, and the fliaddw
upon it was of a beautiful bright blue.
When his eye was placed between the fun and the
paper laid horizontally, it always appeared of a blir’fh
call; but when he held the paper thus inclined between
his eye and the fun, he could diftinguifh, upon every
little eminence occafioned by the inequality of the iur-
face of the paper, the chief prifmatic colours. This
multitude of coloured points, red, yellow, green, and
blue, almoft effaced the natural colour of the objefts.
At 6h 45' the lhadows began to be blue, even when
the rays of the fun fell perpendicularly. The colour
Was the moft lively when the rays fell upoti it at an
angle of 45° ; but ivith a lefs inclination of the paper,
he could diftinclly perceive, that the blue fliadow had a
border of a ftronger blue on that fide which looked to¬
wards the Iky, and a red border on that fide which wras
turned towards the earth. To fee thefe. borders, it was
neceflary to place the body that made the fliadowr very
near the paper; and the nearer it was, the more fenfible
wras the red border. At the diftance of three inches,
the whole ftiadow was blue. At every obfervation, af¬
ter having held the paper towards the Iky, he turned it
towards the earth, which wras covered with verdure ;
holding it in fuch a manner, that the fun might fliine
upon it while it received the ffiadowTs of various bodies 5
but in this pofition he could never perceive the fliadow
to be blue or green at any inclination with refpect to
the fun’s rays.
At feven o’clock, the altitude of the fun being ftill
about tw;o degrees, the fhadows wrere of a bright blue,
even when the rays fell perpendicularly upon the paper,
but were brighteft wdien it was inclined 4150. At this
time he was furprifed to obferve, that a large tract of
Iky was not favourable to the produ&ion of this blue
colour, and that the fliadow falling upon the paper pla¬
ced horizontally was not coloured, or at leaf: the blue
was very faint. This Angularity, he concluded, arofe
from the fmall difference between the light of that part
of the paper which received the rays of the fun and that
which was in the fliade in this fituation. In a fituation
precifely horizontal, the difference would vanifh, and
there could be no fhadowu Thus too much or too little
of the fun’s light produced, but for different reafons, the
fame effedl ; for they both made the blue light reflected
from the Iky become infenfible. This gentleman ne¬
ver faw any green fhadows ; but fuppofes that the caufe
of thofe feen by Buffon might be the mixture of yellow
rays, reflected from the vapours, wdiich he obferves wTere
229 of that colour.
Blue fha- Thefe blue fhadows, our author obferves, are not con-
dows not fined to the times of the funrifing and funfetting 5 on the
the morn”0 I9t^1 w^en t^e fun has the greateft force, he
ings and obferved them at three o’clock in the afternoon, but the
evenings, fun at that time (hone through a miff.
If the Iky be clear the fhadows begin to be blue,
2
ICS. Part II.
when, if they be projected horizontally, they are eight Blue colour
times as long as the height of the body that producesor t^e Sky*
tnem, that is, when die altitude ot the fun’s centre is v '
7° d his oblervation, he fays, was made in the be¬
ginning of Auguft.
Beirdes thefe coloured fhadows, which are produced
by the interception of the direct rays of the fun, our
author obferved others fimilar to them at every hour of
the day, in rooms into which the light of the fun was
reflected from fome white body, if any part of the clear
iky could be feen from the place, and all unneceffary
light was excluded as much as poffible. He remarks,
that the blue fhadows may be feen at any hour of the
day, even with the dire£t light of the fun j and that,
this colour will difappear in all thofe places of the fha-
dow from which the blue fky cannot be feen.
Ail the obfervations that our author made upon the
yellow or reddiih borders of fhadows above mentioned,
led him to conclude, that they were occafioned by the
interception of the fky light, whereby part of the flia-
dowT was illuminated either by the red rays reflefted
from the clouds, when the fun is near the horizon, or
from fome terreftrial bodies in the neighbourhood. This
conjecture is favoured by the neceffity he was under of
placing any body near the paper, in order to produce
this bordered thadow, as he fays it is eafily demonflrat-
ed, that the interception of the fky light can only take
place when the breadth of the opaque body is to its di¬
ftance from the white ground on which the fhadow falls,
as twice the fine of half the amplitude of the fky to
its cofine.
At the conclufion of his obfervations on thefe blue
fhadows, he gives a fhort account of another kind of^j^Qf '
them, which, he foppofes to have the fame origin. Thefeflradows.
he often faw early in the fpring when reading by the
light of a candle in. the morning, and confequently with
the twilight mixed with that of his candle. In thefe
circumftances, the fhadow made by intercepting the light
of his candle, at the diftance of about fix feet, was of
a beautiful and clear blue, which became deeper as the
opaque body which made the ftiadow was brought near¬
er to the wall, and was exceedingly deep at the diftance
of a few inches only. But where the day light did not
come, the fhadows were all black without the leaft mix¬
ture of blue.
The explanations of the blue colour of the fky given ^ 231
by Newton and Bouguer are far from fatisfaetcry, and nat^n of
we prefume that the following method of accounting the colour
for that phenomenon affords the true explanation. The of die
light which flows from any portion of the blue fky is
obvioufly reflected light, which is thrown out into the
atmofphere in all directions by the earth, and the clouds
and vapours which furround it. The red or leaft re¬
frangible rays of this light having a greater momentum
than the blue or moft refrangible rays, penetrate much
farther into the atmofphere, and though a few may be
reflected, yet almoft all of them will be abforbed or loft
before they can return to the earth’s ftirface. On the
contrary, the blue rays, having lefs momentum, are not
capable of penetrating fo far into a refifting medium,
and are therefore reflected to the earth’s furface, and
give a blue colour to the expanfe of the heavens. The
blue colour of the fky is exaCtly the converfe of the red
colour which is perceived at great depths in the fea, and
of the red hue of the morning and evening clouds. Thefe
phenomena
Part II. OPT
Irradiations phenomena being produced by tranfmitted or refracted
of the Sun’s jjght ^ the red rays make their way through the medi-
Ligtn, ^-c. um tQ tjie ohferver’s eye, while the blue ones are re tie 61
_ v ed or abforbed.
Sect. V. Of the Irradiations of the San's Light appearing
through the interfices of the Clouds.
This is an appearance which every one muft have
obferved when the Iky was pretty much overcait, and
the clouds have many breaks or openings. At that
time feveral large beams of light, fomething like the
appearance of the light of the fun admitted into a
fmoky room, will be feen generally with a very confi-
derable degree of divergency, as if the radiant point
was lituated at no great dillance above the clouds. Dr
Smith obferves that this appearance is one of thofe
which ferve to demonftrate that very high and remote
objefls in the heavens do not appear to us in their real
fhapes and pofitions, but according to their perfpedfive
projedlions in the apparent concavity of the Iky. lie
acquaints us, that though thefe beams are generally feen
diverging, as reprefented in fig. II. it is not always the
, cafe. He himfelf, in particular, once faw them con¬
verging towards a point diametrically oppofite to the
fun : for, as near as he could conjeciure, the point to
which they converged was fituated as much below the
horizon as the fun was then elevated above the oppofite
part of it. This part is reprefented by the line / D /, and
the point below it in oppofition to the fun is E 5 towards
which all the beams itf, vt, &c. appeared to converge.
Perceiving that the point of convergency was oppo¬
fite to the fun, he fufpe6ted that this unufual phenome¬
non was but a cafe of the ufual apparent divergence of
the beams of the fun from his apparent place among the
clouds, as reprefented in fig. 11.; for though nothing is
more common than for rays to diverge from a luminous
body, yet the divergence of thefe beams in fuch large
angles is not real, but apparent. Becaufe it is impoffi-
ble for the direcl rays of the fun to crofs one another at
any point of the apparent concavity of the Iky, in a
greater angle than about half a degree. For the dia¬
meter of the earth being fo very fmall, in comparifon to
the diftance of the fun, as to fubtend an angle at any
point of his body of about 20 feconds; and the diame¬
ter of our vifible horizon being extremely fmaller than
that of the earth \ it is evident, that all the rays which
fall upon the horizon from any given point of the fun,
mull be inclined to each other in the fmalleft angles
imaginable : the greateft of them being as much fmal¬
ler than that angle of 20" as the diameter of the vifible
horizon is fmaller than that of the earth. All the rays
that come to us from any given point of the fun may
therefore be confidered as parallel; as the rays eT^' from
the point c, or jf B/z from the oppolite point f; and
confequently the rays of thefe two pencils that come
from oppofite points of the fun’s real diameter, and crofs
each other in the fun’s apparent place B among the
clouds, can form no greater an angle with each other
than about half a degree 5 this angle of their interfec-
tion eB/being the fame as the fun would fubtend to an
eye placed among the clouds at B, or (which is much
the lame) to an eye at O upon the ground. Becaufe
the fun’s real diftance OS is inconceivably greater than
his apparent diftance OB. Therefore the rays of the
fun, as Bf, Bh, do really diverge from his apparent
Vol. XV. Part I, *
Plate
CCCLXXXIV
fig. 11.
23 2
Conver¬
ging irra¬
diations ob
ferved by
Dr Smith
Fig. zr.
233
The pheno
menon ex¬
plained by
him.
Fig. 13.'
ICS.
place B in no greater angles gBh than about half a de- In-ad
gree. Neverthelefs they appear to diverge from the01 the
place B in all poffible angles, and even in oppofite di- iLl ^
redtions. Let us proceed then to an explanation of this
apparent divergence, which is by no means felf-evident 5
though at firft fight we are apt to think it is, by not di-
ftinguifhing the vaft difference between the true and ap¬
parent diftances of the fun.
Suppofing all the rays of the fun to fall accurately
parallel to each other upon the vifible horizon, as they
do very nearly, yet in both cafes they muff appear to
diverge in all poffible angles. Let us imagine the hea¬
vens to be partly overcaft with a fpacious ftratum of bro¬
ken clouds, v, v, v, &c. parallel to the plane of the vi¬
fible horizon, reprefented by the line AO.D ; and when F,g‘ 1
the fun’s rays fall upon thefe clouds in the parallel lines
r r v, &c. let fome of them pafs through their inter-
ffices in the lines v t, v t &c. and fall upon the plane of
the horizon at the places t, t, &c. And fimce the reft
of the incident rays j v, r v, are luppofed to be inter¬
cepted from the place of the fpedlator at O by the
cloud x, and from the intervals between the tranfmitted
rays v t,v t, &c. by the clouds v, v, &c. a fraall part of
thefe latter rays v t, v t, when reflected every way from
fome certain kind of thin vapours floating in the air,
may undoubtedly be fufficient to affect the eye with an
appearance of lights and fliades, in the form of bright
beams in the places v t,vt, &c. and of dark ones in the
intervals between them 5 juft as'fimilar beams of light
and ffiade appear in a room by reflcftions of the fun’s
rays from fmoke or duft flying within it 5 the lights
and ffiades being here occafioned by the tranfmiffion of
the rays through fome parts of the window, and by their
interruption at other parts.
Now, if the apparent concavity of this ftratum of
clouds v, v, to the eye at O, be reprefented by the arch
ABCD, and be cut in the point B by the line OBx pa¬
rallel to the beams tv; it will be evident by the rules
of perfpeftive, that thefe long beams will not appear in
their real places, but upon the concave AB CD diver¬
ging every way from the place B, where the fun himfelf
appears, or the cloud x that covers his body, as repre¬
fented feparately in full view in fig. 11. r.
And for the fame reafon, if the line BO be produced
towards E, below the plane of the horizon AOD, and
the eye be direcled towards the region of the Iky di-
redlly above E, the lower ends of the fame real beams
v t,v t, will now appear upon the part DF of this con¬
cave 5 and will feern to converge towards the point E,
fituated juft as much below the horizon as the oppofite
point B is above it : which is feparately reprefented in
full view in fig. 12. Fi
For if the beams v t,v t, be fuppofed to be vifible
throughout their whole lengths, and the eye be diredf-
ed in a plane perpendicular to them, here reprefented
by the line OF ; they and their intervals will appear
broadeft in and about this plane, becaufe thefe parts of
of them are the neareft to the eye ; and therefore their
remoter parts and intervals will appear gradually nar¬
rower towards the oppofite ends of the line BE. As
a farther illuftration of this lubject, we may conceive
the fpedfator at O to be fituated upon the top of ia
large a defcent OHI towards a remote valley IK, and
the fun to be fo very krw, that the point E, oppofite to
him, may be feen above the horizon of this fliady vaL
L 1 . lev.
266
OPT
Irradiations ley. In this cafe it is manifeil:, that the fpeftators at O
of; be Sun - vvould now fee thefe beams converging fo far as to meet
c’ each other at the point E in the Iky itfelf.
2 ’4 This phenomenon is not feen in moonlight, probably
Not obferv- becaufe her light is too weak after reflections from any
ca by moon kind of vapours, to caufe a fcnfible appearance of lights
"g*1- anci fbades fo as to form thefe beams. And in the phe¬
nomenon of fig. 12. the converging fusbeams towards
the point belowT the horizon were not quite fo bright
and ftrong as thofe ufually are that diverge from him )
and the iky beyond them appeared very black (feve-
ral fliowers having pafled that way), which certainly
contributed to this appearance. Hence it is probable
that the thinnefs and weaknefs of the reflected rays
from the vapours oppofite the fun, is the chief caufe
that this appearance is fo very uncommon in com-
parifon to that of diverging beams. For as the re¬
gion of the Iky round about the fun is always bright¬
er than the oppofite one, fo the light of the diverging
beams ought alfo to be brighter than that of the1 con¬
verging ones. For, though rays are reflected from
rough unpolilhed bodies in all directions, yet more of
them are reflected forwards obliquely, than are reflected
more directly backwards. Befides, in the prefent cafe,
the incident rays upon the oppofite region to the fun,
are more diminifhed by continual reflections from a
longer traft of the atmofphere, than the incident rays
upon the region next the fun.
The pheno- The common phenomenon of diverging beams is
menon of more frequent in fummer than in winter, and alfo wdien
diverging fun is lower than when higher up j probably becaufe
bi ^ms niore the lower vapours are denfer, and therefore more llronp;-
fummer ty reflective than the higher j becaufe the lower Iky
than in light is not fo bright as the upper •, becaufe the air is
winter. generally more quiet in the mornings and evenings than
about noon-day 5 and laftly, becaule many forts of va¬
pours are more plentifully exhaled in fummer than in
winter, from many kinds of volatile vegetables ; which
vapours, when the air is cooled and condenfed in the
mornings and evenings, may become denfe enough to
reflect a fenfible light.
Sect. VI. Of the Illumination of the Eartfi's Shadow
in Lunar Eclipfes.
The ancient philofophers, who knew nothing of the
refractive power of the atmofphere, wrere much perplex¬
ed to account for the body of the moon being vifible
whe>i totally eclipfed. At fuch times ftie generally ap¬
pears of a dull red colour, like tarniflied copper. This,
they thought, was the moon’s native light, by which Ihe
Why the became vifible when hid from the brighter light of the
“I); fun. Plutarch, indeed, attributes this appearance to the
totally e- light of the fixed ftars reflected to us by tbe moon 5 but
clipfed. this is too weak to prpduce tbe effect. Tbe true caufe
of it is the fcattered beams of the fun bent into the
earth’s fliadow by refractions through tbe atmofphere in
the following manner.
Plate Let the body of the fun be reprefented by the circle
ecclxxxv. ^ an(j tha|. 0£ the earth by cd; and let tbe lines ace
1 & ’ and b de touch them both, and meet in e beyond the
earth 5 then the angular fpace ced will reprefent the
conical figure of the earth’s fltadow, which would be to¬
tally dark, were none of them bent into it by the re¬
fraction of the atmofphere. The rays a h and b /,
which touch its oppofite fides, will proceed unrefracted,
I c s.
Part IT.
and meet each other at h. Then the two nearefi lays
to thefe that flow within them, from the lame points a
and Z>, being refracted inwards through the margin of
the atfnofphere, will crols each other at a point /, fome-
what nearer to the earth than h; and in like manner,
two oppofite rays next within the two laff will crcl's
each other at a point femewhat nearer to the earth
Illumina¬
tion of the
Shadow of
the Eaith.
than /, having fuffered greater refractions, by paffmg
through longer and denfer tracts of air lying fomewhat
nearer to the earth. The like approach of the fuccel-
five- interfections k, /, m, is to be underilcod of innumer¬
able couples of rays, till you come to the interfection n
of the two inneimoft; which we may fuppofe juft to
touch the earth at the points 0 andp. It is plain then,
that the fpace bounded by thefe rays 0 n, np, will be
the only part of the earth’s lhadew wholly unenlighten¬
ed. Let J mg be part of the moon’s orbit when it is
neareft the earth, at a time when the earth’s dark lhadow
onp, is longeft: in this cafe, the ratio of fra to /« is about
4 to 3 ; and confequently the moon, though centrally
eclipled at ra, may yet be vifible by means of the fcatter¬
ed rays, firft tranfmittedtothe moon by refraction through
the atmofphere, and thence reftected to the earth.
For let the incident and emergent parts aq,rn, of Fig. af
the ray a q 0 r n, that juft touches the earth at 0, be
produced till they meet at u, and let a q u produced
meet the axis s t produced in x ; and joining u r and
u ra, fince the refractions of a horizontal ray paffmg
from 0 to or from 0 to <7, would be alike and equal,
tbe external angle n u x is double the quantity of the
ufual refraction of a horizontal ray j and the angle a u s
is the apparent meafure of the fun’s femidiameter feen
from the earth ; and the angle u s t that of the earth’s
femidiameter t u feen from the fun (called his horizontal
parallax'); and laftly, the angle u m t is that of the
earth’s femidiameter feen from the moon (called her ho¬
rizontal parallax) ; becaufe the elevation of tbe point
u above tbe earth is too fmall to make a fenfible error
in the quantity of thefe angles j whofe meafures by
aftronomical tables are as follow j
/ n
Sun’s leaft app. femidiam. — a u s — 15—30
Sun’s horizontal parallax — u s t — 00—10
Their difference *is - — t x u — 15—40 *-pMci j
Twice horizontal refraction rr nux — 67—30 Prnp'kyvi;,
Their fum fis - - — t n u — 83—10
Moon’s greateft; hcriz. parallax — tmu — 62—10
Therefore (by a preceding prop.) we have t m \ t n —
(ang. tnu : ang. tmu — 83'—10" : 62'—10" =)4 : 3,
in round numbers \ which was to be proved. It is
eafy to collect from the moon’s greateft horizontal pa¬
rallax of 62'—10", that her leaft diftance t ra is about
55-j- femidiameters of the earth; and therefore the
greateft length t n oi the dark fliadow, being three
quarters of t ra, is about /[i\ femidiameters.
The difference of the laft-mentioned angles t n ?/,
t m u is mu n—l\', that is, about two thirds of 31'—
40", tbe angle which the whole diameter of the fun
fubtends at u. Whence it follows, that the middle
point ra of the moon centrally eclipfed, is illuminated
by rays which come from two-thirds of every diameter
of the fun’s dilk, and pals by one fide of the earth ; and
alfo by rays that come from tire oppofite two-thirds of
\ • every
Part II. ’ OPT
Illumina- every one of the faid diameters, and pafs by the other
tion of the f1(]e 0f t]ie earth. This will appear by conceiving the
Sl^wo* ray a q o r n to be inflexible, and its middle point a to
,t''" ^'ir 1‘~ flide upon the earth, while the part r « is approaching
to touch the point in; for then the oppofite part q a
will trace over two thirds of the fun’s diameter. The
true proportion of the angles n u m, a u .r, could not be
preferved in the fcheme, by reafon of the fun’s immenfe
diftance and magnitude with refpect to the earth.
Having drawn the line a t a, it may be obferved, that
all the incident rays, zs a q, a x., flowing from any one
point of the fun to the circumference of the earth, will
be collected to a focus «, whofe diftance / « is lefs.than
t m in the ratio of 62 to 67 nearly ; and thus an image
of the fun will be formed at a. 3, whofe rays will diverge
upon the moon. For the angle t a. u is the difference
of the angles x u a, u xt found above ; and t x \ t m ~
ang. t m u : ang. t xu —.62'—10" : 67—30".
The rays that flow next above a q and a jc, by paf-
ftng through a rarer part of the atmofphere, will be
united at a point in the axis a t x farther from the earth
than the laft focus x ; and the lame may be faid of the
rays that pafs next above thefe, and fo on ; whereby an
infinite feries of images of the fun will be formed, whofe
diameters and degrees of brightnefs will increafe with
their diftances from the earth.
Hence it is manifeft why the moon eclipfed in her pe¬
rigee appears alwrays duller and darker than in her apo-
ICS. 267
gee. The reafon why her colour is always of1 the cop- Illumma-
per kind, between a dull red and orange, feems to be ^on ,o1 ^
this: The blue colour<ef a clear Iky ftiows that thet.^aEa^th<
blue rays are more copioufly reflected from pure air than , *
thofe of any other colour •, confequently they are lefs 237
copioufly tranfmitted through it among the reft that ^ hy t-'ie
come from the fun, and fo much the lefs as the tract duller
air through which they pafs is the longer. Hence the edip-
common colour of the fun and moon is whiteft in the led in her
meridian, and grows gradually more inclined to diluted Pen8'^e
yellow, orange, and red, as they defcend lower, that is,1*1311 in ^
as the rays are tranfmitted through a longer tract ofa^0°e ’
air ; which tract being ftiil lengthened in pafling to the
moon and back again, caufes a ftill greater lofs of the
blue rays in proportion to the reft ; and fo the refulting
colour of the tranfmitted rays muft lie between a dark
orange and red, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s rule for
finding the relult of a mixture of colours. The circular
edge of the ftiadow in a partial eclipfe appears red 5 be-
caufe the red-making rays are the leaft refracted of all
others, and confequently are left alone in the conical
furface of the fliadow, all the reft being refracted into it.
Dr Herfchel, who believes that the moon is phofpho-
refcent, and that ftie ftiines by her native light, whem to¬
tally eclipfed by the fun, has endeavoured to (hewq by
calculation, that the light refracted by the atmofphei*1
cannot in fome cafes fall upon the moon.
Part III. On the CONSTRUCTION of OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.
Chap. I. Defcription of Optical Injlruments.
OF the mechanifm of optical inftruments, particular
accounts are given in this work under their refpective
names. Thefe it would be improper to repeat; but as
it belongs to the fcience of optics to explain, by the
laws of refraction and reflection, the feveral phenomena
which thofe inftruments exhibit, we muft here enume¬
rate the inftruments themfelves, omitting entirely, or Ha¬
ting very briefly, fuch facts as are given at large in
other places.
Sect. I. The Multiplying Glafs.
The multiplying glafs is made by grinding dowm
Plate the convex fide h i k of a plano-convex glafs AB, into
Ccclxxxvi.feveral flat furfaces, as hb,b ld, dh. An object C will
%• I- not appear magnified when feen through this glafs by
23S the eye at H } but it will appear multiplied into as ma-
Multipfr- ny different objects as the glafs contains plane furfaces.
^g‘ab. For> fince rays will flow7 from the object C to all parts
of the glafs, and each plane furface will refract thefe
rays to the eye, the fame object will appear to the eye
in the direction of the rays which enter it through each
furface. Thus, a ray g i H, falling perpendicularly on
the middle furface, will go through the glafs to the eye
without fullering any refraction j and will therefore
Ihow the object in its true place at C : whilft a ray a b
flowing from the fame object, and falling obliquely on
the plane furface b h, will be refracted in the direction
1/ e, by pafling through the glafs ) and, upon leaving it,
will go on to the eye in the direction r H } which will
make the fame object C appear alfo at E, in the direc¬
tion of the ray H e, produced- in the right line H e n.
And the ray c d, flowing from the object C, and fallihg
obliquely on the plane lurface d k, will in the fame way
be refracted to the eye at H ; winch will caufe the
fame objeft to appear at D, in the diredlion H f ?n.—
If the glafs be turned round the line g l H, as an axis,
the objedl C will keep its place, becaufe the furface bid
is not removed 5 but all the other objefts will feem to go
round C, becaufe the oblique planes, on which the rays
abed fall, will turn round by the motion of the glafs.
Sect. II. Mirrors.
It has been already obferved, that there are three
kinds of mirrors principally ufed in optical experiments
(See Catoptrics, Sect. I.) ; the plane mirror, thefphe-
rical convex mirror, and the fpherical concave mirror.
Of thefe the plane mirror firft claims our attention,
as it is more common, and of greater antiquity, than
the other twro. We have ftiewm that the image reflect¬
ed by this mirror appears as far behind the furface as
the objedt is before it; that the image will appear of
the fame fize and in the fame pofition with the object j
that every plane mirror will refleft an image of twice
its own length and breadth ; and that in certain cir-
cumftances it will reflect feveral images of the fame ob-
je£t. Thefe phenomena w7e ihall now explain by the
laws of reflection.
Let AB be an objeCt placed before the reflecting plate
furface g h 1 of the plane mirror CD *, and let the eyeccctxxxvft;
be at 0. Let Psh be a ray of light flowing from the Fig. 2.
top A of the objeCt, and falling upon the mirror at //,
and h m be a perpendicular to the furface of the mirror
at h ; the ray A h will be reflected from the mirror to
the eye at 0, making an angle m h 0 equal to the angle
L 1 2 Ah ml
'268
Optical
flxumei
O P T
. *39
Size of a
looking-
giafs in
which a
man may
fee his
whole
image.
^ig- 3,
A.hm : then will the top of the image E appear to the
eye in* the diredion of the refleded" ray oh produced to
E, where the right line A/)E, from the top of the ob-
jed, cuts the right line o^E, at E. Let B/ be a ray
of light iflurng from the foot of the objecl at B to the
mirror at i j and tn a perpendicular to the mirror from
the point 7, where the ray B i falls upon it j this ray will
ne retleded in the line zb, making an angle nio equal to
ine angle Bz>/, with that perpendicular, and entering
fhe eye at o ; then will the foot F of the image appear
in the diredion of the refleded ray oi, produced to F
where the right line BF cuts the refleded ray produced’
to F. . All the other rays that flow from the intermedi¬
ate points or the objed AB, and fall upon the mirror
between k and /, will be refleded to the eye at o ; and
all the intermediate points of the image EF wall appear
to the eye in the diredion of thefe refleded rays pro-
duced. ^ But all the rays that proceed from the objed
and fail upon the mirror above //, wall be refleded back
above the eye at o ; and all the rays that flow from the
objed, and fail upon the mirror below z‘, will be refled¬
ed back below the eye at o ; fo that none of the rays
that fall above //, or below z’, can be refleded to the
eye at o and the diftance between h and i is equal
to half the length of the object AB.
Hence it appears, that if a man fees his whole image
in a plane looking-glafs, the part of the glafs that re-
fleds his image mull; be juft half as long" and half as
broad as himielf, let him ftand at any diftance from it
whatever ; and that his image muft appear juft as far
behind the glafs as he is before it. Thus, the man AB
viewing himfelf in the plane mirror CD, which is juft
half as long as himfelf, fees his whole image as at EF,
behind the glafs, exadly equal to his own fize. For a
ray AC proceeding from his eye at A, and falling per¬
pendicularly upon the furface of the glafs at C, Is re¬
fleded back to his eye, in the fame line CA ; and the
eye of his image will appear at E, in the fame line pro¬
duced to E, beyond the glafs. And a ray BD, flowing
from his foot, and falling obliquely on the glafs at D,
will be refleded as obliquely on the other fide of the
perpendicular abT), in the diredion DA ; and the foot
of his image wall appear at F, in the diredion of the
refleded ray AD, produced to F, where it is cut by the
right line BGF, drawn parallel to the right line ACE 5
juft the fame as if the glafs wTere taken awTay, and the
real man flood at F, equal in fize to the man ftanding
at B : For to his eye at A, the eye of the other man
at E would be feen in the diredion of the line ACE 5
and the foot of the man at F would be feen by the eye
A, in the diredion of the line ADF.
If the glafs be brought nearer the man AB, fuppofe
to cb) he will fee his image at CDG : for the refleded
ray CA (being perpendicular to the glafs) will fhow the
eye of the image at C ;* and the incident ray Bb, being
refleded in the line ^A, wall fliow the foot of his image
at G 5 the angle of refledion abA being always equal
to the angle of incidence Bba; and fo of all the inter¬
mediate rays from A to B. Hence, if the man AB
advances towards the giafs CD, his image will approach
towards it 5 and if he recedes from the glafs, his imawe
will alfo recede from it.
If the objed be placed before a common • looking-
glafs, and viewed obliquely, three, four, or more images
of it, will appear behind the glafs.
1 , > Part III.
1 o explain this, let ABCD reprefent the glafs ; and Optical In¬
let EF be the axis of a pencil of rays flowing from E, itri!ments.
a point in an objed fituated there. The rays of this v
pencil will in part be refleded at F, fuppofe into the line ccccxxxir
I'G. \\ hat remains will (after refradion at F, which 'fig" 11.
<\ e do not confider here) pafs on to H 5 from whence
(on account of the quickfilver which is fpread over the
fecond furface of the glafs) they will be ftrongly re¬
flected to K, wfliere part of them will emerge and enter
an eye at L. By this means one reprefentation of the
point E will be formed in the line LK produced, fup- 240
pole in M : Again, Another pencil, whole axis is £N, Why three
firft refleded at N, then at O, and afterwards at P, will01' four
form a fecond reprefentation of the fame point at O .nf aSfof
And, thirdly, Another pencil, whofe axis is ER, aferfeenhl ^
fucceflive refledions at the feveral points R, S, H, T,V, plane nur-
will exhibit a third reprefentation of the fame point atrori-
X ; and fo on ad infinitum. The fame being true of
each point in the objed, the whole will be reprefented
111 the like manner; but the reprefentations will be
faint, in proportion to the number of refledions which
the rays iuffer, and the length of their progrefs within
the glafs. We may add to thefe another reprelentation
Oi the lame objed in the line LO piroduced, made bv
fuch of the rays as fall upon O, and are thence rerieded
to the eye at L. This experiment may be tried by
placing a candle before the glafs as at E, and viewing it
obliquely, as from L.
. 2; Of Concave. Mirrors. The effeds of thefe in mag¬
nifying and diminifhing objeds, have in general been
already explained j but in order to underftand the
nature of reileding telefcopes, it will ftill be proper to
fubjoin the following particular defcription of the effeds
of. concave mirrors.
When parallel rays, as dfa, C m b, e lc, fall upon a piate
concave mirror AbB, they will be refleded back hfrom ccccxxxv.k
that mirror, and meet in a point m, at half the diftance fig- 4-
of the furface of the mirror from C the centre of its
concavity 5 for they will be refleded at as great an angle
ftom a perpendicular to the furface of the mirror, as
they fell upon it with regard to that perpendicular, ’but
on the other fide thereof. Thus, let C be the centre of
concavity of the mirror AbB 5 and let the parallel rays
df zz, C m b, and e l c, fall upon it at the points a, b,
and c. Draw the lines Czzz, C m b, and Che, from
the centre C to thefe points; and all thefe lines wall be
perpendicular to the furface of the mirror. Make the
angle Cah—d a C, and draw the line a m h, which will
be the diredion of the ray dfa, after it is refleded
from the point a of the mirror ; fo that the angle of in¬
cidence da CzrC ah, the angle of refledion ; the rays
making equal angles with the perpendicular Ci a on its
oppofite fides.
Draw alfo the perpendicular Che to the point e,
where the ray e lc touches the mirror ; and having
made the angle C c z—C c e, draw the line c m i, which
will be the courfe of the ray e l c, after it is refleded
from the mirror. The ray C mb paffmg through the
centre of concavity of the mirror, and falling upon it at
b, is perpendicular to it •, and is therefore refleded back
from it in the fame line b mC. All thefe refleded rays
meet in the point m 5 and in that point the image of
the body which emits the parallel rays da, Cb, and
e c, will be formed ; which point is diftant from the
mirror equal to half the radius bmC d its concavity.
As
/
Part III.
OPT
Optical In-
itruments.
24I
Aerial
images
formed
by concave
mirrors.
5-
As the rays which proceed from any celeftial object
may be efteemed parallel, the image of that object will
be formed at /;/, when the reflefting furface of the con¬
cave mirror is turned directly to the object. Hence the
focus m of parallel rays is not in the centre of the mir¬
ror’s concavity, but half way between the mirror and
that centre.
The rays which proceed from any remote terreftrial
objeft are not Itribtly parallel, but come diverging to
it, in feparate pencils, from each point of the fide of
the object next the mirror ; and therefore they will not
be converged to a point at the diitance of half the ra¬
dius of the mirror’s concavity from its reflecting furface,
but into feparate points at a little greater diflance from
the mirror. The nearer the object is to the mirror, the
farther thefe points will be from it \ and an inverted
image of the obiect will be formed in them, which will
feem to hang in. the air, and will be feen by an eye pla¬
ced beyond it (with regard to the mirror) in all refpects
fimilar to the object, and as diftinct as the object itfelf.
Let AcB be the reflefting furface of a mirror, whole
centre of concavity is at C ^ and let the upright object
DE be placed beyond the centre C, and fend out a co¬
nical pencil of diverging rays from its upper extremity
D, to every point of the concave furface of the mirror
A c B. But to avoid confufion, we only draw three
rays of that pencil, as DA, Dc, DB.
From the centre of concavity C, draw the three
right lines CA, C c, CB, touching the mirror in the
fame points where the three rays touch it) and all thefe
lines will be perpendicular to the furface of the mirror.
Make CA</=DAC, and draw the right line A d for
the courfe of the refleffed ray DA : make C c */—D c C,
and draw the right line c d for the courfe of the re-
flefted ray D d: make alfo CB DEC, and draw the
right line B d for the courfe of the reflected ray DB.
All thefe reflefted rays will meet in the point d, where
they will form the extremity d of the inverted image e d
fimilar to the extremity D of the upright objeft DE.
If the pencil of rays Ef E^, E /i, be alfo continued
to the mirror, and their angles of reflection from it be
made equal to their angles of incidence upon it, as in
the former pencil from D, they will all meet at the
point e by reflection, and form the extremity e of the
image e d, fimilar to the extremity E of the object DE.
And as each intermediate point of the object, between
D and E, fends out a pencil of rays in like manner to
every part of the mirror, the rajs of each pencil will
be refleded back from it, and meet in all the interme¬
diate points between the extremities e and d of the
image ; and fo the whole image will be formed in an
inverted pofition not at 2, half the diitance of the mirror
from its centre of concavity C, but at a greater diitance
between i and the objeft DE.
This being well underftood , the reader will eafily un¬
derhand how the image is fon v. i by the large concave
mirror of the reflecting telefcope, when he comes to the
defcription of that inftrumeni.
When the objeCt is more remote from ‘he mirror than
Its centre of concavity C, the image will be lefs than
the objeCt, and between the objeCt and mirror : when
the object is nearer than the centre of concavity, the
image will be mo^e remote and bigger than the object.
Thus, if ED be the obiect, de will be its image : For,
as the object recedes from the mirror, the image ap-
I C S. 269
proaches nearer to it \ and as the object approaches Optica! In-
nearer to the mirror, the image recedes farther from it; ft'u^eius.^
on account of the leffer or greater divergency of the
pencils of rays which proceed from the object : for the
lefs they diverge, the fooner they are converged to
points by reflection •, and the more they diverge, the
farther they proceed before, they meet.
If the radius of the mirror’s concavity, and the di-
ftance of the object after refraction, be known, the di-
llance of the image from the mirror is found by this
rule : Divide the product of the diftance and radius by
double the dillance made lefs by the radius, and the
quotient is the diftance required.
If the object be in the centre of the mirror’s concavity,
the image and objetft will be coincident, and equal in bulk.
If a man place himfelf directly before a large con¬
cave mirror, but farther from it than its centre of con¬
cavity, he will fee an inverted image of himfelf in tho
air, between him and the mirror, and of a lefs fize than
himfelf. If he holds out his hand towards the mirror,
the hand of the image wall come out towards his hand,
and coincide with it, of an equal bulk, -when his hand
is in the centre of concavity ; and he wall imagine he
may lhake hands with his image. If he reaches his
hand farther, the hand of the image will pafs by his
hand, and come betwreen his hand and his body : and if
he moves his hand towards either fide, the hand of the
image wall move towards the other j fo that whatever
way the object moves, the image will move the con¬
trary. All the w'hile a byftander wall fee nothing of
the image, becaufe none of the reflected rays that form
it enter his eyes.
Sect. III. Camera Obfcura.
The camera obfcura having already been fully de-
fcribed under the wTord Dioptrics, we fliall at prefent
only direct the readers attention to an improvement which
has lately been made upon this amufing inftrument.
“ The improvements (fays Dr Brewfter) which have
been made upon the camera obfcura fince its firit inven¬
tion, regard chiefly its external form-, and no attempts
have been made to increafe the brilliancy and dittindt-
nefs of the image. When wye compare the picture of
external objects, which is formed in a dark chamber by
the obje£t-glafs of a common refracting telefcope, with
that which is formed wdth an achromatic objeft-glals,
we Hi all find the difference between their diftinct nets
much lefs than we fhould have at firit expected. Al¬
though the achromatic lens forms an image of the mi¬
nuted: parts of the landfcape, yet when this image is re¬
ceived on paper, thefe minute parts are obliterated by
the fmall hairs and afperities on its furface, -and the ef¬
fect of the picture is very much impaired. In the Royal
Obfervatory at Greenwich the image is received upon
a large concave piece of ftucco •, but this fubftance does
not feem to be more favourable for the reception of
images than a paper ground. In order to obviate thefe
imperfections, I tried a number of white fubftances of
different degrees of fmoothnefs, and feveral metallic
furfaces with different degrees of polilh, but did not 1
fucceed in finding any furface fuperior to paper. I hap¬
pened, however, to receive the image on the filvered
back of a looking glafs, and w~as furprifed at the bril¬
liancy and diftindlnefs with which external objecls wrere
reprelented. The little fpherical protuberances, how¬
ever,
270 . . OPT
C)ptica! In- ever, which artfe from the rotighnefs of the tinfoil have
1 y' a tendency to detraft from the precilion of the image,
and certainly injure it coniiderably when examined nar¬
rowly with the eye. In order to remove thefe fmall
eminences, I ground the furface carefully with a bed of
hones which I had ufed for working the plane fpecula
of Newtonian telefcopes. By this operation, which is
exceedingly delicate, and may be performed without in¬
juring the mirror, I obtained a furface finely adapted
for the reception of images. The minute parts of the
landfcape, when received on this fubftance, are formed
Avith fo much precifion, and the brilliance of the colour¬
ing is fo uncommonly fine, as to equal, if not furpafs
the images formed in the air by means of concave fpe¬
cula. Notwithftanding the bluifii colour of the metal¬
lic ground, white objects are reprefented in their true
colour, and the verdure of the foliage is fo rich and vi¬
vid, that the image feems to furpafs in beauty even the
objeft itfelf. On account of the metallic luftre of the
furface, the dilfindlnefs of the image will always be
greateft when the eye of the obferver is placed in the
diredfion of the refleffed rays.
I he common portable camera obfcura, which has al¬
ready been defcribed (fee Dioptrics), is neceffarily on
a fmall fcale, and has many difadvantages. Thefe dif-
advantages are completely remedied in the camera ob¬
fcura, invented by the Kev. Mr Thomfon of Dudding-
1’late lion, which is reprefented in figures i. and 2. of Plate
XTT CCCLXXXIX. In fig. i. A is a metallic or wooden
* s' ’ ' ring, in which the four wooden bars AF, AI, AG,
AH, move by means of joints at A, and are kept afun-
der by the crofs pieces BC, DE, which move round B
and D as centres, and fold up along BA and DA,
when the inftrument is not ufed. The furface FIGH,
on which the image is received, confifts of a piece of
filk covered with paper. It is made to roll up at IH,
which moves in a joint at I, fo that the whole furface
FIHG, when winded upon IH, can be folded upon the
bar I A. By this means the inftrument, which is cover¬
ed with green filk covered with a black fubftance, may
be put together and carried as an umbrella. It is
fhewn more fully in fig. 2. where A is the aperture for
• placing the lens, and BC a femicircular opening for
viewing the image. A black veil may be fixed to the cir¬
cumference of BC, and thrown over the head of the obfer¬
ver to prevent the admiflion of any extraneous light.”
Sect. IV. Micro/copes.
Under the article Microscope a full account has
been given of the external conftruAion of thofe inftru-
ments as they are now made by the moft eminent artifts.
It did not fall -within the plan of that article to
explain the way in which an enlarged pidlure of the ob-
jetft is formed upon the retina by means of the fiicro-
fcope, and the means of afeertaining its magnifying power j
but we fhall now dire6l the readers attention to this in-
terefting fubjeft.
i. The Single Microfcope, the fimpleft of all micro-
fcopes, is nothing more than a fmall globule of glafs, or
a convex lens whofe fecal diftance is extremely Ihort.
Plate T!ie magnifyirig' power of this microfcope is thus afeer-
fcccLxxxvn. tamed by Dr Smith. u A minute objeft p(], feen di¬
figs. 6, 7. ftindily through a fmall glafs AE by the eye put clofe
to it, appears fo much greater than it would to the na¬
ked eye, placed at the leaf! diftance q L from whence
4
1 L, S. Part III.
it appears futhciently diftinel, as this latter diftance q L Optical In¬
is greater than the former q E. For having put your ft>'»ments.
eye clofe to the glafs EA, in order to fee as much of  v '
tne object as poftible at one view, remove the object p q
to and fro till it appear molt diltindtly, fuppofe at the
diftance E q. Then conceiving the glafs AE to be re¬
moved,^ and a thin plate, with a pin-hole in it, to be
put in its place, the objedt will appear diftindt and as
large as before, when feen through the glafs, only not
fo bright. And in this latter cafe it appears fo much
greater than it does to the naked eye at the diftance
q L, either with a pin-hole or without it, as the angle
p/q is greater than the angle />Ly, or as the latter
diftance ^ L is greater than the former q E. Since the
interpofition of the glafs has no other effedt than to ren¬
der the appearance diftindt, by helping the eye to in-
ereafe the refradlion of the rays in each pencil, it is
plain that the greater apparent magnitude is entirely
owing to a nearer view than could be taken by the na¬
ked eye. As the human eye is fo conftructed, as, for
reafons already aftigned, to have diftinct vifion only
when the rays which fall upon it are parallel or
nearly fo; it follows that if the eye be fo perfect as
to fee. diftinctly by pencils of paraHel rays falling
upon it, the diftance E q, of the object from the
glafs, is then the focal diftance of the glafs. Now,
if the glafs be a fmall round globule, of about —j-th
of an inch diameter, its focal diftance Ey, being
three quarters of its diameter, is ^th of an inch ;
and if ^ L be eight inches, the diftance at which we
ufually view minute objects, this globule will magnify
in the proportion of 8 to or of 160 to 1.
Mr Gray’s Water Microfcope is reprefented in Plate
CCCLXXXIX. fig. 4. The drop of water taken up
on the point of a pin is introduced into the fmall hole
D, -A- of an inch in diameter, in the piece of brafs DE,
about xlg- of an inch thick. The hole D is in the middle
of a fpherical cavity, about l of an inch in diameter, and
a little deeper than half the thicknefs of the brafs; on
the oppofite fide of the brafs is another fpherical cavity,
half as broad as the former, and fo deep as to reduce the
circumference of the fmall hole to a (harp edge. The
water being placed in thefe cavities, will form a double
convex lens with unequal convexities. The object, if it
is folid, is fixed upon the point C of the fupporter AB,
and placed at its proper diftance from the water lens by
the ferew FG. When the objeeft is fluid, it is placed
in the hole A, but in fuch a manner as not to be fphe¬
rical 5 and this hole is brought oppofite the fluid lens by
moving the extremity G of the ferew into the flit GH.
2. The Double or Compound Microfcope, confifts of Fig. S.
an object-glafs c d, and an eye-glafs c f The fmall
object ab\s placed at a little greater diftance from the
glafs c d than its principal focus; fo that the pencils of
rays flowing from the different points of the object, and
pafling through the glafs, may be made to converge,
and unite in as many points between g and //, where the
image of the object will be formed j which image is
viewed by the eye through the eye-glaTs ef For the
eye-glafs being fo placed, that the image ^ h may be in
its focus, and the eye much about the fame diftance on
the other fide, the rays c1* each pencil will be parallel
after going out of the eye-glafs, as at e and^j till they
come to the eye at k, where they will begin to con-
verge by the refractive power of the humours 5 and af¬
ter
Fig. 9-
Partlll. OPT
Optica! In- ter having crofted each other in the pupil, they will be
Ihuments. cyjjefted into points on the retina, and form upon it the
\ large inverted image AB.
Ufeof feve- By tins combination of lenfes, the aberration of the
ral lenfes in light from the figure of the glafs, which in a globule of
a compound the kind above-mentioned is very confiderable, is in
microicope. fome meafure correcled. This appeared fo fenfibly to
be the cafe, even to former opticians, that thev very
foon began to make the addition of another lens. For,
fays Mr Martin, it is not only evident from the theory
of this aberration, that the image of any point is ren¬
dered lefs confufed by refraction through two lenfes than
by an equal refraction through one ; but it alfo follows,
from the fame principle, that the fame point has its
image (till lefs confufed when formed by rays refradted
through three lenfes than by an equal refradtion through
two 5 and therefore a third lens added to the other will
contribute to make the image more diftindt, and confe-
quently the intlrument more complete. At the fame
time the field of view is amplified, and the ufe of the
microfcope rendered mare agreeable, by the addition of
the other lens. Thus alfo we may allow a fomewhat
larger aperture to the objedl lens, and thus increafe the
brightnefs of objects, and greatly heighten the plealure
of viewing them. For the fame reafon, Mr Martin has
propofed a four-glafs microfcope, which anfwers the
purpofes of magnifying and of diltindt vilion flill more
perfedtly.
The magnifying power of double microfcopes is ea-
fily underftood, thus : The glafs L next the objedl
is very fmall, and very much convex, and coni'equently
its focal diilance LF is very Ihort; the diftance L(^
of the fmall objedl P£) is but a little greater than LF;
Greater it muft be, that the rays flowing from the ob¬
jedl may converge after pafling through the glafs, and
crofling one another, form an image of the objedl •,
and it muft be but a little greater, that the image /> y
may be at a great diftance from the glafs, and confe-
quently may be much larger than the objedl itfelf.
This pidlure p q being viewed through a convex glafs
AE, whofe focal diftance is q E, appears diftindl as
in a telefcope. Now the objedl appears magnified for
two reafons firft, becaufe, if we viewred its pidlure p q
with the naked eye, it would appear as much greater
than the objedl, at the fame diftance, as it really is
greater than the objedl, or as much as L y is greater
than Lf) ; and fecondly, becaufe this pidlure appears
magnified through the eye-glafs as much as the leaft dif¬
tance at which it can be feen diftindlly with the naked
eye, is greater than q E, the focal diftance of the eye-
glafs. If this latter ratio be five to one, and the former
ratio of L y to LQ be 20 to i ; then, upon both ac¬
counts, the objedl will appear 5 times 20, or zoo times
greater than to the naked eye.
The fedlion of a compound microfcope with three
lenfes is rcprefented in fig. ro. By the middle one GK
the pencil of rays coming from the objedl-glafs are re-
fradled fo as to tend to a focus at O \ but being inter¬
cepted by the proper eye-glafs DF, they are brought
together at I, which is nearer to that lens than its pro¬
per focus at L •, fo that the angle DIF, under which
the objedl now appears, is larger than DLF, under
which it would have appeared without this additional
glafs j and confequently the objedl is more magnified in
the fame proportion. Dr Hooke informs us, that, in
Fig. 10.
ICS. 271
moft of his obfcrvations, he made ufe of a double mi- Optical in-
crofcope with this broad middle glafs when he wanted ^run,enlv,
to fee much of an objedl at one view, and taking it out
when he would examine the fmall parts of an objedl
more accurately; for the fewer refradlions there are, the
more bright and clear the objedl appears.
The following rule for finding the magnifying power
of compound microfcopes with three lenfes, has been
given by Dr Brewfter in his Appendix to Fergulon’s „, ^
Ledlures, vol. ii. p. 468. “ Divide the difterence betweenMagmf)ing
the diftance of the two firft lenfes, or thofe next the ob-power of
jedl, and the focal diftance of the fecond or amplifying C0.mP0Und
glafs, by the focal diftance of the fecond glafs, and the^^
quotient will be a firft number. Square the diftance be- |cnfCS)
tween the two firft lenfes, and divide it by the differ¬
ence between that diftance, and the focal diftance of the
fecond glafs, and divide this quotient by the focal di¬
ftance of the third glafs, or that next the eye, and a fe¬
cond number will be obtained. Multiply together the
firft and fecond numbers, and the magnifying power of
the objedl glafs, (as found by one of the following
tables), and the produdl will be the magnifying power
of the compound microfcope.” 2,^
Having in the hiftorical part of this article given The mag-
a ftiort account of the conllrudlion of Dr Smith’s double nihing
reflebling microfcope, it may not be improper in thisP0wer.0? (
place to point out the method of afeertaining its magni- mjcrofco^(?
fying power. This we ftrall do from the author himielf,
becaufe his fymbols, being general, are applicable to
fuch microfcopes of all dimenlions.
Between the centre E and principal focus T of apig. it,
concave fpeculum ABC, whofe axis is FQTC, place
an objedl PC^; and let the rays flowing from it be -
refledled from the fpeculum AB towards an image
p q; but before they unite in it, let them be recei¬
ved by a convex fpeculum a b c, and thence be re¬
fledled, through a hole BC in the vertex of the con¬
cave, to a fecond image v *, to be viewed through an
eye-glafs /.
The objedl may be fituated between the fpecula C,
c; or, which is better, between the principal focus t
and vertex c of the convex one, a fmall hole being made
in its vertex for the incident rays to pafs through.
In both cafes we have T^), TE, T y, continuaL
proportionals in fome given ratio, fuppofe of 1 to n;
and alfo t y, t c, t x., continual proportionals in lome
other given ratio, fuppofe of 1 to m. Then if d be the-
ufual diftance at which we view minute objedls diftindl-
ly with the naked eye, and x / the focal diftance of the
Icaft eye-glafs, through which the objedl appears iuffici-
ently bright and diftindl, it will be magnified in the ra¬
tio of m n d to x. /.
For the objedl FO , and its firft image/>y, are termi-
nated on one fide by the common axis of the fpecula,
and on the other by a line PEy>, drawn through the
centre E of the concave ABC. Likewife the images
p q and 7? k are terminated by the common axis and by
the line ep tt, drawn through the centre e of the con¬
vex a b c, (Euclid, v. 12.). Hence, by the fimilar tri¬
angles tt k e, p q e, and alfo p q^, PQ,E, rve have tt x. :
p y—» e : y e—?n : I, and p y : PC)—y E : QE;r// : I ;
and confequently vr x : P<^=w/« : 1, whence % x~m n
X PQ. Now if /» be the focal diftance of the eye-glafs
/, the points P, l) of the objedl, are feen through it by
the rays of two pencils emerging parallel the lines
5r/ XL-
272 O P T
Opti al In- / x. / refpectively : that is, PO
ftruments. ' ’
1 v  angle equal to tc!k, which is as—'—
y-1 y. I
appears
7)1 «P()
under an
and to the
nifyin
power of
the moll
common
micro-
fcopes.
naked eye at the dillance d from PQ, it appears under
PQ
an angle P o O which is as —and therefore is mag¬
nified in the ratio of thefe angles, that is, of m n d
to « /.
Cor. Having the numbers m,n,d, to find an eye-
glafs which {hall .cauie the microfcope to magnify M
times in diameter, take x. For the apparent
245 magnitude is to the true as M : \—m n d: y, /.
methodof concklde this part of our fubjedl with the
afcertaining ^0^0W^ng eafy method of afcertaining the magnifying
the mag- potver ot fuch microfcopes as are moft in ufe.
The apparent magnitude of any objeft, as mull ap¬
pear from what has been already faid, is meafured by
the angle under which it is feen and this angle is
greater or fmaller according as the object is nearer to or
farther from the eye j and of confequence the lefs the
diftance at which it can be viewed, the larger it will ap¬
pear. The naked eye is unable to diftinguifh any ob-
jeft brought exceedingly near it: but by looking through
a convex lens at an object placed in its focus, however
near the focus of that lens be, an object may be diftinft-
ly feen ; and the fmaller the lens is, the nearer will be
its focus, and in the fame proportion the greater will
be its magnifying power. From thefe principles it is
eafy to find the reafon why the fir'd or greateil mag¬
nifiers are fo extremely minute ; and alfo to calculate
the magnifying power of any convex lens employed in
a fingle microfcope : For as the focal diftance of the
lens is to the diftance at which we fee objefts diftinftly
with the naked eye, fo is 1 to the magnifying powder.
If the focal length of a convex lens, for inftance, be one
inch, and the diftance at which we look at fmall ob-
jedls eight inches, which is the common itandard, an
object may be feen through that lens at one inch dif¬
tance from the eye, and will appear in its diameter
eight times larger than it does to the naked eye 5 but as
the object is magnified every way, in length as well as
in breadth, wTe muft fquare this diameter to know how
much it really is enlarged and we then find that its fu-
perficies is magnified 64 times.
Again, Suppofe a convex lens whofe focal diftance is
obfervations only one-tenth of an inch ; as in eight inches, the com-
*’ff^ ma£’mon diftance of diftinft vifion with the naked,eye, there
power of are 8° tenths, an objeft may be feen through this glafs
micro- 80 times nearer than with the naked eye. It will, of
fcopes. confequence, appear 80 times longer, and as much
broader, than it does to common fight 5 and is therefore
magnified 6400 times. If a convex glafs be fo fmall
that its focus is only —th of an inch diftant, we find
that eight inches contain 160 of thefe twentieth parts 5
and confequently the length and breadth of any objeft
feen through fuch a lens-will be magnified 160 times,
and the whole furface 2 ;,6oo times. As it is eafy to
melt a drop qr globule of a much fmaller diameter than
a lens can be ground, and as the focus of a globule is
no farther oif than one-fourth of its own diameter, it
muft therefore magnify to a prodigious degree. But
this exceftive magnifying power is much more than
counterbalanced by its admitting fo little light, want of
3
246
Further
1 C ^ S- Part III.
diftinftnefs, and fliowing fuch a fmall portion of the ob- Optical In-
jeft to be examined ; for which reafon, thefe globules, ftnmients.
though greatly valued fome time ago, are now almoft L v“ *
entirely rejected. According to Mr Folkes’s deferip-
tion oi the fingle microicopes of convex lenfes which
Leeuwenhoek left to the Royal Society, they rvere all
exceedingly clear, and Ihowed the objeft very bright,
and diftinct} which Mr holkes confidered as owing to
to the great care this gentleman took in the choice of
his glafs, his exaclnefs in giving it the true figure, and
afterwards referving only fuch for his ufe as upon trial
he found to be moft excellent. Their powers of mag¬
nifying are different, as different objects may require :
and as on the one hand, being all ground glaffes, none
of them are fo fmall, or confequently magnify to fo
great a degree, as fome of the globules frequently ufed
in other microfcopes; yet the diftinanefs of thefe very
much exceeds thole which are commonly ufed.
In order to find the magnifying pow'er of a fingle
microfcope, no more is neceffary than to bring it to its
liue focus, the exaa place of which will be known by an
object’s appearing perfeaiy diftina and ftiarp when
placed there. Then, with a pair of fmall compaffes,
meafure, as nearly as pofiible, the diftance from the
centre of the glafs to the objea which is viewed, and
j10w many parts of an inch that diifance is. When this
is known, compute how many times thofe parts of an
inch are contained in eight inches, and the refult will
give the number of times the diameter is magnified:
Squaring the diameter will give the fuperficies ; and if
the folid content is w-anted, it will be ftiown by multi¬
plying the fuperficies by the diameter.
J he fuperficies of one fide of an objeft only can be
feen at one viewr; and to compute howr much that is
magnified, is moft commonly fufficient : but fome-
times it is fatisfadlory to know how many minute ob¬
jects are contained in a larger 5 as fuppofe we defire
to know how many animalcules are contained in the
bulk of a grain of land : and to anfwrer this, the cube,
as well as the furface, muft be taken into the account,
h or the fatisfaclion of thofe who are not much verfant
in thefe fubjebts, we fhall here fubjoin the following
tables taken from the Appendix to Fergufon’s Leclures. Tables^of
The fir ft column contains the focal length of the the magni-
conyex lens in hundredths of an inch. The fecond con-fy‘ngp°we?
tains the number of times which fuch a lens will magni-^micr0’
fy the diameter of ,objects : The third fhews the number colies'
of times that the furface is magnified j and the fourth
the number of times that the cube of the objeft is mag¬
nified. A table of a fimilar kind, though upon a mucli
fmaller fcale, has already been publifhed; but the neareft
diftance at which the eye can fee diitinctly, is there fup-
pofed to be eig/it inches, which we are confident from
experience, is too large an eftimate for the generality of
eyes. Table I. is therefore computed upon the fuppofi-
tion that the diftance alluded to is [even inches.
“ When w e confider however (fays the editor of the
work now quoted) that the eye examines very minute
objecls at a lefs diftance than it does objefts of a
greater magnitude, we fhall find that the magnifying
power of lenfes ought to be deduced from the dijlance
at which the eye examines ohje-Sis really microfcopic.
This circumftance has been overlooked by every writer
on optics, and merits our attentive confideration. We
have now' before us twTo fpecimens of engraven cha¬
racters.
Part III.
OPTICS.
Optical In- rafters. Tlte one is fo large that it can be eafily
ftruments. reacj at diftance of ten inches 5 and the other is fo
v exceedingly minute that it cannot be read at a greater
diftance than five inches. Now we maintain that if
thefe two kinds of engraving are feen through the fame mi-
crofcope, the one will be twice as much magnified as the
other. This indeed is obvious; for as the magnifying power
of a lens is equal to the diftance at which the objeft is
examined by the naked eye divided by the focal length of
the lens, we {hall have — for the number of times which
x
the minute engraving is magnified, and — for the num¬
ber of times that the large engraving is magnified, x
being the focal length of the lens. It follows, therefore,
that the number of times that any lens magnifies ob-
jefts really microfcopic fliould be determined, by making
the diftance at which they are examined by the naked
eye about five inches.
Upon this principle we have computed Table II.
which contains the magnifying power of convex lenfes
when employed to examine microfcopic objefts.
Table I.
A Ne JV Table of the ??iagnifying power of frnall con¬
vex lenfes or fngle microfcopes, the dijlance at which
the eije fees diftinBly being feven inches.
Focal diftance of
the lens or micro-
fcope.
Inches
and
parts of
an inch.
loodtlv
of an
inch
Number of
times that the
diameter of
an object is
magnified.
I or 100
i or 75
h or 50
t or 4°
tV or 30
-jV or 20
18
*7
16
*5
I4
*3
12
11
iT or 10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
To or
tt °r
Dec.
Times, of a.
time.
7.00
9-33
14.00
23-33
35-oo
36.84
38.89
41.18
4'3-75
46.66
50.00
53-85
58-33
63.67
70.00
77.78
87.50
100.00
116.66
140.00
175.00
233-33
350.00
700.00
Number of
times that tht
surface of an
objedt is mag
nified.
Times.
49
87
196
306
544
1225
J354
*5*3
1697
1910
2181
2500
2&94
3399
4045
4900
6o53
7656
10000
13689
19600
30625
54289
122500
490000
Number of times
that the cube of
an objedl is mag¬
nified.
Times.
343
810
2744
536o
12698
42875
49836
58864
69935
83453
T01848
125000
I55721
198156
257259
34300°
470911
669922
1000000
1601613
2744000
5359375
12649337
42875000
343000000
Table II.
2 73
Optical In-
ftruments.
A NEW Table of the magnifying power of fmallcon¬
vex lenfes or Jingle microfcopes, the dijlance at which
the eye fees diflinBly being five inches.
Focal diftance of
the lens or micro-
fcope.
Inches
and
paits of
an inch.
loodths
of an
inch.
i or 100
75
50
40
3°
20
*9
18
17
16
15
14
43
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Number of
times that the
diameter of
an objedl is
magnified
times that the Number of times
surface of an
objedtis mag¬
nified.
Dec.
rimes, of a
time.
Number of
that the cube of
an objedl is mag¬
nified.
Times.
C.00
6.67
10.00
12.50
16 67
25.00
26.32
27.78
29.41
3i-25
33-33
35-71
38.48
41.67
45-55
50.00
55-55
62.50
7 M3
83-33
100.00
125.00
166.67
2 50.00
500.00
25
' 44
100
j56
278
62c
693
772
865
977
mi
!275
1481
2075
2500
3086
3906
5102
6944
10000
15625
27779
62500
250000
Times.
I25
297
1000
1953
4632
i5625
18233
21439
25438
305l8
37026
45538
56978
72355
945°7
125000
171416
244141
36.4453
578634
1000000
I953I25
4629907
15625000
125000000
Vcl. XV. Part I.
The greateft magnifier in Mr Leeuwenhoek’s cabinet
of microfcopes, preiented to the Royal Society, has its
focus nearly at one-twentieth of an inch diftance from
its centre ; and confequently magnifies the diameter of
an objeft 160 times, and the fuperficies 25,600. But
the greateft magnifier in Mr Wilfon’s fingle microfcopes,
as they are now made, has ufually a focal length only
of the 50th part of an inch ; whereby it has a power of
enlarging the diameter of an objeft 400, and its fuperfi¬
cies 160,000 times.
The magnifying power of the folar microfcope muft The mag-.
be calculated in a different manner ; for here the dif- nifying
tance of the fereen or fheet on which the image of the Poweijof
objeft is caft, divided by the focal length of the lens, mkrofeone
gives its magnifying power. Suppofe, for inftance, the calculated
lens made ufe of has its foeps at half an inch, and the differently
fereen is placed at the diffonce of five feet, the objeftfrom that
will then appear magnified 20 times, and the fuperficies ofothers‘
14,400 times ; and, by putting the fereen at a greater
diftance, you may magnify the objeft almoft as much as
you pleafe : but the fereen fhould be placed juft at
that diftance where the objeft is feen moft diftinft and
clear.
M m
Mr
274 OPT
Optical In- With regard to the double refledling microfcope,
iirmnents. ]\/[r JJakgr obferves, that the power of the object-lens
is indeed greatly increafed by the addition of two eye-
glaffes 5 but as no object-lens can be ufed with them
ot io minute a diameter, or which magnifies of itfelf
rear fo much as thofe that can be ufed alone, the
glaffes of this microfcope, upon the whole, magnify
little or nothing more than thofe of Mr Wilfon’s fingle
one ; the chief advantage arifing from a combination
of lenfes being the fight of a larger portion of the ob~
je&.
Sect. V. Telefcopes.
I. The Refracting Telescope.
249
Oftheaftro. j. The Agronomical Telefcope.—From what has been
Wope*1 tC~ concerning the compound microfcope, the nature of
the common aftronomical telefcope will eafily be under-
ftood : for it differs from the microfcope only in this,
that the object is placed at fo great a diftance from it,
that the rays of the fame pencil, flowing from the objedt,
may be confidered as falling parallel upon the^objeft-
glafs ; and therefore the image made by that lens is con¬
fidered as coincident with its focus of parallel rays.
Plate I. This will appear very plain from fig. 4. in "which
ccclxxxvii. AB is the object emitting the feveral pencils of rays
Pig-iJ. &c. but fuppofed to be at fo great a dif¬
tance from the object-glafs, cd, that the rays of the
fame pencil may be coniidered as parallel to each other j
they are therefore fuppofed to be collected into their
refpedtive foci at the points m and />, fituated at the fo¬
cal diitance of the object-glafs c d. Here they form an
image E, and crofling each other proceed diverging to
the eye-glafs h g; which being placed at its own focal
diilance from the points m and />, the rays of each pen¬
cil, after pafling through that glafs, will become paral¬
lel among themfelves •, but the pencils themfelves will
converge confiderably with refpedl to one another, even
lb as to crofs at c, very little farther from the glafs g h
than its focus 5 becaufe, when they entered the glafs,
their axes were almoll parallel, as coming through the
objecl-glafs at the point <£, to whofe diilance the breadth
of the eye-glafs in a long telefcope bears very fmall pro¬
portion. So that the place of the eye will be nearly
at the focal diftance of the eye-glafs, and the rays of
each relpebtive pencil being parallel among themfelves,
and their axes crofting each other in a larger angle than
they would do if the object were to be feen by the na¬
ked eye, vifion will be diftincl, and the objebl will ap-
2 pear magnified.
Xtsmagni- The magnifying power in this telefcope is as the
tying pow- focal length of the objecl-glafs to the focal length of the
sn eye-glafs.
In order to prove this, we may confider the angle
AT B as that under which the objebl would be feen by
the naked eye j for in confidering the diftance of the
objeft, the length of the telefcope may be omitted, as
bearing no proportion to it. Now the angle under
which the objecl is feen by means of the telefcope is
g e //, which is to the other A £ B, or its equal g k h,
the diftance from the centre of the objecl-glafs to that
of the eye-glafs. The angle, therefore, which an ob-
je£l ftibtends to an eye aflifted by a telefcope of this
kind, is to that under which it fubtends to the naked
1 C S- Fart III.
eye, as the focal length of the objebl-glafs to the focal Optical In¬
length of the eye-glafs. ftruments.
It is evident from the figure, that the vifible area, v~“*—'
or fpace which can be feen at one view, when we look
through this telefcope, depends on the breadth of the
eye-glafs, and not of the objebl-glafs 5 for if the eye-
glafs be too fmall to receive the rays g m, p h, the ex¬
tremities ol the objebl could not have been feen at all :
a larger breadth of the object-glafs conduces only to the
rendering each point of the image more luminous, by
receiving a larger pencil of rays from each point of
the object.
It is in this telefcope as in the compound microfcope, ObjeJhfeen
where we fee not the object itfelf, but only its image threugh it
CED : now that image being inverted with refpedl to !nverte<b
the object, becaufe the axis of the pencils that flow
from the object crofs each other at k, objects feen
through a telefcope of this kind neceflarily appear in¬
verted.
This is a circumftance not at all regarded by aftro-
nomers: but for viewing objects upon the earth, it is
convenient that the inftrument fhould reprefent them in pjate
their natural pofture j to which ufe the telefcope with ccclxxxvii.
three eye-glaffes, as reprefented fig. 13. is peculiarly Fig. 13.
adapted.
AB is the object fending out the feveral pencils
A c d, B cd, &c. which palling through the object-
glafs c d, are collected into their refpective foci in CD,
where they form an inverted image. From this they Common
proceed to the firft eye-glafs ef, whofe focus being at refra&ing
/, the rays of each pencil are rendered parallel among tekfcope
themfelves, and their axes, which were nearly parallel fll°WS °k"
before, are made to converge and crofs each other:'16 5 ere<^’
the fecond eye-glafs g h, being fo pla«ed that its focus
ftiall fall upon m, renders the axes of the pencils which
diverge from thence parallel, and caufes the rays of
each, which were parallel among themfelves, to meet
again at its focus EF on the other lidfc, where they
forma fecond image inverted with refpect ta the for¬
mer, but erect with refpect to the object. Now this
image being feen by the eye at a £ through the eye-
glafs 1 affords a direct reprefentation of the object,
and under the fame angle that the firft image CD
would have appeared, had the eye been placed at /,
fuppofing the eye-glaffes to be of equal convexity ; and
therefore the object is feen equally magnified in this
as in the former telefcope, that is, as the focal diftance
of the object-glafs to that of any one of the eye-glaffes,
and appears erect.
2. The Galilean Telefcope with the concave eye-glafs Galilean
is conftructed as follows. telefcope.
AB is an objecl fending forth the pencils of rays Plate
g h i, k lm, &c. which, after pafling through ihe 0b-CCCLXXXvni-
jedl-glafs c d, tend towards elLf (where we ft 1 all fup- Eg. x.
pofe the focus of it to be), in order to form an inverted
image there as before ; but in their way to it are made
to pafs through the concave glafs n 0, fo placed that its
focus may fail upon E, and confequently the rays of
the feveral pencils which were converging towards thofe
refpective focal points e, E, /J will be rendered parallel:
but the axes of thofe pencils crofling each other at F,
and diverging from thence, will be rendered more di¬
verging, as reprefented in the figure. Now thefe rays
entering the pupil of an eye, will form a large and di-
ftindt image a b upon the retina, which will be inverted
with
Part III.
OPT
2 54
Magnify¬
ing power
of.
Plate
CCCLXXXV! I.
Plate
ccct-xxxvm
Optical In-with fefpe£): to the object, becaufe the axis of the pen-
ftruments. cjjs cro{'s jn p. The object of courfe will be feen erect,
v 1 and the angle under which it will appear will be equal
to that which the lines aY,b F, produced back through
the eye-glafs, form at F.
It is evident, that the lefs the pupil of the eye is,
the lefs is the vilible area feen through a telefcope of
this kind ; for a lefs pupil would exclude futh pencils
as proceed from the extremities of the objebt AB, as is
evident from the figure. This inconvenience renders
this telefcope unfit for many ufes 5 and is only to be re¬
medied by the telefcope with the convex eye-glalfes,
where the rays Which form the extreme parts of the
image are brought together in order to enter the pupil
of the eye, as explained above.
It is apparent alfo, that the nearer the eye is placed
to the eye-glafs of this telefcope, the larger is the area
feen through it} for, being placed dole to the glafs,
as in the figure, it admits rays that come from A and
B, the extremities of the objed, which it could not if
it was placed farther off.
The degree of magnifying in this telefcope is in the
fame proportion with that in the other, viz. as the fo¬
cal diftance of the objed-glafs is to the focal diftance
of the eye-glafs.
For there is no other difference but this, viz. that
as the extreme pencils in that telefcope were made to
converge and form the angle g e h or in k (fig. 13.),
thefe are now made to diverge and form the angle a¥ b
(fig. 1.)-} which angles, if the concave glafs in one has
an equal refractive power with the convex one in the
other, will be equal, and therefore each kind will exhi¬
bit the objed magnified in the fame degree.
There is a defed in all thefe kinds of telefcopes,
not to be remedied in a fingle lens by any means what¬
ever, which was thought only to arife from the fphe-
rical aberration of the objed-glafs. But it was dif-
covered by Sir Ifaac Newton, that the imperfedion of
this fort of telefcope, fo far as it arifes from the fpherical
form of the glafies, bears little proportion to that which
is owing to the different refrangibility of light. This
diverfity in the refradion of rays is about a 28th part
of the whole } fo that the objed-glafs of a telefcope
cannot colled the rays which flow from any one point
in the objed into lefs fpace than a circle whofe diame¬
ter is about the 56th part df the breadth of the
glafs.
Plate To fliow this, let AB reprefent a convex lens, and
ccclxxxviii let CDF be a pencil of rays flowing from the point D j
Fig. 2. let H be the point at which the leaf! refrangible rays
are colleded to a focus ; and I, that where the molt re¬
frangible concur. Then, if IH be the 28th part of
EH, IK will be a proportionable part of EC (the tri¬
angles HIK and HEC being fimilar) : confequently
LK will be the 28th part of FC. But MN will be the
leaf! fpace into which the rays will be colleded, as ap¬
pears by their progrcfs reprefented in the figure. Now
MN is but about half of KL ; and therefore it is about
the 56th part of the breadth of that part of the glafs
through which the rays pafs 5 which was to be fhown.
Since therefore each point of the objed will be re¬
prefented in fo large a fpaCe, and the centres of thofe
fpaces will be contiguous, becaufe the points in the
objed the rays flow from are fo ; it is evident, that
the image of an objed made by fucli a g^afs mult be a
ICS. 275
molt confufed reprefentation, though it does not appear Optica! In¬
lb when viewed through an eye-glafs that magnifi«s in P-rument •
a moderate degree ; confequently the degree of magni- v
fying in the eye-glafs mult not be too great with re-
fped to that of the objed-glafs, left the confufion be¬
come fenfible.
Notwithftanding this imperfedion, a dioptrical te¬
lefcope may be made to magnify in any given degree,
provided it be of fufticient length ; for the greater the
focal diftance of the objed-glafs is, the lefs may be
the proportion which the focal diftance of the eye-glafs
may bear to that of the objed-glafs, without render-
ing the image obfcure. Thus, an objed-glafs, whofe Refrading
focal diftance is about four feet, will admit of an eye-telefcopes
glafs whofe focal diftance {hall be little more than an maSnib' >n
inch, and confequently will magnify almoft 48 times 5
but an objed-glafs of 40 feet locus will admit of an length,
eye-glafs of only four inches focus, and will therefore
magnify 120 times; and an objed-glafs of 100 feet
focus will admit of an eye-glafs of little more than fix
inches focus, and will therefore magnify almoft 200
times.
The reafon of this difproportion in their feveral de¬
grees of magnifying may be explained thus : Since the
diameter of the fpaces, into which rays flowing from
the feveral points of an objed are colleded, are as the
breadth of the objed-glafs, it is evident that the degree
of confufednefs in the image is as the breadth of that
glafs ; for the degree of confufednefs will only be as the
diameters or breadths of thofe fpaces, and not as the
fpaces themfelves. Now the focal length of the eye-
glafs, that is, its power of magnifying, muft be as that
degree ; for, if it exceeds it, it will render the confufed¬
nefs fenfible ; and therefore it muft be as the breadth or
diameter of the objed-glafs. The diameter of the ob¬
jed-glafs, which is as the fquare root of its aperture
or magnitude, muft be as the fquare root of the power
of magnifying in the telefcope ; for unlefs the aper¬
ture itfelf be as the power of magnifying, the image
will want light : the fquare root of the power of mag¬
nifying will be as the fquare root of the focal diftance
of the objed-glafs ; and therefore the focal diftance
of the eye-glafs muft be only as the fquare root of
that of the objed-glafs. So that in making ufe of an
objed-glafs of a longer focus, fuppofe, than one that
is given, you are not obliged to apply an eye-glafs of
a proportionably longer focus than what would fuit
the given objed-glafs, but fuch a one only whofe fo¬
cal diftance {hall be to the focal diftance of that which
will fuit the given objed-glafs, as the fquare root of
the focal length of the objed-glafs you make ufe of,
is to the fquare root of the focal length of the given
one. And this is the reafon that longer telefcopes
are capable of magnifying in a greater degree than
fhorter ones, without rendering the objed confufed or
coloured.
Upon thefe principles the following new table, taken
from the Appendix to Fergufon’s Ledures, vol. ii. p.
471. fecond edition, has been computed. It is founded
on a telefcdpe of Huygens, mentioned in his Afirofcopia
Campend'aria, which had an objed-glafs 34 feet in fo¬
cal length, and which bore an eye-glafs of inches fo¬
cal diftance, and therefore magnified 163 times. The
table for refrading telefcopes, which has been given by
preceding optical writers, was copied from Smith’s Op-
M m 2 tics,
276 OPT
Optical In- tics, as the production of the celebrated Huygens,
1 iim^&ntv wh;ie jt was calculated only by the editors of his Diop¬
trics, from a telefcope made by that celebrated optician j
which, however, feems to have been inferior to that
which is'the foundation of the following table. The
table is fuited to Rhinland meafure; but the fecond and
third columns may be converted into Englifh meafure
by dividing them by .7, the focal ditlances of the objefl-
glaffes being fuppoled Englifh feet.
A New Table the apertures, focal lengths,
magnifying power of refraBing telefcopes.
and
Focal length
of the
cbjeCt-glafs.
Feet.
Sine or aper-
tuie of the
eye-glars.
Inch. Dec.
Focal diltance
of the
eye-glafs.
Inch. Dec.
Magnifying
power,
Times.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
r3
T5
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
5°°
0.65
1.03
1.3°
I-45
1.61
1.79
1.96
2.14
2.20
2.32
2.63
2.81
3-31
3- 73
4.01
4- 34
4.64
4.92
5.20
5- 48
5-71
6.16
6.58
7.02
7-39
10.41
12.89
14.72
16.52
0.50
0.62
°-75
0.87
1.00
1.07
1.21
1.30
1.38
1.58
1.70
1- 95
2.15
2.40
2.58
2.76
2- 93
3.08
3.22
3- 36
3-64
3- 9°
4.12
4- 35
6.17
7-52
8.71
9*71
28
39
48
55
60
67
73
77
83
87
99
106
123
J39
163
174
184
J95
205
214
231
246
262
276
389
479
55i
618
Sect. VI. On Achromatic Telefcopes.
25?
^'HE inconveniency of very long telefcopes is fo great,
remedied t‘iat different attempts have been made to remove it.
by Dollond Of thefe, the moft fuccefsful have been by Dollond and
and Blair. Blair ; and the general principles upon which thefe emi¬
nent opticians proceeded have been mentioned in the hifto-
ncal part of this article, and in the preceding feftion. A
fuller account of Dr Blair’s difcovery will be feen in the
Tranfa&ions of the Royal Society of Edinbugh; and of
Dollond’s, it may be fufficient to obferve, in addition to
what has been already faid, that the object-glaffes of his
telefcopes are compofed of three diftinft lenfes, two convex
and one concave ; of which the concave one is placed in
Fig. 3. middle, as is reprefented in fig. 3. where a and c fliow
1 c s.
Part II}.
the two convex lenfes, and b b the concave one, which Optic al in¬
is by the Britifh artifts placed in the middle. The two ftruments.
convex ones are made of London crown glafs, and the v
middle one of white flint glafs j and they are all ground
to fpheres of different radii, according to the refractive
powers of the different kinds of glafs and the intended
focal diftance of the objeft-glafs of the telefcope. Ac¬
cording to Bofcovich, the focal diftance of the parallel
rays for the concave lens is one-half, and for the convex
glafs one third of the combined focus. When put to¬
gether, they refraft the rays in the following manner. Fig 4.
Let a b, a b, be two red rays of the fun’s light falliao-
parallel on the firft convex lens c. Suppofing there was
no other lens prefent but that one, they would be con¬
verged into the lines be, be, and at laft meet in the fo-
'cus y. Let the lines ^ //, g h, reprefent two violet rays
falling on the furface of the lens. Thefe are alfo re-
fradled, and will meet in a focus ; but as they have a
greater degree of refrangibility than the red ray's, they
mull of confequence converge more by the fame power
of refraction in the glafs, and meet fooner in a focus,
fuppofe at r.—Let now the concave lens dd be placed
m fuch a manner as to intercept all the rays before thev
come to their focus. Were this lens made of the fame
materials, and ground to the fame radius with the con¬
vex one, it would have the fame power to caufe the rays,
diverge that the former had to make them converge. In
this cafe, the red rays would become parallel, and move
on in the line 0 0,0 0 : But the concave lens, being made
of flint glafs, and upon a fhorter radius, has a greater
refra&ive power, and therefore they diverge a little af¬
ter they come out of it j and if no third lens was inter-
pofed, they would proceed diverging in the lines 0p t,.
opt; but, by the interpofition of the third lens ovo,
they are again made to converge, and meet in a focus
fomewhat more diftant than the former, as at ,r. By
the concave lens the violet rays are alfo refracted, and
made to diverge : but having a greater degree of refran¬
gibility, the fame power of refraftion makes then* di¬
verge fomewhat more than the red ones; and thus, if
no third lens was interpofed, they would proceed in fuch
lines as /m n, lin n. Now as the differently coloured
rays fall upon the third lens with different degrees of
divergence, it is plain, that the fame power of reflation
in that lens will operate upon them in fuch a manner as
to bring them all together to a focus very nearly at the
fame point. The red rays, it is true, require the great-
eft power of refra£lion to bring them to a focus •, but
they fall upon the lens with the leaft degree of diver¬
gence. The violet rays, though they require the leaft
power of refradftion, yet have the greateft degree of di¬
vergence } and thus all meet together in the point x,
or nearly fo.
But, though we have hitherto fuppofed the refraction
of the concave lens to be greater than that of the con- Plate
vex ones, it is eafy to fee how the errors occafioned by ccclxxxviu
the firft 4ens may be corrected by it, though it ftiould Fig. 5.
have even a lefs power of refra£tion than the convex
one. Thus, let a b, a b, be two rays of red light falling
upon the convex lens c, and refrafted into the focus q ;
let alfo g h, g h, be two violet rays converged into a fo¬
cus at r; it is not neceffary, in order to their conver¬
gence into a common focus at x, that the concave lens
fliould make them diverge: it is fufficient if the glafs
has
PartlH. OPT
optical In- has a power of difperfmg the violet rays fomewhat more
ftruments. t}ian the red ones j and many kinds have this power of
  -v difherfing fome kinds of rays, without a very great
power of refraction. It is better, however, to have the
obje£t-glafs compofed of three lenfes j becaufe there is
then another correction of the aberration by means of
the third lens ; and it might be impofhbie to find two
lenfes, the errors of which would exactly correCt each
other. It is alfo eafy to fee, that the effeft may be the
fame whether the concave glafs is a portion of the fame
fphere with the others or not; the effect depending upon
a combination of certain circumftances, of which there is
an infinite variety.
By means of this correction of the errors arifing from
the different refrangibility of the rays of light, it is pof-
fible to fhorten refraCting telefcopes confiderably, and
yet leave them equal magnifying powers. The reafon
of this is, that the errors arifing from the objeCt-glafs
being removed, thofe which are occafioned by the eye-
glafs are inconfiderable : for the error is always in pro¬
portion to the length of the focus in any glafs 5 and. in
very long telefcopes it becomes exceedingly great, being
no lefs than ^th of the whole J but in glaffes of a few
Fig. 6. inches focus it becomes trifling. RefraChng telefcopes,
which go by the name of Doilond'1 s, are therefore now
conftruCled in the following manner. Let AB repre-
fent an ohjeCI-glafs compofed of three lenfes as above
defcribed, and converging the rays 1, 2,3,4,.&c. to a
very diftant focus as at x. By means of the interpofed
lens CD, however, they are converged to one much
nearer, as at y, where an image of the objeCl is formed.
The rays diverging from thence fall upon another lens
EF, where the pencils are rendered parallel, and an
eye placed near that lens would fee the objeCl magnified
and very diflinCl. To increafe the magnifying power
Hill more, however, the pencils thus become parallel are
made to fall upon another at GH j by which they are
again made to converge to a diftant focus : but, being
intercepted by the lens IK, they are made to meet at the
nearer one ; whence diverging to LM, they are again
rendered parallel, and the eye at N fees the objeCt very
diilinCtly.
From a.n infpeClion of the figure it is evident, that
Dollond’s telefcope thus conftruCled is two telefcopes
combined together; the firft ending with- the lens EF,
and the fecond with LM. In the firft we do not per¬
ceive the objeCt itfelf, but the image of it formed at y ;
and in the fecond we perceive only the image of that
image formed at %. Such telefcopes are neverthelefs
exceedingly diftinCt, and reprefent objeCts fo clearly, as
to be preferred, in viewing terreftrial things, even to
vefleCtbrs. The latter indeed have greatly the advan¬
tage in their powers of magnifying, but they are much
deficient in point of light. Much more light is loft by
reflection than by "refraCtion : and as in thefe telefcopes
the light muft unavoidably fufFer two reflections, a great
deal of it is loft •, nor is this lofs counterbalanced by the
greater aperture which thefe telefcopes will bear, -which
enables them to receive a greater quantity of light than
the refraCting ones. The metals of reflecting tclefcopes
alfo are very much fubjeCt to tarnifli, and require much
more dexterity to clean them than the glaffes of refrac¬
tors j which makes them more troublefome and expen-
five, though for making difcoveries in the heavens they
I c s.
277
are undoubtedly the only proper inftruments which
been hitherto conitruCted. ’
have Optical In-
ftruments.
II. The Reflecting Telescope.
2S7 _
The inconveniences arifing from the great length of Newtonian
refraCting telefcopes, before the difcovery of the achro- tckfcope
matic telefcope, are fufficiently obvious j and thefe, to¬
gether with the difficulties occafioned by the different Fjo..
refrangibility of light, induced Sir Ifaac Newton to turn '
his attention to the fubjeCt of reflection, and endeavour
to realize the ideas of himfelf and others concerning the
poffibility of conltruCting telefcopes upon that princi¬
ple.—The inftrument which he contrived is reprefented,
fig. 7. where ABCD is a large tube, open at AD and
clofed at BC, and of a length at leait equal to the di-
ftance of the focus from the metallic fpherical concave
fpeculum GH placed at the end BC. The rays EG,
FH, &c. proceeding from a remote objeCt PR, interfeCt
one another fomewhere before they enter the tube, io
that EG, <?£, are thofe that .come from the lower part
of the objeCt, and f h, FH from its upper part : theie
rays after falling on the fpeculum GH, will be reflected,
fo as to converge and meet in m n, where they will form
a perfeCt image of the objeCt.—But as this image can¬
not be feen by the fpeCtator, they are intercepted by a
fmall plane metallic fpeculum KK, interfeCtfng the axis
at an angle of 450, by which the rays tending to m n
will be reflected towards a hole LL in the fide of the
tube, and the image will be lefs diftinCt, becaufe fome
of the rays which would otherwife fall on the concave
fpeculum GH, are intercepted by the plane fpeculum :
neverthelefs it will appear in a confiderable degree di¬
ftinCt, becaufe the aperture AD of the tube, and the
fpeculum GH are large. In the lateral hole LL is fix¬
ed a convex lens, whole focus is at S y; and therefore
this lens will refraCt the rays that proceed from any point
of the image, fo as at their exit they will be parallel,,
and thofe that proceed from the extreme points S q will
converge after refraCtion, and form an angle at O, where
the eye is placed ; wffiich wull fee the image S y, as it it
were an object through the lens LL \ conlequently
the objeCl Will appear enlarged, inverted, bright, and
diftinCt. In LL lenfes of different convexities may
be placed, which by being moved nearer to the image
or farther from it, would reprefent the objeCt more or
lefs magnified, provided that the furface of the fpeculum
GH be of a perfectly fpherical figure. If, in the room
of one lens LL, three lenfes be difpofed in the fame
manner with the three eye-glaffes of the refraCting te¬
lefcope, the objeCt will appear ereCt, but lefs diftinCt
than when it is obferved with one lens. 25s
On account of thepofition of the eye in this telefcope, it
is extremely difficult to direCt the inftrument towards anyi
objeCt. Huygens, therefore, firft thought of adding to itfCOpe.
a fmall refraCting telefcope, the axis of which is parallel to
that of the refleCtor. This is called a finder or direBor.
When the Newtonian telefcope is large, and placed upon
its lower end to view bodies in great altitudes, the com¬
mon finder can be of no ufe, from the difficulty of get¬
ting the eye to the eye-piece. On this account Dr
Brewffier propofes (Appendix to Fergufon’s LeCtures,
vol. ii. p. 478.) to bend the tube of the finder to a right
angle, and place a plane mirror at the angular point, fo
as to throw the image above the upper part of the tube,
that
278
ftruments’ Sf the ^e-Plece of the fmder may be as near as pof-
c flble to the eye-piece of the telefcope. The angular
part, where the plain mirror is to be fixed, fiiould be
placed as near as poffible to the focal image, in order
tnat oniy a fmall part of the finder may Hand above the
tube 5 and in this way the eye can be transferred with
the greatelf facility from the one eye-piece to the other.
1 he advantages of this conftru&ion will be underftood
Plate from fig. 3. Plate CCCLXXXIX. where TT is part
rccLxxxix. of a Newtonian telefcope, D the eye-piece, and ABC
~ !be finder. The image formed by the obje£l-glafs A is
reflected upwards by the plain mirror B, placed at an
angle of 450 with the axis of the tube, and the image
is viewed with the eye-glafs AC. Thofe who have
been in the habit of ufing the Newtonian telefcope with
the common finder will be fenfible of the convenience
259 refulting from this contrivance.
In order to determine the magnifying power of this
Newtonian teJe^°Pe5 ^ is to be confidered that the plane fpeculum
telefcopes. KK is of no ufe in this refpedf. Let us then fuppofe,
that one ray proceeding from the objeft coincides with
Hate the axis GLIA of the lens and fpeculum*, let bb be
eccLxxxvm another ray proceeding from the lower extreme of the
Tig. 8. object, and palling through the focus I of the fpeculum
KH : this will be reflefted in the diredtion b id, paral¬
lel to the axis GLA, and falling on the lens dl^d, will
be refradted to G j fo that GL will be equal to L /,
and d fj—dl. To the naked eye the objedf would ap¬
pear under the angle I b i—b IA 5 but by means of the
telefcope it appears under the angle dGl.—dl'L—ldi-.
and the angle Idih to the angle Ibi : : lb \ Id; con-
fequently the apparent magnitude by the telefcope is to
that by the naked eye as the dillance of the focus of
the fpeculum from the fpeculum, to the diftance of the
focus of the lens from the lens.
The following new table of the apertures and magni-
fying power of Newtonian telefcopes is taken from the
Appendix to Fergufon’s Ledlures, vol. ii. p. 480. It
is founded on a Newtonian telefcope conftrudted by Had-
ley, in which the focal length of the great fpeculum was
three feet three inches, and the magnifying power 226.
Its aperture varied from three and a half to four and a
half inches, according to the want of brightnefs in the
objedts to be examined. The firft column contains the
focal length of the great fpeculum in feet, and the fe-
cond its linear aperture in inches, and hundredths of an
inch. I he third and fourth columns contain Sir Ifaac
Newton’s numbers, by means of which the apertures of
any kind of refledting telefcopes may be eafily compu¬
ted. The fifth column contains the focal length of the
cye-glaffes in thoufandths of an inch, and the fixth con¬
tains the magnifying power of the inftrument.
OPTICS.
Part III.
A AetV TABLE of tlLe apertures and tnagtiifyingpower
of Newtoman Telejcopes.
Optical In-
Itruments.
Focal
length of
the con¬
cave fpe-
eulum.
Aperture
of the con
cave fpe¬
culum.
Sir Ifaac Newton’s
numbers.
Feet
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
*5
16
J7
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
Inch. Dec
I*34
2.2?
3*79
S-H
6.36
7-S1
8.64
9.67
10.44
ix.69
12.6?
14.50
I5*4I
16.25
17.11
17.98
18.82
19.63
20.45
21.24
22.06
22.85
23.62
24.41
Aperture
of the
peculum
IOO
.168
283
3^3
476
562
645
800
946
1084
I345
1591
1824
Focal
length
of the
eye-tfafs
Focal
length of
the eye-
glafs.
Magnify
ing
[Ovetr
Inch. Dec.
Times
IOO
II9
I4I
I57
168
178
186
200
212
221
238
251
263
C.I07
0,129
O.I52
O.168
O.lSl
O.I92
0.200
O.209
0.2l8
0.222
0.228
°*233
0.238
0.243
0.248
0.252
0.256
0.260
0.264
0.268
0.271
0.274
0.277
0.280
0.283
56
93
158
214
265
3I3
360
4°3
445
487
527
566
604
642
677
7I3
749
784
818
852
885
919
952
984
1017
Let TYYT be a brafs tube, in which L /dD is ar i6°
metallic concave fpeculum, perforated in the middle at td'eif
X j and EF a lefs concave mirror, fo fixed by the arm platP
or ftrong wire RT, which is moveable by means of aCcci,xxxvni
long ferew on the outfide of the tube, as to be moved Fm r
nearer to or farther from the larger fpeculum L /dD, & y
its axis being kept in the fame line with that of the
great one. Let AB reprefent a very remote obiedt
from each part of which ilfue pencils of rays, e. g. V d,
CD, from A the upper extreme of the objedt, and IL,
i/, from the lower part B ; the rays IL, CD, from the
extremes eroding one another before they enter the
tube. Thefe rays falling upon the larger mirror LD,
are refledfed from it into the focus KH, where they
form an inverted image of the objedf AB, as in the
Newtonian telefcope. From this image the rays, ilTu-
ing as from an objedf, fall upon the fmall mirror EF,
the centre of which is at c; fo that after refledfion they
would meet in their foci at Qf), and there form an eredf
image. But fince an eye at that place could fee but a
fmall part of an objedt, in order to bring rays from
more dilfant parts of it into the pupil, they are inter¬
cepted by the plano-convex lens MN, by which means
a fmaller eredf image is formed at PV, which is viewed
from
4
Part III.
Optical In- from the meni feus SS by an eye at O
Itruments.
261
Its magni¬
fying
power.
OPT
This menifeus
both makes the rays of each pencil parallel and mag¬
nifies the image PV. At the place of this image all
the foreign rays are intercepted by the perforated parti¬
tion ZZ. For the fame reafon the hole near the eye
O is very narrow. When nearer objects are viewed by
this telefcope, the fmall fpeculum EF is removed to a
greater diftance from the larger LD, fo that the fecond
image may be always formed in PV j and this diftance
is to be adjufted (by means of the ferew on the outfute
of the great tube) according to the form of the eye of
the fpettator. It is alfo neceffary, that the axis of the
telefcope ftiould pafs through the middle of the fpecu¬
lum EF, and its centre, the centre of the fpeculum
XL, and the middle of the hole X, the centres of the
lenfes MN, SS, and the hole near O. As the hole X
in the fpeculum LL can refleft none of the raxrs iffuing
from the objefl, that part of the image which corse-
fponds to the middle of the objeft muft appear to the
obferver more dark and confufed than the extreme
parts of it. Befides, the fpeculum will alfo inter¬
cept many rays proceeding from the objeft 3 and there¬
fore unlefs the aperture TT be large, the objetft muft
appear in fome degree obfeure.
In the beft refletting telefcopes, the focus of the
fmall mirror is never coincident with the focus of the
great one, where the firft image KH is formed, but
a little beyond it (with refpeft to the eye), as at n ;
the confequence of which is, that the rays of the pen¬
cils will not be parallel after refleefion from the fmall
mirror, but converge fo as to meet in points about
where they would form a larger upright image
than PV, if the glafs R was not in their way 3 and
this image might be viewed by means of a fingle eye-
glafs properly placed between the image and the eye 3
but then the field of view would be lefs, and confe-
quently not fo pleafant 3 for which reafon, the glafs
R is ftill retained, to enlarge the fcope or area of the
field.
To find the magnifying power of this telefcope,
multiply the focal diftance of the great mirror by the
diftance of the fmall mirror from the image next the
eye, and multiply the focal diftance of the fmall mirror
by the focal diftance of the eye-glafs: then divide the
former product by the latter, and the quotient will ex-
prefs the magnifying power. For a table of the aper¬
tures and powers of Gregorian telefcopes, fee Appendix
to Fergufon’s Leftures, vol. ii. p. 472, 473.
One great advantage of the reftefting telefcope is,
♦hat it will admit of an eye-glafs of a much (horter
focal diftance than a refracting telefcope 3 and con-
fequently it will magnify fo much the more : for the
rays are not coloured by reflection from a concave mir¬
ror, if it be ground to a true figure, as they are by
palling through a convex glafs, let it be ground ever
fo true.
The nearer an objeCt is to the telefcope, the more
its pencils of rays will diverge before they fall upon
the great mirror, and therefore they will be the longer
of meeting in points after reflection 3 fo that the firft
image KH will be formed at a greater diftance from
the large mirror, when the objeCt is near the tele¬
fcope, than when it is very remote. But as this image
muft be formed farther from the fmall mirror than its
principal focus «, this mirror muft; be always fet at a
ICS. 2791
greater dlftance from the larger one, in viewing near Optical In-
objeCts, than in viewing remote ones. And this is done ^llir^eritE
by turning the ferew on the outfide of the tube, until
the fmall mirror be fo adjufted, that the objeCt (or
rather its image) appears perfect.
In looking through any telefcope towards an objeCt,.
we never' fee the object itfelf, but only that image of
it which is formed next the eye in the, telefcope. For
if a man holds his finger or a flick between his bare
eye and an objeCt, it will hide part (if not the whole)
of the objeCt from his view : But if he ties a flick a-
crofs the mouth of a telefcope before the objeCt-glafs,
it will hide no part of the imaginary objeCt he faw
through the telefcope before, unlefs it covers the whole
mouth of the tube : for all the effeCt will be, to make
the objeCt appear dimmer, becaufe it intercepts part
of the rays. Whereas, if he puts only a piece of wire
acrofs the infide of the tube, between the eye-glafs and
his eye, it will hide part of the objeCt which he thinks
he fees 3 which proves, that he fees not the real objeCt,
but its image. This is alfo confirmed by means of the
fmall mirror EF, in the reflecting telefcope, which
is made of opaque metal, and ftands direCtly between
the eye and the objeCt towards which the telefcope
is turned 3 and will hide the whole objeCt from the eye
at O, if the two glalfes ZZ and SS are taken out of the
tube. _ _ 262
If the fmall mirror of the preceding inftrument beCaffegral-
convex inftead of concave, it is then called the tele-
grainian telefcope. As the fmall mirror is in this cafe hope-
placed between the great fpeculum and its focus, a Caf-
fegrainian telefcope will be ftiorter than a Gregorian one
of the fame magnifying power by twice the real length
of the fmall mirror. For a table of the" apertures, &c.
of this inftrument, fee Appendix to Fergufon’s Lec¬
tures, vol. ii. p. 474, 475.
Sect. VII. On the Merits of different Microfcopes and
Telefcopes.
263
The advantages arifing from the ufe of microfcopes Merits of
and telefcopes depend, in the firft place, upon their pro-
perty of magnifying the minute parts of objefts, fo fCOpes com--
that they can by that means be more diftinCtly viewed pared,
by the eye 3 and, fecondly, upon their throwing more
light into the pupil of the eye than what is done with¬
out them. The advantages arifing from the magnify¬
ing power would be extremely limited, if they were not
alfo accompanied by the latter: for if the fame quan¬
tity of light is fpread over a large portion of furface,
it becomes proportionably diminifhed in force 3 and
therefore the objeCts, though magnified, appear pro¬
portionably dim. Thus, though any magnifying glafs
fliould enlarge the diameter of the objeCt 10 times, and
confequently magnify the furface ico times, yet if the
focal diftance of the glafs was about eight inches (pro¬
vided this was poflible), and its diameter only about the
fize of the pupil of the eye, the objeCt would appear
100 times more dim when we looked through the glafs,
than when we beheld it with our naked eyes 3 and this,
even on a fuppolition that the glafs tranfmitted all the
light which fell upon it, wThich no glafs can do. But if
the focal diftance of the glafs was only four inches,
though its diameter remained as before, the inconveni¬
ence would be vaftly diminiftied, becaufe the glafs could
thevi \
28©
Merits of then be placed twice as near the objeft as before, and
^^^fconfeqnently would receive four times as many rays as
fcopes com- t^ie f°rmer cafe, and therefore we would fee it
pared, much brighter than before. Going on thus, ftill di-
 minilhing the focal diftance of the glafs, and keeping
its diameter as large as podible, we will perceive the
cbjedl more and more magnified, and at the fame time
very dilfinct and bright. It is evident, however, that
with regard to optical inftruments of the microfcopic
kind, we muft fooner or later arrive at a limit which
cannot be palfed. This limit is formed by the follow¬
ing particulars, i. The quantity of light loft in pafling
through the glafs. 2. The diminution of the glafs itfelf,
by which it receives only a fmall quantity of rays.
3. The extreme flrortnefs of the focal diftance of great
magnifiers, whereby the free accefs of the light to the
object which we wifh to view is impeded, and confe-
quently the refleftion of the light from it is weakened.
4. The aberrations of the rays, occafioned by their dif¬
ferent refrangibility.
To underftand this more fully, as well as to fee how
far thefe obftacles can be removed, let us fuppofe the
lens made of fuch a dull kind of glafs that it tranfmits
only one half of the light which falls upon it. It is
•evident that fuch a glafs, of four inches focal diftance,
and which magnifies the diameter of an objeft twice,
ftill fuppofing its own breadth equal to that of the
pupil of the eye, will fliow it four times magnified in
furface, but only half as bright as if it was feen by
the naked eye at the ufual diftance ) for the light
which falls upon the eye from the objecl at eight inches
diftance, and likewife the furface of the objeci in its
natural fize, being both reprefented by 1, the furface
of the magnified objedt will be 4, and the light which
makes that magnified objeft vifible only 2: becaufe
though the glafs receives four times as much light as
the naked eye does at the ufual diftance of diftinct vifion,
yet one half is loft in palling through the glafs. The
inconvenience in this refpedt cart therefore be removed
only as far as it is poflible to increafe the clearnefs of the
glafs, fo that it ftiall tranfmit nearly all the rays which
fall upon it; and how far this can be done, hath not yet
been afcertained.
J he fecond obftacle to the perfedtion of microfcopic
glafles is the fmall fize of great magnifiers, by which,
notwithftanding their near approach to the objedt, they
receive a fmaller quantity of rays than might be ex-
pedted. Thus, fuppofe a glafs of only T^th of an
inch focal diftance 5 fuch a glafs would increafe the
vifible diameter 80 times, and the furface 6400 times.
If the breadth of the glafs could at the fame time be
preferved as great as that of the pupil of the eye,
which we lhall fuppofe T^ths of an inch, the objedt
would appear magnified 6400 times, at the fame time
that every part of it would be as bright as it appears
to the naked eye. But if we fuppofe that this mag¬
nifying glafs is only -^th of an inch in diameter, it
will then only receive ^th of the light which otherwife
would have fallen upon it j and therefore, inftead of
communicating to the magnified objedt a quantity of
illumination equal to 6400, it would communicate on¬
ly one equal to 1600, and the magnified objedl would
appear four times as dim as it does to the naked eye.
This inconvenience, however, is ftill capable of being
removed, not indeed by increafing the diameter of* the
Part III.
lens, becaufe this muft be in proportion to its focal di- Merits of
ftance, but by throwing a greater quantity of light on Microfcopes
the objedl. Thus, in the above-mentioned example, ( ,an^ Te^e“
if four times the quantity of light which naturally falls Spared™'
upon it could be thrown upon the objedl, it is plain ——'V—/
that the refledlion from it would be four times as great
as in the natural way 5 and confequently the magnified
image, at the fame time that it was as many times
magnified as before, would be as bright as when feen
by the naked eye. In tranfparent objedls this can be
done very effedlually by a concave fpteculum, as in the
refledting microfcope already defcribed : but in opaque
objedls the cafe is lomewhat more doubtful •, neither do
the contrivances for viewing thefe objedls feem entirely
to make up for the deficiencies of the light from the
fmallnefs of the lens and fhortnefs ot the focus.—
When a microfcopic lens magnifies the diameter of an
objedl fofty times, it hath then the utmoft poflible mag¬
nifying power, without diminifhing the natural bright-
nefs of the objedl.
The third obftacle arifes from the fhortnefs of the
focal diftance in large magnifiers : but in tranfparent
objedls, where a fufficient quantity of light is thrown
on the objedl from below, the inconvenience arifes at
laft from ftraining the eye, which muft be placed nearer
the glais than it can well bear *, and this entirely fuper-
fedes the ufe of magnifiers beyond a certain degree.
The fourth obftacle arifes from the different refran¬
gibility of the rays of light, and which frequently caufes
fuch a deviation from truth in the appearances of things
that uiany people have imagined themfelves to have
made furprifing difcoveries, and have even publiflied
them to the world: when in fadl they have been only
as many optical deceptions, owing to the unequal re-
fradlions of the rays. For this there feems to be no
remedy, except the introdudtion of achromatic glaffes
into microfcopes as well as telefcopes. Flow far this
is practicable, hath not yet been tried ^ but when thefe
glaffes fhall be introduced (if fuch introduction is prac¬
ticable,) microfcopes wall then undoubtedly have re¬
ceived their ultimate degree of perfedlion.
With regard to telefcdpes, thofe of the refracting D0i]on(i>s
kind have evidently the advantage of all others, where and Blair's
the aperture is equal, and the aberrations of the raysrelra<^ing
are corrected according to Mr Dollond’s method j be-
caufe the image is not only more perfect, but a much ot}jers
greater quantity of light is tranfruitted than what can
be reflected from the beft materials hitherto known.
Unluckily, however, the imperfeftions of the glafs fet
a limit to thefe telefcopes, as has been already ob-
ferved, fo that they cannot be made above three feet
and a half long. On the whole, therefore, the reflect¬
ing telefcopes are preferable in this refpect, that they
may be made of dimenfions greatly fuperior 5 by which
means they can both magnify to a greater degree,
and at the fame time throw much more light into the
eye.
With regard to the powers of telefcopes, however,
they are all of them exceedingly lefs than what we
would be apt to imagine from the number of times
which they magnify the objeft. Thus, when we
hear of a telefcope which magnifies 200 times, we
are apt to imagine, that, on looking at any diftant ob-
jefl through it, we fliould perceive it as diftinCtly as
we would with our naked eye at the 200th part of
OPTICS.
Part III. O P T
Merits of the diftance. But this is by no means the cafe;
Microicopesneji}ier js there any theory capable of directing us in
l/'com this matter: we mult therefore depend entirely on ex-
perience.
^ The belt method of trying the goodnefs of any te-
lefcope is to obferve how much farther off you are
able to read with it than with the naked eye. But
that all deception may be avoided, it is proper to
choofe fomething to be read where the imagination
cannot give any afliftance, fuch as a table of loga¬
rithms, or fomething which coafifts entirely of fi¬
gures ^ and hence the truly ufeful power of the tel«-
ficope is eafily known. In this way Mr Short’s large
telefcope, which magnifies the diameter of objects x 200
times, is yet unable to afford fufficient light for read¬
ing at more than 260 times the diftance at which we
^ can read with our naked eye.
The Grego- With regard to the form of reflecting telefcopes, it
rian tele- is now pretty generally agreed, that when the Gre-
fcope fupe- gorian ones are well conftrufted, they have the advan-
common ta?e ^ Newtonian form. One advantage
ufe to the evident at firft fight is, that with the Gregorian tele-
4>fewtonian. fcope an objeCt is perceived by looking direCtly through
it, and confequently is found with much greater eafe
than in the Newtonian telefcope, where we muft look
into the fide. The unavoidable imperfeCtion of the fpe-
cula common to both, alfo gives the Gregorian an ad¬
vantage over the Newtonian form. Notwithftanding
the utmolt care and labour of the workmen, it is found
impoflible to give the metals either a perfectly fphe-
rical or a perfectly parabolical form. Hence arifes fome
indiftinCtnefs of the image formed by the great fpeculum,
which is frequently corrected by the little one, provided
they are properly matched. But if this is not done, the
error Mil be made much worfe ; and hence many of the
Gregorian telefcopes are far inferior to the Newtonian
ones } namely, when the fpecula have not been properly
adapted to each other. There is no method by which
the workman can know the fpecula which will fit one
another without a trial ; and therefore it is neceffary
to have many fpecula ready made of each fort, that in
•fitting up a telefcope thofe may be chcfen which beft
fuit each other.
The brightnefs of any objeCf feen through a tele¬
fcope, in comparifon with its brightnefs when feen by
the naked eye, may in all cafes be eafily found by the
following formula. Let n reprefent the natural di¬
ftance at which an objeCt can be diftinCfly feen; and
let d reprefent its diflance from the objeCt-glafs of the
inftrument. Let m be the magnifying power of the
inftrument j that is, let the vifual angle fubtended at
the eye by the objeCt when at the diftance «, and
viewed without the inftrument, be to the vifual angle
produced by the inftrument as 1 to m. Let a be
the diameter of the objeft-glafs, and /> that of the
pupil. Let the inftrument be fo conftruCted, that no
parts of the pencils are intercepted for want of fuffi-
cient. apertures of the intermediate glades. Laftly, Let
the light loft in refleClion or refraCtion be negieCIed.
1. he brightnefs of viflon through the inftrument will
 a
be expreffed by the fraftion JJL-, the brightnefs of na-
m /> d1
tural vifion being 1. But although this fraCHon may
exceed unity, the vifion through the inftriunent will not
Vol. XV. Part I.
ICS. 281
be brighter than natural viflon. For, when this is the Merits of
cafe, the pupil does not receive all the light tranfmitted tVjicroff0PeS
through the inftrurnent. f-^es^co6"
In microfcopes, n is the neareft limits of diftinfl vi- pared.
fion, nearly /even inches. But a difference in this cir /——'
cumftance, arifing from a difference in the eye, makes no
change in the formula, becaufe m changes in the fame
proportion with n.
In telefcopes n and d may be reckoned equal, and
the formula becomes  7.
m p1
Sect. VIII. Apparatus for Me0faring the Inienfitij of
Light.
That fome luminous bodies give a ftronger, and
others a weaker light, and that fome reflect more light
than others, was always known ; but no perfon, before
M. Bouguer, hit upon a tolerable method of alcertain- M. Bon¬
ing the proportion that two or more lights bear to one guer’s coiv
another. The methods he moil commonly ufed were jnvances
the following. for
lie took two pieces of wood or pafteboard EC and Plate
CD, in which he made two equal holes P and (,), over ccclxxxv,
which he drew pieces of oiled or white paper. Upon A'
thefe holes he contrived that the light of the different
bodies he was comparing fliould fall 5 while he placed a
third piece of pafteboard FC, fo as to prevent the two
lights from mixing with one another. Then placing
himfelf fometimes on one iide, and fometimes on the
other, but generally on the oppofite ftde of this inftro-
ment, with refpecl to the light, he altered their pofition
till the papers in the two holes appeared to be equally
enlightened. This being done, be computed the pro¬
portion of their light by the fquares of the diftances at
which the luminous bodies were placed from the objedls.
If, for inftance, the diftances were as three and nine, he
concluded that the lights they gave were as nine and
eighty-one. YV here any light was very faint, he fome-
limes made ufe of lenfes, in order to condenfe it j and
he enclofed them in tubes or not as his particular appli¬
cation ot them required.
To meafure the intenfity of light proceeding from
the heavenly bodies, or reffedled from any part of the
iky, he contrived an inftrument which refembles a kind
of portable camera obfeura. He had two tubes, of
which the inner was black, faftened at their lower ex¬
tremities by a hinge C. At the. bottom of thefe tubes Fig. c.
were two holes, R and S, three or four lines in diame- ^
ter, covered with two pieces of fine white paper. The
two other extremities had each of them a circular aper¬
ture, an inch in diameter •, and one of the tubes confid¬
ed of two, one of them Aiding into the other, which
produced the fame effedl as varying the aperture at the
end. When this inftrument is ufed, the obferver has
his head, and the end of the inftrumentxC, fo covered,
that no light can fall upon his eye, befides that which
comes through the two holes S and R, while an aflift-
ant manages the inftrument, and draws out or thortens
the tube DE, as the obferver direfts. When the two
holes appear equally illuminated, the intenfity of the
lights is judged to be inverfely as the fquares of the
tubes.
In ufing this inftrument, it is neceffary that the ob-
jed fheu-d fubtend-an angle larger than the aperture A
282
O P T I C S.
Part III.
Apparatus or D, feen from the other end of the tube j for, other-
*°r. wife, the lengthening of the tube has no effe£l. To lie between 60 and 80. _ Meafurh
avoid, in this cafe, making the in ft rumen t of an incon- Applying the two tubes of his inftrument, mentioned Lpiht. ^
daries in this cafe, with refpeft to different perfons, may Apparatus
lie between 60 and 80.
Light
Fig. C-
Fig. 7.
Thel'e m-
itraments
venient length, or making the aperture D too narrow,
he has recourle to another expedient. He conftrudhs an
inllrument, reprefented (fig. 6.), confifting of two ob-
jecl-glaffes, AE and DF, exaAly equal, fixed in tbe
ends of two tubes fix or feven feet, or, in fome cafes,
30 or 12 feet long, and having their foci at the other
ends. At the bottoms of thefe tubes E, are two boles,
three or four lines in diameter, covered with a piece of
white paper ; and this inftrument is ufed exactly like
the former.
If the two objefts to be obferved by this inftrument
be not equally luminous, tbe light that iffues from them
muft be reduced to an equality, by diminifhing the
aperture of one of the objeft-glaffes ; and then the re¬
maining furface of the two glaffes will give the propor¬
tion of their lights. But for this purpofe, the central
parts of the glafs muft be covered in tbe fame propor¬
tion with the parts near tbe circumference, leaving the
aperture fuch as is reprefented (fig. 7.), becaufe the
middle part of the glafs is ticker and lefs tranfparent
than the reft.
If all tbe objects to be obferved lie nearly in tbe fame
direction, Bouguer remarks, that tbefe two long tubes
may be reduced into one, the two objedt-glaffes being
placed clofe together, and one eye-glafs fufficing for
them both. The inftrument will then be tbe fame with
that of which he publiftied an account in 1748, and
which he called a heliometer, or qftrometer.
It is not, however, the abfolute quantity, but only
tbe intenfity of tbe light, that is meafured by tbefe two
meafureon-inftmments, or the number of rays, in proportion to tbe
tenfitVof lur^ace ^ luminous body ; and it is of great import-
IMvt? ° ance that thefe two things be diftinguifhed. The in¬
tenfity of light may be very great, when the quantity,
and its power of illuminating other bodies, may be
very fmall, on account of tbe fmallnefs of its furface 5
or the contrary may be the cafe, when the furface is
large..
Elaving explained tbefe methods which M. Bouguer
took to meafure the different proportions of light, we
ftiall fubjoin a few examples of his application of
them.
It is obfervable, that when a perfon ftands in a place
where there is a ftrong light, he cannot diftinguifh ob-
jefts that are placed in the ffiade ; nor can be fee any
thing upon going immediately into a place where there
is very little light. It is plain, therefore, that the ac¬
tion of a ftrong light upon the eye, and alfo the imprei-
fion which it leaves upon it, makes it infenfible to the
effeft of a weaker light. M. Bouguer had the curiofity
to endeavour to afcertain the proportion between the in-
tenfities of the two lights in this cafe 5 and by throwing
the light of two equal candles upon a board, he found
that the ftiadow made by intercepting the light of one
of them, could not be perceived by his eye, upon the
place enlightened by the other, at little more than eight
times the diftance 5 from whence he concluded, that
when one light is eight times eight, or 64 times lefs
than another, its prefence or ahfence will not be per¬
ceived. He allows, however, that the effeft may be
different on different eyes} and fuppofes that the boun-
above, to meafure the intenfity of the light refle&ed
from different parts of the iky •, he found that when the
fun was 2 ? degrees high, the light was four times ftrong-
er at the diftance of eight or nine degrees from his bo¬
dy, than it was at 31 or 3 2 degrees. But what ftruck
him the moft was to find, that when the fun is 15 or
20 degrees high, the light decreafes on the fame pa¬
rallel to the horizon to 1 1 o or 1 20 degrees, and then
increafes again to the place eximlly oppofite to the
fun.
The light of the fun, our author obferves, is too
ftrong, and that of the ftars too weak, to determine the
variation of their light at different altitudes : but as, in
both cafes, it muft be in the fame proportion with the
diminution of the light of the moon in the fame circum-
ftances, he made his obfervations on that luminary, and
found, that its light at 19° 16', is to its light at 66° IT,
as 1681 to 2500 ; that is, the one is nearly two thirds 26g
of the other. He chofe thofe particular altitudes, be- Great va-
caufe they are thofe of the fun at the two folftices at nation of
Croific, where he then refided. When one limb of the ^
moon touched the horizon of the fea, its light was 2000 at ^;fferenj
times lefs than at the altitude of 66° 111. But this pro- altitudes,
portion he acknowledges muft be fubjeft to many vari¬
ations, the atmofphere near the earth varying fo much
in its denfity. From this obfervation he concludes,
that at a medium light is diminiffied in the proportion
of about 2500 to 1681, in traverfing 7469 toifes of
denfe air. _ 2651
M. Bouguer alfo applied his inftrument to the differ-Variation
ent parts of the fun’s dilk, and found that the centre is '^different
confiderably more luminous than the extremities of
it. As'near as he could make the obfervation, itfunan4
was more luminous than a part of the dilk -Jths of planets,
the femidiameter from it, in the proportion of 35 to
28 ; which, as he obferves, is more than in the pro¬
portion of the fines of the angles of obliquity. On the
other hand, he obferves, that both the primary and fe-
condary planets are more luminous at their edges than
near their centres.
The comparifon of the light of the fun and moon is
a fub]e£t that has frequently exercifed the thoughts of
philofophers 5 hut we find nothing but random conjec¬
tures, before Bouguer applied his accurate meafures in
this cafe. In general, the light of the moon is imagi¬
ned to bear a much greater proportion to that of the
fun than it really does ; and not only are the imagina¬
tions of the vulgar, but thofe of philofophers alfo, im-
pofed upon with refpeft to it. It was a great furprife
to M. de la Hire to find that he could not, by the help
of any burning mirror, colleft the beams of the moon
in a fufficient quantity to produce the leaft fenfible heat.
Other philofophers have fince made the like attempts
with mirrors of greater power, though without a»y
greater fuccefs 5 but this will not furprife us, when we
fee the refult of M. Bouguer’s obfervations on this fub-
jeft. . 37°
In order to folve this curious problem concerning the M. Bou-^
comparifon of the light of the fun and moon, he com-gae^a! *
pared each of them to that of a candle in a dark room, conrerning
one in the day-time, and the other in the night follow-the light ot
ing, the moon.-
Partlll. OPT
Apparatus ing, when the tnootl was at her mean difi ance fronSthe
for earth-, and, after many trials, he concluded that the
Meafuring jlt Qf tjie fun is about 300,000 times greater than that
, Lxght- 0f t}ie moon 5 which is fuch a difproportion, that, as he
v 0bferves, it can be no wonder that philofophers have
had fo little fuccefs in their attempts to collect the light
of the moon with burning glaffes. For the largeft of
them will not increafe the light 1000 times; which will
ftill leave the light of the moon, in the focus of the mir¬
ror, 300 times lefs than the intenfity of the common
light of the fun.
To this account of the proportion of light which we
a£tually receive from the moon, it cannot be difpleafing
to the reader, if we compare it with the quantity which
would have been tranfmitted to us from that opaque
body, if it refledted all the light it receives. _ Dr Smith
thought that he had proved, from two different confi-
derations, that the light of the full moon would be to
our day-light as 1 to about 90,900, if no rays were loft
at the moon. .
Dr Smith’s In the firft Place> he fuPPofes that tlle moon cnllSht'
calculation, ened by the fun, is as luminous as the clouds are at a
medium. He therefore fuppofed the light of the fun to
be equal to that of a whole hemifphere of clouds, or as
many moons as would cover the furface of the heavens.
But on this Dr Prieftley obferves, that it is true, the
light of the fun fhining perpendicularly Upon any fur-
face would be equal to the light refle&ed from the whole
hemifphere, if every part refledled all the light that, fell
upon it} but the light that would in fa ft be received
from the whole hemifphere (part of it being received
obliquely) would be only one-half as much as would
be received from the whole hemifphere, if every part
of it fhone direftly upon the furface to be illumi¬
nated.
In his Remarks, par. 97. Dr Smith demonftrates his
method of calculation in the following manner :
Plate “ Let the little circle cfdg reprefent the moon’s
ccclxxxxv. body half enlightened by the fun, and the great circle
Fig. 8. aeb, & fpherical fhell concentric to the moon, and
touching the earth ; a b, any diameter of that fhell per¬
pendicular to a great circle of the moon’s body, repre-
fented by its diameter c d; e the place of the fhell re¬
ceiving full moon light from the bright hemifphere/</?•.
Now, becaufe the furface of the moon is rough like, that
of the earth, we may allow that the fun’s rays, incident
upon any fmall part of it, <vith any obliquity, are re-
flefted from it every way alike, as if they were emitted.
And therefore, if the fegment df fhone alone, the
points <7, e, would be equally illuminated by it; and
likewife if the remaining bright fegment d g flione
alone, the points b e would be equally illuminated by
it. Confequently, if the light at the point a was in-
creafed by the light at b, it would become equal to the
full moon light at e. And conceiving the fame transfer
lo be made from every point of the hemifpherical fur¬
face hbik to their oppofite points in the hemifphere
ha eh, the former hemifphere would be left quite dark,
and the latter would be uniformly illuminated with full
moon light ^ arifing from a quantity of tne fun s light,
which immediately before its incidence on the moon,
would uniformly illuminate a circular plane equal to a
great circle of her body, called her dlfk. Therefore the
quantities of light being the fame upon both furfaces,
•the denfity of the fun’s incident light is to the denfity of
ICS. . 283
full moon light, as that hemifpherical iurface heh is to Apparatus
the faid dilk } that is, as any other hemifpherical .furface Me^ri
whofe centre is at the eye, to that part of it which the 1 Light.
moon’s dilk appears to poffefs very nearly, becaufe it ..
fubtends but a fmall angle at the eye : that is, as ra¬
dius of the hemifphere to the verfed fine of the moon’s
apparent femidiameter, or as 10,000,000 to iio6y or
as 90.400 to 1 taking the moon’s mean horizontal dia¬
meter to be 16' ’1".
“ Striftly fpeaking, this rule compares moon light at.
the earth with day light at the moon -, the medium of
which, at her quadratures, is the fame as our day-light,
but is lefs at her full in the duplicate ratio of 365 to
366, or thereabout, that is, of the fun’s diftances from
the earth and full moon ; and therefore full moon fight'
would be to our day-light as about 1 to 90,900? if no
rays were loft at the moon.
“ Secondly, I fay that full moon light is to any other
moon fight as the whole dilk of the moon t# the part
that appears enlightened, confidered upon a plane fur¬
face. For now let the earth be at b, and let d l be Fig. 5.
perpendicular to fg, and g m to c d: then it is plain*
that / is equal to dm; and that g h is equal to a
perpendicular feftion of the fun’s rays incident upon the
arch dg which at b appears equal to d m; the eye
being unable to diftinguilh the unequal diftances of its
parts. In like manner, conceiving the moon’s furface
to confift of innumerable phyfical circles parallel to ef dg,
as reprefented at A, the fame reafon holds for every one-
of thefe circles as for c f dg. It follows then, that the
bright part of the furface vifible at b, when reduced to
a flat as reprefented at B, by the crefcent pdqmp,
will be equal and fimilar to a perpendicular feftion of all
the rays incident on that part, reprefented at C.by the
crefcent pgqlp- Now the whole dilk being in pro¬
portion to this crefcent, as the quantities of light inci¬
dent upon them 5 and the fight falling upon every rough
particle, being equally rarefied in diverging to the eye
at b, confidered as equidiftant from them all j it fol¬
lows, that full moon fight is to this moon light as the
whole dilk pdqc to the crefcent pdqmp:
“ Therefore, by compounding this ratio with that
in the former remark, day light is to moon fight as the
furface of an hemifphere whofe centre is at the eye, to
the part of that furface which appears to be poflefled by
the enlightened part of the moon.” 373
Mr Michell made his computation in a much more Mr Mi-
fimple and eafy manner, and in which there is. muchch^? caU
lefs'danger of falling into any miftake. Confidering theuua *on’
diftance of the moon from the fun, and that the denfity
of the light muft decreafe in the proportion of the fquare
of that diftance, he calculated the denfity of the fun’s
fight, at that diftance, in proportion to its denfity at
the furface of the fun -, and in this manner he found,
that if the moon reflefted all the fight it receives from
the fan, it would only be the 45,000th part of the light
we receive from the greater luminary. Admitting,
therefore, that moon light is only a 300,000th part of
the fight of the fun, Mr Michell concludes, that it re-
flefts no more than between the 6th and 7th part of
what falls upon it. _ 273
Count Rumford, has conftrufted a photometer, inRtimford’s
which the lhadows, inftead of being thrown upon a Photometer.,
paper fpread out upon the wainfcot, or fide of the
room, are projefted upon the infide of the back part
N n 2 of
284
Plate
V.CCLXXXIS.
v>£- 5-
Apparatus of a wooden box Indies wide, xo^ inches long,
Meafuring ?nd 3 ? inches deep, m the clear. 1'he light is admitted
Light. Jnto ^ through two horizontal tubes in the front, placed
 fo as to form an angle of 6c° j their axes meeting at the
centre of the field of the inftrument. In the middle of
the front of the box, between thefe two tubes, is an
opening through which is viewed the field of the pho¬
tometer (lee fig. 5.). This field is formed of a piece of
whitepaper, which is not faftened immediately upon the
infide of the back of the box, but is palled upon a fmall
pane of very fine ground glafs; and this glafs, thus covered,
is let down into a groove, made to receive it, in the back
of the box. The whole infide of the box, except the field
of the inllrument, is painted of a deep black dead colour.
To the under part of the box is fitted a bad and focket,
by which it is attached to a Hand which fupports it ;
and the top or Kd of it is fitted with hinges, in order
that the box may be laid quite open, as often as it is
necefiary to alter any part of the machinery it contains.
The count had found it very inconvenient to com¬
pare two lhadows projected by the fame cylinder, as
thefe were either necelfarily too far from each other to
be compared with certainty, or, when they were near¬
er, -were in part hid from the eye by the cylinder. To
remedy this inconvenience, he now makes ufe of two
cylinders, which are placed perpendicularly in the bot-
• om of the box juft deferibed, in a line parallel to the
back part of it, diftant from this back 2-/^ inches, and
from each other 3 inches, meafuring from (he centres
of the cylinders} when the two lighis made ufe of in
the experiment are properly placed, thefe two cylinders
project four lhadows upon the white paper upon the in¬
fide of the back part of the box, or the field of the in¬
ftrument •, two of which fhadows are in contact, pre-
cifely in the middle of that field, and it is thefe two
alone that are to be attended to. To prevent the at¬
tention being diffracted by the prefence of unneceffary
objects, the two outfide lhadows are made to difappear;
which is done by rendering the field of the inftrument
fo narrow, that they fall without it, upon a blackened
furface, upon which they are not vifible. If the cy¬
linders be each -fL of an inch in diameter, and 2TV inches
in height, it will be quite fufficient that the field be
2to' inches wide ^ and as an unnecelTary height of the
field is not only uleiefs, but difadvantageous, as a large
fuiface of wThite paper not covered by the lhadows pro¬
duces too ftrong a glare of light, the field ought not to
be more than TL- or an inch higher than the tops of
the cylinders. That its dimenfions, however, may be
cccafionally augmented, the covered glafs fhould be
made 54 inches long, and as wide as the box is deep,
viz. 3L inches; fince the field of the inftrument can be
reduced to its proper fize by a fereen of black pafteboard,
interpofed before the anterior furface of this covered
glafs, and refting immediately upon it. A hole in this
pafteboard, in the form of an oblong fquare, 1 inch
wide, and two inches high, determines the dimenfions,
and forms the boundaries of the field. This fereen
fhould be large enough to cover the whole infide of the
back of the box, and it may be fixed in its place by
means of grooves in the fides of the box, into which it
may be made to enter. The pofition of the opening
above-mentioned is determined by the height of the
cylinders; the top of it being At 0f an inCh higher
than the tops of the cylinders 5 and as the height of it
OPTICS.
Part III.
is oMy two inches, while the height of the cylinders is Apparatus
inches, it is evident that the lhadows of the low^er
parts of the cylinders do not. enter the field. No in¬
convenience ariles Irom that circumltance 5 on the con¬
trary, feveral advantages are derived from that arrange¬
ment. °
I hat the lights may be placed with facility and pre-
cifion, a fine black line is drawn through the middle of
the field, from the top to the bottom of it, and another
(horizontal) line at right angles to it, at the height of
tiie top of the cylinders. When the tops of the lha¬
dows touch this laft mentioned line, the lights are at a
proper height; and farther, when the two lhadows are
m contahl with each other in the middle of the field,
the lights are then in their proper directions.
W e have faid that the cylinders, by which the llia-
dows are^ projected, are placed perpendicularly in the
bottom of the box } but as the diameters of the lhadows
of thefe cylinders Vary in fome degree, in proportion as
the lights are broader or narrower, and as they are
brought nearer to or removed farther from the photo¬
meter, in order to be able in all cafas to bring thefe fha¬
dows to be of the fame diameter, which is very advan¬
tageous, in order to judge with greater facility and cer¬
tainty when they are of the lame denfity, the count
renders the cylinders moveable about their axes, and
adds to each a vertical wing 44 0f an inch wide, TL of
an inch thick, and of equal height with the cylinder
itfclf, and^ firmly fixed to it from the top to the bot¬
tom. This wing commonly lies in the middle of the
ihadow of the cylinder, arid as long as it remains in that
fituation it has no effeCl whatever 5 but when it is ne-
ceffary that the diameter of one of the lhadoxvs be in-
creafed, the correfponding cylinder is moved about its
axis, till the wing juft deferibed, emerging cut of the
lhadowq and intercepting a portion of light, brings the
fhaoow projeCfed upon the field of the inftrument to
be of the width or diameter required. In this opera¬
tion it is always necefiary to turn the cylinder outwards,
or in fuch a manner that the augmentation of the
width of the fhadow may take place on that fide of it
which is oppofite to the Ihadow correfponding to the
other light. The neceifity for that precaution will ap¬
pear evident to any one who has a juft idea of the in¬
ftrument in queftion, and of the manner of making ufe
of it. They are turned likewife without opening the
box, by taking hold of the ends of their axes, which
projett bekw its bottom.
As it is abfolutely necefiary that the cylinders Ihould
conftantly remain precifely perpendicular to the bottom
of the box, or parallel to each other, it will be beft to
conftruft them of brafs 5 and, inftead of fixing them im¬
mediately to the bottom of the box (which, being of
wood, may warp), to fix them to a ftrong thick piece
of well-hammered plate brafs ; which plate of brafs may
be afterwards faftened to the bottom of the box by
means of one ftrong ferew. In this manner two of the
count’s beft inftruments are conftrufled 5 and, in order
to fecure the cylinders ftill more firmly in their vertical
pofitions, they are fumiftied with broad flat rings, or
projeflions, where they reft upon the brafs plate j which
rings are -A of an inch thick, and equal in diameter to
the projeftion of the wring of the cylinder, to the bot¬
tom of which they afford a firm fupport. Thefe cy¬
linders are likewife forcibly puffed, or rather pulled,
agaiuft
for
Mcafurin'
Light. "
Part III.
OPT
Apparatus again:!, the brafs plate upon which they reft, by means
of compreflfed ipiral fprings placed between-the under
Meat
Leaiunng ^ p]ate ancl the lower ends of the cylinders.
^ t- Of whatever material the cylinders be cor.ftruited, and
whatever be their forms or dimenfions, it is abfolutely
necefiary that they, as well as every other part of the
photometer, except the field, fhould be well painted of
a deep black dead colour.
In order to move the lights to and from the photo¬
meter with greater eafe and precifion, the obferver
Ihould provide twTo long and narrow, but very ftrong
and Heady, tables j in the middle of each oi which
there is a ilraight groove, in which a Hiding carriage,
upon which the light is placed, is drawn along by
means of a cord which is fattened to it before and be¬
hind, and which, palling over pulleys at each end of
the table, goes round a cylinder 5 which cylinder is fur-
nilhed with a winch, and is fo placed, near the end of
the table adjoining the photometer, that the obferver
can turn it about, without taking hit eye from the field
of the inftrument.
Many advantages are derived from this arrangement:
Firll, the obferver can move the lights as he finds^ne¬
cefiary, without the help of an affiftant, and even with¬
out removing his eye from the ihadov7s j fecondly, each
light is always precifely in the line of direftion in which
it' ought to be, in order that the fhadows may be in
contact in the middle of the vertical plane of the pho¬
tometer *, and, thirdly, the Hiding motion of the lights
being perfectly foft and gentle, that motion produces
little or no effeft upon the lights themfelves, either to
increafe or dimlnilh their brilliancy.
Thefe tables mull be placed at an angle of 60 de¬
grees from each other, and in filch a fituation, w ith re-
lpe£t to the photometer, that lines drawn through their
middles, in the direftion of their lengths, meet in a
point exa&ly under the middle of the vertical plane or
field of the photometer, and from that point the diftan-
ces of the lights are meafured } the fides of the tables
being divided into Englifh inches, and a vernier, Ihew-
ing tenths of inches, being fixed to each of the Hiding
carriages upon which the lights are placed, and which
are fo contrived that they may be raifed or lowered at
pleafure ; fo that the lights may be always in a hori¬
zontal line with the tops of the cylinders of the photo¬
meter.
In order that the two long and narrow tables or plat¬
forms, juft deferibed, may remain immoveable in their
proper politions, they are both firmly fixed to the Hand
which fupports the photometer 5 and, in order that the
motion of the carriages which carry the lights may be
as foft and gentle as poflible, they are made to Hide
upon parallel brafs wires, 9 inches afunder, about Vu
an inch in diameter, and well poliflied, which are ftretch-
ed out upon the tables from one end to the other.
Plate The Hruclure of the apparatus will be clearly under-
CCCLKXXIX. flood by a bare ftTpeftioi. of Plate CCCLXXX1X.
T'fi. 5. Fig. 5. is a plan of the infide of the box, and the adjoin¬
ing parts of the photometer. Fig. 6. Plan of the two
tables belonging to the photometer. Fig. *7. The box
of the photometer on its Hand. Fig. 8. Elevation of
the photometer, with one of the tables and carriages.
Having fufficiently explained all the efiential parts
of this photometer, it remains for us to give feme ac-
I c s.
count of the precautions ricceffary to be obferved in Apparatus
ufing it. And, ftrft, wfith refpeft to the diftance at
which lights, whole intenfities are to be compared, ^
fliould be placed from the field of the inftrument, the u—^ — j
ingenious and accurate inventor found, that when the
w eakeft of the lights in queftion is about as ftrong as a
common wax c andle, that light may ftoft advantageoufiy
be placed from 30 to 36 inches from the centre of the
field ; and when it is weaker or ftronger, proportionally
nearer or farther off. When the lights are too nea,r,
the ftiadows will not be well defined j and when they
are too far off, they will be too weak.
It will greatly facilitate th* calculations neceffary in
drawing conclufions from experiments of this kind, if
feme fteady light, of a proper degree of ftrength for
that purpofe, be affirmed as a ftandard by which all
others may be compared. Our author found a good
Argand’s lamp much preferable for this purpofe to any
other lamp or candle whatever. As it appears, he
fays, from a number of experiments, that the quantity
of light emitted by a lamp, which burns in the lame
manner wfith a clear flame, and without fnwke, is in all
cafes as the quantity of oil confumed, there is much
reafon to fuppofe, that, if the Argand’s lamp be fo ad-
jufted as always to conlume a given quantity of oil in a
given time, it may then be depended on as a juft ftand*
ard of light.
In order to abridge the calculation necefiary in thefe
inquiries, it will always be advantageous to place the
ftandard-lamp at the diftance of 100 inches from the
photometer, and to affume the intenfity of its light at
its fource equal to unity j in this cafe (calling this ftand¬
ard light A, the intenfity of the light at its fource
~ x — x, and the diftance of the lamp from the field
of the photometer — ?n rr 100), the intenfity of the il-
x \
lumination at the field of the photometer (— J will
be exoreffed by the fra&ion —=ar-rcro-0-0 j and ^le re~
Tffp-
lative intenfity of any other light which is compared
with it, may be found by the following proportion : Call¬
ing this light B, putting y = its intenfity at its fource,
and n — its diftance from the field of the photometer,
expreffed in Englifli inches, as it is or, m-
x . . . , . y
Head of writing its value it will be
7T1 71
_ • and confequently y is to x as is to 10000 j
or the intenfity of the light B at its fource, is to the
intenfity of the ftandard light A at its fource, as the
fquare of the diftance of the light B from the middle
of the field of the inftrument, expreffed in inches, is to
• •
10000 ; and hence it is ?/ = , .
7 10000
Or, if the light o'’the fun, or that"of the moon, be
compared with the light of a given lamp or candle C,
the refult of fuch comparifon may be beft expreffed in
words, by faying, that the light of the celeftial luminary
in queftion, at the furface of the earth, or, which is the
fame thing, at the field of the photometer, is equal to
the light of the given lamp or candle, at the dijlance
found by the experiment; or, putting a — the intenfity
of the light of this lamp C at its fource, and /> — its
dillaccej; ,
\
00
286 OPT
Apparatus dlftaftce, in inches, from the field, when the (hadows
Meafurinrr correfponding to this light, and that correfponding to
' Light. b tlae celeftial luminary in queftion, are found to be of
equal denfities, and putting 2 = the intenfity of the
rays of the luminary at the lurface of the earth, the re-
^ 0 S. Part IIP
Squares of the Diftances Apparatus
With two Candles. With one Candle. for
fult of the experinacnt may be expreflfed thus, 55 =
7’
or the real value of a being determined by a particular
experiment, made exprefsly for that purpofe with the
ftandard lamp, that value may be written inftead of it*
When the ftandard lamp itfelf is made ufe of, inftead of
the lamp C, then the value of A will be 1.
The count’s firft attempts with his photometer were
to determine how far it might be poflible to afcertain,
by diredf experiments, the certainty of the aflumed law
of the diminutioft of the intenfity of the light emitted
by luminous bodies; namely, that the intenfity of the
light is everywhere as the fquares of the diftances from
the luminous body inverfely. As it is obvious that this
law can hold good only when the light is propagated
through perfectly tranfparent fpaces, fo that its inten¬
fity is weakened merely by the divergency of its rays,
he inftituted a fet of experiments to afcertain the tranfi*
parency of the air and other mediums.
With this view, two equal wax candles, well trim¬
med, and which were found, by a previous experiment,
to burn with exactly the fame degree of brightnels,
were placed together, on one fide, before the photome¬
ter, and their united light was counterbalanced by the
light of an Argand’s lamp, well trimmed, and burning
very equally, placed on the other fide over againft them.
The lamp was placed at the diftance of 100 inches frem
the field of the photometer, and it was found that the
two burning candles (which were placed as near toge¬
ther as polfible, without their flames affefting each
other by the currents of air they produced) -were juft
able to counterbalance the light of the lamp at the
field of the photometer, when they were placed at the
diftance of 60.8 inches from that field. One of the
candles being now taken away and extinguifheft, the
other was brought nearer to the field of the inftru-
ment, till its light was found to be juft able, fingly, to
counterbalance the light of the lamp $ and this was
found to happen when it had arrived at the diftance of
43.4 inches. In this experiment, as the candles burnt
with equal brightnefs, it is evident that the intenfities
of their united and fingle lights wrere as 2 to 1, and in
that proportipn ought, according to the aflumed theory,
the fquares of the diftances, 60.8 and 43.4, to be •, and,
in faff, 6o.8i=3696.64 is to 43.4zm883.56 as 2 is to
I very nearly.
Again, in another experiment, the diftances were,
With two candles — 54 inches. Square 2916
With one candle rr 38.6 - r= 1489.96
Upon another trial,
With two candles = 54.6 inches. Square = 2981.16
With one candle = 39.7 - — 1576.09
And, in the fourth experiment,
With two candles r= 58.4 inches. Square ~ 3410.56
With one candle — 42.2 - - rr 1780.84
And, taking the mean of the refults of thefc four
experiments,
w iiu iwu i^anau
In the Experiment N°i. 3696.64
N° 2. 2916
N°3. 2981.16
N°4- 34io*56
4)i3004-36
1883,56 Meafuring
1489.96 Light- f
i si6-oo
1780.84
4)6730.45
Means 3251.09 and 1682.61
which again are very nearly as 2 to 1.
With regard to th»fe experiments, it may be ob~
ferved, that were the refiftance of the air to light, or
the diminution of the light from the imperfect tranf-
parency of air, fenfible within the limits of the incon-
fiderable diftances at wEich the candles were placed
from the photometer, in that cafe the diftance of the
two equal lights united ought to be, to the diftance of
one of them fingle, in a ratio lefs than that of the fquare
root of 2 to the fquare root of 1. For if the intenfity
of a light emitted by a luminous body, in a/pace void
of all refjlance, be diminiftied in the proportion of the
fquares of the diftances, it muft of neceflity be dimi¬
niftied in a ftill higher ratio wdien the light pafles through
a refilling medium, or one wTich is not perfeftly tranf¬
parent j and from the difference of thofe ratios, name¬
ly, that of the fquares of the diftances, and that other
higher ratio found by the experiment, the refiftance of
the aiodium might be afcertained. This he took much
pains to do with refpeft to air, but did not fucceed ;
the tranfparency of air being fo great, that the dimi¬
nution which light fuffers in palling through a few
inches, or even through feveral feet of it, is not fen¬
fible.
Having found, upon repeated trials, that the light
of a lamp, properly trimmed, is incomparably more equal
than that of d candle, wdiofe wick, continually growing
longer, renders its light extremely flufluating, he fub-
ftituted lamps to candles in thefe experiments, and
made fuch other variations in the manner of condu&ing
them as he thought bid fair to lead to a difcovery of
the refiftance of the air to light, wrere it poflible to ren¬
der that refiftance fenfible within the confined limits of
his machinery. But the refults of them, fo far from af¬
fording means for afcertaining the refiftance of the air
to light, do not even indicate any refiftance at all ; on
the contrary, it might almoft be inferred, from fome of
them, that the intenfity of the light emitted by a lu¬
minous body in air is diminiftied in a ratio lefs than that
of the fqpares of the diftances \ but as fuch a conclu-
fion would involve an evident abfurdity, namely, that,
light moving in air, its abfolute quantity, inftead of be¬
ing diminilhed, aflually goes on to increafe, that con-
clufion can by no means be admitted.
Why not ? Theories muft give place to fafls; and
if this fa<ft can be fairly afcertained, inftead of rejefling
the conclufion, we ought certainly to reclify our no¬
tions of light, the nature of wdiich we believe no man
fully comprehends. Who can take it upon him to
fay, that the fubilance of light is not latent in the at-
mofphere, as heat or caloric is nowT acknowdedged to be
latent, and that the agency of the former is not called
forth by the paffage of a ray through a portion of air,
as the agency of the latter is known to be excited
bv
4
Part TIT
Apparatus
for
Meafuring
Light.
OPT
274
Contrivan¬
ces of Sauf-
fure.
by tlie combination of oxygen With any combuftible fub-
^^The ingenious author’s experiments _ all confpired to
Hiew that the refiflawce of the air to light is too incon-
fiderable to be perceptible, and that the aflumed law ot
the diminution of the intenfity of light may be depend¬
ed upon with fafety. He admits,, however, that means
may be found for rendering the air’s refiftance to light
apparent} and he feems to have thought of the very
means which occurred for this purpofe to M. de Saui-
^^rhat eminent philofopher, wifhing to afcertain the
tranfparency of the atmofphere, by meafurmg t 01
fiances at which determined objects ceafe to. be vihble,
perceived at once that his end would be attained, it. he
fhould find objedls of which the difappearance might
be accurately determined. Accordingly, after many
trials, he found that the moment of difappearance can
be obferved with much greater accuracy when a black
obieift is placed on a white ground, than when a white
objeft is placed on a black ground j that the accuracy
was ftill greater when the obfervation was made m the
fun than in the {hade ; and that even a ftill greater de¬
gree of accuracy was obtained, when the white {pace
furrounding a black circle, was itfelf furrounded by a
circle or ground of a dark colour. This laft circum-
ftance was particularly remarkable, and an obfervation
quite new. . .
If a circle totally black, of about two lines in diame¬
ter, be faftened on the middle of a large fiieet of paper
orpafteboard, and if this paper or pafteboard be pla¬
ced in fuch a manner as to be expofed fully to. the hght
of the fun, if you then approach it at the diftance of
three or four feet, and afterwards gradually recede from
it, keeping your eye conftantly diredted towards the
black circle, it will appear always to decreafe in fize the
farther you retire from it, and at the diftance of 33 or
34 feet will have the appearance of a point. If you
continue ftill to recede, you will fee it again enlarge it¬
felf- and it will feem to form a kind of cloud, the dark-
nefs of which decreafes more and more according.as the
circumference becomes enlarged. The cloud will ap¬
pear ftill to increafe in fize the farther you remove from
it 5 but at length it will totally difappear. The mo¬
ment of the difappearance, however, cannot be accurate¬
ly afcertained 5 and the more experiments were repeated
the more were the refults different.
M. de Sauffure, having reflected for. a long time on
the means of remedying this inconveniency, faw clear¬
ly, that, as long as this cloud took place, no accuracy
could be obtained 5 and he difcovered that it appeared
fi confequence of the contrail formed by the white
parts which were at the greateft diftance from the black
circle. He thence concluded, that if the ground was
left white near this circle, and the parts of the pafte¬
board at the greateft diftance from it were covered with
a dark colour, the cloud would no longer be vifible, or
at leaft ajmoft totally difappear. _
This conieflure was confirmed by experiment. . IVi.
de Sauffure left a white fpace around the black circle
equal in breadth to its diameter, by placing a circle of
black paper a line in diameter on the middle of a white
circle three lines in diameter, fo that the black circle
was only furrounded by a white ring a line in breadth.
The whole was palled upon a green ground. A gieen
ics.
colour was chofen, becaufe k was dark enough to make Appanuu
the cloud difappear, and the eafieft.to be procured. . jyteafuring
The black circle, furrounded in this manner with Light,
white on a green ground, difappeared at a much lets \
diftance than when it was on a white ground oi a large
If a perfettly black circle, a line in diameter, be
palled on the middle of a white ground expofed to the
open light, it may be obferved at the diilance of from
41 to 4; feet; but if this circle be furrounded by a
white ring a line in breadth, while the reft of the ground
is green, all fight of it is loft at the diliance of only I
feet# ^ .
According to thefe principles M. de Saufture deline¬
ated feveral black circles, the diameters of which m-
creafed in a geometrical progreffion, the exponent of
which was 4-. His fmalleft circle was x or 0.2 of a
line in diarrteter ; the fecfcnd 0.3 ; the third, 0.45 ; and
fo on to the fixteenth, which was 87.527, or about 7
inches H lines. Each of thefe circles was furrounded
by a white ring, the breadth of which was equal to the
diameter of the circle, and the whole was palled on a
b M. de Sauffure, for his experiments, felefted a ftraight
road or plain of about 1200 or 1500 feet in circumfer¬
ence, which towards the north was bounded by trees or
an afcent. Thofe who repeat them, however, mull pay
attention to the following remarks: When a perlon
retires backwards, keeping his eye conftantly fixed on
the pafteboard, the eye becomes fatigued, and loon ceales
to perceive the circle ; as foon therefore as it ceales to
be diftinguilhable, you mull fuffer your eyes to reft ; not,
however, by {hutting, them, for they would when again
opened bedazzled by the light, but. by. turning them
gradually to feme lefs illuminated object in the horizon.
When you have done this for about half a minute,, and
again dire£led your eyes to the pafteboard, the ciicle
will be again vifible, and you mull continue to recede
till it difappear once more. You mull then let your
eyes reft a fecond time in order to look at the circle
again, and continue in this manner till the circle becomes
actually invifible.
If you wilh to find an accurate expreflion for ttm
want of tranfparency, you .muft employ a number or
circles, the diameters of which increale according to a
certain progreflion; and a comparifon of the dii.iances
at which they difappear will give the law according to
which the tranfparency of the atmofphere decreafes at
different diftances. If you wilh to compare, the tranf¬
parency of the atmofphere on two days, or in two dif¬
ferent places, two circles will be fufficient fox the expe-
According to thefe principles, IVI. de Sauffure cauftd
to be prepared a piece of w'hite linen cloth eight feet
fquare. In the middle of this fquare he fewed a per-
fe& circle, two feet in diameter, of beautiful black wool;
around this circle he left a white ring two feet in
breadth, and the reft of the fquare was covered with pale
green. In the like manner, and of the fame materials,
he prepared another fquare ; which was, however, equal
to only of the lize of the former, lo tnat each fide
of it was 8 inches ; the black circle in the middle was
two inches in diameter, and the white fpace around the
circle was 2 inches alfo.
If two fqu^res of this kind be fufpended vertically
an^t-
288
Apparatus and parallel to each other, To that they may be both il-
Meafuring l™uTiated 111 an eflual degree by the fun 5 and if the a>
Ligln. jni° phere, at tiie moment when the experiment is made,
 v ' be perfectly transparent, the circle of the large fquare,
u 'uch IS tivelve times the fize of the other, mult be feen
at twelve times the didance. In M. de SauiTure’s expe¬
riments the fmall circle difappeared at the diftance of
314 met, and the large one at the diltance of 3588
icet, whereas^ it Ihould have difappeared at the diltance
of 3768. The atmofphere, therefore, was not perfectly
tr-anlparent. This arofe from the thin vapours which
at that tnrfe were floating in it. M. de Saufiure, calls
ms inftrument a diapha no meter; but it ferves one of
tne purpofes of a photometer.
Irom a number of experiments made with the photo¬
meter, C ount Rumford found, that, by palling through
a pane of fine, clear, well polifned glafs, fuch as is com¬
monly made ufe of in the conftruftion of looking-glaf-
fes, light lofes .T973 of its whole quantity, i.e. of the
quantity which impinged on the glafs ; that when light
is made to pafs through two panes of fuch glafs ftand-
ing parallel, but not touching each other, the lofs is
.3184 of the whole 3 and that in palling through a very
thin, clear, colourlefs pane of window-glafs, the lots
is only .1263. Hence he infers, that this apparatus
might be very ufe fully employed by the optician, to
netemune the degree of tranfparency of glafs, and di-
reft his choice in the provifion of that important article
of his trade.. I he lofs of light when reflected from the
very belt plain glafs mirror, the author afeertained, by
five experiments, to be |d of the whole which fell upon
the mirror. 1
An ingenious photometer has alfo been invented by
ProreiTor Lellie, and fully deferibed in his celebrated
xvork on Heat, to which we mull refer the reader for a
complete defeription of this inlfrument. It meafures the
calorific effeil of heat, and is founded upon this princi¬
ple, “ that if a body be expofed to the fun’s rays it
will, in every poffible cafe, be found to indicate a mea-
fure of heat exadtly proportioned to the quantity of
light which it has abforbed.” See Efav on Heat
p. 103.
Chap. II. On the method of forming the Lenfes
and Specula, of RefraBing and Refecting Tele-
fcopes.
-Sect. I. On the Method of grinding and polijhing
„ Ler.fes.
276 J
baSes! ,.aHAVIT ifiXed Up0n the ProPer tenure and focal
dm ance of tne lens, take a piece of fheet copper, and
ftrike a fine arch upon its filrface, with a radius equal to
?75
Lellie’spho
tometer.
0 p T,',,C S- Pm HI.
aperture. Remove with a file that part of the copper ^Polilh,
which is without the circular arch, and a amvex pL> ing Lenfes!
will be formed. Strike another arch with the fame f
ms, an aving removed that part of the copper which Formation
IS Withm it, a concave gage will be obtained. ‘ Prepare oflhe
anti °f bra-1S’ ab°Ut ^ °f an indl thick,
and half an inch greater m diameter than the breadth
of the lens and lolder them upon a cylinder of lead of 278
tlolstrthenfr’fiTd ab°Llt ^ inch hiSK ^hefe Formation
too s are then to be fixed upon a turning lathe, and one A the tools.
ol them turned mto a portion of a concave Inhere, fo as
to fuit the convex gage 5 and the other into a portion
of a convex /phere, 1° as to anfwer the concave gage.
After the furfaces of the brafs plates are turned as ac-
curuely as poffible, they mull be ground upon one ano-
t ier, alternately, with flour emery j and when the two
for uffi8 eXaCay coincide’the grinding tools will be ready
)CUre o-MleC-r °f wiiC^e difperfive power is as Formation
11 as p^ap,Ie’ lf the lens is not for achromatic inflm-ot the giats.
ments, and whofe furfaces are parallel 3 and by means of
a pair of large fcifiars or pincers, cut it into a circular
nape, lo that its diameter may be a little greater than
the required aperture of the lens. When the roughnefs
is removed from its edges by a common grindftone° (a)
a fS V, °ef.Xed W1th bkek pitch to a wooden handle of
a fmaile. diameter than the glafs, and about an inch
high, fo that the centre of the handle may exadly coin¬
cide wuth the centre of the glafs. ^
I he glafs being thus prepared, it is then to be ground Mode of
Wlth nne emery upon the concave tool, if it is to beSrinding.
convex and upon the convex tool, if it is to be concave
• ° ar°ld C3rcuml<x:ution, we fliall fuppofe that the lens
is to be convex. Rhe concave tool, therefore, which is
mUflbe firm-y fiXed t0 a table °r bench> a^d
the gvafs wrought upon it with circular itrokes, fo that
us centre may never go beyond the edges of the tool
For every 6 circular ifrokes, the glafs ihould receive 2
or 3 crofsones along the diameter of the tool, and in dif-
emnt directions. When the glafs has received its pro-
per ffiape and touches the tool in every point of its fur-
ace, which may be eafily known by infpection, the eme-
ry is to oe Walked away, and finer kinds (b) fucceffively
fubffituted m its room, till by the fame alternation of
circular and tranfverfe ftrokes, all the fcratches and afpe-
nues are removed from its furface. After the fineft
emery lias oeen ufed the roughnefs which remains may
be taken away, and a flight polifli fuperindueed by grind-
mg the glafs wtth pounded pumice-ftone, in the8 fame
manner as before. \\ bile the operation of grinding n
going on, the convex tool ffiould, at the end of every
five
a common grindftene, fo as to fuit the^ge Is ^early^s^ffibl^-^r^^^ f |]ar* fbould be ground upon
(b) Emery of different degrees of finenefs may be made in the fgiw,- _ .
fels, and having filled one of them with wn+er nut inin it ca 11 1 0 • ann^r’ d a^e or fix clean vef-
c 3 , I v ■ w Tateri P1^ mto it a confiderable quantity of flour emerv c-f- •. v .
found cv of different degrees of Snenefs, the’coarfeff ^ ^
OPTICS.
riale OOCXXXV.
Y/
1
^8
O P TIC S.
Plate CT CLXXVIJ.
V
./Ar/?t /<vt
OPTICS
riateccccxmi
'-C^/fcay.y/^4-
Zs CP
^^Tr<f iit 1
C'^t6 Q^if'.zc.
■S / tSf/ZZS/t/rf ffla/*sJc<-/ ft/ /er yZZ i /
or t j ( ^ .
Plate CCCLXXXVI.
Optics.
.^._J      ;..
  «4a   i *s
// ■ /fn/'t/r/rfii tc/'firt t.
Partlll.
OPTICS:
Method of
grinding
and polilh-
ing- Lenfes.
281
Mode of
polilhing.
282
By means
©f pitch.
283
By means
of cloth.
five minutes, be wrought upon the concave one for a few
feconds, in order to preferve the fame curvature to the
tools and the glafs. When one fide is finiflied off with
_ the pumice-ftone, the lens muft be feparated from its
handle by inferting the point of a knife between it and
the pitch, and giving it a gentle ftroke. The pitch
which remains upon the glafs may be removed by rub¬
bing it with a little oil, or fpirits of wine 5 and after
the ground fide of the glafs is fixed upon the handle,
the other furface is to be wrought ai*d finilhed in the very
fame manner.
When the glafs is thus brought into its proper form,
the next and the moft difficult part of the operation is
to give it a fine poliffi. The beft, though not the fim-
pleif way of doing this, is to cover the concave tool
with a layer of pitch, hardened by the addition of a
little rofin, to the thicknefs of one-fifteenth of an inch.
Then having taken a piece of thin writing paper,* prefs
it upon the furface of the pitch with the convex tool,
and pull the paper quickly from the pitch before it has
adhered to it; and if the furface of the pitch is marked
everywhere with the lines of the paper, it will be truly
fpherical, having coincided exadlly with the furface of
the convex tool. If any paper remains on the furface
of the pitch, it may be removed by foap and water ;
and if the marks of the paper fiiould not appear on every
part of it, the operation muft be repeated till the po-
liffier, or bed of pitch, is accurately fpherical. The
glafs is then to be wrought on the polifiier by circular
and crofs ftrokes, with the oxide of tin, called the
flowers of putty in the ffiops, or with the red oxide of
iron, otherwife called colcothar of vitriol, till it has re¬
ceived on both fides a complete polifh (c). The po-
lifliing will advance flowly at firfl:, but will proceed ra¬
pidly when the polifher becomes warm with the friftion.
When it is nearly finiflied, no more putty or water
ftiould be put upon the poliflier, which fliould be kept
Warm by breathing upon it; and if the glafs moves with
difficulty from its adhefion to the tool, it ffiotild be
quickly removed, left it fpoil the furface of the pitch.
When any particles of dull or pitch infinuate themfelves
between the glafs and the poliffier, which may be eafily
known from the very unpleafant manner of working,
they ffiould be carefully removed, by waftiing both the
poliffier and the glafs, otherwife the lens will be
fcratched, and the bed of pitch materially injured.
I he operation of poliffiing may alfo be performed by
covering the layer of pitch with a piece of cloth, and
giving it a fpherical form by preffing it with the con¬
vex tool when the pitch is warm. The glafs is wrought
as formerly, 'upon the furface of the cloth, with putty
or colcothar of vitriol, till a fufficient polilh is induced.
By this mode the operation is flower, and the polifh lefs
perfeft; though it is beft fitted for thofe who have but
little experience, and would therefore be apt to injure
the figure of the lens by polilhing it on a bed of pitch.
Vol. XV. Part I.
In this manner the fniall lenfes of fimple and com¬
pound microfcopes, the eye-glafles and the object-glaffes
of telefcopes, are to be ground. In grinding concave
lenfes, Mr Imifon * employs leaden wheels with the
fame radius as the curvature of the lens, and with their
circumferences of the fame convexity as the lens is to
be concave. Thefe fpherical zones are fixed upon a
turning lathe, and the lens, which is held fteadily in
the hand, is ground upon them with emery, while they
are revolving on the fpindle of the lathe. In the fame
way convex lenfes may be ground and polifhed, by fix¬
ing the concave tool upon the lathe ; but thefe methods,
however fimple and expeditious they may be, fliould
never be adopted for forming the lenfes of optical in-
ftruments, where an accurate fpherical figure is indif-
penfable. It is by the hand alone that we can perform
With accuracy thofe circular and tranfverfe ftrokes, the
proper union of which is effential to the produftion of a
fpherical furface. Appendix to Fergufon’s Leftures,
vol. ii. p. 452.
SECT. II. On the Method of Cafing, Grinding^ and
Polijhing the Specula of Refolding Telefcopes.
289
Method of
grinding
and polic¬
ing Lenfes.
* School of
Arts, part
ii. p. 145.
284
Impropriety
of grinding,
&c. on a
lathe.
2 8^
The metals of reflefling telefcopes are generally Compofition
compofed of 3 2 parts of copper, and 15 of grain tin,of me*
with the addition of two parts of arfenic, to render the u*‘
compofition more white and compacl. The Reverend
Mr Edwards found, from a variety of experiments, that
if one part of brafs, and one of filver, be added to the
preceding compofition, and only one part of arfenic
ufed, a moft excellent metal will be obtained, which is
the whiteft, hardeft, and moft reflective, that he ever
met with. The fuperiority of this compofition, indeed,
has been completely evinced by the excellence of Mr
Edwards’ telefcopes, which excel other reflectors in
brightnefs and diltinCtnefs, and fhow objeCts in their na¬
tural colours. But as metals of this compofition are
extremely difficult to call, as well as to grind and po¬
lilh, it will be better for thofe who are inexperienced
in the art, to employ the compofition firft mentioned. 2S6
After the flalks of fand (d) are prepared, and a mould Method of
made for the metal by means of a wooden or metallic the
pattern, fo that its face may be downwards, and a few'1
fmall holes left in the fand at its back, for the free egrefs of
the included air 5—melt the copper in a crucible by itfelf,
and when it is reduced to a fluid ftate, fufe the tin in a
feparate crucible, and mix it with the melted copper,
by ftii-ring them together with a wooden fpatula. The
proper quantity of powdered arfenic, wrapt up in a piece
of paper, is then to be added, the operator retaining his
breath till its noxious fumes are completely diffipated 5
and when the fcoria is removed from the fluid mafs, it
is to be poured out as quickly as poffible into the flalks.
As foon as the metal is become folid, remove it from
the fand into fome hot allies or coals, for the purpofe of
O o annealing
(c) As colcothar of vitriol is obtained by the decompofition of martial vitriol, it fometimes retains a portion
of this fait. When this portion of martial vitriol is decompofed by diffolution in water, the yellow ochre which
refults penetrates the glafs, forms an incruftation upon its furface, and gives it a dull and yellowilh tinge, which is
communicated to the image which it forms.
(d) The fineft fand which we have met with in this country, is to be found at Roxburgh caftle, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Kelfo. 6
2^0 OPT
Method of annealing it, and let it remain among them till they
grinding arc completely cold. The ingate is then to be taken
in'^Lcrilhs" froTn the metal by means of a hie j and the furface of
■- the fpeculum mu ft be ground upon a common grind-
ftone, till, ail the irnnerfections and afperities are taken
away. When Mr Edwards’ ccmpofttion is employed,
the copper and tin fhould be melted according to the
preceding direftions, and, when mixed together, fhould
he poured into cold water, which will feparate the mafs
into a number of fmall particles. Thefe fmall pieces of
metal are then to be collected and put into the crucible,
along with the filver and brafs, after they have been
melted together in a feparate crucible •, the proper
quantity of arfenic is to be added, and a little powdered
rofin thrown into the fluid metal before it is poured into
2S the flafks.
Grinding When the metal is caft, and prepared by the com-
E>q1?, &.<=. mon grindftone for receiving its proper figure, the gages
and grinding tools are to be formed in the fame man¬
ner as for convex lenfes, with this difference only, that
the radius of the gages muft always he double the focal
length of the fpeculum. In addition to the convex and
concave brafs tools, which thould be only a little broad¬
er than the metal itfelf, a convex elliptical tool of lead
and tin fhould alfo be formed with the fame radius, fo
that its tranfverfe may be to its conjugate diameter as
to to 9, the latter being exatftly equal to the diameter
of the metal. On this tool the fpeculum is to be ground
with flour emery, in the fame manner as lenfes, with
circular and crofs ftrokes alternately, till its furface is
freed from every imperfecHon, and ground to a fpheri-
cal figure. It is then to be wrought with great cir-
cumfpeclion, on the convex brafs tool, with emery of
> different degrees of finenefs, the concave tool being
fometimes ground upon the convex one, to keep them
all of the fame radius} and when every fcratch and ap¬
pearance of roughnefs is removed from its furface, it
will be fit for receiving the final polifti. Before the
fpeculum is brought to the polifher, it has been the
practice to fmooth it on a bed of hones, or a convex tool
made of common blue hones. This additional tool, in¬
deed, is abfolutely neceffary, when filver and brafs en-
fer into the compofition of the metal, in order to re¬
move that roughnefs which will always remain after the
fineft emery has been ufed *, but when thefe metals are
not ingredients in the fpeculum, there is no occafion for
the bed of hones. Without the intervention of this tool
I have finiftied feveral fpecula, and given them as ex-
quifite a luftre as they could poflibly have received.
Mr Edwards does fiot ufe any brafs tools in his procefs,
hut transfers the metal from the elliptical leaden tool to
the bed of hones. By this means the operation is fim-
ICS. Part III.
plified, hut we doubt much if it is, in the Icafl degree, Method of
improved. As a bed of hones is more apt to change its £nadin£
form than a tool of brafs, it is certainly of great confe- ^
quence that the fpeculum ihou'd have as true a figure ^ "'C
as poffible before it is brought to the hones; and we are
periuaded, from experience, that this figure may he
better communicated on a brafs tool, which can always
be kept at the fame curvature by its correfponding tool,
than on an elliptical block of lead. We are certain,
however, that when the fpeculum is required to be of a
determinate focal length, this length will be obtained
more precifely with the^ brals toots than without them.
But Mr Edwards has obferved, that thefe tools are not
only unneceffary, but ‘ really detrimental.’ That Mr
Edwards found them unneceffary, we cannot doubt,
from the excellence of the fpecula which he formed
without their afliftance ; but it feems inconceivable how
the bfafs tools can be in the leaft degree detrimental.
If the mirror is ground upon 20 different tools before it
is brought to the bed of hones, it will receive from
the laft of thefe tools a certain figure, which it would
have received even if it had not been ground on any of
the reft ; and it cannot be queftioned, that a metal
wrought upon a pair of brafs tools, is equally, if not
more, fit for the bed of hones, than if it had been ground
merely on a tool of lead. 2jg
When the metal is ready for polifhing, the elliptical Method of
leaden tool is to be covered with black pitch, about
one-twentieth of an inch thick, and the polifher formed t^e meta‘>
in the fame way as in the cafe of lenfes, either with the
concave brafs tool, or with the metal itlelf. The col-
cothar of vitriol fhould then be triturated between two
furfaces of glafs, and a confiderable quantity of it ap¬
plied at firft to the furface of the polifher. The fpecu¬
lum is then to be wrought in the ufual way upon the
polifhing tool till it has received a brilliant luftre, tak¬
ing care to ufe no more of the colcothar, if it can be
avoided, and only a fmall quantity of it, if it fhould be
found neceffary. When the metal moves ftiffly on the
polifher, and the colcothar affumes a dark muddy hue,
the polifh advances with great rapidity. The tool will
then grow warm, and would probably flick to the fpe¬
culum, if its motion were difeontinued for a moment.
At this flage of the procefs, therefore, we muft proceed
with great caution, breathing continually on the polifher,
till the fri&ion is fo great as to retard the motion of the
fpeculum. When this happens, the metal is to be flip¬
ped off the tool at one fide, cleaned with foft leather,
and placed in a tube for the purpofe of trying its per¬
formance ; and if the polifbing has been conduced with
care, it will be found to have a true parabolic figure.
Appendix to Fergufon’s Lectures, vol. ii. p. 457.
INDEX.
A
.Aberration, theory of, n° 199.
Evils of—remedy, 200. Light diftri-
buted by, over the fmalleft circle of dif-
fufion, 201. Contrary aberrations cor-
re£l each other, 203.
Adams's method of making globules for
large magnifiers, 98.
Aerial fpeculums mentioned by Mr Gray,
N° 46. Aerial images formed by con¬
cave mirrors, 241.
Aethers, fuppofed, do not folve the pheno¬
mena of inflexion, 60.
Air, refraclive power of, 13, 14. Strong¬
ly reflefts the rays proceeding from be¬
neath the furface of water, 36.
Alembert, M. d’, his difeoveries concern¬
ing achromatic telefcopes, p. 177. col. 1.
Alhastsen's difeoveries concerning the re-
fraftion of the atmofphere, N° 6. His
conjectures about the caufe of it, ib. He
gave the firft hint of the magnifying
power of glaffes, ib.
Alkaline fait diminifhes the mean refraction
but
index.
but not tbe difperfiVe power of glais,
N° 18.
Angles refracted, tables of, publifhed by
Kepler and Kircher, 11.
Antonio de Dominis, b’fliop of Spftlatro,
difcovered the nature of the rainbow,
213.
Apparatus for meafuring light, p. 281.
Apparent place of objefts feen by refleftion,
firft difcovered by Kepler, 27. Barrow’s
theory refpecting, 181. M. de la Hire’s
obfervations, 182. Berkeley’s hypothe¬
cs on diftance by confufed vilion, 184.
Objefted to by Dr Smith, 185. The
objection obviated by Robins, 186. M.
Bouguer adopts Barrow’s maxim, 187.
Porterfield’s view of this fubjeft, 188.
Atmofphere varies in its refractive pow7er at
different times, 20. Illumination of the
fiiadow of the earth by the refraction of
the atmofphere, 236.
AttraBive force fuppofed to be the caufe of
refleftion, 163. Hie fuppofition objec¬
ted to, 164. Obviated, 165. Another
hypothefis, 166. Sir Ifaac Newton’s
hypothefis, 167. Untenable, 168.
Azout, Mr, makes an obje£t-glafs of an
extraordinary focal length, 82. On the
apertures of reffaCting telefcopes, 84.
B
Bacon, Roger, his difcoveries, 6, 8.
Bacon, Lord, his miftake concerning the
poffibility of making knages appear in
the air, 26.
Barker's, Dr, reflecting microfcope, 101.
Barrow's theory of the apparent place of
objeCts, 181. Adopted by Bouguer,
187.
Beams of light, the phenomenon of diver¬
ging, more frequent in fummer than in
winter, 235.
Beaume, Mr, cannot fire i»flammable li¬
quids wdth hot iron or a burning coal,
unlefs thofe fubflances be of a white heat,
44.
Berkeley's theory of vifion, 7 2. His hypothefis
concerning the apparent place of objeCts,
166. ObjeCted to by Dr Smith, 185.
The objection obviated by Mr Robins,
186.
Binocular telefcope invented by Father
Rheita, 80.
Black marble refleCts very powerfully, 35.
Blair, Dr Robert, makes an important dif-
covery, 19. Blair and Dollond’s refrac¬
ting telefcopes fuperior to others, 263.
Bodies which feem to touch one another
are not in aCtual contaCt, 45.
Bouguer's experiments on the quantity of
light loft by reflection, 33. His difco¬
veries concerning the reflection of glafs,
&.c. 34. His obfervations on the appa¬
rent place of objeCts, 187. Throws
light on the fallacies of vifion, 191.
Explains the green qs*d blue fhadows
OPTICS.
feen in the fky, N° 227. Contrivances
for meafuring light, 266. Calculations
concerning the light of the moon, 270.
Boyle's experiments on the light of colour¬
ed tub fiances, 28.
Brewjier, Dr, his fluid microfcopeS of var-
nifh, 100. Improvement on the camera
obfcura, p. 269, col. 2. New finder for
Newtonian telefcopes, N°258. Tables for
microfcopes, p. 273. Tables for tele¬
fcopes, 276, 279.
Briggs's theory of fingle vifion, N° 146.
Brilliant, the cut in diamonds, produces
total reflection, 116.
Briftle, curious appearance of the fhadow of
one, 55. .
Buffon's experiments on the reflection of
light, 33. Obferved green and blue {ha-
do ws in the Iky, 224, 225.
Burning glaffes of the ancients defcribc^l,
25*
c
Camera obfcura improved by Dr Brewfter,
p. 269. Portable one, ib.
Campani's telefcope, N° 81.
Candle, rays of light extended from, in fe-
veral directions, like the tails of comets,
5°-
Caffegrainian telefcope, 262.
Cat, M. le, explains the magnifying of ob¬
jeCts by the inflection of light, 62. Ac¬
counts for the large appearance of ob¬
jeCts in mift, 183. Explains a remark¬
able deception of vifion, 197.
Clairaut's calculations respecting telefcopes,
I?* .
Colours difcovered to arife from refraCtion,
15. Suppofed by Dechales to arife from
the inflection of light, 49. Produced by
a mixture of fliadows, 56. Colours Am¬
ple or compound, 2c6.
Concave glaffes, an object feen through a
concave lens is feen nearer, fmaller, and
lefs bright than with the naked eye, 157.
Law of reflection from a concave furface,
170. Proved, 172. Concave mirrors, 241.
Convex lens, an objeCt feen through, ap¬
pears brighter, larger, and more diftant,
than when feen by the naked eye, 155.
In certain circumftances it appears in¬
verted and pendulous in the air, 156.
Law of reflection from a convex furface,
171. Proved mathematically, t 72. Me¬
thod of finding the focal diitance of rays
reflected from a convex furface, 176.
■Contact of bodies in many cafes apparent
without being real, 45.
Coronas, p. 262.
Cylinders : experiments by Maraldi con¬
cerning their fhadows, N° 53.
D
Deception in vifion •, a remarkable one ex¬
plained by M. le Cat, 197.
Dechales's obfervations on the ir fleCtion of
light, 49.
291
Defcartes: his difcoveries concerning vifion,
N° 65. Account of the invention of te¬
lefcopes, 68.
Diamond, the brilliant cut in, produces to¬
tal reflection, 116.
Diaphanometer, Sauffure’s, p. 288.
Dioptric inftruments : difficulties attending
the conftruCtion of them, N° 108.
Diftahce of objeCts, p. 240, &c. Berke¬
ley’s account of the judgement formed
concerning diitance by confufed vifibn,
N°i84. Smith’s account, 185. ObjeCted
to by Robins, 186. Bouguer adepts
Barrow’s maxim, 187. Porterfield’s
view of it, 1&8.
Divini, a celebrated maker of telefcopes,
81. His microfcope, 94.
Diverging beams more frequent in fumjnet
than in winter, 235.
Dollond, Mr, dilcovers a method of cor¬
recting the errors arifing from refraCtion,
17. He difeovers a miflake in one of
Newton’s experiments, ib. Difeovers
the different refractive and difperfive
power of glafs, ib. Difficulties in the
execution of his plan, p. 176. His im¬
provements in the refraCting telefcope,
N° 88. Dollond and Blair's refraCting
telefcopes fuperior to all others, 263.
Dominis, De, difcovered the caufe of the
colours of the rainbow, 213.
E
Edward's, Mr, improvements in the re¬
flecting telefcope, 86.
Emergent rays, the focus of, found, 131.
Equatorial telefcope or portable obfervato-
ry, 89. New one invented by Ramfden,
ib.
Euler, Mr, firfl: fuggeffed the thought
of improving refracting telefcopes, 17,
His controverfy with Clairaut, &c. ib.
His fcheme for introducing vifion by re¬
flected light into the folar microicope
and magic lantern, 104. His theory of
undulation contrary to faCt, 123 ; and
therefore mifleads artifts, x 24.
Eaje; the denfity and refraCtive powers of
its humours firfl: afeertained by Schemer,
64. Defcription of it, 132. Dimen-
fions of the infenfible fpot of it, 138.
Seat of vifion in, difpute about, 137.
Arguments for the retina being the feat
of vifion in, 139.
Eyes, fingle vifion with two, 145. Various
hypothefes concerning it, 146, 147, 148,
&c. Brightnefs of objects greater when
feen with two eyes than only with one,
150. When one eye is clofed, the pupil
of the other is enlarged, 151.
F
Fallacies, feveral, of vifion explained, ipp.
Great light thrown on this fubjeCt by
M. Bouguer, 191.
Focus, the, of rays refraCted by fphetical
futfaces afeertained, 128. Focus of pa-
O o 2 rallcl
20)2
rallel rays falling perpendicular upon any
lens, N° 130. locus of emergent rays
found, 131. Proportional diltance of
the focus of rays retlefted from a fpheri-
cal furface, 175. Method of finding
the focal diffance of rays reflected from
a convex furface, 176.
Force, repulflve, fuppofed to be the caufe of
reflection, 161. The fuppofition ob¬
jected to, 162. Attractive, fuppofed,
163. The fuppofition objeded to, 164.
The objection obviated, 165.
Funk, Baron Alexander, his obfervation
concerning the light in mines, 46.
G
Galilean telefcope, more difficult of con-
ftruCtion than others, 76.
Galileo made a telefcope without a pat¬
tern, 71. An account of his difeoveries
with it, 72. Account of his telefcopes, 73.
Was not acquainted with their rationale,
74* His telefcope, 253. Magnifying
power of, 254.
Glafsglobes, their magnifying powers known
to the ancients, 3^. Different kinds of
them, ib. Table of the different com-
pofitions of glafs for correding the er¬
rors in refraCling telefcopes, 18. Shows
various calours when fplit into thin la-
minse, 30. Table of the quantities of
light receded from glafs not quickfilver-
ed, at different angles of incidence, p.
1 S3. Glafs, multiplying, phenomena of,
N° 238.
GlaJJes, difference in their powers of refrac¬
tion and difperfion of the light, p. 176.
Globes have fhorter ffiadows than cylinders,
N° 53. And more light in their ffia¬
dows, 54.
Globules ufed for microfcopes by Hartfock-
er, 95. Adam’s method of making
them, 98.
Gregory's invention of the reflecting tele¬
fcope, 85. Gregorian telefcope, 260.
Magnifying power of, 261. Gregorian
telefcope fuperior for common ufes to the
Newtonian, 265.
Grey, Mr, obfervation on aerialfpeculums,
46. Temporary microfcopes, 99.
Grimaldi fir ft obferves that colours arife
from refraCtion, 15. Inflection of light
firfi; difeoveted by him, p. 186. His
difeoveries concerning inflection, N° 48.
H
Hairs, remarkable appearance of their ffia-
dowTs, 31.
Hall, Mr, difeovers the achromatic tele¬
fcope, 18.
Hartfocker's microfcope, 95.
HerfchePs improvements on reflecting tele¬
fcopes, 87.
Hire, M. de la, his reafon why rays of
light feem to proceed from luminous bo¬
dies when viewed with the eyes half ffiut,
OPTICS.
N° 50. Obfervations on the apparent
place of objeCts, 182.
Hooke, Dr, his difeoveries concerning the
inflection of light, 50.
Horizon, an objeCt fituated in, appears a-
bove its true place, 153. Extent of the
vifible horizon on a plane furface, 220.
Horizontal moon. Ptolemy’s hypothefis
concerning it, 5.
Huygens greatly improves the telefcopes of
Scheiner and Rheita, 79. Improves the
Newtonian telefcope, 258.
I
Janfen, Zacharias, the firft inventor of te¬
lefcopes, 69. Made the firft microfcope,
92.
Images, Lord Bacon’s miftake concerning
the poffibility of making them appear in
the air, 26. Another miitake on the
fame fubjeCt by Vitellio, ib. B. Porta’s
method of producing this appearance, ib.
Kircher’s method, ib. Images, aerial,
formed by concave mirrors, 241.
Incidence, ratio of the fine of, to that of re¬
fraCtion, 113.
Incident velocity, increafe of, diminiffies re¬
fraCtion,'! 17.
Inflection of light, difeoveries concerning it,
p. 186. Dr Hooke’s difeoveries con¬
cerning it, N° 47. Grimaldi’s obferva¬
tions, 48. Dechales’s obfervations, 49.
Newton’s difeoveries, 51. Maraldi’s, 52.
Probably produced by the fame forces
with reflection and refraCtion, 61.
Inverfon, a curious inltance of it obferved
by Mr Grey, 46.
Irradiations of the fun’s light appearing
through the interflices of the clouds,
p. 265, &c. Converging obferved by
Dr Smith, N° 232. Explained by him,
233. Not obferved by moonlight, 234.
Jupiter's fatellites difeovered by Janfen, 70.
By Galileo, and called by him Medicean
planets, 72.
K
Kepler firft difeovered the true reafon of the
apparent place of objeCts feen by reflect¬
ing mirrors, 27. His difeoveries con¬
cerning vifion, 63. Improved the con-
ftruCtion of telefcopes, 77. His method
firft put in praCtice by Scheiner, 78.
Kircher attempted a rational theory of re¬
fraCtion, 11.
L
Lambert on light, 41.
Lead increafes the difperfive power of glafs,
_ I7-
Leeuwenhoek's microfcope, 96.
Lenfes, their effeCts firft difeovered by Kep¬
ler, 74. Lenfes, how many, 129. The
focus of parallel rays falling perpendicu¬
lar upon any lens, 130. Convex, an ob¬
jeCt feen through, appears larger, bright-
Index.
er, and more diftant, than by the naked
eye, N° 155. In feme circumftances it
appears inverted, and pendulous in the air,
156. An objeCt feen through a concave
lens is feen nearer, fmaller, and lefs
bright, than with the naked eye, 157.
Method of grinding and polifliing them,
276.
Lefie's photometer, p. 288.
Light difeovered not to be homogeneous, N°
16. Quantity of, reflected by different
fubftances, 39. Quantity of it abforbed
by platter of Paris, 40. By the moon, ib.
Obfervations on the manner in which bo¬
dies are heated by it, 42. No heat pro¬
duced by it on a tranfparent medium,
unlefs it is reflected from the furface, ib.
Newton’s experiments w-ith refpeCt to its
inflection, 51. Reflected, refraCted, and
infleCted by the fame forces, 61. Dif¬
ferent opinions concerning the nature of,
109. It iffues in ftraight lines from each
point of a luminous furface, no. In
what cafe the rays of light deferibe a
curve, in. Its motion accelerated or
retarded by refraCtion, 114. Light of
all kinds fubjeCt to the fame laws, 1x9.
The law of refraCtion when light paffes
out of one tranfparent body into another
contiguous to it, 120. Some portion of
light always reflected from tranfparent
bodies, 158. Light is not reflected by
impinging on the folid parts of bodies at
the firft furface, 139. Nor at the fe-
cond, 160. Light confifts of feveral
forts of coloured rays differently refram
gible, 204. Reflected light differently re¬
frangible, 203. Bouguer’s contrivances
for meafuring light, 266. Thefe inftru,-
ments meafure only theintenfity of light,
267. Great variation of the light of the
moon at different altitudes, 268. Vari¬
ation in different parts of the difks of the
fun and planets, ib. Bouguer’s calcu¬
lations concerning the light of the moon,
270. Dr Smith’s, 271. Mr Michell’s,
272. Denfity of, in different points of
refraCHon, 202.
Lignum nephriticum, remarkable properties
of its infufion, 29.
Lines can be feen under fmaller angles than
fpots, and why, 144.
Liquid fubftances cannot be fired by the fol¬
iar rays concentrated, 44.
Long-fghtednefs, 142.
M
Magic lantern, Mr Euler’s attempt to in¬
troduce vifion by reflected light into,
104.
Magnitudes of objeCts, p. 240, &c.
Mairan, M. his obfervations on the inflec¬
tion of light, N° 37.
Maraldi's difeoveries concerning the inflec-
, tion
Index.
tion of light, N° 51,5 2* PurfueS Gr!'
maldi’s and Sir Ifaac Newton’s experi¬
ments, 54, 55- His experiments with a
mixture of coloured fhadows, 56.
Martin's, Mr, improvement of the folar
microfcope, 105.
Maurolycus, his difcoveries, 9, 63.
Mcrzeas, Abbe, attempts to explain the
‘phenomena of green and blue fhadows,
226. . ,
Media, the various appearance of objects
through different, ftated and inveftigat-
ed, 152. An object feen through a
plane medium, appears nearer and bright¬
er than feen by the naked eye, 154.
Melville, Mr, his obfervations on the heat¬
ing of bodies by light, 42. Difcovers
that bodies which feem to touch are not
in adtual contad, 45. _ Explains a cu¬
rious phenomenon of viffon, 198. Ex¬
plains the phenomena of green and blue
fhadorvs in the iky, 227.
Michell's, Mr, calculation of the light of
the moon, 272.
Microfcopes, their hiftory, 92. Made by
Janfen, 93. By Divini, 94. By Hart-
focker, 95. By Leeuwenhoek, 96. By
Wilfon, 97. Adams’s method of mak¬
ing globules for large magnifiers, 98.
Temporary microfcopes, by Mr Grey,
99. Varnifli ones, by Dr Brervfter, 100.
Dr Barker’s refle&ing microfcope,. 101.
Smith’s reffedting microfcope fuperior to
all others, 102. Solar microfcopes and
that for opaque objedls, 103* Mr Eu¬
ler’s fcheme of introducing vifion by re-
fle&ed light into the folar microfcope
and magic lantern, 104. Martin’s im¬
provement, 105. Di I orre’s extraordi¬
nary magnifying microfcope, 106. Could
not be ufed by Mr Baker, 107. Micro¬
fcope compound, ufe of feveral lenfes in,
' 242. Dr Smith’s magnifying power of,
244. Eafy method of afcertaining the
magnifying power of, 245* lurther ob¬
fervations on the magnifying power of,.
246. Table of the magnifying powers
of glcaffes ufed in, ib. Solar, magnifying
power of, 248. Merits of, compared
with the telefcope, 263.
Miner better illuminated in cloudy than m
clear weather, 46.
Mirrors, fize of, in which a man may fee
his whole image, 239. Why three or
four images of objects are leen in plane
mirrors, 140. Aerial images formed by
concave mirrors, 241. . .
Mi/l, account of the largenefs of objedts in,
by M. le Cat, 183.
' Moon, why vifible when totally echpied,
\Vhy the moon appears duliei
when eclipfed in her perigee than in her
apogee, 237. Great variation of the
licrht of the moon at different altitudes,
©
OPTICS.
N° 268. M. Bouguer’s calculations con¬
cerning the light of, 270. Dr Smith’s,
271. Mr Michell’s, 272.
Motion of light accelerated or retarded by
refradfion, 114.
Multiplying glafs, 238.
N
Newton, Sir Ifaac, his difcovery concern¬
ing colours, 16. Miftaken in one of his
experiments, 18. His difcoveries con¬
cerning the inflection of light, 51.
Theory of refradtion objedted to, 121.
Thefe objedtions are the neceflary confe-
quences of the theory, and therefore con¬
firm it, 122. Refledting telefcope,. 257.
Magnifying power of, 259. Inferior to
Gregorian, 265*
Nollet, Abbe, cannot fire inflammable li¬
quids by burning-glaffes, 43.
O
Objects on the retina of the eye appear in¬
verted, 133. Why feen upright, 134.
An objedt when viewed with both eyes
does not appear double, becaufe the op¬
tic nerve is infenfible of light, 135. Pro¬
ved by experiments, 136- Seen with,
both eyes brighter than when feen only
with one, 150. The various appearan¬
ces of objedts feen through different me¬
dia ftated and inveftigated, 152. An
objedt fituated in the horizon appears
above its true plane, 153. An objedt
feen through a plane medium appears
nearer and brighter than feen by the na¬
ked eye, 154. Objedl feen through a
convex lens appears larger, brighter, and
more diftant, 157. In fome circumftan-
ces an objedl through a convex lens ap¬
pears inverted and pendulous in the air,
136. Barrow’s, theory refpedling the
apparent place of objedls, 181. M. de
la Hire’s obfervations, 182. M. le Cat’s
account of the largenefs of objedls in
mill, 183. Why objefts feen from a
high building appear fmaller than they
are, 189. Dr Porterfield’s account of
objedls appearing to move to a giddy
perfon wflien they are both at reft, 193*
Wells's account, 194. Upon what data
we judge vifible objedls to be in motion
or at reft, 195. * Experiments to afcer-
tain it, 19.6. ✓
Objecl-glqJJes improved by Dollond, 17,.
and by Blair, 19.
Obfervatory, portable. See Equatorial Te¬
lefcope.
Opaque objedls, microfcope for, 103.
Optic nerve infenfible of light } and there¬
fore an objedl viewed by both eyes is not
feen double, 135. Proved by experi¬
ments, 136.
Optical inftruments, p. 267.
293
Optics, the firft treatife of, by Claudius Pto¬
lemy, N°4. Vitellio’s treatife, 7. Trea¬
tife attributed to Euclid, 24.
P
Parallel rays falling perpendicular upon any
lens, the focus of, found, 13°*
Parhelion, p. 262.
Photometer, Rumford’s, N° 273. Saift-
fure’s, p. 287. Leflie’s, p. 288.
Plane medium, an objedl feen through ap¬
pears nearer and brighter than by the
naked eye, N° 154.
Plane furfaces, laws of refradlion in, 127.
Extent of the vifible horizon on, 220.
Planets more luminous at their edges than
in the middle of their dhks, 40, 269^
Plates. Maraldi’s experiments concerning
their fhadows, 55.
Porta, Joannes Baptifta, his difcoveries,
to.
Portcrf eld's folution of Angle vifion with
two eyes, 147* Of the judoing of the
diftance of objedls, 188. Fallacies of vi¬
fion explained, 190. Porterfield’s ac¬
count of objedls appearing to move to a
giddy perfon wflien they are both at reft,
193.
Primary rainbow never greater than a fe-
micircle, and why, 217. Its colours
ftronger than thofe of the fecondary, and
ranged in contrary order, 219.
Prifms in fome cafes refledl as ftrongly as
quickfilver, 38. Why the image of the
fun by heterogeneous rays pafling through
a prifm is oblong, 207.
Ptolemy firft treated of refradlion fcientifi-
cally, 4.
R
Rainbow, knowledge of the nature of, a
modern difcovery, 211. Approach to¬
wards it by Fletcher of Breflaw, 212.
The difcovery of, made by Antonio de
Dominis bifliop of Spalatro, 213. True
caufe of its colours, 214. Phenomena
of the rainbow explained on the princi¬
ples of Sir Ifaac Newton, 215. Two
rainbows feen at once, 216. Why the
arc of the primary rainbow is never
greater than a femicircle, 217. The
fecondary rainbow produced by two re-
fledlions and two refractions, 218. Why
the colours of the fecondary rainbow are
fainter than thofe of the primary, and
ranged in a contrary order, 219.
Ramfden's, Mr, newr equatorial telefcope,
89-
Rays of light extinguifhed at the furface of
tranfparent bodies, 37. Why they feem
to proceed from any luminous objedl
when viewed with the eyes half ftmt,
30. Rays at a certain obliquity are
wflrolly refledted by tranfparent fubftan-
ces, 113. The focus of rays refradled
by
29+
by fpherical furfaces afcertained, N° I2ii.
1 he focus of parallel rays falling perpen¬
dicularly upon any lens, 130. Emer¬
gent rays, the focus of, found, 13 r.
nays proceeding from one point and fall¬
ing on a parabolic concave furface are all
reflected from one point, 174. Propor-
C^ance focus of rays re-
nefted from a fpherical furface, 175.
oet eral forts of coloured rays differently
refrangible, 204. Why the image of
the fun by heterogeneous rays paffing
through a prifm is oblong, 207. Every
homogeneous ray is refra&ed according to
one and the fame rule, 210;
Rejletfed hght, table of its quantity from
different fubltances, 39.
Rejle&wg telefcope of Newton, 257. Mag¬
nifying power of, 2 $9.
Reflection of light, opinions of the ancients
concerning it, 23. Bouguer’s experi¬
ments concerning the quantity of light
loll by it,. 3 2. Method of afcertaimng
the quantity loll in all the varieties of re¬
flexion, ib. Buffon’s experiments on the
lame lubjeft, 33. Bouguer’s difcoveries
concerning the refleXion of glafs and of
polilhed metal, 34. Great difference of
the quantity of light refleXed at differ-
■ent angles of incidence, 35, No reflec¬
tion but at the furface of a medium, 42.
Kays at a certain obliquity are wholly
refleXed by tranfparent fubllances, 11
iotal refleXion produced by the bril¬
liant cut in diamonds, 116. Some por¬
tion of light always refleXed from tranf¬
parent bodies,. 158. Light is not re¬
fleXed. by impinging on the folid parts
of bodies at the firft furface, 159 • nor at
the fecond, 160. Fundamental law of
refleXion, 169. Laws of, from a con¬
cave furface, 170. From a convex, 171.
Fhefe preceding propofitions proved ma¬
thematically, 172. RefleXed rays from
a fpherical furface never proceed from
the fame point, 173. Rays proceeding
from one point and falling on a parabo¬
lic concave furface are all refleXed from
one point, 174. Proportional diflance
of the focus of rays refleXed from a fphe-
ncal furface, 175. Method of finding
the focal diftance of rays refleXed from
a ^convex furface, 176. The appearance
of objeXs refleXed from plane furfaces,
177? from convex, 178 \ from concave,
*79- The apparent magnitude of an ob-
jeX feen by refleXion from concave fur¬
face, .180. RefleXed light differently re¬
frangible, 20 5.
RefraEling telefcopes improved by Mr Dol-
lond, 17. By Dr Blair, 19. Magnify
in proportion to their lengths, 255. Tm-
perfeXions in, remedied, 2 if6.
Refraction, known to the ancients, 2. Its
OPTICS.
laws difeovered by Snellius, N° 11. Ex¬
plained by Defcartes, 12 Fallacy of
his hypothesis, 13. Experiments of the
Royal Society for determining the re-
fraXive powers of different fubftances, ib.
—-M. de. la Flire’s experiments on the
fame lubjeX, ib. RefraXion of air ac¬
curately determinid, 13, 14. Miftake
ot the Academy of Sciences concernino*
the refraXion. of air, 13. Allowance
foi refraXion in computing the height of
mountains,-firft thought of by Dr Hooke,
14. Mr Dollond difeovers how to cor-
reX the errors of telelcopes anfirg from
refraXion, 17. I he fame dileovery
made by Mr Hall, 18. Important dif-
covery of Dr Blair for this purpofe, 19.
RefraXion. defined, m. Phenomena
of refraXion folved by an attraXive
power in the medium, 112. RefraXion
explained and illuflrated, pages 206,
207, &c—Ratio of the fine of inci¬
dence to the fine of refraXion, N° 113.
RefraXion accelerates or retards the mo¬
tion of light, 114. RefraXion dimi-
nifhes as the incident velocity increafes,
117. RefraXion of a ftar greater in
the evening than in the morning, 118.
Laws of refraXion when light paifes out
of one tranfparent body into another
contiguous to it, 120. The Newtonian
theory of refraXion objeXed to, 121.
Which objeXions, as they are the necef-
fary confequences of that theory, con¬
firm it, 122. Laws of refraXion in
plane furfaces, 127. The focus of rays
refraXed by fpherical furfaces afeertain-
cd, 128. Light confifts of feveral forts
of coloured rays differently refrangible,
194—RefleXed light differently refran¬
gible, 205. Every homogeneous ray is
refraXed according to one and the fame
rule, 210.
Reid's folution of Angle vifion with two
eyes, 148.
Rcfiu/flve force fuppofed to be the caufe of
refleXion, 161. ObjeXed to, 162. An¬
other hypothefis, 166. Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s, 167. Untenable, 168.
Retina of the eye, objeXs on, inverted,
133. Why feen upright, 134. When
viewed with both eyes, not ieen double,
becaufe the optic nerve is infenfible of
light 135. Arguments for the retina’s
being the feat of vifion, 139.
Rheita's telefcope improved by Huygens,
79- binocular telefcope, 80.
Robins's, Mr, objeXion to Smith’s account
of the apparent place of objeXs, 186.
Saturn s ring difeovered by Galileo, 72.
Secondary rainbow produced by two reflec¬
tion# and two refraXions, 218. Its
Index.,
colours why fainter than fchofe of the
primary, and ranged in contrary order
219. ’
Schemer, completes the difcoveries concern-
^4- Puts the improvements
ot the telefcope by Kepler in praXice
78.
Shadows of bodies, obfervations concerning
t iem 47, 48 49. Green ffiadows ob-
Krved.by Buffon, 224. Blue ones, 22 c.
Explained by Abbe Mazeas, 226--
Explained by Melville and Bouguer
fi27‘r ,CTOUS obfervations relative to
this fubjeX, 228. Blue Jhadows not
confined to the mornings and evenings
229.—Another kind of fliadows, 230!
Illumination of the fliadow of the earth
by the refraXion of the atmofphere, 236,
Short s Mr, equatorial telefcope, 8g.
Short flghtednefs, 142.
Sky concave figure of, p. 262, &c. Why
the concavity of the Iky appears lefs
than a femicircle, N° 222. Opinions of
the antients refpeXing the colour of the
W’ 223- ^w explanation of its blue
colour, 231.
Smith's Dr, refleXing microfcope fuperior
to all others, 102. Account of the ap¬
parent place of objeXs, 18 r. ObieXed
to, a 86. Converging irradiation of the
tun oblerved and explained by, 2 3 2 22
He never obferved them by moon light
234. Diverging beams more frequent in
iummer.than m winter, 235. Calculation
concerning the light of the moon, 271.
His microfcope, magnifying power of
244. & r ’
Soiar microfcope, 103. Mr Euler’s at¬
tempt, to introduce vifion by refleXed
ig t. into the folar microfcope, 104.
Martin’s improvement, 105. Mao-nify-
mg power of, 248. 62
Spectacles, when firft invented, 67
Specula for refleXing telefcopes,' how to
grind and polilh them, 285.
SR°!i of(the lun difeovered by Galileo, 72.
Not leen under fo fmall an angle as lines
144.
Stars, how to be obferved in the daytime
90. The refraXi.on of a ftar greater in
the evening than in the morning, 118.
Sun image of, by heterogeneous rays paf¬
fing through a prifm, why oblong, 207.
ihe image of, by Ample and homogene¬
ous light,, circular, 208. Variation of
light in different parts of the fun’s difk
269. *
Surfaces of tranfparent bodies have the pro¬
perty of extinguiftiing light, and why,
37. Suppofed to confift of fmall tranf¬
parent planes, 39, 4I. Laws of refrac¬
tion m plane furfaces, 127. The focus
of rays refraXed by fpherical furfaces
afcertained, 128. RefleXed rays from
Index.
a fpherical furface never proceed from
the fame point, N° 173. The appearance
of objedfs from plane furfaees, 177.
From convex, i7'8. From concave, 179.
The apparent magnitude of an object
feen by reflection from a concave fur-
face, 180.
T
Telcfcopex : different compofitions of glafs
for correcting the faults of the refradting
ones, 18. Defcartes’s account of the in¬
vention of them, 68. Other accounts,
69. The firft one exceeding good, 70.
Galileo made one without a pattern, 71.
His difeoveries on this head, 72. Ac¬
count of his telefcopes, 73. Rationale
of the telefcope firft difeovered by Kep¬
ler, 74. Reafon of the effedts of tele¬
fcopes, 7 Galilean telefcope difficult
of conflrudtion, 76. Telefcopes im¬
proved by Kepler, 77. His method
firft pradtifed by Scheiner, 78.—Huy¬
gens improves the telefcopes of Scheiner
and Rheita, 79. Rheita’s binocular te¬
lefcope, 80. Telefcopes of Campani
and Divini, 8r. Azout makes a tele-
fcope of an extraordinary focal length,
82* Telefcopes ufed without tubes, 83.
On the apertures of refradting telefcopes,
84. Hiltory of the retiedting telefcope,
85. Mr Edwards’s improvements in it,
86. Herfchel’s improvements, 87. Mr
Dollond’s improvements, 88. The equa¬
torial telefcope, 89. How to obferve
liars in the daytime, 90. Mr Epinus’s
propofal for bending the tubes of tele¬
fcopes, 91. Telefcope, aftronomical,
249. Magnifying power of, 250. In¬
verts objedls, 251. Common refraefing,
fhows objedls eredl, 252. Galilean te-
OPTICS.
Icfcope.N0 253. Magnifying power of,
254. Refradling, magnify in proportion
to their length, 255. Achromatic ones,
256. Rededling telefcope of Newton,
257. Magnifying power of, 259. Gre¬
gorian telefcope, 260. Magnifying
power of, 261. Caflegrainian telefcope,
262. Merits of, compared with the mi-
crofcope, 263. Refradling telefcopes
improved by Etollond and Blair, fuperi-
or to all others, 264. Gregorian tele¬
fcope fuperior for common ufes to the
Newtonian, 265.
Thm plates) Mr Boyle’s account of the
colours obfervable in them, 30. Dr
Hooke’s account, 31.
Thomfori1 s, Mr, portable camera obfeura.
Torre's, F. di, extraordinary magnifying
microfcope, ic6.
Tour, M. de, his obfervations on the in-
fledlion .of light, 58. The hypothelxs
by which he accounted for the pheno¬
mena, 59. Unfatisfablory and ill-found¬
ed, 60.
Tranfparent bodies, a portion of light al¬
ways retledled from, 158.
V
Variation of the intenfity of attradlion and
repullion unknown, 125. The law of
variation in the adlion of many particles
different from that of one \ but may be
known if it be known, 126. Varia¬
tion of the light of the moon at differ¬
ent altitudes, 268. In different parts
of the difks of the fun and planets,
. 269.
Vijible objedls how judged to be in motion
or at reft, 195. Curious experiments to
295
ascertain it, N° 196. Vifible horizon on
a plane furface, extent of, 220.
Vijion: its nature firft difeovered by Mau-
rolycus, 9. Difeoveries concerning it,
p. 193. Seat of, difpute about, N° 137.
Dimenftons of the fpot in the eye where
there is no vilion, 1 38. Arguments for
the retina’s being the feat of vilion, 139.
Vilion bright and obfeure, 140. Diftindt
at different diftances, 141. Leaft angle
of vilion, 156. Of fmgle vifton with
two eyes, 145. Briggs’s folution, 146.
Porterfield’s, 147. Reid’s, 148. Wells’s,
149. Vilion more diftindl in homoge¬
neous than heterogeneous light, 209.
Several fallacies of vilion explained, 190.
Great light thrown, on this fubjedl by
M. Bouguer,. 191. A remarkable de¬
ception explained by M. le Cat,
Curious phenomenon explained by Mr
Melville, 198.
Vitellio's difeoveries, 7.
U
Undulation, Euler’s theory of, contrary to
fadl, 123 ) and mifleads artifts, 124.
w
Water in fome cafes refledls more power¬
fully than quicklilver, 35. Table of the
quantity of light rededled from it at dif¬
ferent angles, ib. Remarkably ftrong'
refledlion into it from air, 36.
Well's folution of lingle vilion with two
eyes, 149. Accounts for objedH ap¬
pearing to move to a giddy perfon when
at reft, 194.
White bodies refledl more light than other?,
28.
Wilfon's microfcope, 97.
OPT
Optimates, OPTIMATES, one of the divilions of the Roman
, Optio. people, oppofed to populares. It is not eafy to afeer-
v tain the charadleriftic differences betwixt thefe two
parties. Some fay the optimates were warm fupporters
of the dignity of the chief magiftrate, and promoters
of the grandeur of the Hate, who cared not if the in¬
ferior members fuffered, provided the commanding
powers were advanced: Whereas the populares boldly
ftood up for the rights of the people, pleaded for larger
privileges, and laboured to bring matters nearer to a
level. In Ihort, they refembled, according to this ac¬
count, the court and country parties amongft the people
of this illand.
Tully fays, that the optimates were the bell citizens,
who wilhed to deferve the approbation of the better
fort •, and that the populares courted the favour of the
populace, not fo much conlidering what was right, as
wbat would pleafe the people and gratify their own
thirft of vain glory and empty applaufe.
OPTIO, an officer in the Roman army, being an
OPT
affiftant or lieutenant to every centurion. The optio Option;-
was fo called becaufe he was the choice or option of ——v—““
the centurion in later times; at firft, however, he had
been chofen by the tribune, or chief commander of
the legion. Thefe optiones are alfo fometimes called
fuccenturiones and tcrgiduEiores ; the laft name teas given
them becaufe their poll was in the rear of the com¬
pany. Some authors make mention of fub-optiones or
fub-lieutenants.
It is proper, how’ever, to add, that optiones wTere not
peculiar to the camp, but were alfo ufed in a variety of
other offices of life.
OPTION, the power or faculty of wifhing, or choof-
ing 5 or the choice a perfon makes of any thing.
When a new fuffragan biffiop is confecrated, the arch-
bifhop of the province, by a cuftomary prerogative,
claims the collation of the firft vacant benefice, or digni¬
ty, in that fee, according as he ftiall choofe} wffiich
choice is called the archbiffiop’s option. -
But in cafe the bilhop dies, or is tranflated, before
the
Oracle.
ORA [296
Opiintia the prefent incumbent of the promotion chofen by the
avchbifhop flrall die or be removed, it is generally
fuppofed that the option is void 5 inafmuch as the grant-
er, fingly and by himfelf, could not convey any right
or title beyond' the term of his continuance in that fee.
And if the archbilhop dies before the avoidance thall
happen, the right of filling up the vacancy fhall go to
his executors or adminiftrators.
OPUNTIA, a fpecies of caddus. See Cactus,
Botany Index.
OR, the French word for gold, by which this metal
is exprefled in heraldry. In engraving it is denoted
by fmall points all over the field or bearing. It may
be fuppofed to fignify of itfelf, generojity, fplendour, or
folidity; according to G. Leigh, if it is compounded
1
O IV A
with
ORA,
Gul.
Azu.
Vor.
Pur.
Sab.
antiquity,
« f Courage,
u: | Trull.
’gj J°y-.
^ | Chanty.
(_Conflancy.
term equivalent to an
vuuwc , but it has been much debated among our an¬
tiquaries, whether the ora, the mention of which fo
often occurs, was a coin, or only money of account.
Dr Hickes obferves, that the mode of reckoning
money by marks and oras was never known in Eng¬
land till after the Danilh fettlements $ and by ex¬
amining the old nummulary eftimates among the prin¬
cipal Gothic Hates upon the Baltic, it appears, that
the ora and folidus were fynonymous terms, and that
the ora was the eighth part of the mark. From feve-
fal of the Danilh laws, it likewife appears, that the
Danilh ora, derived by corruption from aureus, was
the fame as the Frank folidus of twelve pence. As a
■weight, the ora was regarded as the uncia or unit,
by which the Danilh mark was divided j and in
Doomfday book the ora is ufed for the ounce, or the
twelfth part of the nummulary Saxon pound, and the
fifteenth of the commercial : as a coin, it was an au¬
reus, or the frank folidus of twelve pence. And
from the accidental coincidence of the Frank aUreus
with the eighth part of their mark, the Danes pro¬
bably took occafion to give it the new name of ora.
There was another ora mentioned in the rolls of the
27th of Henry III. the value of which was fixteen
pence; and this was probably derived from the half
mancus ol the Saxons. Such, in all appearance, was
the original of thefe two oras $ as there were no aurei
of that period, to which thefe two denominations of
money of fixteen and twelve pence can poflibly be
afcribed. It is obferred farther, that the name ora
diltinguilhes the gold coins in feveral parts of Europe
to this day. The Portuguefe moidore is nothing elfe
but moeda d'oro, from the Latin moneta de auro ; thg
French Louis d'ors come from the fame ufe of the word,
and owe their appellation to the ora. See Clarke on
Coins.
ORACH. See Atriplex, 7 t> t j
, Wild Orach. See Chenopodium. Jj- 0TAXY ^nc^cx-
ORACLE, among the heathens, was the anfwer
which the gods were fuppofed to give to thofe who con-
fulted them upon any affair of importance. It is alfo
ufed for the god who was thought to give the anfwer,
and for the place where it was given.
2
The credit of oracles was fo great, that in all doubts Oracle*
and difputes their determinations were held facred and —y*-
inviolable : whence vafl numbers Hocked to them for
advice about the management of their affairs j and no
bufinefs of any confequence was undertaken, fcarce
any peace concluded, any war waged, or any new form
of government inftituted, without the advice and ap¬
probation of fome oracle. The anfwers were ufually
given by the intervention of the prieft or prielfefs of the
god who was confulted j and generally expreffed in fuch
dark and unintelligible phrafes, as might be eafily wreft-
ed to prove the truth of the oracle whatever was the
event. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at, that
the priefts who delivered them were in the highefl ere-*
dit and efteem, and that they managed this reputation
fo as greatly to promote their own particular advan¬
tage. They accordingly allowed no man to confult
the gods, before he had offered coftly facrifices, and
made rich prefents to them. And to keep up the ve¬
neration for their oracles, and to prevent their being
taken unprepared, they admitted perfons tc confult
the gods only at certain Hated times 5 and Tome times
they were fo cautions, that the greateft perfonages could
obtain no anfwer at all. Thus Alexander himfelf rvas
peremptorily denied by the Pythia, or prieftefs of Apollo,
till fire was by do-wnright force obliged to afeend the
tripos 5 when, being unable to refill any longer, fire
cried out, Thou art invincible: and thefe words were
accepted inftead of a farther oracle.
Of the ambiguity of oracles, the following, out of
a great many examples, may be mentioned. Croefus
having received from the Pythonefs this anfwer, That
■ by palling the river Halys, he would deftroy a great
empire; he underftood it to be the empire of his ene¬
my, whereas he dellroyed his own.— The oracle con¬
fulted by Pyrrhus gave him an anfwer, which might
be equally underllood of the vidtory of Pyrrhus, and
the vidlory of the Romans his enemies :
Aio tc, /Eacida, Romanos vincerepojfe.
The equivocation lies in the conllrudlion of the Latin
tongue, which cannot be rendered in Englilh.—The
Pythonefs advifed Crcefus to guard againlt the mule.
The king of Lydia underllood nothing of the oracle,
which denoted Cyrus defeended from two different na¬
tions j from the Medes, by Mandana his mother, the
daughter of Aftyages 5 and from the Perfians, by his
father Cambyfes, whofe race was by far lefs grand and
illullrious.—Nero had for anfwer, from the oracle of
Delphos, that feventy-three might prove fatal to him.
He believed he was fafe from all danger till that age j
but, finding himfelf deferted by every one, and hear¬
ing Galba proclaimed emperor, who was 73 years of
age, he was fenfible of the deceit of the oracle.
When men began to be better inllru61ed by the
lights philofophy had introduced into the world, the
falfe oracles infenfibly loll their credit. Chryfippus
filled an entire volume with falfe or doubtful oracles.
Oenomaus, to be revenged of fome oracle that had
deceived him, made a compilation of oracles, to Ihow
their ridiculous vanity. Eufebius has preferved fome
fragments of this criticifm on oracles by Oenomaus.
“ I might (fays Origen) have recourfe to the autho¬
rity of Arillotle and the Peripatetics, to make the
Fythonefs much fufpedkd: I might extradl from the
writings
ORA [ 297 ] ORA
Oracle, writings of Epicurus and ins feclators an abundance of
1———' things to difcredit oracles; and I might fhow that the
Greeks themfelves made no great account of them.”
The reputation of oracles was greatly leffened when
they became an artifice of politics. Themiftocles,
with a defign of engaging the Athenians to quit
Athens, and to embark, in order to be in a better
condition to refill Xerxes, made .the Pythonefs d -liver
an oracle, commanding them to take refuge in wooden
walls. Demoithenes faid, that the Pythonefs Philifi-
pi%ed; to fignify that the was gained over by Philip’s
prefents.
The ceflation of oracles is attefled by feveral pro¬
fane authors; as Strabo, Juvenal, Lucan, and others.
Plutarch accounts for it, by faying, that the benefits
of the gods are not eternal as themfelves are; or that
the genii, who prelided over oracles, are fubjeft to
death ; or that the exhalations of the earth had been
exhaufted. It appears that the laft reafon had been
alleged in the time of Cicero, who ridicules it in his
fecond book of Divination, as if the fpirit of prophecy,
fuppoied to be excited by fubterraneous effluvia, had
evaporated by length of time, as wine or pickle by be¬
ing long kept.
Suidas, Nicephorus, and Cedrenus, relate, that Au-
gullus, having confulted the oracle of Delphos, could
obtain no other anfwer but this : “ The Hebrew child
whom all the gods obey, drives me hence, and fends me
back to hell: get out of this temple without fpeaking
one word.” Suidas adds, that Auguftus dedicated an
altar in the Capitol, with this infcription, “ To the
eldeft Son of God.” Notwithftanding thefe teftimonies,
the anfwer of the oracle of Delphos to Auguftus feems
very fufpicious. Cedrenus cites Eufebius for this oracle,
which is not now found in his -works; and Auguftus’s
peregrination into Greece was 18 years before the birth
of Chrift.
Suidas and Cedrenus give an account alfo of an an¬
cient oracle delivered to Thulis, a king of Egypt, which
they fay is well authenticated. The king having con¬
fulted the oracle of Serapis, to know if there ever was,
or would be, one fo great as himfelf, received this
anfwer: Firft, God, next the Word, and the Spirit
with them. They are equally eternal, and make but
one, whofe power will never end. But thou, mortal,
go hence, and think that the end of the life of man is
uncertain.”
'Van Dale, in his treatife of oracles, does not be¬
lieve that they ceafed at the coming of Chrift. He
relates feveral examples of oracles confulted till the
death of Theodofius the Great. He quotes the laws
of the emperors Theodofius, Gratian, and Valentinian,
againft thofe who confulted oracles, as a certain pfoof
that the fuperftition of oracles ftill fubfifted in the time
of thofe emperors.
According to others, the opinion of thofe who be¬
lieve that demons had no fhare in the oracles, and that
the coming of the Meffiah made no change in them,
and the contrary opinion of thofe who pretend that
the incarnation of the Word impofed a general filence
on all oracles, ftiould be equally rejedled. They allege,
that twro forts of oracles ought to be diftinguifhed :
the one dictated by the fpiriis of darknefs. who de¬
ceived men by their obfcure and doubtful anfwers ; the
other, the pure artifice and cheat of the priefts of falfe
VOL. XV. Part I.
divinities. As to the oracles given out by demons, the Orade.
reign of Satan was deftrcyed by the coming of the Sa- v *
viour; truth fhut the mouth of lies ; but Satan conti¬
nued his old craft among idolaters. All the devils wrere
not forced to filence at the fame time by the coming of
the Mefiiah; it was on particular occafions that the
truth of Chriftianity, and the virtue of Chriftians, im-
pofed filence on the devils. St Athanafius tells the
Pagans, that they have been witneffes themfelves that
the fign of‘the crofs puts the devils to flight, filences
oracles, and diflipates enchantments. This power of
filencing oracles, and putting the devils to flight, is alio
attefted by Arnobius, Laftantius, Prudentius, Minutius
Felix, and feveral others. Their teftimony is a certain
proof that the coming of the Meffiali had not impofed a
general filence on oracles.
Plutarch relates, that the pilot Thamus heard a voice
in the air, crying out, “ The great Pan is dead where¬
upon Eufebius cbferves, that the accounts of the death
of the demons were frequent in the reign of 1. iberius,
when Chrift drove out the wicked Ipirits.
The fane judgement, it is faid, may be pafied on
oracles as on poffeffions. It was on particular occafions,
by the divine permiflion, that the Chriftians call out
devils, or filenced oracles, in the prefence, and even
by the confeflion, of the Pagans themfelves. And thus
it is vve ftiould, it feems, underftand the paffages of St
Jerome, Eufebius, Cyril, Tbeodoret, Prudentius, and
other authors, who faid that the coming of Chrift had
impofed filence on the cracks.
As to the fccond fort of oracles, which were pure
artifices and cheats of the priefts of falfe divinities,
and which probably exceeded the number of thofe
that immediately proceeded from demons, they did
not ceafe till idolat v was abolilhed, though they had
loft their credit for a confide: able time before the
coming of Chrift. It was concerning this more com¬
mon and general fort of oracles that Minutius lelix
faid, they began to difcontinue their refponfes, according
as men began to be more polite. But, however oracles
were decried, impoftors always found dupes, the grofielt
cheats having never failed.
Daniel diicovered the impofture of the priefts of
Bel, who had a private way of getting into the temple
to take away the offered meats, and who made the
king believe that the idol confirmed them.—Mundus,
being in love with Paulina, the eldeft of the priefteffes
of Ifis, went and told her, that the god Anubis, be¬
ing paffionately fond of her, commanded her to give
him a meeting. She was afterwards ftrut up in a dark
room, where her lover Mundus,'whom the believed to
be the god Anubis, was concealed. This impofture
having been difcovered, Tiberius ordered thofe deteft-
able priefts and priefteffes to be crucified, and with them
Idsea, Mundus’s free woman, who had con dueled the
whole intrigue. He alfo commanded the temple of Ifis
to be levelled with the ground, and her ftalue to be
thrown into the Tiber ; and, as to Mundus, he content¬
ed himfelf with fending him into banifhment.
O # ^
Theophilus, bifiiop of Alexandria, not only de-
ftroyed the temples of the falfe gods, but difcovered
the cheats of the priefts, by fhoving that the ftatues,
feme of which were of brafs, and others of wood, were
hollow within, and led into dark paffages made in the
wall.
Pp
Lucian,
ORA [
Lucian, in difcovering the impoftures of the falfe
prophet Alexander, fays, that the oracles were chiefly
afraid of the fubtilties of the Epicureans and Chrifli-
ans. J he talfe prophet Alexander fomelimes feigned
himfelf feized with a divine fury, and by means of the
herb fopewort, which he chewed, frothed at the mouth
in lo extraordinary a manner, that the ignorant people
attributed it to the ftrength of the god he was pof-
feffed by. He had long before prepared a head of a
dragon made of linen, which opened and (hut its
mouth by means of a horfe hair. He went by night
to a place where the foundations of a temple were dig¬
ging : and having found water, either of a fpring, or
rain that had fettled there, he hid in it a goofe egg,
in which he had enclofed a little ferpent that had been
juft hatched. The next day, very early in the morn¬
ing, he came quite naked into the ftreet, having only
a fcarf about his middle, holding in his hand a feythe,
and tofling about his hair as the priefts of Cvbele •, "then
getting a-top of a high altar, he laid, that the place
was happy to be honoured by the birth of a god. 
Afterwards, running down to the place where he had
hid the goofe egg, and going into the water, he be¬
gan to ling the praifes of Apollo and /Efculapius, and
to invite the latter to come and (how himfelf to men.
With thefe words, he dips a bowl into the water,
and takes cut the myfterious egg, which had a god en¬
clofed in it 3 and when he had it m his hand, he befan
to fay that he held /Efculapius. Whilft all were eager
to have a fight of this fine myftery, he broke the egg,
and the little ferpent ftarting out, twifted itfelf about
his fingers.
Thefe examples Ihow clearly, that both Chriftians
and Pagans were fo far agreed as to treat the greater
number of oracles as purely hum «v impoftures. That,
in faeft, all of them were fo, will be concluded by
thofe who give equal credit to demoniacal infpiration,
and demoniacal pojfeffion. The moft ancient oracle
was that of Dodona (fee Dodona) ; but the moft
famous -was that of Delphi, to which article we alfo
refer for further particulars on this lubjeft, fo famous
in Pagan antiquity. Another celebrated one was the
oracle of Trophonius, in the neighbourhood of Leba-
dia, a city of Boeotia, which was held in high eftima-
tion. It received its name from Trophonius, brother of
Agamedes, who lived in a fubterraneous dwelling near
Lebadia, and pretended to the faculty of foretelling
future events. He died in his cave, and was deified as
an oracular god. This oracle owed its reputation to
one Saon.
Thofe who repaired to this cave for information,
were required to offer certain facrifices, to anoint
themfelves with oil, and to bathe in a certain river :
They were then clothed in a linen robe, took a ho¬
neyed cake in their hands, and defeended into the fub¬
terraneous chamber by a narrow paflage. Here it was
that futurity was unfolded to them, either by vlfions
or extraordinary founds. The return from the cave
was by the fame paffage, but the perfons confulting
were obliged to walk backwards. They generally
came out aftonifhed, melancholy, and deiedfted 3 hence
the proverb m pipxvhvlui. The priefts on
their return placed them on an elevated feat, called the
fiat of Mnemofyne, where an account was taken of what
they had feen and heard. They were then conduced to
ORA
the chapel of good Genius by their companions, where, Oracle,
by degrees, they recovered their ufual compofure and —^v~
cheerfulnefs.
Befides thefe three principal oracles of Greece, it is
proper to take notice of that of Amphiaraus at Oro-
pius in Attica. It was fo called from Amphiaraus,
the fon of Oicleus, a man Ikilled in magic, the inter¬
pret ion of dreams, &c. and who after his death was
deified and delivered oracles in a temple erefted to
his divinity. (See Amphiaraus). They who ap¬
plied to them for information, were to puiify them¬
felves, offer facrifice, fall twenty-four hours, abftain
from wine two days, and make an offering of a ram
to Amphiaraus 3 on the Ikin of which they were to
fleep, and fee their deftiny in a dream. Near the
temple was Amphiaraus’s fountain, which was facred,
and the waters of it forbidden to be ufed for ordinary
purpofes.
At Delos alfo there was an oracle of the Delian
Apollo 3 in Milefia was that of the Branchidae, -with
others of lefs note, which require not a particular de-
feription, ftich as that of the camps at Lacedaemon,
that of Nabarcha, that of Chryfopolis, that of Clares
in Ionia, that of Mallos, that of Patarea, that cf Pella,
that of Phafellides, that of Sinope, that of Orpheus’s
head, &c.
Though the Romans confulted the Grecian oracles
upon many occafions, and had few oracles in their ow n
country 3 yet we muft not omit mentioning the Cuma-an
oracles, -which were delivered by the Sibyl of Curna.
For an account of the Sibyls, fee the article Sibyl. See
alfo Daemon and Demoniac.
W e have hitherto only ccnfidered the oracles of falfe
gods, of which there was a far greater number than
our limits permit us to obferve, and before either Greeks
or-Romans had rifen to any diftinction. Oracle is in
facred hiftory fometimes ufed for the mercy feat, or the
cover of the ark of the covenant; and by others it is
taken for the fantftuary, or for the moft holy place,
wherein the ark was depofited.
Among the Jews we may diftinguifli Several forts of
real oracles. They had firft oracles that were delivered
viva voce; as when God fpake to Mofes face to face,
and as one friend fpeaks to another, (Numb. xii. 8.).
Secondly, Prophetical dreams fent by God 3 as the
dreams which God fent to Jcfeph, and which foretold
his future greatnefs. (Gen. xxxvii. 3-, 6.). Thirdly,
Vifions 3 as when a prophet in an eeftafy, being nei¬
ther properly afleep nor aw'ake, had Supernatural reve¬
lations, (Gen. xv. 1. xlvi. 2.). Fourthly, The oracle
of Urim and Thummim, which was accompanied with
the ephod or the peftoral worn by the high prieft, and
which God had endued with the gift of foretelling
things to come, (Numb, xii 6. Joel. ii. 28.). This man¬
ner of inquiring of the Lord was often made ufe of,
from Jofhua’s time to the eredlion of the temple at
Jerufalem. Fifthly, After the building of the temple,
they generally confulted the prophets, who were fre¬
quent in the kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael. From Kag-
gai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who are the laft of the pro¬
phets that have my of their writings remaining, the Jews
pretend that Gcd gave them what they call Bathcol, the
daughter of the voice, which was a Supernatural manifes¬
tation of the will of God, which was performed either by
a ftrong infpiraticn or internal voice, or elfe by a fenfible
and.
298 ]
t
Oracle.
ORA [
and external voice? which was hsaid hy a numher
perfons fufheient to bear teilimony of it. For example,
inch was the voice that was heard at the baptiim of
Jefus Chrift, faying, This is my beloved Son, &c.
(Matth, iii. 17.)* ’
The Scripture affords us examples likewiie of protane
oracles. Balaam, at the inftigation of his own fpirit,
and urged on by his avarice, fearing to lofe the recom-
penfe that he was promifed by Balak king of the Moa¬
bites, fuggefts a diabolical expedient to this prince, of
making the Israelites fall into idolatry and fornication
(Numb. xxiv. 14. xxxi. 16.), by which he affures him
of a certain victory, or at leait of confiderable advantage
againft the people of God.
' Micaiah the fon of Imlah, a prophet of the Lord, lays
(I Kings xxii. 21, &c.), that he law the Almighty fit¬
ting upon his throne, and all the holt of heaven round
about him; and the Lord faid, who fhall tempt Ahab
king of Ifrael, that he may go to war with Ramoth-
pilead, and fall -in the battle ? One anfwered after one
manner, and another in another. At the fame time an
evil fpirit preiented himfelf before the Lord, and faid, I
will feduce hifn. And the Lord afked him, How JLo
which Satan anfwered, I will go and be a lying fpirit in
the mouth of his prophets. And the Lord faid, Go
and thou {halt prevail. This dialogue clearly proves
thefe two things : firj!, that the devil could do nothing
by his own power •, and, fecondhj, that with the per-
mithon of God, he could infpire the falfe prophets,
forcerers, and magicians, and make them deliver falfe
oracles.
Refpecting the ceflation of profane1 oracles there have
been a variety of opinions ; fome of vvhicii we have
already remarked. It has been generally held, indeed,
that oracles ceafed at the birth of Jefus Chriit. \ et
fome have endeavoured to maintain the conti ary, by
thawing that they were in being in the days of Julian,
commonly called the Apojlate^ and tnat this emperor
himfelf confulted them j nay, farther, fay they, hiftory
makes mention pf feveral laws publifhed by the Chritfian
emperors Theodolius, Gratian, and Valentinian, to
punith perfons who interrogated them, even in their
days •, and that the Epicureans were the fir ft who made
a jell of this fuperftition, and expafed the roguery of its
priefts to the people. As we fufpeef moft of. tne facts
here al^erted fhould be underftood m a qualified fenle,
we fhall endeavour to difeufs this point of controverfy in
as few words as podible, although it is undoubtedly a
matter of fome confequence.
The queftion, properly ftated, is not, Whether
oracles became extindl immediately upon the birth of
Chri/l, or from the very moment he was born ; but,
If they fell gradually into difefteem and .ceafed, as
Chrift and his gofpel became known to mankind. And
that they did fo, is moft certain from the concurrent
teftimonies of the fathers, which, whoever would en¬
deavour to invalidate, may equally give up.the moft re-
fpeflable traditions and relations of every kind.
2i//y, But did not Julian the apoftate confult
thefe oracles ? We anfwer in the negative : he had in¬
deed recourfe to magical operations, but it was
becaufe oracles had already cealed j for he bewailed
the lofs of them, and aftigned pitiful realons. for
it ; which St Cyril has vigoroufly refuted, adding,
that he never could have offeredfuch, but from an un-
299 ] ORA
of willingnefs to acknowledge, that when the world had re¬
ceived the light of Chri/l, the dominion of the devil was
at an end.
^dly, The Chriftian emperors do indeed feem to
condemn the fuperftition and idolatry of thofe who
were ftill for confulting oracles •, but the edifts of thofe
princes do not prove that oracles actually exifted in
their times, any more than that they ceafed in confe¬
quence of their laws. It is certain that they were for the
moft part extin cl before the converfion of Conftantine.
dfihly, Some Epicureans might make a jef of this Ju-
perjlitwn: however the Epicurean philofopher Cellus,
in the fecond century of the church, w’as for crying up
the excellency of feveral oracles, as appears at large
from Origen’s feventh book againft him.
OR/EA, certain folemn facrifices of fruits which
were offered in the four feafons of the year, in order
to obtain mild and temperate weather. They were
offered to the goddefles who preftded over the leafons,
w-ho attended upon the fun, and who received divine
worfhip at Athens.
ORAL, fomething delivered by word of mouth,
without being committed to writing ; in which fenfe
wTe fay oral law, oral tradition^ &c.
ORAN, a very ftrong and important town of Afri¬
ca, in Barbary, and in the kingdom of Tremecen, wuth
feveral forts, and an excellent harbour. It is feated
partly on the fide of a hill, and partly on a plain,
about a ftonecaft from the fea, almoft oppofite to Ca.r-
thagena in* Spain. It is about a mile and a half in
circumference, and well fortified, but commanded by
the adjacent hills. It was taken by the Spaniards in
1509, and retaken by the Algerines in 1708 j but in
1732 the Spaniards became mailers of it, and have con¬
tinued fo ever fince. E. Long. o. 8. N. Lat. 36. 2.
ORANG OUTANG. See Simia, Mammalia Index.
ORANGE, a famous city, and capital of a province
of the fame name, united to Dauphiny, with, a univerfity
and a bilhop’s fee, fuffragan of Arles. It is feated in a
fine large plain, watered by a vaft number of little rivu¬
lets on the call fide of the river Rhone. It is a very
large ancient plac?, and was confiderable in the time of
the Romans, who adorned it with feveral.buildings, of
which there are ftill fome ruins left, particularly of an
amphitheatre, and a triumphal arch, which is almoft
entire, dedicated to Marius. This town was formerly
much’larger than it is at prefent, as appears from the
traces of the ancient walls. The wall was in 1682 en¬
tirely demoliihed by order of Louis XIV. and the inha¬
bitants were expofed to the fury of the foldiers. The
town was reftored to King William by the treaty of
Ryfwick ; but after his death the French took it again,
and expelled the Proteftant inhabitants. By the treaty
of Utrecht itw-as confirmed to the crown of France, though
the title is ftill retained in the houfe of Naflau. The title
was firft introduced into the family of Naflau, by the mar¬
riage of Claude de Chalons, the prince of Orange’s filler,
with the count of Naffau, 1530. The principality is a very
fmall diftricl, it being only twelve miles in length and nine
in breadth, and the revenue amounts to about 5000I. a-year.
The country is pleafant, and abounds with corn and fruit,
but is expoied to violent winds. E. Long. 4. 49* ^* Lat.
44. 9.
Maurice Prince of ORANGE. See Maurice.
Orange River, alfo known by the name of the
P p 2 Great
Gncle
ii
Oracle.
ORA £ 300
Ci.t-at river, is fituated in fouti ern Africa, and is of the
]
ORA
coniiderahle extent. It feems to take
-- *its rife at
rut. 30 , and h. Long. 28» from Greenwich, ana ,o.ns
about S.
, •' ' -~b- ~~ v-'iccmvicn, and joins
.lne iea’ aher a weft by north courfe for a number of
leagues, between the great and little Namaquas, two
tribes luppoied to be of the fame origin with the Hot¬
tentots. There are high cataracts in it, and it is fubjedt
to inundations like_ the Nile. Carnelians, calcedo-
mes, agates^ and variolites are found upon the fhores.
.1 he rains in the great mountains along the foot of
which the Orange river runs, coilecling their dreams in
ns pallage, commence in the month of November and
caute the inundations to take place towards the Namaqua
country m the month of December. The naufeous
cui.om of greafing the fliin, from the great fcarcity of
^vater m many parts .of South Africa,'is rendered u«-
neceilary among the people who inhabit the banks of
t us grand river 5 and of confequence they exhibit none
01 mat nJthy appearance which is charaderiftic of the
Hottentots on the iK-irts of the colony.
T ^RANGE-Tree, in Botany. See Citrus, Botany
index. Orange flowers are juftly efteemed one of the
hneiL permunes ; and though little ufed in medicine, vet
JS di[filled from them is accounted ftomachic
cordial, and carminative. The fruit is cooling, and
good in fevenfh dilorders, and particularly in diarrhoeas.
Urange-peel is an agreeable aromatic, proper to repair
and ftrengthen the flomach, and gives a very grateful
f.avour to any mfuftons or tinctures into whole ccm
petitions it enters. . It is particularly ufefal in pre¬
parations of the bark : gives an agreeable warmth to
the mrunon - and, according to Dr Percival, confider-
abiy increases its virtue.
In the I hilofophical i ranfadions, N° 1 in. there is
a very remarkable account of a tree ftanding^n a grove
near Florence, having an orange flock, which had been
to grafted upon, that it became in its branches, leaves
flowers, and fruit, three-formed : fome emulating the
orange fome the lemon or citron, and fome partaking
oi 0J1 forms m one ; and what was very remarkable
was, that thefe mixed fruits never produced any perfed
leeds : fometimes there were no ieeds at all in them, and
lometimes only a few empty ones.
ObangE-Dcw, a kind' of dew which falls in the
-pnng time from the leaves of orange and lemon trees
wmch is extremely fine and fubtile. M. de la Hire ob-’
iervmg this, placed fome flat pieces of glafs under the
leaves to receive it : and having procured Ibme large
drops of it, was defirous of difeovering what it was.
lie loon _-ound that it was not merely an aqueous fluid,
became it did not evaporate in the airy and that it was
not a renn, becaufe it readily and perfedly mixed with
water : it was natural then to fuppofe it a liquid gum ■
but neither did this, on examination, prove to be the
Cfj’ .. r.^emg Iaid on Paper, it did not dry as the
ctner liquid gums do. Its anfwering to none’of thefe
characters and its being of the confiftence of honey,
and ot a fweet fugar-like tafte, gave a fufpicion of its
being a Kind of manna ; and whatever in the other
inals had proved it not a refin, a gum, &c. all equally
tends to prove that it is this fubftance.
Sea, in Natura/ Hi/lonj, a name given by
Count B.Iarfigh to a very remarkable fpecies of marine
iubnance, which he denominates a plant. It is tough
and firm m its ftruCiure, and in many tilings refembks
common focus ; but inftesd of growing in the Own?
brnnclKd icon which the gewera&y of thofe® fubftan!
CCS have, it is round and ho flow, and in every refneeft v—-
reiembles the fliape of an orange. It has, by way of
root, fome exceeding fine filaments, which fallen them-
elves to the rocks, or to ftiells, ftones, or any thing elie
that comes m the way. From thele there grows no
P ? ?Ut body or orange, as it is called,
WenT,r'7 tbc"1 T?' rcrck- folid fub-
dance. I. he orange itfelf is ufually of about three or
-our inenes in diameter 5 and while in the lea, is full
ot water, and even retains it when taken up. In this
date it frequently, weighs a pound and a half; but
wnen the water is let out, and it is dried, • it becomes
f Jcre ™enibirane, weighing fcarce any thing. It is
bed preferyed, by fluffing it with cotton asfoon as
he water is let out of it, and then hanging it up to
aiy. Tts furface is irregular and rough, and its colour
a dulky green on the outfide, and a clearer but fome-
what bluifli green within ; and its thicknefs is about
an eighth part of an inch. When viewed by the mi-
mo cope, it is leen to be all over covered with fmall
glandules, or rather compofed of them ; for they Hand
i°JhrCk °fe by, anothe^ as ^ leave no fpfece between,
and ieem to make up the whole fubftance : fo that it
appears very like the rough ih a green fein ufed to co¬
ver toys. fhefe are indeed fo many hollow duefls,
through which the fea-water finds a palfage into the
globe formed'by this flein, and by this means-it is
TieP Ul11 v nd dlftended ’ on cutting, it with a
pmr o. fciffars, the water immediately runs out and
16 1&11ns cobapfe ; but there is fomefhing extremely re-
xn ark able in this, _ for the whole fubflance, near the
v ounded place, is m motion, and feems as if alive ard
fennole of the wound. The glandules are found full
o water, and refembling fmall traufparent bottles : and
vhat goes to the ftrudure of the plant befide thefe, i*
an aflemblage of a vaft number of filaments, all which
mit fl^d C ^ md fdled With a clear and tranfpa-
and d^r l of this kind, mentioned
a d defenbed by Count Marfigli, Triumfetti, and
others, and called the ramofe or branched orange.
I ms is very much of the nature of the former ; but
inftead of confilhng of one round globule, it is formed
of feveral oblong ones, all joined together, and repre-
lentmg rhe branches of fome of the fucufes. only they
are Tor ter ; and thefe are all hollow and full of water
m the fame manner as the fingle globes of the ecm-
,011 kind. Ibis has, by way of root, certain fine
mid fender filaments, which fallen it to the Hones or
ihelis near which it is produced ; and it is of a dufky
greemfly colour on the furface, and of a fine bluifh
green within. The furface, viewed by the microfcope
appears rough, as in the other, and 'the glandules are.
O' t,je arne bdld, and are always found full of dea’-
water.
ORATION, in Rhetoric, « fpeech or harangue
compofed according to the rules of oratory, but fpoken
in puolic. Orations may be reduced to three kinds
wz. the demonftrative; deliberative, and judicial. ’To
the demonftrative kind belong panegyrics, gehetbliaca
epithalamia, congratulations, &c. To the deliberate
kind belong perfuafion, exhortation, &x. And to the
judicial kind belong accufation, confutation, &c.
Funeral.
Orator.
ORA [
Funerat Oration. See Funeral Oration,
i ORATOR, among tlie Romans, dineied nom
a patromts: The latter was allowed only to plead caufes
on behalf of his clients ; whereas the former might
quit the forum and afeend the roltra or tribunal, to
harannue the fenate or the people. The orators had
rarely° a profound knowledge of the law, but they
were eloquent, and their ftyle was generally correct
and concife. They were employed in caufes of im¬
portance, inftead of the common patrons. Orators
in the violence of elocution ured ail the warm'h ot
pefeure, and even walked backwards and forwards with
rreat heat and emotion. This it was which occauon-
t'd a witticiftn of Flavius Virginia, who aiked one ot
thofe walking orators, %uot m'lha pajfimm declamaffet /
« How many MILES he had declaimed r” Similar to
the Roman orators were the Grecian Rhetores. See
Rhetores. „
Rub He Orator, an office or very confiderable dig¬
nity, and of fome emolument, in the Enghfh univeru-
The public orator is the principal, and in many cafes
the only oftenfible,- agent for the univerfity m ail thole
matters or forms which are merely external. He carries
on or fuperintends all correspondences which are calcu¬
lated to promote the dignity, or raife the utility, or
the feminary which conftitutes him. He has httle to
do indeed, with the internal government ot the body,
for which a variety of officers in different departments
are appointed •, but in all public affairs he is, as it were,
the mouth of the whole •, putting their deliberations
into proper form, and communicating or pumilhmg
them,1 according to the intention of the umvemty.
Thus if the whole univerfity, or a committee appoint¬
ed by them, or by ftatute, or by the will of any parti¬
cular benefactor, have, after a comparative triax, ad-
iudged a prize to any perfon or perfons, it is the buh-
nefs of the public orator to inform the fucceisiui pai-
ties of the iiffie of the trial. Again, If for fingular
learning, or for any remarkable good wm mown to the
univerfity by any perfon or perfons, l\icjenatc_ or convo¬
cation are pleafed to declare their grateful fenie ot it ei¬
ther by conferring degrees, or otherwise, as they think
fit, the public orator is to notify tins intention to the
pc
rfon or perfons concerned and fo in other cafes.
Another part of the public orator’s bufmefs is to
prefent young noblemen, or thofe who take honorary
301 ] OKA
degrees, tanqvain nohiles, to the vice chancellor } this
he does in a Latin Speech, which, accorcing to cir- ^
cumftancas, is either ihort or long 5 and of winch the
fabjecl is generally a defence of that particular Statute
which allows the ions of noblemen, and fome few others,
to proceed to degrees before what is called t\\ejlMuta¬
ble time. In doing this, encomiums, often ftronger than
juft, are made upon {he learning and virtue of the no¬
ble candidate; a viep is taken of the dignity of his an¬
cient Louie 5 the hcjfnour is mentioned which has accru¬
ed to the univerfity from the acceihon of mch a umm-
ber 3 and the oration concludes with promifmg great
credit from his future conduft, as well as benefit from
the influence of his rank, in the flare. Thefe circum-
ilanccs are deemed fufficient grounds for exempting t..e
{Ins of noblemen from that' tedious coune of iludy,
through which the duller Sons of commoners mull all
pafs before they be thought worthy of academical
honours.
ORATORIO, in the Italian mufug a fort oi iacred
drama of dialogues 3 containing recitatives, duettos,
trios, ritornellos, chorufes, &c. the lubieCiS of thofe
pieces are ufually taken from Scripture, or the lije of
fome faint. &c. The mufic for the oratorios ihould be
in the fineft taile and beft choien it rain Ihefe ora¬
torios are greatly ufed at Rome in the time of Lent,
and of late in England.
Meneftrier attributes the origin of oratorios to the
crufades, and fays that the pilgrims returning from Je-
rufalem and the Holy Land, &c. compofed iongs recit-
inp the life and death of the Son of God, and the myile-
ries of the Chriftian faith, and celebrating the achieve¬
ments and conftancy of laints and martyrs. Others,
with more probability, obferve, that the oratorio tv as
an avowed imitation of the opera, with only ibis differ¬
ence, that the foundation of it was always fome religi¬
ous or at leaft fome moral fubjeeb Crefcimbeni aferibes
its oripin to San Filippo Neri, who was born at Flo¬
rence in 1 51 5, and who, in his chapel, after fermons, and
other devotions, in order, to allure young people to pi¬
ous offices, had hymns, pfalms, and inch like prayers,
funtr by one or 'more voices. Among thefe ipmtual
fongs were dialogues 3 and thefe entertainments becom-
ing°more frequent, and improving every year, were the
occafion that in the feventeenth century oratorios were
firft invented, fo called from the place off their origin.
See Hawkins's Hifiory of Mufc.
Orator,.
Oratorio.
O Pv A T O R Y;
THE ART OF SPEAKING WELL UPON ANY SUBJECT, IN ORDER TO PERSUADE.
The origin
of the art
of oratory.
INTRODUCTION.
§ 1. <jf the Rife and Rrogrefs of Oratory.
r-pHE inventi a of oratory is, by the Egyptians, and
1 th fables of the poets, aferibed to Mercury. ^ And
it is well known, that the Greeks made their deities the
au’hors likewife of other arts, and fuppofed that they
prefided over them. Hence they gave Mercury the
titles of Aayio; and *E^;, both which names come from
words that fignify “ to fpeak.” And Anilides calls
eloquence the gift of Mercury ; and for the fame reaicn
anciently the tongue was confecrated to him. He was
likewife faid to he the interpreter or meffenger ot the
gods 3 which office very well huied him, as he excelled
in eloquence. Hence we read in the Sacred Writings,
that when the people of Lyftra took Barnabas and haul
for cods in human ihape, becaufe of that hidden and iur-
prifirm cure which was . wrought upon the lame man,
^ 0 they
3 02
O H A
they called Barnabas J,/fitter, and Paul Mercury ; for
this reafon, as the infpired writer tells us, ‘ becaufe he
was tne chief fpeaker,’ that is (as the fpe&ators then
thought), the interpreter or fpokefman of Baxnabas.
But to pafs over thefe fictions of the heathen deities,
let us hear what Quintilian fays of the origin of this art;
who feems to give a very probable account of it in the
following palTage. “ The faculty of fp eech (fays he)
we derive from nature (a) ; but the art from obi'erva-
tion. For as m phyfic, men, by feeing that fomt things
promote health and others deitroy it, formed the art
upon thofe obfervations ; in like manner, by perceiving
that fome things in difcourfe are faid to advantage, and
others not, they accordingly marked thofe things, in or¬
der to imitate the one and avoid the other. They alfo
added fome things from their own reafon and judge¬
ment, which being confirmed by ufe, they began to
teach others what they knew themfelves.” But no cer¬
tain account can be given when, or by whom, this me-
thod of obfervation firlt began to take" place. And A-
riftotle fuppofes, not without reafon, that the firit linea¬
ment^ of the art were very rude and imperfedl:. Paufa-
mas, indeed, in his Defcription of Greece, tells us, that
Pittheus, the uncle of Thefeus, taught it at Troezene a
city of Peloponnefus, and wrote a book concerning it;
which he read himfelf, as it was publiftied by one of
Fpidaurus.. But as Pittheus lived about i ooo years be¬
fore Paufanias, who fiouriihed in the time of the empe¬
ror Hadrian, fome are of opinion he might be impofed
upon by the Epidaurian, who publiflied this book under
the name of Pittheus. But be that as it will, it is very
reasonable to believe, that the Greeks had the principles
ot this art fo early as the time of Pittheus. For The-
leus his nephew lived not long before the taking of
Iroy, which, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, happen¬
ed 904 years before the birth of Chrhl; at which time
Cicero thought it ivas in much efleem among them.
“Homer (fays he) would never have given UlyiTes and
- eftor in the j rojan war fo great commendations on
account of their fpeeches (to one of whom he attributes
mrce, and to the other fweetnefs of expreflion), if elo¬
quence had not in thofe times been in great repute.”
And left any one thould imagine, that in thofe days
they made ufe only of luch helps as nature and practice
could afford them, the fame poet informs us, that Pe-
leus lent Phoenix with his fon Achilles to the Trojan
war, to inftrud him not only in the art of war, but
likewife of eloquence. But who were the profeffors of
this. art. for fome ages following is not known. For
Quintilian fays, that afterwards Empedocles is the firft
upon record who attempted any thing concerning it.
And he, by Sir Ifaac Newton’s account, flourifhed a-
bout. 500 years after Troy, was taken. At which time,
as Cicero obferves, men being now fenfible of the power¬
ful charms of oratory, and the influence it had upon the
mmd, there immediately arofc feveral mailers of it; the
chief of whom are mentioned by Quintilian, who tells
us, that ‘ the oldeft writers upon this art are Corax and
iifias, both of Sicily. After them came Gorgias of
Tr ° R 7- Introd.
Eeontium m the lame ifland, who is faid to have been
tne fcholar of Empedocles, and by reafon of his great
age (for he Jived to be 109 years old) had many coiem-
poranes. 1 hrafymachus of Chalcedon, Prodicus of Cea, * ,
Protagoras or Abdera, Hippias of Elis, and Alpidamu^Sreece! °
ot Elea, lived m his time ; as likewife Antiphon, who '
hrft wrote orations, and alfo upon the art, and is faid to
have fpoKen admirably well in his own defence ; and
betides the.e, Polycrates, and Theodore of Byzantium.’
iheie perfons contributed different ways towards the
improvement of the art. Corax and Tifias gave rules
toi methodizing a difcourfe, and adjufting its particular
parts ; as may be conjectured from Cicero’s account of
tnem, who lays, “ Though fome had fpoke well before
tnen tune, yet none with order and method ” But
Gorgias feems to have excelled all the reft in fame and
reputation: for he was fo highly applauded by all
Greece, that a golden ftatue was erefted to him at Del-
phos, which was a diftmguilhing honour conferred upon
him only. And he is faid to have been fo great a ma-
iier ot oratory, that in a public affembly he would un¬
dertake to declaim immediately upon any fubjedf pro-
poied to him. He wrote, as Cicero informs us, in the
demonftrative or laudatory way; which requires moft
or the fublime, and makes what Diodorus Siculus favs
ot him the more probable, that “ he firft introduced the
itrongeft figures, members of periods oppofite in fenfe
ot an equal length, or ending with a like found, and
other ornaments of that nature.” And hence thofe fi¬
gures, which give the greateft force and luftre to a dif-
courle, were anciently called by his name. Cicero tells
us furthei, that Thrafyxnachus and Gorgias were the
firft who introduced numbers into profe, which Ifocrates
afterwards brought to perfeCion. Quintilian likewife
mentions Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus, and Thrafv-
machus, as the firil who treated of common places, and
mowed the me of them for the invention of arguments.
Nor muft we. omit Plato, whofe elegant dialogue upon
this iubjeeh is ftill extant, which he entitles Gorgias.
or though he does not lay down the common rules of
the. art.; yet he very well explains the nature of it, and
maintains its true end and ufe againft the generality of
its profeflors, who had greatly perverted the original de-
fign of it. 1 hus by the ftudy and induftry of fo manv
ingenious and great men, the art of oratory was then
carried to a confiderable height among the Grecians :
though many of thofe who profeffed it in thofe times
employed their fkill rather to promote their own reputa¬
tion and applaufe, than to ferve the real interefts of
truth and virtue. “ for they propofed in an arrogant
manner (as Cicero fays) to teach how a bad caufe might
be fo managed, as to get the better of a good one.”
I hat is, they would undertake to charm the ears and
ftrike the paflions of their hearers in fo powerful a man¬
ner, by fophiftical reafonings, turns of wit, and fine
language, as to impofe falfehcod ui cn them for truth ;
than which nothing could be either more difingenuous
in itfelf, or prejudicial to fociety.
But thofe who fucceeded them feem to have confult-
ed
BeceivefhTmfelfrT ^ ^ h,uma?/^e fPeak. an articulate language by nature or inftinft, he certainlv
Wh thr^r ( ?- • GUACuEh but/ hl\ meanin8' was only that men have from nature a capability of
tpeech the obfervation is true, but not of much value. "   F y
dilate founds. 0
Parrots and other birds have a capability of uttering arti-
Introd.
3
F.ife and
progrefs of
o atory in
Rome.
ORA
cJ better, both for their own honour and that of their
profeffion. Ifocrates was the moil renowned of all Gor-
gias’s fcholars, whom Cicero frequently extols with the
hip-heft commendations, as the great eft mafter and
teacher of oratory •, “ whofe fchool (as he fays) like the
Trojan horfe, lent forth abundance of great men.” A-
riilotle was chiefly induced to engage in this province
from an emulation of his glory ; and would often fay
in a verfe of Sophocles, fomewhat varied to his pur-
pofe,
To be filent it is a fhame •,
While Ifocrates gets fach fame.
Quintilian fays they both wrote upon the art, though
there is no fyftem of the former now extant. But that
of Ariftotle is efteemed the beft and moft complete of
any in the Greek language. In this age the Grecian
eloquence appeared in its higheft perfection. Demof-
thenes was a hearer both of Ifocrates and Plato, as alfo
of KWs (ten of whole orations are yet extant) *, and by
the affiftance of a furprifmg genius, joined with indefa¬
tigable induftry, made that advantage of their precepts,
that he has been always efteemed by the beft judges the
prince of Grecian orators. His great adverfary and ri¬
val /Efchineg after his banifhment, is faid to have gone
to Rhodes, and employed his time there in teaching of
rhetoric. Theodeftes and Theophraftus, both of them
fcholars eft Ariftotle, imitated their mafter in writing
upon the art. And from that time the philofophers,
especially the Stoics and Peripatetics, applied them-
felves to lay down the rules of oratory ; which Socrates
had before feparated from the province of a philofopher.
And there is yet preferved a treatife upon this fubjeft,
which fome have aferibed to Demetrius Phalereus the
Peripatetic, and fcholar of Theophraftus, though others
more probably to Dionyfius of Halicarnaflus. Quinti¬
lian mentions feveral other famous rhetoricians in the
following ages, who wxreTikewife writers : As Herma-
goras, Athenaeus, Apollonius Melon, Areus Caecilius,
Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, Apollonius of Pergamus,
and Theodore of Gadara. But of thefe nothing now
remains upon the fubjeft of oratory, except fome trafls
of Dionyfius, who flourilhed in the reign of Auguftus
Cat fir. Nor have there been wanting fome eminent
writers of this kind among the Greeks fince the time of
Quintilian; two of whom we cannot omit to mention,
Hermogenes, and Longinus the author of the incompa¬
rable treatife Of the Sublime, a book which can fcarce-
ly be too much commended or too often read.
It was long before Rome received this art, and not
without difficulty at firft. The reafon wus, becaufe the
Romans were for feveral ages wholly addicted to milita¬
ry affairs, and to enlarge their territories j fo that they
not only neglefted to cultivate learning, but thought
the purfuit of it a thing of ill tendency, by diverting
the minds of their youth from the cares and toils of war,
to a more foft and indolent kind of life. Therefore fo
late as the year of their city 592, -when by the induftry
of fome Grecians the liberal arts began to flourilh in
Italy, a decree paffed the fenate, by which all philofo¬
phers and rhetoricians were ordered to depart out of
Rome. But in a few years after, when Cameades, Cri-
tolaus, and Diogenes, who were not only philofophers
but orators, came ambaffadors from Athens to Rome,
the Roman youth were fo charmed with the eloquence
TORY.
of their harangues, that they could no longer be ftopt
from purfuing the fiudy of oratory. And by a further
acquaintance with the Gieeks, it foon gained fuch
efteem, that perfons of the firft quality employed their
time and pains to acquire it. And a young gentleman,
who was ambitious to advance Limfelf in the fervice of
his country, could have little hopes of fuccefs, unlefs he
had laid the foundation of his future profpecis in that
ftudy.
Seneca tells us, that Lucius Plotrus, a Gaul, -was the
firft who taught the art of oratory at Rome in Latin 5
which, Cicero fays, was while he was a boy 5 and when
the moft ftudious perfons went to hour him, he lament¬
ed that he could not go with them ; being prevented by
the regard he paid to the opinion of fome of his friends,
who thought that greater improvements were made by
exercifes in the Greek language under Grecian mafters.
Seneca adds, that this profeflion continued for fome time
in the hands of freedmen ; and that the firft Roman
who engaged in it was Blandus of the equeftrian order,
who was fucceeded by others 5 fome of whofe lives are
yet extant, written by Suetonius, as many of the Gre¬
cians are by Philoftratus and Eunapius. Quintilian like-
wife gives us the names of thofe among the Romans, who
wrote upon the art. “ The firft (fays he) as far as I
can learn, who compofed any thing upon this argument,
was M. Cato the cenfor. After him Antony the ora¬
tor began upon the fubjefl, which is the only work he
has left, and that imperfect:. Then followed fome of
lefs note. But he who carried eloquence to its higheft
pitch among us, was Cicero j who has likewife by his
rules given the beft plan both to praclile and teach the
art. After whom modefty would require us to mention
no more, had he not told us himfelf that his books of
rhetoric dipt out of his hands, while he was but a youth.
And thofe leffer things, -which many perfons want, he
has purpofely omitted in his difeourfes of oratory. Cor-
nificius wrote largely upon the fame fubjeft ; Stertinius
and Gallio the father, each of them fomething. But
Celfus and Lenas were more accurate than Gallio; and
in our times Virginius, Pliny, and Rutilius. And there
are at this day fome celebrated authors of the fame kind,
who, if they had taken in every thing, might have fa-
ved my pains.” Time has fince deprived us of moft of
the writers mentioned here by Quintilian. But we have
the lefs reafon to regret this lofs, fince it has preferved
to us Cicero’s treatiles upon this fubjecl; which we may
well fuppofe to have been chiefly owing to their own
excellency, and the great efteem they have always had
in the world. Befides his Two books of Invention,
which Quintilian here calls his Books of Rhetoric, there
are extant of his, Three books of an Orator ; one Of
famous Orators ; and another, which is called The Ora¬
tor ; as alfo his Topics, a preface Concerning the beft
fort of Orators, and a treatife Of the parts of Oratory.
Each of which treatifes, whether we regard the juftnefs
and delicacy of the thoughts, the ufefulnefs of the rules,
or the elegance and beauty of the ftyle, deferves to be
frequently peruied by all who are lovers of eloquence.
For who can be thought fo well qualified to give the
rules of any art, as lie who excelled all mankind in the
pra61ice of them ? But thofe Four Books to Herennius,
which are published among Cicero’s works, feem with
good reafon to be attributed to Cornificius, whom Quin¬
tilian here mentions. And Celfus. is by feme affirmed
to
503
3°4
QUA'
t<, nave taugtit oratory, whom, he alfo places amon;r the
rhetoricians, and whofe Eight Books of Medicine are
yet extant, written in fo beautiful a ftyle as plainly
ihows him to be a maftex of eloquence. But Quintilian
himfelf outdid all who went before him in diligence and
accuracy as a writer. Elis Inftitutions are fo compre-
nenfive, and written with fuch gx-eat exabtnefs and
judgement, that tney are generally allowed to be the
moil perfect work of the kind. With this excellent au¬
thor we lhall finilh the account of the Latin rhetori¬
cians.
d here were indeed fome others in the following ages,
whofe works are yet extant j but as they contain nothing
of moment which is not to be found in thofe already
mentioned, we lhall forbear to name them. Much lefs
lhall we defcend to that numerous body of writers, who
fince the revival of learning have treated upon this fub-
* Archbp. jecl, for the fame reafon. And a very good judge * has
S fmCe Siven k as hls opinion, that the''method
ot forming the belt fyltem of oratory, is to collect it
from the fineft precepts of Ariltotle, Cicero, Quintilian,
Longinus, and other celebrated authors *, with proper
examples taken from the choiceft parts of the pureit an¬
tiquity. And this is the method attempted to be pur-
fued in the following treatife.
§ 2. Of the Nature of Oratory.
The tenns rhetoric and oratory, having no other dif-
fet ence but that one is taken from the Oreek laniTuap*e
and idle Other from the Latin, may be uled promifcu-
oully ; but the cafe is not the fame with refpeft to the
words rhetorician and orator. For although the Gre¬
cians uftd the former, both to exprefs thofe who taught
the art, and thofe who pra&ifed it; yet the Romans af¬
terward, when they took that word into their language,
confined it to the teachers of the art, and called the reft
orators. ^ And there feems to have been a fufficient rea¬
fon for this diftin&ion, fince the art wvis the fame in
both, and might therefore go by either name : but the
different province of rhetoricians and orators made it not
improper that they Ihould be called by different names.
Behdes, anciently, before rhetoric was made a feparate
and diftinft art from philofophy, the fame perfons taught
both. And then they were called not only rhetoricians
bui fophyis. But becaufe they often employed their art
rather to vindicate vchat was falfe and unjuft, than to
funport truth and virtue •, this dilingenuous conduci, by
which they frequently, impofed upon weak minds,
brought a difcredit both upon themfelves and their pro-
feftion. And therefore the name fophi/i or fophifter, has
been more generally uled m an ill fenfe, to fignify one
.(killed rather in the arts of cavilling, than qualified to
4 fpeak wrell and accurately upon any fubject.
Oratory an It is- not neceffary to ufe many words, to prove that
oratory is an art. For it is comprifed under certain
rules, agreeable to reafon, delivered m a regular me¬
thod, and mited to attain the end it propofes •, which
are charafiei s fufficient to denominate it an art. In¬
deed the cafe is the fame here as in moft other things,
that a good genius is of itfelf more ferviceable than
the moft exaft acquaintance with all the rules of art
where that is wanting. But it is fufficient that art
help nature, and carry it farther than it can otherwife
advance without it. And be who is defirous to gain the
3
r O R Y. jj
reputation of a good orator, will find the affiftance of
art very7 neceffary. Some perfons have thought, that
many of the common fyftems written upon the fubjebt
of oiatory have been attended with this inconvenience,
that, by burdening the mind with too great a number of
rules about things of lefs importance, they have often¬
times rather difeouraged than promoted the ftudy of elo¬
quence. This undoubtedly is an extreme which ihould
be always carefully avoided. But, however, an indif-
ferent guide in a ftrange road Is better than none at all.
It may be worth while to hear Quintilian’s opinion up¬
on this head. “ I would not (fays he) have young per¬
fons think they are fufficiently inftru&ed, if they°have
learned one of thofe compends which are commonly
handed about, and fancy themfelves fafe in the decrees
as it were, of thefe technical writers. The art of fpeak-
ing requires much labour, conftant ftudy, a variety of
exercife, many trials, the greateft prudence, and readi-
neis of thought. However, thefe treatifes’ are ufeful,
when they fet you in a plain and open way, and do not
confine you to one narrow track, from which he who
thinks it a crime to depart muft move as flowly as one
that walks upon a rope.” We fee he is not for having
us confine ourfelves too clofely to fyftems, though he
thinks they are of fervice at firft, till ufe and experience
render them lefs neceffary.
The bufinefs of oratory is to teach us to fpeak well; The
which, as Cicero explains it, is to fpeak jufly, methodi- of it
cally, floridly, and copioufy.
Now, in order to fpeak y>r/?/y, or pertinently, a per-
fon muft be maftcr of his fubjeft, that he may be able to
fay all that is proper, and avoid whatever may appear
foreign and trifling. And he muft clothe his thoughts
with fuch words and expreffions as are moft fuited to the
nature of the argument, and will give it the greateft
force and evidence.
And as it teaches to fpeak juftly, fo likewife metho¬
dically. This requires, that all the parts of a difeourfe
be placed in their proper order, and with fuch juft con¬
nexion, as to refleft a light upon each other, and
thereby to lender the whole both clear in itfelf, and
eafy to be retained. But the fame method is not pro¬
per for all difeourfes. And very frequently a different
manner is convenient in handling the fame fubjeffr.
For it is plain, that art, as well as nature, loves variety j
and it difeovers the fpeaker’s judgement, when the dif-
pofitlon of his difeourfe is fo framed, as to appear eafy
and natural, rather than the effect of induftry and la¬
bour.
To floridly, is fo peculiar a property of this art,
that fome have wholly confined it to the pomp and or¬
naments of language. But that it extends farther, and
refpecls things as well as words, we (hall have occafion
to (how hereafter. It contains indeed the whole fubjeft
of elocution, but does not wholly confift in it. True
and folid eloquence requires not only the beauties and
flowers of language, hut likewife the heft fenfe and
cleareft reafoning. Befides, rhetoric gives rules for the
fevcral forts of ftyle, and direfls the ufe of them agree¬
ably to the nature of the fubjeeb
But the force of oratory appears in nothing more than
a copmfnefs of expreflion, or a proper manner of en¬
largement, fuited to the nature of the fubjefft • which is
of great ufe in perfuafion, and forms the laft property,
required by Cicero, of fpeaking well. A fhort and con’
cife
«
Introd.
ORATORY,
clfe account of things is often attended with obicurity,
from an omiffion of forne neceflary circumftances relat¬
ing to them. Or, however, where that is not the cafe,
yet for want of proper embellilhments to enliven the dif-
courfe, and thereby to excite and fix the hearers atten-
A ^
-* *'j£*.   -* 
3°5
§ 3. Of the Divi/ion of Oratory.
. / _c=r-
Cl
/
7
xf ^
J.
And as rlilferent kinds of difeourfes require different
arguments, rhetoricians have confidered them two ways;
in general, under certain heads, as a common fund for
all fubje£ls; and in a more particular manner, as they
Vol. XV. Part I.
Oratory confifts of four parts: invention, dfpoftion, Oratoty
and pronunciation. This will appear by con-
he nature of each of them, and what it contri- °U1 farts'
orming an orator. Every one who aims to
.1 and accurately upon any fubjedl, does natu-
the firft place inquire after and purfue fuch
as may feem moft proper to explain and illuf-
thing upon which he defigns to difeourfe.
le nature of it requires that he fliould bring
i confirm what he fays, he not only feeks the
and fuch as are like to be belt received 5 but
ires to anfwer any thing which may be offered
itrary. This is invention.—After this he de-
tvith hir*) elf in what method to difpofe of thofe
fich have occurred to his mind, that they may
the plaineft light, and not lofe their force by
nd confufion.—This is the bufinefs of difpqfi-
s next concern is to ^ive his thoughts an a-
irefs; by making choice of the fitteff words,
ixpreffions, fmooth and harmonious periods,
r ornaments of ftyle, as may bell: fuit the na-
s fubjeft, brighten his difeourfe, and render it
rtaining to his hearers. And this is called
—The laft thing he attends to, is to deliver
las thus compofed, with a juft and agreeable
tion. And daily experience convinces us, how
; contributes both to engage the attention and
hat is fpoken upon the mind. This then is the
) which nature directs, in order to qualify our-
difeourfing to the bell advantage : Though
1 and habit thefe things become fo familiar to
re do not always attend to them feparately in
ral order. However, it is the bufinefs of art
nature, and to treat of things in that manner
dictates.
[ON.
to demonf native, deliberative, ox judicial dif-
At prefent we lhall treat only upon the form-
e. And now, that one thing may receive
confirmation from another, it is neceffary that
ame relation between them j for all things are
y adapted to prove one another. Thus, in
the quantity of two things which we would
e either equal or unequal, if they are of fuch
iiat one cannot be applied to the other, then
third thing, which may be applied to them
that mull be equal at leaft to one of the two,
pplied to the other, and found equal to that
refently conclude that thefe two things are
t if it be unequal to the other, we fay that
things are unequal, Becaufe it is the certain
.w^ii property of all quantities, that whatfoever
two things are equal to a third, are equal to one an¬
other j and where one of any two things is equal to a
third, and the other unequal, thofe two things are un--
equal to one another. What has been faid of quantities,
Q q will
3°4 . ORA
to have taught oratory, whom he alfo places among the
rhetoricians, and whofe Eight Books of Medicine are
yet extant, written in fo beautiful a ftyle as plainly
iiimvs him to be a mafter of eloquence. But Qui
himfelf outdid all who went before him in diligen
accuracy as a writer. His Inftitutious are fo c<
nenuve, and written with fuch great exatlne
juogement, that tiiey a/e generally allowed to 1
mod perfect work of the kind. With this excellt
tnor we (hall finifli the accoimt of the Latin r
eians.
dihere xvere indeed fome others in the followim
ivnofe works are yet extant; but as they contain n
of moment which is not to be found in thofe a
mentioned, we ihall forbear to name them. Mu
lhall we defceud to that numerous body of writer:
f11^6 t,lle revival of learning have treated upon th
CambravP' ^ the ^ rCa.f°n- And a veiT good judge
Zett.p.ii2 n?tx. on? lmce given it as his opinion, that the n
ot forming the beft fyftem of oratory, is to col
from the fined precepts of Aridotle, Cicero, Ouir
Longinus, and other celebrated authors ; with ■
e.xampies taken from the choiced parts of the pun
tiquity. And this is the method attempted to hi
iued in the following treatife.
§ 2. Of the Nature of Oratory.
Thi, terms rhetoric and oratory^ bavin p" no oth<
Terence but that one is taken from the Greek lan
and the other from the Latin, may be ufed proi
oufly •, but the cafe is not the fame with refipecl i
words rhetorician and orator. For although the
cians ufcd the former, both to exprefs thofe who t
the art, and thofe who pracfifed it ; yet the Uoms
terward. when they took that word into their lam
confined it to the teachers of the art, and called tf
orators. ^ And there feems to have been a fufficier
Jon for this didinaion, fince the art was the fa;
both, and might therefore go by either name : bi
cnfFerent province of rhetoricians and orators made
improper that they diould be called by different n
Befides.. anciently, before rhetoric was made a fe;
and didinft art from philofophy, the fame perfons t
both. ^And then they were called not only rhetor
bnc fophifs. But becaufe they often employed th(
rather to vindicate what was falfe and unjud, th
funport truth and virtue ; this difingenuous condm
rvtuch they frequently, impofed upon weak i
brought a difcredit both upon themfelves and thei
fedion. And therefore the name fopiuf or fophifle
been more generally ufed in an ill fenfe, to fignil
/killed rather in the arts of cavilling, than qualifi
4 ipeak ivell and accurately upon any fubjedl.
Oratory an It h not neceffary to ufe many words, to prov
oratory is an art. For it is comprifed under c
rules, agreeable to reafon, delivered in a regula
thod, anu luited to attain the end it propofes 5
are charafteis fufficient to denominate it an art.
deed the cafe is the fame here as in mod other things
that a good genius is of itfelf more ferviceable than
the moft exaft acquaintance with all the rules of art
where that is wanting. But it is fufficient that art
help nature, and carry it farther than it can otherwife
advance without it. And he who is defirous to gain the
3
TORY.
reputation of a good orator, will find the affiftance of
art very neceffary. Some perfons have thought, that
many of the common fvliems written uoon the fubiett
Introd.
n
/
/
4 i/f
4 6 *
''-,C
/
il/ tt
M i j
0 ’<
nf
/ 7
4 bY
r
<2J
oU
' .!-*
6 y
i f /' x
^6!
I
jM / /
6*
$
! . i, S '' ^
 'pk“ ^ '*“—*•* — — — agivC-
ably to tne nature of the fubjedd.
But the force of oratory appears in nothing more than
a copioufnefs of expreffion, or a proper manner of en¬
largement, failed to the nature of'the fubjedd ; which is
of great ufe in perfuafion, and forms the laft property,
required by Cicero, of fpeaking well. A Ihort and con ’
cile
Introd.
TORY,
ORA
cife account of things is often attended with obfcurity,
from an omiflion of fome neceflary circumftances relat¬
ing to them. Or, however, where that is not the cafe,
yet for want of proper embellifliments to enliven the dif-
tourfe, and thereby to excite and fix the hearers atten¬
tion, it is apt to flip through their minds without leav¬
ing any impreffion. But where the images of things
are drawn in their full proportion, painted in their pro¬
per colours, fet in a clear light, and teprefented in dif¬
ferent views, wfith all the ftrength and beauties of elo¬
quence, they captivate the minds of the audience with
the higheft pleafure, engage their attention, and by an
irrefiftible force move and bend them to the defign of
the fpeaker.
The principal end and defign of oratory is to per-
fuade : for which reafon it is frequently called the art
ofperfuafon. Indeed the orator has often other fubor-
dinate views; as when he endeavours either to delight
his hearers with what is pleafant and agreeable, or to
conciliate their good opinion by a fmooth and artful ad-
drefs: but ftill both thefe are in order to perfuade and
excite them to aftion.
An objection may, perhaps, hence be formed againft
eloquence, as an art which may be employed for per-
fuading to ill as wrell as to good. There is no doubt
that it may ; and fo reafoning may alfo be, and too of¬
ten is, employed for leading men into error. But who
W'ould think of forming an argument from this againft
the cultivation of our teafoning powers ? Reafon, elo¬
quence, and every art which ever has been ftudied
among mankind, may be abufed, and may prove dan¬
gerous in the hands of bad men r but it wrere perfectly
childifh to contend, that upon this account they ought
to be abolifhed.
While the orator employs his art in purfuing only
thofe ends for which it was at firft defigned, the per-
fuading men to good and virtuous actions, and diffuad-
ing them from every thing that is ill and vicious \ no¬
thing can be more commendable in itfelf, or ufeful to
human focieties.
3^5
§ 3. Of the Divifion of Oratory.
Oratory confifts of four parts: invention, difpoftion. Oratory
elocution, and pronunciation. This wall appear by con-
fidering the nature of each of them, and what it contri- 1
butes in forming an orator. Every one who aims to
fpeak wrell and accurately upon any fubjeft, does natu¬
rally in the firft place inquire after and purfue fuch
thoughts as may feem moft proper to explain and illus¬
trate the thing upon which he defigns to difcourfe.
And if the nature of it requires that he fiiould bring
reafons to confirm what he fays, he not only feeks the
ftrongeft, and fuch as are like to be beft received •, but
alfo prepares to anfwer any thing which may be offered
to the contrary. This is invention.—After this he de¬
liberates with hiri> ;lf in wrhat method to difpofe of thofe
things which have occurred to his mind, that they may
appear in the plaineft light, and not lofe their force by
diforder and confufion.—This is the bufinefs of difpof-
tion.—His next concern is to «*ive his thoughts an a-
greeable drefs; by making choice of the fitteft words,
cleareft expreffions, fmooth and harmonious periods,
with other ornaments of ftyle, as may beft fuit the na¬
ture of his fubjeft, brighten his difcourfe, and render it
moft entertaining to his hearers. And this is called
elocution.—The laft thing he attends to, is to deliver
what he has thus compofed, with a juft and agreeable
pronunciation. And daily experience convinces us, how
much this contributes both to engage the attention and
imprefs wThat is fpoken upon the mind. This then is the
method to which nature directs, in order to qualify our-
felves for difcourfing to the beft advantage : Though
by cuftom and habit thefe things become fo familiar to
us, that we do not always attend to them feparately in
their natural order. However, it is the bufinefs of art
to follow nature, and to treat of things in that manner
which {he dictates.
Part I. Of INVENTION.
Chap. I. Of Invention in general; and particularly
of Common Places, and State of a Caufe.
7
Invention INVENTION, confidered in general, is the difco-
the difco- very of fuch things as are proper to perfuade. And in
fuch thin s or^er to attain this end, the orator propofes to himfelf
as are fitted three things: To prove or illuftrate the fubject upon
to perfuade. which he treats ; to conciliate the minds of his hearers ;
and to engage their pafiions in his favour. And as thefe
require different kinds of arguments or motives, inven¬
tion furnithes him with a fupply for each of them, as
will be ftrown in their order.
An argument, as defined by Cicero, is a reafon
which induces us to believe what before we doubted
of.
And as different kinds of difcourfes require different
arguments, rhetoricians have confidered them twTo vrays;
in general, under certain heads, as a common fund for
all fubjedts •, and in a more particular manner, as they
Vol. XV. Part I.
are fuited to demonf native, deliberative, ox judicial dif¬
courfes. At prefent we (hall treat only upon the form¬
er of thefe. And now, that one thing may receive
proof and confirmation from another, it is neceffary that
there be fome relation between them j for all things are
not equally adapted to prove one another. Thus, in
meafuring the quantity of two things which we would
fhow to be either equal or unequal, if they are of fuch
a nature that one cannot be applied to the other, then
wre take a third thing, which may be applied to them
both 5 and that muft be equal at leaft to one of the two,
which if applied to the other, and found equal to that
alfo, we prefently conclude that thefe two things are
equal; but if it be unequal to the other,! wre fay that
thefe two things are unequal, Becaufe it is the certain
and known property of all quantities, that w hatfoever
two things are equal to a third, are equal to one an¬
other j and where one of any two things is equal to a
third, and the other unequal, thofe tw7o things are un-’
equal to one another. What has been faid of quantities,
Q q will
5°6 O R A T
l iventuon. win hold true in all oilier cafes, that fo far as any two
things or ideas agree to a third, fo far they agree to one
another. So likewife, on the contrary, as far as one
of any two things or ideas dees agree to a third, ar.’ the
other does not, fo far they ditagree with one another •,
in which refpect, one of them cannot be truly affirmed
of the other. Since, therefore, in every propofilion,
one thing is fpoken of another, if we would iind out
whether the two ideas agree to each other or not, where
<his is not evident of itfelf, we muft find out fome third
thing, the idea of which agrees to one of them j and
then that being applied to the other, as it does agree or
difagree with it, fo we may conclude, that the two
t hings propofed do agree cr difagree - with one another.
.1 his will be made more clear by an example or two.
Should it be inquired, Whether virtue is to be loved;
the argument between virtue and love might be found
by comparing them feparately with 1 «.» inefs, as a com¬
mon meafure to both. For fmee the idea of happinels
agrees to that of love, and the idea of virtue to that of
happinefs ; it follows, that the ideas of virtue and love
agree to one another : ar*» therefore it may be affirmed,
That virtue is to be loved. But, on the contrary, be¬
came the idea ol mifery difagrees with that of love, but
the idea of vice agrees to that of mifery, the two ideas
of vice and love muft confeqnently difagree with one an-
Thei'e cal! ot.^er ’ and therefore it would be falfe to affert, That
td argu- vice ls t0 loved. Now, this third thing logicians call
mems.’ t‘-e medium, or middle term, becaufe it does as it were
conned! two extremes •, that is, both parts of a pre-
polition. But rhetoricians call it an argument, be¬
caufe it is fo applied to what was before propofed, as
to become the inftrument of procuring our aifent to
it. I hus far as to the nature and ufe of arguments.
We fhall next explain by what methods they are to be
fought.
A lively imagination, and readinefs cf thought, are
undoubtedly a very great help to inTcntion. Some
perfons are naturally endued with that quicknefs of
fancy, and penetration of mind that they are feldom
at a lofs for arguments either to defend their own opi¬
nions, or to attack their adverfaries. However, thefe
things being the gift of nature, and not to be gain¬
ed by art, do not properly fall under cur prefent con-
^ {{deration.
Learning It will be readily granted, that great learning and
neceffary to extenfive knowledge are a noble fund for invention,
an orator. An orator therefore fhould be furrifhed with a flock of
important truths, folid maxims of reafon, and a variety
of knowledge, collefted and treafured up both from
obfervation and a large acquaintance with the liberal
arts, that he may not only be qualified to exprefs
Limfelf in the moft agreeable manner, but likewife to
fupport what he fays with the ftrongeft and cleareft
arguments. .
But becaufe all are not born with a like happy
genius, and had not the fame opportunity to cultivate
their minds with learning and knowledge ; and be¬
caufe nothing is more difficult than to dwell long
upon the confideration of one thing, in order to find
out the ftrongeft arguments which may be offered for
and againft it; upon thefe accounts, art has preferibed
a method to leffen, in fome meafure, thefe difficulties,
and help every one to a fupply of arguments upon any
O R Y ^ Part r
Subject. And this is done by the contrivance of com- Livermon.
mon places, which Cicero calls the feats or heads ofargu- v——'
mems, and by a Greek name topics. They are of two
lorts, internal and external.
I. Internal topics. Though things, with regard toRu]esofart
taeir natuie and properties, are exceedingly various, to fupply
yet they have certain common relations, by meansthe PJac’e of
whereof the truth of what is either affirmed or denied extenfive
concerning them in any refpea may be evinced. The
ancient Greek rhetoricians therefore reduced thefe re-nius. S
lations to fome general heads, which are termed loci or
common places ; becaufe the reafons or arguments fuited
to prove any propofition are repofited in them, as a
common fund or receptacle. And they are called in¬
ternal heads, becaufe they arife from the fubject upon
whir h the orator treats; and arc therefore diftinguiili-
ed from others named external, which he fetches°fi-om
v Tout, and applies to his prefent purpofe, as will be
ill own herafter. Cicero and Quintilian make them
16 ; three of which comprehend the whole thing they
are brought to prove, namely, definition, enumeration,
and notation: of the remaining 13, fome contain a part
of it, and the reft its various properties and circumftan-
ces, with other confiderations relating to it; and tkefe
are, genus, fpecies, antecedents, confequents, adjuncts, con¬
jugates, caife, effect, contraries, oppofttes, Jimilitude, dif-
JimiMtude, and comparifon.
Definition explains the nature of the thing defined
and ihows what it is. And to whatfoever the defini¬
tion agrees, the thing defined dees fo likewife. If
therefore Socrates be a rational creature, he is a man j
becaufe it is the definition of a man, that he is a rational
creature.
Enumeration takes in all the parts of a thing. And
-icm t.us we prove, that what agrees to all the parts
agrees to the whole j and what does not agree to any
one or more parts, does not agree to the whole : As
when Cicero proves to Pifo that all the Homan ftate hated
him, by enumerating the feveral ranks and orders of Ro¬
man citizens -who all did fc.
Notation, or etymology, explains the meaning or fig-
rufication of a word. From which we reafon thus ; “ If
he cannot pay his debts, he is infplvent 5” for that is
the meaning of the word infolvent.
Genus is what contains under it two or more forts
of things, differing in nature. From this head logi¬
cians reafon thus: “ Becaufe every animal is mortal,
and man is an animal, therefore man is mortal.” But
orators make a further ufe of this argument, which
they call afeending from the hypothefs to the thefs; that
is, from a particular to a general: As fhouid a perfon,
when jpeaking in praife of juliice, take occaiion from
thence to commend and (how the excellency of virtue
in general, with a view to render that particular virtue
more amiable. For lince every fpecies contains in it the
whole nature of the genus to which it relates, befides
what is peculiar to itfelf, whereby it is diftinguiffied from
it; what is affirmed of the genus, muff of neceffity be
applicable to the fpecies.
Species is that which comprehends under it all the
individuals of the fame nature. From hence we may
argue, “ He is a man, therefore he has a rational
foul.” And orators fometimes take occafion from
this head to defeend from the thefts to the hypothefis ;
taut
Parti. O R A T
Invention, that Is, in treating upon what is as ore general, to in-
' troduce fome particular contained under it, for the
greater illuftration of the general.
Antecedents are fuch things, as, being once allowed,
others necefi'arily, or very probably, follow. From this
head an infeparable property is proved from its iubjedt ;
as, It is material, and therefore corruptible.
Confequents are fuch things as, being allowed, ne-
ceffarily or very probably infer their antecedents.
Hence the fobject is proved from an infeparable pro¬
perty, in this manner: It is corruptible, and therefoie
material.
Adjun&s are feparable properties of things, or cir-
cumltances that attend them. Thefe are very nume¬
rous, and afford a great variety of arguments, fome
of whirh ufually occur in every difcourle. They do
not neceffarily infer tlieir fubject; but, it fitly chofen,
lender a thing credible, and are a fufficient ground tor
affent. The way of reafoning from them we ihall (how
prefently.
Conjugates are words deduced from the fame origin
with that of our fubject. By thefe the habit is proved
from its acts : as, He who does juftiy is juft. He docs
not act wifely, therefore he is not wife. But this infe¬
rence will not hold, unlefs the actions appear continued
and conftant.
A cattfe is that, by the force of which a thing does
exift. There are four kinds of caufes, matter, form,
efficient, and end, ivhich afford a great variety of argu¬
ments. The way of reafoning from them is to infer
the effedt from the caufe : as, Man is endued with rea-
fon, therefore he is capable of knowledge.
An cjfeci is that which arifes from a caufe, therefore
the caule is proved by it: as, He is endued with know¬
ledge, therefore with reafon.
Contraries are things, which, under the fame genus,
are at the utmoft diftance from each other •, io that
what we grant to the one, we utterly deny the other :
as Virtue ought to be embraced, therefore vice (liould
be avoided.
Oppojites are fuch things, which, though repugnant
to each other, yet are not directly contradidtory ; as,
To love and to injure, to hate and to commend. They
differ from contraries in this, that they do not abfo-
lutely exclude one another. An argument is drawn from
things repugnant, thus: He will do a man a mifchief,
therefore he does not love him. He loves a man, there¬
fore he will not reproach him.
Similitude is an agreement of things in quality. Thus
Cicero proves, that pernicious citizens ought to be
taken out of the (late, by the likenefs they bear to cor-
rupted members, which are cut off to prevent further
damage to the body.
DiJJimilitude is a difagreement of things in quality.
From this head Cicero (hows the preference of his own
exile to Pifo’s government of Macedonia •, by the dif¬
ference between their condudt, and the people’s efteem
of them.
Comparifon is made three ways : for either a thing is
compared with a greater, with a lefs, or with its equal.
Tliis place, therefore, differs from that of fimilitude
on this account, that the quality was confidered in that,
but here the quantity. An argument from the greater
is thus drawn: If five legions could not conquer the
enemy, much lefs will two.
O R Y. 3°7
We (hall juft give one example cf the manner of Invention,
reafoning from thefe heads, whereby the uie of them v
may farther appear. If any one, therefore, Ihculd The man_
have endeavoured to peifuade Cicero not to accept of ner 0f rea_
his life upon the condition offered him by Antony, Coning from
That he would burn his Philippic orations which had Tele heads,
been fpoken againft him, be might be fuppofed to
uie fucii arguments as thefe ; partly taken from the
adjuncts of Cicero, partly from thofe of Antony, and
partly from the thing itfelf. And firft with regard to
Cicero, it might be (aid, That fo great a man ought
not to purchale his life at fo dear a price as the lots of
that immortal honour which by lo great pains ana
labour he had acquired. And this might be confirm¬
ed by another argument, That now he was grown
old, and could not ex pet: t to live much longer. And
from the character of Antony he might argue thus j
.That he was very crafty and deceitful; and only de-
ligned, by giving him hopes of lite, to have the Phi¬
lippics firit burnt, which otherwiie he knew would
tranfmit to pofterily an eternal brand of infamy upon
him 5 and then he would take oft the author. And
this might be fhown by comparifon. For fince he
would not fpare others, who had not fo highly exai-
perated him, and from whom he had not to much to
fear 5 certainly he would not forgive Cicero, fince he
knew well enough, that fo long as he lived, he hiro-
felf could never be in fafety. And, laftiy, An argu¬
ment might alfo be fetched from the nature cf the thing
itfelf in the following manner : That Cicero, by this ac¬
tion would tham’efully betray the ilate, and the came of
liberty, which he had through his whole life moft cou-
rageouily defended, with fo great honour to himfeli,
and advantage to the public. Upon iuch an account, a
perfon might have ufed thefe or the like arguments with
Cicero, which arife from the fore-mentioned heads. r,
From this account of common places, it is eafy to They are
conceive what a large field of difcourie they open to the of no foiid
mind upon every fubjecl. At the fame time, though we
have mentioned them from our refpecf for the orators ^ previous3
of Greece and Rome, we heartily fubfcribe toihe opinion foandation
of a celebrated modern, who gi v es of them the follow-of learning
ing account. ^ anc* Sen‘us*
“ The Grecian fophifts were the firft inventors of this
artificial fyftem of oratory; and they (bowed a prodi¬
gious fubtility and fertility in the contrivance of thefe
loci. Succeeding rhetoricians, dazzled by the plan,
wrought them into fo regular a tyttem, that one would
think they meant io teach how a perfon might mecha¬
nically become an orator, without any genius at all.
They gave him receipts for making fpeeches on all man¬
ner of fubjects. At the fame time, it is evident, that Blair's
though this ftudy of common places might produce very Lectures.
ftiowy academical declamations, it could never produce
ufeful difcourfes on real bulinefs. The loci indeed fup-
plied a moil exuberant fecundity of matter. One who
had no other aim, but to talk copioutly and plaufibly,
by confulting them on every fubjecl, and laying hold of
all that they fuggeffed,might difcourfe without end } and
that, too, though he had none but the moft fuperficial
knowledge of his fubject. But fuch difcourfe could be
no other than trivial. What is truly foiid and per-
fuafive, muft be drawn ex vifceribus caifc, from a
thorough knowledge of the fubjecl, and profound me¬
ditation on it. They who would direft ftudents of ora-
2 tory
3°8
Invention.
13
Of external
tapio, ge¬
nerally rail
€jd tejlimo-
fues.
T4
Reduced
to three
lieads, and
i'eparately
explained.
0 R A T
tory to any otlier feurces of argumentation, only de¬
lude tliem 5 and by attempting to render rhetoric too
perfect an art, they render it, in truth, a trifling and
childilh ftudy.”
Of external topics. When the orator reafons from
fuch topics as do not arife from his fubject, but from
things of a different nature, thefe are called external.
They are all taken from authorities, and are by one ge¬
neral name called tejlimonies.
Now a teftimony may be exprelfed by writing,
fpeech, or any other lign proper to declare a perfon’s
mind. And all teftimonies may be diftinguilhed into
tw-o forts, divine and human. A divine teftimony,
when certainly known, to be fuch, is inconteftable, and
admits of no debate, but fhould be acquiefced in with¬
out hefitation. Indeed the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans efteemed the pretended oracles of their deities,
the anfwers of their augurs, and the like fallacies, di¬
vine teftimonies : but with us no one can be ignorant of
their true notion, though they do not lb directly come
under our prefent conftderation. Human teftimonies,
conftdered as fumilhing the orator with arguments, may
be reduced to three heads j writings, witnejfes, and
contraBs. +
1. By Writings, here, are to be underftood written laws,,
wills, or other legal inftruments, exprelfed and conveyed
in that manner. And it is not fo much the force and
validity of fuch teftimonies, confidered in themfelves,
that is here intended, as the occafion of difpute which
may at any time arife concerning their true defign and
import, when produced in proof upon either fide of a
controverfy. And thefe are five ; Ambiguity, Difagree-
ment between the words and intention, Contrariety,
Reafoning, and Interpretation.
A writing is then faid to be ambiguous, when it is
capable of two or more fenfes, which makes the wai¬
ter’s defign uncertain. Now ambiguity may arife ei¬
ther from Angle words, or the conftruclion of fenten-
ces. From Angle words *, as when either the fenfe of
a wmrd, or the application of it, is doubtful. As,
thould it be queftioned, whether ready money ought
to be included under the appellation of chattels left by
a will; or, if a teftator bequeath a certain legacy to
his nephew Thomas, and he has two nephews of that
name. But ambiguity is alfo fometimes occafioned
from the conftruction of a fentence ; as when feveral
things or perfons having been already mentioned, it
is doubtful to which of them that which follows ought
to be referred. For example, a perfon wuites thus in
his will: ‘ Let my heir give as a legacy to Titius a
Horfe out of my ftable, which he pleafes.’ Here it
may be queftioned, whether the word he refers to the
heir or to Titius \ and confequently, whether the heir
be allowed to give Titius which horfe he pleafes, or
Titius may choofe which he likes beft. Now as to
controverftes of this kind, in the firft cafe above men¬
tioned, the party who claims the chattels may plead,
that all moveable goods come under that name, and
therefore that he has a right to the money. This he
will endeavour to prove from fome inftances where
the wrord has been fo ufed. The buftnefs of the oppo-
fite party is to refute this, by {bowing that money
is not there included. And if either fide produce pre¬
cedents in his favour, the other may endeavour to {how
that the cafes are not parallel. As to the fecond cafe,
o R Y. • Parti.
arifing from an ambiguity in the name, if any other Invention.
words or expreffions in the will feem to countenance —   
either of the claimants, he will not fail to interpret
them to his advantage. So likewife, if any thing laid
by the teftator, in his lifetime, or any regard liiown
to either of theie nephews more than the other, may
help to determine which of them was intended, a pros¬
per ufe may be made of it. And the fame may be faid
with regard to the third cafe. In which the legatee
may realon likewife from the common ufe of language,
and ftiowr that in fuch expreffions it is ufual to make
the reference to the laft or next antecedent; and from
thence plead, that it was the defign of the teftator to
give him the option. But in anfwer to this, it may be
faid, that allowing it to be very often fo, yet in this
inftance it feerns more eaiy and natural to repeat the
verb give after pleafes, and fo to iupply the . fentence,
which he pleafes to give him, referring it to the heir,
than to bring in the verb choofe, which was not in the
fentence before 5 and fo, by {applying the fenfe, which
he pleafes to choofe, to give the option to Titius. But
where controverfies of this kind arife from a law, re-
courfe may be had to other laws where the fame thing
has been exprefled with greater clearnefs j which may
help to determine the fenfe of the paflage in difpute.
A fecond controverfy from writings is, when one
party adheres to the words, and the other to what he
afierts was the writer’s intention. Now he who op-
pofes the literal fenfe, either contends, that what he
himfelf offers is the limple and plain meaning of the
writing, or that it mult be fo underftood in the parti¬
cular cafe in difpute. An inftance of the former is
this, as we find it in Cicero. A perfon who died
without children, but left a widow, had made this
provifion in his will : “ If I have a fon born to me, he
lhall be my heir.” And a little after : “ If my fon
die before he comes of age, let Curius be my heir.”
There is no fon born : Curius therefore fues for the
eftate, and pleads the intention of the teftator, who
defigned him for his heir, if he fhould have no fon
who arrived at age } and fays, there can be no reafon
to fuppofe he did not intend the fame perfon for his
heir if he had no fon, as if he fhould have one who af¬
terwards died in his minority. But the heir at law in-
fifts upon the words of the will 3 which, as he fays,
require, that firft a fon Ihould be born, and afterwards
die under age, before Curius can fucceed to the inhe¬
ritance 3 and there being no fon, a fubftituted heir,
as Curius was, can have no claim where the firft heir
does not exift, from whom he derives his pretenfion,
and was to fucceed by the appointment of the will.—
Of the latter cafe, rhetoricians give this example :
“ It was forbidden by a law to open the city gates in
the night. A certain perfon notwithftanding, in time
of wTar, did open them in the night, and let in fome
auxiliary troops, to prevent their being cut olf by the
enemy, who was polled near the town.” Afterwards,
when the war was over, this perfon is arraigned, and
tried for his life, on account of this aftion. Now, in
fuch a cafe, the profecutor founds his charge upon the
exprefs words of the law 3 and pleads, that no fuffi-
cient reafon can be affigned for going contrary to the
letter of it, which would be to make a new law, and
not to execute one already made. The defendant, on
the other hand, alleges, That the fa£t he is charged
with
Part I.
Inversion
ORATORY.
wMi cannot, howerer, come within the intention of writings happen to claih with each other, or at Icail
the law ; fxnce he either could not, or ought not, to
have complied with the letter of it in that particular
cafe, which mull therefore neceffarily be fuppofed to
have been excepted in the defign of that law when it
was made. But to this the profecutor may reply,
That all fuch exceptions as are intended by any law,
are ufually expreffed in it : and inftances may be
brought of particular exceptions expreffed in fome
laws j and if there be any fuch exception in the law
under debate, it fhould efpecially be mentioned. He
may further add, That to admit of exceptions not ex¬
preffed in the law itfelf, is to enervate the force of all
laws, by explaining them away, and in effect to ren¬
der them ufelefs. And this he may further corroborate,
by comparing the law under debate with others, and
confidering its nature and importance, and how far the
public intereft of the ff ate is concerned in the due and
regular execution of it j from whence he may infer,
that fhould exceptions be admitted in other laws of
lefs coniequence, yet, however, they ought not in this.
Laftly, He may confider the reafbn alleged by the de¬
fendant, on which he founds his plea, and (how there
was not that neceffity of violating the law in the pre-
fent cafe, as is pietended. And this is often the more
requifite, becaufe the party who difputes againft the
words of the law, always endeavours to fupport his
allegations from the equity of the cafe. If, therefore,
this plea can be enervated, the main fupport of the
defendant’s caufe is removed. For as the former ar¬
guments are defigned to prevail with the judge, to de¬
termine the matter on this fide the queftion from the
nature of the cafe j fo the intention of this argument
is to induce him to it, from the weaknefs of the de¬
fence made by the oppofite party. But the defendant
will, on the contrary, ufe fuch arguments as may bell
demonftrate the equity of his caufe, and endeavour to
vindicate the faff from his good defign and intention
in doing it. He will fay, That the laws have allotted
puniihments for the commiflion of fuch faffs as are evil
in themfelves, or prejudicial to others j neither of which
can be charged upon the affion for ivhich he is accufed :
That no law can be rightly executed, if more regard be
had to the words and fyllables of the writing, than to
the intention of the legiflator. 1 o which purpofe, he
may allege that direffion of the law itfelf, which fays,
“ The law ought not to be too rigoroufiy interpreted,
nor the words of it ftrained •, but the true intention and
defign of each part of it duly confidered.” As alfo that
faying of Cicero, “ What law may not be weakened
and delfroyed, if we bend the fenfe to the words, and
do not regard the defign and view of the legiflator ?”
Hence he may take occafion to complain of the hardfliip
of fuch a procedure, that no difference fhould be made
between an audacious and wilful crime, and an honeft
or neceffary affion, which might happen to difagree
with the letter of the law, though not with the intent
of it. And as it was obferved before to be of confider-
able fervice to the accufer, if he could remove the de¬
fendant’s plea of equity, fo it will be of equal advantage
to the defendant, if he can fix upon any words in the
law, which may in the lead: feem to countenance his
cafe, fince this will take off the main force of the
charge.
The third controverfy of this kind is, when two
feem to do lb. Of this Hermogenes gives the
lowing inifance. One law enjoins : “ He who con¬
tinues alone in a Ihip during a tempeft, ftiall have the
property of the flap.” Another law fays, “ A difin-
herited fon lhall enjoy no part of his father’s efiate.”
Now a fon, who had been difinherited by his father,
happens to be in his father’s flap in a tempeft, and
continues there alone, when every one elfe had de-
ferted it. He claims the Ihip by the former of thefe
laws, and his brother tries his right with him by the
latter. In fuch cafes, ,therefore, it may firft be con¬
fidered, “ Whether the two laws can be reconciled.
And if that cannot be done, then, Which of them ap¬
pears more equitable. Alfo, Whether one be pofitive,
and the other negative : becaufe prohibitions are a lort
of exceptions to pofitive injunctions. Or, If one be a
general law, and the other more particular, and come
nearer to the matter in queftion. Likewife, Which,
was laft made : fince former laws are often abrogated,
either wholly or in part, by fubfequent laws j or at
leaft were defigned to be fo. Laftly, It may be ob-
ferved, Whether one of the laws be not plain and ex-
prefs ; and the other more dubious, or has any ambi¬
guity in it. All, or any of which things, that party
will not omit to improve for his advantage whofe inte¬
reft is concerned in it.
The fourth controverfy is reafoning. As when
fomething, not exprefsly provided for by a law, is in¬
ferred by a fimilitude, or parity of reafon, from what
is contained in it. Quintilian mentions this inftance
of it. “ There; was a law made at Tarentum, to pro¬
hibit the exportation of wool j but a certain perfon
exports iheep.” In this cafe, the profecutor may firft
compare the thing which occaftons the charge, with
the words of the law, and ftiow their agreement, and
how unneceffary it was that particular thing fiiould
have been exprefsly mentioned in the law, fince it is
plainly contained in it, or at leaft an evident confe-
quence from it. He may then plead, that many
things of a like nature are omitted in other laws for
the fame reafon. And, laftly, He may urge the rea-
fonablenefs and equity of the procedure. I he de¬
fendant, on the other hand, will endeavour to ftiow
the deficiency of the reafoning, and the difterence be¬
tween the two cafes. He will infill upon the plain
and exprefs words of the law, and let forth the ill
tendency of fuch inferences and conclufions drawn
from fimilitudes and comparifons, fince there is fcarce
any thing but in fyme refpecl may bear a refemblance
to another.
The laft controverfy under this head is interpreta¬
tion, in which the dilpute turns upon the true mean¬
ing and explication of- the law in reference to that
particular cafe. We have the following inftance of
this in the Pandecls ; “ A man who had two fons
both under age, fubftitutes Titius as heir to him who
ftiouid die laft, provided both of them died in their
minority. They both perilh together at fea before
they came to age. Here arifes a doubt, whether the
fubftitution can take place, or whether the inheritance
devolves to the heir at law.” The latter pleads, That
as neither of them can be faid to have died laft, the
fubftitution cannot take place ; which was fufpended,
upon the condition that one died after the other,
r -Rw~
r
CO -
3io 0 R A T
' Invention. But to tliis it may be faid, It was ihe intention of the
1 v"- teftator, that it both died in their nonage, Titius
fhculd fucceed to the inheritance; and therefore it
makes no difference whether they died together, or one
after the other : and fo the law determines it.
2. The fecond head of external arguments are Wit-
rje//es. Thefe may either give their evidence, when ab-
tent, in writing fubfcribed with tlieir name j -or prefent,
by word of mouth. And what both of them teftify,
may either be from hearfay ; or what they faw them-
lelves, and were prefent at the time it was done. As
the weight of the evidence may be thought greater or
lefs on each of thefe accounts, either party will make
liich ufe of it as he finds for his advantage. The cha-
raclers of the witneffes are alfo to be conlidered *, and
if any thing be found in their lives or behaviour that is
jullly exceptionable, to invalidate their evidence, it
ought not to be omitted. And how they are aflecled to
the contending parties, or either of them, may deferve
confideration j for fome allowances may be judged rea-
ibnable in cafe of friendihip, cr enmity, where there is
no room for any other exception. But regard ihould
chiefiy be had to what they tefeify, and how far the
caufe is affedled by it. Cicero is very large upon molt
of thefe heads in his defence of Marcus Fonteius, with a
defign to weaken the evidence oi the Gauls ag unft him.
And where witnefles are produced on one fide only, as
orators fometimes attempt to leffen the credit of this
kind of proof, by pleading that witneffes are liable to be
corrupted, or biaffed by fome prevailing intereft or pal-
lion, to which arguments taken from the nature and cir-
cumftances of things are not fubjecc} it may be anfwer-
ed on the other hand, that fophiilical arguments and
falfe colourings are not expofed to infamy or punifn-
ment, whereas witneffes are reftrained by iliame and
penalties, nor would the law’ require them if they were
not neceffary.
3. The third and lall head of external arguments are
Contra&s ; which may be either public or private. By
public are meant the tranfaftions between different ftates,
as leagues, alliances, and the like 5 which depend on the
laws of nations, and come more properly under delibera¬
tive difeourfes, to which we lhall refer them. Thofe
are called private, which relate to leffer bodies or focie-
ties of men, and fingie perfons •, and may be either
written or verbal. And it is not fo much the true
meaning and purport of them that is here confidered as
their force and obligation. And, as the Roman law
declares, “ Nothing can be more agreeable to human
faith, than that perfens Ihould Hand to their agree¬
ments.” Therefore in controverfies of this kind, the
party whofe intereft it is that the contract ihould be
maintained, will plead, that fuch covenants have the
force of private laws, and ought religiouily to be obferv-
ed, fmee the common affairs of mankind are tranfabled
in that manner \ and therefore to violate them, is to
deftroy all commerce and fociety among men. On the
other fide it may be faid, that juitice and equity are
chiefly to be regarded, which are immutable •, and be-
fides, that the public laws are the common rule to de¬
termine all differences, which are designed to redrefs
thofe who are aggrieved. And indeed, where a com-
patt has been obtained by force or fraud, it is in itfelf
void, and has no e fie cl either in law or reafon. But on
the other hand, the Roman lawyers feem to have very
3
O R Y. . Parti.
rightly determined, that all fuch obligations as are Invention,
founded on natural equity, though not binding by na- v—
tional laws, and are thereiore called nuila pacia, ought,
however, in honour and confeience, to be performed.
III. Of the State of a Controverfy. The ancients, Qf ^ t
obferving that the principal queftion or point of dif-0f a contro-
pute in all coniroverlies might he referred to iome par-w •• fi, or
ticular head, reduced thefe heads to a certain number, ^ manner
that both the nature of the queftion might by that^ret<ff"n£
means be better known, and the arguments iuited to it pai qucftio-i
be difeovered with gieater eal’e. And theie heads they m dilpute
call fates. to fome
By the ftate of a controverfy, then, we are to under-j artj fuiar
Hand the principal point in diipute between contending g,-eater*
parties, upon the proof of which the whole caufe or con- eafe of ar-
treveriy depends. We find it expreffed by feveral other oument.
names in ancient writers : as, the confutation of the caifc,
the general head, and the chief quejhon. And as this is
the principal thing to be attended to in every inch dil-
ccurie 5 io it is what firft requires the confideration of the
fptaker, and ftiould be well fixed and digefted in his
mind, before he proceeds to look for arguments proper
to lupport it. Thus Antony, the Roman orator, ipeak-
ing of his own method in his pleading, fays : “ When
1 underftand the nature of the caule, and begin to con-
fider it, the firft; thing I endeavour to do is, to fettle
with myfelf what that is to which all my difeourfe rela¬
ting to the matter in difpute ought to be referred : then
I diligently attend to thefe other twTo things, How to
recommend myfelf, or thofe for whom I plead, to the
good tfteem of rny hearers; and how to influence their
minds, as may beft fuit my defign.” This way of pro¬
ceeding appears very agreeable to reafon and prudence.
For what can be more abfurd, than for a perfon to at¬
tempt the proof of any thing, before he has well fettled
in his own mind a clear and diiiincl notion what the
thing is which he would endeavour to prove ? (Quinti¬
lian deferibes it lobe, ‘ ’I hat kind of queftion which
arifes from the firft conflidl of caufes.’ In judicial cafes,
it immediately follows upon the charge of the plaintiff,
and plea of the defendant. Our common law expreffes
it by one word, namely the iffue. Which interpreters
explain, by deicribing it to be, “ That Q>oint of matter
depending in fuit, whereupon the partiesjoin, and put
their caufe to the trial.” Examples will further help
to illuftrate this, and render it more evident. In the
caufe of Milo, the charge of the Clodian party is,
Milo hilled Clodius. Milo’s pita or defence, / hilled him,
hutjufthj. From hence arifes this grand queftion, or
ftate of the caufe, Whether it was lawful for Milo to
hill Clod ms ? And that Clodius was lawfully killed by
Milo, is what Cicero in his defence of Milo principally
endeavours to prove. This is the main fubjedl of that
fine and beautiful oration. The whole of his difeourfe
is to be confidered as centering at laft in this one point.
Whatever different matters are occafionally mentioned,
will, if clofely attended to, be found to have been intro¬
duced iomew’&y or other the better to fupport and carry
on tiffs defign. Now in fuch cafes, where the fact is
not denied, but fbmethir.g is effered in its defence, the
ftate of the caule is taken from the defendant’s plea,
wrho is obliged to make it good : As in the inftance here
given, the chief point in difpute was the lawfulnefs of
Milo’s a<ffion, which it was Cicero’s bufinefs to demon-
ftrate. But when the defendant denies the fact, the ftate
of-
Part T.
ORATORY.
Invention, of die caufc krifcs irora tr.e accufation j the proof of
' * ' which then lies upon the plaintiit, and not, as in the
former cafe, upon the defendant. So in the canfe of
Hofcius, the charge made againft him is, That hie
killed his father. But he denies the fa6t. The grand
queftion therefore to be argued is, Whether or not he
killed his father : The proof o f this lay upon his ac-
cufers. And Cicero’s deiipn in his defence of him is
O
to fhow, that they had not made good their charge,
•But it fotnedmes happens, that the defendant neither
abfomtely dentes the fact, nor attempts to juftify it \
but only endeavours to qualify it, by denying that it
is a crime of that nature, or deferves that name, by
which it is expreffed in the charge. We have an ex¬
ample of this propofed by Cicero : “ A psrfon is ac-
cufed of facrilege, for taking a thing, that was facred,
out of a private houfe. He owns the faff, but denies
it to be facrilege •, fmce it was committed in a private
houfe, and not in a temple.” Hence this queftion
arifes, Whether to take a facred thing out of a private
houfe, is to he deemed facrilege, or only fmple theft ? It
lies, upon the accufer to prove what the other denies;
and therefore the Hate of the caufe is here alio, as
well as in the preceding cafe, taken from the indift-
ment.
Butbehdes the principal queftion, there are other fub-
ordinate queftions, which follow upon it in the courfe
of a difpute, and ftiould be carefully diftinguiftied from
it. Particularly that which arifes from the reafon, or
argument, which is brought in proof of the principal
queftion. For the principal queftion itfelf proves no¬
thing, but is the thing to be proved, and becomes at
laft the conclufion of the difeourfe. Thus, in the caufe
of Milo, his argument is, / killed Clodius juflly, becaufe
he affaffmated me. Unlefs the Clodian party be fuppo-
fed to deny this, they give up their caufe. From hence
therefore this fubordinate queftion follows, Whether Clo-
dius ajjaffinated Milo ? Now Cicero fpends much time
in the proof of this, as the hinge on which the firft
queftion, and confequently the whole caufe, depended.
For if this was once made to appear, the lawfulnefs of
Milo’s killing Clodius, which was the grand queftion or
thing to be proved, might be inferred as an allowed con-
fequence from it. This will be evident, by throwing
Milo’s argument, as ufed by Cicero, into the form of a
fyllogifm.
An ajfaffin is lawfully killed:
Clodius was an affaff.n :
Therefore he was lawfully killed by Milo whom he
ajfajjinatcd.
If the minor propofttion of this fyllogifm was granted,
no one would deny the conclufion : for the Roman law
allowed of felf-defence. But as Cicero was very ienfi-
ble this would not be admitted, fo he takes much pains
to bring the court into the belief of it. Now where
the argument brought in defence of the fecond queftion
is contefted, or the orator fuppofes that it may be fo,
and therefore fupports that with another argument, this
occafions a third queftion confequent upon the former 5
and in like manner he may proceed to a fourth.
But be they more or fewer, they are to be conftdered
but as one chain of fubordinate queftions dependent
upon the firft. And though each of them has its
particular ftate, yet none of thefe is what rhetorician
call The fate of the Caufe, which is to be underftood Invention,
only of the principal queftion. And if, as it frequently v
happens, the flrft or principal queftion is itfelf direffly
proved from more than one argument ; this makes no
other difference, but that each of thefe arguments, fo
far as they are followed by others to fupport them, be¬
come a diilmcl feries of fubordinaLe queftions, all depen¬
dent upon the firft. As when Cicero endeavours to
prove, that Rofcius did not kill his father, from two
reafons or arguments : Becaufe he had neither any caufe
to move him to fuch a barbarous aBion, nor any opportu¬
nity for it.
Moreover, be Odes thefe fubordinate queftiems, there
are alfo incidental ones often introduced, which have
forne reference to the principal queftion, and contribute
towards the proof or it, though they are not neceffarily
connected with it, or dependent upon it. And each of
thefe alio has its ftate, though different from that of the
caufe. For every queftion, or point of controverfy,
muft be ftated, before it can be made the fuhjeift of dii-
putation. And it is for this reafon, that every new ar¬
gument advanced by an orator is called a quejlion ; be¬
caufe it Is conftdered as a frelh matter of cuntroveify.
In Cicero’s defence of Milo, we meet with feveral of
this fort of queftions, occaftoned by fome afperfions
which had been thrown out by the Clodian party to the
prejudice of Milo. As, “ That he was unworthy to
fee the light, who owned he had killed a man For
Milo before his trial had openly confefled he killed Clo¬
dius. So likewife, “ That the fen ate had declared the
killing of Clodius was an illegal action.” And further,
“ That Pompey, by making a new laiv to fettle the
manner of Milo’s trial, had given his judgment ■; gain it
Milo.” Now to each of thefe Cicero replies, before he
proceeds to the principal queftidn. And therefore,
though the queftion, in which the ftate of a controverfy
confiits, is laid by Quintilian to arife from “ the .firlt
conflict of caufes,” yet we find by this inftance of Cice¬
ro, that it is not always the firft queftion in order, upon
which the orator treats.
But it fometimes happens, that the fame caufe or con¬
troverfy contains in it more than one ftate. Thus in
judicial caufes, every diftinc! charge occafions a new
ftate. All Cicero’s orations againit Verres relate to
one caufe, founded upon a law of the Romans againft
unjuft exactions made by their governors of provinces
upon the inhabitants ; but as that profecution is made
up of as many charges as there are orations, every
charge, or indictment, has its different ftate. So like-
v/ife his oration in defence of Coeiius has two ftates, in
anfwer to a double charge made againft him by his ad- ■
verfaries : one, “ for borrowing money of Clodja, in or¬
der to bribe certain Haves to kill a foreign ambaffador 3”
and the other, “ for an attempt afterwards to poii'on
Clodia herfelf.” Befides which, there were feveral
other matters of a lefs heinous nature, which had been
thrown upon him by his accufers, with a defign, very
likely, to render the two principal charges more credi¬
ble 5 to which Cicero firft: replies, in the fame manner
as in his defence of Milo.
Though all the examples we have hitherto brought
to illuftrate this fubjeft have been taken from judicial
cafes, yet not only thefe, but very frequently difeourfes
of the deliberative kind, and fometimes thofe of the
demonftrative, are managed in a controverual way.
And u
Cj
^12
O R A T
Invention. And all controverfies have their ftate. And thereiore
  v   Ouintilian very juftly obferves, that “ Hates belong both
to general and particular queftions; and to all ibrts of
cauies, demonftrative, deliberative, and judicial.” In
Cicero’s oration for the Munilian law, this is the mam
point in difpute between him and thofe who oppofed
that law : “ Whether Pompey was the fitted perfon to
be intruiled with the management of the war againft
Mithridates ?” This is a iubjea of the deliberative
kind. And of the fame nature was that debate in the
fenate concerning the demolition of Carthage. For the
matter in difpute between Cato, who argued for it, and
thofe who were of the contrary opinion, feems to have
been this: “ Whether it was for the intereft of the Ro¬
mans to demolifh Carthage ?” And fo likewife in thole
two fine orations of Cato and Caefar, given us by Sal-
luft, relating to the confpirators with Catiline, who were
then in cuftody, the controverfy turns upon this :
44 Whether thofe pnloners Ihould be pumlhed with
death, or perpetual imprifonment ?” Examples of the
demonftrative kind are not fo common } but Cicero s 01 a-
tion concerning the ‘ Anfwers of the foothfayers, may
afford us an inftance of it. Several prodigies had lately
happened at Rome ; upon which the foothfayers being
confulted, afligned this as the reafon of them, Becaufe
fome places confecrated to the gods had oeen afterwards
converted to civil ufes. Clodius charged this upon Ci¬
cero } whofe houfe was rebuilt at the public expence, af¬
ter it had been demolilhed by Clodius, and the ground
confecrated to the goddeis Liberty. Cicer#o in this ora¬
tion retorts the charge •, and Ihow s that the prodigies did
not refpeft him, but Clodius. So that the quenion in
difpute was, “ To which of the two thofe prodigies re¬
lated?” This oration does not appear to have been
fpoken in a judicial way, and muft therefore belong to
the demonftrative kind. His inveftive againft Pilo is
like wife much of the fame nature, wherein he compares
his own behaviour and conduct with that of Pifo.
As to the number of thefe ftates, botn Ciceio and
Quintilian reduce them to three. “ We muft (fays
Ouintilian) agree with thofe whofe authority Cicero fol¬
lows, who tells us, that three things may be inquired
into in all difputes : Whether a thing is} what it is;
and how it is. And this is the metnod which nature
prefcribes. For, in the firft place, it is neceffary the
thing fhould exift about which the difpute is: becaufe
no judgment can be made either of its nature or quality
till its exiftence be manifeft ■, which is therefore the. firft
queftion. But though it be manifeft that a thing is, it
does not prefently appear what it is •, and when this is
known, the quality yet remains: and alter thefe three
are fettled, no further inquiry is neceffary ” Now the
firft of thefe three ftates is called the conjeEiural fate;
as if it be inquired, “ Whether one perfon killed ano¬
ther ?” This always follows upon the denial, of a fail
by one of the parties 5 as w'as the cafe of Ro.fcius. . And
it receives its name from hence, that the judge is left,
as it were, to conjefture, whether the faft was really
committed or not, from the evidence produced on the
other fide. The fecond is called the definitive fate,
when the faft is not denied ; but the difpute turns upon
the nature of it, and what name it is proper to give it :
as in that example of Cicero, “ Whether to take a fa-
cred thing out of a private houfe be theft or facrilege ?”
^or in this cafe it is neceffary to fettle the diilincl no-
4
O R Y.
Part L
tion of thofe twro crimes, and ftiow their difference. Invention.
The third is called the fate of quality ; when the con- *
tending parties are agreed both as to the fa61, and the
nature of it ■, but the difpute is, “ Whether it be juft
or unjuft, profitable or unprofitable, and the like j” as
in the caufe of Milo.
From what has been faid upon this fubjeft, the ufe
of it may in a good meafure appear. For whoever en¬
gages in a controverfy, ought in the firft place to confi-
der wdth himfelf the main queftion in difpute, to fix it
well in his mind, and keep it conftantly in his view j
without which he will be very liable to ramble from
the point, and bewilder both himfelf and his. hearers.
And it is no lefs the bufinefs of the hearers principally
to attend to this •, by which means they, will be helped
to diftinguifti and feparate from the principal queftion
what is only incidental, and to obferve how far the prin¬
cipal queftion is affefted by it; to perceive what is of¬
fered in proof, and what is only brought in for illuftia-
tion ; not to be milled by digreflions, but to chfeern when
the fpeaker goes oft from his fubjedl, and when he re¬
turns to it again , and, in a wrord, to accompany him
through the whole dilcourfe, and carry with them the
principal chain of reafoning upon which the caufe de¬
pends, fo as to judge upon the whole, whether he has
made out his point, and the conclufton follows from the
premifes.
Chap. II. Of Arguments fuited to Demonfirative
Difcourfes.
16
These confift either in praife or difpraife ; and, agree-Of argu¬
ably to the nature of all contraries, one of them will ^
ferve to illuftrate the other. tlemon-
Now we either praife perfons or things. . . ftrative
I. In praifing or difpraifing perfons, rhetoricians difcourfes.
preferibe two methods. One is, to follow the order in
which every thing happened that is mentioned in tho-
difeourfe 5 the other is, to reduce what is faid under cer¬
tain general heads, wdthout a ftridl regard to the order
of time.
1. In purfuing the former method, the difeourfe may
be very conveniently divided into three periods. 1 he
firft of which will contain what preceded the perfon’s
birth j the fecond, the whole courfe of his life j and the
third what followed upon his death.
Under the firft of thefe may be comprehended what
is proper to be faid concerning his country, or family.
And therefore, if thefe were honourable, it may be
faid to his advantage, that he nowife difgraced them,
but acted fuitably to fuch a defeent. But if they were
not fo, they may be either wholly omitted \ or it may
be faid, that, inftead of deriving thence, any advantage
to his charafter, he has conferred a lafting honour up¬
on them ; and that it is not of fo much, moment where,
or from whom, a perfon derives his birth, as how hv,
lives. " ' , _ ( r ,
In the fecond period, which is that of Ins. lii.e, the
qualities both of his mind and body, with his circum-
ftances in the world, may be feparately confidered.
Though, as Ouintilian rightly obferves, “ All exter¬
nal advantages are not praifes for fhemfelves, but ac¬
cording to the ufe that is made of them. For riches,
and power, and intereft, as they have great influence,
and may be applied either to good or bad purpofes, are
s
Part I.
Invention.
ORATORY.
a proof of the temper of our minds; and therefore we
— are either made better or worfe by them.,, But thefe
things are a juft ground for commendation, when they
are the reward of virtue or induftry. Bodily endow¬
ments are health, ftrength, beauty, activity, and the
like} which are more or lefs commendable, according
as they are employed. And where thefe, or any of
them, are wanting, it may be fhown, that they are
abundantly compenfated by the more valuable endow¬
ments of the mind. Nay, fometimes a defedl in thefe
may give an advantageous turn to a perfon’s charac¬
ter j for any virtue appears greater, in proportion to
the difadvantages the perfon laboured under in exert¬
ing it. But the chief topics of praife are taken from
the virtues and qualifications of the mind. And here
the orator may confider the difpofition, education,
learning, and feveral virtues, which ftione through the
whole courfe of the perfon’s life. In doing which,
the preference ftiould always be given to virtue above
knowledge or any other accompliftiment. And in ac¬
tions, thofe are moft confiderable, and will be heard
with greateft approbation, which a perfon either did
alone, or firft, or wherein he had feweft affociates j as
likewife thofe which exceeded expedtation, or were
done for the advantage of others rather than his own.
And further, as the laft fcene of a man’s life generally
commands the greateft regard, if any thing remark¬
able at that time was either faid or done, it ought par¬
ticularly to be mentioned. Nor ftiould the manner of
his death, or caufe of it, if accompanied with any com¬
mendable circumftances be omitted; as if he died in
the fervice of his country, or in the purfuit of any
other laudable defign.
The third and laft period relates to what followed
after the death of the perfon. And here the public
lofs, and public honours conferred upon the deceafed,
are proper to be mentioned. Sepulchres, ftatues, and
other monuments to perpetuate the memory of the
dead, at the expence of the public, were in common
ufe both among the Greeks and Romans. But in the
earlieft times, as thefe honours were more rare, fo they
were lefs coftly. For as in one age it was thought
a fufficient reward for him who died in the defence of
lus country, to have his name cut in a marble infcrip-
tion, with the caufe of his death ; fo in others it was
very common to fee the ftatues of gladiators, and per-
fons of the meaneft rank, ere&ed in public places.
And therefore a judgement is to be formed of thefe
things from the time, cuftom, and circumftances, of
different nations; fince the frequency of them renders
them lefs honourable, and takes off from their evi¬
dence as the rewards of virtue. But, as Quintilian
fays, “ Children are an honour to their parents, cities
to their founders, laws to thofe who compiled them,
arts to their inventors, and ufeful cuftoms to the au¬
thors of them.”
And this may fuftice for the method of praifing
perfons, when we propofe to follow the order of time,
as Ifocrates has done in his funeral oration upon Eva-
goras king of Salamis, and Pliny in his panegyric
upon the emperor Trajan. But as this method is very
plain and obvious, fo it requires the more agreeable
drefs to render it delightful 5 left otherwife it feem
rather like a hiftory than an oration : For wdiich reafon,
we find, that epic poets, as Homer, Virgil, and others,
Vol. XV. Part I.
begin with the middle of their ftory, and afterwards
take a proper occaijon to introduce what preceded, to
diverlify the fubjea,_ and give the greater plealure and
entertainment to their readers.
2. The other method above hinted was, to reduce
the difcourfe to certain general heads without regard¬
ing the order of time. As if any one, in praifing the
elder Cato, fhould propofe to do it, by (howing that
he wras a moft prudent fenator, an excellent orator,
and moft valiant general 5 all which commendations
are given him by Pliny. In like manner, the charac¬
ter of a good general may be comprifed under four
heads } (kill in military affairs, courage, authority, and
fuccefs: from all which Cicero commends Pompey.
And agreeably to this method Suetonius has written the
lives of the firft twelve Csefars.
But in the praifing of perfons, care (hould always be
taken to fay nothing that may feem fictitious or out of
character, which may call the orator’s judgement or
integrity in queftion. It was not without caufe, there¬
fore, that Lyfippus the ftatuary, as Plutarch tells us,
blamed Apelles for painting Alexander the Great with
thunder in his hand j which could never fuit his cha¬
racter as a man, however he might boaft of his divine
defcent : for which reafon Lyfippus himfelf made an
image of him^ holding a fpear, as the fign of a warrior.
Light and trivial things in commendations are likewife
to be^ avoided, and nothing mentioned but what may
carry in it the idea of fomething truly valuable, and
which the hearers may be fuppofed to wifh for, and is
proper to excite their emulation. Thefe are the prin¬
cipal heads of praife with relation to men. In difpraife,
the heads contrary to thefe are requifite 5 which being
fufficiently clear from what has been faid, need not
particularly be infifted on.
. II- We proceed therefore to the other part of the
divifion, which refpe&s things, as diftinguilhed from
perfons. By which we are to underftand all beings
inferior to man, whether animate or inanimate ; as
likewife the habits and difpofitions of men, either cr0od
or bad, when confidered feparately, and apart from
their fubjeCfs, as arts and fciences, virtues and vices
with whatever elfe may be a proper fubjeft for praife
or difpraife. Some writers, indeed, have, for their
own amufement and the diverfion of others, difplayed
their eloquence in a jocofe manner upon fubjeCts of
this kind. So Lucian has written in praife of a fly,
and Synefius an elegant encomium upon baldnefs.
Others, on the contrary, have done the like in a fa-
tirical fray. Such is Seneca’s apothecfis or confecra-
tion of the emperor Claudius; and the Myfopo^on
or beard-hater, written by Julian the emperor. Not
to mention feveral modern authors, who have imitated
them in fuch ludicrous compofitions. But as to thefe
things, and all of the like nature, the obfervation of
Antony in Cicero feems very juft: “ That it is not
neceffary to reduce every fubjeCI we difcourfe upon to
rules of art.” For many are fo trivial, as not to de-
ferve it; and others fo plain and evident of themfelves,
a* not to require it. But fince it frequently comes in
the way both of orators and hiftorians to defcribe
countries, cities, and fafts, we (hall briefly mention the
principal heads of invention proper to illuftrate each
of thefe.
Countries, then, may be celebrated from the plea-
K r fantnels
313
Invention.
314 O H A T
Invention, fantnefs of tlieir fituation, the clemency and whole-
v~—v—'— fomenefs of the air, and goodnefs of the foil} to which
laft may be referred the iprings, rivers, woods, plains,
mountains, and minerals. And to all thefe may be add¬
ed their extent, cities, the number and antiquity of
ihe inhabitants; their policy, laws, cufloms, wealth,
charadfer for cultivating the arts both of peace and
war ; their princes, and other eminent men they have
produced. Thus Pacatus has given us a very elegant
defcription of Spain, in this panegyric upon the empe¬
ror Theodoiius, who was born there.
Cities are praifed from much the fame topics as
countries. And here, wharever contiioutes eithei to
their defence or ornament ought particularly to be
mentioned ; as the ftrength of the walls and fortifica¬
tions, the beauty and fplendour of the buildings, whether
facred or civil, public or private. W e have in Plero-
dotus a very fine defcription of Babylon, which was
once the ftrongeft, largeft, and moil regular city in the
world. And Cicero has accurately defcribed tne city
of Syracufe, in the ifland Sicily, in one of his orations
againfl: Verres.
^ But facts come much oftener under the cognizance
of an orator. And thefe receive their commendation
from their honour, juftice, or advantage. But in de-
fcribing them, all the circumftances ihould be related
in their proper order: and that in the moil lively and
affecting manner fuited to their different nature. Li¬
vy has reprefented the demolition of Aloa by the Ro¬
man army, which was fent thither to deftroy it, thiough
the whole courfe of that melancholy fcene, in a ftyle
fo moving and pathetic, that one can hardly forbear
condoling with the inhabitants, upon reading his ac-
eount. . . , , , r . r
But in difcourfes of this kind, whether oi praiie or
difpraife, the orator fhould (as he ought indeed upon
all occafions) well confider where, and to whom, he
fpeaks. For wife men often think very differently
both of perfons and things from the common people.
And we find that learned and judicious men are fre¬
quently divided in their fentiments, from the feveral
ways of thinking to which they have been accuflomed.
Befides, different opinions prevail, and gain the af-
cendant, at different times. While the Romans con¬
tinued a free nation, love of their country, lioerty, and
public fpirit, were principles in the higheft efteem
among them. And therefore, when Cato killed him-
felf, that he might not fall into the hands of Csefar,
and furvive the liberty of his country, it was thought
an inflance of the greatcft heroic virtue ; but afterwards,
when they had been accuftomed to an arbitrary govern¬
ment, and the fpirit of liberty was now' loft, the poet
Martial could venture to fay,
Death to avoid ’’tis madnefs fare to die.
A prudent orator therefore will be cautious of oppof-
insr any fettled and prevailing notions of thofe whom
he& addreffes, unlefs it be neceffary ; and then he will
do it in the fofteft and moft gentle manner.
Chap. III. Of Arguments fuited to Deliberative
Difcourfes.
This kind of difcourfes muft certainly have been
very ancient; fince, doubtlefs, from the firft beginning
O R Y. Part i.
of men’s converfing together, they deliberated upon Invention..
their common intereft, and offered their advice to each "
other. But neither thofe of the laudatory nor ju_di-of
cial kind could have been introduced, till mankind rative dif-
were fettled in communities, and found it neceflary to courfe?, and
encourage virtue by public rewards, and bring vice * ,
under the reftraint of laws. The early praftice oft0
fuafory difcourfes appears from facred writ, wheie 'we qieiQ,
find, that when Mofes was ordered upon an embaffy
into Egypt, be would have excufed himfelf for want
of eloquence. And Homer reprefents the Greeks at
the liege of Troy, as flocking like a fwarm of bees to
hear their generals harangue them. Nor is this part
of oratory lefs confpicuous for iis ufefulnefs to man¬
kind, than for its antiquity ; being .highly beneficial ei¬
ther in councils, camps, or any focieties of men. How
many inftances have we upon record, wheie the fury
of an enraged multitude has been checked and appeaf-
ed by the prudent and artful perfuafion of fome par¬
ticular perfon ? The ftory of Agrippa Menenius, when
the commons of Rome withdrew from the fenators,
and itetired out of the city, is too wTell known to need,
reciting. And how often have armies been animated
and fired to the moft dangerous exploits, or recalled to
their duty, when ready to mutiny, by a moving fpeech
of their general ? many inftances of which v\e find 111
hiftory. ...
All deliberation refpeas fometbing future, for it is
in vain to confult about what is already paft. The .
fubjeft matter of it is, either things public or private,
facred or civil; indeed all the valuable concerns of
mankind, both prefent and future, come under its re¬
gard. And the end propofed by this kind of dif¬
courfes is chiefly profit or intereft. But fince nothing
is truly profitable, but what is in fome yefpect good ;
and every thing which is good in itfelf may not in
all circumftances be for our advantage ; propeily fpeak-
ing> what is both good and profitable, or beneneial
good, is the end here defigned. And therefore, as it
fometimes happens, that what appears profitable may
feem to interfere with that which is itu'clly juft and
honourable; in fuch cafes it is certainly moft advife-
able to determine on the fafer fide oi honour and juf¬
tice, notwithftanding fome plaufible things may be of¬
fered to the contrary. But where the difpute lies ap¬
parently between what is truly honeft, and fome ex¬
ternal advantage propofed in oppofition to it, all good
men cannot but agree in favour of hqnefty. Such was
the cafe of Regulus, who, being taken prifoner by the
Carthaginians," was permitted to go to Rome upon gi¬
ving his oath, that unlefs he could perfuade the fenate
to fet at liberty fome young Carthaginian noblemen,
then prifoners at Rome, in exchange tor him, he fhoutd
return again to Carthage. But Regulus, when he
came to Rome, was fo far from endeavouring to pre¬
vail with the fenate to comply with the defire of the -
Carthaginians, that he ufed all his inlereft to diffuade
them from hearkening to the propofal. Nor could
the moft eameft entreaties of his neareft relations and
friends, nor any arguments they were able to offer,
engage bim to continue at Rome, and not return again
to Carthage. He had then plainly in his view, on the
one fide, eafe, fecurity, affluence, honours, and the en¬
joyment of his friends ; and on the other, certain death,
attended with cruel torments. Hov/ever, thinking the
forme t
Parti.
O R A T
Invention former not confiftent whit truth and juitice, ho chofe
^' tine iatter And he certainly afted as became an ho-
neil and .brave man, in choofmg death, rather than to
violate his oath. Though whether he did pruumtiy
in perfuading the fenate not to make the exchange, or
they in complying with him, we lhall leave others to
determine. Nowr, when it proves to be a matter of de¬
bate, whether a thing upon the whole be really be¬
neficial or not •, as here arife two parts, advice and
diffuafion, they will each require proper heads of argu¬
ment. But as they are contrary to each other, he w no
is acquainted with one, cannot well be ignorant of the
other. We (hall therefore chiefly mention, thofe pro¬
per for advice, from whence fuch as are fuited to uil-
fuade will eafily be perceived. Now the principal heads
of this kind are thefe following, which are ^taken from
the nature and properties of the thing itfeli under con-
fideration.
i. Pleafure often affords a very cogent argument in
difcourfes of this nature. Every ope knows what an
influence this has upon the generality of mankind.
Though, as Quintilian remarks, pleafure ought not
of itfelf to be propofed as a fit motive for action in
ferious difcourfes, but when it is defigned to recom¬
mend fomething ufeful, wrhich is the cafe here. So,
would any one advife another to the. purfuit of polite
literature, Cicero has furnifhed him with a very ftrong
inducement to it from the pleafure which attends that
ftudy, when he fays, “ If pleafure only was propofed
by thefe fludies, you would think them an entertain¬
ment becoming a man of fenfe and a gentleman. Foi
other purfuits neither agree with all times, all ages,
nor all places 5 but thefe fludies improve youth, de¬
light old age, adorn profperity, afford a refuge and
comfort in adverfity, divert us at home, are no.hinder-
ance abroad, fleep, travel, and retire with us into the
country.1’ .
2. Proft, or advantage. This has no lefs influence
upon many perfons than the former} and when it re-
fpedfs things truly valuable, it is a very juft and lauda¬
ble motive. Thus Cicero, when he fends his Bool; of
Offices to his fon, which he wrote in Latin for his ufe,
advifes him to make the beft advantage both of his tu¬
tor’s inftruchons and the conveiCation at Athens, wheie
he then was ", but withal to perufe his philofophical
treatifes, which would be doubly ufeful to him, not only
upon account of the fubjefts, but likewife of the lan¬
guage, as they would enable him to exprefs himfelf up¬
on 'thofe arguments in Latin, which before had only
been treated of in Greek.
3. Honour; than which no argument will fooner
prevail with generous minds, or infpire them with great¬
er ardour. Virgil has very beautifully defcubed Hec¬
tor’s ghoft appearing to TEneas the night Troy was
taken, and advifing him to depart, from this motive of
honour:
O goddefs-born, efcape by timely flight
The flames and horrors of this fatal night.
The foes already have poflefs d the wall}
Troy nods from high, and totters to her fall.
Enough is paid to Priam’s royal name •,
More than enough to duty and to fame.
If by a mortal hand my father’s throne
Con’d be defended, ’twas by mine alone.
O pv‘ Y.
The argument here made ufe of to perfuade /Lucas to ^
leave 'Troy immediately, is, that he had done all that
could be expected from him, either as a good fubject or
brave foldier, both for his king and country, which
were fufficient to fecure his honour •, and now there was
nothing more to be expected from him when the city
was falling, and impoflible to be faved } which, could
it have been preferved by human power, he himfelf had
done it. . . r c
But although a thing confidered in it'el! appear be¬
neficial if it could be attained, yet the expediency of
undertaking it may Hill be queitionable : in which caie
the following heads, taken from the circumftances
which attend it, will afford proper arguments to engage
in it. .
(1.) The pofjibilihj of fucceeding may fometimes be
argued, as one motive to this end. So Hannibal en¬
deavoured to convince King Antiochus, that it wa»
poflible for him to conquer the Romans, if he made
Italy the feat of the war 5 by obferving to him, not on¬
ly that the Gauls had formerly deftroyed their- city,
but that he had himfelf defeated them in every battle
he fought with them in that country.
(2.) But an argument founded upon probability
will be much more likely to prevail. lor in many affairs
of human life, men are determined either to profecute
them or not, as the profpeft of fuccefs appears more
or lefs probable. Hence Cicero, after the fatal battle
at Pharfalia, diffuades thofe of Pompey’s party, with
whom he was engaged, from continuing the war any
longer againft Csefar ; becaufe it was highly impro¬
bable, after fuch a defeat, by which their main ftrength
was broken, that they ftiould be able to ftand their
ground, or meet with better foccefs than they haft be-
fore.
(3.) But further, fince probability is not a motive
ftrong enough with many perfons to engage in the pro-
fecution of a thing which is attended with confiderable
difficulties, it is often neceffary to reprefent the facility
of doing it, as a further reafon to induce them to it.
And therefore Cicero makes ufe of this argument to en¬
courage the Roman citizens in oppofing Mark Antony
(who upon the death of Csefar had affumed an arbitrary
power), by reprefenting to them, that his circumftances
were then defperate, and that he might eafily be van-
qniftied.
(4.) Again, If the thing advifed can be fhown to
be in any refpeff neceffary, this will render the mo¬
tive ftill much ftronger for undertaking it. And there¬
fore Cicero joins this argument with the former, to
prevail with the Roman citizens to oppefe Antony,
by telling them, that “ The confideration before them
was, not in what circumftances they ftiould live, but
whether they Ihould live at all, or die with ignominy
and difgrace.” This way of reafoning will fometimes
prevail when all others prove ineffe&ual. For fome
perfons are not to be moved till things are brought to
an extremity, and they find themfelves reduced to the
utmoft danger.
( y) To thefe heads may be added the confideration
of the event, which in fome cafes carries great weight
with it. As when we advife to the doing of a thing
from this motive, That whether it fucceed or not, it
will yet be of fervice to undertake it. So after the great
victorv gained by Themiftocles over the Perfian fleet at
R r 2 the
316
Invention
O R A T
the ftraits of Salamis, Mardonius advifed Xerxes to re-
" turn into Afia himfelf, left the report of his defeat
ftiould occalion an mfurrcclion in his abfence : but to
leave behind him an army of 300,000 men under his
command; v ith which, if he fliould conquer Greece,
the chief glory of the conqueft would redound to Xerxes}
but if the defign mifcarried, the difgrace would fall upon
his generals.
1 hefe are the principal heads which furnifli the ora¬
tor with proper arguments in giving advice. Cicero,
in his oration tor the Manilian law, wdiere he endea-
vours to perl’uade the Roman people to choofe Pom-
pey for their general in the Mithridatic war, reafons
from three of thefe topics, into which he divides his
whole difcourfe 5 namely, tfte neceflity of the wrar, the
greatnefs of it, and the choice of a proper general. 
Linder the firtt oi thefe he fliows, that the war was ne-
ceiTary, from four confiderations 3 the honour of the
Roman ftate, the fafety of their allies, their own re¬
venues, and the fortunes of many of their fellow citi¬
zens, which were all highly concerned in it, and called
upon them to put a flop to the growing power of
King Mithridates, by which they were all greatly en¬
dangered. So that this argument is taken from" the
head of necejfity. The fecond, ip which he treats of
the greatnefs of the war, is founded upon the topic of
pojjibility. For though he fhows the power of Mithri-
dates to be very great, yet not fo formidable, but that
he might be fubdued 3 as was evident from the many
advantages Lucullus had gained over him £jnd his af-
fociates. In the third head, he endeavours to prevail
with them to intruft the management of the war in the
hands of Pompey, whom he defcribes as a confummate
general, for his fkill in military affairs, courage, au¬
thority, and fuccels 3 in all which qualities he repre-
fents him as fuperior to any other of their generals
whom they could at that time make choice of. The*
defign of all which was, to perfuade them, that they
had very good reafon to hope for fuccefs, and a happy
event of the war, under his condudl. So that the
whole force of his reafoning under this head is drawn
from probability. Thefe are the three general topics
which make up that fine difcourfe. Each of which
is indeed fupported by divers other arguments and con¬
fiderations, which will be obvious in perufing the ora¬
tion itfelf, and therefore need not be here enumerated.
On the contrary, in another oration he endeavours to
diffuade the fenate from confenting to a peace with
Mark Antony, becaufe it was bafe, dangerous, and
impraflicable.
But no fmall /kill and addrefs are required in giving
advice. For fince the tempers and fentiments of man¬
kind, as well as their circumftances, are very different
and various; it is often neceffary to accommodate the
difcourfe to their inclinations and opinions of things.
And therefore the weightieft arguments are not al¬
ways the moft proper and fitteft to be ufed on all oc-
cafions. Cicero, who was an admirable mafter of this
art, and knew perfectly well how to fuit what he faid
to the tafte and rehfti of his hearers, in treating upon
this fubjefl, diftinguifhes mankind into two forts 3 the
ignorant and unpohftied, who always prefer profit to
honour 3 and fuch as are more civilized and polite, who
prefer honour and reputation to all other things  
Wherefore -they are to be moved by thefe different
O R Y.
Part I.
views : Praife, glory, and virtue, influence the one : Invention.
while the other is only to be engaged by a profpedl of — 
gain and pleafure. Belides, it is plain, that the gene¬
rality are much more inclined to avoid evils than to
purfue what is good 3 and to keep clear of fcandal and
difgrace, than to pradtife what is truly generous and
noble. Perfons likewife of a different age act from dif¬
ferent principles; young men for the moft part view
things in a different light from thofe who are older and
have had more experience, and confequently are not to
be influenced by the fame motives.
Chap. IV. Of Arguments fuited to Judicial Dif~
courfes.
In judicial controverfies there are two parties 3 the Of judicial
plaintiff or prolecutor, and the defendant or perfon difcouri'es
charged. The fubjeft of them is always fomethingant! thc ar-
paft. And the end propofed by them Cicero callsp™?1'8
equity, ox right and equity ; the former of which arifes tiPP. t0
from the law^s of the country, and the latter from rea¬
fon and the nature of things. For at Rome the prae¬
tors had a court of equity, and wrere empowrered, in
many cafes relating to property, to relax the rigour
of the written laws. But as this fubjedl is very copi¬
ous, and caufes may arife from a great variety of things^
writers have reduced them to three heads, which they
caWJiates, to fome one of which all judicial proceed¬
ings may be referred 3 namely, whether a thing is, what
it is, or how it is. By the fate of a caufe therefore is
meant the principal queftion in dilpute, upon which *
the whole aftair depends. Which, if it flops in the
firft inquiry, and the defendant denies the fa£t, the
ftate is called conjectural; but if the fact be acknow¬
ledged, and yet denied to be what the adverfary calls
it, it is termed definitive; but if there is no diipute
either about the fact or its name, but only the juftice
of it, it is called the fate of quality: as was fliown
more largely before (fee Na 15.) But we there con-
fidered thefe ftates only in a general view, and deferred
the particular heads of argument proper for eacli of
them to this judicial kind of dilcourfes; wdiere they
moft frequently occur, and from which examples may
eafily be accommodated to other fubje&s.
All judicial caufes are either private or public. Thofe
are called private, which relate to the right of parti¬
cular perfons 3 and they are likewife called civil caufes,
as they are converfant about matters of property.—
Public caufes are thofe which relate to public juftice
and the government of the ftate ; which are alfo called
criminal, becaufe by them crimes are profecuted, whe¬
ther capital, or thofe of a lefs heinous nature. We
{hall take the heads of the arguments only from this
latter kind, becaufe they are more copious, and eafy
to be illuftrated by examples 3 from which fuch as
agree to the former, namely, civil caufes, will fuificient-
ly appear.
1. The conjectural ftate. When the accufed perfoa
denies the fa£t, there are three things which the pro-
fecutor has to confider 3 whether he would have dene
it, wThether he could, and whether he did it. And
hence arife three topics 3 from the will, the power,
and the fgns or circumftances which attended the
adlion. The affedlions of the mind difeover the will;
as paffion, an old grudge, a defire of revenge, a re-
fentment
Part I. O R A T
Invention, fentment of an injury, and the like. Therefore Ci-
' "v cero argues from Clodius’s hatred of Milo, that he de-
figned his death; and from thence infers, that he was
the aggrtffor in the combat between them, wherein
Clodius was killed. This is what he principally endea¬
vours to prove, and comes properly under this date :
for Milo owned that he killed him, but alledged that
he did it in his own defence. So that in regard to this
point, which of them aflaulted the other ? the charge
was mutual. The profpeft of advantage may .alfo be
alledged to the fame purpofe. Hence it is faid of L.
CafTms, that whenever he fat as judge in a cafe of
murder, he ufed to advife and move the court to exa¬
mine to whom the advantage arofe from the death of
the deceafed. And Cicero puts this to Antony con¬
cerning the death of Caefar. “ If any one (fays he)
fhould bring you upon trial, and ufe that faying of Caf-
firs, Cut hano ? 1 Who got by it ?’ look to it, I befeech
you, that you are not confounded. To thefe argu¬
ments may be added, hope of impunity, taken either
from the circumftances of the acculed perfon, or of him
who fuffered the injury. For perfons, who have the
advantage of intereft, friends, power, or money, are
apt to think they may eafily efcape $ as likewife fuch
who’hftve formerly committed other crimes with impu¬
nity. Thus Cicero reprefents Clodius as hardened in
vice, and above all the reftraint of laws, from having
fo often efcaped punhhment upon committing the
higheft crimes. On the contrary, fuch a confidence
is fometimes raifed from the condition of the injured
party, if he is indigent, obfcure, timorous, or deili-
tute of friends; much more if he has an ill reputa¬
tion, or is loaded with popular hatred and refen tment.
It was this prefumption of the obfcurity of Rofcius,
who lived in the country, and his want of intereft at
Jlome, which encouraged his accufers to charge him
with killing his father, as Cicero (hows in his defence
©f him. Laftly, The temper of a perfon, his views,
and manner of life, are confiderations of great mo¬
ment in this matter. For perfons of bad morals, and
fuch as are addi&ed to vice, are eafily thought ca¬
pable of committing any wickednefs. Hence Salluft
argues from the evil difpofition and vicious life of Ca¬
tiline, that he affe&ed to raife himfelf upon the ruins
of his country.—The fecond head is the power of do¬
ing a thing: and there are three things which relate
to this, the place, the time, and opportunity. As if a
crime is faid to have been committed in a private place,
where no other perfon was prefent 5 or in the night 5
or when the injured perfon was unable to provide for
his defence. Under this head may likewife be brought
in the pircumftances of the perfons j as if the acculed
perfon was ftronger, and fo able to overpower the
other •, or more aftive, and fo could eafily make his
efcape. Cicero makes great ufe of this topic in the
cafe of Milo, and fhows, that Clodius had all the advan¬
tages of place, time, and opportunity, to execute his de-
fign of killing him. The third head comprehends the
Jigns and circumftances which either preceded, accom¬
panied, or followed, the commillion of the faff. So
. threats, or the accufed perfon being feen at or near the
place before the faft was committed, are circumftances
that may probably precede murder; fighting, crying
out, bloodihed, are fuch as accompany it *, palenefs,
trembling, inconf ftent anfw^rs, hefitation, "bf faltering of
o R Y.
317
the fpeech, fomething found upon the perfon accufed Invention,
which belonged to the deceafed, are fuch as follow it.'" 1 _¥"
Thus Cicero proves, that Clodius had threatened the
death of Milo, and given out that he Ihould not live
above three days at the fartheft.—Thefe arguments,
taken from conjedlures, are called prefumptions, which,
though they do not directly prove that the acculed per¬
fon committed the fabt with which he is charged ; yet
when laid together, they appeared very ftrong, fentence
by the Roman law might fometimes be given upon them,
to convidt him.
Thefe are the topics from which the profecutor takes
his arguments. Now the bufinefs of the defendant is to
invalidate thefe. Therefore fuch as are brought from
the will, he either endeavours to (how are not true, or
fo weak as to merit very little regard. And he refutes
thofe taken from the power, by proving that he .waited-
either opportunity or ability : as, if he can fhow, that,
neither the place nor time infiftecF on was at all proper j
or that he was then in another place. In like manner
he will endeavour to confute the circumjlances, if they
cannot be diredlly denied, by Ihowing that they are not
fuch as do neceffarily accompany the fact, but might:
have proceeded from other caufes, though., nothing of
what is alledged had been committed ; and it will be of
great fervice to aftign feme other probable caufe. But
fometimes the defendant does not only deny that he did
the fadt, but charges it upon another. Thus Cicero, in
his oration for Rofcius, not only defends him from each
of thefe three heads, but likewife charges the fadl upon
his accufers.
2. The definitive ftate, which is principally con¬
cerned in defining and fixing the name proper to the
fadl: though orators feldom make ufe of exadt de¬
finitions, but commonly choofe larger deferiptions, ta¬
ken from various properties of the fubjedt or thing de-
feribed.
The heads of argument in this ftate are much the
fame to both parties. For each of them defines the
fadl his own way, and endeavours to refute the other’s
definition. We may illuftrate this by an example from
Quintilian : “ A perfon is accufed of facrilege, for deal¬
ing money out of a temple, which belonged to a private
perfon.” The fadl is owned j but the queftion is, Whe¬
ther it be properly fiacrilege ? The profecutor calls it fo,
becaufe it was taken out of a temple.. But fince the
money belonged to. a private perfon, the defendant de¬
nies it to be facrilege, and fays it is only fimple theft.
Now the reafon why the defendant ufes this plea, and
infifts upon the diftindlion, is, becaufe by the Roman
law the penalty of theft .was only four times 't value
of what was ftolen; whereas facrilege was punifhed
with death. The profecutor then forms his definition
agreeable to his charge, and fays, “ To fteal any thing
out of a facred place is facrilege.” But the defendant
excepts againll this definition, as defedlive ; and urges,
that it does not amount to facrilege, unlefs the thing
ftolen was likewife facred. And this cafe might once,
perhaps, have been a matter of controverfy, fince we find
it exprefsly determined in the Pandedls, that “ An ac¬
tion of facrilege Ihould not lie, but only of theft, againil
any one who ftiould fteal the goods of private perfons.
depofited in a temple.”
The fecond thing is the proof brought by each
party to fupport his definition 5 as in the example
given
3i 8 ORA T
Invention, given us by Cicero, of one “ tvbo carried his caufe
v by bribery, and was afterwards profecuted again up¬
on an aftion of prevarication.” Now, if the defen¬
dant was caft upon this aftion, he was, by the Ro¬
man law, fubjecled to the penalty of the former pro-
fecution. Here the proiecutor defines prevarication
to be, Any briberi/ or corruption in the defendant, with
a dejign to pervert jnjiice. The defendant, therefore,
on the other hand, reitrains it to bribing only the profe-
cutor.
And if this latter fenfe agrees better with the com¬
mon acceptation of the word, the profecutor in the
third place pleads the intention of the law, which
was to comprehend all bribery in judicial matters
under the term of prevarication. In anfwer to which
the defendant endeavours to {how, either from the
head of contraries, that a real proiecutor and a pre¬
varicator are ufed as onpofite terms in the law ; or
from the etymology of the word, that a prevaricator
denotes one who pretends to appear in the profecution
of a caufe, while in reality he favours the contrary
fide •, and confequently, that money given for this end
only can, in the fenfe of the law, be called prevarica¬
tion.
Laftly, The profecutcr pleads, that it is unreafonable
that he who does not deny the faff fhould efcape by a
cavil about a word. But the defendant infifts upon his
explication as agreeable to the law \ and fays, the faff
is mifreprefented and blackened, by affixing to it a wrong
name.
3. The third ftate is that of quality, in which the dif-
^ute turns upon the juftice of an aftion. And here the
defendant does not deny he did the thing he is charged
with ; but afferts it to be right and equitable, from the
circumflances of the cafe, and the motives which indu¬
ced him to it.
And, firft, He fometimes alledges, the reafon of doing
it was in order to prevent fome other thing of worfe
confequence, which would otherwife have happened.
We have an inftance of this in the life of Epaminon-
das, who, with two other generals joined in the com¬
mand with him, marched the Theban army into Pelo-
ponnefus againft the Lacedemonians •, but by the influ¬
ence of a contrary faffion at home, their commiffions
were fuperfeded, and other generals fent to command
the army. But Epaminondas, being fenfible that, if
he obeyed this order at that time, it would be attended
with the lofs of the whole army, and confequently the
ruin of the ftate, refufed to do it; and having perfuad-
ed the other generals to do the like, they happily finifti-
ed the war in which they were engaged 5 and upon their
return home, Epaminondas taking the whole matter
upon himfelf, on his trial was acquitted. The argu¬
ments proper in this cafe are taken from the juftice, ufe-
fulnefs, or neceffity, of the action. The accufer there¬
fore will plead, that the faff was not juft, profitable,
nor neceftary, confidered either in itfelf or comparative¬
ly with that for the fake of which it is faid to have been
done : and he will endeavour to ffiow, that what the
defendant affigns for the reafon of what he did might
^ not have happened as he pretends. Befides, he will re-
prefent of what ill confequence it muft be, if fuch crimes
go unpuniffied. The defendant, on the other hand,
will argue from the fame heads, and endeavour to prove
the fa ft was juft, ufeful, or neceffary. And he will
3
O R Y. Pan I.
further urge, that no juft eftimate can be made of Invention,
any afhon, but from the circumftances which attend *
it •, as the defign, occaiion, and motives for doing it,
which he will reprefent in the moft favourable light
to his own caule, and endeavour to fet them in
fuch a view, as to induce others to think they could
not but have done the fame in the like circumftan-
Again, The caufe of an action is fometimes charged
by the defendant upon the party who received the
damage, or fome other perfon, who either made it
neceffary, or enjoined him to do it. The firft of thefe
was Milo’s plea for killing Clodius, becaufe he af-
faulted him with a defign to take away his life. Here
the facl is not denied, as in the cafe of Rofcius above-
mentioned, under the conjectural ftate ; but juftified
from the reafon of doing it. For that an affaffin might
be juftly killed, Cicero fnows both from law and rea¬
fon. The accufer, therefore, in fuch a cafe, will, if
there be room for it, deny the truth of this allega¬
tion. So the friends of Clodius affirmed that Milo
was the aggreffbr, and not Clodius ; which Cicero, in
his defence of Milo, principally labours to refute. In
the fecond cafe, the profecutor will fay, No one ought
to offend becaufe another has offended firft ; which de¬
feats the courfe of public juftice, renders the laws ufe-
lefs, and deftroys the authority of the magiftrate. The
defendant, on the other hand, will endeavour to repre¬
fent the danger and neceffity of the cafe, which required
an immediate remedy, and in that manner ■, and urges,
that it wras vain and impracticable to wait for redrefs in
the ordinary way, and therefore no ill confequence can
arife to the public. Thus Cicero, in defending Sextius,
who was profecuted for a riot in bringing armed men
into the forum, fhows that his defign was only to repel
force with force ; which was then neceffary, there being
no other means left for the people to affemble, who
were excluded by a mob of the contrary party. Of the
third cafe we have alfo an example in Cicero, who tells
us, that, “ in making a league between the Romans and
Samnites, a certain young nobleman was ordered by the *
Roman general to hold the fwine (defigned for a facri-
fice) ; but the fenate afterwards difapproving the terms,
and delivering up their general to the Samnites, it was
moved, Whether this young man ought not likewife to
be given up.” Thofe who were for it might fay, that,
to alledge the command of {mother, is not a fufficient
plea for doing an ill action ; and this is what the Ro¬
man law now exprefsly declares. But in anfwer to that,
it might be replied, that it was his duty to obey the
command of his general, who was anfwerable for his
own orders, and not thofe who were obliged to execute
them ; and therefore, to give up this young noble¬
man would be to puniffi one perfon for the fault of ano¬
ther.
Laftly, A facl is fometimes rather excufed than de¬
fended, by pleading that it was not done deiignedly,
or with any ill intent. This is called concejjion ; and
confifts of two parts, apology and entreaty. The former
reprefents the matter as the eftedft of inadvertency,
chance, or neceffity. Ariftotle gives us an example of
inadvertency or imprudence in a woman at Athens, who
gave a young man a love potion, which killed him ; for
which ffie was tried, but acquitted : though afterwards
this was made criminal by the Roman law. T he cafe
of
Part I. O R A T
Invention, of Adraftus, as related by Herodotus, is an mftance of
<—-v—' chance ; who being intruded by Croefus with the care
of his fon, as they were hunting, killed him accidental¬
ly with a javelin which he threw at a boar. It is ne-
ceffity, when a perfon excufes his making a default,
from tlrefs of weather, ficknefs, or the like. Thus Ci¬
cero pleaded his illnefs, contrasted by the fatigue of a
long journey, as an excufe for not appearing in the fe-
nate unon the fummons of Mark Antony, who threaten¬
ed to oblige him to it by pulling his houfe down. But
what the defendant here attributes to inadvertency,
chance, or neceliity, the oppofite party will attribute to
delign, negligence, or fome other culpable reafon ; and
reprefent it as a matter injurious to the public to intro¬
duce fuch precedents; and alfo produce inftances, if
that can be done, where the like excufes have not been
admitted. On the other hand, the defendant will infill
on his innocence, and fhow the hardfhip and feverity of
judging men’s actions rather by the event, than from
the intention : that fuch a procedure makes no difference
between the innocent and the guilty ; but mull necef-
farily involve many bonelt men in ruin and deltruc-
tion, difcourage all virtuous and generous defigns, and
turn greatly to the prejudice of human fociety. He
will alfo confider the inftances alledged by the accufer,
and ftiow the difference between them and his own cafe.
And, laftly, He will have recourfe to entreaty, or a
fubmiftive addrefs to the equity and clemency of the
court, or party offended, for pardon *, as Cicero has
done in his oration to Caifar, in favour of Liga-
rius.
Chap. V. Of the Char after and Addrefs of an Ora¬
tor.
Pronriety Having confidered and explained the firft part of
of manners Invention, which furnifties the orator with fuch argu-
neceffary in merits as are neceffary for the proof of his fubjetl, we
in orator, are next to q1QW w^at are the proper means to concili-
refpesft to ate the minds of his hearers ; to gain their affe&ion ;
charasfter and to recommend both himfelf, and what he fays, to
and addrefs. their good opinion and efteem. For the parts of inven¬
tion are commonly thus diftinguilhed ; that the firft re-
fpedls the fabjeft of the difcourfe, the fecond the fpcaker,
and the third the hearers. Now the fecond of thefe,
what we have at prefent to explain, is by Quintilian
called a propriety of manners. And in order to exprefs
this it is neceffary, as he tells us, “ that every thing ap¬
pear eafy and natural, and the difpofition of the fpeaker
be difcovered by his words.” We may form an eafy
conception of this from the conduft of fuch perfons as
are moft nearly concerned in each others welfare. As
when relations or friends converfe together upon any af¬
fairs of importance, the temper and difpofition of the
fpeaker plainly Ihows itfelf by his words and manner of
addrefs. And what nature here direfts to without co¬
louring or difguife, the orator is to endeavour to per¬
form by his art. Though indeed, if what a perfon fays
be inconfiftent with his ufual conduct and behaviour at
other times, he cannot expeft it ftiould gain much credit,
or make any deep impreflion upon his hearers •, which
may be one reafon why the ancient rhetoricians make it
fo neceffary a qualification in an orator, that he be a
good man 5 fince he ftrould always be confiftent with
himfelf, and, as we fay, talk in charafter. And there-
O R Y. 319
fore it is highly requifite, that he ftiould not only gain Invention.
the flail of affuming thofe qualities which the nature
and circumftances of his difcourfe require him to ex¬
prefs } but likewife, that he ftiould ufe his utmoft en¬
deavours to get the real habits implanted in his mind.
For as by this means they will be always expreffed with
greater eafc and facility 5 fo, by appearing conftantly in
the courfe of his life, they will have more weight and
influence upon particular occafions.
Now there are four qualities, more efpecially fuited
to the character of an orator, which fhould always ap¬
pear in his difeourfes, in order to render what he fays
acceptable to his hearers 5 and thefe are wifdom, in¬
tegrity, benevolence, and madefy.
1. Wifdom is neceffary ; becaufe we eafily give into
thofe whom we efteem wifer and more knowing than
ourfelves. Knowledge is very agreeable and pleafant
to all, but few make very great improvements in it ;
either by reafon they ar$ employed in other neceffary
affairs, and the mind of man cannot attend to many
things at once 5 or becaufe the way to knowledge at
firft is hard and difficult, fo that perfons either ■ do not
care to enter upon the purnut of it, or, if they do, they
are many times foon difeouraged, and drop it, for
want of fuflicient refolution to liirmount its difficulties.
Such, therefore, as er.her cannot, or do not care to give
themfelves the trouble of examining into things them-
felves, muft take up with the reprefentation of others j
and it is an eafe to them to hear the opinion of per¬
fons whom they efteem wifer than themfelves. No one
loves to be deceived ; and thofe who are fearful of-
being milled, are pleafed to meet with a perfon in whole
wifdom, as they think, they can fafely truft. The cha-
radler of wifdom therefore is of great fervice to an ora¬
tor, ftnee the greater parf of mankind are fwayed by au¬
thority rather than arguments.
2. But this of itfelf is not fufficient, unlefs the opi¬
nion of integrity be joined with it. Nay, fo far from
it, that the greater knowledge and underftanding a
man is fuppofed to have, unlefs he likewife have the
charadler of an honeft man, he is often the more fuf-
peifted. For knowledge without honefty, is generally
thought to difpofe a perfon, as well as qualify him, to
deceive.
q. And to both thefe qualities the appearance of
kindnefs and benevolence fhenid likewife be added. For
though a perfon have the reputation of wifdom and
honefty, yet if we apprehend he is either not well af¬
fected to us, or at leaft regardlefs of our intereft, we .
are in many cafes apt to be jealous of him. Mankind
are naturally fwayed by their affections, and much in¬
fluenced through love or friendthip 5 and therefore no¬
thing has a greater tendency to induce perfons to cre¬
dit what is faid, than intimations of affection and kind¬
nefs. The belt orators have been always fenfible
what great influence the expreffions of kindnefs and
benevolence have upon the minds of others, to induce
them to believe the truth of what they fay •, and there¬
fore they frequently endeavour to imprefs them with
the-opinion of it. Thus Demofthenes begins his cele¬
brated oration for Ctefiphon. “ It is my hearty prayer
(fays he) to all the deities, that this my defence may
be received by you with the fame affeCtion which I
have always expreffed for you and your cit)7.” And
it is a very fine image of it which we have in Cicero,
where,
O R A T
■ where, in order to influence the judges in favour of
Milo, he introduces him fpeaking thus, as became a
brave man, and a patriot, even upon the fuppofition he
Ihould be condemned by them : “ I bid my fellow ci¬
tizens adieu: may they continue flourilhing and prof-
perous ; may this famous city be preferved, my molt
dear country, however it has treated me 5 may my fel¬
low7 citizens enjoy peace and tranquillity without me,
fince I am not to enjoy it with them, though I have
procured it for them : I wrill withdraw, I wall be
gone.”
4. ModeJlyt It is certain, that what is modeflly
fpoken is generally better received than what carries
in it an air of boldnefs and confidence. Moll perfons,
though ignorant of a thing, do not care to be thought
lo} and wrould have fome deference paid to their un-
derftanding. But he who delivers himfelf in an arro¬
gant and affuming way feems to upbraid his hearers
W'ith ignorance, w7hile he does not leave them to
judge for themfelves, but diftates to them, and as it
were demand their affent to what he fays; which is
certainly a very improper method to win upon them.
For not a few, when convinced of an error in fuch a
way, wall not own it; but will rather adhere to their
former opinion, than feem forced to think right, wdien
it gives another the opportunity of a triumph. A pru¬
dent omtor therefore will behave Iiimfelf with modefty,
that he may not feem to infult his hearers ; and will
fet things before them in fuch an engaging manner,
as may remove all prejudice either from his perfon
or what he aflerts. This is particularly neceffary in
the exordium of a difcourfe. If the orator fet out
with an air of arrogance and oftentation, the felf-love
and pride of the hearers will be prefently awrakened, and
will follow him with a very fufpicious eye throughout
all -his progrels. His modefly fliould difcover itfelf not
only in his expieflions at the beginning, but in his whole
manner ; in his looks, in his geftures, in the tone of his
voice. Every auditory take in good part thofe marks of
refpedl and awe, which are paid to them by one who
addrefles them. Indeed the modefty of an introduction
ftiould never betray any thing mean or abjeft. It is
always of great ufe to an orator, that together with mo¬
defty and deference to his hearers, he Ihould ftiow a cer¬
tain fenfe of dignity, arifing from a perfuafton of the ju-
ftice or importance of the fubjedl of which.he istofpeak.
For to fpeak timoroufly, and with hefitation, deftroys
the credit of what is offered ; and fo far as the fpeaker
feems to diftruft what he fays himfelf, he often induces
others to do the like.
But, as has been faid already, great care is to be
taken that thefe charaftefs do not appear feigned and
counterfeit. For what is fictitious can feldom be long
concealed. And if this be once difcovered, it makes all
that is faid fufpected, how fpecious foever it may other-
wife appear.
It is further neceffary, that the orator fhould know
the world, and be well acquainted with the different
tempers and difpofitions of mankind. Nor indeed can
any one reafonably hope to fucceed in this province, with-
6ut well confidering the circumftances of time and place,
with the fentiments and difpofitions of thofe to whom
he fpeaks; which, according to Ariftotle, may be di-
ftinguiftied four ways, as they difcover themfelves by the
feveral ajfeBions, habits, ages, and fortunes, of mankind.
o R Y.
And each of thefe require a different conduct and man¬
ner of addrefs.
The affe&ions denote certain emotions of the mind,
which, during their continuance, give a great turn to the
difpofition. For love prompts to one thing, and hatred
to another. 1 he like may be faid of anuer, lenity, and
the reft of them.
Perfons differ likewife according to the various habits
of their mind. So a juft man is inclined one way, and
an unjuft man another; a temperate man to this, and an
intemperate man to the contrary.
And as to the feveral ages of men, Ariftotle has de-
fcribed them very accurately; and how perfons are
differently affefted in each of them. He divides the-
lives of men, confidered as hearers, into three ftages;
youth, middle age, and old age.—Young men, he lays^
have generally ftrong paflions, and are very eager to
obtain what they defire, but are likewife very mutable
fo that the fame thing does not pleafe them long!
They are ambitious of praife, and quick in their re-
fentments: lavifh of their money, as not having ex¬
perienced the want of it: femk and open, becaufe
they have not often been deceived; and credulous for
the fame reafon. They readily hope the beft, becaufe
they have not fullered much, and are therefore not fo
fenfible of the uncertainty of human affairs ; for which
reafon they are likewife more eafily deceived. They
are modeft, from their little acquaintance with the
world.^ They love company and cheerfulnefs, from
the brilknefs of their fpirits. In a word, they gene¬
rally exceed in what they do; love violently, hate
violently, and a<ft in the fame manner through the
reft of their conduft.—The difpofition of old men is
generally contrary to the former. They are cautious,
and enter upon nothing haftily; having in the courfe
of many years been often impofed upon ; having oft¬
en erred, and experienced the prevailing corruption of
human affairs ; for which reafon they are likewife fufpi¬
cious, and moderate in their affe&ions either of love or
hatred. They purfue nothing great and noble, and re¬
gard only the neceffaries of life. They love money ;
having learned by experience the difficulty of getting it,
and how eafily it is loft. They are fearful, which makes
them provident. Commonly full of complaints, from
bodily infirmities, and a deficiency of fpirits. They pleafe
themfelves rather with the memory of what is paft, than
with any future profpeft ; having fo fiiort a view of life
before them, in comparifon of what is already gone:
for which reafon alfo, they love to talk of things 'paft ;
and prefer them to what is prefent, of which they have
but little relifh, and know they muft ffiortly leave
them. They are foon angry, but not to excefs. Laft-
ly, yW afe compaffionate, from a fenfe of their own in¬
firmities, which makes them think themfelves of all
perfons moft expofed.—Perfons of a middle age, be¬
twixt thefe two extremes, as they are freed from the
rafhnefs and temerity of youth, fo they have not yet
fuffered the decays of old age. Hence in every thing
they generally obferve a better conduct. They are
neither fo hafty.in their affent as the one, nor fo minute¬
ly fcrupulous as the other, but weigh the reafons of
things. They regard a decency in their aclions ; are
careful and induftrious ; and as they undertake what
appears juft and laudable upon better and more deli¬
berate conftderation than young perfons, fo they purfue
them.
Part I.
O K A T
Invention, tliem with more vigour and refolution than thofe who
v   ' are older.
As to the different fortunes of mankind, they may
be confidered us noble, rich, or powerful} and the con¬
trary to thefe.—Thofe of high birth, and noble ex-
traftion, are generally very tender of their honour,
and ambitious to increafe it •, it being natural for all
perfons to delire an addition to thofe advantages of
which they find themfelves already polfeffed. And
they are apt to confider all others as much their in¬
feriors, and therefore expett great regard and defe¬
rence Ihould be fliown them.—Riches, when accom¬
panied with a generous temper, command refpect,
from the opportunities they give of being ufeful to
others ; but they ufually elate the mind, and occafion
pride. For as money is commonly faid to command
all things, thofe who are poffeffed of a large lhare of
it, expe£t others Ihotild be at their beck: fince they
enjoy that which all defire, and which moll perfons
make the main purfuit of their lives to obtain.—But
nothing is more apt to fwell the mind than power.
This is what all men naturally covet, even when per¬
haps they would not ufe it. But the view's of fiich
perfons are generally more noble and generous than
of thofe who only purfue riches and 4he heaping up
of money. A Hate contrary to thefe gives a contrary
turn of mind} and in lower life, perfons difpofitions
ufually differ according to their ftation and circum-
llances. A citizen and a courtier, a merchant and a
foldier, a fcholar and a peafant, as their purfuits are dif¬
ferent, fo is generally their turn and difpofition of mind.
It is the orator’s bufinefs, therefore, to confider thefe
feveral characters and circumftances of life, with the
different bias and way of thinking they give to the
tnind 5 that he may fo conduct himfelf in his beha¬
viour aaid manner of Ipeaking, as will render him molt
acceptable, and gain him the good efteem of thofe
whom he addreffes.
Chap. VI. Of the Pajfions.
As it is often highly neceffary for the orator, fo it
It is necef- requires his greateft (kill, to engage the pafiions in his
fary, though intereft. Quintilian calls this the foul and fpird of his
difficult, to art' And, doubtlefs, nothing more difcovers its em-
intereft of6 P^re over t'ie m^nds of men, than this potver to excite,
the pafiions. appeafe, and fway their paffions, agreeably to the de-
fign of the fpeaker. Hence wx meet with the charac¬
ters of admirable, divine, and other fplendid titles,
afcribed to eloquence by ancient writers. It has in¬
deed been objefted by fome, that whatever high enco¬
miums may be given of this art by the admirers of it,
it is however dilingenuous to deceive and impole upon
mankind, as thofe feem to do, who, by engaging
their paffions, give a bias to their minds, and take
them off from the confideration of the truth j whereas
every thing Ihould be judged of from the reafons brought
to fupport it, by the evidence of -which it ought to Hand
or fall. But, in anfwer to this, it may be confidered
that all fallacy is not culpable. We often deceive chil¬
dren for their good 5 and phyficians fomelimes impofe
on their patients, to come at a cure. And why, there¬
fore, when perfons will not be prevailed with by reafon
and argument, may not an orator endeavour, by en-
gaging their pafiions, to perfuade them to that which is
° Vol, XV. Part I.
O R Y. 32 £
for their advantage ? Befides, Quintilian makes it a Indention.
neceffary qualification of an orator, that he be an honeft '
man, and one wrho will not abufe his art. But fince thofe
of a contrary charafter will leave no methods untried in
order to carry their point, it is requilite for thofe w'ho-
defign well to be acquainted with all their arts, with¬
out which they will not be a match for them 5 as in
military affairs it is highly advantageous for the gene¬
ral of an army to get himfelf informed of all the defigns
and ftratagems of the enemy, in order to counteradl
them. Indeed this part of oratory is not neceflary at all
times, nor in all places. The better prepared perfons
are to confider truth, and acl upon the evidence of it, the
lefs occafion there appears for it. But the greater part
of mankind either do not duly weigh the force of argu¬
ments, or refufe to affc agreeably to their evidence.
And where this is the cafe, that perfons will neither
be convinced by reafon, nor moved by the authority
of the fpeaker, the only way left to put them upon
aftion, is to engage their paffions. Fof the paflions are
to the mind, what the wind is to a (hip : they move,
and carry it forward 5 and he w7ho is without them, is
in a manner without aftion, dull and lifelefs. There
is nothing great or noble to be performed in life
wherein the paflions are not concerned. The Stoics,
therefore, who were for eradicating the paflions, both
maintained a thing in itlelf impoflibhe, and winch, if it
was poflible, would be of the greatell prejudice to man¬
kind. For while they appeared fuch zealous affertors
of the government of reafon, they fcarce left it any
thing to govern ; for the authority of reafon is prin¬
cipally exercifed in ruling and moderating the paflions,
which, when kept in a due regulation, are the fprings
and motives to virtue. Thus hope produces patience,
and fear induftry; and the like might be fliown of the '
reft. The paflions therefore are not to be extirpated,
as the Stoics afferted, but put under the direel!on and
conduct of reafon. Indeed where they are ungovern¬
able, and refill the controul of reafon, they are, as
fome have fitly called them, difeafes of the mind; and
frequently hurry men to vice, and the greateft: naif-
fortunes of life : juft as the wind, when it blows mo¬
derately, carries on the ftiip : but if it be too boifte-
rous and violent, may overfet her. The charge there
fore brought againft this art, for giving rules to in ¬
fluence the paflions, appears groundlefs and unjuft ;
fince the proper ufe of the paflions is, not to hinder the
exercife of reafon, but engage men to aft agreeably to
reafon. And if an ill ufe be fometimes made of this, it
is not the fault of the art but of the artiff.
We (hall here confider the paflions, as they may be
feparately referred, either to dej?ion/irative, deliberative,
ox judicial difeourfes •, though they are not wholly con¬
fined to any of them. 3f
1. To the demonjlrative kind, we may refer joy and Of the paf.
forroxv, love and haired, emulation and contempt. llons which
Joy is an elation of the mind, arifing from a fenfe jarred to^"
fome prefent good. Such1 a refleftion naturally creates deoionftra-
a pleaftmt and agreeable fenfation, which ends in 3 de- tive dif¬
lightful calm and ferenity. This is heightened by a de- courfe,.-
feription of former evils, and a companion between them \
and the prefent felicity. Thus .Cicero endeavours to
excite in the minds of his fellow citizens the higheil
fenfe of joy and delight at Catiline’s departure from Rome,
by seprelenting to them the imminent danger which
5 f threatened
322
ORATORY.
Part I.
Invention, threatened both them and the city while he continued
v among them.
Sorrow, on the contrary, is an uneafinefs of mind
arifing from a fenie of fome prefent evil. This pafilon
has generally a place in funeral difeourfes. And it
may be heightened, like the former, by comparifon,
when any gait happinefs is fet in oppofition to a pre¬
lent calamity. Hence Cicero aggravates the borrow
at Home occalioned by the death of Metellus, from
his character, and great fervices to the public, while
living.
Love excites us to efteem any perfon for fome ex¬
cellency, and to do him all the good in our power. It
is diltinguifhed from friendjhip, which is mutual 5 and
therefore love may continue where friendlhip is loft ;
that is, the affeftion may remain on one fide. And
when we aftift a perfon from no other rno ive but to
do him a kindnefs, Arillotle calls tYii*.good will. Love
takes its rife from a variety of cauies. Generofity, be¬
nevolence, integrity, gratitude, courtefy, and other
focial virtues, are great incitements to love any one
endued with fuch qualities. And perfons generally
love thofe who are of a like difpofition with them-
felves, and purliie the fame views. It is therefore the
chief art of a flatterer to fuit himfelf in every thing to
the inclination of the perfon whofe good graces he
courts. When the orator would excite this affeftion
towards any perfon, it is proper to Ihow, that he is
pofielfed of at leaft fome, if not all, of thefe agi enable
qualities. When the confpirators with Catiline were
to be brought to juftice, Cicero was very fenfible of
the envy he Ihould contradf on that account, and how
neceffary it was for him to fecure the love of the Ro¬
man fenate for his fupport and protection in that cri¬
tical jun&ure. And this he endeavours to do in his
fourth oration againft Catiline, by reprefenting to them
In the moft pathetic manner, that all the labours he
underwent, the difficulties he conflicted with, and the
dangers to which he was expofed on that account,
were not for his own fake, but for their fafety, quiet,
and happinefs.
Hatred is oppofed to love, and produced by the
contrary difpofitions. And, therefore, perfons hate
thofe who never did them any injury, from the ill
opinion they have of their bafe and vicious inclina¬
tions. So that the way to excite this paftion is by
thowing that any one has committed fome heinous
fact with an ill intent. And the more nearly affedled
perfons are by fuch adlions, in what they account of
the greateft concern, the higher in proportion their ha¬
tred rifes. Since life, therefore, is eftcemed the moft
valuable good, Cpcero endeavours to render Mark An¬
tony odious to the citizens of Rome, by deferibing his
cruelty.
Emulation is a difquiet, occafioned by the felicity of
another, not becaufe he enjoys it, but becaufe we defire
the like for ourfelves. So that this paffion is in itfelf
good and laudable, as it engages men to purfue thofe
things which are fo. For the proper objedts of emula¬
tion are any advantages of mind, body, or fortune, ac¬
quired by ftudy or labour.
Emulation therefore is excited by a lively reprefen-
tation of any defirable advantages which appear to be
attainable, from the example of others who are or have
been poffeffcd of them. But where the felicity of ano¬
ther occafions an uneafinefs, not from the want of it, Invention,
but, becaufe he enjoys it, this paflion is called envy,    
which the ancients deferibe as a hideous monfter, feed¬
ing upon itfelf, and being its own tormentor. Ariftotle
juftly obferves, that it moft ufually affects fuch perfons
as were once upon a level with thofe they envy. For
moft men naturally think fo well of themfelves, that
they are uneafy to fee thofe who were formerly their
equals advanced above them. But as this is a bafe and
vicious paffion, the orator is not to be informed how to
excite it, but how to leffen or remove it. And the me¬
thod preferibed by Cicero for this purpofe is, to {how
that the tilings which occafioned it have not happened
to the envied perfon undefervedly but are the juft re¬
ward of his induftry or virtue ; that he does not to much
convert them to his own profit cr pleafure, as to the be¬
nefit of others \ and that the fame pains and difficulties
are necefl’ary to preferve them with which they were at
firft acquired.
Contempt is oppoftd to emulation, and arifes from
mifeonduft in things not of themfelves vicious : As
w?here a perfon either adts below his ftation and charac¬
ter, or aftedls to do that for which he is net qualified.
Thus Cicero endeavours to expofe Caecilius, and bring
him into contempt of the court, for pretending to rival
him in the accufation of Verres, for which he w'as alto¬
gether unfit.
2. "i'o deliberative difeourfes may be referred yiw, ofthe pat-
hope, andJhame. fior.s which
Fear arifes from the apprehenfion of fome great and™at'f>e Ie~
impending evil. For the greateft evils, while they
appear at a diftance, do not much affedt us. Such di<C0urfCf.
perfens occafion fear, who are pofieffed of povTer,
efpecially if they have been injured, or apprehend fo :
like wife thofe who are addidted to do injuries, or who
bear us an ill will. And the examples of others, who
have fuffered in a like cafe, or from the fame perfons,
help to excite fear. From the circumftances therefore
either of the thing or perfon, it will not be difficult
for the orator to offer fuch arguments as may be pro¬
per to awaken this paffion. So Demofthenes, when
he would perfuade the Athenians to put themfelves in
a condition of defence againft King Philip, enumerates
the feveral adts of hoftility already committed by him
againft the neighbouring ftates. And becaufe men’s
private concerns generally more affedt them than
what relates to the public, it is proper fometimes
to (how the neceffary connexion thefe have with each
other, and how the ruin of one draws the other after
it.
The contrary paffion to fear is hope; which arifes
either from a profpedt of fome future good, or the ap¬
prehenfion of fafety from thofe things which occafion
our fear. Young perfons are eafily induced to hope
the beft, from the vigour of their fpirits. And thole
who have efcaped former dangers are encouraged to
hope for the like fuccefs for the future, ft he examples
of others alfo, efpecially of wife and confiderate men,
have often the fame good effect. To find them calm
and fedate when expofed to the like dangers naturally
creates confidence and the hopes of fafety. But no¬
thing gives perfons fuch firmnefs and fteadinefs of mind
under the apprehenfion of any difficulties, as a confei-
oufnefs of their own integrity and innocence. Let dan¬
gers come from what quarter they will, they are heft
prepared
Part I.
ORATORY.
Invention.
prepared to receive ttiem. They can calmly view an
impending temped, obferve the way of its approach,
Rnd prepare themfelves in the belt manner to avoid it.
In Cicero’s oration for the Manilian law, he encou¬
rages the Roman citizens to hope for fuccefs againft Mi-
thridates, if they chofe Pompey for their general, from
the many in dances of his former fucceffes which he
there enumerates.
Shame arifes from the appreheniion of thofe things
that hurt a perfon’s character. Modcjly has been wife¬
ly implanted in mankind by the great Author of na¬
ture, as a guardian of virtue, which ought for this
reafon to be cheridied with the greated; care ; becaufe,
as Seneca has well obferved, “ if it be once loft, it is
fcarce ever to be reco\rered.” Therefore the true caufe
or foundation of fhame is any thing bafe or vicious j for
this wounds the character, and will not bear reflection.
And he muft arrive at no fmall degree of infallibility,
who can Hand againft Inch a charge, if he be confcious
to himfelf that it is juft. Therefore, to deter perfons
from vicious actions, or to expofe them for the commif-
lion of them, the orator endeavours to fet them in fuch
a light as may molt awaken this paftion, and give
them the greateft uneafinefs by the reflection. And be¬
caufe the bare reprefentation of the thing itfelf is not
always fufficieet for this purpofe, he fometimes enforces
it by enlarging the view, and introducing thofe perfons
as witnefles of the faCt for whom they are fuppofed to
have the greateft regard. Thus, when fome of the
Athenians, in an arbitration about certain lands which
had been referred to them by the contending parties,
propofed it as the Ihorteft way of deciding the contro-
verfy, to take the pofleflion of them in their own hands j
Cydias, a member of the aflembly, to difluade them
from fuch an unjuft aftion, delired them to imagine
themfelves at that time in the general aflembly of the
ftates of Greece (who would all hear of it fhortly"), and
then confider how it was proper to a£l. But where per¬
fons labour under an excefs of modefty which prevents
them from exerting themfelves inthings fit and laudable,
it may fometimes be necefiary to Ihew that it is faulty
and ill grounded. On the other hand, immodejly, or
impudence, wluch confifts in a contempt of fuch things
as affect the reputation, can never be too much difeou-
raged and expofed. And the way of doing this is to
make ufe of fuch arguments as are molt ptoper to excite
lhame. We have a very remarkable inftance of it in
Cicero’s fecond Philippic, wherein he affixes this cha¬
racter upon Mark Antony through every feene of his
life-
Of the paf- 3 To judicial difeourfes, may be referred anger and
Rons which lenitij, pitii and indignation.
feared to^' -Anger is a refentment, occafioned by fome affront or
■Judicial dif- *njury» hone without any juft reafon. Now men are
courfes. more inclined to refent fuch a conduCt, as they think
they lefs deferve it. Therefore perfons of diftinCtion
and figure, who expeCt a regard ffiould be paid to their
charaCter, can the lefs bear any indications of contempt.
And thofe who are eminent in any profeflion or faculty,
are apt to be offended if reflections are caft either upon
their reputation or art. Magiftrates alfo, and perfons
in public ftations, fometimes think it incumbent on
then*-to refent indignities for the fupport of their office.
But nothing fooner inflames this paffion, than if good
lervices are rewarded with flights and negleCt. The
inftance of Narfes, the Roman general, is remarkable
in this kind 5 who,, after he had been fuccefsful in his
wars with the Goth*;, falling under the difpleafure of
the emperor Juftin, wTas removed from the government
of Italy, and received by the emprefs with this taunt,
That he miijl befent to weave among the girls; which
fo provoked him, that he faid he would weave fuch a
wTeb, as they wrould never be able to unravel. And
accordingly, he foon after brought down the Longo-
bards, a people of Germany, into Italy} where they
fettled themfelves in that part of the country, which
from them is now called Lombardy. (See Narses).
The time and place in which an injury was done, and
other circumftances that attended it, may likewife con¬
tribute very much to heighten the fact. Hence De-
mofthenes, in his oration againft Midias, endeavours to
aggravate the injury of being ftruck by him, both as he
was then a magiftrate, and becaufe it was done at a public
feftival. Fiom hence it appears, that the perfons who
moft ufually occafion this paffion are fuch as neglect the
rules of decency, contemn and infult others, or oppofe
their inclinations; as likewife the ungrateful, and thofe
who violate the ties of friendthip, or requite favours
with injuries. But when the orator endeavours to excite
anger, he ffiould be careful not to exceed due bounds
in aggravating the charge, left what he fays appear
rather to proceed from prejudice, than a ftri6t regard
to the demerit of the action.
Lenity is the remiffion of anger. The defigns of
men’s adlions are principally to be regarded; and there¬
fore what is done ignorantly, or through inadvertency,
is fooner forgiven. Alfo to acknowdedge a fault, fub-
mit, and afk pardon, are the ready means to take oft
refentment. For a generous mind is foon cooled by
fubmiffion. Befides, he who repents of his fault, does
really give the injured party fome fatisfaftion, by pu-
niffiing himfelf 5 as all repentance is attended with grief
and uneafinefs of mind, and this is apt very much to
abate the defire of revenge. As, ©n the contrary, no¬
thing is more provoking, than when the offender either
audacioufly juftifies the faff, or confidently denies it.
Men are likewife wront to lay afide their refentment,
when their adverfaries happen by fome other means to
fuffer what they think a fufficient fatisfaclion. Laftly,
Eafy circumftances, a lucky incident, or any thing
which gives the mind a turn to mirth and pleafure, has
a natural tendency to remove anger. For anger is
accompanied with pain and uneafinefs, which very ill
fuit joy and cheerfulnefs. The orator therefore, in
order to afluage and pacify the minds of his auditors,
will endeavour to leffen their opinion of the fault, and
by that means to take off the edge of their refentment.
And to this purpofe, it will be proper either to repre-
fent that the thing rvas not defigned, or that the party
is forry for it; or to mention his former fervices; as
alfo to ftiow the credit and reputation which will be
gained by a generous forgivenefs. And this laft topic
is very artfully wrought up by Cicero, in his addrefs to
Caefar in favour of Ligarius.
Pity arifes from the calamities of others, by reflating,
that wre ourfelves are liable to the like misfortunes. So
that evils, confidered as the common lot of human na¬
ture, are principally the caufe of pity. And this makes
the difference between pity and good will, which arifes
merely from a regard U> the circumftances of thofe who
S f 2 want
Invention.
v
\Oo
324 O R A T
Invention, -want our afTiftance. But coruidcring the uncertainty of
every thing about us, he mull feem in a manner diverted
of humanity, who has no companion for the calamities
of others ; lince there is no affli£lion which happens to
any man, but either that, or fome other as great, may
fall upon himfelf. But thofe perfons are generally foon-
eft touched with this partion, who have met with mif-
fortunes themfelves. And by how much greater the
dirtrefs is, or by how much the perfon appears lefs de-
lerving it, the higher pity does it excite 5 for which
reafon, perfons are generally moft moved at the misfor¬
tunes of their relations and friends, or thofe of the beft
figure and charafler. The orator, therefore, in order
to excite the greater pity, rvill endeavour to heighten
the idea of the calamity, from the feveral circumrtances
both of the thing itfelf and the perfon who labours under
It. A fine example of this may be feen in Cicero’s de¬
fence of Muraena, Cap. 40, &c.
Indignation, as oppofed to pity, is an unealinefs at the
felicity of another who does not feem to deferve it.
But this refpe&s only external advantages, fuch as
riches, honours, and the like j for virtues cannot be
the objeft of this partion. Ariftotle therefore fays,
“ that pity and indignation are generally to be found
in the fame perfons, and are both evidences of a good
difpofition.” Nowt the orator excites this paffion, by
fhowing the perfon to be unwrorthy of that felicity which
he enjoys. And as, in order to move compartion, it
is fometimes of ufe to compare the former happy ftate of
the perfon writh his prefent calamity ; fo here, the great¬
er indignation is raifed, by comparing his former mean
circumllances with his prefent advancement : as Cicero
does in the cafe of Vatinius.
Thefe are the paflions with which an orator is prin¬
cipally concerned. In addrefling to which, not only the
greateft warmth and force of expreflion is often neceffa-
O R Y. Part I.
ry but he mull likewife firft endeavour to imprefs his Invention,
own mind with the fame paflion he would excite in v '
others.
A man may convince, and even perfuade others to
aft, by mere reafon and argument. But that degree of
eloquence wdiich gains the admiration of mankind, and
properly denominates one an orator, is never found
without warmth or paflion. Paflion, when in fuch a
degree as to roufe and kindle the mind, without throwr-
ing it out of the pofieflion of itfclf, is univerfally found
to exalt all the human powers. It renders the mind
infinitely more enlightened, more penetrating, more
vigorous and mafterly, than it is in its calm moments.
A man, aftuated by a ftrong paflion, becomes much
greater than he is at other times. He is confcious of
more ftrength and force ; he utters greater fentiments,
conceives higher defigns, and executes them with a
boldnefs and a felicity of which on other occafions he
could not think himfelf capable. But chiefly, with re-
fpeft toperfuafion, is the power of paflion felt. Almoft
every man in paffion is eloquent. Then he is at no lofs
for words and arguments. He tranfmits to others, by
a fort of contagious fympathy, the warm fentiments
which he feels ] his looks and geftures are all perfuafive j
and nature here fhows herfelf infinitely more powerful
than art. This is the foundation of that juft and noted
rule, Si vis me Jlcre, dolendum ejl phmum ipfi tibi.
The warmth, however, which we e*prefs, muft be
fuited to the occarton and the fubjeft j for nothing can
be more prepofterous than an attempt to introduce great
vehemence into a lubjeft, which is either of flight im¬
portance, or which, by its nature, requires to be treated
of calmly. A temperate tone of fpeech is that for wbich
there is moft frequent occaflon; and he who is on every
fubjeft paflionate and vehement, will be confidered as
a blufterer, and meet with little regard.
Part II. Of DISPOSITION.
AS Invention fupplies the orator with neccffary ma¬
terials, fo Difpofition direfts him how to place them in
the moft proper and fuitable order, Difpofttion, there¬
fore, confidered as a part of oratory, naturally follows
invention. And wdiat is here chiefly intended by it is,
the placing the feveral parts of a difeourfe in a juft me¬
thod and dependence upon one another.
Writers are not all agreed in determining the parts
of an oration ; though the difference is rather in the
manner of confidering them, than in the things them¬
felves. But Cicero, whom we ftiall here follow7, men¬
tions fix, namely, IntroduBion, Narration, Propoftion,
Confirmation, Confutation, and Conclufion.
Chap. I. Of the Introduction*
Introduc- The defign of this is to prepare the minds of the
tion gains hearers for a fuitable reception of the remaining parts
the heai ts ty)nt are to follow. And for this end, three things are
thin of1 the requifite ; that the orator gain the good opinion of his
audience, hearers, that he fecure their attention, and give them
and gives a fome general notion of his fubjeft.
general no- j Q00(l opinion. When the orator introduces his
Sea.the difcottrfe with his own perfon, he will be careful to do
it with modefty, and feem rather to extenuate his vir¬
tues and abilities, than to magnify them. And where
the nature of the fubjeft may feem to require it, he
wall endeavour to Ihowq that fome juft and good reafon
induced him to engage in it. _ We have a very fine ex¬
ample of this in Cicero’s oration for the poet Aulus Li-
cinius Archias, which begins thus : “ If I have any na¬
tural genius, which I am fenfible is very fmall, or any
ability in fpeaking, wherein I owm I have been very
converfant \ or any fkill acquired from the ftudy and
precepts of the beft arts, to which my whole life has
been devoted \ this Aulus Licinius has, in a particular
manner, a right to demand of me the fruit of aft thefe
things. Tor" as far back as I can remember, and call
to mind wdiat paffed in my youth to the prefent time,
he has been my chief advifer and encourager both to
undertake and purfue this courfe of ftudies.” Vi hen the
orator fets out w7ith the perfons of thofe to whom the
difeourfe is made, it is not unufual to commend them
for their virtues, and thofe Specially which have a
more immediate relation to the prefent fubjeft. Thus
Cicero begins his oration of thanks for the pardon of
Marcellus, with an encomium upon the mildnefs, cle¬
mency, and wifdom of Cjefar, to whom it was addrefled.
partIL ^ ^ ,
Difpofition. But fometinies the orator cxpreffcs his gratitude for paft
 faVours ; as Cicero has done m his orations both to the
people and fenate of Rome, after his return from bamfh-
ment.—And at other times he declares his concern tor
them’and their intereft ; in which manner Cicero begins
his fourth oration againft Catiline, which was made in
the fenate.” “ I perceive (fays he) that alb your coun¬
tenances and eyes are turned on me} I perceive that
you are felicitous, not only for your own dangei, and
that of the Hate, but for mine likewife, if that fhould
be removed. Your affeaion for me is pleafant in mif-
fortunes, and grateful in forrow j but I adjure you to
lay it alide, and, forgetting kiy fafety, confider your-
felves and your children.” But in judicial cafes, both
the character of the perfon whofe caufe he efpoufes, and
that of the adverfe party likewife, furnilh the orator
with arguments for exciting the good will of his hear¬
ers : The former, by commemorating his virtues, dig¬
nity, or merits, and 1'ometimes his misfortunes and cala¬
mities. So Cicero, in his defence of Flaccus, begins
his oration in commending him on the account of his
fervices done to the public, the dignity of his family,
and his love to his country. And Demolthenes, m his
oration againft Midias, fets out with a recital of his
vices, in order to recommend his own cauie to thejavour-
able opinion of the court.
2. Attention. On this head, Cicero fays, ‘‘We
{hall be heard attentively on one of thefe three things {
if we propofe what is great, neceffary, or for the m-
tereft of thofe to whom the dlfcourfe is addreiled. So
that, according to him, the topics of attention are
much the fame with thofe of good opinion, when taken
from the fubjeft. And indeed, people are naturally
led to attend either to thofe things or perfons or which
they have entertained a favourable opinion. But m or¬
der to gain this point, the orator fometimes thinks it
proper to requeft the attention of his audience. Thus
Cicero, in his defence of Cluentms, after having fliown
the heinoufnefs of the charge againft him, concludes his
introduaion in the following manner, fpeaking to_ the
judges : “ Wherefore I entreat, that while I briefly
amf clearly reply to a charge of many years fending,
ORATORY. 325
when they are all made ufe of, is it necefiary they ftiould
always Hand in the order we have here placed them.
Cicero fometimes enters immediately upon his fubjeft,
and introduces the other heads afterwards. As in his
third oration againft Catiline, made to the body of the
Roman people^ which begins thus : “ You fee that the
ftate, all your lives, eftates, fortunes, wives and children,
and this feat of the greateft empire, the moft flourifh-
ing and beautiful city, having by the favour ot hea¬
ven towards you, and my labours, counfels, and dan¬
gers been this day refeued from fire and fword and
the verv jaws of deftruaion, are preferved and reftored
to you ” And then he proceeds to recommend him-
felf to their efteem and benevolence, from the confide-
ration of thefe benefits. 2S
Thefe are the heads which commonly furnifti matter Intnxiuc
for this part of a difeourfe. But orators often take
occafion from the time, place, largenefs of the aliem ty, t}iefe heads,
or fome other proper circumftance, to compliment their but can ad-
hearers, recommend themfelves, or introduce the fubjeamit of other
upon which they are about to treat. Infences of eadi
of thefe may be met with in feveral of Cicero s orations. the cir_
And fometimes they fet out with fome companion, fimili- climftanCes
tude, or other ornament, which they accommodate to of the cafe.,
the occafion of their difeourfe. _ Thus Ifocrates enters
upon his celebrated panegyric in praife of his country¬
men the Athenians with the following companfon : “ I
have often wondered what could be their defign v. ho
brought together thefe affemblies, and inftituted the
gymnaftic fports, to propofe fo great rewards for bodily
ftrength ; and to vouchfafe no honour to thofe who ap¬
plied their private labours to ferve the public, and lo
cultivated their minds as to be ferviceable to others, to
whom they ought to have fliown greater regard. lo*
although the ftrength of a champion was doubled, no
benefit would from thence accrue to others; but all
enjoy the prudence of one man, who will hearken to his
advice.” In fome cafes, orators have recourfe to a more
covert and artful way of opening their fubjeft, endea¬
vour to remove jealoulies, apologize for what they are
about to fay, and feem to refer it to the candour of the
hearers to lodge of it as they pleafe. Cicero appears to
ki„d attentive heanng.” ^ And ^n.jnhtsfc- great f-ce^ TW m ^ ^ L. he wa,
about to fay ftiould give any offence to the lenate to
whom he was fpeaking : “ I (fays he) who always de
cond Philippic, addrefling himfelf to the fenate
“ But as I muft fay fomething for myfelf, and many
things againft Mark Antony j one of thefe I beg of
you, that you will hear me kindly, while I fpeak for
myfelf •, and the other I will undertake for, that when
I fpeak againft him, you ftiall hear me with atten¬
tion.” But though the introduftion be the moft
ufual and proper place for gaining attention, yet the
orator finds it convenient fometimes to quicken and
excite his hearers in other parts of his difeourfe, when
he obferves they flag, or has fomething of moment to
offer
2. Some general account of the fubjecl of the difeoune.
This is always neceffary j which the two others are not.
And therefore it muft be left to the prudence of the
orator when to ufe or omit them as he ftiall judge proper,
from the nature of his difeourfe, the circumftance of his
hearers, and how he ftands with them. But fome ac¬
count of the fubjeft is what cannot be neglefted. For
every one expefts to be foon informed of the defign ^of
the fpeaker, and what he propofes to treat.of. Nor
dared for peace, and to whom peace among ourfelves, as
it is wiflied for by all good men, was in a particular
manner defirable ; who have employed all my induftry
in the forum, in the fenate, and in the^ defence of my
friends, whence I have arrived to the higheft honours,
a moderate fortune, and what reputation I enjoy 5 I
therefore, who owe what I am to peace, and without it
could not have been the perfon I am, be that what it
will, for I would arrogate nothing to myfelf; I fpeak
with concern and fear, howr you will receive what I am
going to fay j but I beg and entreat you, from the great
regard I have always expreffed for the fupport and ad¬
vancement of your honour, that if any thing faid by me
fliould at firft appear harfli or unfit to be received, you
will notwithftanding pleafe to hear it without offence,
and not rejed it till I have explained myfelf: I then
for I muft repeat it again, who have always approved ot,
peace, and promoted it, am againft a peace with Mark
526
Difpofition.
25
Narration
brings for¬
ward all
thofe cir-
cumftances
of a cafe,
&c. in their
proper and
natural or¬
der, which
are calcu¬
lated to fet
it in a juft
or a ftrong
light.
Antony.” This is called injinuation ; and may be ne-
ceflary, where a caufe is in itfelf doubtful, or may be
thought io from the received notions of the hearers,
or the impieffions already made upon them by the
contrary fide. An honeft man would not knowingly
engage in a bad caufe ; and yet, through prevailing
prejudice, that may be fo efieemed which is not fo in
itfelf. In thefe cafes, therefore, great caution and
prudence are neceffary to give fuch a turn to things,
and place them in that view as may be lead: liable to
ofience. And becaufe it fometimes happens that the
hearers are not fo much difplealed at the object as the
perfon, Quintilian’s rule feems very proper, when he
fays, “ If the fubjeft difpleafe, the character of the
perfon (hould fupport it j and when the perfon gives
offence, he fhould be helped by the caufe.”
Chap. II. Of Narration.
. T.He orator having prepared his hearers to receive
his . difeourfes wdth candour and attention, and ac¬
quainted them with his general defign in the intro-
dudion, before he proceeds direftly to his fubjedt,
often finds it neceffary to give fome account of what
preceded, accompanied, or followed upon it. And
this he does in order to enlarge the view of the parti¬
cular point in difpute, and place it in a clearer light.
1 his is called narration ; which is a recital of fome-
thing done, in the order and manner in wdiich it was
done. Hence it is eafy to perceive what thafe things
are which properly enter into a narration. And fuch
are the caufe, manner, time, place, and oonfequences
of an adlion; with the temper, fortune, views, abili¬
ty, aflbeiates, and other circumfiances of thofe con¬
cerned in it. Not that each of thele particulars is ne-
ceffary in every narration : but fo many of them at
leaft as are requifite to fet the matter in a juft light,
and make it appear credible. Befides, in relating a
fadl, the orator does not content himfelf with fuch an
account of it as is barely lufficient to render what he
fays intelligible to his hearers 5 but deferibes it in fo
ftrong and lively a manner, as may give the greateft
evidence to his relation, and make the deepeft impref-
fion upon their minds. And if any part of it appear
at prefent .lefs probable, he promifes to clear up and
remove any remaining doubts in the progrefs of his
difeourfe. For the foundation of bis reafoning after-
vtfards is laid in the narration, from whence he takes
his arguments for the confirmation. And therefore it
is a matter of no fmall importance that this part be
well managed, fince the fuccefs of the whole difeourfe
Jo much depends upon it. See Narration.
four properties required in a good narra¬
tion : that it be fhort, clear, probable, and pleafant.
^ • hhe brevity of a narration is not to be judged
of barely from its length : for that may be too long,
which contains but a little j and that too ftiort, which
comprehends a great deal. Wherefore this depends
upon the nature of the fubjea, fince fome things re¬
quire more words to give a juft reprefentation of them,
and others fewer. That may properly therefore be
called a _ fhort narration, which contains nothing that
could well have been omitted, nor omits any thing
which "was neceffary to be faid. Nowr, in order to
avoid both thefe extremes, care ftiould be taken not
2
O 11 A T O R Y.
Part II.
to go farther back in the account of things, nor to Difpofmoo.
trace them down lower, than the fubjeft requires ; to -y—
fay that only in the general, which does not need a
more particular explication j not to afiign the caufes
of things, when it is enough to fhmv they were done ^
and to omit fuch things as are fufficiently underftood,
from what either preceded, or was conlequent upon
them. ^ But the orator (hould be careful, left, while-
he endeavours to avoid prolixity, he run into obfeu-
11 ty- _ Horace was very fenfible of this danger, when
he faid,
By driving to be (hort, I grow' obfeure.
5" Perjblcuity • I his may jultly be efteemed the
chief excellency of language. For as the defign of
fpeech is. to communicate our thoughts to others, that
muft be its greateft excellence which contributes mod
to jhis end ^ and that, doubtlefs, is perfpicuity. As
perfpicuity therefore is requifite in all difeourfe, fo it
is particularly ferviceable in a narration, which con¬
tains the fubftance of all that is to be faid afterwards.
Wherefore, if this be not fufficiently underftood, much
lefs can thofe things which receive their light from it.
Now the following things render a narration clear and
plain : Proper and fignificant words, whofe meaning
is wTell known and determined; (hort fentences, though
full and explicit, whofe parts are not perplexed, but
placed in their juft order ; proper particles to join the
fentences, and (1iowt their connexion and dependence
on each other ; a due regard to the order of time, and
other circumftances neceffary to be expreffed ; and, laftlv
fuitable tranfitions. ' ’
3. Probability. Things appear probable when the
caufes afiigned for them appear natural 5 the manner in
which they are deferibed is eafy to be conceived 5 the
confequences are fuch as might be expe&ed ; the cha-
ra&ers of the perlons are juftly reprefented ; and the
whole account is well attefted, confident with itfelf, and
agreeable to the general opinion. Simplicity likewife in
the manner of relating a fatt, as well as in the ftyle,
without any referve or appearance of art, contributes
very much to its credibility. For truth loves to appear
naked and open, ftript of all colouring or difvuife.
"1 he confpiracy of Catiline was fo daring and extrava¬
gant, that no one but fuch a defperado could ever have
undertaken it with any hopes of fuccefs. However,
Cicero’s account of it to the fenate was fo full and exaft’
and fo wrell fuited to the chara&er of the perfon, that it
prefently gained credit. And therefore, when upon the
conclufion of Cicero’s fpeech, Catiline, wdio was prefent,
immediately flood up, and defired they W'ould not enter¬
tain fuch hard thoughts of him, but confider how much
his family had always been attached to the public intereft,
and the great fervices they had done the (late; their
refentment rofe fo high, that he could not be heard :
upon which he immediately left the city, and went to
his affociates.
4. The laft thing required in a narration is, that it be
pleafatit and entertaining. And this is more difficult,
becaufe it does not admit of that accurate compofition
and pompous drefs which delight the ear, and recom¬
mend fome other parts of a difeourfe. For it certain¬
ly requires no fmall (kill in the fpeaker, while he en¬
deavours to exprefs every thing in the moft natural,
plain, and eafy manner, not to grow flat and tirefome.
For
Part II. ORATORY. 327
DTpoution. For Quintilian’s remark is very juft, that “the moft
1 v—■' experienced orators find nothing in eloquence more
difficult, than what all who hear it fancy they could
have faid themfelves.” And the reafon of this feems
very obvious. For as all art is an imitation of nature,
the nearer it refembles that, the mare perfect it is in
its kind. Hence unexperienced perfons often ima¬
gine that to be eafieft which fuits beft with thofe na¬
tural ideas to which they have been accuftomed ; till,
upon trial, they are convinced of their miftake.
Wherefore, to render this part of a difcourfe pleafant
and agreeable, recourfe muft be had to variety both
in the choice of words and turns of the expreftion.
And therefore queftions, admirations, interlocutions,
imagery, and other familiar figures, help very much to
diverfify and enliven a narration, and prevent it from
becoming dull and tedious, efpecially when it is carried
^ on to any confiderable length.
The ufe? of Having given a brief account of the nature and pro-
sarration. perties of a narration, we finail now proceed to confider
the ufes of it.
Laudatory orations are ufually as it -were a fort of
continued narration, fet off and adorned with florid
language and fine images proper to grace the fubject,
which is naturally fo well fitted to afford pleafure and
entertainment. Wherefore a feparate narration is more
ful led to deliberative and judicial difcourfes. In Cicero’s
oration for the Manilian law (which is of the former
kind), the defign of the narration is to fhow the Roman
people the neceffity of giving Pompey the command of
the army againft King Mithridates, by reprefenting the
nature of that war, which is done in the following man¬
ner : “ A great and dangerous war (fays he) threatens
your revenues and allies from two very powerful kings,
Mithridates and Tigranes •, one of whom not being pur-
fued after his defeat, and the other provoked, they
think they have an opportunity to feize Afia. Letters
are daily brought from thofe parts to worthy gentlemen
of the equeftrian order, who have large concerns there
in farming your revenues: they acquaint me, as friends,
with the ftate of the public affairs, and danger of their
own j that many villages in Bithynia, which is now
your province, are burnt down 5 that the kingdom of
Ariobarzanes, which borders upon your revenues, is
entirely in the enemy’s power; that Lucullus, after
feveral great victories, is withdrawn from the war ; that
he who fucceeds him is not able to manage it; that all
the allies and Roman citizens wifh and defire the com¬
mand of that war may be given to one particular perfon 5
and that he alone, and no other, is dreaded by the ene¬
mies. You fee the ftate of tire cale 5 now confider what
ought to be done.” Here is an unhappy feene of affairs,
which feemed to call for immediate redrefs. The caufes
and reaihns of it are affigned in a very probable manner,
and the account well attefted by perfons of charafter
and figure. And what the confequences would be, if
not timely prevented, no one could well be ignorant.
The only probable remedy fuggefted in general is, the
committing that affair to one certain perfon, which
he afterwards {hows at large could be no other than
Pompey. But in Cicero’s defence of Milo (which is
of the judicial kind), the defign of the narration,
which is greatly commended by Quintilian, is to prove
that, in the combat between Clodius and Milo, the
former was ifie aggreffpr. And in order to make this
appear, he gives a fummary account of the condufl of Ddpofition.
Clodius the preceding year 5 and from the courfe of "v "
his aftions and behaviour, (hows the inveterate hatred
he bore to Milo, who obftrufted him in his v/icked
defigns. For which caufe he had often threatened to
kill him, and given out that he ffiould not live" be¬
yond fuch a time ; and accordingly he went from
Rome without any other apparent reafon, but that he
might have an opportunity to attack him in a convenient
place near his own houfe, by which he knew Milo ivas
then obliged to pafs. Milo w7as in the fenate that day,
wffiere he ftaid till they broke up, then went home, and
afterwards fet forward on his journey. When he came
to the place in which he wTas to be affaulted, Clodius
appeared every way prepared for fuch a defign, being
on horfeback, and attended with a company of defperatc
ruffians ready to execute his commands ; wffiereas Milo
was with his wife in a chariot, wrapped up in his cloak,
and attended with fervants of both fexes. Thefe wreie
all circumftances which preceded the faff. And as to
the aflion itfelf, with the event of it, the attack, as
Cicero lays, was begun by the attendants of Clodius
from a higher ground, who killed Milo’s coachman ;
upon which Milo, throwing off his cloak, leaped out,
and made a brave defence againft Clodius’s men, wdio
were got about the chaiiot. But Clodius, in the heat
of the Ikirmith, giving out that Milo was killed, was
himfelf llain by the fervants of Milo, to avenge, as they
thought, the death of their mafter. Here feems to be
all the requilites proper to make this account credible.
Clodius’s open and avowed hatred of Milo, which pro¬
ceeded fo far as to threaten his life •, the time of his
leaving Rome 5 the convenience of the place •, his habit
and company fo different from thofe of Milo •, joined
with his known charafter of a moft profligate and auda¬
cious wretch, could not but render it very probable that,
he had formed that defign to kill Milo. And which of
them began the attack might very reafonably be credited
from the advanced ground on which Clodius and his men
were placed ; the death of Milo’s coachman at the be¬
ginning of the combat j the Ikirmifti afterwards at the
chariot; and the reafon of Clodius’s own death at laft,
which does not appear to have been intended, till he had
given out that Milo was killed.
But a diftimft and feparate narration is not always
neceffary in any kind of difcourfe. For if the matter
be well known before, a fet and formal narrative will
be tedious to the hearers. Or if one party has done
it already, it is needlefs for the other to repeat it.
But there are three occafions efpeciaily, in which it
may feem very requifite : when it will bring light to
the fubjecl *, when different accounts have already been
given out concerning it j or when it has been mifre-
prefented by the adverfe party. If the point in con-
troverfy be of a dubious nature, or not fufficiently
known to the hearers, a diftinft account of the matter,
with the particular circumftances attending it, muft
be very ferviceable, in order to let them into a true
ftate of the cafe, and enable them to judge of it with
greater certainty.
Moreover, where the oppofite party has fet the ■matter
in a falfe light by fome artful and invidious turn, or load¬
ed it with any odious circumftances, it feems no lefs ne¬
ceffary that endeavours fliould be ufed to remove any ill
impreffions, which othenvife might remain upon the
minds.
328 ORA
Difpofition. minds of the hearers, by a different and more favourable
reprefentation. And if any thing can be fixed upon to
make the contrary account appear abfurd or incredible,
it ought particularly to be remarked. Thus Cicero, in
his defence of Sextus Rofcius, fhows that he was many
miles diftant from Rome at the time he was charged with
having killed his father there. “ Now (fays he), while
Sextus Rofcius was at Ameria, and this Titus Rofcius
[his accufer\ at Rome, Sextus Rofcius [the father] was
killed at the baths on Mount Palatine, returning from
fupper. From whence I hope there can be no doubt
who ought to be fufpected of the murder. And, were
not the thing plain of itfelf, there is this farther fufpxcion
to fix it upon the profecutor} that, after the fact was
committed, one Manlius Glaucia, an obfcure fellow,
the freedman, client, and familiar, of this Titus Rof¬
cius, fir it carried the account of it to Ameria, not to
the fon of the deceafed, but to the houfe of Titus
Capito his enemywith more to the fame purpofe.
But what we bring it for is, to fiiow the ufe which
-Cicero makes of this narration for retorting the crime
upon the profecutors.
But the orator fhould be very careful, in conducing
This part, to avoid every thing which may prejudice the
caufe he efpoufes. Falfehood, and a mifreprefentation
of fads, are not to be juftified j but no one is obliged
to fay thofe things which may hurt himfelf. We {hall
juft mention one inftance of this from Cicero, where
he has fhown great {kill in this refped, in pleading
befoi* Caefar for the pardon of Ligarius, wdio had
joined with Pompey in the civil war. For Ligarius,
having been reprefented by the adverfe party as an
enemy to Caefar, and fo efteemed by CaTar himfelf j
Cicero very artfully endeavours in his narration to
take off the force of this charge, by fhowing, that, when
the war firit broke out, he refuied to engage in it;
which he would not have done, had he borne any per-
fonal hatred to Caefar. “ Quintus Ligarius (fays he),
before there was any fufpicion of a war, went into Africa
as a legate to the proconful Caius Confidius j in which
he fo approved himfelf, both to the Roman citizens and
allies, that, when Confidius left the province, the inha¬
bitants would not be fatisfied he fhould leave the govern¬
ment in the hands of any other pcrfon. Therefore
Quintus Ligarius having excufed himfelf in vain for
fome time, accepted of the government againfl his wall;
which he fo managed during the peace, that both the
citizens and allies were greatly pleafed with his integrity
and juftice. The war broke out on a hidden, which
thofe in Africa did not hear of till it w'as begun : but
upon the news of it, partly through inconfiderate hade,
-and partly from blind fear, they looked out for a leader,
firft for their owm fafety, and then as they were affected j
when Ligarius, thinking of home, and defirous to return
to his friends, would not be prevailed on to engage in
any affairs. In the mean time, Publius Accius Varus,
the praetor, wdio was formerly governor of Africa, com¬
ing to Utica, recourfe wras immediately had to him,
who very eagerly took upon himfelf the government 5 if
that can be called a government, which was conferred
on a private man by the clamour of the ignorant multi¬
tude, without any public authority. Ligarius, therefore,
who endeavoured to avoid every thing of that kind,
ceafed to aft foon after the arrival of Varus.” Here
■Cicero ends his narrative. For though Ligarius after-
' 0 R Y. Part II,
wards joined with Pompey’s party, yet to have men-Difpofition.
tioned that, which wras nothing more than what many v"
others had done, wdiom Ccefar had already pardoned,
could have ferved only to increafe his difpleafure againfl;
him. And therefore he doubtlefs fhowed great fkill in
fo managing his account, as to take off the main force of
the accufation, and by that means make way for his par¬
don, which he accordingly obtained.
Chap. III. Of the Propofition.
28
In every juft and regular difcourfe, the fpeaker’s The propa-
intention is to prove or illuftrate fomething. And a
when he lays down the fubjeft upon which he defignsj^’j^ an
to treat, in a diftinft and exprefs manner, this is called manner of
the propoftion. laying
Orators ufe feveral wrays in laying down the fubjeft^
of their difcourfes. Sometimes they do it in one general lVA on
propofition. We have an mitance ot this m Licenysorator
fpeech to the fenate, the day after Caefar was killed (as means to
it is given us by Dion Caflius), in wdiich his defign wastreat-
to perfuade them to peace and unanimity. “ This (fays
he) being the ftate of our affairs, I think it neceffary
that we lay afide all the difcord and enmity which have
been among us, and return again to our former peace
and agreement.” And then he proceeds to offer his
reafons for this advice.
At other times, to give a clearer and more diftinft
view of their difcourfe, they fubjoin to the propofition
the general heads of argument by which they endea¬
vour to fupport it. This method Cicero ufes in his
feventh Philippic, where he fays, “ I wdio have always
commended and advifed tp peace, am againft a peace
with Mark Antony. But why am I averfe to peace ?
Becaufe it is bafe, becaufe it is dangerous, and becaufg
it is impracticable. And I befeech you to hear me
wdth your ufual candour, while I make out thefe three
things.” , # 29
But when the fubjeft relates to feveral different things, When the
wdiich require each of them to be feparately laid down fubjedt re¬
in diftinft propofitions, it is called a partition ; though
fome have made twTo kinds of partition, one of which thin„s‘an(j
they call feparation, and the other enumeration. By the requires to
former of thefe, the orator fhows in what he agrees wdth be laid
his adverfary, and wherein he differs from him. ■ So, in ||^j'jn)rn
the cafe formerly mentioned, of a perfon accufed of
crilege for ftealing private money out of a temple, he ls called a
who pleads for the defendant fays, “ He owns the faft •,partition.
but it being private money, the point in queflion is,
Whether this be facrilege ?” And in the caufe of Milo,
Cicero, fpeuking of Clodius, fays, “ The point which
now comes before the court, is not, Whether’ he was
killed or not 5 that we confefs ; but, Whether juftly or
unjuftly.” Now' in reality here is no partition, fince the
former branch of the propofition is what is agreed upon,
and given up ; and confequently it is only the latter
that remains to be difputed. It is called enumeration,
when the orator acquaints his hearers with the feveral
parts of his difcourfe upon which he defign9 to tre^it.
And this alone, properly fpeaking, is a partition. Thus
Cicero ftates his plea in his defence, of Mur am a : “ I
perceive the accufation confifts of three parts : the firft
refpefts the conduct of his life j the fecond his dignity \
and the third contains a charge of bribery.”
There are jjjhree things requifite in a good parti¬
tion :
Part II.
Oratory.
Difpofition. tion ; that it be fiort, complete, and confid but of a fe~M
<—y~—' members.
A partition is faid to be fhort, when each propor¬
tion contains in it nothing more than what is neceffary.
So that the brevity here required is different from that
of a narration 5 for that confifts chieHy in things, this
in words. And, as Quintilian juftly oblerves, brevity
fe'ems very proper heve, where the orator does not Show
what he is then fpeaking of, but what he defigns to
difeourfe upon.
Again, It ought to be complete and perfect. And
for this end, care mull be taken to omit no neceffary
part in the enumeration.
But, however, there fhould. be as few heads as is
oonfiftent with the nature of the fubjecl. The ancient
rhetoricians preferibe three or four at the moft. And
we do not remember that Cicero ever exceeds that
number. But it is certain, the fewer they are, the
better, provided nothing neceffary be omitted. For
too large a number is both difficult of retention, and
apt to introduce that confufion which partition is de-
figned to prevent.
Hitherto we have been fpeaking only of thofe heads
into which the fubjecl or general argument of the dif¬
eourfe is at firil divided. For it is fometimes conve¬
nient to divide thefe again, or at leaft fome of them,
into feveral parts or members. And when this hap¬
pens, it is bell done, as the fpeaker comes to each of
them in the order at firil laid down ; by which means
the memory of the hearers will be lefs burdened than
by a multitude of particulars at one and the fame time.
Thus Cicero, in his oration for the Munilian law, com-
prifes what he defigns to fay under three general heads.
“ Firil (fays he) I ffiall fpeak of the nature of the
war, then of its greatnefs, and lallly about the choiee
of a general.” And when he comes to the firil of
thefe, he divides it again into four branches ; and fhows,
“ how much the glory of the Romans, the fafety of their
allies, their greatell revenues, and the fortunes of many
of their citizens, were all concerned in that war.” The
fecond head, in which he confiders the greatnefs of the
war, has no divifion. But when he comes to the third
head, concerning the choice of a general, he divides that
likewife into four parts ; and Ihows, that fo many virtues
are neceffary in a confummate general, fuch a one as was
proper to have the management of that wTar, namely,
Jkill in military affairs, courage, authority, and fuccefs :
all which he attributes to Pompey. And this is the
fcheme of that celebrated oration.
This fubdividing, however, ffiould never have place
but when it is abfolutely neceffary. To fplit a fubjebl
into a great many minute parts, by divifions and fub-
divifions without end, has always a bad effccl in fpeak¬
ing. It may be proper in a logical treatife ; but it
makes an oration appear hard and dry, and unnecef-
farily fatigues the memory. In a fermon, there may be
from three to five, or fix heads, including fubdivifions;
feldom Ihould there be more.
Further, Some divide ,their fubjedl into two parts,
and propofe to treat upon it negatively and pof lively ;
by fnowing firil what it is not, and then what it is.
But while they are employed to prove what it is not,
they ate not properly treating upon that, but fomething
elfe ; which feems as irregular as it is unneceffary. For
he who proves what a thing is, does at the fame time
Vol. XV. Fart I.
.329
30
Negative
and pofi-
tive divi¬
fions of a
fubjedl.
lh®w what it is not. However, in fabt, there is a fort DTpoiiuor .
of diviiion by affirmation and negation, which may' v~—'
fometimes be conveniently ufed. As if a perfon, charged
wdth killing another, fhould thus llate his defence : I
had done right if I had killed him, but 1 did not kill him.
Here indeed, if the latter can be plainly made to appear,
it may feem needlefs to infill upon the former. But if
that cannot be fo fully proved, but there may be room
left for iiifpicion, it may be proper to make ule of both ;
for all perfons do not fee things in the fame light, and he
who believes the facl, may likewife think it juft 5 while
he who thinks it unjull, may not believe it, but rather
fuppofe, had it really been committed by the party, he
would not have denied it, fince he looked upon it as de*
fenfible. And this method of proceeding, Quintilian
compares to a cullom often ufed in traffic, when perfons
make a large demand at firft, in order to gain a reafon-
able price. Cicero ufes this wTay of reafoning in his de¬
fence of Milo ; but in the contrary order; that is, he
firft anfwers the charge ; and then juftifies the fa£l,
upon the fuppofition that the charge was true. For he
proves, firft, that Clodius was the aggreffor; and not
Milo, as the contrary party had afferted : fad then, ta
give the greater advantage to his caufe, he proceeds to
ihow, that if Milo had been the aggreffor, it would
however have been a glorious action to-take off fuch an
abandoned wretch, who was not only a common enemy
to mankind,* but had likewife often threatened his
life.
A good and juft partition is attended with confider-
able advantages. For it gives both light and ornament
to a difeourfe. And it is alfo a great relief to the hear¬
ers, who, by means of thefe flops and refts, are much
better enabled to keep pace with the fpeaker without
confufion, and by calling their thoughts either way,
from what has been faid, both know and are prepared
for what is to follow". And as perfons, in travelling a
road with which they are acquainted, go on wdth greater
pieafure and lefs fatigue, becaufe they know how far it
is to their journey’s end fo to be apprifed of the fpeaker’s
defign, and the feveral parts of his difeourfe which he
.propofes to treat on, contributes very much to relieve
the hearer, and keep yp his attention. This mull ap¬
pear very evident to all who conlider how" difficult it is
to attend long and clofely to one thing, efpeeially when
we do not know how long it may be before we are like
to be releafed. Whereas, when wTe are beforehand ac¬
quainted with the fcheme, and the fpeaker proceeds re¬
gularly from one thing to another, opportunity is given
to eafe the mind, by relaxing the attention, and recalling
it again when neceffary. In a fermon, or in a pleading
at the bar, few things are of greater confequence than
a proper or happy divifion. It Ihould be iludied with
much accuracy and care ; for if one take a wnong
method at firil fetting out, it will lead him aftray in
all that follows. It will render the wffiole difeourfe
either perplex -d or languid ; and though the hearers
may not be able to tell where the fault or diforder
lies, they will be fenfible there is a diforder fome-
where, and find themfelves little a Heeled by what is
Ipoken. The French wniters <t>f fermons lludy neat-
nefs and elegance in the divifion. of their llibjedls
much more than fine Englilh do ; wffiofe diftributions,
though fenfiblc and juft, yet are often inartificial and
Tt
Chap.
;o
^ O R A T
j Hlpofitiorl.
  —> Chap. IV. Of Confirmation.
Conf?r'nr>- The orator having acquainted his hearers, in thepro-
tion is uicd polition, with the fubjecl on which he deiigns to dii'courle,
ter the ar- ufually proceeds either to prove or illuftrate what he has
guments there laid down. For i'ome difeouries require nothing
defence1 of more than an enlargement or illuftration, to let them
a fubject, in a proper light, and recommend them to the hearers j
for which reafon, likewife, they have often no dillindl
propofition. But where arguments are brought in de¬
fence of the fubjeft, this is properly confirmation. For,
as Cicero defines it, “ confirmation is that which gives
proof, ^authority, and fupport to a caufe, by reaioning.'’
And for this end, if any thing in the propofition feems
obfeure, or liable to be mifunderftood, the orator firft
takes care to explain it, and then goes on to offer fuch
arguments for the proof of it, and reprefent them in fuch
a light, as may be moll proper to gain the affent of his
hearers.
But here it is proper to obferve, that there are
different ways of reafoning fuhed to different arts.
The mathematician treats his fubjeft after another
manner than the logician, and the orator in a me¬
thod different from them both. Two methods of
reafoning are employed by orators, the fjnthetic and
analytic.
Synthetic I. Every piece of fynthetic reafoning may be re-
reafoning folved into a fyllogifm or feries of fyllogifms, (fee Lo-
Wef'S5 GIC)- ThuS we may reduce Cicero’s argument, by
intoVfyUo- which he endeavours to prove that Clodius affaulted
gifmor fe. Milo, and not Milo Clodius, to a fyllogifm in this
ries of fyHo- manner :
gifms.
He was the aggrefibr, whofe advantage it was to kill the
other.
But it was the advantage of Clodius to kill Milo, and not
Milo to kill him.
Therefore Clodius was the aggrefifior, or he affaulted
Milo.
The thing to be proved was, that Clodius affaulted
Milo, which therefore comes in the conclufion : and the
argument, by which it is proved, is taken from the head
of profit or advantage. Thus the logician would treat
this argument 5 and if either of the premifes were que-
llioned, he would fupport it with another fyllogifm. But
this Ihort and dry way of reafoning does not at all fuit
the orator : who not only for variety changes the order
of the parts, beginning fometimes with the minor, and at
other times with the conclufion, and ending with the
major ; but likewife clothes each part with fuch orna¬
ments of expreffion as are proper to enliven the fubjeft,
and render it more agreeable and entertaining. And he
frequently fubjoins, either to the major propofition, or
minor, and fometimes to both, one or more arguments
to fupport them •, and perhaps others to confirm or illu-
ilrate them as he thinks it requifite. Therefore, as a
logical fyllogifm confirts of three parts or propofitions,
a rhetorical fyllogifm frequently contains four, and many
times five parts. And Cicero reckons this laft the molt
complete. But all that is faid in confirmation of either
of the premifes is accounted but as one part. This will
appear more evident by examples : By a (liort fyllogifm
Cicero thus proves, that the Carthaginians were not to
be trufted : “ Thofe who have often deceived us, by
O R Y. Part II.
violating their engagements, ought not to be trufied. Difpofitbn.
For if we receive any damage by their treachery, we *
can blame nobody but ourfelves. But the Carthaginians
have often fo deceived us. Therefore it is madnefs to
truft them.” Here the major propofition is fupported
by a reafon. The minor needed none •, becaufe the
treachery of the Carthaginians was well known. So that
this fyllogifm confifts of four parts. But by a fyllogifm
of five parts he proves fomewhat more largely and ele¬
gantly, that the world is under the direction of a wife
governor. The major is this: “ Thofe things are better
governed which are under the direction of wifdom, than
thofe which are not.” This he proves by feveral inftan-
ces : “ A houfe managed with prudence has every thing
in better order, and more convenient, than that which
is under no regulation. An army commanded by a
wife and Ikilful general is in all refpefts better governed
than one which has a fool or a madman at the head of
it. And the like is to be faid of a fnip, which performs
her courfe belt under the direction of a Ikilful pilot.”
Then he proceeds to the minor thus: But nothing is
better governed than the univerfe.” Which he proves
in this manner : “ The rifing and fetting of the heavenly
bodies keep a certain determined order •, and the feveral
feafons of the year do not only neceffarily return in the
fame manner, but are fuited to the advantage of the
whole j nor did the viciflitudes of night and day ever
yet become prejudicial, by altering their courfe.” From
all which he concludes, “ that the world muff be under
the direclion of a wife governor.” In both thefe ex¬
amples, the regular order of the parts is obferved. We
(hall therefore produce another, in which the order is
direclly contrary $ for beginning with the conclufion, he
proceeds next to the minor propofition, and lo ends with
the major. In his defence of Coelius, his defign is to
prove that Coelius had not led a loofe and vicious life,
with which his enemies had charged him. And this he
does, by fhowing he had clofely followed his ftudies, and
was a good orator. This may probably at firft fight
appear but a weak argument j though to him who con-
fiders what Cicero everywhere declares neceffary to gain
that charafler, it may perhaps be thought otherwife.
The fenfe of what he fays here may be reduced to this
fyllogifm.
Thofe who have purfued the Jludy of oratory, fo as
to excel in it, cannot have led a loofe and vicious
life.
But Coelius has done this.
Therefore his enemies charge him wrongfully.
But let us hear Cicero himfelf. He begins with the con¬
clufion, thus : “ Coelius is not chargeable with profufe-
nefs, extravagancy, contrafting of debts, or intemperance,
a vice which age is fo far from abating, that it rather in-
creafes it. Nay, he never engaged in amours, and thofe
pleafures of youth, as they are called, which are foon
thrown off, as reafon prevails.” Then he proceeds to
the minor, and {hows from the effeas, that Ccelius had
clofely applied himfelf to the beft arts, by which he
means thofe neceffary for an orator: “ You have now
heard him make his own defence, and you formerly
heard him engaged in a profecution (I fpeak this to vin¬
dicate, not to applaud him), you could not but perceive
his manner of fpeaking, his ability, his good fenfe, and
command of language. Nor did he only difeover a good-
genius,
Part II
Difpofition-
33
Orators do
not often
life com¬
plete fyllo-
gifms, but
moft com¬
monly im-
perfcft
ones, called
xnthymems,
0 R A T
genius, which will oftentimes do much of itfelf when it
is not improved by induftry ; but what he faid (if my
affection for him did not bias my judgement) appeared to
be the effeft of learning, application, and ftudy.” And
then he comes to the major : “ But be affured, that thofe
vices charged upon Coelius, and the ftudies upon which
I am now difcourfmg, cannot meet in the fame perfon.
For it is not poffible that a mind, difturbed by fuch ir¬
regular paffions, Ihould be able to go through what we
orators do, I do not mean only in fpeaking, but even in
thinking.” And this he proves by an argument taken
from the fcarcity of good orators. “ Can any other
reafon be afligned, why fo few, both nowr, and at all
times, have engaged in this province, when the rewards
of eloquence are fo magnificent, and it is attended with
fo great delight, applaufe, glory, and honour ? All plea-
fures muff be neglefted ; diverfions, recreations, and en¬
tertainments omitted 5 and even the converfation of all
our friends muft in a manner be laid afide. This it is
which deters perfons from the labour and ftudy of ora¬
tory 5 not their want of genius or education.”
2. By Enthymem. But orators do not often ufe com¬
plete fyllogifms, but moft commonly enthymems. An
enthymem, as is fhown elfewhere, is an imperfedft fyllo-
gifm, confifting of two parts ; the conclufion, and one of
the premifes. And in this kind of fyllogifm, that pro-
pofition is omitted, whether it be the major or minor,
which is fufficiently manifeft of itfelf, and may eafily
be fupplied by the hearers. But the propofition that
'is expreffed is ufually called the antecedent, and the
conclufion the confequent. So if the major of that fyl¬
logifm be omitted, by which Cicero endeavours to prove
that Clodius affaulted Milo, it will make this enthy¬
mem :
The death of Milo would have been an advantage to
Clodius.
Therefore Clodius was the aggreffor ; or, therefore, he
ajfaultcd Milo.
In like manner, that other fyllogifm above mentioned,
by wdrich he fhows that the Carthaginians ought not to
be trufted, by omitting the minor, may be reduced to
the following enthymem :
Thofe who have often broke their faith ought not to be
trufed.
TQr which reafon the Carthaginians ought not to be
trufed.
Every one would readily fupply the minor, fince the
perfidioufnefs of the Carthaginians was known to a pro¬
verb. But it is reckoned a beauty in enthymems, when
they confift of contrary parts, becaufe the turn of them
is moft acute and pungent. Such is that of Micipfa in
Salluft : “ What ftranger will be faithful to you who
are an enemy to your friends ?” And fo likewife that of
Cicero for Milo, {peaking of Clodius : “ You fit as aven¬
gers of his death ; whole life you wrould not reftore, did
you think it in your power.” Orators manage enthy¬
mems in the fame manner they do fyllogifms; that is,
they invert the order of the parts, and confirm the pro¬
pofition bv one or more reafons •, and therefore a rheto-
jical enthymem frequently confifts of three parts, as a
fyllcgifm does of five. Though, ftridtly fpeaking, a
fyiloglfm can confift of no more than three parts, and an
enthymem but of two: and the arguments brought to
O R Y.
fupport either of the propoliuonS cohftitule fo many new D
enthymems, of which the part they arc defigned to ~
prove is the conclufion. To illuftrate this by an ex¬
ample :
An honef man thinks himfelf under the highef obliga ¬
tion to his country.
Therefore he JhouldJhun no danger to ferve it.
In this enthijmem the major is wanting, which would
run thus : “ He who is under the higheft obligations
to another, fiiould fhun no danger in order to ferve
him.” This laft propofition is founded upon the com
mon principle of gratitude 5 which requires that, to the
utmoft of our power, a return fhould be made in pro¬
portion to the kindnefs received. And this being a
maxim generally allowed, it is omitted by the orator.
But now this enthymem, confifting of the minor and
conclufion, might be managed in fome fuch manner
as this, beginning with the conclufion : “ An honeft
man ought to ftiun no danger, but rehdily expofe his
life for the fafety and prefervation of his country.”
Then the reafon of this conducf might be added,
which is the antecedent of the enthymem, or minor
of the fyllogifm : “ For he is fenfible that his obligations
to his country are fo many, and fo great, that he can
never fully requite them.” And this again might be
confirmed by an enumeration of particulars : “ He
looks upon himfelf as indebted to his country for every
thing he enjoys ; for his friends, relatio'ns, all the plea-
fures of life, and even for life itfelf. Now the orator
calls this one enthymem, though in reality there are two :
For the fecond reafon, or argument, added to the firft,
becomes the antecedent of a new enthymem, of which
the firft reafon is the confequent. And if thefe two en¬
thymems were expreffed feparately in the natural order
of the parts, the former would ftand thus: “ An honeft
man thinks himfelf under the higheft obligations to his
country ; therefore he ought to ftiun no danger for its
prefervation.” The latter thus: “ An honeft man
efteems himfelf indebted to his country for every thing
he enjoys 3 therefore he thinks he is under the higheft
obligations to it.” The fame thing might be proved in
the like way of reafoning, by arguments of a different
kind. From comparifon, thus : “ As it would be
thought bafe and ungrateful in a fon not to hazard him¬
felf for the prefervation of his father 3 an honeft man
muft certainly efteem it fo when his country is in dan¬
ger.” Or from an example, in this manner • “ An ho¬
neft man in like circumftances would propofe to himfelf
the example of Decius who freely gave up his life for
the fervice of his country. He gave up his life indeed,
but did not lofe it 3 for he cannot be faid to have loft
his life, who lives in immortal honour.” Orators fre¬
quently intermix fuch arguments to adorn and illuftrate
their fubjedl with others taken from the nature and cir¬
cumftances of things. And now, if we conlider a little
this method of reafoning, we ftiall find it the moft plain
and eafy imaginable. For when any propofition is laid
down, and one or more reafcns fubjoined to prove it,
each reafon joined with the propofition makes a diftindt
enthymem, of which the propofition is the conclufion.
Thus Cicero, in his feventh Philippic, lays down this as
the foundation of his difcourfe, “ That he is againft a
peace with Mark Antony 3 for which he gives three
reafons : Becaufe it is. bafe, becaufe it is dangerous.
L’ i i poll* I 'in.
O RATO R Y.
Fart II.
The analy-
tec method
of reafori-
ing nearly
the fame
with the
Socratic.
and becauie it is impracticable.’'’ Thefe feverally join¬
ed with the propofition, form three enthymems •, and
upon each of thefe he ddcourfes feparately, which make
up that oration. And this method is what perfons for
the moil part naturally falHnto, who know nothing of
the terms fyllogifm or enthymem. They advance fome-
thing, and think of a reaion to prove it, and another
perhaps to fupport that •, and, fo far as their invention
will afiilf them, or they are mailers of language, they
endeavour to fee what they fay in the plaineid light, give
it the belt drefs, embellifh it wiih proper figures and dif¬
ferent turns of expreffion \ and, as they think conveni¬
ent, illutlrate it with firailitudes, comparifons, and the
like ornaments, to render it moft agreeable, till they
think what they have advanced fufficiently proved. As
this method of arguing therefore is the moft plain/ eafy,
and natural ; fo it is what is moft commonly ufed in
oratory. Whereas a ft riel fyllogiftical way of difeour-
fing is dry and jejune, cramps the mind, and Moes not
admit of thefe emoelliftiments of language which are a
great advantage to the orator : for which reafon he fel-
dom ufes complete fyllogifms •, and when he does, it is
with great latitude. In every difeourfe care fhould be
taken not to blend arguments confufedly together that
are of a feparate nature. “ All arguments (fays the
glegant 13r Blair) are direcled to prove one or other of
theie three things •, that fomething is true ; that it is
morally right or fit ; or that it is profitable and good.
Thefe make the three great fubjecls of difeuffion among
mankind ; truth, duty, and intereft. But the arguments
diredled towards any one of them are generally diftincl;
and he who blends them all under one topic, which he
calls his argument, as, in fermons efpecially, is too of¬
ten done, will render his reafoning indillincl and inele¬
gant. Suppofe, for inllance, that I am recommending
to an audience benevolence, or the love of our neigh¬
bour / and that I take my firft argument from the in¬
ward fatisfaflion which a benevolent temper affords •, my
lecond, from the obligation which the example of Chrift
lays upon us to this duty / and third, from its tendency
to procure us the good will of all around us ; my argu¬
ments are good, but I have arranged them wrong : for
my firft and third arguments are taken from confidera-
tions of intereft, internal peace, and external advanta¬
ges / and between thefe, 1 have introduced one, which
refts wholly upon duty. I fhould have kept thofe claf-
fes of arguments, which are addreffed to diffei-ent prin¬
ciples in human nature, feparate and diftincl.”
If. The other method of reafoning is the analytic,
in which the orator conceals his intention concerning
the point he is to prove, till he has gradually brought
his hearers to the defigned conclufton. They are led
on, ftep by ftep, from one known truth to another, till
the conclufion be ftolen from them, as the natural con-
fequence of a chain of propofitions. As, for inftance,
when one intending to prove the being of a God, fets
out with obferving that every thing which we fee in the
world has had a beginning / that whatever has had a
beginning, muft have had a prior caufe / that in human
produfliens, art fhown in the effeft, neceffarily infers
defign in the caufe ; and proceeds leading you on from
one caufe to another, till you arrive at one fupreme firft
caufe, from whom is derived all the order and defign
viftble in his works. This is much the fame with the
Socratic method, by \\4uch that philofopher fiienced the Difpottion
fophifts of his age. ——•'y
He proceeded by feveral* queftions, which being fe¬
parately granted, the thing deligned to be inferred was
afterwards put, which, by reafon of its fimilitude with
leverai cafes allowed' before, could not be denied. But
this is a captious way of reafoning ; for while the re-
fpondent is not aware of what is defigned tp be inferred,
he is eafiiy induced to make thofe conceftions, which
otherwife he would not. Befides, it is not fo well fuit-
ed to continued difeourfes, as to thofe which are inter¬
locutory / and therefore we meet with it ofteneft'in the
Socratic dialogues both of Plato and Xenophon. How¬
ever, it may be made ufe of in oratory by a figure call¬
ed fubjeBion, when the fame perfon firft puts the quef-
tion, and then makes the anfwer. So in the famous
caufe of Epaminondas, general of the Thebans, who
was accufed for relufing to furrender his command to -
his facceffor appointed by the ftate, till after he had en¬
gaged the enemy, and given them a total defeat, Cicero
thus reprefents his accufer pleading for the words of the
law againft Epaminondas, who alledged the intention of
it in his defence : “ Should Epaminondas add that ex¬
ception to the law, which, he fays, was the intention of
the writer, namely, Except any one refufe to give up his
command when it is for the intcrejl of the public he
jhould not; would you admit of it ? I believe not.
Should you yourfelves, which is a thing moft remote
from your juftice and wifdom, in order to fereen him,
order this exception to be added to the law, without the
command of the people / would the Thebans fuffer it to
be done ? No, certainly. Can it be right then to ccme
into that, as if it was written, which it would be a crime •
to write ? I know it cannot be agreeable to your wiiT
dom to think fo.”
Under the analytic method may be comprehended May
reafoning by example. Rhetoricians ufe this word in a pivhend
different fenfe from the common acceptation. For thatref',°n'3'1-
is ufually called an example, which is brought either to*’5, e'-a!HP^
prove or illuftrate fome general affertion : As if any one
ftiould fay, that human bodies may be brought tofufain
the greatef labours by ufe and exercife ; and in order to
prove this fhould relate what is faid of Milo of Croton,
that “ by the conftant practice of carrying a calf feveral
furlongs every day, he could .carry it as far after it
had grown to its full fize.” But in oratory the word
exatnple is ufed for any kind of fimilitude / or, as Vof-
fius defines it, “ When one thing is inferred from an¬
other, by reafon of the likenefs which appears between
them.” Hence it is called an imperfeB induRion, which
infers fomething from feveral others of a like nature,
and has always the greateft force when the examples are
taken from fafts. Now faffs may be compared with re-
fpect to fome agreement or fimilitude between them,
which in themfelves are either equal or unequal. Of
the former kind this is an inftance : “ Cato adled as be¬
came a patriot and a lover of his country’s liberty, in
oppofing the arms of Ctefar : and therefore lo did Ci¬
cero.” The reafon of the inference is founded in the
parity of the cafe, which equally concerned all good
fubjedls of the Roman government at that time. For
all were alike obliged to oppofe a common enemy, who
endeavoured to fubvert the conftitution, and fubject
them to his own arbitrary power. But though an ex¬
ample
35
com-,
ORA
ample cor,nils in the comparifon of two fingle facls yet
feveral perfons may be concerned in eacn Ot this
kind is that which follows : “ As Pompey, Csefar, and
Craflus, acted illegally in the firft triumvirate, by en-
nroffing the foie power into then own hands, and by
that means violating the public liberty fo likervife did
Auguftus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, in the fecond
triumvirate, by purfuing the fame meafures.” But when
Cicero defends Milo for killing Clodius, from the like
inftances of Ahala Servilius, Scipio T^afica, Lucius
Opimius, and others j that is not an example,^ but an
induction : becaufe one thing is there inferred iiom its
limilitude to ieveral others. But when a comparifon is
made between two faffs that are unequal, the inference
may be either from the greater to the left, or ftom the
lefs to the greater. From the greater to the lefs m this
manner : “ Caelar had no juft pretenfions to the Roman
government, and therefore much lefs had Antony.” 'V he
reafon lies in the difference between the two peifons.
Ccefar had very much enlarged the bounds of the Ro¬
man empire by' his conqufefts, and greatly obliged the
populace by his generofity •, but as he had always affed
by an authority from the fenate and people or Rome,
thefe things gave him no claim to a power over them.
Much lefs then had Antony any fuch pretence, who al¬
ways affed under Caffar, and had never performed any
fignal fervices himlelf. Cicero has deferibed the differ¬
ence between them in a very beautiful manner in his fe¬
cond Philippic, thus fpeakmg to Antony : “ Are you
in any thing to be compared to him ? fie had a. genius,
fagacity, memory, learning, care, thought, diligence 5
he had performed great things in war, though detrimen¬
tal to the Hate •, he had for many years deffgned to get
the government into his hands, and obtained his end by
much labour and many dangers ; he gained over the
ignorant multitude by public (hows, buildings, congia-
ries, and feaffs *, obliged his friends by rewards, and his
enemies by a ffiow of clemency. In a word, he fubjeff-
ed a free ftate to flavery, partly through ffai, ana part¬
ly compliance. I can liken you to him for ambition ot
power j but in other things you are in no refpeff to be
compared with him.” By a comparifon from the. lefs
to the greater, Cicero thus argues againft Catiline..
“ Did the brave Scipio, when a private man, kill I i-
berius Gracchus, for attempting to weaken the .ftate )
and (hall we confuls bear with Catiline endeavouring to
dcflroy the world by fire and fword i” 1 he circunntan-
ces of thefe two cafes were very different ; and the com¬
parifon runs between a private man and a conful intruft-
ed with the higheft authority ; between a defign only
to raife a tumult, and a plot to deftroy the government:
whence the orator juftly infers, that what was eiitemed
lawful in one cafe, was much more lo in the otoer.
The like way of reafoning is fometimes ufed from other
fimilitudes, which may be taken from things of all
kinds, whether animate or inanimate. Of the former
fort is that of Cicero fpeaking of Murtena, when candi¬
date for the confulfhip, lifter he had hfmfelf gone
through that office : “ If it is ufual (lays he) for inch
perfons as are faiely arrived in port, to give > ofe. who
are going out the belt account tney can villi relation to
the weather, pirates, and coaffs ; becaufe thus nature
direffs us to afiift thofe who are entering upon the fame
dangers which we ourfelves have efcaped : how ought I,
who now after a great florin am brought within a near
T O Pv Y.
profpeff of land, to be affeffed towards him, who I Cf
perceive, mutt be expofed to the greateft tempeds ol tne
ftate ?” He alludes to the late difturbances and tumults
occafioned by the confpiracy of Catiline, which nad
been fo happily fuppreffed by him in the time of his
confulate. Of the latter kind is that of Quintilian :
<< the ground is made better and more fruitful by
culture, fo is the mind by inftruffion.” There is both
a beauty and juftnefs in this funile.
Rut comparifons are fometimes made between mci-S -
and other things, in order to infer fome difference or op-
pofition between them. In comparing two faffs, on ac¬
count of fome difagreement and unlikenefs, the inference
is made from the difference between one and the other
in that particular refpeff only. As thus : Though it
was not efteemed cruelty in Brutus to put his two ions
to death, for endeavouring to betray their country ; it
might be fo in Manlius, who put his fon to death, only
for encaging the enemy without orders, though he gam¬
ed the viffory.” The difference between the two faffs
lies in the different nature of the crime. The. fons of
Brutus entered into a confpiracy. to. betray their coun¬
try ; and though they mifearried in it, yet the intention
and endeavours they ufed to accomplifh it were criminal
in the hioheft degree. But young Manlius could oivy
be charged with raffinefs. His defign was honourable,
and intended for the intereft of his country ; only it was
irregular, and might have proved of ill confequence to
military difeipline. Now in all fuen cafes, tne.force Oi
the argument is the ftronger the greater the difference
appears. But the fame faffs which differ m one refpeff
may agree in many others •, as in the example here men¬
tioned" Brutus and Manlius were both magiftrates as
well as fathers; they both killed their fons, and that
for a capital crime by the Roman law. In any of which
refpeffs they may be compared in a way of fimilnude :
as “ If Brutus might lawfully put hxs ion to deat.i
for a capital crime, fo might.Manlius.” But now con¬
trary faffs do not only differ in fome certain leipeci, but
are wholly oppofite to each other •, fo that what is af¬
firmed of the one muff be denied of the other •, and if
one be a virtue, the other is a vice. Thus Cicero com¬
pares the conduff of Marcellas and Verres in a way of
oppolition. “ Marcellas (fays he), who had engaged,
it he took Syracufe, to ereff tw7o temples at Rome,
would not beautify them with the fpoils he had laktn ,
Ve-res, who had made no vows to Honour and Virtue,
but to Venus and Cupid, endeavoured to plunder the
temple of Minerva. The former would not adorn the
gods with the fpoils of other deities : the latter carried
the ornaments of Minerva, a virgin, into the no ale o l
a ftrumpet.” If therefore the conduff of Marcelius was
laudable and virtuous, that of Verres muff bear the con-
trary character. But this way of reaioning has li^e-
wife place in other refpeff s. ft hus Cicero, in the quar¬
rel between Caelar and Pompey, advifed to peace trom
the difference between a foreign and domeftic war:
« That the former might prove beneficial to the Hate.}
but in the latter, whichever fide conquered, the public
muff fuffer.” And thus the ill effeffs of intemperance
may be ffiown in a way of oppofition: 1 hat as tem¬
perance preferves the health of the.body, keeps up t.<c
vigour of the mind, and prolongs lire •, fo excefs niuft
neceffarily have the contrary efieffs.
Thus we haye given a brief account of the principal
w ay a
334 ORA
■Difpoliaon. ways of reasoning commonly made ufe of by orators.
As to the dilpofition of arguments, or the order of pla¬
cing them, fome advife to put the weaker, which can¬
not wholly be omitted, in the middle : and fuch as are
ftronger, partly in the beginning',-+o gain the elteem
of the hearers, and render them more attentive ; and
partly at the end, becaufe what is lalt heard is likely
to be retained longeft : But if there are but two argu¬
ments, to place the ftronger firft, and then the weaker j
and after that to return again to the former, and infift
puncipally upon that. But this muft be left to the pru¬
dence of the fpeaker, and the nature of the fubjecl.
Though to begin with the ftrongeft, and fo gradually
defcend to the weakefl, can never be proper, for the
leafon laft mentioned. Nor ought arguments to be
crowded too clofe upon one another 5 for that takes tiff
fiom their force, as it breaks in upon the attention of
the hearers, and does not leave them fufficient time duly
to confider them. Nor indeed fhould more be ufed
than are neceifary 5 becaufe the fewer they are, the
more eafily they are remembered. And the obfervation
of a great mafter of eloquence upon this fubjedl is cer¬
tainly very juft, that arguments ought rather to be
'weighed than numbered.
Chap. V. Of Confutation.
36
Forms of The forms of reafoning here are the fame as have
the feme10” been alrea^ exP^ined venter confirmation. Confutation,
with thofe however, is often the more difficult talk j becaufe he
of con fir- who is to prove a thing comes ufually prepared r but he
mation, but who is to confute it is frequently left to a hidden an-
rnore diffi- fwer. For which reafon, in judicial cafes, Quintilian
fays, “ It is as much eafier to accufe than defend, as it
is to make a wound than to heal it.” Therefore, not
only a good judgement, but a readinefs of thought’alfo,
feems neceflary for this province. But, in all difputes
it is of the greateft confequence to obferve where the’
ftrefs_ of the controverfy lies. For without attending
to this, perfons may cavil about different matters, with¬
out underftanding each other, or deciding any thing.
And in-confutation, what tlje adverfary has advanced
ought carefully to be conlidered, and in what manner he
has expreffed himfelf. As to the things themfelves,
whether they immediately relate to the matter in difpute’
or are foreign to it. Thofe things that are foreign to’
the fubjett may either be paft over in filence, or in a very
few words ffiown to be infignilicant. And there ought
likewife to be a diftinftion made between fuch things as
relate to the fubjeft, according to their importance.
Thofe that appear to have no great weight ftiould be
ffightly remarked. For to infift largely upon fuch mat¬
ters is both tirefome to the hearers, and apt to bring
the judgement of the fpeaker in queftion. And there¬
fore things of that nature are generally better turned
off with an air of neglect, a pungent queftion, or an a-
greeable jeft, than confuted by a ferious and laboured
anluer. But thofe things, which relate to the merits
of 'he caufe, may be confuted either by contradicting
them, or by ftiowing fome mifalte in the reafoning, or
their invalidity when granted.
Things may be contradicted feveral ways. What is
apparently falfe may be exprefsly denied. Thus Cicei ■
in his defence of Cluentius : “ When th# accufer 1, ft
faid, that the man fell down dead after he had drunk
4
i O R Y. part jj
rlrt fT* ?eT lhat ,Ie died lll!“ day” AnJ *i»g» Mpofmc.'
which the adverfary cannot prove, may likewife be de-  /—
med. Of which we have alfo an initance in Cicero
who firft upbraids Mark Antony as guilty of a breach
not only of good breeding, but likewife of friendftip,
for reading publicly a private letter he had fent him!
And then adds, “ But what will you fay now, if I
ftiould deny that ever I fent you that letter > How will
you prove it ? By the hand-writing ? In which I con-
fefs you have a peculiar fidll, and have found the be¬
nefit of it. But how can you make it out ? For it is
in my kcretary’s hand. I cannot but envy your maf¬
ter who had fo great a reward for teaching you to un-
derftand juft nothing. For what can be more unbeco¬
ming not only an orator, but even a man, than for any
one to offer fuch things, which if the adverfary denies
he has nothing more to fay ?” It is an handfo'rne way
contradufting a thing, by ftiowing that the adverfary
himlelf maintained the contrary. So when Oppius was
charged with defrauding the foldiers of their provifions,
Cicero refutes it, by proving, that the fame perfons char¬
ged Oppius with a defign to corrupt the army by his
liberality. An adverfary is never more effedfually fi-
lenced than when you can fallen contradiaions upon
lum ; for this is ftabbing him with his own weapon.
Sometimes a thing is not in exprefs terms denied, but
reprefented to be utterly incredible. And this method
expofes the adverfary more than a bare denial. So
v, nen fome perfons reproached Cicero with cowardice
and a ftiameful fear of death, he recites their reafons in
iiich a manner, that any one would be inclined to think
the charge entirely falfe. “ Was it becoming me (fays
he) to expeft death with that ccmpofednefs of mind as
ffime have imagined ? Well, and did I then avoid it >
Nay, was there any thing in the'world that I could ap¬
prehend more defirable ? Or, when I had done the
greateft things in fuch a crowd of ill-minded perfons
about me, do you think banilhment and death were not
always in my view, and continually founding in my
ears as my certain fate, while I was fo employed ? Was
life defire able when all my friends were in fuch forrow
and myfelf in fo great diftrefs, deprived of all the ffifts
both of nature and fortune ? Was I fo unexperienced,
fo ignorant, fo void of reafon and prudence ? Had I ne¬
ver feen or heard any thing in my whole life ? Did all I
had read and ftudied avail nothing ? What! did not I
know that life is fhort, but the glory of generous ac¬
tions permanent ? When death is appointed for all, does it
not feqm eligible, that life, which muft be wrefted from
us, ftiould rather be freely devoted to the fervice of our
country, than relerved to be worn out by the decays of
nature ? Was not I fenfible, there has been this ccntro-
verfy among the wifeft men, that fome fay, the minds
of men and their confciences utterly perifh at death ;
and others, that the minds of wife and brave men are
then in their greateft ftrength and vigour, when they
are fet free from the body Is The firft ftate is not greatly
to be dreaded, to be void of fenfe : but. the other, of
enjoying larger capacities, is greatly to be defired.
Therefore, fince I always aimed at dignity, and thought
nothing was worth living for without it; how ihould I,
who am paft the confullhip, and did fo great things in
it, 1 e afraid to die ?” Thus far Cicero. There is like-
w;re <.r ironical way of contradicting a thing, by .re¬
torting that and other tilings of the like nature upon
the
fart U. . ,° R A. T
Difpofition. the adverfe pariy : Thus Cicero, in nis oration againft
 v ' Vatinius, fay%s: “ You have objefted to me, that I de¬
fended Cornelius, my old friend, and your acquaintance.
But pray why Ihould I not have defended him ? Has
Cornelius carried any law contrary to the omens ? Has
he violated any law ? Has he aflaulted the conful ? Did
he take poffeflion of a temple by force of arms ? Did
he drive away the tribune, who oppofed the palling a
law ? Has he thrown contempt upon religion ? Has he
plundered the treafury ? Has he pillaged the Hate t No,
thefe, all thefe, are your doings.” Such an unexpected
return is fometimes of great lervice to abate the confi¬
dence of an adverfary.
A fecond way of confutation is, by obferving fome
jla w in the reafoning of the adverie party. We fhall
endeavour to illuftrate this from the feveral kinds of
reafoning treated of before under confirmation. And
firft, as to fyllogifms •, they may be refuted, either by
fhowing fome miftake in the premifes, or that the con-
clufion is not juftly deduced from them. So when the
Clodian party contended, that Milo ought to fuffer
death for this reafon, Becaufe he had confeffed that
he had killed Clodius; that argument, reduced to a fyl-
logifm, would Hand thus :
He who confejjes he has killed another, ought not to be
allowed to fee the light.
But Milo confejfes this.
Therefore he ought not to live.
Now the force of this argument lies in the major or
firft propofition \ which Cicero refutes, by proving, that
the Roman people had already determined contrary to
what is there aflerted : “ In wdiat city (fays he) do
thefe men difpute after this weak manner ? In that
wherein the firft capital trial w'as in the cafe of the
brave Horatius, who, before the city enjoyed perfeft
freedom, was faved by the fuffrages of the Roman peo¬
ple, though he confeffed that he killed his lifter with his
own hand.” But when Cicero accufed Verres for mal-
adminiftration in his government of Sicily, Hortenfius,
who defended him, being fenfible the allegations brought
againft him could not be denied, had no other way left
to bring him off, but by pleading his military virtues in
abatement, which at that time were much wanted, and
very ferviceable to the ftate. The form of the argu¬
ment was this :
That the Romans then wanted good generals.
That Verres was fuch.
And confequently, that it was for the interef of the
public that he Jbould not be condemned.
But Cicero, who knew his defign, ftates the argument
for him in his charge ; and then anfwers it by denying
the confequeuce, fmee the crimes of Verres were of fo
heinous a nature, that he ought by no means to be par¬
doned on the account of any other qualifications :
Though indeed he afterwards refutes the minor or fe¬
cond propofition, and fhows that he had not merited the
charafter of a good general. Enthymems may be re¬
futed, either by fhowing that the antecedent is falfe, or
the confequent not juftly inferred from it. As thus,
with refpeft to the former cafe ;
O R Y. 335
Difpefitioru
A fried adherence to virtue has often proved detnmen- .«—^
*j/.
Therefore virtue ought not confantly to be embraced.
Here the antecedent may be denied. For virtue is
alway beneficial to thofe who ftriftly adhere to it, both
in the prefent fatisfaffion it affords them, and the fu¬
ture rewards they may certainly expeft from it. And
as to the latter cafe, in this manner:
She is a mother.
'Therefore Jhe loves her children.
Now as the certainty of that inference depends upon
this general aflertion, That all mothers love their chil¬
dren, which is not true, the miftake of the reafoning
may be fhown from the inftance of Medea and others,
who deftroyed their ewn children. As to induBion
and example, by which the truth or equity of a thing
i,s proved from its likenefs to one or more other things j
the reafoning in either is invalid, if the things fo com¬
pared can be fhown not to have that fimilitude or
agreement on which the inference is founded. One in¬
ftance therefore may ferve for both. As when Cicero,
after the death of Caefar, pleaded for the continuance
of his laws, but not of thofe which were made after¬
wards by Mark Antony : Becaufe, though both were
in themfelves invalid, and impofitions upon the public
liberty j yet fome of Caefar’s were ufeful, and others
could not be fet afide without difturbance to the ftate,
and injuring particular perfons *, but thofe of Antony
were all detrimental to the public.
The laft method of confutation before-mentioned was,
when the orator does in fome fenfe grant the adverfary
his argument, and at the fame time thows its invalidity.
And this is done by a variety of ways, according to the
different nature of the fubjeft. Sometimes he allows-
what was faid may be true j but pleads, that what he
contends for is neceffary. This was the method by
which Hortenfius propofed to bring off Verres, as we
have already fhown from Cicero, whofe words are thefe,
addrefling himfelf to the judges 5 “ What (hall I do ?
which way fhall I bring in my accufation ? where fhall
I turn myfelf ? for the chara&er of a brave general is
placed like a wall againft all the attacks I can make.
I know the place, I perceive where Hortenfius intends
to difplay himfelf. lie will recount the hazard's of war,
the neceflities of the ftate, the fcarcity of commanders;
and then he will entreat you, and do his utmoft to per-
fuade you not to fuffer the Roman people to be deprived
of fuch a commander upon the teftimony of the Sicili¬
ans, nor the glory of his arms to be fullied by a charge
of avarice.” At other times the orator pleads, that al¬
though the contrary opinion may feem to be attended-
with advantage, yet that his own is more juft, or ho¬
nourable. Such was the cafe of Regulus, when his
friends endeavoured to prevail with him to continue at
Rome, and not return to Carthage, where he knew he
muft undergo a cruel death. But as this could not be
done without violating his oath, he refufed to hearken
to their perfuafions. Another way of confutation is,
by retorting upon the adverfary his own argument.
Thus Cicero, in his defence of Ligarius, fays: “ You
have, Tubero, that which is moft defirable to an accu-
fer, the confeffion of the accufed parly j but yet fuch a
confeftion.
336 ORATORY. Part II.
Difpelltion. confefTion, that lie was on llie fame fide that you, Tube-
^ ro, chofe yourfelf, and your father too, a man worthy
ot the higheft praife. Wherefore, if there was any
crime in this, you ought firft to confefs your own be¬
fore you attempt to fallen any upon Ligarius,” The
orator takes this advantage where an argument proves
too much, that is, more than the perfon deligned it for,
who made ufe of it. Not mucli unlike this is what they
call mverjion, by which the orator {hows, that the rea-
fons offered by the oppofite party make for him. So
when Cfecilius urged, that the province of accufing
Verres ought to be granted to him, and not to Cicero,
becaufe he had been his treafurer in Sicily at the time
thole crimes were committed with, which he was char¬
ged, and confequently knew moil of that affair ; Cicero
turns the argument upon him, and Ihows, for that very
reafon he was the moil unfit of any man to be intrufted
with his pcofecution ; fince having been concerned with
him in his crimes, he would certainly do all in his power
to conceal or leffen them. Again, fometimes the charge
is acknowledged, but the crime Ihifted off to another.
Thus, when Sextius was accuied of {edition, becaufe he
had got together a body of gladiators, and brought them
into the forum, where a warm engagement happened
between them and Clodius’s fadlion ; Cicero owns the
fa£t, but charges the crime of fedition upon Clodius’s
party in being the aggreffors- Another method made
ufe of for the fame purpofe is to alleviate the charge,
and take oil the force of it, by fhowing, that the thing
was not done with that intention which the adverfary
infmuates. Thus Cicero, in his defence of King X)ejo-
tarus, owns he had railed fome forces, though not to in¬
vade the Roman territories, as had been alledged, but
only to defend his own borders, and fend aid to the Ro¬
man generals.
We have Tiithefto been fpeaking of the methods of
confutatioi ufed by orators, in anfwering thofe argu¬
ments which are brought by the contrary party. But
fometime* they raife fuch objedlions themfelves to what
they have faid, as they imagine may be made by others;
■which they afterwards anfwer, the better to induce their
hearers to think that nothing confiderable can be offer¬
ed again!! what they have advanced,'but what will ad¬
mit of an eafy reply. Thus, when Cicero, at the re-
quefl of the Sicilians, had undertaken the accufation of
Verres, it came under debate, whether he, or Csecilius,
who had been Verres’s quaeftor in Sicily, fhould be ad¬
mitted to that province. Cicero, therefore, in order to
fet him afide, among other arguments, {hows his incapa¬
city for fuch an undertaking, and for that end recounts
at large the qualifications neceffary for an orator.
Which he reprefents to be fo many and great, that he
thought it neceffary to ftart the following objection to
what he had himfelf faid upon that fubjeft. u But you
\yiil fay perhaps, Have you Cl thefe qualifications ?”
To which he thus replies : “ I wifh I had ; but it has
been my conilant ftudy from my youth to gain them.
And if, from their greatnefs and difficulty, I have not
been able to attain them, who have done nothing elfe
through my whole life } how far, do you imagine, you
muff be from it, who never thought of them before;
and even now, when you are entering upon them, have
* no apprehenfion what, and how greaR they are ?”
This is an effeftual way of defeating an adverfary, when
the objcdlion is well founded, and clearly anfwered. But
, ' 3'
we {hall have occafioiv to confider this matter more Bifpofition.
largely hereafter, under the figure prclepjis, to' which it v '
properly relates.
Chap. VI. Of the Conclufton.
Rhetoricians make the conclufion of a difeourfe to rheconclu-
confiff of two parts : recapitulation, and an addrefs to the c m is a re-
paffions. capitula-
i. Recapitulation is a fummary account of what the
fpeaker has before offered in maintenance of his fubjeci; t0 tjie
and is deiigned both to refrefti the memory of the hear- patlions.
ers, and to bring the principal arguments together into
a narrow compafs, that they may appear in a ilronger
light. Novr there arefeveral things neceffary to a good
repetition.
And firft, it muff be fhort and epneife ; fince it is
defigned to refrelh the memory, and not to burden it.
For this end, therefore, the chief things only are to be
touched upon ; thofe on which the caufe principally de¬
pends, and which the orator is molt defirous fhould be
regarded by his hearers. Now thefe are, The general
heads of the difeourfe, ■with the main arguments brought ^
to fupport them. But either to infill particularly upon
every minute circumftance, or to enlarge upon thofe
heads which it may be thought proper to mention, car¬
ries in it not fo much the appearance of a repetition, as
of a new difeourfe.
Again, it is convenient in a repetition to recite
things in the fame order in which they were at firfl
laid down. By this means the hearers will be enabled
much better to keep pace with the fpeaker as he goes
along 5 and if they happen to have forgot any thing,
they will the more readily recal it. And befides, this
method appears moft fimple and open, when the fpeaker
reviews what he has faid in the fame manner it was be¬
fore delivered, and fets it in the cleareft light for others
to judge of it. But though a repetition contains only
the fame things which had been more largely treated of
before ; yet it is not neceffary they ffiould be expreffed
in the fame words. Nay, this would many times be
tirefome and unpleafant to the hearers •, whereas a va¬
riety of exprefiion is grateful, provided the fenfe be the
fame. Befides, every thing ought now to be reprefent-
ed in the ftrongeft terms, and in fo lively a manner, as
may at the fame time both entertain the audience, and
make the deepeft impreffion upon their minds. We
have a very exaft and accurate example of repetition in
Cicero’s oration for Quintius. Cicero was then a young
man, and feems to have kept more clofely to the rules
of art, than afterwards, when, by ufe and practice, he
had gained a greater freedom of fpeaking. We former¬
ly cited the partition of this fpeech, upon another occa»
fion, w'hich runs thus: “ We deny, Sextus Nevius, that
you were put into the poffefiion of the eftate of P.
(Ruintins, by the praetor’s edi£t. This is the difpute be¬
tween us. I will therefore {how, firft, that you had no
juft caufe to apply to the praetor for the poffeflion of the
eftate of P. Quintius •, then that you could not poffefs
it by the edxdl; and laftly, that you did not poffefs it.
When I have proved thefe three things, I will con-
elude,” Now Cicero begins his conclufion with a repe¬
tition of thofe three heads, and a fummary account of
the feveral arguments he made ufe of under each of
them. But they are too long to be here exhibited. In
f
Fart II. ORATOR Y.
Difpoftbn. Ills oration for the Manilian la tv, his repetition is very
lk v-~-' {Kort. I ic propofed in the partition to fpeak to three
tilings : The nature of the war againft King Mithri-
dates, the greatnefs of it, and what fort of general was
proper to be intrufted with it. And when he has gone
through each of thefe heads, and treated upon them
very largely, he reduces the fubftance of what he has
laid to this general and ihort account : “ Since there¬
fore the war is fo neceffary, that it cannot be neglected ;
and lb great, that it requires a very careful manage¬
ment ; and you can intruft it with a general of admi-
rable ikill in military affairs, of lingular courage, the
greateft authority, and eminent fuccefs : do you doubt
to make ufe of this fo great a blefling, conferred and
bellowed upon you by heaven, for the prefervation and
enlargement of the Roman Hate Indeed this repe¬
tition is made by Cicero, before he proceeds to the con¬
futation ; and not at the end of his difcourfe, where it
is ufually longer and more particular : however, this may
ferve to Ihow the nature of fuch a recital.
But fonutimes a repetition is made, by running a
comparifon between the fpeaker’s own arguments and
thofe of the adverfe party •, and placing them in oppo-
Biion to each other. And this method Cicero takes in
the conclulion of his third oration upon the Agrarian
law. And here fometimes the orator takes occafron to
find fault with his adverfary’s management, in tliefe and
fuch like expreffions : “ This part he has entirely dropt.
To that he has given an invidious turn, or a falfe colour¬
ing. He leaves arguments, and flies to intreaties ; and
not without good reafon, if we confider the weaknefs of
his caufe.”
But when the difcourfe is very long, and the arga-
ments infilled on have been many, to prevent the hear¬
ers growing out of patience by a more particular reci¬
tal, the orator fometimes only juft mentions fuch things,
which he thinks of leafl confequence, by faying, that he
omits or pafies over them, till he comes to what is of
greater moment, which he reprefents more fully. This
method Cicero has taken in his defence of Cluentius}
where, having run over feveral lefter heads in the man¬
ner now defcribed, he then alters his expreflion, and in¬
troduces what was of more importance, by faying,
“ What I firft complain of, is that wickednefs, which is
now difcovered.” And fo he proceeds more particular¬
ly to recite thofe things which immediately related to
Cluentius. And this is what the writers upon this art
call preterition. But this much may ferve for repetition
or recapitulation.
2. We now proceed to the other part of the conclu-
fion, which confifts in an addrcfs to the paffions. Indeed
the orator fometimes endeavours occafionally to work
upon the paflions of his hearers in other parts of his
difcourfe, but more efpecially in the conclufion, where
he is warmeft himfelf, and labours to make them fo.
For the main defign of the introdudlion is to conciliate
the hearers, and gain their attention ; of the narration,
propofition, and confirmation, to inform them ; and of
the conclufion, to move them. And therefore, to ufe
Quintilian’s words, “ Here all the fprings of eloquence
are to be opened. It is here we fecure the minds of the
hearers, if what went before was well managed. Now
we are paft the rocks and {hallows, all the fails may be
hoifted. And as the greateft part of the conclufion
ccnfifts in illullration, the moft pompous language and
Vol. XV. Part I.
ftrongefl figures have place here.” Now the paflions,
to which the orator more particularly addrefles, differ
according to the nature of the difcourfe. In demonftra-
tive orations, when laudatory,—love, admiration, and
emulation, are ufually excited ; but in inveflives,—ha¬
tred, envy, and contempt. In deliberative fubjebts, ei¬
ther the hope of gratifying fome defire is fet in view,
or the fear of fome impending evil. And in judicial
difcourfes, almoft all the paflions have place, but more
efpecially" refentment and pity ; infomuch that moft; of
the ancient rhetoricians mention only thefe two. But
having treated upon the nature of the paflions, and the
methods fuited both to excite and allay them, in a for¬
mer chapter, we fhall at prefent only add a few general
obfervations, which may not be improper in this place,
where the fkill of the orator in addrefling to them is
more efpecially required.
The orator will obferve what circumftances either
of things, or perfons, or both, will furnifh him with
motives proper to apply to thofe paflions he defires to
excite in the minds of his hearers. Thus Cicero, in
his orations for Plancus and Sylla, moves his hearers
from the circumftances of the men ; but in his accufa-
tion of Verres, very frequently from the barbarity and
horrid nature of his crimes ; and from both, in his de¬
fence of Quintius.
But the fame paflion may be excited by very diffe¬
rent methods. This is plain from the writings of
thofe Roman fatirifts which are yet extant for they
have all the fame defign, and that is to engage men
to a love of virtue, and hatred of vice: but their
manner is very different, fuited to the genius of each
writer. Horace endeavours to recommend virtue, by
laughing vice out of countenance $ Perfius moves us
to an abhorrence and deteftation of vice, with the
gravity and feverity of a philofopher; and Juvenal,
by open and vehement inveblives. So orators make
ufe of all thefe methods in exciting the paflions; as
may be feen by their difcourfes, and particularly thofe
of Cicero. But it is not convenient to dwell long
upon the fame paflion. For the image thus wrought
up in the minds of the hearers does not laft a great
while ; but they foon return to refledlion. When the
emotion, therefore,.- is once carried as high as it well
can be, they fhould be left under its influence, and
the fpeaker proceed to fome new matter, before it de¬
clines again.
Moreover, orators fometimes endeavour to raife con¬
trary paflions to each other, as they are concerned for
oppofite parties. So the accufer excites anger and re¬
fentment, but the defendant pity and compaflion. At
other times, one thinks it fufficient to allay and take
off that paflion which the other has railed, and bring
the hearers to a calm and fedate confideration of the
matter before them.
But this efpecially is to be regarded, that the
orator exprefs the fame paflion himfelf with which he
endeavours to affedl others; and that not only in his
aflion and voice, but likewife in his language : and
therefore his words, and manner of expreflion, fhould
be fuited to that perturbation and diforder of mind
which he defigns to reprefent. However, a decency
and propriety of charadler is always carefully to be
obferved j for, as Cicero very well remarks, “ A ne¬
glect of this is not only very culpable in life, but like-
U u wife
Difponcion.
CO ■;
? 3 3 O R A T
Difpofiticn. ivke in diicourfe. Nor do tlie fame things equally be-
s——y—w come every fpeaker, or every audience j nor every
time, and every place.” And therefore he greatly
commends that painter, who, defigning to reprefent
in a picture the lacrifrce of Iphigenia, Agamemnon s
daughter, drew Calchas the prieft with a lad counte*
nance-, Ulyffes, her father’s great friend, more de¬
jected } and her uncle Menelaus, molt difconfolate 5
but threw a veil over the face of Agamemnon himfeli,
as being unable to exprefs that excefs of forrow which
he thought was prdper to appear in his countenance.
And this juftnefs of charafter is admirably well obfer-
ved 1 * Cicero himfelf, in his defence of Milo ; for as
Milo was always known to be a man of the greatelt
refolution, and molt undaunted courage, it was very
improper to introduce him (as the ufual method then
was in capital cafes) moving pity, and begging for
mercy. Cicero therefore takes this part upon himfelf;
and what he could not do with any propriety in the
perfon of Milo, he performs in his own, and thus ad-
dreffes the judges : “ What remains, but that I in¬
treat and befeech you, that you would (how that com¬
panion to this brave man, for which he himiclf does
not folicit, but I, again!! his inclination, earneftly
implore and requeft. I3o not be lefs inclined to acquit
him, if in this our common forrow, you fee no tear
fall from Milo’s eyes; but perceive ,in him the fame
countenance, voice, and language, as at other times,
Jleady and unmoved. Nay, I know not whether for
this reafon, you ought not much fooner to favour him :
For if, in the contefts of gladiators (perfo," of the
loweft condition and fortune in life), we are wont to
be difpleafed with the timorous and fuppliant, and
thofe who beg for their life; but interpofe in favour
of the brave and courageous, and fuch as expofe them-
felves to death; and we fhow more compailion to
thofe who do not fue for it, than to thofe who do :
w-ith how much greater reafon ought we to ad! in the
fame manner towards the bravefl of cur fellow citi¬
zens ?” And as thefe words were agreeable to his own
charadfer, while foliciting in behalf of another; fo,
immediately after, he introduces Milo fpeaking like
himfelf, with a' generous and undaunted air : “ Thefe
words of Milo (fays he) quite fink and difpirit me,
which I daily hear from him. Farewell, farewell, my
fellow citizens, farewell! may you be happy, flourilh,
and profper -, may this renowned city be preferved,
my moll dear country, however it has treated me ;
may it continue in peace, though I cannot continue
in it, to whom it owes its peace. I will retire, I will
be gone.”
But as perfons are commonly more affedled with
what they fee than with what they hear, orators fome-
times call in the affiftance of that fenfe in moving the
paffions. For this reafon it was ufual among the Ro¬
mans, in judicial cafes, for accufed perfons to appear
with a deiedled air and a fordid garb, attended by
their parents, children, or other relations and friends,
with the like drefs and afpedl; as likewife to Ihow their
fears, wounds, bloody garments, and other things of
the like nature, in open court. So when, upon the
death of Cmfar, Mark Antony harangued the popu¬
lace, he at the fame time expofed to their view the
garment in which he was ftabbed, fixed upon a pole;
at which fight they were fo enraged, that mpnediaiely
O R Y. Fait 11.
they ran with lighted torches to fet fire to the houfes Ditpofiuon.
of the confpirators. But this cuftom at lall became *
f» common, and wTas fometimes fo ill condufled, that
the force of it was greatly abated, as we learn from
Quintilian. However, if the Romans proceeded to
an excefs on the one hand, the ftriffnefs of the Areo-
pagites at Athens may perhaps be thought too rigid
on the other p for in that court, if the orator began to
fay any thing which was moving, an officer immedi¬
ately flood up and bade him be filent. There is cer¬
tainly a medium between thefe two extremes, which
is fometimes not only ufeful, but even neceffary ; for,
as Quintilian very juilly fays, “ It is neceffary to ap¬
ply to the paffions, when thofe things which are true,
juft, and of common benefit, cannot be come at any
other way.”
Chap. VII. Of Digreffion, Tranjitioriy and Ampli¬
fication.
3s
The number, order, and nature of the parts which Djgreffion,
confticute a complete and regular oration, we have en-tranlltion,
deavoured to explain in feveral preceding chapters. But ampn-
there are two or three things yet remaining, very need- an(i
fary to be known by an orator, which feem mof! pi'o-eXpiained.
perly to come under the fecond branch of his art. And
thefe are, Digreffion, Trarfition, and Amplification.
I. Digrefjion, as defined by Quintilian, is, “ A
going off from the iubjedl we are upon to feme differ¬
ent thing, which may however be of fervice to it.”
We have a very beautiful inftance of this in Cicero’s
defence of Coelius, who was accufed of having firft
borrowed money of Clcdia, and then engaging her
fervants to poifon her. Now*, as the proof ol the fac!
depended upon feveral circumflances, the orator ex¬
amines them feparately; and ffiows them to be all
highly improbable. “ How (fays he) was the de-
fign of this poifon laid ? Whence came it ? how did
they get it ? by whofe affiftance, to whom, or where,
was it delivered ?r” Now to the firft of thefe queries-
he makes the accufer give this anfwer : “ They fay
Coelius had it at home, and tried the force of it upon
a Have provided on purpofe, whofe hidden death proved
the ftrength of the poifon.” Now as Cicero reprefents
the whole charge again!! Coelius as a fid!ion of Clodia,
invented out of revenge for fome flights he had put
upon her ; to make this the more probable, he infinuates-
that ffie had poifoned her hulhand, and takes this op¬
portunity to hint it, that he might fliow how eafy it ■
was for her to charge another with poifoning a fervant,
who had done the fame to her own hulhand. But not
contented with this, he fteps out of his way, and intro¬
duces fome of the laft w-ords of her huffiand Metellus,
to render the fad! more barbarous and Ihocking, from
the admirable charafter of the man. “ O immortal
gods! why do you fometimes wink at the greateft crimes
of mankind, or delay the punifliment of them to futuri¬
ty ! For I faw, I myfelf faw (and it was the moil dole¬
ful feene of my whole life) when Q. Metellus was
taken from the bofom of his country; and when he,
who thought himfelf born to be ferviceable to this ft ate,
within three days after he had appeared with fuch ad¬
vantage in the fenate, in the forum, and everywhere in
public, was fnatched from us in the flower oQ his age,
and prime of his ftrength and vigour. At which time,
w^e».
Part II. O R A T
Difpofition. wlien lie Was about to expire, and his mind had loft
1—"V ' the fenfe of other things, ftill retaining a concern for
the public, he looked upon me, as I was all in tears,
and intimated in broken and dying words, how great
a ftorm hung over the city and threatened the whole
ftate j often ftriking the wall which feparated his
houfe from that of Quintus Catulus, and frequently
calling both upon him and me, and feeming to grieve
not fo much at the approach of his own death, as that
both hjs country and I Ihould be deprived of his af-
fiftance. Had he not been wickedly taken off on a
hidden, how would h« after his confullhip have with-
ftood the fury of his kinfman Publius Clodius, who,
while in that office, threatened, in the hearing of the
fenate, to kill him with his own hand, when he firft
began to break out ? And will this woman dare to
come out of thofe doors, and talk of the force of poi-
fon ? will not ftie fear, left the houfe itfelf fhould
fpeak the villany ? will not ffie dread the confcious
walls, nor that fad and mournful night ? But I re¬
turn to the accufation.” And then he proceeds to
confider and refute the feveral circumftances of the
accufation. All this was no part of his argument j
but having mentioned the charge of poifon, he im¬
mediately takes occafion to introduce it, in order to
excite the indignation of the hearers againft Clodia,
and invalidate the profecution as coming from a perfon
of her charafter. Digreffion cannot properly be faid
to be a neceffary part of a difcourfe; but it may fome-
times be very convenient, and that upon feveral ac¬
counts.
As firft, when a fubjeft is of itfelf flat and dry, or
requires clofe attention, it is of ufe to relieve and un¬
bend the mind by fomething agreeable and enter'ain-
ing. For which reafon Quintilian obferves, that the
orators of his time generally made an excurfion in their
harangues upon fome pleafing topic, between the nar¬
ration and the proof. But he condemns the practice
as too general •, for while they feemed to think it ne¬
ceffary, it obliged them fometimes to bring in things
trifling and foreign to the purpofe. Befides, a digrei-
fion is confined to no one part of a difcourfe, but may
come in anywhere, as occafion offers 5 provided it fall
in naturally with the fubjedt, and be made fome way
fubfervient to it. We never meet with it in Cicero,
•without fome evident and good reafon. So in his pro¬
fecution of Verres for his barbarous and inhuman out¬
rages againft the Sicilians, he takes an occafion to
launch out in a beautiful defcription of the ifland, and
to recount the advantages which accrued from it to the
Romans. His fubjeft did not neceffarily lead him to
this, but his view in it was to heighten and aggravate
the charge againft Verres.
Again, as a dlgrejfton ought not to be made with¬
out fufficient reafon, fo neither Ihould it be tco fre¬
quent. And he who never does it but where it is
proper and ufeful, will not often fee occafion for it.
Frequently to leave the fubjeft, and go off to other
things, breaks the thread of the difcourfe, and is apt
to introduce confufion. Indeed fome kinds of uniting
admit of a more frequent ufe of digreffions than others.
In hiftory they are often very ferviceable. For as
that confifts of a feries of fafts, and a long continued
narrative without variety is apt to grow dull and te¬
dious j it is neceffary at proper diftances to throw in
o R Y. 339
fomething 'entertaining, in order to enliven it, and Diipofitiop.
keep up the attention. And accordingly / wTe find the
beft hiftorians often embellith their writings with de-
fcriptidns of cities, rivers, and countries, as likewife
with the fpeeches of eminent perfous upon important
occa'ions, and other ornaments, to render them the
more pleafing and delightful. Poets take a ftill great¬
er liberty in this refpecf 5 for as their principal view
is moft commonly to pleafe, they do not attend fo ^
clofely to conneCtion 5 but as an image offers itfelf,
which may be agreeably wrought up, they bring it in,
and go off more frequently to different things, than
other writers.
Another property of a digreffion is, that it ought not
to be too long, left the hearers forget what preceded,
before the fpeaker returns again to his fubjedl.
For a digreffion being no principal part of a dif¬
courfe, nor of any further ufe than as it ferves fome
way or other to enforce or illuftrate the main fubjedt j
it cannot anfwer this end, if it be carried to fucb a
length, as to caufe that either to be forgotten or ne-
gleeled. And every one’s memory will not ferve him
to connect together twro parts of a difcourfe, which
lie at a wide diftance from each other. The better
therefore to nuard aeainft this, it is not unufual with
orators, before they enter upon a digretiion of any con-
fiderable length, to prepare their bearers by giving
them notice of it, and fometimes defiring leave to di¬
vert a little from the fubjeft. And fo likewiie at the
conclufion they introduce the fubjeft again by a Ihort
tranfition. Thus Cicero in the example cited above,
when he has finifhed his digreffion concerning the death
of Metellus, proceeds to his fubject again with thefe
wmrds : “ But I return to the accufation.”
Indeed we find orators fometimes, when fore preff-
ed, and the caufe will not bear a clofe fcrutiny, art¬
fully run into digreffions with a defign to divert the
attention of the hearers from the fubjecl, and turn
them to a different view. And in fuch cafes, as they
endeavour to be unobferved, fo they do it tacitly
without any tranfition or intimation of their defign j
their bufinefs being only to get clear of a difficulty,
till they have an opportunity of entering upon fame
frefti topic. -p
II. Tranjitions are often ufed not only after a di-Traniltions
greffion, but likewife upon other occafions. A tranf- often ufed
ition is, “ A form of fpeech, by which the fpeaker™
in a few words tells his hearers both what he has faid
already, and what he next defigns to fay.” Where a
difcourfe confifts of feveral parts, this is often very
proper in paffing from one to another, cfpecially when
the parts are of a confiderable length •, for it affifts
the hearers to carry on the feries of the difcourfe in
their mind, which is a great advantage to the memo¬
ry. It is likewife a great relief to the attention, to
be told when an argument is* finifhed, and what is to
be expefted next. And therefore we meet with it
very frequently in hiftory. But we confider it at pre-
fent only as made ufe of by orators. Cicero, in his fe-
cond oration againft Catiline, who had then left Rome,
having at large defcribed his conduft and defigns, he
adds : “ But why do I talk f) long concerning one
enemy, and fuch an one ; who owns himfelf an ene¬
my, and whom I do not fear, fince, what I always de-
fired, there is now a wall between us 3 and fay nothing
U u 2 oK.
34°
Difj'ofition.
4°
Amplifica¬
tion de¬
fined and
explained.
0 R A T
of thofe, wlio conceal tlicmfelves, who remain at Rome,
and among us r” And then he proceeds to give an
account oi the other confpirators.
But fometimes, in paffing from one thing to ano¬
ther, a general hint of it is thought fufficient to pre¬
pare the hearers, without particularly fpecifying what
has been faid, or is next to follow. Thus Cicero in
his iecond Philippic fays, “ But thofe things are old,
this is yet freih.” And again : “ But I have infilled
too long upon trines ; let us come to things of greater
moment.” And at other times, for greater brevity,
the traniition is hnperfect, and mention made only of
the following head, without any intimation of what
has been laid already. As in Cicero’s defence of Mu-
rama, wdiere he fays: “ I mull now proceed to the
third part of my oration concerning the charge of bri-
bery.” And foon after: I come now to Cato, who
is the fupport and firength of this charge.”
III. T he third and lalt head is, Amplification. Now
by amplification is meant, not barely a method of en¬
larging upon a thing : but fo to reprefent it in the
fullell and moll comprehenfive view, as that it may in
the livelielt manner llrike the mind and influence the
paflions. Cicero, fpeaking of this, calls it the greatejl
commendation of eloquence ; and obferves, “ that it con-
fills not only in magnifying and heightening a thing,
but likewife in extenuating and leflening it.” But
though it conlilts of thefe two parts, and may be ap¬
plied either way ; yet to amplify, is not to fet things
in a falfe light, but to paint them in their juft pro¬
portion and proper colours, fuitable to their nature
and qualities. Rhetoricians have obferved feveral ways
of doing this.
One is to afeend from a particular thing to a gene¬
ral. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Archias, having
commended him as an excellent poet, and likewife ob¬
ferved, that all the liberal arts have a connection with
each other, and a mutual relation between them, in
order to raife a juft efteem of him in the minds of his
hearers, takes occafion to fay many things in praife
of polite literature in general, and the great advantages
that may be received from it. ■ “ You will alk me
(fays he), why we are fo delighted with this man ?
Becaufe he fupplies us with thofe things which both
refrelh our minds after the noife of the forum, and
delight our ears when wearied with contention. Do
you think we could either be furnithed with matter for
fuch a variety of fubjedls, if we did not cultivate our
minds with learning 5 or bear fuch a conftant fatigue,
without affording them that refrefliment i1 I own I
have always purfued thefe ftudies; let thofe be afliamed,
who have fo given up themfelves to learning, as nei¬
ther to be able to convert it to any common benefit,
nor difeover it in public. But why ftiould it lhame
me, who have fo lived for many years, that no ad¬
vantage or cafe has ever diverted me, no pleafure al¬
lured me, nor fleep retarded me from this purfuit.
Who then can blame me, or wdro can juftly be dif-
pleafed with me, if I have employed that time in re¬
viewing thefe ftudies, which has been fpent by others
in managing their affairs, in the celebration of fefti-
vals, or other diverfions, in refrefhments of mind and
body, in unfeafonable banquets, in dice, or tennis ? And
this ought the rather to be allowed me, becaufe my abi¬
lity as an orator has been improved by thofe purfuits,
o R Y.
Part II
which, fuch as it is, was never wanting to afiift my Dilpofition-
friends. And if it be efteemed but fmall, yet I am fen- v* 
fible from what fpring I muft draw thofe things which
are of the greateft importance.” With more to the
fame purpofe ) from which he draws this inference :
“ Shall I not therefore love this man ? fnall I not ad¬
mire him r fhall I not by all means defend him ?”
A contrary method to the former is, to defeend
from a general to a particular. As if any one, while
fpeaking in commendation of eloquence, fltould illu-
ftrate what he fays from the example of Cicero, and
fhow the great fervices he did his country, and the
honours he gained to himfelf, by his admirable Ik ill in
oratory. Our common way of judging of the nature
of things is from what we obierve in particular in-
ftances, by which wTe form general notions concerning
them. When therefore we confider the character of
Cicero, and the figure he made in the word, it leads
us to conclude, there muft be fomething very admirable
in that art by which he became fo celebrated. And this
method he has taken himfelf in his oration for the Ma-
niiian law, where having firft intimated the fcarcity of
good generals at that time among the Romans, he then
deferibes the virtues of a complete commander as a proof
of it, and fhowTs how many and great qualifications are
neceffary to form fuch a charatler, as courage, prudence,
experience, and fiiccefs : all which he afterwards applies
to Pompey.
A third method is by an enumeration of parts. So^
when Cicero, upon the defeat of Mark Antony before
Mutma, propofed that a funeral monument fhould be
eredled in honour of the foldiers who were killed in
that battle, as a comfort to their furviving relations p
he does it in this way, to give it the greater weight:
“ Since (fays he) the tribute of glory is paid to the
beft and moil valiant citizens by the honour of a mo¬
nument, let us thus comfort their relations, who will
receive the greateft confolation in this manner; their
parents who produced fuch brave defenders of the
ftate ; their children who will enjoy thefe domeftic ex¬
amples of fortitude •, their wives, for the lofs of fuch
hufbands, whom it will be more fitting to extol than
lament 5 their brethren, who will hope to refemble
them no lefs in their virtues than their afpeft. And
I wifti wre may be able to remove the grief of all thefe
by our refolutions.” Such reprefentatiens greatly en¬
large the image of a thing, and aflord the mind a much
clearer view of it than if it were contracted into one
Angle propofition.
Again, another method not much unlike the former,
is, when any thing is illuftrated from a variety of
caufes. Thus Cicero juftifies his behaviour in retiring,
and not oppofing his enemies, when they fpirited up
the mob in order to banifli him, from the following
reafons, which at that time determined him to fuch a
conduct: “ When (fays he) unlefs I was given up, fo
many armed fleets feemed ready to attack this ftngle
fhip of the ftate, tolled with the tempefts of feditions
and difeords, and the fenate was now removed from
the helm ; when banilhment, murder, and outrage,
were threatened 5 when fome, from an apprehenfion of
their own danger, would not defend me ) others wyere
incited by an inveterate hatred to all good men, others
thought I flood in the w7ay, others took this opportunity
to exprefs their refentment, others envied the peace and
tranquility
Part II. . O R A T
DifpoiT ion tranquillity of the ftate 5 and upon all thefe accounts I
 v was particularly flruck at : fliould I have chofen rather
to oppol’e them (I will not fay to my own certain de-
ftruction, but to the greateft danger both of you and
your children), than alone to fubmit to and undergo
what threatened us all in common ?” Such a number
of reafons brought together, mult fet a thing in a very
llrong and clear light.
The like may be faid of a number and variety of
elfedls. Thus Cicero defcribes the force and excel¬
lence of oratory from its great and furpriling eft'ehls,
when he fays, “ Nothing feems to be more excellent,
than by dilcourfe to draw the attention of a whole
affembly, delight them, and fway their inclinations
different ways at pleafure. This, in every free ftate,
and efpecialiy in times of peace and tranquillity, has
been always in the higheft elteem and reputation.
For what is either fo admirable, as for one only, or a
very few, out of a valt multitude, to be able to do
that which all have a natural power of doing ? or fo
delightful to hear, as a judicious and folid difcourfe in
florid and polite language ? or fo powerful and grand,
as to influence the populace, the judges, the fenate,
by the charms of eloquence? Nay, what is fo noble,
fo generous, fo munificent, as to afford aid to fuppii-
canls, to fupport the afliidted, give fafety, deliver
from dangers, and preferve from exile ? Or what is
fo neceffary as to be always furnifhed with arms to
guard yourfelf, affert your right, or repel injuries ?
And, not to confine our thoughts wholly to the courts
of juflice or the fenate, what is there' in the arts of
peace more agreeable and entertaining than good lan¬
guage and a fine way of fpeaking ? For it is in this ef-
pecially wherein we excel other animals, that we can
difcourfe together, and convey our thoughts to each
other by words. Who therefore would not efteem,
and in a particular manner endeavour to furpafs others
in that wherein mankind principally excels brute
beafts ? But to proceed to its chief advantages : What
clfe would have drawn men into focieties, or taken them
off from a wiki and lavage life, and foften them into
a polite and civilized behaviour 5 or, when fettled in
communities, have reftrained, them by laws ?” Who
but, after fuch a defcription, muff conceive the ftrongell
pafiion for an art attended with fo many great and good
effedrs ?
A thing may likewife be illullrated by its oppofite.
So the bleffings and advantages of peace may be re¬
commended from the miferies and calamities of war;
and thus Cicero endeavours to throw contempt upon
Catiline and his party, by comparing them with the
O R Y. .• - 341
contrary fide : “ But it, omitting all thefe things Difpolition.
with which we abound, and they want, the fenate, the ~ v ""
knights, the populace, the city, treafury, revenues, ail
Italy, the provinces, and foreign nations; If,' 1 fay,
omitting thefe things, we compare the caufes them-
felves in which each fide is engaged, wTe may learn
from thence how defpicable 'they are.—For on this
fide modefty is engaged, on that impudence; on this
chaftity, on that lewdnefs 5 on this integrity, on that
fraud j on this piety, on that profanenefs ; on this
conftancy, on that fury 5 on this honour, on that bafe-
nels 5 on this moderation, on that unbridled palficn ;
In a word, equity, temperance, fortitude, prudence, and
all virtues, contend with injuftice, luxury, cowardice,
ralhnefs, and all vices 5 plenty writh want} realon
with folly} fobriety with madnefs ; and, laftly, good
hope with defpair. In fuch a conteft, did men de-
fert us, would not heaven ordain that fo many and fo
great vices fliould be defeated by thefe moil excellent
virtues ?”
Gradation is- another beautiful way of doing this.
So when Cicero would aggravate the cruelty and bar¬
barity of Verres for crucifying a Roman citizen, which
was a fort of punifliment only indicted upon Haves,
he choofes this way of doing it. “ It is a crime (fays
he) to bind a Roman citizen, wickednefs to whip him,
and a fort of parricide to kill him } what then mult I
call it to crucify him ? No name can fufficiently ex-
prefs fuch a villany.” And the images of things may
be thus heightened, either by afcending, as in this in-
fiance } or defcending, as in that which follows,- re¬
lating to the fame action of Verres: “ Was 1 not to
complain of or bewail thefe things to Roman citizens,
nor the friends of our ftate, nor thofe who had heard
of the Roman name; nay, if not to men, but beafts j
or, to go yet further, if in the moft defert wildernels,
to Hones and rocks ) even all mute and inanimate
creatures would be moved by fo great and heinous
cruelty.”
And, to name no more, fa£ls may be amplified from
their circumftances; as lime, place, manner, event, and
the like. But inftances of this would carry us too far j
and therefore we lhall only add, that as the defign of
amplification is not barely to prove or evince the truth
of things, but alfo to adorn and illuftrate them, it re¬
quires a florid and beautiful ftyle, confifting of ftrong
and emphatical words, flowing periods, harmonious
numbers, lively tropes, and bright figures. But the con-
fideration of thefe things comes under the Third Part cfi*'
Oratory, upon which ’ive are now to enter.
Part III. Of ELOCUTION,
ELOCUTION directs us to fuit both the words and
expreffions of a difcourfe to the nature of the fubjedt, or
to fpeak with propriety and decency. This faculty is in
one word called eloquence; and thofe perfons who are
poffeffed of it are therefore ftyled eloquent.
Elocution is twofold, general and particular. The
former treats of the feveral properties and ornaments
of language in common •, the latter confiders them as
they are made ufe of to form different forts of ftyie.
I. GENERAL ELOCUTION.
This, according to rhetoricians, confiftsof three parts; Gene^^
Elegance, Compojition, and Dignity. A difccurfe which elocution-
has all thefe properties fuitably adjufted, muft, writh re-defined,
fpecl to the language, be perfedl in its kind, and delight¬
ful to the hearers.
Chap.
342 O R A T
Elocution.
Chap. I. Of Elegance.
Elegance conllfts in ttro things, Purity and Per-
fpicmty: And both thefe, as well with refpecl to Angle
words, as their conftfuclion in fentences. Thefe pro¬
perties in language give it the name of elegant, for a
like reafon that we call other things fo which are clean
and neat in their kind. But in the common ufe of
our tongue, we are apt to confound elegance with elo¬
quence; and fay, a difcourfe is elegant, when we mean
by the expreflion, that it has all the properties of fine
language.
§ I. Purity.
42
Purity ex- By this we are to underhand the choice of fuch
plained and words and phrafes as are fuited and agreeable to the
illuftrated. ufe Qf the language in which we fpeak : And fo gram¬
marians reduce the faults they oppofe to it to twcf
forts, which they call barbarifm and folecifm ; the for¬
mer of which refpefts fingle words, and the latter their
conftrudlion. But we fliall confider them jointly, and
in a manner different from grammarians j for with them
all words are efteemed pure which are once adopted
into a language, and authorifed by ufe. And as to
phrafes, or forms of expreffion, they allow them all the
fame claim, which are agreeable to the analogy of the
tongue. But in oratory, neither all words nor all ex-
preflions are fo called which occur in language ; but
fuch Only as come recommended by the authority of
thofe who fpeak or write with accuracy and polilenefs.
Indeed it is a common faying that we fhould think with
the learned, and/peak with the vulgar. But the meaning
of that expreflion is no more than that we fhould fpeak
agreeably to the common ufage of the tongue, that
every one may underhand us 5 and not choofe fuch
words or expreflions as are either difficult to be under-
ftood, or may carry in them an appearance of affecta¬
tion and Angularity. But in order to fet this matter in
a clearer light, we fhall here recount the principal things
which vitiate the purity of language.
And firfl, it often happens, that fuch -words and
forms of fpeaking as were introduced by the learned
are afterwards dropped by them as mean and fordid,
from a feeming bafenefs contracted by vulgar- ufe.
For polite and elegant fpeakers diftinguifh themfelves
t>y their difcourfe, as perfons of figure do by their
garb *, one being the drefs of the mind, as the other is
of the body. And hence it comes to pafs, that both
have their different fafhions, which are often changed j
and as the vulgar affect to imitate thofe above them in
both, this frequently occafions an alteration when either
Becomes too. trite and common. But befide thefe for¬
did words and e^preffions, which are rendered fo by
the ufe of the vulgar, there is another fort firfl: intro¬
duced by them, which is carefully to be avoided by all
thofe who are defirous to feeak well. For the vulgar
have their peculiar words and phrafes, fuited to their
circumftances, and taken from fuch things as ufually oc¬
cur in their way of life. Thus in thp old comedians,
many things are fpoken by fervants, agreeable to their
character, which wmuld he very unbecoming from the
mouth of a gentleman. And we cannot but daily ob-
fierve the like inftances among- ourfelves.
• • O
Again, this is common to language with all other
o R Y. Part III.
human productions, that it is in ks own nature liable Elocution,
to a conftant change and alteration. For, as Horace v1 1 f
has juitly obferved,
All human works fLall wafle 5
Then how can feeble words pretend to lafl.
Nothing could ever pleafe all perfons, or at leaft for
any length of time. And there is nothing from which
this can lefs be expected than language. For as the
thoughts of men are exceedingly various, and words
are the figns of their thoughts, they will be conftant-
ly inventing new figns to exprefs them by, in order tt>
convey their ideas with more clearnefs, or greater
beauty. If we look into the different ages of the La¬
tin writers, what great alterations and changes do we
find in their language ? How few now underfland the
remaining fragments of the twelve tables ? Nay, how
many words do we meet with even in Plautus, the
meaning of which has not yet been fixed with certain*
ty by the ikill of the beft critics ? And if we confider
our own language, it will appear to have been in a
manner entirely changed from wdiat it was a few ages
fince. To mention no others, our celebrated Chaucer
is to moft perfons now almoft unintelligible, and wants
an expofitor. And even fince our own memory, we
cannot but have obferved, that many words and ex¬
preflions, which a few years ago were in common ufe,
are now in a manner laid afide and antiquated j and
that others have conftantly lucceeded, and daily do fuc-
ceed in their room. So true is that obfervation of the
fame poet:
Some words that have or elfe will feel decay
Shall be reftor’d, and come again in play j
And words now fam’d fliall not be fancied long \
They fliall not pleafe the ear, nor move the tongue :
As ufe finall thefe approve, and thofe condemn ;
Ufe, the foie rule of fpeech, and judge fupreme.
We muft therefore no lefs abftain from antiquated or
obfolete words and phrafes, than from fordid ones.
Though all old words are not to be thought antiqua¬
ted. By the former we mean fuch as, though of an
ancient Handing, are not yet entirely difufed nor their
fignificaticn lofl. And from the ufe of thefe we are
not to be wholly debarred, efpecially when they appear
more fignificant than any others we can fix upon. But
as to phrafes or expreflions, greater caution feems ftill
neceffary : and fuch as are old fhould doubtlefs, if at
all, be ufed more fparingly. The Latin tongue was
brought to its greateft perfeflion in the reign of Au-
guftus, or fomewhat fooner; and he himfelf fludied it
very carefully. For, as Suetonius tells us, “ He ap¬
plied himfelf to eloquence, and the ftudy of the libe¬
ral arts, from his childhood, with great diligence and
labour. He chofe a manner of fpeaking which was
fmooth and elegant $ he avoided the ill favour, as he
ufed to call it, of antiquated words ; and he was wont
to blame Tiberius for his affedlation of them.” In
our own language, fuch words are to be efteemed an¬
tiquated, which the moft polite perfons have dropped,
both in their difcourfe and writings; whofe example
we fhould follow, unlefs we would be thought to con-
verfe rather with the dead than the living.
But further: As on the one hand we muft avoid ob¬
folete words and phrafes j fo, on the other, we fhould
refrain
Part III.
O R A T O R Y.
343
Elocution refrain from new one<S, or fuch rvKofe ufe has not
'———1 yet been fufBciently eftablifhecl, at lealt among thofe
of the beft tafte. Words may be conlidered as new in
two refpe&s ; either when they are firh brought into a
language, or when they are ufed in a new (enfe. As
the former of thefe may fometimes leave us in the dark
by not being underitood, fo the latter are moft apt to
miflead us •, for •when we hear a word that has been fa¬
miliar to us, we are prefently led to fix that idea to it
with which it has ufually been attended. And there-
1 fore, in both cafes, fame previous intimation may be ne-
ceffary. Cicero, who perhaps enlarged the furniture of
the Roman tongue more than any one perfon beiides,
appears always very cautious how he introduces any
thing new, and generally gives notice of it when he at¬
tempts it, as appears in many inftances fcattered through
his works. What bounds we are now to fix to the pu¬
rity of the Latin tongue, in the ufe of it, the learned are
not well agreed. It is certain, our furniture is much
lefs than when it was a living language, and therefore
the greater liberty muft of necefiity be fometimes taken.
So that their opinion feems not unadvifable, •who diredl
us to make choice principally of what we are furniihed
with from the writers of the Auguftan age •, and where
we cannot be fupplied from them, to make uie of fuch
authors as lived neareft to them, either before or fince.
And as to our own tongue, it is certainly prudent to
be as careful how we admit any thing into it that is
uncouth or difagreeable to its genius, as the ancient
Romans were into theirs ; for the perfection of a lan¬
guage does in a great meafure confilt in a certain ana¬
logy and harmony running through the whole, by
which it may be capable of being brought to a ftan-
dard.
But befides thofe things already mentioned, any mi-
ftake in the fenfe of -words, or their conftru&ion, is op-
pofed to purity. For to fpeak purely, is to fpeak
corredtly. And fuch is the nature of thefe faults in
elocution, that they are often not fo eafy to be obfer-
ved by hearing as by reading. Whence it is, that,
many perfons are thought to fpeak better than they
write; for while they are fpeaking, many flips and in¬
accuracies efcape difregarded, which in reading would
prefently appear. And this is more efpecially the cafe
of perfons unacquainted with arts and literature ; who,
by the afiillance of a lively fancy and flow of words,
often fpeak with great eafe and freedom, and by that
means pleafe the ear ; when, at the fame time, what
they fay, would not fo well bear reading.
We fhall only add, that a diftimhion ought likewife
to be made between a poetic diftion and that of profe
writers. For poets in all languages have a fort of pe¬
culiar dialeft, and take greater liberties, not only in
their figures, but alfo in their choice and difpofition of
words ; fo that what is a beauty in them would often ap¬
pear unnatural and aflfedled in profe.
§. 2. Of Peiffticuity.
Ferfptcuity PERSPICUITY, as well as purity, confifls partly in
explained fugle words, and partly in their confruBion.
and illu- I. As to fugle words, thofe are generally clearefi:
itraied. ancj ^ep. underflood which are ufed in their proper
44 fenfe. But it requires no fmall attention and fldll to
As to lingle wejj acquainted with the force and propriety of
words 5 which ought to be duly regarded, fince the per- Elocution.
fpicuity of a difcourfe depends fo much upon it. Ctefar
feems plainly to have been of this mind, when he tells.
us, “ The foundation of eloquence confifls in the choice
of words.” It may not be amifs, therefore, to lay down
fome few obfervations, by which the diftinft notions of
words and their peculiar force may more eafily be per- ^
ceived. All words may be divided into proper words
and tropes. Thofe are called proper words, which are
expreffed in their proper and ufual fenfe. And tropes
are fuch words as are applied to fome other thing than
what they properly denote, by reafon of fome fimilitude,
relation, or contrariety between the two things. So,
when a fubtle artful man is called a fox, the reafon of
the name is founded in a fimilitude of qualities. If we
fay, Cicero will always live, meaning his works, the
caufe is transferred to the effect. And when wTe are
told, Cafar conquered the Gauls, we underftand that he
did it with the afliftance of his army •, where a part is
put for the whole, from the relation between them.
And when Cicero calls Antony a fine guardian of the
fate, every one perceives he means the contrary. But
the nature and ufe of tropes will be explained more fully
hereafter in their proper place. All 'word's muff at firft
have had one original and primary fignification, which,
ftridtly fpeaking, may be called their proper fenfe. But
it fometimes happens, through length of time, that words
lofe their original fignification, and affume a new one,
which then becomes their proper fenfe. So hofis in the,
Latin tongue at firft fignified aJlranger ; but afterwards,
that fenfe of the word was entirely laid afide, and it
was ufed to denote a public enemy. And in our lan¬
guage, it is well known, that the word knave anciently
fignified a fervant. The reafon of the change feems to
be much the fame, as in that of the Latin word latro ;
which firft fignified a foldier, but aftenvards a robber.
Befides, in all languages, it has frequently happened,
that many words have gradually varied from their firft
fenle to others fomewhat different 5 which may, not-
with(landing, all of them, when rightly applied, be
looked upon as proper. Nay, in procefs of time,
it is often difficult to fay which is the original, or
moft proper fenfe. Again, fometimes two or more
words may appear to have the fame fignification vrith
each other, and may therefore be ufed indifferently ; .
unlefs the beauty of the period, or fome other parti¬
cular reafon, determine to the choice of one rather
than another. Of this kind are the words enfs and gZu¬
dins in the Latin tongue ) and in ours, pity and com-
pafion. And there are other words of fo near an affi¬
nity to each other, or at lead appear fo from vulgar
ufe, that they are commonly thought to be fynony-
mous. Such are the words mercy and pity; though
mercy in its ft rift fenfe is exercifed towards an offen¬
der, and pity refpedls one in diftrefs. As this peculiar
force and diftindlion of words is carefully to be attend¬
ed to, fo it may be known feveral ways. Thus the
proper fignification of fubftantives may be feen by
their application to other fubftantives. As in the in-
ftance juft now given, a perfon is faid to (how mercy
to a criminal, and pity to one in difrefs. And in the
like manner, verbs arq diftinguifhed, by being joined
to fome certain nouns, and not to others. So a perfcn
is faid to command an inferior, to intreat a fupenor, and
to defire an equaL. Adjecrivo^ alfo, which denote the
properties.
344
Elocution. properties of things, have their fignification determin-
v ' ed by thofe fubjecis to which they moft properly re¬
late. Thus we fay, a?i honejl mind, and a healthful
body ; a wife man, and a fine houfie. Another way of
diftinguifiling the propriety of words, is by their ufe
in gradations. As if one fhould fay, Hatreds, grudges,
quarrels, tumults, /editions, wars, firing from unbridled
pafiions. The proper fenfe of words may likewife be
known by obferving to what other words they are ei¬
ther oppofed, or ufed as equivalent. So in that paffage
of Cicero, where he fays, “ I cannot perceive why
you fhould be angry with me : if it be becaufe I de¬
fend him whom you accufe, why may not I be dif-
pleafed with you for accufing him whom I defend ?
You fay, I accufe my enemy 3 and I fay, I defend my
friend.” Here the words accnfe and defend, friend and
enemy, are oppofed 3 and to be angry and difpleafed, are
ufed as terms equivalent. Lafdy, the derivation of
words contributes very much to determine their true
meaning. Thus becaufe the word manners comes from
the word man, it may properly be applied either to
that or any other put for it. And therefore we fay,
the manners of men, and the manners of the age, becaufe
the word age is there ufed for the men of the age. But
if we apply the word manners to any other animal, it is
a trope. By thefe and fuch like obfervations we may
perceive the proper fenfe and peculiar force of words,
either by their connexion with other words, diftinc-
tion from them, oppofition to them, equivalency with
them, or derivation. And by thus fixing their true
and genuine fignification, we {hall eafily fee when they
become tropes. But though words, when taken in
their proper fignification, generally convey the plain-
eft and cleareft fenfe 5 yet fome are more forcible, fo~
norous, or beautiful, than others. And by thefe con-
fiderations we muft often be determined in our choice
of them. So whether we fay, he got, or he obtained, the
vision/, the fenfe is the fame ; but the latter is more
full and fonorous. In Latin, timeo fignifies I fear; per-
timeo is more full and fignificant 3 and pertimefco more
fonorous than either of the former. The Latin and
Greek languages have much the advantage of ours in
this refpedt, by reafon of their compofitions 3 by the
help of which they can often exprefs that in one
word for which we are obliged to put two words, and
lometimes more. So pertimeo cannot be fully exprefted
in our language by one word 3 but we are forced to
join one or two particles to the verb, to convey its juft
idea, and fay, 7 greatly, or very much fear : and yet
even then we fcarce feem to reach its full force. As to
tropes, though generally fpeaking they are not to be
chofen where plainnefs and perfpicuity of expreflion
is only defigned, and proper words may be found 3 yet
through the penury of all languages, the ufe of them
is often made neceffary. And fome of them, efpecially
metaphors, which are taken from the fimilitude of
things, may, when cuftom has rendered them familiar,
be confidered as proper words, and ufed in their ftead.
Thus, whether we fay, 1 fee your meaning, or, I under-
Jland your meaning, the fenfe is equally clear, though
the latter expreflion is proper, and the former meta-
& ■‘G phorical, by which the adlion of feeing is transferred
conftrue- ^rom t^le eyes to t^le m’n<^-
tion often- II. But perfpicuity arifes not only from a choice of
tences. fingle words, but likewife from the conflruBion of them
Part IIP
in fentences. For the meaning of all the words in a Elocution,
fentence, confidered by themfclves, may be very plain ' < 1
and evident 3 and yet, by reafon of a diforderly pla¬
cing them, or coniufion of the parts, the fenfe of tire
whole may be very dark and obfeure. Now it is cer¬
tain that the moft natural order is the plaineft 3 that
is, when both the words and parts of a fentence are
fo ditpofed, as belt agrees with their mutual rela¬
tion and dependence upon each other. And where
this is changed, as is ufually done, efpecially in the
ancient languages, for the greater beauty and har¬
mony of the periods 3 yet due regard is had by the
beft writers to the evidence and peripicuity of the ex¬
preflion.
But to fet this fubjeft in a clearer .light, on which
the perfection of language fo much depends, we (hall
mention fome few things which chiefly occafion obfeuri -
ty 3 and this either with refpeit to fingle words, or their
conftruction.
And firft, all ambiguity of expreflion is one caufe
of obfeurity. This fometimes arifes from the different
fenfes in which a word is capable of being taken. 80
we are told, that upon Cicero’s addrefling himfelf to
Odtavius CaTar, when he thought himfeit in danger
from his refentment, and reminding him of the many
fervices he had done him, Octavius replied, He came
the Icfi of his friends. But there was a defigned ambi¬
guity in the word lafi, as it might either refpect the
time of his coming, or the opinion he had of his
friendftrip. And this ufe of ambiguous words we fome¬
times meet with, not only in poetry, where the turn
and wit of an epigram often reft upon it 3 but like-
vife in profe, either for pleafantry or ridicule. Thus
Cicero calls Sextus Clcdius the light of the fienate, which
is a compliment he pays to feveral great men, who
had diftinguiflied themielves by their public fervices to
their country. But Sextus, who had a contrary cha¬
racter, was a relation of PrClodius, whofe dead body,
after he had been killed by Milo, he carried in a tu¬
multuous manner into the fenate-houfe, and there
burnt it with the fenators benches, in order to inflame
the populace againft Milo. And it is in allufion to
that riotous adlion, that Cicero, ufing this ambigu¬
ous expreflion, calls him the light of the fenate. In fuch
inftances, therefore, it is a beauty, and not the fault
w e ate cautioning againft : as the fame thing may be
either good or bad, as it is differently applied.—
Though even in fuch defigned ambiguities, where one
fenfe is aimed at, it ought to be fufficiently plain,
otherwflfe they lofe their intention. And in all ferious
difeourfes they ought carefully to be avoided. But
obfeurity more frequently arifes from the ambiguous
conftrudlion of words, wTich renders it difficult to de¬
termine in what fenfe they are to be taken. Quintilian
gives us this example of it: “A certain man ordered
in his will, that his heir flrould erect for him a ftatue
holding a fpear made of gold.” A queftion arifes here,
of great confequence to the heir from the ambiguity
of the expreflion, whether the words made of gold are
to be applied to the fiatue or the fpear ; that is, whe-
ther it wTas the defign of the teftator by this appoint¬
ment, that the whole ftatue, or only the fpear, ftiould
be made of gold. A fmall note of diftinftion, different¬
ly placed between the parts of this fentence, would
clear up the doubt, and determine the fenfe either
way,
ORATORY.
Part III.
Elocution, way. For n one comma be put after the word flo.tne,
' v and another after /pear, the words made of gold mult
be referred to the itatue, as if it had been faid, a flatuc,
made of gold, holding a fpcar. But if there be only the
firft comma placed after flatue, it will limit the words
made of gold to the fpear only ; in the fame fenfe as if
it had been faid, A fatue holding a golden fpear. And
either of thefe ways of expreilion would in this cafe
have been preferable, for avoiding the ambiguity,
according to the intention of the teftator. The an¬
cient heathen oracles were generady delivered in fuch
ambiguous terms. "Which, without doubt, wefe fo
contrived on purpofe, that thofe who gave out the
anfwers mi< ht have room left for an evafion. See Ora-
O
CL.E.
Again, obfeurity is occafioned either by too Ihort
' and concife a manner of fpealcing, or by fentences too
long and prolix ; either of thefe extremes have. feme-
times this bad confequence. We find an inftance of
the former in Pliny the Elder, where fpeaking of hel¬
lebore, he fays, “ They forbid it to be given to aged
perfens and children, and lefs to women than men.”
The verb is wanting in the latter part ot the fentence,
and lefs to women than ?nen : which in fuch cafes being
ufually fepplied from what went before, would here
fland thus ; and they forbid it to be given lefs to women
than men. But this is directly contrary to the fenfe of
the writer, whofe meaning is, either that it is order¬
ed to be given in a lefs quantity to women than men,
or not fo frequently to women as men. And therefore
the word order is here to be fupplied, which being of
a contrary fignification to forbid, exprefied in the for¬
mer part of the fentence, occafions the obfeurity.
That long periods are often attended with the fame ill
effe£t, mull be fo obvious to every one’s experience,
that it wmuld be entirely needlefs to produce any ex¬
amples in order to evince the truth of it. And there¬
fore we fhall only obferve, that the belt way of prevent¬
ing this feems to be by dividing fuch fentences as ex¬
ceed a proper length into two or more •, which may
generally be done without much trouble.
Another caufe of obfeurity, not inferior to any yet
mentioned, is parenthefs, when it is either too long
or too frequent. This of Gicero, in his option for
Sylla, is longer than we ufually find in him : “ O im¬
mortal gods ! (for I muft attribute to you what is your
own 5 nor indeed can I claim fo much to my own abi¬
lities, as to have been able of myfelf to go through fo
many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with that expe¬
dition, in that boifterous tempeft of the ftate), you
infiamed my mind with a defire to fave my country.”
But where any obfeurity arifes from fuch fentences,
they may frequently be remedied by much the fame
means as was juft now hinted concerning long and
prolix periods ; that is, by feparating the parenthefis
from the reft of the fentence, and placing it either be¬
fore or after. So in this fentence of Cicero, the pa¬
renthefis may ftand laft, in the following manner :—
“ O immortal gods ! you inflamed my mind with a de¬
fire to lave my country : for I muft attribute to you
what is your own ; nor indeed can I claim fo much to
my own abilities, as to have been able of myfelf to go
through fo many, fo great, fuch different affairs, with
that expedition, in that boifterous tempeft of the ftate.”
VOL. XV. Part I.
ORATORY.
345
This order of the fentence is very plain, and lefs in- Elocution-
volved than the former. ' a —J
Chap. II. Of Compoftion.
46
Composition, in the fenfe it is here ufed, givesCompofi-
rules for the ftructure of fentences, with the feveral
members, words, and fyliables, of which they confift,
in iuch a manner as may bell contribute to the force,
beauty, and evidence of the whole.
Compofiiion confifts of four parts, which rhetoricians
call penod, order, junclure, and number. The firft of
thefe treats of the ftructure of fentences j the fecond, of
the parts of fentences, which are words and members 5
and the two laft, of the parts of words, which are letters
and fyliables. For all articulate founds, and even the
moft minute parts of language, come under the cogni¬
zance of oratory.
|. 1. Of Period.
4?
In every fentence or propofitidn^ fomething is faid Period de-
of fomething. That of which fomething i« faid, logi-
cians call the fnbjeB, and that which is laid « c it, the exi'‘^ne
predicate: but in grammatical terms, the former is a
nounfubfantive of the nominative cafe, and the latter,«
fnite verb, denoting affirmation, and fome ftate of be-
ing> afting, or fuffering. Thefe two parts may of them-
felves conftitute a fentence : As when we fay, The fun
fsines, or the clock frikes, the word fun and clock are
the fubjeft in thefe expreffions, Jhines and frikes imply
each the copula and predicate. Moft commonly, horv-
ever, the noun and the verb are accompanied with
other words, which in grammatical conilrudftion are
faid either to be connected with or to depend upon
them j but in a logical confideration they denote fome
property or circumftance relating to them, i^sin the
following fentence : a good man loves virtue for if elf.
The fubjeft of this fentence is a good man : and the
predicate, or thing affirmed of him, that he loves vir¬
tue for itfelf. But the two principal or neceffary words,
on which all the reft depend, are man and loves. Now
a Ample fentence confifts of one fuch noun and verb,
with whatever elfe is joined to either or both of them.
And a compound fentence contains two or more of
them j and may be divided into fo many diftinft pro-
pofitions, as there are fuch nouns and verbs, either ex-
preffed or underftood. So in the following fentence,
Compliance gains friends, but truth procures hatred, there
are two members, each of which contains in it an en¬
tire propofition. For, Compliance gains friends is one
complete fentence, and Truth procures hatred is another;
which are connefted into one compound fentence by
the particle but. Moreover, it frequently happens, that
compound fentences are made up of fuch parts or
members, fome if not all of which are themfelves com¬
pounded, and contain in them two or more fimple
members. Such is that of Salluft: “ Ambition has
betrayed many perfons into deceit ; to fay one thing,
and to mean another; to found friendihip and enmity,
not upon reafon, but intereft ; and to be more careful
to appear honeft, than really to be fo.” "This fentence
confifts of four members; the laft of which three, con-
filling of oppofite parts, are all compounded, as will
X x appear
346 O R A T
Elocution appear by expreffing them at lengtli in the following
— manner •, Ambition has betrayed many perfons into deceit;
[that is, ambition] has betrayed them to fay one tiling,
and to mean another; it has betrayed them to found fnend-
jhip and enmity, not upon re of on, but intereji ; and it has
betrayed them to be more careful to appear homfi, than
really to be fo. The three lait of theie members, begin¬
ning with the words it betrays, are all of them com¬
pounded, and ccnhit of two oppolite members } which
might each of them be expreffed at length in the fame
manner, by ilipplying the elhpfis. As, Ambition has
betrayed many perfons to fay one thing, and it has betray¬
ed them to mean another. And fo of the reft. From this
inftance we fee how much is left to be fupplied by the
mind in all difeourfe, which if expreffed tvould both
deftroy its harmony and render it exceedingly tedious.
But ftill regard muft be had to that which is omit¬
ted, fo as to render what is faid confiftent with it •,
otherwife there can be no propriety in what is fpoken.
Nor can the members of a fentence be diftinguifhed
and duly ranged in their proper order, without this.
But to proceed: Some fentences conftft either wholly,
or in part, of fuch members as contain in them two
or more compound ones, which may therefore, for di-
ftinctioivs fake, be called decompound members.—Of this
kind is that of Cicero, in his defence of Milo : “ Great
is the force of confcience, great either wray : that
thofe perfons are not afraid who have committed no
offence } and thofe who have offended always think
punifhment prefent before their eyes.” Ihe latter
member of this fentence, which begins with the word
that, contains in it two compound members, which re-
prefent the different ftate of mind between innocent
and guilty perfons. And it is in the proper diftin£tion
and feparation of the members in fuch complex fen¬
tences that the art of pointing chiefly confifts. For the
principal ufe of a comma is to divide the fmiple mem¬
bers, a femicolon the compound ones, a colon fuch as are
decompounded, and a period the whole from the folknv-
ing fentence. We mention this the rather, to fhow the
different acceptation of thefe terms by grammarians,
from that of the ancient writers upon oratory. For
thefe latter apply them to the fenfe, and not to any
points of diftin&ion. A very fhort member, whether
Ample or compound, with them is a comma, and a
longer a colon } for they have no fuch term as a femico¬
lon. Belides, they call a very fhort fentence, whether
' Ample or compound, a comma, and one of fomewhat a
greater length, a colon. And therefore if a perfon ex¬
preffed himfelf either of thefe ways in any confiderable
number of fentences together, he ivas faid to fpeak by
commas or colons. But a fentence containing more
words than will confift with either of thefe terms,
they call a Ample period 5 the leaft compound pe¬
riod with them requiring the length of two colons.
However, this way of denominating fentences, and the
parts of them, rather from their length than the na¬
ture of them, appearing not fo fuitable, we have chofen
rather to make ufe of the terms fimple and compound
members ; and to call all thofe compound periods, which
contain two or more members, whether Ample or com¬
pounded.
But to proceed: Sentences, with refpefl to their
form or compofttion, are diftinguifhed into two forts,
O R Y. Partlll.
called by Cicero traBa, ftraight or direct and Elocution.
contorta, “ bent or winding.” By the former are ^ '
meant thofe whofe members tollow each other in a c!i-
redf order, without any infledtion ; and by the latter,
thofe which ftridtiy fpeaking are called periods, tor
vriPicbji in Greek ftgniftes a circuit or circle. And fo the
Latins call it circuitus and ambitus. By which both of
them mean a fentence conftfting of correfpondent parts,
fo framed, that the voice in pronouncing them may
have a proper elevation and cadency, and diftinguith
them by its infleclion; and as the latter part returns
back, and unites with the former, the period, like a
circle, furrounds and inclofes the whole fenfe. 11 h;s
elevation of the voice in the former part of the pe¬
riod, is by the Greeks called fl-gwees-ij, and by the
Latins propoftio ; and the depreflion of it in the latter
part, by the one aTrccloc-is, and by the other redditio.
Now as Ample fentences have not thefe correfpondent
parts, which require any infledlion of the voice 3 nor a
circular form, by reafon of their brevity 3 they are not
properly periods, in the ftridf fenfe of the word : though,
in common fpeech, the words fentence and period are of¬
ten ufed as equivalent terms. Thus, if we lay, Generous
minds are incited to the performance of noble exploits
from motives of glory ; here is no diftindfion of parts,
nor infledlion of the voice in this fentence. And in¬
deed there is not any thing which relates to the ftruc-
ture of thefe fentences, but what will more properly be
taken notice of in the fecond part of compofition, which
is order.
And as to thofe compound fentences, whofe mem¬
bers follow each other in a diredl order, without any
infledlion, there, is little art required in their compo-
Ation. We lhall produce one example of this kind
from Cicero : “ Natural reafon inclines men to mutual
converfe and fociety 3 and implants in them a lliong af-
fedlion for thofe who fpring from them 3 and excites
them to form communities, and join in public affemblies3
and, for thefe ends, to endeavour to procure both the
neceffaries and conveniencies of life 3 and that not for
themfelves only, but likewife for their wives, children,
and others who are dear to them, and have a right to
their afliftance.” Here are Ave Ihort members in this
fentence, placed in a feries, without any infledlion of
the parts, or orbit of the whole. And as fuch fentences
have no other boundary but the concluAon of the fenfe,,
fuited to the breath of the fpeaker, he may either
contradl or lengthen them at pieafure, without offending
the ear. So, ftiould the fentence laft mentioned con¬
clude with the Aril member in this manner, Natural
reafon inclines men to mutual converfe and fociety ; the
fenfe would be perfedl, and the ear fatisAed. The cafe
would be the fame at the end of the fecond member,
thus: Natural reafon inclines men to mutual converfe and
fociety, and implants in them a ftrong affeCiion for thofe
who fpnng from them. And the like may be faid of
the reft. Since fuch fentences therefore may be thus li¬
mited at pieafure, it feems more convenient both for the
fpeaker and hearers to conAne them to a moderate
length.
But becaufe the principal art relating to this part of
compoAtion lies in the frame and ftiuclure of fuch com¬
pound fentences as are properly called periods, we Aiall
treat upon thefe fomewhat more largely. In the forma¬
tion
Part III. ORA
Elocution, tion of thefe periods, trVG things are chiefly to be re-
' ^ garded ; their length and cadency. As the length ought
to be huted to the breath of the fpeaker, the ancient
rhetoricians fcarce admit of more than four colons 5 by
>vhich we may here underhand compound members of a
moderate llze, which will be generally found a fuitable
and proportionate length. For to extend them farther
than the voice can well manage, muft be painful to the
fpeaker and of confequence unpleafant to the hearers. As
to the cadency, what Cicero has obferved, is found true by
experience, that the ears judge what is full and what is
deficient •, and direct us to fill up our periods, that no¬
thing be wanting of what they expeft. When the
voice is raifed at the beginning of a fentence, they are
in fulpenfe till it be finithed 5 and are pleafed with a
full and juft cadency, but are fenfible of any defeft, and
are difpleafed with redundancy. Therefore care mufl:
be taken that periods be neither deficient, and as it were
maimed, that is, that they do not drop before their time,
and defraud the ears of what feemed to be promifed
them j nor, on the other hand, offend them by too
long and immoderate excurfions. This rife and caden¬
cy of the voice in pronunciation, depend on the na¬
ture and fituation of the members, as we {hall endear
vour to fliow by particular inftances j in the explication
of which, by the word members, are to be underftood
fuch as are uncompounded. In a period of two members,
the turn of the voice begins with the latter member.
Of this kind is the following fentence of Cicero : “ If
irr\pudence prevailed as much in the forum and courts
of juftice, as infolence does in the country and places
of lefs refort j Aulus Caecina would fubmit as much to
the impudence of Sextus Ebutius in this caufe, as he
did before to his infolence when affaulted by him.”
Here the cadency begins at the words Aulus Ccecina.
If a fentence confift of three members, the inflexion is
belt made at the end of the fecond member: for if it
begin immediately after the firft, the voice will be either
apt to fink too low, and not be heard, before it reach
the end 5 or elfe be precipitated, in order to prevent it.
Cicero begins his oration for Milo with a fentence of
this form : “ Although I fear, it may be a fhame to be
difmayed at the entrance of my difcourfe in defence of
a moft valiant man ; and that it nowife becomes me,
while Milo is more concerned for the fafety of the ftate
than for himfelf, not to fliow the fame greatnefs of mind
in his behalf: yet this new form of profecution terrifies
my eyes, -which, whatever way they turn, want the an¬
cient cuftorti of the forum, and former manner of trials.”
Here the cadency, beginning at the third member with
the word yet, makes a proper divifion of the fentence,
and eafy for the fpeaker. But a period of four members
is reckoned the moft complete and perfeft, where the in¬
flexion begins at the middle, that is, with the third
member. Nor is it the fame cafe here, as if, in a fen¬
tence of three members, the cadency be made at the fe¬
cond. For in proportion to the time of railing the voice
may the fpace be allowed for its finking. The follow¬
ing fentence of Cicero gives us an inftance of this, where
he fpeaks to his fun : “ Although, Ion Mark, having
now been an hearer of Cratippus for a year, and this at
Athens, you ought to abound in the precepts and doc¬
trines of philofophy, by reafon of the great charafter
both of your inftruXor and the city; one of which can
furnifli you with knowledge, and the ether with exam-*
TORY. 3+7
pies : yet, as 1 always to iny advantage joined the La- Elocution,
tin tongue with the Greek, and have done it not only
in oratory, but likewife in philofophy j I think you ought
to do the fame, that you may be equally converfant in
both languages.” The turn in this period begins at the
word yet; wrhich {landing near the middle, the voice is . -
raifed to that pitch in pronouncing the former part, as
to admit of a gradual cadency, without being loft be¬
fore the conclufion of the fentence. But where the
fenfe does not fuit with this divifion at the entrance upon
the third member, it is bell made at the fourth. Such
is the following fentence of Cicero : “If I have any
genius, which I am fenfible is very fmall j or any readi-
nefs in {peaking, wdrerein I do not deny but I have been
much converfant 5 or any {kill in oratory, from an ac¬
quaintance with the beft arts, to which I confefs I have
been always inclined •, no one has a better right to de¬
mand of me the fruit of all thefe things than this Au¬
lus Caecina.” The cadency of this fentence does not
begin till the words no one; yet it ends handfomely,
and without difappointing the ear. Though indeed tho
three firft members having each of them an infleXioin
check the elevation of the voice, and by that variety in
the pronunciation add to the harmony of the fentence.
An equality of the members flrould likewife be attended
to in the compofition of a period, the better to adjuft
their rife and cadency. And for this reafon, in fenten-
ces of three members, where the cadency begins with
the third •, or in thofe of four members, where it begins
at the fourth ; it promotes the harmony to make the
laft member longeft. This is properly the nature of
rhetorical periods, which when rightly formed have
both an equal beauty and dignity in their compofi¬
tion.
But as all difcourfe is made up of diftinX fenten-
ces, and whenever we exprefs our thoughts it is in
fome of the forms above mentioned; fo the ufe of
them is not promilcuous, but fuited to anfwer different
defigns in fpeaking. And in this view they are confi-
dered and made ufe of by the orator, as wall be ftiown
hereafter.
§ 2. Of Order.
4S
By order, rhetoricians m&m the placing each word Order de*
and member of a fentence in fuch a manner as will ^e|| a”L
moft contribute to the force, beauty, or evidence of the'
whole.
Order is of two kinds, natural and artificial. And
each of thefe may be confidered with refpeX to the
parts either of fimple or compound fentences.
As to fimple fentences, we may call that order natu¬
ral, when all the words in a fentence are fo placed, as
they are conneXed with or follow each other in a gram¬
matical conftruXion. And it may properly enough ad¬
mit of this hame, as it is founded in the nature of a
propofition, and the relation of the feveral words of
which it confifts to each other. This we explained in
the laft chapter, and illuftrated by proper examples ; and
{hall therefore only give one inftance of it here, to in¬
troduce the fubjeX we are now upon. And it is this :
The fame of Ifocrates excited Ari/lotle to the profefjion
of oratory. Here thefe words, the fame of Ifocrates,
contain the fubjeX of this fentence, writh wdiat relates to
it 5 and all thofe which follow, excited Ari/lotle to the
profef/ion of oratory, make up the predicate and its de- •>
X x 2 pendents.
t<~; UJ
43
ORATOR Y.
Part III.
ipcution. pendents. And in both parts each word grammatically
' confidered Hands in its proper order of conftruflion.
And this feems agreeable to the natural way of convey¬
ing our thoughts, which leads us fir ft to exprefs the fub-
jedt or thing of which fome other thing is laid, before
the predicate or that which is faid concerning it} and
with refpedl to both, as every idea fucceeds another in
the order of our conceptions, to range it in the fame order
when we communicate them to others. Our language in
the general keeps pretty much to this method. But in
one thing particularly it recedes from it •, and that is, in
placing adjedlivds, which denote the properties of things,
before their fubftantives or fubjefts, whofe properties
they are : As when it is faid, Evif communication cor-
inipts good manners. And this we always do except
fomething follows which depends upon the adjedlive.
So we fay, He was a man eminent for his virtue: not
an eminent man.
Artificial order, as it refpedls fimple fentences, has lit¬
tle or no regard to the natural conftruction of words ;
but difpofes them in fach a manner as will be molt
agreeable to the ear, and beft anfwer the defign of the
fpeaker. The Latins take a much greater liberty in
this refpecl than we do, or than the nature of our lan¬
guage will permit. Quintilian fays, it is bell for the
verb to Hand laft, when there is no particular reafon to
the contrary. And he gives this reafon for it, becaufe
the force of the fentence lies in the verb. So that, ac¬
cording to him, they feem to have had this view in put¬
ting the verb at the end •, that as the whole fentence is
imperfedl without the verb, the mind being thus held in
lufpenfe might receive the deeper impreflion from it at
lad. They likewife feparate fuch words as have an im¬
mediate relation between them or dependence one upon
another, and place any of them firlt or laft as they
pleafe. In fnort, their order feems in a manner arbitra-
ty, if it does not break in upon perfpicuity, to which
they ufually attend. But moft of thefe things are un-
fuitable to the genius of our language. One might fay
indeed, Convince him ijoit cannot: inftead of laying,
You cannot convince him : Or, With my own eyes I faw
it; for, / faw it with my own eyes. And again : In
proportion to the increafe of luxury the Roman fate de¬
clined : for, The Roman fate declined in proportion to
the increafe of luxury. But this inverfion of words is
proper in Englilh compofition only when it gives force
to the expreffion ; as in the higher ftyle it often does.
It ferves to imprefs known truths upon the mind, but is
unfit for communicating the firft principles of know¬
ledge.
As to compound fentences, that is, fuch as confift of
two or more members, either fimple or compounded^
what relates to the words in each member feparately is
the fame as in fimple fentences. But with regard to the
difpofition of the feveral members, that may be called
the natural order, which fo places them as they mutual¬
ly depend on each other. Thus the antecedent member
naturally precedes the relative •, as in this expreflion,
Men are apt to forgive themfelves what they blame in
others. In hypothetical fentences the conditional mem¬
ber naturally Hands firft. Thus : If Socrates be. a ra¬
tional creature, he is a man. That member which ex-
preffes the effefl of an a£lion naturally comes laft ; as,
Though you offer ever fo good reafons, you will not pre¬
vail ’with him. The like may be faid of time, with re¬
gard to things done in it; as, The Roman eloquence foon Elocutian.
declined when Cicero was dead. And to name no more, ,_“y
the reafon of a thing naturally follows that of which it
is the reafon ; as thus : All the pleafures of life muf be
uncertain, fnce life itfelf is not fecure.
When this order is inverted, it may be ftyled artifi¬
cial. So to keep to the inftances already given, the two
members in the firft fenLence may be thus inverted :
What they blame in others, men are apt to forgive them-'
felves. In the fecond, in this manner : Socrates is a
man, if he be a rational creature. In the third, thus :
You will not prevail with him, though you offer ever fo
good reafons. And fo in the reft : As, When Cicero
was dead, the Roman eloquence foon declined; and, Since
life itfelf is not fecure, all the pleafures of life muf be
uncertain. The variety of inverfions in a fentence may
generally be greater or lefs in proportion to the num¬
ber of its members. In the following fentence of Ci¬
cero, the natural order feems to be this : If that great-
ntfs of mind be void of jufice, which Jhows itfelf in
dangers and labours, it is blameable. Which may be
varied by changing the place of the firft and third mem ¬
ber, in the following manner : That greatnefs of mind
is blameable which Jhows itfef in dangers and labours,
if it want jufice. Or by altering the place of all the
three members, thus : That greatnefs of mind is blame¬
able, if it be void of jufice, which Jhows itj'elf in dan¬
gers and labours. But oftentimes one member may be
included in another, as in the inftance here given: If
that greatnefs of mind, which Jhows itfclf in dangers
and labours, be void of jufice, it is blameable. Here
the relative member is included in the conditional, which
is placed firft, and the antecedent member follows both.
But in Cicero it Hands thus : That greatnefs of mind,
which Jhows itfelf in dangers and labours, if it want
jufice, is blameable ; where the relative and conditional
members are both included in the antecedent member.
The Latin tongue commonly admits of a much greater
variety in the tranfpofition of members, as well as in that
of fingle words, than fuits with our idiom. In the fol¬
lowing fentence the natural order is much preferable, as
it beft fuits with the proper elevation and cadency of
the voice in its pronunciation : I am willing to remit all
that is paf, provided it may be done with fafety. But
Ihould we invert the members, and fay, Provided it may
be done with fafety, I am willing to remit all that is
paf ; the harmony of the cadency would be loft. And
if the latter member be included in the former, the al¬
teration will Hill be worfe; as, / am willing, provided
it may be done with fafety, to forgive all that is paf.
Here the inflexion of the voice falls upon the fame
member as before, and dellroys the beauty of the pe¬
riod by its elevation afterwards. Some fentences admit
of no involution of their members. Such are thofe whofe
members are connected by conjunctive or disjunctive
particles. As, Virtue furnifhes the mind with the truef
pleafure in profperity, and affords it the greatef comfort
in adverfty. And, A wife man is neither elated by pro¬
fperity, nor deprejfed by adverfty. And the like may be
faid of thofe where the latter member begins with fome
illative or reddftive particle. As in thefe inftanefes : I he
chief thing to be regaraed in life is virtue, for ail other
things are vain and uncertain. And, Though f01 tune
is always inconfant, yet Jhe has many votaries. Nei¬
ther of the members in any of thefe ways of expreflion,
Stud
Part III. ORA
Elocution, and feme others which might be named, can be mclu-
v- v 1 ded one in the other. In all the examples hitherto gi¬
ven, the fentences confift only of Ample members ; and
indeed compound members are not fo often inverted, nor
included one in another, by reafon of their length.
However, we {hall here produce one inftance of each :
Whoever confiders the uncertainty of human affairs, and
how frequently the greateji hopes are fruftrated; he
will fee juft reafon to be always on his guard, and not
place too much dependence upon things fo precarious.
This fentence con Ails of two compound members, which'
here ftand in their natural order, but may be thus in¬
verted : He will fee juft reafon to be always on his
guard, and not place too much dependence on things fo
precarious; whoever confiders the uncertainty of human
affairs, and how often the greateft hopes are fruftrated.
In the following fentence one compound member is in¬
cluded in another : Let us not conclude while dangers
are at a dftance, and do not immediately approach us,
that we are fecure ; unlefs we ufe all neceffary precau¬
tion to prevent them. Here the natural order would be :
While dangers are at a dftance, and do not immediately
approach us ; let us not conclude that we are fecure, un¬
lefs we ufe all neceffary precaution to prevent them.
But there are fome other conAderations relating to or¬
der, which, being taken from the nature of things,
equally fuit all languages. So, in amplifying, there
Aiould be a conftant gradation from a lefs to a greater j
as when Cicero fays, Ambition creates hatred, [hynefs,
difeords,/editions, and wars. On the contrary, in ex¬
tenuating, we Aiould defeend from a greater to a lefs ;
as if, fpeaking of the ancient laws of Rome, one fhould
fay, They were Jo far from fuffering a Roman citiien
to be put to death, that they would not allow him to be
whipt, or even to be bound. In conftituting any whole,
we put the parts Aril 5 as, Invention, difpofttion, elocution,
and pronunciation, make up the art of oratory. But in
feparating any whole, the parts follow : as, The art of
oratory may be divided into theffe four parts ; invention,
difpofttion, elocution, and pronunciation. In every enu¬
meration care muft be taken not to mix the whole with
the parts} but if it be mentioned at till, it muft either
be put Arft or laft. So it would be wrong to fay, He
was a man of the great ft prudence, virtue, juft ice, and
tnodefty : for the word virtue here contains in it the other
three, and therefore ftiould not be inferted among them.
See Language, N° 17.
§ 3. Of Juntiure and Number.
Quintilian, fpeaking of compoAtion, reprefents a
difeourfe as very happy in that refpeci, when the order,
juncture, and number, are all juft and proper. I he Arft
of thefe, which gives rules for the due placing of the
words and members of a fentence, has been already ex¬
plained. We now proceed to the other two, which re¬
late to letters and fyllables •, the former treating of their
connexion, and the latter of their quantity.
I. As to juncture. A due attention is to be paid to
ture and ufe the nature of the vowels, confonants, and fyllables in
ofjunfiure the connexion of words, with regard to the found,
explained to the ft ft, when a word ends with a vowel, and
flrated1" the next begins either with a different vowel, or the
fame repeated, it ufually renders the pronunciation hol¬
low7 and unpleafant. For, as Quintilian has, juftly ob-
49
The na-
T O R Y. 349
ferved, “ This makes a chafni in the fentence, and flops Elocution,
the courfe of it.” For there muft be fome paufe, in or- ^ '
der to pronounce them both, or otherwife the found of
one will be loft. So, for inftance, in pronouncing thefe
wrords, the other day, unlefs you flop a little after the
word the, the found of e will not be heard ; and if it is
dropt, it will occaAon a rougher found, from the afpira-
tion of th twice repeated fo near together, as th'other
day. Therefore to prevent both thefe inconveniences,
we ufually fay, t'other day. But the different confo¬
nants, which together with the vowels make up thole
fyllables, often caufe a conAderable difference in the
pronunciation, fo as to render it more or lefs agreeable.
As, if w7e fay, he overdid it, the words he over have not
fo harfti a found as the other; though ftill they require
fome paufe to keep them diftinct. BeAdes, fome vowrels
meet more amicably, and admit of a fofter pronuncia¬
tion than others. Thofe which have the weakeft and
fmalleft found, follow heft; becaufe they occaAon the
leaft alteration of the organ in forming the two founds.
Such are e and i; and therefore, without any chafm in
the found, or heAtation of the voice, we fay he is. But
where the action of the organs is greater, and the found
ftronger, the pronunciation is more difficult : as when
wTe fay, tho' all. For here is a contrary motion of the
lips, which are Arft put forward in founding the 0, and
then drawn backward to pronounce the a ; and there¬
fore the found is much fofter to fay, tho' every, where
their action is lefs. And the like ill effect commonly
happens from the repetition of the fame vowrel : as if
w7e fay, go on, or, ufually aci thus. There is a conAder¬
able difference between thefe two expreffions, in repeat- * ■
ing the found of the vow el, and where either of them is
doubled in a Angle word. For then the fame found on¬
ly is protracted by one continued motion of the organ j
as in the words good, and deem. But here the found is
repeated again by a new aftion of thp organ } which, if
precipitated, obfeures the found of one of the vow7els 5
and, if too much retarded, makes a chafm in the
pronunciation ; either of wffiich is unpleafant to the
.ear. ,
But as the coalition of tw7o vowels occaAons an hol¬
low' and obfeure found, fo the meeting of fome confo¬
nants renders it very harffi and rough. Thus the words
king Xerxes, and public good, when fo placed have not
only a roughnefs, but likewife a difficulty in their pro¬
nunciation, from the contrary aition of the lips 5 which
in the former are Arft drawn back and then forwards,
but in the latter the contrary way; and in both of them
with fome conAderable force. But this may very eafily ■
be avoided, by faying, with ■ a little alteration in the
words, Xerxes the king, and the good of the public. So
likewife the words ill company, have a fofter found than
bad company, for the fame reafon. To multiply inftan-
ces of this kind feems unneceffary, which fo frequently
occur in all difeourfes.
The repetition of the fame fyllable at the end and be¬
ginning of words, is the laft thing to be conAdered.
And a little obfervation will convince us, that where
this happens, it generally renders the found either con-
fufed or unpleafant. Cicero wras often rallied on account
of this verfe :
0 fortunatam natam me confute Romam.
Every one will eaAly perceive a difagreeable found in
the
4
♦
35°
0 R A T
.Elocution.
the following exprefhon : “ A man many times does
that unadviiedly, of which he afterwards repents.”
The chime of the words man many both feems affected,
and difpleafes the ear. But this will foon be remedied,
if we feparate thefe two words, and fay, “ A man does
that many times unadvifedly.”
From the fhort account here given of this part of
competition, it is eafy to perceive what things are necef-
fary to render it moft complete and accurate } which are
thefe following. If a word end w’ith a vowel, the next
ought to begin with a confonant, or fuch a vowel whofe
found may agree wTell with the former. But if a word
-conclude with a confonant, either a vowel tliould follow,
or fuch a confonant whofe pronunciation will fuit with
it. And laffly, the fame fyllable ought not to be re¬
peated at the end of one word, and the beginning of
the next. It has been obferved by fome critics, that the
following verfe at the beginning of Virgil’s Atneid has
all thefe properties :
Arma virumque cano, Trojce qui primus ah oris.
Where any word in this verfe ends with a vowel, the
next begins with a confonant j and wdiere any one ends
with a confonant, tire next begins with a vowel ; and
there is no repetition of the fame found throughout the
whole. But this is what rarely happens, efpecially in
our language, which abounds with confonants. And
what Quintilian fays of the coalition of vowels, in treat¬
ing upon this fubjeft, feems applicable to the whole.
“ This (fays he) is a thing not much to be dreaded ;
and I know not whether the neglcdl of it, or too great
a concern about it, be worfe. It neceffarily checks the
vigour of the mind, and diverts it from matters of great¬
er importance. And therefore, as it {hows negligence
to permit it, fo to be in conftant fear of it difeovers a
low genius.” This was the opinion of that judicious
writer. And as thefe things cannot always be attended
to, it may be fufficient to avoid them, where they prove
very offenfive to the ear, and it may be done w'ithout
fome greater inconvenience. So in this fentence, Hone*
fiy is the hejl policy, the coalition of t and p in the two
ball words bejl policy produces a roughnefs in their pro¬
nunciation ; but as the expreffion is ftrong, and cannot
perhaps be well altered for the better, the found here
q0 ought to give w7ay to the fenfe.
The na- II. Number. This refpefts the quantity of fyllables,
-sure and as Jun&ure does their quality. In the Greek and Ro-
ule of nwn- man languages every fyllable has its diftindt quantity ;
and is either long, fhort, or common : twTo or more of
which joined together in a certain order make a foot,
and a determinate number of thefe in a different order
conffitute their feveral forts of metre. This variety of
founds gives a much greater harmony to their poetry,
than what can arife only from the feat of the accent,
and the fimilitude of found at the end of tw o verfes,
which chiefly regulate our metre. And although their
profe was not fo confined with regard to feet, either as
to the kind or place of them, as their metrical compofi-
tions ; yet it had a fort of meafure, more efpecially in
the rife and cadency of their periods. This they call
rhetorical number. And accordingly the ancient wrri-
ters upon this art acquaint us what feet are beft fuited
to the beginning, middle, or conclufion of a fentence.
Such rules are not applicable to our language, which has
not that accurate diftinction of quantity in its fyllables.
4
o R Y. Part nr.
For we are apt to confound accent with quantity, and Elocution,
pronounce thofe fyllables longert on which we lay the v—-
accent, though in their nature they are not fo. As in
the word admirable, where none but the firft fyllable ad
is pronounced long ; though that is only rendered fo by
pofition, and the two following are fo by nature. And
again, in the word avarice, we found the firft a long for
the fame reafon, and the fecond fhort •, contrary to the
nature of both thefe vowels. However, we ftiall offer a
few things that may be of fome ufe to modulate our pe¬
riods and adjuft their cadency.
A great number of monofyllables do not Hand well
together. For as there ought to be a greater diftance
in the pronunciation between one word and another,
than between the fyllables of the fame word 5 fuch
paufes, though Ihort, yet, when too frequent, make the
found rough and uneven, and by that means fpoil its
harmony. And this may feem more neceffary to be
attended to, becaufe the Englifh language abounds fo
much with monofyllables. On the contrary, a con¬
tinuation of many long words makes a fentence move
too flow and heavily. And therefore fuch periods
generally run beft, which have a proper mixture of
words of a different length. Befides, as every word
has its accent, which with us Hands for quantity, a
number either of monofyllables, or long words, coming
together, fo far abates the harmony, as it leffens the
variety.
Again, feveral words of the fame ending do not Hand
well together, efpecially where the accent falls upon the
fame fyllable in each of them. For this creates too
great a jingle by the fimilitude of found ; and is apt to
difpleafe, from an appearance of affedlation. Of this
kind is the following fentence : Nothing is more wel¬
come, dellghtfome, or wholefome, than reji to a wearied
man. In fuch expreflions therefore, if the order of the
words cannot well be altered, fome other word fhould
be fubftituted in the room of one of them at leaft, to
diverfify the found. So in the example here given, the
found might be varied by faying, Nothing is more wel¬
come, pledfant, or wholefome.
But to add no more, if a fentence end with a mono-
fyllable, it is apt to hurt the cadency, and difappoint
the ear 5 whereas wmrds of a moderate length carry a
greater force with them, by the fulnefs of their found,
and afford the ear what it expected. And there is one
fort of monofyllables more efpecially, which never Hand
well at the conclufion of a period, though we frequent¬
ly find them there •, and thefe are the figns of cafes.
Thus wre fay, Avarice is a crime, which wife men are
too often guilty of. But the cadency would doubt-
lefs be more agreeable if it wras altered thus : Avarice is
a crime, of which wife men are too often guilty. Every
one muft perceive, when the accent falls upon the lait
fyllable in the fentence, as it does if it end with (f, the
found is not fo pieafant as when it refts upon the preced¬
ing fyllable in the word guilty. Nor are very long
wmrds well fuited either to the beginning or conclufion
of a period ; for they retard the pronunciation at firft,
and fall too heavy at the end.
Chap. III. Of Dignity.
Dignity confifts in the right ufe of tropes and fi-fityof dig-
gures. It is not fufficient for an orator to exprefs him-niry in an
Pelf oration.
Part II
Elocutior.
IT.
O R A T
52
Tropes,
what.
felt wxtli propriety and clearnefs, or in fmooth and har¬
monious periods j but his language mult likewife be
fuited to the nature and importance of the fubjeft. And
therefore, as elegance gives rules for the firft of thefe,
and compojition for the fecond 5 lb does dignity for the
laft of them. It is very evident, that different fubjefts
require a different ftyle and manner of expreffion ; ffnee,
as Quintilian fays, “ What is magnificent in one dd-
courfe would be turgid in another •, and thofe exprel-
fions which appear low upon a fublime fubjeft, would
{hit leffer matters : and as in a florid harangue a mean
word is remarkable, and like a blemilTi; fo any thing
lofty and bright upon a trivial argument is difpropor-
tionate, and like a tumour upon an even furface.”
Now this variety in the manner of expreffion arifes in a
great meafure from tropes and figures, which not only
enliven and beautify a difeourfe, but give it likewife
force and grandeur 5 for which reafon this part of elo¬
cution feems to have been called dignity.
Tropes and figures are diftinguhhed from each other
in feveral refpefts. Tropes moftly affeft Angle words,
but figures whole fentences. A trope conveys two ideas
to the mind by means of one word} but a figure throws
the fentence into a different form from the common
and ufual manner of expreffion. Befides, tropes are
chiefly defigned to reprefent our thoughts, but figures
our paflions.
§ I. Of Tropes.
A trope, which is a figure of words, has been ufually
defined to be the change of a word frotti its proper figni-
fcation to fame other with advantage, either as to beauty
or Jlrength. The words, with advantage, are added in
the definition, becaufe a trope ought not to be chofen,
unlefs there is fome good reafon for ufing it rather than
the proper word. But in what manner, or how far, it
can be faid of all tropes in general, that they change
the proper fignification of words, will beft appear by
confidering the nature of each kind of them feparately.
Now in every trope a reference is had to two things,
which occafions two ideas •, one of the thing expreffed,
and another of that thing to which it has a refpebf, and
is fupplied by the mind. For all tropes are taken either
from things internally related, as the whole and a part j
or externally, as caufe and effeff, fubjecl and adjunct;
or from fome fimilitude that is found between them 5 or
from a contrariety. The firft of thefe is called fynec-
doche, the fecond metonymy, the third metaphor, and the
lafi: irony. We fhall endeavour to iHuftrate this by ex¬
amples. When we fay, Hannibal beat the Romans ;
the meaning is, that Hannibal and his army did this.
So that although in fome fenfe a part may here be faid
to ftand for the whole, which makes it a fynecdoche ;
yet, ftribtly fpeaking, the word Hannibal does not alter
its fenfe, but there is an ellipfis in the expreflion, Han¬
nibal being put for Jiimfelf and his army. But if we
fay, Cicero Jhould be read by all lovers of eloquence
here indeed the word Cicero appears to be changed from
its proper fenfe, and to fignify the books of Ciceroy
which is a metonymy, the author being put for his
works 5 and therefore fuch expreflions need not be
deemed elliptical. Again, if any one, fpeaking of a
fubtlc and crafty man, fliould fay he is a fox ; the
O R Y. 35*
meaning is, he is like a fox j which is a metaphor ; Elocution,
where the word fox retains its proper fenfe, and de- ^ —
notes that animal, to which the man is compared on ac¬
count of his craft. Lafily, If a peribn fay to another,
Well done; meaning that the thing was ill done, the
Word well keeps its own fenfe ; but. from the manner of
its pronunciation, or fome other circumftance attending
the expreffion, it will be evident that the contrary is in¬
tended^ which is called an irony. From thefe inffances
it may appear in what latitude we muff underftand the
common definition of a trope, which makes it to confift
in the change of a wmrd from its proper fenfe into fome
other. But though in reality there are but four kinds
of tropes, which are diftinguiihed by fo many different
refpedts which things bear one to another ; yet as theie
feveral refpedts are found in a variety of iubjects, and
attended with different circumftances, the names of
tropes have from hence been greatly multiplied j which,
howrever, may all be referred to fome or other of thofe
already mentioned, as will be Ihown when w'e come Ur
tr'eat of them in their order. And for diltindlion fake
we fliall call the former primary, and the latter fecond-
ary, tropes.
We now proceed to confider the reafons which have
occafioned the introduction of tropes. And thefe, as
Quintilian obferves, are three ; neceffity, emphafis, and
beauty.
I. Tropes were firft introduced from necefity, deriv- Wh/in-
ing their origin unqueftionably in a confiderable degree traduced,
from the barrennefs of language, becaufe no language
which wTe know’ contains a fuflicient number of proper
wordv-tf) exprefs all the different conceptions of our
minds : but the principal caufe of their introduction
feems to be that extenfive influence which imagination
poffeffes over every kind of fpeech. The mind confiders
the fame thing various ways j viewTs it in different lights 5
compares it with other things > and obferves their feve¬
ral relations and affedtions j wherein they agree, and in
what they differ. From all which reflections it is fur-
nifhed with almoft an infinite number of ideas ; which
cannot all of them be diftinguilhed and expreffed by
proper words, fince new ones occur daily. And w^ere
this poflible, yet wmuld it be impracticable, becaufe the
multitude of words muff be fo vaftly great that the me¬
mory could not retain them, nor be able to recal them
as occafion required. Tropes have in a good meafure
redreffed both thefe inconveniences •, for by means of
them the mind is not burdened with a numberlefs flock
of different words, and yet nothing feems to w^ant a
name. Thus fometimes where a word is wanting to
exprefs any particular thing, it is clearly enough repre-
fented by the name of fome other thing, by reafon of
the fimilitude betw’een them. At other times, the
caufe is fignified by the effeCI, the {abject by the ad¬
junct ; or the contrary. And the whole is often under-
ffood by a part, or a part by the whole. And thus by
the ufe of tropes the mind is helped to conceive of feme-
thing not expreffed, from that which is expreffed. It is
much the fame cafe, as wffen wc have occafion to fpeak
of a perfon, whofe name w’e are either unacquainted
wdth, or have forgot ; for by deferibing his perfon, a.
bode, or fome other circumftances relating to him, thofier
■we converfe with as wTell underftand whom wre mean, as
if we mentioned his name. So the fhepherd in Virgil,
when
Ot
ORATORY.
Elocution, vviten he could not think of the name of Archimedes,
v ’ defcribes him by his works ;
And what’s his name who form’d the fphere,
■f And thow’d the feafons of the Hiding year ?
Betides, it fometimes happens in a difcourfe, that thofe
things are necetfary to be faid, which, if expreffed in
their proper terms, would be ofienfive; but being clo¬
thed with metaphors, may be conveyed to the mind
with decency. Thus then the imagination never con¬
templates any one idea tingle and alone, but always
• . along with other ideas, which may be called its dccefjb-
ries, and which often operate more forcibly upon the
mind than the principal idea itfelf does. In their nature
they are often more agreeable, and frequently alfo more
familiar, to our conceptions •, or perhaps they remind us
of a greater Variety of important circumdances* Hence
the name of the : acceffory is often preferred, as, e. g.
when we want to point out the time in which a Hate en¬
joyed its chief reputation, &c. the proper words might
do, but the imagination fuggeils the flourifhing period
of a plant or tree ; and we fay “ the Roman empire
flourilhed mofl under Auguftus Catiline, we fay, was
the head inftead of the leader of his party, becaufe the
head is the principal part of the human figure.
2. A fecond reafon above mentioned for the ufe of
tropes was emphajis. Tropes do niany times exprefs
things with greater force and evidence than can be done
by proper words. We receive much the greater part
of our knowledge by our fenfes. And fimilitudes taken
from fenfible things, as in metaphors, very much affiit
the mind in its refleftions upon thofe things which do
0 not come under the cognizance of the fenfes. For it is
certain, that we are fooner and more llrongly affecled
with fenfible objefts, than with things of which rve can
have no ideas but from the internal operations of our
own minds. Nay, fometimes one bright and lively
trope fhall convey a fuller and more juft idea of a thing
than a large periphrafis. So when Virgil calls the Sci-
y>ios two thunderbolts of war, he gives a more lively
image of the rapid force and fpeedy fuccefs of their
arms, than .could have been conveyed by a long defcrip-
tion in plain words. And in matiy cafes the tropical
ufe of words is fo emphatical, and fuited to the idea we
defign to excite, that in this refpefl it may be juftly
e deemed the inOft proper. So, mcenfed with anger,
inflamed with deflre, fallen into an error, are all meta¬
phorical exprcfiions, ufed in a way of fimilitude; and
yet perhaps no proper words can be made ufe of, which
will convey a more lively' image of the thing we defign
to reprefent by them.
But beauty and ornament, as was obferved before,
have been another caufe of the ufe of tropes. Some fub-
je£ls require a more florid and elegant drefs than others.
When we defcribe or applaud, ornaments of fpeech and
a gaiety of expreflion are requiftte. And it is the bufi-
nefs of an orator to entertain his hearers at the fame
time that he inftruffs them. Now7 Cicero, who was an
admirable judge of the force and power of eloquence,
has obferved, that tropical expreflions give the mind the
greateft delight and entertainment. “ I have often
wondered (fays he) wdry tropes fhculd give greater plea-
fure than proper wrords. I imagine the reafon muft be,
either that there is an appearance of wit in neglecting
what is at hand, and making choice of fomething at a
- 3
Part III.
diftance j or that the hearer is furniihed with a differ- Elocution,
ent thought, without being led into a miftake, which af- J
fords a very agreeable pleafure : or that a whole limili-
tude is conveyed to the mind by a Angle w7ord j or that,
particularly7 in the beft and mod; lively metaphor, the
image is prefented to our fight, which is the quicked of
our fenfes.” And therefore he fuppofes, that “ as gar¬
ments were firft invented from neceflity, to fecure us
from the injuries of the w7eather, but improved after¬
wards for ornament and diftinClion ; fo the poverty of
language firft introduced tropes, which were afterw ards
inereafed for delight.” Beddes, a variety of expreflion
is pleafing in a difcourfe. It is many times neceifary
that the fame thing fliould be repeated ; and if this be
done in the fame words, it will grow tirefome to the
hearers, and fink their efteem of the fpeaker’s ability.
Therefore, to prevent this, it is proper the expreflion
fliould be varied, that although the ienfe be the fame,
it may give the mind a new pleaiure by its different
drefs.
We come now7, in the lad place, to lay dowui fome
direftions proper to be obferved in the choice of
tropes.
And firft, as every trope gives us two ideas; one, of
the w7ord expreffed j and another, which, by means of
that, the mind connects with it j it is neceffary, that
the relation between thefe tw7o appear very plain and
evident. For an obfcure trope rs alwayrs faulty, unlefs
wdiere fome particular reafon makes it neceffary. And
therefore tropes ought not to be too far-fetched, left that
fheuld render them dark. For w7hich reafon Cicero fays,
he fliould not choofe to call any thing deftrudtive to a
perfon’s fortune, the Syrtis of his patrimony, but rather
the rock of it; nor the Charybdis of his eflate, but the
gulf of it. For thofe who either did not know that
the Syrtes w7ere two quickfands upon the coaft of Afri¬
ca, or that Charybdis was a gulf in the ftrait of Sicily,
both of them very deftrudlive to mariners, would be at
a lofs to underftand the meaning of the metaphor. Be-
fides, metaphors taken from things w7e have feen, affect
the mind more forcibly than thofe which are taken from
fuch things as tve have only heard of. Now there is
fcarcely any one who has not feen a rock or a gulf \ but
there are very few perfons, comparatively, who have
been either at Charybdis or the Syrtes. It is neceffary
therefore in a good trope, not only that there be a near
affinity betw’een the two ideas, but likewife that this af¬
finity be very obvious and generally known, fo that the
word be no fooner pronounced but both images do im¬
mediately prefent themfelves to the mind.
Again, as a trope ought to be very plain and evident,
fo likewife ftiould it bear a due proportion to the thing
it is defigned to reprefent, fo as neither to heighten nor
diminifh the juft idea of it. Indeed, fometimes wdien
w7e fpeak of things indefinitely, we fay too much, left
w7e ftiould feem to fay too little. And this manner of
fpeaking is called an hyperbole; which is not uncom¬
mon in the facred waitings. So, for inftance, Saul and
Jonathan are faid to be fwifter than eagles, andflronger
than lions. But even in this w7ay of expreffion a pro¬
portion is to be obferved. For fome very confiderable
and unufual excefs of the thing in its kind is at leaft de¬
figned by it j which, perhaps, cannot, or howrever is not
neceffary to be defined. And therefore Quintilian
blames Cato for calling the top of a hill a wart; be¬
cause
*
Part HI.
O R A T
Elocution, caufe the proportion between the two ideas is nowife
adequate. And fo on the contrary Ariftotle cenfures
Euripides for calling rowing the empire of the oar.
Poets indeed are allowed a greater liberty in this re-
fpeft , but an orator Ihould be modeft in his expreffions,
and take care that he neither fo heighten nor diminilh
the natural ideas of things by tropes, as to lead his hear¬
ers into millakes.
But further : as a moderate ufe of tropes, juftly ap¬
plied, beautifies and enlivens a difcourfe 5 fo an excels
of them caufes obfcurity, by running it into abftrufe al¬
legories and riddles. Tropes are not the common and
ordinary drefs of our thoughts, but a foreign habit:
and therefore he who fills his difcourfe with a continued
feries of them, feems to aft like one who appears in
public in a itrange drefs : which no man of charafter
would choofe to do.
Moreover, as one ufe of tropes is pleafure and enter¬
tainment, we fhould endeavour to make choice of fuch
as are fmooth and «afy. But if at any time we think it
neceflary to ufe a harlh trope, it is proper to foften it
by fome precaution. For, as Cicero very handfomely
fays, a trope fhould be modefl, fince it funds in a place
•which does not belong to it; for which reafon it Jhould
feem to come thither by permifjion, and not by force.
And therefore when he thought it harfh to fay, The
death of Cato made the fenate an orphan ; he guards the
expreflion by faying, The death of Cato has (if I may
be allowed to fay fo) rendered the fenate an orphan.
And, to add no more, care fhould be taken how we
transfer tropes from one language into another. For as
they are frequently taken not only from natural things,
or .fuch notions as are common to the generality of man¬
kind, but likewife from the manners, cuftcms, and oc¬
currences of particular nations 5 fo they may be very
plain and obvious to thofe among whom they took their
rife, but altogether unintelligible to others who are un¬
acquainted with the reafon of them. It was cuftomary
for the Roman foldiers to carry their money in their
girdles : hence it was the fame thing with them to fay,
a perfon had lof his girdle, as that he had lof his money.
And becaufe the Romans wore the toga, which was a
long gown, in time of peace, and a different garb when
engaged in war, their writers fometimes ufe the word
toga to fignify peace. But as neither of thefe cuftoms
'is in ufe among us, fo neither would the tropes fuit our
language, or be generally underflood by us. And even
in fuch tropes as are taken from the common nature of
things, languages very much differ. There is a very
beautiful trope in the account of St Paul’s fhipwreck,
where it is faid, The Jhip was caught, and could not bear
vp into the wind. The original word, that we tranflate
bear vp, is uylotpdx^fMiv j and properly fignifies, to look
or keep its eyes againf it; which is a very flrong and
lively image, taken from animate beings, and when ap¬
plied to men, often fignifies to withfand or reff: as,
aHopOsttyeai Trotepuu, to reff an enemy; and Plutarch
fays of Demofthenes, that he could not xvlopi&XfMi
a^yv^iu, look againf or reff the power of money.
Nothing is more common with Latin writers, than to
call men of a public fpirit and true patriots, lumina et
ornamenta reipublicce, that is, the lights and ornaments
of the fate. And we have borrowed from them the ufe
of both thefe metaphors. But becaufe tropes and figures
illuflrate and heighten the flyle, they call them alfo
Vol. XV. Part I.
O R Y.
lumina orationis, or the lights of a difcourfe. It fome¬
times happens, that only the tropical fenfe of a word is
taken from one language into another, and not the pro¬
per fignification of the fame word. So fcrupulus in La¬
tin properly fignifies a little fone, which getting into the
fhoe hurts a perfon as he walks ; hence it is applied to
the mind, and ufed to exprefs a doubt, or uneafy thought
that gives it pain. We have borrowed this latter fenfe
of the word, but not the former.
3
Art. I. Primary Tropes*
54
I. Metaphor. A metaphor, as ufually defined, is, A Metaphor,
trope, which changes words from their proper fgnifica- what.
tion to another different from it, by reafon of fome Jimili-
tude between them. But that a word, when ufed meta¬
phorically, does not alter its fignification, but retains
its proper fenfe, was drown above. However, it may
not be aruifs to explain this matter more fully, and fet
it in a clearer light. Every metaphor, then, is nothing
elfe but a ihort fimilitude. Cicero calls it afmilitude
reduced to a fngle word. And Quintilian to the fame
purpofe fays, that “ a metaphor is a drort fimiiitude,
and differs from it only in this, that the former is com¬
pared to the thing we defign to exprefs, and the latter
is put for it. If is a fimilitude, when I fay of a man,
he has afted like a lion} and a metaphor, when I fay,
he is a lion.” Thus far Quintilian. Now in every fi¬
militude three things are requifite ; two things that are
compared together, and a third in which the fimilitude
or likenefs between them confids. And therefore, to
keep to this example, when Horace calls a Roman fol-
dier a lion, if the word lion did not retain its proper
fenfe, there could be no fimilitude ; becaufe there would
not be two things to be compared together with refpeft
to a third, which is neceffary in every fimilitude, and
was defigned by this exprefiion. The fenfe of which is
plainly this : That as a lion feis&es his prey with the
grcatef fercenefs, fo a Roman foldier with like rage and
fury attacked his enemies. In the fame manner, when
Cicero calls Pifo the vulture of the province, his meaning
is, that he was like a vulture, or afted in fuch a man¬
ner as a vulture afts, that is, rapacioufly. So that the
real difference between a metaphor and a fimilitude con-
fifts in this •, that a metaphor has not thofe figns of com-
parifon which are expreffed in a fimilitude. But fome
perfons have run into miftakes in reafoning from tropes
of this kind. For they have fo argued from metaphori¬
cal words, as if all the affeftions and properties of the
things expreffed by them might be attributed to thofe
other things to which they are applied, and by that
means have ftrained the comparifon (which has ufually
but one particular view), in order to make it tally in
other 4‘efpefts, where there is not that fimilitude of
ideas. We will endeavour to make this evident by an¬
other example from Cicero, where he calls Mark An¬
tony the torch of the fate. The fimilitude between An¬
tony and a torch lay in this : That as a torch burns and
def rays every thing within its reach, fo Antony brought
devafation and ruin wherever he came. Now a torch
has not only a property to burn, but alfo to give light \
but the fimilitude would not hold in this refpeft, nor
was it at all defigned. For Cicero never calls a wicked
profligate man, as Antony was, the light of the fate;
though he often gives that charafter to good and vir-
Y y tuous
354 O H A T
Elocution tuous men, tvho by llieir examples do as it were en-
'■ lighten others, and Ihow them the way to be happy
themfelves and ufeful to others. But though metaphors
are ufually taken from a limilitude between two things,
as in the inftances here mentioned •, yet fometimes they
are founded in the fimilitude which twro things bear to
invo others in fome particular refpeft, by means whereof
■what properly belongs to one of them is transferred to
the other : the former of which are called Jimple meta¬
phors, and the latter analogous. Hence the rudder of a
ihip may be called its reins ; for what the reins are to a
horfe, that the rudder is to a drip in guiding and direct¬
ing it. So that here is a double fimilitude, one between
a Ihip and a horfe, and another between the rudder of
the former and the reins of the latter j and from the
analogy between the ufe of the rudder to the one and
reins to the other, the reins, which belong properly to
the horfe, are applied to the fhip. Again, fome meta¬
phors are reciprocal, in which the limilitude holds either
wray. Thus to fleer and to govern are ufed reciprocal¬
ly both of a fhip and a Hate : the proper expreflions be¬
ing, to fleer a Jhip, and govern a fate ; and the contra¬
ry metaphorical. But though we fay, the foot of a
mountain, borrowing the fimilitude from animals ; yet
we do not fay, on the contrary, the bottom of an animal,
meaning his feet j and therefore that metaphor is not re¬
ciprocal. From this account therefore of the nature of
a metaphor, it may be faid to be, The application of a
word by way offmilitude to fome other thing than what
it properly fgmfes. And the plainer this limilitude ap¬
pears, the greater beauty there is in the trope.
The ufe of metaphors is very extenlive, as large as
univerfal nature. For there are fcarce any two things
which have not fome limilitude between them. How¬
ever, they may all be reduced to four kinds; which was
the fecond thing propofed to be confidered.
The lirll kind of metaphors therefore may be taken
from limilitudes between animate beings. As where
thofe things, which properly relate to brutes, are ac¬
commodated to men •, or thofe which belong to men
are applied to brutes. Of the former fort is that joke
of Cicero : My brother being a fed by Philip, why he
barkedfo ? anfwrered, Becaufe he faw a thief Here
barking, the property of a dog, is applied to a man :
And the reply does not feem to carry more feverity or
harlhnefs with it than the quellion. By the latter lort
we fay, a crafty fox, and a generous horfe; which are
afte&ions that properly relate to men. And to this kind
of metaphors may thofe like wife be referred, when that
which properly belongs to the fenfes is applied to the
mind. Thus we often fay, that we fee a thing, when
we mean that we underfand or apprehend it. And in
the fame fenfe we fay, that we hear fuch a thing, or
perfon. And by the like manner of expreflion, a per-
fon is faid to fmell out a thing. And thofe who have a
genius or difpofition for any art or fcience, are faid to
have a tafe for it; and fuch as have entered upon the
lludy of it, are faid to have a touch of it. Thefe are
common ways of fpeaking in moll languages, and very
expreffive of what is intended by them. And we may
alfo bring thofe metaphors under this head, by which
the properties and aife£Hons of men are attributed to the
Deity : as, when God is faid to hear, fee, be angry, re¬
pent, and the like •, which are forms of exprdTioa very
frequent in the facred writings.
O R Y. Part III.
A fecond kind of metaphors lies between inanimate Elocution,
tilings, whether natural or artificial, which- bear fome ' * 1 ’
limilitude to each other. And this head is very exten¬
live. Thus we fay, foods of fire, and clouds of fniokc,
for large quantities. And fo likewife, to infame an ac¬
count, that is, to heighten or increafe it j with innume¬
rable others of the like fort. In the two firit of thefe
inlbances, the terms proper to one element are applied
to another ; and as thofe elements of fire and water are
oppofite to each other, they fhowT the extenfivenefs of
this trope, that there arc no things in nature fo contra¬
ry, but may come within the limits of it, and be ac¬
commodated to each other in a way of fimilitude. In
the lait example, a natural action is applied to what is
artificial.
A third fort of metaphors is, when inanimate things
are applied to animals, on account of fome like proper¬
ties between them. Thus Homer calls Ajax, the bul¬
wark of the Greeks, on account of his valour, which
like a wall defended them from the Trojans. And
nothing is more common with Cicero, than to brand ill
men with the character of being the pefi of the fate, by
reafon of the mifehief which they bring to the public.
So likewife be calls Zeno the philofepher an acute man,
for his great difeemment and quick perception of things;
fetching the allufion from metals when brought to an
edge or a point. As, on the contrary, old Chremes in
Terence calls himfelf a fione, for want of apprehenfion.
And w'e lay, a gay perfon, and a bright genius, by this
kind of metaphor.
The fourth and lalt kind of metaphors is that by
wdiicli the actions and other attributes of animals are ac¬
commodated to inanimate things. 'Ihus Cicero, fpeak¬
ing of Clodius, fays : “ The very altars, when they
faw that monlter fall, feemed to move themfeives and
aflert their right againft him.” Here the words faw,
move, and qfiert, are all metaphors taken from the pro¬
perties of animals. And Virgil, when he would reprfc-
fent the impetuous force and rapidity of the river A-
raxes, fays, it difdamed a bridge. And it is a very ufual.
epithet, which Homer gives to words, to call them
or ’ winged, to intimate the fwiftnefs of
fpeech.
Laftly, as to the choice of metaphors, thofe are elteem-
ed the fined and Itrongelt, which give life and a&ion to
inanimate things. The reafon of which is, becaufe they
do as it were invigorate all nature, introduce new forms
of beings, and reprefent their images to the fight, which
of all the fenfes is the quickelt, molt active, and yet
molt unwearied. What can be more moving, or in
Itronger terms exprefs the villany of Clodius, than w htn
Cicero fays, “ The very altars of the gods feemed to
exult at his death.” And the fame great orator^parti¬
cularly commends thofe metaphors, for their fprightli-
nefs and vivacity, which are taken from the fenfe of
feeing ) as when we fay a bright thought, or a gay ex-
prefion.
However, care mult be taken not to venture upon too
bold and daring metaphors. Poets indeed claim greater
liberty in this refpeft, wdiofe view is often to amufe, ter¬
rify, or delight, by heightening the juft and natural
images of things. 'But it is expected the orator Ihould
reafon coolly,-though ftrongly and forcibly ^ and not
by theatrical reprefentations fo tranfport the mind, as to
take it off from reflexion, unlefs perhaps on fome parti-
cpjar-
Part III.
ORATORY.
Elocution, cular Occafion. And yet, on the other hand, meta-
phors ought not to fink below the dignity of what they
are defigned to exprefs ; but the idea they convey fhould
at leail be equal to the proper word in the place of which
they are fublfituted.
But there is a very great difference in the choice of
metaphors, as they are defigned either to praife or dif-
praife. One thing may be compared to another in a
great variety of refpefts. And the fame thing may be
made to appear either noble or bale, virtuous or vicious,
by confidering it in a different light* Such metaphors,
therefore, as are chofen to commend, muff be taken
from great and laudable things; and on the contrary,
thofe which are defigned to difcommend, from things
vile and contemptible. Ariifotle gives us a very plea-
fant example of this in the poet Simonides. A certain
peribn, who had carried the prize at a race of mules, of¬
fered him a reward to write a poem in honour of that
a£Hon. Simonides thought he did not bid high enough;
and therefore put him off with faying, the fubjeft was
too mean to write in praife of mules, which were the
offspring of afles. But upon his being offered a larger
fum, he undertook the talk ; and, as Ariftotle obferves,
when he has occafion to fpeak of the mules in that
poem, he does not mention them by that name, but
calls them t/ie daughters of fleet and generous horfes,
though he might with as much propriety have cabled
them the daughters of dull affes. But it was the poet’s
bufinefs, in praifing, to take the mofl advantageous part
of the charafter. Where things are capable of fuch
different turns, metaphorical expreffions are generally
moll beautiful. And fometimes the fame metaphor may
be applied contrary ways, both in praife and difpraife,
as it will fuit different properties of the thing to which
it refers. So a dove, in a metaphorical fenfe, may re-
prefent either innocence ox fear ; and an iron heart may
denote either courage ox cruelty ; as a hard head,flrength
or weaknefs of thought. And this ambiguity in" the ap¬
plication of metaphorical words often affords occafion
for jefls and concife wit. We obferved before, that Ci¬
cero never calls ill men, lights of the flate. But he
once in this manner calls Sextius Clodius the light of
the fenate. For when his kinfman Publius Clodius had
been killed by Milo, and his corpfe was brought to
Rome, Sextius raifed the mob, and in a tumultuous
manner carried it into the fenate-houfe, where they
burnt it, and by '‘hat means fet the building on fire :
For which feditious a£l Cicero pafl'es that joke upon
him, under the metaphor of light, which elfewhere he
always ufes in a good fenfe.
But to proceed : All forced and harfh metaphors
fhould be avoided ; the one being no lefs difagreeable
to the mind than the other to the ear. Nor fhould they
come too thick in a difcourfe. In a word, they ought
not to be ufed, but either where a proper word is want¬
ing, or they are more fignificant or beautiful than the
proper word.
M 55 II. Metonymy. This, as defined by Quintilian, is,
skrir.-ii aric1 the putting one word for another. But Voflius defcribes
explained, it more fully, when he calls it, “ A trope, which chan¬
ges the name of things that are. naturally united, but in
fuch a manner as that the one is not of the effence of
the other.” That a metonymy is thus diftinguifhed
from the other tropes, has been fufficiently fhcuvn al¬
ready in the two lafl chapter®. When it is faid, to put
one word for another, or, to change the names of things,
the meaning is, that the word fo ufed changes its fenfe,
and denotes fomething different from its proper fignifi-
cation. Thus, when Mars is put for war, and Ceres
for corn, they lofe their perfonal fenfe, and fiand for the
effects of which thofe deities were faid to bfc the caufe.
So likewife, when Virgil fays,
Elocution.
He drank the frothing bowl,
the word bowl mult neceffarily fignify the liquor in the
bowl. And when in another place, defcribing the tem¬
ple of Juno at Carthage, in which the adtions of the
Trojan war were reprefented, and the images of the he¬
roes, he makes JEneas, upon difcovering that of Priam
among the reft, cry out,
Lo here is Priam ; •
it is plain the word Priam there muft ftand not for his
perfon, but his image ox figure. And this property of
changing the fenfe of the word appears peculiar to
metonymy. In treating upon a metaphor, we obferved
the miftake of thofe who teach, that a word ufed meta¬
phorically lofes its proper fignification } whereas it only-
changes its place, but not its fenfe j being applied to a
thing to which it does, naturally belong, by way of fi-
militude. And as the not attending to this has run
fome perfons into very great abfurdities, in treating up¬
on metaphorical expreflions, and reafoning from them
in the tropical fenfe ; fo the like has happened to others
in fome inflances of a metonymy, where, by mifappre-
hending their true nature, they have reafoned from them
in the literal fenfe, as we fhall fhow prefently. A me¬
tonymy is not fo extenfive as a metaphor, nor altoge¬
ther fo neceflary : becaufe nothing is faid by a metony¬
my, which cannot be exprefled in proper words ; where¬
as metaphors are often ufed for want of proper words to
exprefs fome ideas. However, metonymies are very ufe-
ful in language } for they enrich a difcourfe with an
agreeable variety, and give both force and beauty to an
expreffion. And what we obferved with relation to a
metaphor, is true alfo of this trope : that fome metony¬
mies, even in common difcourfe, are more frequently-
made ufe of than the proper words in whofe room they
are put. So, pale death, a blind way, and a happy
Jfate, are very common expreflions with us. And it is
more ufual to fay, This is fuch a performs hand, or /
know his hand, than his writing, when we intend this
latter fenfe of the word.
We now proceed to the divifion of metonjfciies; which
are commonly diftinguifhed into four kinds, from the
different manner in which things are naturally, but ex¬
ternally, united to one another. Now things are thus
united, or one thing depends upon another, either with
refpe£t to its produftiOn, or in the manner of its exiftence
when produced. In the former way the effedf depends
upon its caufe, and in the latter the adjunct upon its fub-
jedts. And hence arife four forts of metonymies, which
receive their names from the caufe and effect, the fubfedt
and the adjunct.
It is called a metonymy of the caufe, when the exter¬
nal caufe is put for the effedt. The external caufe is
twofold, the agent and end, which are ufually called
the efficient and final caufe. Of the former kind are
fuch metonymies, where the inventor or author is put
for what was invented or effected by him. Thus as,
Y y 2 we
-j i
35<5
ORATORY.
Part III.
Elocution, tve faid before, Ceres is fometimes put for corn, the ufe
v ' of which fhe was faid fir ft to have introduced j and
Mars for war, over which he was thought to prefide.
And by this way of fpeaking, any artift or writer is
put for his work. So Juvenal, blaming the luxury and
profufenefs of the Romans, fays, There are few tables
without Mentor : that is, which were not made by him,
or after his manner. And pur Saviour fays, in the pa¬
rable of the rich man and Lazarus, The?/ have Mofes
and the prophets, meaning the books of Moles and the
prophets. But under this fort of metonymy is inclu¬
ded not only the agent, itrittly fo called, but alfo any
means or inftruments made ufe of in the doing of a
thing, when put for the thing done. Thus, polite li¬
terature, is called humanity, becaufe it cultivates and im¬
proves the human mind. And in that expreftion of
Cicero, Words move nobody but him who underfunds the
tongue; the word tongue, which is the inftrument of
fpeech, is put for fpeech or language. And in the like
fenfe, arms are fometimes put for war, and the /word
for faughter. By the fame kind of metonymy likewife
any affection or quality is put for its eft'ect. As when
it is faid, the end of government is to maintain juf ice ;
that is, fuch mutual offices among men as are the effiecls
of jufice. And fo likewife in that of Cicero, It is the
bufnefs of magif rates to check the levity of the multitude,
by which he means tumults occafioned by their levity.
Moreover, as human affeftions are attributed to the
Deity in a metaphorical fenfe, fo feveral parts of the
human body are likewife afcribed to him by this kind of
metonymy. Thus, his hand and his arm are ufed to
exprefs his power, as his ear and eye, his care and pro¬
vidence, thefe being the inftruments of fuch effefts in
mankind. Metonymies of the final caufe are thofe by
which the end in doing a thing is put for the thing
done. As when we fay, The watch is fet, meaning the
watchmen, who are appointed for that purpofe. And
fo likewife that expreftion, to make an example, as it
fignifies, to punijh, in order to deter others from the
like crimes by fuch an example. As alfo that of
Virgil,
Phillis fhould garlands crop :
by which are meant flowers to make garlands.
The fecond kind of metonymy puts the effeft for the
efficient caufe, whether the agent, or only the means
and inftrument. So Virgil calls the two Scipios the de¬
ft ruBion of Libya, becaufe they were the agents who
effefted it. And Horace compliments his patron Mae¬
cenas with the titles of being his guard and honour ;
that is, his guardian, and the author of his honour. But
when Cicero tells the citizens of Rome, that the death
of Clodius was their fafety, he means the occafion only
of their fafety. And elfewhere he calls that a dark hope
and blind expeBation, the effedl of which was dubious
and uncertain to thofe who entertained it. And in like
manner, the fons of the prophets, when they were eat¬
ing the pottage which Eliffia had ordered to be fet be¬
fore them, cried out, There is death in the pot; that is,
fome deadly thing, as is prefently after explained. And
thus fweat, which is the effeft of labour, is fometimes
put for labour. As in the threat denounced againft
Adam, In the fweat of thy face Jhalt thou eat bread,
that is, by labour in cultivating the ground. And, in
allufion to this way of fpeaking, Antony the orator tells
Craffus, “ the improvement of the ftyle by conftint ex- Elocaition.
ercife, as he prefcribed, was a thing of much fweat.” "Y " J
And virtue is faid to be gained by fwcat, that is, con¬
tinued care and exercife in lubduing the paffions, and *
bringing them to a proper regulation. But in thefe
two expreffions there is likewife a metaphor, the effe<ft
of bodily labour being applied to that of the mind.
In all thefe inftances, the effect is put for the efficient
caufe.
The third kind of metonymy is, when the fubject is
put for the adjunft. By fubjeift here, in a large fenfe
of the W'Oid, may be underftood that wherein fome other
thing is contained, or about which it is converfant ; as
likewife the poffeffor with refpect to the thing he poffef-
fes 5 and the thing fignified, when put for the lign of it.
Nowr, by the firft of thefe ways of fpeaking, the feat of
any faculty or affeflion is ufed for the faculty or affection
itfelf. So it is ufual to fay, a man of a clear head, when
we mean a clear mind or underftanding ; the feat of the
mind being fuppofcd to be in the head. And a perfon
is faid to have a warm heart, becaufe the heart has been
thought the feat of the affections. In like manner, the
place where any actions are performed is put for the
aCtions done in it. As when Cicero fays, “ Do not al¬
ways think of the forum, the benches, the roftra, and
the fenate j” meaning the difcourfes which were ufually
made in thofe places. So likewdfe the country, or place
of refidence, is put for the inhabitants, as in that paffage
of Cicero : “ And to omit Greece, wffiich always claim¬
ed the pre-eminence for eloquence, and Athens, the in-
ventrefs of all fciences, where the art of fpeaking was
invented and perfected j in this city of ours, (meaning
Rome), no ftudies have prevailed more than that of elo¬
quence wffiere the words Greece and Athens Hand to
denote the inhabitants of thofe places. And hither may
alfo be referred thofe expreffions in which the time is put
for the perfons living in it j as, the degeneracy of the
prefent age, the virtue of former times. In the fecond
wTay above-mentioned, the objeCt is ufed for the perfon
or thing employed about it : As when Cicero fays,
“ In time of battle the law's are filent j where by laws
he intends the judges, who pronounce fentence accord¬
ing to law. By the third of thefe ways, in w'hich the
poffeffor is put for the thing he poffeffes, we fay, to de¬
vour, defroy, or ruin a man, meaning not his perfon but
his eflate. And mythologifts explain the fable of AClaeon
by this trope, who is faid to have been devoured by his
dogs; for by dogs they underftand flatterers and para-
fites, who confumed his eftate and brought him to beg¬
gary. By the laft way before recited, which puts the
thing fignified for the fign, ftatues and piCIures are
called by the names of the perfons which they reprefent:
as in that jeft of Cicero upon his brother Quintus, when,
as Macrobius relates, “ being in the province which his
brother had governed, and feeing a large portait of part
of his body, holding a ffiield, though Quintus was but
a little man, he faid, My half brother is bigger than
my whole brother.” The Popiffi doCtrine of tranfub-
ftantiation is founded upon an abufe of this trope. For
when our Saviour, fpeaking of the bread and wine at
that time before him, fays, “ This is my body, and this
is my blood,” his plain meaning is, they were the figns
of his body and blood, the thing fignified being put for
the fign by this fort of metonymy. But the Papifts take
the expreflion literally, which muft doubtlefs be very
abfurd ;
Partlll. ORA
Elocution, abfurd : fmce the words relate to the time then pre-
^ — fent, while Chrift was yet living, and fpoke them } when
it was impoflible for the bread and wine to be converted
into his body and blood, it being evident to all who were
prel'ent, that thole elements, and his body, exifted le-
parately at the fame time. But if the words are ex¬
plained by this trope, the fenfe is plain and eafy, and
the way of fpeaking familiar to all writers. Whereas
they who plead for the literal fenfe might writh equal
realbn aflert that thofe expreffions above-mentioned are
to be taken literally, in which feveral parts of the hu-
mian body, as the hand, the arm, the ear, and the eye,
are afcribed to the Deity ; or that, when our Saviour
in a metaphorical fenfe calls himfelf a vine, and a door,
thefe words were deligned to be applied to him llridt-
ly and properly, and not by way of limilitude only, as
is the cafe in all metaphors.
The fourth kind of metonymy is that wherein the
adjunct is put for the fubjecl, which is done in the fame
variety of ways as the former. It is therefore a metony¬
my of the adjunct, when the thing contained is put for
that which contains it. As when Virgil fays, “ They
lie down upon purple that is, upon couches dyed with
purple. And again, “ They crown the wine j” mean¬
ing the bowl which contained the wine, it being the
cultom of the ancients to deck their bowls with garlands
at their entertainments. By thefe tropes likewife virtues
and vices are put for the perfons in whom they are found.
As in that beautiful paffage of Cicero, where, compar¬
ing the profligate army of Catiline with the forces of the
ftate, he fays, “ On this fide modefty is engaged, on
that impudence ; on this chaftity, on that lewdnefs ; on
this integrity, on that deceit •, on this piety, on that
profanenefs j on this conftancy, on that fury 5 on this
honour, on that bafenefs ; on this moderation, on that
unbridled paffion 5 in a word, equity, temperance, for¬
titude, prudence, and all virtues, engage with injuft ice,
luxury, cowardice, ralhnefs, and all vices.” And to this
trope thofe expreffions are to be referred, in which any
thing is put for the objedt about which it is converlant.
As in that faying of the wife man, “ Hope deferred
makes the heart lick $” where hope is put for the thing
hoped for. And thus Suetonius calls the emperor Titus
the love and delight of mankind, whofe mild and obliging
temper rendered him the object of thofe agreeable affec¬
tions to all perfons under his government. A third ufe
of this trope is putting a thing for the time in which it
was done. Thus we fay of a perfon he has fervedfo
many campaigns, meaning fo many fummers, that being
the ufual time in which armies are drawn out into the
field. Laftly, by this metonymy, the fign is put for the
thing it fignifies 5 as, the fceptre for the regal dignity, and
,5 the [word for the authority of the magi/lrate.
Synecdoche III. Synecdoche. This is a trope by which either the
explained, whole of a thing is put for a part of it, or a part for the
whole, fo that the two things, whofe ideas are prefented
to the mind in this trope, are internally related to each
other : by which, as has been Ihown already, it is di-
ftinguifhed from all the other tropes. In a fynecdoche
the word retains its proper fenfe, and the expreflion is
elliptical, as will appear by the feveral fpecies of it,
wherein the ellipfis in moft of the examples is very obvious,
and may with no great difficulty be fupplied. Now a
thing may be confidered as a wdiole in three different re-
fpecls, which logicians call an univerfal, effential, and in-
T O H Y; 357
tegralwhole. An univerfal whole is any genus with regard Elocution..
to its feveral fpecies : as, an anitnal with refpedt to man- ' "
kind and brutes, or philofophy with refpeft to the feveral
arts and fciences comprifed under it. An effential whole
confifts of matter and form } as, a man of body and foul.
And an integral whole is any body or quantity, with
refpect to the feveral parts of which the matter of it is
compofed, and into which it may be divided : as, an hu¬
man body with rdpect to its feveral members ; or a year,
as divilible into months, weeks, and days. And thus
rhetoric is an integral whole in refpedft to the four
parts that compofe it ; namely, invention, difpofition,
elocution, and pronunciation. So likewife any aggre¬
gate body, as a civil community, which is divifible
into thofe who govern and are governed ; or any ar¬
my, confifting of the general and his foldiers. As a
whole therefore, in each of thefe acceptations of the
word, is frequently put for a part, and a part for
the whole j hence arife fix fpecies or forts of fynec¬
doche.
The firft of thefe puts the genus for the fpecies.—
Thus, virtue in general is fometimes ufed to denote
fome particular fort of virtue. As when Cicero men¬
tions virtue as one of the four qualifications neceffary
in a general, he means greatnefs of mind. And fo per¬
fons are often commended for inftances of virtue ftiown
in their conduct, which refpedf only fome Angle vir¬
tue, as juftice, temperance, or the like : And in this
fenie Cicero calls Clodius a deadly animal. So when
our Saviour commiflions his apoftles to preach the gofpel
to every creature, the meaning is, every rational crea¬
ture. And thus likewife, to talk to a perfon fometimes
denotes the fame thing as to blame him, which is one
way of talking.
The fecond kind of fynecdoche puts the fpecies for
the genus. Thus bread denotes any kind of food j as
when a perfon is laid to get his bread by his labour. In
the fame way of fpeaking, money is put for any kind
of wealth in general. And it is an ufual expreflion to
fay, that wine defrays more than the fword; that is,
than any hofile arms. And the legal form of banilh-
ment among the Romans was, to prohibit perfons
the ufe of fire and water ; that is, the mofi common and
ordinary necefiaries of life, in which all others were in¬
cluded.
The third fpecies of this trope is, when the effential
whole is put for one of its parts ; that is, either for
the matter or form. Thus, in the evangelift, Mary
Magdalen fays, They have taken away my Lord, and /
know not where they have laid him, meaning his body.—
So it is ufual to fay of a deceafed perfon, He was bu¬
ried at fuch a time. And in the infcriptions of fepul-
chral monuments we frequently meet with this expref-
fion, Here lies fuch a one ; that is, his corpfe. Nor are
inftances uncommon in which the whole being is put
for the form. Thus when Cicero fays, Thofe perfons,
live who have fled from the confinement of the body, as
from a prifon ; by perfons muff neceffarily be underftood
their fouls, which are here diftinguilhed from and fet
in oppofition to their bodies. And fo Virgil reprefents
Atneas as meeting with Dido and fome of his Trojan
friends in the infernal regions 5 by wdiich are meant
their ghofis.
The fourth kind of fynecdoche is, when either the
matter or form is put for the whole being. Thus filver
and-
JO
ORATORY.
Part III,
Elocution, and gold are ufed to fignify money made of thofe me-
v~ tals ; as when we fay, / have fo much Jilver, or fb much
gold. And the word foul, both in our own and other
languages, is put for the whole perfon. So with us, a
mernj foul, and a dullfoul; in Cicero, dear fouls ; and
in Horace, candid fouls, are all ufed in this tropical
fenfe. Eut this way of fpeaking occurs nowhere more
frequently than in the lacred writings. Thus, for in-
flance, ii is faid, .dll the fouls which came with ‘Jacob
into Egypt, meaning the perforis. And again, The foul
that jinneth it fhall die; from which expreffion, and
others of the like import, fome perfons, by not at¬
tending to the nature of this trope, have been errone-
oully led to infer that the foul is naturally mortal.
But fometimes only part of the matter hands to ex-
prefs the whole effence or being. So we imitate the
Latins in ufing the word caput or head to denote either
a perfon or thing. For, as with them lepidum caput, fo
with us a witty head, lignifies the fame as a man of wit.
And in the fame fenfe, fo many head of cattle means fo
many entire cattle.
By the fifth fort of fynecdoche, the whole of any
material thing or quantity, whether continued or dif-
crete, is put for a part of it. So when Cicero fays,
A war is kindled through the whole world, in compli¬
ment to his country, he calls the Roman empire the
world. And this expreflion is alfo ufed by hiltorians.
Thus Cornelius Nepos, fpeaking of the quarrel between
Mark Antony and Auguihis, tells us, that each, of
them defired to be lord of the world. And in like man¬
ner St Luke fays, There went out a decree from Cafar
Augufius, that all the world fhould be taxed. So in St
Paul’s fidpwreck, it is faid, They ran the (hip a-
ground, that is, the head of her, for it is plain by what
follows, that the ftern was loofe. And as to difcrete
quantity, our Saviour, ufing this trope, faid he fliould
be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth.
Though he did not continue three whole days and
nights in the grave, but only part of the firft and third
day, and the whole fecond day, with the two whole
nights between the firft and third day, according to
our way of reckoning. For he was buried on Friday
in the afternoon, and refted in the grave that night,
with the following day, which was the Jewilh Sab¬
bath, and was rifen on the morning of the next day.
So that we muft necefiarily have recourfe to this fy¬
necdoche, which puts the whole for the part, to clear
up that event.
By this kind of fynecdoche, alfo, the plural number
is fometimes put for the Angular. Thus St Matthew
fays, The thieves who were crucified with our Saviour
reviled him : though it is plain from St Luke, that
only one of them did fo. It may alfo be referred to
this trope, when a certain number is put for an un-
cel tain one. So it is an ufual way of expreffion to
fay, I have feen or done fuch a thing an hundred or a
thoufand times : when perhaps fo many are not really
intended, but only in general fome confiderable num¬
ber.
The fixth and laft kind of fynecdoche puts a part of
any material thing or quantity for the whole of it. So
we fay of a man, He fhelters himfelf under fuch an one's
roof; that is, in his houfe. And of a fleet, that it con-
fifts of fo many fail; meaning, fo many Jhips. And by
this trope, that is aferibed Lo a Angle perfon which was
4
done by the affiftance of others, and in conjunction with Elocution,
them : As when it is faid, that Hannibal killed forty
thoufand Romans at the battle of Cannce ; For an army
is an aggregate body, of which the general is the head,
and confequently the chief part of it. And to this kind
oi fynecdoche may alio be referred fuch exprefiions in
which the Angular number is put for the plural: as if
one Aiould fay, A man is liable to be mified by the in¬
fluence of irregular paffwns ; meaning all men, or man¬
kind in general. Or when lels than the real number is
put for any round number : Thus fome ancient writers,
when they fpeak of the Grecian armada that came againft
Troy, call it a fleet of a thoufandJhips ; though accord¬
ing to Homer’s lift, it contained 1186. And fo Ake-
wife the Greek interpreters of the Old Teftament are
ufually called the Seventy ; whereas, in reality, they were
feventy-two.
IV. Irony. This is a trope in which one contrary is Irony defi-
fignified by another : As if any one ihould fay, Well done; ned and ii-
when at the fame time his deftgn is to intimate that the lukraletl>
thing was ill done. So that, by this manner of expref-
fton, the fpeaker appears to mean fomething contrary to
the fenfe of the word he makes ufe of. Not that the
word is changed from its ufual AgniAcation ; but by the
circumftances attending the expreffion, we perceive the
contrary to what is fpoken is intended. Quintilian ob*
ferves, that an irony may be known one of thefe three
ways : “ By the manner of pronunciation, or from the
nature of the perfon or the thing. For (as lie adds)
where any of thefe does not fuit with the words, it is plain
the fpeaker intends the contrary.” The irony is very
plain from the manner of pronunciation in that paffage
of Terence, where Simo fpeaking to his fervant by
way of reproof, fays, “ You have taken great care
indeed.” From the circumAances of the perfon, when
Cicero, addreffing to Catiline, fays, “ He went to your
companion, that excellent man, Marcus Marcellus.”
When he calls him an excellent man, it is evident he
means the contrary : becaufe no good man would be
a companion of Catiline. And when he begins his
oration for Ligarius with faying, “ Caefar, this is a
new crime, and never heard of till now,” the thing
he is fpeaking of Aiows it to be an irony ; for it
was not new, as all who were prefent very well under-
ftood.
The fubje&s of irony Arc vices and follies of all
kinds. And this way of expoAng them is often more
effe<ftual than ferious reafoning: For many perfons,
who, either from temper or want of reHeftion, cannot
be moved by the force of an argument, are not proof
againft the poignancy of wit and raillery. And there¬
fore we And the moft grave and ferious perfons have
not declined the ufe of this tr®pe upon proper occa¬
sions. Socrates, whom the oracle pronounced the
wifeft man of his age, gave fo much into it, that he
got the name of ugut, that is, the droll. In the facred
writings we have a remarkable inftance of it in the
prophet Elijah, where he challenges the priefts of
Baal to prove the truth of their deity : For it is faid
exprefsly, “ He mocked them, and faid, Cry aloud,
for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is purfuing,
or he is on a journey, or peradventure he Aeepeth, and
muft be awaked.” And Solomon takes the like me¬
thod to expofe the follies of youth by this ironical apo-
ftrophe, “ Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth,” with
wdiat
Part III. O ft A T
Elocution, what follow7?, which is all ironical. Nay, our Savi-
l ' our himfelf thought fit tlius to reprove the Jewilh doc¬
tors, when hd fays, “ Full w7ell ye reject the command¬
ment of God, that ye may keep your own tradition ;
Where, by the words fu// we//, or, as it is in the origi¬
nal, yMXa;, it is very evident that a ievere reprimand
was intended.
An irony is ufed on a variety of occanons, as we
hall (how from fome instances in Cicero. Sometimes
he applies it in a way of jeft and banter : As when he
fays, “ We have much reafon to believe the modeft
man would not aik him for his debt, when he purfues
his life.” At other times by w7ay of infult and deri-
lion: Thus when he would reprefent the forces of Ca¬
tiline as mean and contemptible, “ O terrible war,
(fays he), in which this band of rakes are to march
under Catiline! Draw out all your garrifons againit
this formidable body.1’ Again, at other times, to
give the greater force to his argument, he would feem,
as it were, by this trope to recal and correct what he
had faid before 5 as in his oration for Milo : “ But it
is fooliih in us to compare Drufus, Africanus, Pompey,
and ourfelves, wTith Clodius; all our calamities were
tolerable, but no one can patiently bear the death of
Clodius.” Now7 the charadter of Clodius was fo wTell
known, that all who were prefent mult be fenfible he
meant the contrary. And, to name no more, an iro¬
ny is never ufed to greater advantage, than when it
is followed immediately by fomething very flinging.
Thus, fpeaking of Pifo, he fays, “ You have heard
this philofopher: he denies that he was ever defirous
of a triumph.” And then addrefling himfelf to him,
he immediately adds, “ O w7retch! when you deflroyed
the fenate, fold its authority, fubjedled your confulate to
the tribune, overturned the flate, betrayed my life and
fafety for the reward of a province •, if you did not de¬
fire a triumph, what can you pretend you did not defire ?”
This mull effectually confound the falfe gravity at that
time affumed by Pifo.
Secondary
tropes fi-
milar in na-
ture,though
not in
name, to
the former
ones.
59
A common
word often
ufed byway
of emi¬
nence for
any thing
remark¬
able.
Art. II. Secondary Tropes.
Secondary tropes are fo called, becaufe they are all
of the fame nature w7ith the former, and may be referred
to fome or other of them, though they have received dif¬
ferent names.
They are chiefly eight in number; Antonomajia,
Communication, Litotes, TLuphemifm, Catachrejis, Hyper¬
bole, Metalepjis, and Allegory. The three firift of
thefe are fimple tropes, and may all be referred to a
Synecdoche. But the five lail are of a mixed or com¬
plex nature, and not confined to any one of the pri¬
mary tropes; as will appear in treating upon them in
order.
I. A common or general word is fometimes ufed for
the proper name of fome particular thing or perfon
which upon any account is eminent and remarkable.
So v,re fay, He is gone to the city, or he catne from the ci¬
ty, that is,' London. And by the Scriptures, w7e mean
the Bible. So likewife, in fpeaking of perfons, the
orator is ufed for Cicero, the poet for Homer or Virgil,
and the philofopher for Ariflotle : and it is not unufual
to fay the apofle, when w7e mean St Paul. On the
contrary, the proper names of things or perfons are
fometimes applied to any other of the fame character.
Thus we ufe the word gofpel for any certain knd un-
O R Y.
359
doubled truth. And Carthaginian faith proverbially Elocution,
flood tor the greateft falfehood and deceit among the v—
Romans. With the Greeks, Hercules fignified aJlrong
man, Nefor a wife man, and Irus a beggar; and the
names of Samfon, Solomon, and Job, now anfwer the
hke characters. Both thefe wrays of exprefiion are ■
often very emphatical, and heighten the idea more
than w7here things are exprefled by their own name.
To call a good orator Cicero, or an excellent poet a
fecond Virgil, includes not only an encomium upon the
arts themfelves, but leads the mind to w’hat is moft
perfedt in them, and was peculiar to thofe perfons.
Thefe forms ol fpeech are called antonomafia, and
come properly under a fynecdoche 5 for in the former
the w7hole is put for a part, and in the latter a part for
the whole. q0
II. Nothing is more common with orators than a A change
change of perfons. Sometimes, to avoid envy, and °f perfous
prevent the imputation of pride, in alfuming to them-common 111
felves the praife of any laudable adlion, they afcribe0iat°1J‘
it to their hearers, and do not fay, we, but ye didfo
andfo. At other times, when it is neceffary to remind
them of fomething which they have done amifs, or to
caution them againft fome w7rong flep for the future }
to prevent giving offence, they take it upon them¬
felves, or at leaf! join themfelves with them, and do
not fay, you have done this, or do not you do this ; but,
we have done it, or let us not do it. And again, at other
times, in compliment to their hearers, they join them as
partners in the commendable adlions or virtues of other
perfons 5 as when the whole body of the people is brought
in to fhare the praife arifing from the fuccefs of wife
counfels or victorious arms. Such ways of fpeaking of¬
ten occur both in Demoithenes and Cicero. They are
called communication, and come properly under a fy¬
necdoche of the whole. <ji
HI. On the contrary, there is a mode of fpeech, Ctotes,
in which, by denying the contrary, more is intended'lv^ei!e, b^
than the words exprefs. This way of fpeaking is call- contrary1 E
ed litotes; and is often ufed for fake of modefty where mere is
a perfon is led to fay any thing in his own praife, or meant than
to foften an expreffion which in direct terms mightis exPreffe<^
found harfli or give offence. As if one fhould fay, /
do not commend you for that; meaning, 1 greatly dfcom¬
mend, or blame you for it: where more being under-
flood than the words exprefsly denote, it is properly
a fynecdoche of the part. Not that this manner of
fpeaking is always to be fo interpreted; but where it
is not, there is no trope; which muff be judged of by
the circumftances of the difcourfe. But that it fre¬
quently is fo ufed, might be eafily fliown from many
inflances; though it will be fufficient to mention two
or three. Cicero fpeaking of Cotta, calls him no mean
orator, whom he had juft called a very great orator.
And he fays of Varro that “ he purfued his ftudies
not without induftry; and afterwards gives him the
charadler “ of a man of the greateft application.”
Which paffages, compared together, plainly fhow the
import of thofe negative expreflions. And a friend of
Cicero, writing to him, begins his letter thus : “ Al¬
though I am fenfible the news I fend you will not be
very pleafant.” This news was concerning the death
of another friend of Cicero’s; and there by the words
not very pleafant, muft, to be fure, be meant very utiplea-
fant and melancholy ; but he chofe that expreffion in the
beginning.-
360
Elocution.
62
Ungrateful
things foft-
ened by a-
greeable
words.
6.3
Catachrefis
or harlh
•tropes.
94
Hyperbole
the boldeft
of all
tropes.
O R A T
beginning of his lelter, as the fofleft and lead (hocking,
the better to prepare him for the following account of
what that news was. And in this way interpreters ex¬
plain that paifage in St Matthew’: /Ind thou Bethlehem
in the land of Judah art not the leajl among the princes
of Judah ; where, by not the leaf, they underltand the
grealejl, or very great, upon account of the honour it
received by the birth of our Saviour, as the words im¬
mediately following plainly intimate.
IV. When any difpleafmg or ungrateful thing is
expreffed by a more foft and agreeable word, it is call¬
ed euphemifm. And as the word made ufe of is either
contrary to the proper word, or only difterent from
it, it may be referred to different tropes. The Latins
have a foft way of expreffing their difregard to a per-
fon, by faying val'eat; which we have borrowed from
them, and fay, fare him well. When the contrary be¬
ing intended to what is expreffed, it comes properly
under an irony. And as the word death carries in it
an idea that is difagreeable to human nature, inftead
of faying a perfon is dead, wre often fay he is deceafed,
or departed; which wre have alfo taken from the La¬
tins who ufe the words deceffit and obiit in the fame
fenfe. So that in both languages it comes under a
fynecdoche of the wdiole} to depart out of life being
one fort of departure. But when the evangelift, fpeak-
ing of Stephen, wdio wTas ftoned to death, expreffes it
by faying, that he fell afeep ; this is a beautiful meta¬
phor, taken from the limilitude between the death of a
good man and fleep.
V. Catachrefs fignifies in general any harfh trope,
though it is moll commonly found in metaphors. It
is principally ufed by poets, wdio make choice of it for
novelty, or to enforce an expreflion, where the proper
word does not feem ftrong enough. As when Milton,
in defcribing the angel Raphael’s defcent from heaven,
fays, he
Sails between worlds and worlds;
where the novelty of the word enlivens the image more
than if he had faid fies. But it is fometimes found in
the graveft authors, and even in the facred writings.
So we read of the blood of the grape. And Solomon
fays, the horfe-leech hath two daughters. In all thefe in-
fiances the trope is a metaphor. But when St John
fays in the Revelations, / turned to fee the voice that
fpahe to me, it is here a metonymy of the adjundl; the
word voice being put for the perfon who uttered it. In
St Matthew7 w e read of Simon the leper ; not that he was
then a leper, but had been fo, and was cured; which is
a fynecdoche of the part. And when a criminal is faid
to have had his reward, that is, his punifhment, it is an
irony.
VI. Hyperbole is the boldeft of all tropes; for it ex¬
ceeds the ftri£t bounds of truth, and reprefents things
either greater or lefs, better or wrorfe, than they really
are. But the reprefentation is made in fuch a man¬
ner as not to impofe on the hearers. For an hyperbole
is not ufed to define or deferibe any thing accurately,
but only to magnify or deprefs it in a confiderable de¬
gree, when we either cannot or do not choofe to re-
prefent it exa&ly. The excels ‘n this trope is called
auxefs; as when w7e fay of any thing that is very
high, it reaches to the fkies. The defedl, or contrary
extreme, is termed meiofs . So we fay of a very lean
3
O R Y. Part III.
perfon, he is nothing but fkin and bones, or a mere fkele- Elecution.
ton. It is principally metaphorical, but fometimes ta- ——v-—-'
ken from other tropes. When Saul and Jonathan are
faid to have been Jwifter than eagles, andJlronger than
lions, the expreffion is founded in fimilitude, and is there¬
fore a metaphor. When, inftead of faying Cato was a
very virtuous man, the hiftorian calls him the image
of virtue ; it is an hyperoolical metonymy of the adjunift
for the fubjecl. And when we read in the Mofaic hi-
llory of cities fenced up to heaven, there is a fynec¬
doche. But if a man of weak fight be faid to be eagle-
eyed, it is an irony. Thofe hyperboles wdfich are ex¬
preffed comparatively, are commonly moft emphatical,
becaufe they fhow a peculiarity in the excels. To fay a
thing is as light as a feather, carries the idea very far j
hut to fay it is lighter, not only carries it ftill farther,
but alfo heightens it, by leaving the mind at an uncer¬
tainty where to fix the limits. ^
VII. Sometimes two or more tropes and thofe of Metalepfis,
a different kind, are contained under one word 5 fo where two
that feveral gradations, or intervening fenfes, comeormore
betw-een the wTord that is expreffed, and the thing de- troPesare
figned by it. And this is called a metalepfs. The deToneUn"
contefts between Sylla and Marius proved very fatal word,
to the Roman ftate. Julius Csefar w’as then a young
man. But Sylla obferving his afpiring genius, faid of
him, “ In one Caefar there are many Mariufes.” Now
in this expreffion there is a metalepfis. For the wrord
Marius, by a fynecdoche, or antonomafa, is put for any
ambitious and turbulent perfon; and this again, by a
metonymy of the caufe, for the ill effefts of fuch a temper
to the public. So that Sylla’s meaning, divefted of thefe
tropes, wras, that Csefar wTould prove the moft danger¬
ous perfon to the Roman ftate that ever was bred in
it: which afterwards proved true in the event. So when
Virgil, defcribing that part of the African coaft where
jEneas arrived with his (hips, fays, A dark wood hung
over it; the word dark, by a metonymy of the effeft,
is put for fhady, and that again by the fame trope for
thick ; his meaning is, a thick wood. But the words of
Dido, in the fame poet, contain a larger gradation, when
fire fays,
Happy, ah truly happy, had I been.
If Trojan Jhips our coafs had never feen.
In which expreffion, firft by a metonymy of the ad¬
junct, the (hips are put for the Trojans in the (hips:
and thefe, by a fynecdoche of the whole, for Aineas,
who was one of them \ and again his arriving on the
coaft, by a metonymy of the caufe, for her feeing him;
and laftly, her feeing him, by the fame trope, for the
paffion (he had for him. So that her meaning is, ffie
had been happy, if ftie had never entertained a paffion for
Aineas. This trope is more frequently to be met with
in poets than in orators, as they take greater liberty in
ufing diftant allufions than is fuited to that perfpicuity
of expreffion which is required in oratory. But as
Quintilian has well obferved, all the intermediate links
of the chain in this trope are of no further ufe than to
lead the mind gradually from the firft to the laft, the
better to perceive their conneftion. As in the exam¬
ple laft mentioned, relating to Dido, if we drop all the
intervening fteps, and connedl the words expreffed with
what is direflly intended, they will be found to contain
a very remote caufe put for the effect, which comes un-
ORATORY.
66
Allegory, a
continua-
tlonof., , tropes m
tropes thro ..
Part III,
Elocution, der a metonymy. On tlie contrary, in the fecond ex-
' v ample, where (/ark Hands for thick, the effect is put for
a remote caufe. And the firft, which is founded in a
fimilitude of temper between Caefar and Marius, belongs
to a metaphor.
VIII. Allegory. As a metalepfis comprifes feveral
tropes in one word, fo this is a continuation of feveral
one or more fentenees. Thus Cicero fays,
feveral fen- “ Fortune provided you no field, in which your vir-
tences. tue could run and difplay itfelfwhere the words
field and run are metaphors taken from corporeal
things, and applied to the mind. And in another
paffage, fpeaking of himfelf, he fays, “ Nor was I fo
timorous, that after I had fleered the fhip of the Hate
through the greateft ftorms and waves, and brought
her fafe into port, I fhould fear the cloud of your fore¬
head, or your colleague?s peftilent breath. I faw other
winds, I perceived other ftorms, I did not withdraw
from other impending tempefts; but expofed myfelf
fingly to them for the common fafety.” Here the flate
is compared to a fhip, and all the things faid of it un¬
der that image are expreffed in metaphors made ufe of
to fignify the dangers with which it had been threat¬
ened. And indeed allegories generally confift of me¬
taphors ; which being the moft beautiful trope, a num¬
ber of them well chofen and put together is one of
the fineft and brighteft ornaments in language, and
exceeds a fingle metaphor in luftre, as & conftellation
does a feparate ftar. It is true, that allegories are
fometimes found in other tropes; but this is very rare.
In that known expreflion of Terence, the tropes are
all metonymies: Without Ceres and Bacchus, Verms
grows cold; that is, diveiled of the tropes, Without meat
and drink, love dies. And Samfon’s riddle is made up
of fynecdoches: “ Out of the eater came forth meat,
and out of the ftrong came forth fweetnefs.” But
there is no fmall fkill required in the right manage¬
ment of allegories. For care ftiould be taken that
the fame kind of trope be carried through the whole,
fo as to compofe one uniform and confiftent fet of
ideas : otherwife they drefs up a chimera, a thing that
has no exiftence, and of which the mind can form no
perception. And, as Quintilian fays very juftly, “ to
begin with a tempeft and end with a fire, would be
very ridiculous and unnatural.” It is likewife very
neceffary that the allufions be all plain and evident,
efpecially where the name of the thing alluded to is
not expreffed. Thefe are called pure allegories. As
that of Cicero : “ So it happens, that I, whofe bufi-
nefs it is to repel the darts, and heal the wounds, am
obliged to appear before the adverfaries have thrown
any dart; and they are allowed a time to attack us,
when it will not be in our power to avoid the afiault;
and if they throw a poifonous dart, which they feem
prepared to do, we fhall have no opportunity to apply
a remedy.” The tropes here are all taken from mili¬
tary affairs, without any intimation what they are ap¬
plied to. But that is plain from the context of the
difcourfe. For he is fpeaking of the difadvantages he
laboured under in defending his client againft thofe of
ihe oppofite fide, and fa applies to the bar thofe
terms which were proper to the field. But where the
reference is not evident, it becomes a riddle : which
is nothing elfe but an obfcure allegory. To avoid this,
therefore, the beft writers generally ufe what they call
VOL. XV. Part L
361
mixed allegories ; that is, fuch wherein the proper name Elocution,
of the thing is expreffed, which the whole fimili-
tude refpedfs. Of this kind is that in the fpeech of
King Philip of Macedon, given us by Juftin, where he
fays, “ I perceive that cloud of a dreadful and bloody
war arifing in Italy, and a thunder-ftorm from the weft,
which will fill all places with a large thower of blood,
wherever the tempeft of viftory thall carry it.” The pro¬
per words war, blood, and vifdory, being joined to the
tropes cloud, JJjower, and tempejl, in this fentence, render
the feveral parts of the fimilitude plain and evident. Quin¬
tilian thinks thofe allegories moft beautiful, where the
whole fimilitude is expreffed, and thofe words, which in
their proper fenfe relate to one of the two things between
which the comparifon is made, are allegorically applied
to the other : As when Cornelius Nepos fays of Atticus,
“ If that pilot gain the greateft reputation who pre-
ferves his ftiip in a boifterous and rocky fea; ought not
he to be thought a man of fingular prudence, who ar¬
rived in fafety through fo many and fo great civil tem¬
pefts ?” Thefe are the allegories with which orators are
chiefly concerned.
§ 2. Of Figures.
61
This term feems have been borrowed from the The term
ftage, where the different habits and geftures of \\\efigure ap-
actors, fuitable to the feveral charafters they fuftained,
wrere by the Greeks called cyjuxTK, and by the Latins from
jigurcc : And it is not unufual with us to fay of a per- ftage.
fon, both with refpeef to his drefs and action, that he
makes a very bad, or a very graceful, figure. And as
language is the drefs, as it were of our thoughts, in
which they appear and are reprefented to others } fo
any particular manner of fpeaking, may, in a large
fenfe of the wrord, be called its figure, in which lati¬
tude writers fometimes ufe it. But rhetoricians.have
reftrained the fenfe of the word to fuch forms of fpeech
as differ from the more common and ordinary ways of
expreflion 5 as the theatrical habits of aftors, and their
deportment on the ftage, are different from their ufual
garb and behaviour at other times. A figure therefore,
in the fenfe it is ufed by rhetoricians, is A mode offpsak-
ing different from, and more beautiful and emphatical
than, the ordinary and ufual way of expreffing the fame
fenfe; or, in other words, That language which isfuggefled
either by the imagination or the pafjions. Now as the
habits and geftures of our bodies are in a manner in¬
finitely variable, fo it is plain that the different forms
of fpeech are almoft innumerable. But every altera¬
tion from the common manner ought not to be efteem-
ed a figure, nor deferves that chara&er. It muft con¬
tain fome beauty, or exprefs fome paflxon, to merit a
place among rhetorical figures, and be marked out for
imitation.
The fubjecl of figure feems to have been one of the
laft things which was brought into the art of oratory,
in order to complete it. Ariftotle, who treats fu ac¬
curately upon other parts, fays very little of this.
But the Greek writers who came after him have abund¬
antly fupplied that deficiency. It is to them we owe
the chief obfervations that have been made on this
fubjeft. They took notice cf the feveral modes and
turns of expreflion, obferved their force and beauty,
and gave them particular names by which they might
be known and diftingufthed from each other. And
Z z indeed
362 . ^ ORA
Elocution, indeed they have treated the matter with fuch m'mute-
‘ v nefs and fubtility, that (Kiintilian feems, not without
reafon, to think they have multiplied figures to an ex-
cefs. But though it was fo late before they were taken
notice of, and introduced into the art of fpeaking, yet
the ule of them in difccurfe was doubtlefs very antient.
The author of Homer’s life, which fome have afcribed
to Plutarch, has ftiown, by examples taken out of him,
that there is fcarce a figure mentioned by rhetoricians,
* but is to be met with in that moll ancient poet. And,
if we confider the nature of fpeech, we fliali eafily per¬
ceive that mankind muft have been under a neceffity
very early to introduce the ufe of tropes for fupplying
the want of proper words to exprefs their fimple ideas :
fo the like neceflity muft have put them upon the ufe of
figures to reprefent their different paflions •, though both
of them were afterwards increafed, and improved in
fuch a manner as to become the chief ornaments of
language. The paflions of men have been always the
fame ; they are implanted in us by nature, and we are
all taught to difcover them by the fame ways. When
the mind is difturbed, we {how it by our countenance,
by our aftions, and by our words. Fear, joy, anger,
alter the countenance, and occafion different emotions
and geftures of the whole body. And we know with
what paflion a man is affected, by hearing his words,
though we do not fee him. He does not exprefs him-
felf as he ufually does at other times when cool and
fedate. OBjedls appear to him in a different vlewT,
and therefore he cannot but fpeak of them in a diffe¬
rent way. He interrogates, he exclaims, he admires,
he appeals, he invokes, he threatens, he recals his
words, repeats them, and by many other different turns
of expreffion varies his fpeech no lefs than his counte¬
nance, from his common and 'ordinary manner. Now
as nature feems to teach us by thefe figurative ex-
prefiions how to reprefent the different commotions of
our minds, hence fome have thought fit to call figures
the language of the paffions. And as thefe are given us,
among other wife ends, to excite us the better to pro¬
vide for our prefervation and fafety, this is done fome-
times by force of arms, and at other times by difcourfe.
And therefore Cicero very handfomely compares the
conduft of an orator to the exercifes of the palaeftra :
in which, as each combatant endeavours not only to
defend himfelf, and attack his adverfary, but likcwife
to do both with decency ; fo the principal weapons of
an orator, as he reprefents them, are figures, which
being no lefs the ornaments of language than images
of our paffions, anfwer all thefe purpofes. Befides,
figures chiefly diftinguilh the different kinds of ftyle,
furnifh it with an agreeable variety, and often ferve to
reprefent things in a clear and forcible manner.
From this Ihort account of the nature of figures, the
advantage of them to an orator is very evident. They
are a fort of natural eloquence, which every one falls
into without attending to it, fuitably to that temper
of mind with which he is affected himfelf, and is
defirous to affeft others. In a cool and fedate dif¬
courfe, fuch figures as convey our fentiments with the
greateft ftrength and evidence are moft proper. And
there are others, which are fulled to brighten and en¬
liven more gay and fprightly fubjefts. Others again
are more peculiarly adapted to exprefs the diforders
and perturbations of the mind. To repeat the fame
T O R Y. Partlll.
thing again would many times be deemed a tautology Elocution,
and impertinent; but to do this when the mind is
ruffled, is not only allowable, but the repetition ren¬
ders it more ftrong and affedling. So likewife to in¬
terrogate, exclaim, or admire, under the influence of
a paflion, imprefles the hearers, and difpofes them to
attention ; whereas at another time perhaps fuch ways,
of fpeaking would fcarce be conliftent with prudence.
There is a natural fympathy in men’s minds, which
difpofes them to receive impreflions from thofe with
whom they converfe. Thus one gay and pleafant
companion gives a cheerfulnels and vivacity to a
• whole company } whereas, on the contrary, one who
is dull and phlegmatic damps the fpirits of all about
him, and a fie els them with jhe fame gloomy temper.
Figures are peculiarly ferviceable to an orator for an-
fwering thefe different intentions. And as he finds
them in life, from thence he muff copy them ; as a
painter does the features of the countenance, and the
leveral parts of the body 3 figures being to the one what
lines and colours are to the other. The defign of
Catiline to deftroy the Reman ftate and burn the city,
is a ftory well known. There wTas an army drawn to¬
gether at a proper diftance to favour the undertaking;
and others wTere left in Rome, who had their parts
afligned them for burning the city, and deilroying
thole who flrould efcape the flames. And, in a word,
every thing w7as ready for putting in execution this
horrid and barbarous fcheme. So that nothing re¬
tarded it but the taking off Cicero, who w7as then
conful, which was thought neceffary to be done firlt.
Cicero, upon information of the defign againfl his
life, finds means to prevent it, and the fame day calls
together the fenate. And Catiline, who was a man
of confummate boldnefs, had the confidence to appear
in that affembly. Upon their meeting, Cicero opens
to them the whole affair of the confpiracy, and the
defign againfl; himfelf, in a moft wrarm and pathetic
harangue. In which he had two things in view 3
to raife the indignation of the fenate againft the con-
Ipirators, and particularly againft Catiline 3 and, either
by terrifying or exafperating him, to oblige him to
leave the city. Now he does not begin this fpeech in
his ufual manner at other times, by addreffmg to his
audience, befpeaking their favour and attention, or. let¬
ting them gradually into the defign of what he rvas
about to fay 3 but as Catiline w7as prefent, he immediate¬
ly falls upon him with vehemence, in the following
manner: “ How far, Catiline, null you abufe our pa¬
tience ? Flow long wTill your fury infult us ? What
bounds wdll you fet to your unbridled rage ? Does
neither the night-guard of the palace, nor the city-
watch, nor the people’s fear, nor the agreement of all
good men, nor the meeting of the fenate in this forti¬
fied place, nor the countenances and looks of this af¬
fembly, at all move you ? Do not you perceive your
defigns are difeovered, and that all who are prefent
know of your ccnfpiracy ? Who of us, do you think, is
ignorant of wdiat you did the laft night, and the night
before, where you was, who was wdth you, and what
you refolved on ? O times, O manners ! The fenate
knowTs this, the conful fees it 3 and yet this man lives !
—lives ? nay, comes into the fenate, joins in the public
counfels, obferves and marks out each of us for deftiuc-
tion!” And in the fame impetuous ftrain he proceeds
through
Part III. O R A 'I
Elocution, through his whole fpeech, inleiTperfmg a great variety
1—"V  of the like llrong and moving figures. And the dif-
courfe had its defired e fie el: for when Catiline flood up
afterwards to make his defence, the whole fenate was
fo inflamed, and their refentments againft him rofe fo
high, from what Cicero had faid, that they had not
patience to hear him fpeak 5 upon which he left both
them and the city. Had Cicero, inftead of venting his
iuft indignation againft the author of fo barbarous and
inhuman a defign, in the manner he did, by figures
fuited to ftrike the pafiions of his hearers •, had he,
inftead of this, attempted to reafon with him, and told
the ftory in a cold and lifelefs manner, he would have
expofed himfelf to the contempt of Catiline ; and by
leaving the fenate little or nothing moved at what
he faid, prevented perhaps their coming to thofe fpeedy
and vigorous refolutions which were neceiTary at fo cri¬
tical a junclure. Let us fuppofe him to have expoftu-
lated with Catiline in much the fame words as before,
but thrown into a different form, and divefted of thofe
pathetic figures. As thus : “ Catiline, you have really
abufed our patience to a great degree. You have in-
fulted us with your furious proceedings a long while.
You feem to have fixed no bounds to your unbridled
rage. Neither the night-guard of the palace, nor the
city-watch, nor the people’s fear, nor the agreement
among good men, nor the calling together of the fe¬
nate in this fortified place, nor the countenances and
looks of this affembly, appear to move you in the leaft.
I affure you wTe are all of us apprifed of wrhat you did
the laft night, and the night before, where you was,
and who were with you, and what refolutions you came
to. Thefe are fad times, the age is very degenerate 5
that the fenate fhould know all this, the conful fee it;
and yet that this man ftiould live, come into the fenate,
hear all our debates, and mark us out to deftroy us.”
You fee the fenfe is entirely the fame, and the words
too in a great meafure; fo that there is little more
than an alteration in the form of them. And yet who
does not perceive how flat and languid fuch a way of
talking muft have appeared at that time ? and how
much it lofes of that fpirit and energy, which fnows it-
felf in Cicero’s manner of expreflion > Had he delivered
himfelf thus, it might indeed have made the fenate look
upon Catiline as an abandoned wretch, loft to all virtue
and gooduefs, and perhaps have moved fome to pity
him on that account; as we are eafily induced So com-
paflionate perfons in fuch circumftances, efpecially when
defeended from noble and virtuous anceftors, which
was his cafe. But fure it would have been ill fuited to
fire their minds with that generous regard for their coun¬
try, and the neceffary precautions for its fecurity, which
the circumftances of the ftate then required. Nor would
Catiline have been at all deterred by it, but rather en-
courao-ed in the profecution of his defigns, from the
little effect a fpeech fo managed muft probably have had
upon the minds of the fenators. But Cicero knew very
well that the paftions of mankind are the fprings of
aftion : that it is many times not fufficient for an orator
to convince their minds, by fetting the truth in a clear
lio-ht; but he muft alfo raife their hopes, alarm their
fears, inflame their anger, or excite fome other fuitable
paflion, before they will be brought to aft with that
zeal and fervour which the cafe may require. And as
he was admirably well Ikilled in this art of touching the
1 O R Y. 363
paflions, he feldom fails to fix upon the proper me- Elocution.^
thods of doing it, and makes choice of fuch figures
and modes of fpeaking as in the ftrongeft manner rc-
prefent the emotions of his own mind. For every
paflion is not to be expreffed by the fame figures, any
more than it is drawn by the fame lines, or painted
with the fame colours. When Dido finds that Atneas
is about to leave her, fire ufes all her arts to detain him.
And as perfons in great diftrefs are feldom at a lofs
to exprefs their condition in the moft affetling way ;
file difeovers her fear, anger, revenge, with the whole
crowd of diforders which then poffefied her mind, in
a variety of moving figures, fuited to raife the coun¬
ter paflions in his breaft, as is finely reprefented by
Virgil in that artful fpeech he has made for her, which
we forbear to recite for no other reafon but the length
of it. But what particular figures are moft accom¬
modated to anfwer the feveral ends propofed by them,
will bell appear when we come to treat of them fepa-
rately.
We fliall therefore now proceed to lay down a few
directions for the proper ufe of figures. And firft:
they fhould always be accommodated to the fenti-
ments, and rife in proportion to the images defigned to
be conveyed by them. So far as thev are founded in
reafon, they are luited to imprefs the mind •, but where
the language outftrips the thought, though it may pleafe
the ear, and fome weak perfons may be carried away
with a pomp of words, yet an intelligent hearer will
foon fee through the thin and airy drefs. It is the
fenfe which gives weight to the figure, as that by ftrik-
ing the imagination awakens the mind, and excites it
to aft in conformity to reafon. Again, in the ufe of
pathetic figures, it is generally better to be nervous
than copious, that the images, by their clofer union,
may imprefs the mind with greater force and energy ;
though in fuch figures as are defigned for ornament or
illuftration, a more diffufive way of painting is fome-
times agreeable. But farther, the too frequent ufe of
figures ought to be avoided. For what was obferved in
relation to tropes, is alfo true with refpeft to thefe ; that
a great number of them is apt to darken and obfeure
the ftyle. And befides, Cicero’s refleftion in this cafe is
very juft, That “ it is hard to fay, what fhould be the
reafon, that thofe things, which moft affeft us with
a fenfible pleafure, and at firft fight fooneft move us,
do likewife fooneft cloy and fatiate us.” But that
it is fo. we find by common experience. Laftly, figures
fhould be fo interwoven in a difeourfe, as not to render
the ftyle rough and uneven, fometimes high and at
other times low; now dry and jejune, then pompous
and florid. In a word, they fhould rather feem to arife
from nature than art 5 to offer themfelves, than to be
the effeft of ftudy ; and to appear not like patches upon
a face, but the agreeable beauty of a found and health¬
ful complexion. But of this we fliall have occafion to
fpeak more at large hereafter, in treating upon the dif¬
ferent kinds or charafters of ftyle.
As to the divifion of figures, which is what remains
to be coniidered, they are ufually divided into two
forts, figures of words, and figures of fentences. The
difference between them confifts in this ; that in the
former, if you alter the words, or fometimes only the
fituation of them, you deftroy the figure ; but in the
.latter the figure remains, whatever words are made ufe
Z z .2 of,
;64
Jtlocution,
[67]
Verbal fi¬
gures di-
ftinguiflied
into three
forts; with
their vari¬
ous fubdi-
vifions.
O R A T
of, or in what manner foever the order of them is
changed. Thus when the name of a perfon or thing is
repeated, to intimate fome known property or quality
belonging thereto, it is a verbal figure called place.
Cicero was a true patriot and hearty lover of his coun¬
try. And therefore we fl ail ufe this figure in faying,
that at the time of Catiline's confpiracy Cicero appeared
like Cicero. The fenfe would remain the fame, but the
figure would be loft, if wTe fhould alter the words, and
fay, at that time Cicero appeared like himfelf So wrhen
two or more fentences, or members of a fentence, end
with the fame word, it is called epijlrophe; as when we
fay, To lofe all reli/h of life, is in ef 'eci to lofe life. Eut
if only the order of the words be changed in the latter
claufe thus, To lofe all relijh of life, is to lofe life in
ejfeB; the figure vanithes. And this is the nature of
the verbal figures. But it is not fo in figures of fen¬
tences : they continue the fame, whatever alterations are
made in the words. An orator fometimes thinks it pro¬
per to change the form of his difcourfe, and addrefs him¬
felf to his audience, or an abfent perfon, or elfe perhaps
to introduce fome other perfon as fpeaking to them
whofe wwds may be fuppofed to carry greater wreight
and authority with them than his own. The former
of thefe is called apoftrophe, and the latter profopaia or
imagery ; wftiich require no certain words or order of
expreflion.
Art. I. Verbal Figures.
Thefe may be diftinguiihed into three forts, as they
confift in a deficiencij of words, a redundancy, or a repe¬
tition.
I. Of the firlt fort are cllipfs and afyndeton.
El/ipfs, is when one or more w ords are wanting in
a fentenee to complete the conftruclion, and fully ex-
prefs the fenfe. This figure is often ufed in proverbial
fpeeches : as when we fay, Many men, many minds;
that is, have many minds; and, The more danger, the
more honour; that is, gains more honour. But where
more is intended by fuch expreflions than mere brevity,
and efpecially when they are the eft'eft of fome paflion,
the figure receives another name, and is called apofo-
pefis, which is placed among the figures of fentences,
where w'e lhall confider it.
Afyndeton, is when the particles that conneft the
members of a fentence one with another are left out,
to reprefent either the celerity of an abtion, or the
hafte and eagernefs of the fpeaker. Thus Caefar ex-
preffes his fpeedy conqueft of Pharnaces : I came, Ifaw,
1 conquered. If he had inferted the copulatives, and
faid, 1 came, and If aw, and I conquered, it would have
retarded the expreffion, and not given fo full and juft an
idea of the fwiftnefs of the adftion. In the laft article
we took notice of the vehement and impetuous manner
in wftiich Cicero attacked Catiline in his firft oration,
where his defign was to fire the minds of the fenate
againft him, and oblige him to leave the city, both
which points he gained by that fpeech. The next day,
therefore, when Catiline w as gone, he calls together the
body of the citizens, and, makes a fpeech to them, which
in a fort of rapture or tranfport of mind he thus begins,
by acquainting them with the departure of Catiline, He
■ is gone, departed, efcaped, broke out; intimating at the
bame time both the exceflive rage in which Catiline left
o It Y. Part III.
Rome, and the great pleafure with winch he was himfelf Elocution,
affe&ed on that account. This concife way of fpeaking w"'v
adds likewife a coniiderable ernphafis to an expreflion,
and by bringing the feveral parts of a thing nearer to¬
gether affefts the mind with greater force. Thus Cice¬
ro lets Cato’s character in a very ftrong and beautiful
lignt by the ufe ol this figure. “ Nature itfelf (lays he)
has made you a great and excellent man for integrity,
gravity, temperance, magnanimity, juftice, in a word, for
all virtues.”
II. The fecond fort of verbal figures is contrary
to thefe, and conlifts in a redundancy or multiplicity
of w ords} which are likewife two, pleonafmus and poly-
fyndeton.
When we ufe more w^ords than are neceffary to ex-
prefs a thing, it is called pleonafmus. This is done
fometimes for greater emphalis, as when w-e fay, Where
in the world is he? At other times it is defigned to af-
certain the truth of what is faid : So the fervant in
Terence, when the truth of what he had related was
called in queftion, replies, It is certainly fo i 1 faw it
with thefe very eyes.
When the feveral parts of a fentence are united by
proper particles, it is called polysyndeton. This adds a
weight and gravity to an exprelfion, and makes what
is faid to appear with an air of folemnity •, and by re¬
tarding the courfe of the fentence, gives the mind an
opportunity to confider and refledl upon every part di-
ftinftly. We often meet with this figure in Demof-
thenes, which very well fuits with the gravity of his
ftyle. So he encourages the Athenians to profecute
the war againft King Philip of Macedon, from this
confideration, that now 41 they had Ihips and men,
and money, and ftores, and all other things which
might contribute to the ftrength of the city, in greater
number and plenty than in former times.” Every ar¬
ticle here has its weight, and carries in it a proper mo¬
tive to animate them to the war. But if you remove-
the copulatives, the fentence will lofe much of its
force.
III. The third kind of verbal figures confifts in a .
petition. And either the lame word in found or fenfe,
is repeated ; or one of a like found, or fignification,
or both.
Of the former fort there are ten, called antanaclafis,
place, epizeuxis, climax, anaphora, epiflrophe, fymploce,
epanalepfis, anadiplofs, and epanodos. The two firft of
thefe agree in found, but diifer in fenfe 5 the eight fol--
lowing agree in both.
When the fame word in found but not in fenfe is re¬
peated, it is called antanaclafis. This figure feme-
times carries a poignancy in it; and wThen it appears na¬
tural and eafy, difeovers a ready turn of thought. As
when a fon, to clear himfelf of liifpicion, allured his fa¬
ther he did not wait for his death ; his father replied.
But I defire you would wait for it. Here the word
wait is taken in two different fenfes. It is likewife
ufed on ferious occalions, as in grave and moral pre¬
cepts, which are apt to affect the mind with greater
pleafure when delivered in an agreeable drefs. As
this : Care for thofie things in your youth, which in old
age may free you from care : Where the wrord care in
the former place fignifies to provide, and in the latter
anxiety of mind. And even our Saviour himfelf once
ufes this figure, when he fays to one of his difciples,
who
Part III. ORA
Elocution, ■w'ho ilcfired to be clifmhTed from attending him that
v—""V”-—' he might go and bury his father } Follow me, and let
the dead bury their dead: Where dead in one place de¬
notes a natural death, and in the other a moral or fpiri-
tual death.
Sometimes the name of fome perfon or thing is re¬
peated again, to denote fome particular character or
property defigned to be expreffed by it ; and then
it is called place. Thus Cicero fays, Young Cato wants
experience, but yet he is Cato; meaning he had the
fteady temper of the family. And fo in the pro¬
verbial expreffion, An ape is an ape, drefs him ever fo
/«<?•
6S When a word is repeated again with vehemence in
the fame fenfe, it is called epi%euxis. This figure fhows
the earneflnefs of the fpeaker, and his great concern
of mind about what he fays *, and therefore has a na¬
tural tendency to excite the attention of the audience.
It is fuited to expjefs anger, furprife, forrow, and fe-
veral other paflions. As when Cicero would exprefs
his indignation againft Antony for having been the
chief inllrument in bringing on the civil war, he fays
to him : You, you, Antony pujhed Ccefar upon the civil
war. And thus he tells Catiline in his firil invedtive
againft him : You live; and live, not to lay afide, but
to purfue, your wicked defgn. And when our Saviour
would exprefs his great concern and forrow for the
wickednefs of the Jews, he does it in this pathetic
manner : 0 Jerufalem, Jerufalem, who killejl the pro¬
phets.
C9 . Climax is a beautiful kind of repetition, when the
word, rvhich ends the firft member of a period, be¬
gins the fecond, and fo through each member, till the
whole is finiftied. There is a great deal of ftrength as
well as beauty in this figure, where the feveral fteps
rife naturally, and are clofely connedted with each
other. As in this example : There is no enjoyment of
property without government, no government without a
magifrate, no magifrate without obedience, and no obe¬
dience where every one adds as he pleafes. But, as Quin¬
tilian obferves, this figure lies fo open, that it is apt to
look too much like art} for which reafon he advifes not
to ufe it often. To prevent this, therefore, orators
fometimes difguife it, by not repeating the fame word
which flood in the former member, but fome other equi¬
valent to it. As in the following inftance of Cicero for
Milo : “ Nor did he commit himfelf only to the people,
but alfo to the fenate •, nor to the fenate only, but
like wife to the public forces 5 nor to thefe only, but alfo
to his power with whom the fenate had entrufted the
whole commomvealth.
When feveral fentences, or members of a fentence,
begin with the fame ivord, it is called anaphora. This
is a lively and elegant figure, and ferves very much to
engage the attention. For by the frequent return of
the fame word the mind of the hearer is held in an
agreeable fufpenfe, till the whole is finifhed. “ You
do nothing (fays Cicero to Catiline), you attempt
nothing, you think nothing, but what I not only
hear, but alfo fee, and plainly perceive.” It is fre¬
quently ufed by way of queftion •, which renders it not
only beautiful, but likewife ftrong and nervous. As
at the beginning of the fame fpeech : “ Does neither
the night-guard of the palace, nor the city-watch,
nor the people’s fear, nor the agreement of all good
71
Id
TORY. 565
men, nor the meeting of the fenate in this fortified Elocut.on.
place, nor the countenances and looks of this afiembly, —
at all move you ?” And in another of his orations :
“ What is fo popular as peace, which feems to afford
a pleafure, not ordy to beings endowed with fenfe, but
even to inanimate nature ? What is fo popular as li¬
berty, which even beafts as well as men ieem to covet
and prefer above all things ? What is fo popular as
eafe and leifure, for the enjoyment of which you
and your anceftors have undergone the greateft Ja-
bours ?”
Epifrophe is contrary to the former, and makes the
repetition at the end of each member or fentence. As
thus 5 “ Since concord was lof ; friendjbip was lof, fide¬
lity was lof, liberty was lof ; all was lof. And Cicero,
in the charge which he brings againft Mark Antony
before the fenate, makes ufe of this figure, when he
fays, “ Do you lament the deftruftion of three Ro¬
man armies ? the author of that deftruftion was Anto¬
ny. Do you bewxiil the lofs of moft eminent citizens >
They have been taken from you by Antony. Is the
authority of this order weakened ? It is weakened by
Antony.”
Symploce takes in both thefe laft figures. As in that
of Cicero : “ You would pardon and acquit him, whom
the fenate hath condemned, whom the people of Rome
have condemned, whom ail mankind have condemned.”
Here the feveral members both begin and end with the
fame word. We have a beautiful inftance of it in St
Paul, when he fays, “ Are they Hebrews ? fo am I.
Are they Ifraelites ? fo am I. Are they the feed of
Abraham ? fo am I.
When a fentence concludes with the wo*d wiih which
it began, it is called epanalepfs. As in that expreflion
of Plautus, “ Virtue contains all things, he wants no
good thing wrho has virtue.” The figure is the fame,
but the principle not fo honeft, in the advice which
we find given by the mifer in Horace, when he fays,
“ Get money, if you can, honeftly ; but however,
get money.”" This figure adds a force to an expref¬
fion, when the principal thing defigned to be convey¬
ed is thus repeated, by leaving it laft upon the mind.
And it heightens the beauty of it, wdien the fentence
has an agreeable turn arifing from two oppofite parts.
As in Cicero’s compliment to Ccefar : “ We have feen
your vidlory terminated by the war 5 your drawn
iword in the city we have not feen.” Hermogenes
calls this a circle, becaufe the fentence returns again
to the fame word, as that geometrical figure is form¬
ed by the orbicular motion of a line to the fame
point.
When the following fentence begins with the fame
word with which the former concluded, it is termed
anadiplofs. As in the following inflance : Let us
think no price too great for truth; truth cannot be
bought too dear. So in that paffage of St John : He
came to his own, and his own received him not. This
figure generally fuits heft with grave and folemn dif-
courfes. '
Epanodos is the inverfion of a fentence, or repeat¬
ing it backwards, fo that it takes in the two laft fi¬
gures *, for it both begins and ends with the fame word,
and the fame word is likewife repeated in the middle.
This turn of expreflion has a beauty in it, and (how’s a
readinefs of thought. We. have the following example
73
74
366
O R A T
Elocution.
of it in Minutius Felix, where he is expofing the folly
of the Egyptian fuperftition. “ Ifis (fays he), with
Cynocephalus and her prielts, laments, bemoans, and
fecks her loft fon ; her attendants beat their breafts,
and imitate the grief of the unhappy mother $ in a little
time the fon is found, upon which they all rejoice. Nor
do they ceafe every year to lofe what they find, or to
find what they lofe. And is it not ridiculous to lament
what you worfhip, or to vvorftiip what you lament ?” It
ferves likewife to illuftrate and enforce the fenfe, by fet-
ting it in two oppolite views. As in that expreflion of
the prophet: “ Wo unto them who call good evil, and
evil good 5 who put darknefs for light, and light for
darknefs !”
Thofe figures which confift in a repetition of words
of a like found or fignification, or both, are four ; paro-
nomajia, ho?noioptoton,fynonymia, and derivatio ; the two
firft of which refpect words that are fimilar in found on¬
ly, the third in fenfe, and the laft in both.
76 When two words very near in found, but different
in fenfe, refpeft each other in the fame fentence, it is
called paranomajia. As when we fay, After a feoji
comes a fajl ; and, A friejid in need is a friend indeed.
We ufually call it a pun, which when new, and appo-
fitely ufed, paffes for wit, and ferves to enliven con-
verfation. Nor is it wholly to be excluded from grave
and ferious difeourfes: for a witty jeft has many times
had a better effed! than a folid argument, and prevail¬
ed with thofe who could not be moved by clofe rea-
foning. And therefore Cicero and the beft fpeakers
have fometimes reccurfe to it upon weighty and folemn
occafions, as will be fliown hereafter in its proper
place.
77 When the feveral parts of a fentence end with the
fame cafe, or tenfe of a like found, this alfo is confi-
dered as a figure, and named homoioptoton. As thus :
No marvel though prof do m complain that Jhe is either
wilfully defpifed, or>carelefsly negle&ed: either openly
fcorned, or fecretly abhorred. This figure is efteemed
moft beautiful when the parts are all of the fame length,
or pretty near it *, as it adds to the harmony of the pe¬
riod, and renders the cadency of the feveral members
more mufical from the juft proportion betwTecn them.
The Greek rhetoricians were much addidled to this fi¬
gure, and Ifocrates is particularly celebrated for it. But
fome of the beft orators feem to have induftrioufly
avoided it, as carrying in it too much the appearance of
art. And it is remarkable, that this figure appears no¬
where fo much in all the rvorks of Demofthenes, as in
an oration which he did not fpeak himfelf, but wnote
for his friend Diodorus, a man of that tafte, who was to
pronounce it as his own.
7 s The next figure above-mentioned is fynonymia. Now
flri&ly fpeaking, fynonymotas words are thofe which
have exaflly the fame fenfe. But there being few fuch,
the ufe of the term is fo far extended as to comprehend
umrds of a near affinity in their fignification, which in
difeourfe are frequently put for one another. So, to dc-
jire, and intreat, are forhetimes ufed as equivalent terms;
whereas to defire is no more than to ivifh for a thing,
and to intreat is to exprefs that inclination in words. In
like manner, ejleem and honour are often taken for fyno-
nymous wrords, though they have not precifely the fame
fenfe, but one is the ufual confequence of the other *, for
efteem is the good opinion we entertain of a perfon in
1
O R Y. Part III.
our mind, and honour the outward expreffion of that Elocution.
opinion. ’When two or more fuch words come together, v——^
they conftitute this figure. As when Cicero, fpeaking
of Pifo, lays, “ His whole countenance, which is the
tacit language of the mind, has drawn men into a mi-
ftake, and deceived, cheated, impofed on thofe who did
not know him.” This figure fometimes adds force to
an expreffion, by enlivening the idea ; and it often pro¬
motes the harmony and juft cadency of a fentence,
which otherwife would drop too foon, and difappoint
the ear.
When fuch words as fpring from the fame root, as 79
jujlice, juff, injujtice, unjujl, and the like, come toge¬
ther in the fame fentence, they make the figure called
derivatio. Cicero, obferving the vanity of the philofo-
phers who affecled praife at the fame time that they de¬
cried it, ufes this figure, when he fays of them, “ The
philofophers let their names to thofe very books wffiich
they write for the contempt of glory ; and are defirous
to be honoured and applauded, even for what they fay
in contempt of honour and applaufe.” This figure re¬
ceives an additional beauty when repeated, efpecially in
trvo oppofite members ; as, He wjhed rather to die a
prefent death, than to live a inferable life.
Art. II. Figures q/*Sentences.
Of thefe, fome are principally adapted for reafoning,
and others to move the paffions.
1. Thofe fuited for proof, Which are fix : Vrolepfa, 0f fi^re3
hypobole, anacoinofis, epitrope, parabole, and antilhefis. offenten-
Prolep/is, or anticipation, is fo called, when the ora-ces; tomc
tor firft ftarts an objection, which he forefees may be )a,f'.‘or re!j"
made either again!! his conduft or caufe, and then an -
livers it. Its me is to foreilal an adveriary, and prevent moving tbe
his exceptions, which cannot aft«rwTards be introduced paffions.
with fo good a grace. Though it has likewife a farther
advantage, as it ferves to conciliate the audience, while
the fpeaker appears defirous to reprefent matters fairlv,
and not to conceal any Dojehinn which may be made
again!! him. The occaft ns uf this figure are various ;
and the manner of introducing it very different. Some¬
times the orator thinks it necelfary to begin with it, in
order to juftify his condudl, and remove any exceptions
which may be made again!! his defign. Cicero, for fe¬
veral years together, after he firft began to plead, had
•always been for the defendant in criminal cafes. And
therefore, when he was prevailed with to undertake the
accufation of Verres, he begins his oration with this
apology for himfelf: “ If any one prefent ftiould won¬
der, that when for feveral years paft I have fo conduced
myfelf as to defend many and accufe none, I now on a
fudden alter my cuftom, and undertake an accufation :
wffien he ftiall have heard the occafion and reafon of my
defign, he will both approve of it, and think no perfon
fo proper to manage this affair as myfelf.” And then
he proceeds to give an account of the reafons winch
moved him to engage in it. At other times the objec¬
tion is admitted as an exception to wdiat has been faid,
but not fo as to affeff it in general. Thus, when Cicero
has reprefented the advantages of literature and the po¬
lite arts, he ftarts this objeflion to wffiat himfelf had
faid, “ But fome one will aik, whether thofe great men,
the memory of whofe glorious actions is delivered down
to pofterity, were acquainted wfith that fort of learning
Part III. O Pi A
Elocution I fo applaud f',, To which he replies, “ Indeed this can
v Icarce be faid of them all. However, the anfwer is
eafy. I have known feveral perfons of excellent abili¬
ties, who, without learning, by the force of an extraor¬
dinary genius have been men of great virtue and folidi-
dity. Nay, I will add, that nature without learning,
has oftener produced thefe qualifications, than learning
without a genius. But yet it mull Hill be owned, that
where both thefe meet, they form fomething very excel¬
lent and lingular.” Again, at other times, the orator
artfully reprefents the objection as fomething conlider-
able and important, to give the greater weight to his
anfwer when he has confuted it. Cicero, in his cele¬
brated oration for the Manilian lawT, could not omit to
take notice, that Lucullus had already gained feveral
very confiderable advantages over Mithridates. And
therefore, having before defcribed the w7ar as very great
and dangerous, apprehending thefe twro accounts might
appear fomewhat inconliftent, and be liable to an objec¬
tion, he puts it thus artfully himfelf: “ But now7, after
what I have faid of Lucullus, it may probably be a£ked,
How then can the w’ar be fo great ? he pleafed to hear,
for there feems to be very juft reafon for this queftion.”
And then he proceeds to Ihow, from the power of King
Mithridates at that time, his great abilities, long expe¬
rience in military affairs, and frelh alliances, that the
war was yet very great and dangerous. But fometimes,
when the orator is fenfible that what he has advanced
lies open to an objection, he omits to make it in exprefs
terms •, and yet proceeds to vindicate what he had faid,
as if it had been made. Thus, when Cicero had charged
Verres with having plundered the inhabitants of Sicily
of all their plate, jewels, and other valuable moveables,
which he thought rvorth while to carry away } as the
audience might imagine this to be fcarce credible, he
takes it for granted they thought fo, and therefore im¬
mediately adds, “ As ftrange as this is, I affirm it pofi-
tively, without any intention to aggravate the crime.”
And fo he goes on to the proof of his affertion. But
this figure is likewife made ufe of to guard againft feme
objection, which the fpeaker apprehends may be made
againft what he defigns to fay. And thus Cicero
ufes it in his oration for Sextius. “ My province (fays
he), as I fpeak laft, feems to call for affeftion to my
friend, rather than his defence j complaint, rather than
eloquence } expreffions of grief, rather than art. And
therefore, if I fhall exprefs myfelf with more warmth, or
greater freedom, than thofe who have fpoke before me,
I hope you will grant me all that liberty of fpeech
which you judge reafonable to be allowed to an affec¬
tionate forrow and juft refentment.” This figure re¬
quires great prudence and diferetion in the management
of it. The fpeaker muft confider well the temper, bias,
and other circumftances of his hearers, in order to form
a right judgement what parts of his difeourfe may be
moft liable to exception. For to object fuch things,
which the hearers -would never have thought of them-
felves, is to give himfelf a needlefs trouble *, and to ftart
fuch difficulties, which he cannot afterwards fairly re¬
move, will expofe both himfelf and his caufe. But as
nothing gives an audience greater pleafure and iatisfac-
tion, than to have their fcruples fully anfwered as they
rife in their thoughts; fo, on the contrary, be a dil-
courfe otherwiic e\ er fo entertaining and agreeable, if
TORY. 367
there be any doubt left upon the minds of the hearers, Elocution,
it gives them a pain that continues with them till it be v
removed.
The figure hypobole or fuhjeclion, is not much un- St
like the former ; and is, when feveral things are men¬
tioned that feem to make for the contrary fide, and
each of them refuted in order. It confifts of three
parts, when complete } a propofition, an enumeration
of particulars with their anfwers, and a conclufion.—
Thus Cicero, upon his return from banifhment, vin¬
dicates his conduct: in withdrawing fo quietly, and not
oppofing the faftion that ejedled him. “ My departure
(fays he) is ohjeefted to me 5 which charge I cannot an-
Iwer without commending myfelf. For what muft I
fay? That I lied from a confcioufnefs of guilt? But
what is charged upon me as a crime, was fo far from
being a fault, that it is the moft glorious aflion fince the
memory of man, (he means his p uni thing the afiociates
of Catiline.) That I feared being called to an account
by the people ? That wxas never talked of 5 and if it had
b6en done, I fhould have come off with double honour.
That I wanted the fupport of good and honeft men ? ^ .
That is falfe That I was afraid of dealh ? That is a
calumny. I muft therefore fay, what I would not, ur *
lefs compelled to it, that I withdrew to preferve the
city.” When the objections are put by way of queftion,
as in the example here given, they add a brilknefs and
poignancy to the figure. All the parts of it are not
conftantly expreffed. For thus Cicero in his defence cf-
Plancius introduces his adverfary objefling, and himfelf
anfwering, “ The people judged ill, but they did judge}
they thould not have done it, but they had a power 5 1
cannot fubmit to it, but many very great and wife men
have.”—Both the propofition and conclufion are here
omitted.
The next figure in order is anaccinojis, or communi- 81
cation ; by which the fpeaker deliberates either with
the judges, the hearers, or the adverfary himfelf.
Thus Cicero addreffes the judges in his accufalion of /
Verres : “ Now I defire your opinion what you think
I ought to do. And I know7 your advice will be,
though you do not declare it, what appears to me ne-
ceffary to be done.” In another place we find him
reafoning in this manner with the adverfe party :
“ What could you have done in fuch a cafe, and at
fuch a time : when to have fat ftill, or withdrawn,
would have been cowardice ? When the wickednefs
and fury of Saturnius the tribune had called you into
the capitol 5 and the confuls, to defend the fafety and
liberty of your country j whofe authority, whofe voice,
which party would you have followed, and whofe com¬
mand would you have chofen to obey ?” This figure
carries in it an air of modefty and condefcenfion, when
the fpeaker feerns unwilling to determine in his own
caufe, but refers it to the opinion of others. It like-
wile (hows a perfuafion of the equity of his caufe, that
he can leave it to their arbitration 5 and ferves very
much to conciliate their minds, while he joins them,
as it were with himfelf, and makes them of his party.
And when the appeal is made to the adverfe party, it
is of confiderable advantage, either to extort a con-
feffion, or at leaft to filence him. And therefore the
facred writers fometimes very beautifully introduce God
himfelf thus expoftululing with mankind j as the prophet
Malachi,
368 / ORA
Elocution. IVIalaciii, A fan honourelh his father, and a fervant his
>v wafer. If then I be a father, where is mine honour ?
and if I be a wafer, where is my fear ?
83 Another figure that comes under this head, is epi-
trope or concefion; which grants one thing, to obtain
another more advantageous. It is either real or feign¬
ed ; and either the whole of a thing, or a part only,
is granted. We fhall confider each of thefe feparate-
ly, and illuftrate them with proper examples. No¬
thing more confounds an adverfary, than to grant him
his whole argument •, and at the fame time either to
fhow that it is nothing to the purpofe, or to offer
fomething elfe which may invalidate it. I allow, fays
the claimant by will againil the heir at law, that no
.body was more nearly related to the deceafed than you;
that he was under fame obligations to you; that you
were in the army together: but what is all this to the
will? And thus Cicero in his defence of Ligarius,
who was accufed by Tubero for having joined with
Pompey in the civil war between him and Caefar:
“ You have, Tubero, what an accufer would moft
defire, the accufed perfon confeffmg the charge \ but
fo as to affirm, that he was of the fame party with
you and your excellent father. Therefore own firft
that it was a crime in yourfelf, before you charge it
as fuch upon Ligarius.” Sometimes the orator gives
up fome particular point that would well admit of a
difpute, to gain fomething more confiderable, which
he thinks cannot fairly be denied him. In the affair
of Rofcius, where the proof depended upon circum-
flances, Cicero, who defended him, inquires what rea-
fon could be alledged for his committing fo black a
crime, as to kill his father. And after he has fhown
there was no probable reafon to be affigned for it, he
adds, “ Well, fince you can offer no reafon, although
this might be fufficient for me, yet I wall recede from
rny right •, and upon the affurance I have of his inno¬
cence, I will grant you in this caufe what I would not
in another. I do not therefore infill upon your tell¬
ing me why he killed his father, but alk how he did
it ?” This appearance of candour and ingenuity in
fuch conceflions removes the fufpicion of art, and gives
greater credit to what is denied. We have an example
of a feigned or ironical conceffion in Cicero’s defence of
Flaccus : where, interceding for him on the account of
his former good fervices in the time of Catiline's con-
fpiracy, he fays in a way of irony, If fuch things are to
be overlooked, “ let us appeafe the ghofts of Lentulus
and Cethegus; let us recal thofe who are in exile j and
let us be puniffied for our too great affection and love
for our country.” By this artful infinuation, the ora¬
tor, after he has ufed all his arguments to perfuade his
hearers, does as it were fet them at liberty, and leave
them to their own eleftion j it being the nature of man
to adhere more ftedfaftly to what is not violently im-
pofed, but referred to his own free and deliberative
choice. And to thefe feigned conceffions may be re¬
ferred fuch ways of reafoning, by which the orator both
juftifies a charge brought againft him upon the fuppofi-
tion of its being true, and alfo proves that the charge
itfelf is falfe. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Milo, re-
prefents the taking off Clodius, with which Milo was ac¬
cufed, as a glorious aflion •, after he has ffiown that Milo’s
fervants did it without the knowledge of their mailer.
•?4 farabole or fmilitude, illuilrates a thing by com-
4
TORY. Tart III.
paring it with fome other, to which it bears a refem- Elocution,
blance. Similitudes are indeed generally but weak -'-v'—-"
arguments, though often beautiful and fine ornaments.
And where the defign of them is not fo much to prove
what is doubtful, as to fet things in a clear and agree¬
able light, they come properly under the notion of fi¬
gures. They are of two forts } hmple and compound.
Thofe are called fimple, in which one thing only is
likened or compared to another, in this manner ; As
fwallows appear in fummeii, but in winter retreat; fo
falfe friends Jhow themfelves in profperity, but aH fy
away when adverfty approaches. Compound fimilitudes
are iuch, wherein one thing is likened or compared to fe-
veral others ; as thus : What light is to the world, phy-
fc to the fck, water to the thirfy, and ref to the weary;
that is knowledge to the mind. The more exact the a-
greement is between the things thus compared, they
give the greater beauty and grace to the figure.
Antithefs, or oppoftion, by which things contrary
or different are compared, to render them more evi- S5
dent. Thus Cicero fays, “ The Roman people hate
private luxury, but love public grandeur.” This is
a very florid figure 5 and luited no lefs for amplifica¬
tion than proof. As in the following inftance of Cicero,
where, fpeaking of Pompey, he fays, “ He waged more
wars than others had read ; conquered more provinces
than others had governed j and had been trained
up from his youth to the art of war, not by the precepts
of others, but by his owm commands 5 not by mifcar-
riages in the field, but by vidlories ; not by campaigns,
but triumphs.” It is eileemed a beauty in this figure
wffien any of the members are inverted, which fome
call antimetathefs. As where Cicero, oppofing the con-
ducl of Verres when governor of Sicily, to that of Mar-
cellus w-ho took Syracufe the capital city of that ifland,
fays, “ Compare this peace with that war, the arrival of
this governor with the vi6lory of that general, his pro¬
fligate troops with the invincible army of the other, tl^p
luxury of the former with the temperance of the latter j
you will fay, that Syracufe wras founded by him who
took it, and taken by him who held it when founded.”
To this figure may alfo be referred oxymoron, or feem-
ing contradiction; that is, when the parts of a fentence
difagree in found, but are confiftent in fenfe. As when
Ovid fays of Althea, that Jhe was impioufy pious. And
fo Cato ufed to fay of Scipio Africanus, that “ he w-as
never lefs at leifure, than wffien he wTas at leifure 5 nor
lefs alone, than when alone By which he meant, as
Cicero tells us, that “ Scipio w7as wont to think of bufi-
nefs in his retirement, and in his folitude to converfe
with himfelf.” This is a ftrong and bold figure, which
awakens the mind, and affords it an agreeable pleafure
to find upon refledlion, that what at firft feemed con¬
tradictory, is not only confiftent w ith good fenfe, but
very beautiful.—The celebrated Dr Blair, whom wre
have more than once quoted in this article, has thefe
obfervations on antithefis, or the contrail pf two objeCts.
“ Contrail has always this effeCl, to make each of the
contrafted objects appear in the ftronger light. White,
for inftance, never appears fo bright as when it is op-
pofed to black, and when both are viewed together.
Antithefis, therefore, may, on many occafions be em¬
ployed to advantage, in order to ftrengthen the im-
preffion which we intend that any objebt Ihculd make.
In order to render an antithefis more complete, it is
always
Part III. O R A
Elocution, always of advantage that the words and members of the
v fentence, expreflmg the con traded objects, be fimilarly
•conftrufled, and made to correfpond to each other. This
leads us to remark the contrail; more, by fetting the
things which we oppofe more clearly over againft each
other 3 in the fame manner as when we contrail a
black and a white object, in order to perceive the full
diirerence ot their colour, we would choafe to have
both objects of the fame bulk, and placed in the fame
light. Their refemblance to each other, in certain
circumftanees, makes their difagreement in others more
palpable. At the fame time I mail obfervc, that the
frequent ufe of antithelis, eipecially where the oppofition
in the words is nice and quaint, is apt to render the
ilyie difagreeable. A maxim, or moral faying, proper¬
ly enough receives this form 3 both becaufe it is'hippo*
fed to be the fruit of meditation, and becaufe it is de-
ligncd to Lie engraven on the memory, which recals it
more ealily by the help of fuch contrafled expreffions.
Tut where n firing of fuch fentences hicceed each other,
wnere this becomes an author’s favourite and prevailing
manner of exprefling himfelf, his ilyie is faulty 3 and it
is upon this account Seneca has been often and juitiy
cen fared. Such a ilyie appears too iludied and labour-
ed 3 it gives us the impreflion of an author attending
more to his manner of faying things, than to the things
themfelves which he fays.” There is ilill another kind
of antitheiis, which coniiils in furprifing us by the un¬
expected contrails of things which it brings together 3
but it is fuch as is wholly beneath the dignity of an ora¬
tor, or of grave compofitions of any fort, and is fit only
for pieces of profeifed wit and humour, calculated only
*'6 exc^e ^aughter or create ridicule.
The (econd * J hufe fo-itcd to move thepajjions. Which are 133
kind of fi- namely, cpanorthofis, para/epjls, parrhejia, aparithmejis,
£l,res of exergajia, hypotypojis, aporia, pofiopefis, erotejls, ecphone-
fentences. Jts, epiphonema, apojlrophe, and profopopeia.
Epanorthofis, or correction, is a figure, by which the
fpeaker either recals or amends what he had lall faid.
It is ufed different ways. For fometimes one or more
words are recalled by him, and others fubjoined in their
room 3 at other times, without recalling what has been
find, fomething elfe is fubilituted as more fuitable. This
is a very exteniive figure, and made ufe of in addrefling
different pafiions. We have an inilance of it in Te¬
rence’s Self-tor mentor, where the old man, whole extra¬
ordinary concern for the abfence of his ion gave occa-
iion to the name of the play, thus bewails his condition
to, his neighbour. “ I have an only fon, Chremes. A-
.tas ! did I lay that I have : I had indeed 5 but it is now
uncertain wdiether I have or not.” Here, to aggravate
his misfortune, he recals a pleafing word, and fubilitutes
another more affefting in its place. And Cicero, in his
defence of Milo, fpeaking to the judges concerning
ClodiuS, fays, “ Are you only ignorant what laws, if
they may be called law's, and not rather torches and
plagues of the ftate, he was about to impofe and force
upon^us ?” Again, in his defence of Plancius, he fays,
u What greater blow could thofe judges, if they are to
be called judges, and not parricides of their country,
have given to the ftate, than when they baniihed him,
who when praetor freed the republic from a neighbouring
war, and when conful from a civil one ?” He is fpeak-
ing there of Opimius. But in commending the mode¬
ration of Lucius Miunmius, -who did not enrich himfelf,
Vol. XV. Part I.
T O R Y.
but his country, by demolifhing the wealthy city of Co- E?
rinth, he thus recals fai's whole expreflion, and by giving
it a new turn, heightens the compliment he deiigned
him : “ He chofe rather (fays he) to adorn Italy than
his own houfe} though by adorning Italy his houfe
feems to have received the greateft ornament.” And
fometimes the correclion is made by fubiiituting ome-
thing contrary to w'hat had been faid before 3 as in
the following pafiage of Cicero : “ Csefar (meaning Au-
guftus), though but a youth, by an incredible and fur¬
prifing refolution and courage, when Antony was moft.
enraged, and wTe dreaded his cruel and pernicious return
from Brundufium, at a time when we neither aiked, nor
expected, nor defired it (becaufe it wras thought impof-
fible), raifed a very powerful army of invincible vete¬
rans 3 to effect which he threw away his whole eftate :
I hough I have ufed an improper word 5 for he did not
throw it away, but employed it for the fafely of the
government.” At other times, as has been faid, the
corredlion is made by adding a more fuitable word, wi> h-
out any repetition of the former. Thus Cicero, after
he has inveighed againft the crimes of Verres, breaks
out into this pathetic exclamation : 0 the clemency, or
rather wonderful and Jingular patience, of the Roman
people! He did not think the word clemency ftrong
enough, and therefore adds patience, as better anfwer- •
ing his defign. The fudden and unexpefted turn of
this figure gives a furprife to the mind, and by that
means renders it the more pathetic.
Paralepfs, or otniffion, is another of thefe figures, s
wdren the fpeaker pretends to omit, or pafs by, what at
the fame time he declares. It is ufed either in praife or
difpraife. Thus Cicero, in his defence of Sextius, in¬
troduces his character in this manner, with a defign to
recommend him to the favour of the court : “ I mirht
fay many things of his liberality, kindnefs. to his dome-
ftics, his command in the army, and moderation during
his office in the province : but the honour of the ftate
prefents itfelf to my view; and calling me to it, advifes
me to omit thefe lefler matters.” But in his oration to
the fenate againft Rullus the tribune, wffio had propofed
a law to fell the public lands, he makes ufe of this figure
to reprefent the pernicious effecls of fuch a law, particu¬
larly with refpecl to the lands in Italy. “ I do not
complain (fays he) of the diminution of our revenues,
and the woeful effedls of this lofs and damage. I omit
wffiat may give every one occafion for a very grievous
and juft complaint, that we could not preferve the prin¬
cipal eftate of the public, the fineft poffeffion of the Ro¬
man people, the fund of our provifions, the granary of
our wants, a revenue entrufted with the ftate ; but that
we muft give up thofe lands to Rullus, which, after the
power of Sylla, and the largefles of the Gracchi, are
yet left us. I do not fay, this is now the only revenue
of the irate, which continues wdien others ceafe, is an or¬
nament in peace, fails us not in war, fupports the army,
and dees not fear an enemy. I pafs over all thefe
things, and referve them for my difeourfe to the people,
and only fpeak at preient of the danger of our peace
and liberties.” His view here was to raife the indigna¬
tion of the fenate againft Rullus, and excite them to op- «
pofe the law. There is a beautiful inftance of this fi¬
gure in St Paul’s epiftle to Philemon, where, after he
has earneftly intreated him to receive again Onefimus
his fervant, w'ho had run from him, and promifed that if
3 A ’ he
37°
•Liocmion.
O R A T
be liad wronged him, or owed him any thing, he would
repay it, he adds, That I may not fay, you owe even
yourfelf to me. Nothing could be a ftronger motive to
{often his difpleafure againll his fervant, from a fenfe of
gratitude to the apoftle. Hermogenes has obferved,
that the defign of this figure is to poiiefs the minds ot
the audience with more than the words exprefs, and that
it is principally made ufe of on three occafions : either
when things are final], but yet neceffary to be mention¬
ed ; or well known, and need not be enlarged on ; or
ungrateful, and therefore fhould be introduced with cau¬
tion, and not fet in too ftrong a light.
The next figure above-mentioned was Parrhejia, or
reprchenjion: Not that whenever a perfon admoniihes
or reproves another it is to be efteemed a figure ; but
when it is done with art and addrefs, and in fuch cir-
cumltances as render it difficult not to difpleafe.—'1 he
orator therefore fometimes prepares his hearers for this
by commending them firft, urging the neceffity of it,
reprefenting his great concern for them as his motive, cr
joining himfelf with them. Thus Cicero charges the
fenate with the death of Servius Sulpicius, for fending
him to Mark Antony, under a very ill ftate of health.
And his defign in it was to bring them more readily in¬
to a motion he was about to make, that both a ftatue
and a fepulchral monument might be eredled to his me¬
mory at the public expence. “ You (fays he), it is a
very fevere expreffion, but I cannot help faying it } you,
I fay, have deprived Servius Sulpicius of his life. It
W'as not from cruelty indeed (for what is there with
w-hich this affembly is lefs chargeable ?), but when his
difiemper pleaded his excufe more than his rvords, from
the hopes you conceived that there was nothing which
his authority and wufdom might not be able to eftecl,
you vehemently oppofed his excufe, and obliged him,
who always had the greateft regard for your commands,
to recede from his refolution.” Sometimes, indeed, the
orator affumes an air of reproof, with a view only to pais
a compliment with a better grace. As Cicero in his ad¬
drefs to Csefar, when he fays, “ I hear that excellent
and wife faying from you with concern, That you have
lived long enough, either for the purpofes of nature, or
glory : for nature perhaps, if you think fo : and, if you
pleafe, for glory : but, what is principally to be regarded,
not for your country.” It adds both a beauty and force
to this figure, when it is exprefied in a way of comparifon.
As in the following inftance of Cicero : “ But fince
my difcourfe leads me to this, confider how you ought
‘to be affected for the dignity and glory of your empire.
Your anceftors often engaged in -war to redrefs the inju¬
ries of their merchants or lailors : how ought you then
to refent it, that fo many thoufand Roman citizens were
murdered by one meiiage, and at one time ? Your
forefathers deftroyed Corinth, the principal city in
Greece, for the haughty treatment of their ambafladors •,
and wall you fuffier that king to go unpuniffied, who has
put to death a Roman legate, of confular dignity, in the
moft ignominious as well as moll cruel manner ? See,
left, as it was their honour to leave you the glory of fo
great an empire, it ffiould prove your difgrace not to be
able to maintain and defend what you have received
from them.” By this figure an addrefs is made to the
more tender paffions, modefty, flrame, and emulation, the
attendants of an ingenuous temper, which is fooneft
touched, and moft affefted, by a juft reproof.
O R Y. Part III.
Another of thefe pathetic figures is Aparithnefis, or Elocution.
enumeration, when that, which might be expreffed in
general by a few words, is branched out into leveral par¬
ticulars, to enlarge the idea, and render it the more af¬
fecting. Cicero, in pleading for the Manilian law,
where his defign is to conciliate the love and efteem of
the people to Pompey, thus enlarges upon his charadler :
“ Now, what language can equal the virtue of Cneius
Pcmpey ? What can be faid either worthy of him, or
new to you, or which every one has not heard ? For
thofe are not the only virtues of a general which are
commonly thought fo 5 labour in affairs, courage in dan¬
gers, induftry in afting, difpatch in. performing, defign
in contriving •, which are greater in him than in all
other generals we have ever leen or heard of.” And
fo likewise, when he endeavours to difpoffefs Pompey of _
the apprehenfion that Milo defigned to affaffinate him :
“ If (fays he) you fear Milo •, if you imagine that either
formerly, or at prefent, any ill defign has been formed by
him againft your life } if the foldiers raifed through Italy
(as fome of your officers give out), if thefe arms, if .thefe
cohorts in the Capitol,-if the Gentries, if the watch, if the
guards which defend your perfon and houfe, are armed
to prevent any attempt of Milo, and all of them ap¬
pointed, prepared, and ftationed on his account; he mult
be thought a perfcn of great power, and incredible re¬
folution, above the reach and capacity of a fingle man,
that the moft confummate general, and the whole repu¬
blic are in arms againft him only. But who does not
perceive, that all the diiordered and finking parts of the
ftate are committed to you, to reftify and lupport them
by thefe forces ?” This might have been faid in a few
words, that fuch vaft preparations could never be intend¬
ed for fo low a purpofe. But the orator’s view was to
expofe that groundlefs report, and fhame it out of coun¬
tenance. And foon after he endeavours to raife com¬
panion for Milo under thofe prejudices by the fame fi¬
gure : “ See how various and changeable is the ftate
of human life, how unfteady and voluble is fortune,
what infidelity in friends, what dilguites fuited to the
times, what flights, what fears, even of the neareft ac¬
quaintance, at the approach of dangers.” Had no ad
drefs to the paffions been defigned here, fewer of thefe
refieftions might have been fufficient. ft he ufe of this
figure in amplification is very evident from the nature
of it, which confifts in unfolding of things, and by that
means enlarging the conception of them.
Exergafa, or expoftion, has an affinity with the for¬
mer figure : but it differs from it in this, that it confifts
of feveral equivalent expreffions, or nearly fuch, in or¬
der to reprefent the fame thing in a ftronger manner j
whereas the other enlarges the idea by an enumeration
of different particulars. So that this figure has a near
relation to fynonymia, of which we have treated before
under Verbal Figures. We have an inftance of it in
Cicero’s defence of Sextius, where he fays, “ 1 haft who
at any time have incited the populace to fedition, or
blinded the minds of the ignorant by corruption, or tra¬
duced brave and excellent men, and fuch as deferved
well of the public, have with us always been efteemed
vain, bold, bad, and pernicious citizens. But thofe who
repreffed the attempts and endeavours of fuch as, by
their authority, integrity,, conftancy, refoluticn, and
prudence, withftood their infolence, have been always
accounted men of folidity, the chiefs, the leaders, and-*
fupporters
8?
Part III.
O R A T O R Y.
371
Elocution, fupporifers of our dignity P.nd government.” Nothing
v ' more is intended by this pafiage, but to let the oppoiite
charadlers of fadtious perfons and true patriots in the
ftrongeft light, with a view to recommend the one, and
create a juft hatred and deteftation of the other. So
elfewhere he reprefents the juitice of lelf-defence in no
lefs different terms: “ If reafon (fays he) prefcribes this to
the learned, and neceflity to barbarians, cuftom to nations,
and nature itfelf to brutes, always to waixl oft all manner
of violence, by all poftible ways, from their body, from
their head, from their life •, you cannot judge this to be a
criminal and wicked adlion, without judging at the fame
time that all perfons who fall among robbers and aflaf-
fms muft either perifh by their weapons, or your fen-
tence.”—He is addreffing here to the judges in favour
of Milo. The warmth and vehemence of the fpeaker
often runs him into this figure, when he is affedhed with
his fubjedt, and thinks no words, no exprefTions, forcible
enough to convey his fentiments \ and therefore repeats
one after another, as his fancy fuggefts them. This
flow of expreftion, under the condudf of a good judge¬
ment, is often attended with advantage *, as it warms
the hearers, and impreffes their minds, excites their pai-
fions, and helps them to fee things in a ftronger light.
Hi/potypofis, or imagery, is a defcription of things
painted in fuch ftrong and bright colours, as may help
the imagination of the hearers to conceive of them ra¬
ther as prefent to their view, than defcribed in words.
It is peculiarly fuited for drawing charadfe-rs •, and often
affords the fineft ornaments in poetry and hiftory, as well
as oratory. Nor is it lefs moving, but fuited to ftrike
different paffions, according to the nature of the fub-
jedf, and artful management of the ipeaker. Cicero has
thus drawn the picture of Catiline, confifting of an un¬
accountable mixture of contrary qualities. “ He had
(fays he) the appearance of the greateft virtues : he
made ufe of many ill men to carry on his defigns, and
pretended to be in the intereft of the belt men $ he had
a very engaging behaviour, and did not want indutlry
and application •, he gave into the greateft loofenefs, but
was a good foldier. Nor do I believe there was ever
the like monfter in the world, made of fuch jarring and
repugnant qualities and inclinations. Who at one time
was more acceptable to the beft men, and who more in¬
timate with the worft ? Who was once a better patriot,
and who a greater enemy to this ftate ? Who more de¬
voted to pleafures, who more patient in labours ? Who
more rapacious, and yet more profufe ? He fuited him-
felf to the humours of all he converfed with : was feri-
ous with the referved, and pleafant with the jocofe ;
grave with the aged, and facetious with the young •, bold
with the daring, and extravagant with the profligate.”
Such a character of a man, when accompanied with
power and intereft, muft render him no lefs the objeft of
fear than deteftation, which was the defign of Cicero in
this defcripiion. And elfewhere, in order to prevail
with the fenate to direft the execution of thofe confpi-
rators with Catiline who were then in prifon, he paints
the moft difmal feene of that horrid deflgn in the ftrong¬
eft colours. “ Methinks (fays he) I fee this city, the
light of the world, and citadel of all nations, fucidenly
falling into one fire •, I perceive heaps of miferable ci¬
tizens buried in their ruined country 5 the countenance
and fury of Cethegus raging in your flaughter, prefents
itfelf to my view.” This figure is very ferviceable in
amplification, as we have formerly {hewn in treating upon Elocution,
that fuhjecl. But no fmall judgement is required in ^
the management of deferiptions. Lefler circumftances
ftiould either be wholly omitted, or but liightly touch¬
ed ; and thole which are more material drawn in their
due proportion. Nature is as much the rule of the ora¬
tor as of the painter, and what they both propofe to imi¬
tate. And therefore, let a thought be ever fo pleafmg
and beautiful in ftfelf, it muft not be introduced when
foreign to the purpofe, or out of its place, any more
than a painter fnould attempt to alter nature when he
propofes to copy it. This figure requires likewife a vi¬
gorous and lively genius. For the images in defcriptioit
can rife no higher than the conception of the fpesker,
ftnee the idea muft firft he formed in his own mind be¬
fore he can convey it to others; and agreeably to the
clearnefs with which he conceives it himfelf, he will be
able to exprefs it in words.  
Aporia, or doubt, expreffes the debate of the mind pa
with itfelf upon a prefling difficulty. A perfon in fuch
a ftate is apt to helitate, or ftart feveral things fucceffive-
ly, without coming to any fixed refolution. The unea-
finefs arifing from fuch a diforder of thought is natural¬
ly very moving. Of this kind is that of Cicero for
Cluentius, when he fays, “ I know not which way to
turn myfelf. Shall I deny the fcandal thrown upou
him of bribing the judges ? Can I fay the people were
not told of it ? that it was not talked of.in the court
mentioned in the fenate ? Can I remove an opinion fo
deeply and long rooted in the minds of men ? It is
not in my power. You, judges, muft fupport his in¬
nocence, and refeue him from this calamity.” Orators
fometirnes clioofe to begin their difeourfe with this fi¬
gure. A diffidence of mind at firft is not unbecoming,
but graceful. It carries in it an air of modefty, and
tends very much to conciliate the aftedlions of the hear¬
ers. Livy gives us a very elegant example of this in a
fpeech of Scipio Africanus to his foldiers, when, calling
them together after a fedition, he thus befpeaks them :
“ I never thought I fhould have been at a lofs in what
manner to addrefs my army. Not that I have applied
myfelf more to words than things; but becaufe I have
been accuftomed to the genius of ioldiers, having been
trained up in the camp almoft from my childhood. But
I am in doubt what or how to fpeak to you, not know¬
ing what name to give you. Shall I call you citvzens,
who have revolted from your country ? Soldiers, who
have difowned the authority of your general, and broke
your military oath ? Enemies ? I perceive the mien, the
afpeft, and habit of citizens; but difeern the actions,
words, defigns, and difpofitions of enemies.”
Sometimes a pafiion has that effeft, not fo much to 93
render a perfon doubtful what to fay, as to flop him in
the midft ©f a fentence, and prevent his expreffing the
whole of what he defigned; and then it is called Apojio-^
pejis, or concealment. It denotes different paffions 3 as
anger, which, by reafon of its heat and vehemence,
caufes perfons to break off abruptly in their difeourfe.
So the old man in Terence, when he was jealous that
his fervant obftrueled his defigns, nfes this imperfr & but
threatening expreflion, Whom, if I find. And Nep¬
tune, when deferibed by Virgil as very angry that the
winds fliould prefume to diftutb the fea without his
permiffion, after he has called them to him to know the
reafer. of it, threatens them in this abrupt manner: y
3 A 2 “ Whom
OKA
37 2
Elocution.
-y—— cl Whom I—but tird I’ll lay the ft or m.’5
But Cicero, in writing to Atticus, applies it to exprefs
grief, where he fays, “ I know nothing of Pompey, and
believe he muft be taken, if he is not got on ftupboard.
O incredible fwiftnefs! But of our friend—Though I
c annot accufe him without grief, for whom I am in fo
much concern and. trouble.” And in. a letter to Caf-
ftus he ufes it to exprefs fear, when he fays to him,
“ Brutus could fcarce fupport himfelf at Mutina *, if he
is fafe, we have carried the day. But if—heaven avert
' the omen ! all mnft have recourfe to you.” His mean¬
ing is, “ If Brutus fnould be defeated.”
94 The next figure is erotejis, or interrogation. But
every interrogation or queftion is not figurative. When
we inquire about a thing that is doubtful, in order to be
informed, this is no figure, but the natural form of fuch
expreftions. As if I alk a perfon, Where he is going ?
or what he is doing ? But then it becomes figurative
when the fame thing may be exprefted in a direct man¬
ner ; but the putting it by way of queftion gives it a
much greater life and fpirit. As when Cicero fays,
“ Catiline, how long will you abufe our patience ? do
not you perceive your defigns are difeovered ?” He
might indeed have faid, 'Ton abufe our patience a long
while.- You mujl be fenjible your dejigns are. dfcovered.
But it is eafy to perceive how much this latter way of
expreffion falls {hart of the force and vehemence of the
former. And fo when Medea fays, / could fave; and
do you ojk if I can defray ? Had fhe faid, I couldfave,
and I can defray, the fentence had been flat, and very
unfit to exprefs the rage and fury in which the poet there
reprefents her. This figure is fuited to exprefs moft paf-
fions and emotions of the mind, as anger, difdain, fear, de¬
fire, and others. It ferves alfo to prefs and bear down an
adverfary. Cicero frequently makes this ufe of it. As
in his defence of Plancius : “ I will make you this offer
(fays he), cboofe any tribe you pleafe, and fliow, as you
ought, by whom it was bribed ; and if you cannot, as
I believe you will not undertake it, I will prove how he
gained it. Is this a fair conteft ? Will you engage on
this foot ? I cannot give you fairer play. Why do you
diffemble ? Why do you hefitate ? I infift upon it, urge
you to it, prefs it, require, and even demand it of you.”
Such a way of pufhing an antagonift {hows the fpeaker
has great confidence in his caufe ; otherwife he would
never lay himfelf fo open, if he was not affured the other
party had nothing to reply. This figure likewife diver-
fifies a difeourfe, and gives it a beautiful variety, by
altering the form of expreflion, provided it be nei¬
ther too frequent, nor continued too long at once.
And befides, the warmth and eager manner in which
it is expreffed, enlivens the hearers, and quickens their
attention.
95 Ecphonefs, or exclamation, is a vehement extenfion
of the voice, occafioned by a commotion of mind, na¬
turally venting itfelf by this figure, which is ufed by
Cicero to exprefs a variety of paflions. It often denotes
refentment or indignation. Thus, after bis return from
baniftiment, refiefting on thofe who had occafioned it,
he breaks out into this moving exclamation: “ O
mournful day to the fenate, and all good men, calami¬
tous to the ftate, afflictive to me and my family, but
glorious in the view of pofterity !” His defign was to
excite an odium againft the authors of his exile, when
o • R Y. Part nr.
recalled in fo honourable a manner. And again, in his Elocution,
defence of Cselius : “ Q the great force of truth ; which
eafily fupports itfelf againft the wit, craft, fubtilty, and
artful defigns of men !” He had been juft {bowing the
abfurdky of the charge againft Ceelius, and now endea¬
vours to expofe his acculers to the indignation of the
court. At other times it is ufed to exprefs difdain or
contempt. As when fpeaking of Pompey’s houfe,
which was bought by Mark Antony, he {ays : “ O cou-
fummate impudence ! dare you gp within that houfe !
dare you enter that venerable threlhold, and {how your
audacious countenance to the tutelar deities which refide.
there.” Nor is it lei’s fuited to indicate grief, as when
he fays .of Milo : “ O that happy country, which {hall
receive this man ! ungrateful this, if it banifti him ! mi-
ferable if it lofe him !” And fometimes it ferves,
to exprefs admiration: as when, in compliment to Cse-
far, he fays, “ O admirable clemency ! worthy of the
.greateft praife, the higheft encomiums, and moft lafting
monuments !” It has its ufe alfo in ridicule and irony.
As in his oration for Balbus, where he derides his accu-
fer, by faying, “ O excellent interpreter of the law !
mafter of antiquity ! correblor and amender of our con-
ftitution ! The facred writers fometimes ufe it by way
of intreaty or willi. As the royal Pfalmift : “ O that
I had the wings of a dove, that I might fiy away, and
be at reft !” And at other times in triumph and exul¬
tation, as in that of St Paul: “ O death, where is thy
fling! O grave, where is thy victory !” It is frequent¬
ly joined with the preceding figure interrogation; as
appears in fome of the inftances here brought from Ci¬
cero. And it generally follows the reprelentation of
the thing which occafions. it. Though fometimes it is
made ufe of to introduce it, and then it ferves to pre¬
pare the mind by exciting its attention. Thus Cicero,
in bis defence of Cadius, to render the charabler of
Clodia more odious, at wliofe inftigation he was accu-
fed, infinuates that fine had before- poifoned her hufband ;
and to heighten the barbarity of the fact, and make it
appear the more {flocking, he introduces the account of
it with this moving exclamation : “ O heavens, why do
you fometimes wink at the greateft crimes of mankind,
or delay the punifhment of them to futurity !”
Epiphonema, or acclamation, has a great affinity with
the former figure. And it is fo called, when the fpeak- ^
er, at the conclufion of his argument, makes fome live¬
ly and juft remark upon what he has been faying, to
give it the greater force, and render it the more affecting
to his hearers. It is not fo vehement and impetuous as-
exclamation, being ufually expreffive of the milder and
more gentle paflions. And the reflection ought not on¬
ly to contain fome plain and obvious truth, but likewife
to arife naturally from the difeourfe which occafioned it,
otherwife it lofes its end. When Cicero has {flown, that
recourfe is never to be had to force and violence, but in
cafes of the utmoft neceflity, he concludes with the fol¬
lowing remark : “ Thus to think, is prudence ; to aft,
fortitude 5 both to think and aft, perfeft and confum-
mate virtue.” And elfewhere, after he has deferibed a
fingular inftance of cruelty and breach of friendihip :
“ Hence (fays he) we may learn, that no duties are fo
facred and folemn which covetoufnefs will not violate.”
This figure is frequently expreffed in a way of admira¬
tion. As when Cicero has obferved, that all men are
defirous to live to an advanced age, but uneafy under it
when
- when jit tinned, he makes this jufl reflexion upon fuch a
conduct : “ So great is their inconltancy, folly, and per-
verfenefs !”
The next figure in order is apojlrophe, or addrefs,
when the fpeaker breaks oil' from the feries of his dif-
courfe, and addrefifes hjmfelf to fame particular perfon
prefent or ablent, living or dead j or to inanimate na¬
ture, as endowed with ienfe and reafon. By this means
he has an opportunity of laying many things with
greater freedom than perhaps would be confident with
decency if immediately directed to the perlbns them-
felves. He can admonilh, chide, or cenfure, without
giving offence. Nor is there any paffion, but may be
very advantageoufiy expreffed by this figure. When an
orator has been fpeaking of any particular perfon, on a
fudden to turn upon him, and apply the difeourfe to that
perfon himfelf, is very moving 5 it is like attacking an
adversary by lurprife, when he is off his guard, and
where he leaft expects^ it. Thus Cicero : “ I defire, fe-
nators, to be merciful, but not to appear negligent in fo
great dangers of the Hate ; though at prefent I cannot
but condemn myfeiTof remiffnefs. There is a camp
formed in Italy, at the entrance of Etruria, againft the
fiate ; our enemies increafe daily \ but we fee the com¬
mander of the camp, and general of the enemies, within
our walls, in the very fenate, contriving fome inteftine
rum to the Hate. If now, Catiline, I Ihould order you
to be feized. and put to death, I have reafon to fear, that
all good men would rather think I had deferred it too
long, than charge me with cruelty. But I am prevail¬
ed with for a certain reafon not to do that yet, which
ought to have been done long fince.” This fudden turn
of die difeourfe to Catiline himfelf, and the addrefs to
him in that unexpected manner, mull have touched him
very fenfibly. So, in his defence of Milo, exprefiing
his concern if he fihould not fucceed in it, he fays,
“ And how lhall I anfwer it to you, my brother Quin¬
tus, the partner of my misfortunes, who are now ab-
fent ?” And elfewhere addreffing to the foldiers of the
Martian legion, -who had been killed in an engagement
with Mark Antony, he thus befpeaks them : “ O happy
death, which, due to nature, was paid to your country !
I may efteem you truly bom for your country, who like-
wife received your name from Mars 5 fo that the fame
deity feems to have produced this city for the world,,
and you for this city.” And in his oration for Balbus
he thus calls upon dumb nature to witnefs to Pompey’s
virtues: “ I invoke you, mute regions 5 you, moft di-
ffant countries •, you feas, havens, ifiands, and fhores.
For what coafi, what land, what place is there, in which
the marks of his courage, humanity, wifdom, and pru¬
dence, are not extant ?” An appeal to heaven, or any
part of inanimate nature, has .fomething very fublime
and folemn in it, which we often meet with in facred
writ. So the divine prophet : “ Blear, O heavens ! and
give ear, O earth ! for the Lord hath fpoken,” And
in like manner, the prophet Jeremy : “ Be afioniflied,
O ye heavens, at this.” See Apostrophe.
Profcpopeia, or the ficlion of a perfon : by which ei¬
ther an ahfent perfon is introduced fpeaking ; or one
who is dead, as if he was alive and prefent \ or fpeech
is attributed to fome inanimate bding. There is no
figure, perhaps, which ferves more or better purpofes
to an orator tlvm this. For by this means he is enabled
to call in all nature to his afiifiance, and can afilgn to
every thing futfh parts as he thinks convenient. There
is fcarce any thing fit to be faid, but may be introduced
this way. When he thinks his own charafter is not of
fufficient weight to affeef his audience in the manner he
defires, he fubilitutes a perfon of greater authority than
himfelf'to engage their attention. When he has fevere
things to fay, and which may give offence as coming
from himfelf 5 he avoids this, by putting them into the
mouth of fome other perfon from whom they will be
better taken 5 or makes inanimate nature bring a charge,
or exprefs a refentment, to render it the more affe&ing.
And by the fame method he fometimes choofes to fecure
himfelf from a fufpicion of flattery, in carrying a com¬
pliment too high. We meet with feveral very beauti¬
ful inftances of this figure in Cicero ; but an example
of each fort may here fuffice, beginning with that of an
abfent perfon, from his defence of Milo, whom he thus
introduces as fpeaking, to the citizens of Rome : “ Should
he, holding the bloody fword, cry out, Attend, I pray,
hearken, O citizens, I have killed Publius Clodius ; by
this fword, and by this right hand, I have kept off his-
rage from your necks, which no laws, no courts of judi¬
cature, could reftrain } it is by my means, that juftice,
equity, laws, liberty, ftiame, and modefly, remain in
the city. It is to be feared how the city wxmld bear
this abiion ? Is there any one now, wdio would not ap¬
prove and commend it ?” And in his oration for Balbus,
he introduces Marius, wdio was then dead, to plead in
his defence : “ Can Balbus (fays he) be condemned,
without condemning Marius for a like fabt ? Let him be
prefent a little to your thoughts, fince he cannot be fo
in perfon j that you may jdew him in your minds, though
you cannot with your eyes. Let him tell you, he was
not unacquainted with leagues, void of examples, or
ignorant of war.” And again, in his firft invedive
againfl: Catiline, he prefents his country as thus expoftu-
lating with himfelf, and upbraiding him for fuffering
fuch a criminal as Catiline to live. “ Should my coun¬
try (fays he), wdiich is much dearer to me than my life,
Ihould all Italy, all the ftate, thus addrefs me, Mark
Tully what do you do ? Do you fuffer him, whom you
have found to be an enemy, who you fee is to be at the
head of the war, whom you perceive your enemies wait
for in their camp as their general, wLo has been the
contriver of this wdekednefs, the chief of the confpiracy,
the exciter of Haves and profligate citizens, to leave the
city, wdiich is rather to bring him in, than let him out ?
Will not you order him to be imprifoned, ccndemned,
and executed ? What prevents you ? The cuftom of ofir
anceflors ? But private perfons have often punifhed per¬
nicious citizens in this flate. The laws relating to the
punifliment of Roman citizens ? But traitors never had
the lights of citizens. Do you fear the cenfure of po-
fterity ? Truly you make a very handfome return to the
people of Rome, who have advanced you from an ob-
feure condition fo early to the higheft dignity ; if you
neglecf their fafetyho avoid envy, or from the appre-
henfion of any danger. And if you fear cenfure ; which
is moft to be dreaded, that which may arife from juftice
and fortitude, or from cowardice and treachery > When
Italy {hall be wafted by a war, cities plundered, and
houfes burnt, do you think then to efcape the fevereft
cenfure.” In the management of this figure, care Ihould
374 O R A T
Elocution, be taken that what is faid be always confident with the
character introduced, in which both the force and beauty
of it conlift.
In treating upon figures, we have hitherto confider-
ed them feparately ; but it may not be amils to obferve,
that fome expreffions confift of a complication of them,
and may come under the denomination of feveral figures,
as well verbal as thofe of fentence?, differently confider-
ed. Thus when Cicero fays, “ What, Tubero, did
your drawn fword do in the Pharfalian battle ? At
whofe fide was its point directed ? what was the inten¬
tion of your arms ?” As he fpeaks to Tubero, it is an
apoftrophe •, as the expreflions have much the fame im¬
port, and are deligned to heighten and aggravate the
faft, it is exergnjia ; and as they are put by queftion, it
is interrogation. So like wife, in his fecond Philippic,
where he fays, “ What can I think ? that I am contem¬
ned ? I fee nothing in my life, intereft, adtions, or abi¬
lities, as moderate as they are, which Antony can de-
ipife. Did he think he could eafily leffen me in the
fenate ? But they, who have commended many famous
citizens for their good government of the ftate, never
thanked any but me for preferving it. Would he con¬
tend with me for eloquence ? This would be a favour
indeed. For what could be a larger and more copious
fubject, than for me fpeak for myfelf againft Antony ?
His defign was really this : he thought he could not
convince his affbeiates, that he wTas truly an enemy to
his country, unlefs he was fo firff: to me.” There are
three figures in this paffage \ doubt, interrogation, and
fuljeBion. And again, when he introduces Sicily thus
addreffing Verres in a way of Complaint : “ Whatever
-gold, whatever filver, whatever ornaments in my cities,
dwellings, temples, whatever right of any kind I poffef-
fed by the favour of the fenate and people of Rome;
you, Verres, have plundered and taken from me.”
Here is a profopopeia, joined with the verbal figure ana¬
phora, as feveral members of the fentence begin with
the fame word. The like inflances of complex figures
frequently occur, and therefore me need not multiply
examples of them here.
PARTICULAR ELOCUTION,
Or that part of Elocution which confiders the
feveral Properties and Ornaments of Language,
as they are made ufe of to form different forts
of Style.
Chap. IV. Of Style, and its different Characters.
Particular Th» wmrd Jhjle properly fignifies the inflrument which
elocution the ancients ufed in writing. For 3s they commonly
treats of Wrote upon thin boards covered over with wax, and
jtyle and fomebmes upon the barks of trees, they made ufe of a
its various ... ... . .J . . .
characters, long mflrument like a bodkin, pointed at one end, with
which they cut their letters; and broad at the other, to
erafe any thing they chofe to alter. And this the Latins
calledBut though this be the firff: fenfe of the
word, yet afterwards it came to denote the manner of
expreffion. In which fenfe we likewife ufe it, by the
fame kind of trope that we call any one’s writing his
hand. Style, then, in the common acceptation of the
w ord at prefent, is the peculiar manner in which a man
exprefles his conceptions by means of language. It is a
picture of the ideas which rife in his mind, and of the
3
O R Y.
Part III.
order in which they are there produced. As to the Elocution,
reafons which occafion a variety of ftyle, they are prin- ~y—J
cipally thefe.
Since both fpeech and writing are only fenfible expref¬
fions of our thoughts, by which we communicate them
to others; as ail men think more or lefs differently, fo
confequently they in fome meafure differ in their ffyle.
No two perfons who were to write upon one fubjedl,
would make ufe of all the fame words. And were this
poffihle. yet they would as certainly differ in their order
and connection, as two painters, wrho ufed the fame co¬
lours in painting the fame picture, would neceffarily vary
their mixtures and difpofition of them, in the feveral
gradations of lights and thades. As every painter there¬
fore has fomething peculiar in his manner, fo has every
writer in his ftyle. It is from thefe internal characters,
in a good meafure, that critics undertake to difeover the
true authors of anonymous writings ; and to fliow that
others are fpurious, and not the genuine productions of
thofe whofe names they bear 5 as they judge of the age
of luch writings from the words ajid manner of expref-
fion which have been in ufe at different times. And we
may often obferve in perfons a fondnefs for fome par¬
ticular words or phrafes; and a peculiarity in the turn
or connection of their fentences, or in their tranfitions
from one thing to another •, by which their ftyle may
be known, even when they defign to conceal it. For
thefe things, through cuftom and habit, wall fometimes
drop from them, notwithHanding the greateft caution
to prevent it.
There is likewife very often a confiderable difference
in the ftyle of the fame perfon, in feveral parts of his
life. Young perfons, whofe invention is quick and live¬
ly, commonly run into a pompous and luxuriant ftyle."
Their fancy reprefents the images of things to their
mind in a gay and fprightly manner, clothed with a
variety of circumftances •, and while they endeavour to
fet off each of thefe in the brighteft and moft glittering
colours, this renders their ftyle verbofe and florid, but
weakens the force and ftrength of it. And therefore, as
their imagination gradually cools, and comes under the
conduCt of a more mature judgement, they find it pro¬
per to cut off many fuperfluities 5 fo that by omitting
unneceffary words and circumftances, and by a clofer
connection of things placed in a ftronger lightj if their
ftyle becomes lefs fwelling and pompous, it is, however,
more correCt and nervous. But as old age finks the
powers of the mind, chills the imagination, and weakens
the judgement j the ftyle, too, in proportion ufually
grows dry and languid. Critics have obferved fome¬
thing of this difference in the writings even of Cicero
himfelf. To be matter of a good ftyle, therefore, it
feems neceffary that a perfon thould be endowed with a
vigorous mind and lively fancy, a ftrong memory, and a
good judgement. It is by the imagination that the
mind conceives the images of things. If the impreflions
of thofe images be clear and diftinCt, the ftyle will be fo
tco j fince language is nothing but a copy of thofe ima¬
ges firft conceived by the mind. But if the images are
faint and imperfeCt, the ftyle will accordingly be flat
and languid. This is evident from the difference be¬
tween fitch objefts as are reprefented to our fight, and
things of which we have only read or heard. For as
the former generally make a deeper impreflion upon our
minds, fo we can deferibe them in a more ftrong and
lively
Pan III. ORATOR Y.
Elocution, lively manner. And we commonly find, that according
as perfons are affected themfelves when they fpeak, they
are able to affect others with what they fay. Now
perfons are more or lefs affected with things in propor¬
tion to the impreslions which the images of thofe things
make upon the mind. For the fame reafon alfo, if the
imagination be dull, and indifpofed to receive the ideas
of things, the ityle will be ItifF and heavy } or if the
images are irregular and dilordered, the ftyle will like-
wife be perplexed and confufed. When things lie
ftraight (as we fay) in the mind, we exprefs them with
eafe, and in their juit connexion and dependence ; but
when they are warpt or crooked, we deliver them with
pain and difficulty, as well as diforder. A good fancy
fhould likcwife be accompanied with a happy memory.
This helps us to retain the names of thofe things the
ideas whereof are prefented to the mind by the imagina¬
tion, together with proper and fuitable phrafes to exprefs
them in their feveral connections and relations to each
Other. When the images of things offer themfelves to
the mind, unlefs the names of them prefent themfelves
at the fame time, we are at a lofs to exprefs them, or at
leaf! are in danger of doing it by wrong and improper
terms. Befides, variety is neceffary in difcourfe to ren¬
der it agreeable ; and, therefore, without a large furni¬
ture of words and phrafes, the ftyle will neceflarily be¬
come infipid and jejune, by the frequent return ot the
fame terms and manner of expreffion. But to both thefe
a folid judgement is highly requifite to form a juit and
accurate ftyle. A fruitful imagination will furniffi the
mind with plenty of ideas, and a good memory will help
to clothe them in proper language ; but unleis they are
both under the conduCt of reafon, they are apt to hurry
perfons into many inconveniencies. Such are generally
great talkers, but far from good orators. Frelh images
continually crowd in upon them, falter than the tongue
can well exprefs them. This runs them into long and
tedious difeourfes, abounding with words, but void of
fenfe. Many impertinences, if not improprieties, necef-
farily mix themfelves with what they fay ; and they are
frequently carried off from their point, by not having
their fancies under a proper regulation. So that fuch
difeourfes, though compofed perhaps of Fetty exPre^-
fions, rhetorical flowers, and fprightly failles of wit, yet
fall very much ffiort of a ftrong and manly eloquence.
But where reafon prefldes and holds the reins, every
thing is weighed before it is fpoken. The propereit
words are made choice of, which bell fuit the ideas they
are defigned to convey ; rather than the mofi gay and
pompous. All things are not faid which offer themlelves
to the mind, and fancy diClates \ but fuch only as are
fit and proper, and the reft are dropped. Some things
are but llightly mentioned, and others difeourfed on
more largely and fully, according to their different im¬
portance. And every thing is placed in that order, and
clothed in fuch a drefs, as may reprefent it to the greateft
advantage. So that, in a word, the foundation of a
good ftyle is chiefly good fenfe. Where thefe qualities
all meet in a confiderable degree, fuch perfons have the
happinefs to excel, either in fpeaking or writing. But
this is not generally the cafe. Many perfons of a vigo¬
rous and fprightly imagination, have but a weak judge¬
ment ; and others much more judicious can think but
flowly. And it is this, in a great meafure, which makes
the difference between fpeaking and writing well, as one
or tire other of thefe qualities is predominant. A per- Elocution,
fon of a lively fancy, ready wit, and voluble tongue, v—
will deliver himfelf off hand much better and more ac¬
ceptably, than one who is capable, upon due premedita¬
tion, to difeern farther into the fubjecl, but cannot com¬
mand his thoughts with the fame eafe and freedom. And
this latter would have the fame advantage of the other,
were they both ccoly to offer their fentiments in writing.
Many things appear well in fpeaking, which will not
bear a ftriet ferutiny. Whule the hearer’s attention is
obliged to keep pace with the fpeaker, he is not at lei-
fure to obferve every impropriety or incoherence, but
many flips eafily efcape him, which in reading are pre-
fently difeovered. Hence it is often found, that difeour¬
fes, which were thought very fine when heard, appear
to have much lefs beauty, as well as ftrength, when
they come to be read. And therefore it is not without
reafon, that Cicero recommends to all thofe who are
candidates for eloquence, anddeftrous to become maflers
of a good ftyle, to write much. This affords them an
opportunity to digeft their thoughts, weigh their words
and expretlions, and give every thing its proper force
and evidence ; as likewife, by reviewing a difcourfe
when compofed, to corredh its errors, or fupply its de
fedfs $ till by practice they gain a readinefs both to think
juftly, and to fpeak with propriety and eloquer.ee. But
it is time to proceed to fome other caufes of the diverfity
of ftyle.
Different countries have not only a different language,
but likewife a peculiarity of ftyle fuited to their temper
and genius. The eaftern nations had a lofty and ma -
jeftic way of fpeaking. Their words are full and fonor-
ous, their expreffions ftrong and forcible, and warmed
with the moft lively and moving figures. This is very
evident from the Jewiih writings in the Old Teftament^
in which we find a moft agreeable mixture of iimplicity
and dignity. On the contrary, the ftyle of the more
northern languages generally partakes of the chillnefs of
their climate. “ There is (fays Mr Addifon*) a certain^ speci.
coldnefs and indifference in the phrafes of our European N° 405.
languages, when they are compared with the oriental
forms of fpeech. And it happens very luckily, that the
Hebrew idioms run into the Engiiffi tongue with a pe¬
culiar glace and beauty. Our language has received
innumerable elegancies and improvements from that in-
fufion of Hebraifms, which are derived to it cut of the
poetical paffages in holy writ. They give a force ana
. energy to our expreffions, warm and animate our lan¬
guage, and convey our thoughts in more ardent and intenfe
phrafes than any that are to be met with in our own
tongue. There is fomething fo pathetic in this kind of
diction, that it often fets the mind in a flame, and makes
our hearts burn within us.”
Again, people of different nations vary in their cu-
ftoms and manners, which occafions a diverfity in their
ftyle. This was very remarkable in the Attics, Afia-
tics, and Rhodians, and is often taken notice of by an¬
cient writers. The Athenians, while they continued
a free ftate, were an active, induftrious, and frugal
people : very polite indeed, and cultivated arts and
fciences beyond any other nation : but as they had
powerful enemies, and were exceedingly jealous of their
liberties, this preferved them from wantonnefs and
luxury. And their way of fpeaking was agreeable to
their conduct; accurate and clofe, but very full and ex-
preffi.ve, .
ORATOR Y.
Part IIL
■ rreiFivc. The Afiatics, on the other hand, were more
gay, and loofe in their manners, devoted to luxury and
picafure; .d accordingly they aifefted a florid and
Iwelling llyle, filled with redundancies and fuperfluities
of expreflion. Indeed tome of the ancients have attri¬
buted this loofenefs ot flyle to their way of purfuing elo¬
quence at fisft l or as they were put upon it by conver¬
ting with the Greek colonies who fellled among them,
they fuppofe, that., in mitaang them, before they were
mailers of the language, they were often obliged to
make ufe of circumlocutions, which afterwards became
habitual, and very much weakened the force of their
expreffions, as it naturally would do. But one would
think, if they were put to this neceflity at firfl, when
they found its ill effect, they might eafily have amended
it afterwards, as they grew better acquainted with the
Greek language, had they been inclined fo to do. The
Rhodian flyle was a medium between the other two ;
not fo cor,die and expreflive as the Attic, nor yet fo
loofe and redundant as the Afiatic. Quintilian fays,
it had a mixture of its author, and the humour of the
people ; and like plants fet in a foreign foil, degene¬
rated from the Attic purity, but not fo wholly as to
lofe it. The firfl: received it from ATchines, who be¬
ing worfled in his famous contefl with Demoflhenes,
retired thither, and taught rhetoric, which put them
upon the fludy of eloquence.
The flyle of the fame country likewife very much
alters in different ages. Cicero telis us, that the firfl:
Latin hiflonans aimed at nothing more than barely to
make themfelves intelligible, and that with as much
brevity as they could. Thofe who fucceeded them
advanced a flep farther j and gave fomewhat a better
turn and cadency to their fentences, though flill with¬
out any drefs or ornament. But afterwards, when the
Greek language became fafhionabie at Rome, by co¬
pying after their writers, fuch as Herodotus, Thucy¬
dides, Xenophon, and others, they endeavoured to in¬
troduce all their beauties into their own tongue, which
in Cicero’s time wTas brought to its higheft perfection.
But it did not long continue in that Hate. A dege¬
neracy of manners foon altered their tafle, and cor¬
rupted their language, which Quintilian very much
complains of in his time. The cafe was the fame with
refpeft to the Greek tongue ; though that had the
good fortune to continue its purity much longer than
the Latin. Nor can any language be exempt from the
common fate of all human productions •, which have their
beginning, perfeftion, and decay. Befides, there is a
fort of fafhion in language, as well as other things; and
the generality of people are always fond of running into
the mode. Perhaps fome one, or a few perfons, fall
into a manner, which happens to 'pleafe. This gives
them a reputation ; and others immediately copy after
them, till it generally prevail. Cicero tells us, that the
moft ancient Greek orators wdiofe writings were extant
in his time, fuch as Pericles, Alcibiades, and others,
were fubtle, acute, concife, and abounded in fenfe rather
than words. But another fet that followed them, of
which were Critias, Theramenes, and Lyfias, retained
the good fenfe of the former, and at the fame time took
more care of their Ryle } not leaving it fo bare as the
former had done, but furniflung it with a better drefs.
After thefe came Ifocrates, who added all the flowers
and beauties of eloquence. And as he had abundance
2
of followers, they applied thefe ernamen . and decora- Elocution,
tions according Lo their different genius) fome for pomp
and fplerdor } and others to invigorate their flyle, and
give it the greater force and energy. And in this latter
way Demofthenes principally excelled. Now as each of
thefe manners had its peculiar beauties, and generally-
prevailed in different ages, Cicero thinks this could not
have happened otherwife than from imitation. And he
attributes it to the fame caufe, that afterwards they
funk into a fofter and fmoother manner, not lefs exahl
and florid, but more cold and iifeleis. If we take a
Hew of our own tongue, Chaucer feems to have been
the firfl: who made any confiderable attempts to cultivate
it. And whoever looks into his writings, will perceive
the difference to be fo great from what it is at prefent ,
that it fcarce appears to be the fame language. The
gradual improvements it has flnee received, are very evi¬
dent in the writers almofl of every fucceeding age flnee
that time ; and how much farther it may ftill be carried,
time only can difeover. See Language pajjiniFor
the Englifh language in particular, fee n° 38; for the
other European languages, as well as the Greek and
Latin, fee n° 27, &c.
Another caufe of the variety of ftyle arifes from the*
different nature and properties of language. A dif¬
ference in the letters, the make of the words, and the
order of them, do all affefl the ftyle. So Quintilian
obferves, that the Latin tongue cannot equal the
Greek in pronunciation, becaufe it is harfher. The
Latins want two of the fofteft Greek letters, v and t \
and ufe others of a very hard found, which the Greeks
have not, as f and q. Again, many Latin words end
in m ; a letter of a broad and hollow found, which
never terminates any Greek word 5 but v does fre¬
quently, whofe found is much fofter and fweeter. Be¬
fides, in the combination of fyllables the letters b and
d are often fo fituated, as to require too ftrong and
unequal a force to be laid upon them, as in the words
obverfus and adjungo. Another advantage of the Greek
tongue arifes from the variety and different feat of the
accents : for the Greeks often accent the left fyllable,
which both enlivens the pronunciation, and renders it
more mufical $ whereas the Latins never do this. But
the greateft advantage of the Greeks lies in their
plenty and variety of words 5 for which reafon they
have lefs occafion for tropes or circumlocutions, which,
when ufed from neceflity, have generally lefs force,
and weaken the ftyle. But under thefe difadvantages,
Quintilian feems to give his countrymen the bell: advice
the cafe will admit of : That what they cannot do in
words, they ftiould make up in fenfe. If their expref¬
fions are not fo foft and tender, they ftiould exceed in
ftrength ; if they are lefs fubtile, they ftiould be more
fublime : and if they have fewer proper words, they
ftiould excel in the beauty as well as number of their
figures. If this account of Ouintilian be pift, that the
Greek tongue does furpafs the Latin in all thefe inftan-
ces, it is certain that both of them have much greater
advantages over fome modern languages. The varying
all their declinable words, both nouns and verbs, by
terminations, and not by figns, contributes very much
to the fmoothnefs and harmony of their periods. Where¬
as in the modern languages, thofe fmall particles and
pronouns which diftinguifh the cafts of nouns and the
tenfes and perfons of verbs, binder the run of a period,
and
Part III. O R A
Elocution and render the found much more rough and uneven.
' "v Eefides, the ancient languages feem to have a better and
more equal mixture of vowels and confonants, which
makes their pronunciation more eafy and mufical.
But the chief diftinftion of ftyle arifes from the dif¬
ferent fubje&s or matter of difeourfe. The fame way of
fpeaking no more fuits all fubjects, than the fame gar¬
ment would all perfons. A prince and a peafant ought
hot to have the lame drefs ; and another different from
both becomes thofe of a middle ftation in life. The
ftyle therefore fhculd always be adapted to the nature of
the fubjedl, which rhetoricians have reduced to three
ranks or degrees 5 the /su> or plain ftyle, the middle or
temperate, and the lofty or fublime : Which-are likewife
called c/iaradlers, becaufe they denote the quality of
the fubjedt upon which they treat. This divifion of
ftyle into three characters, was taken notice of very
early by ancient writers. Some have obferved it even
in Homer, who feems to aftign the fublime or magnifi¬
cent to Ulyffes, when he reprefents him as fo copious and
vehement an orator, that his words came from him like
^winterfww. On the contrary, he deferibes Menelaus
as a polite fpeaker, but concife and moderate. And
when he mentions Neftor, he reprefents his manner as
between thefe two, not fo high and lofty as the one,
nor yet fo low and depreffed as the other 5 but fmooth,
even, and pleafant, or, as he expreffes it, more fweet
than honey. Quintilian obferves, that although accu¬
racy and politenefs were general charadlers of the Attic
writers } yet among their orators, Lyfias excelled in the
low and familiar wTay j Ifocrates for his elegancy,
fmoothnefs, and the fine turn of his periods ; and De-
mofthenes for his flame and rapidity, by which he car¬
ried all before him. And Gellius tells us, that the like
difference was found in the three philofophers who were
fent from the Athenians to Rome (before the Romans
had any relifh for the polite arts) to folicit the remit¬
tance of a fine laid upon them for an injury done to a
neighbouring ftate. Carneades, one of thofe ambaffa-
dors, was vehement and rapid in his harangues ; Crito-
laus, neat andfmooth ; and Diogenes, modefi andfiober.
The eloquence of thefe orators, and the agreeable va¬
riety of their different manner, fo captivated the Roman
youth, and inflamed them with a love of the Grecian
arts, that old Cato, who did all he could to check it
by hurrying away the ambaffadors, could not prevent
their vigorous purfuit of them, till the ftudy became in
a manner univerfal. And the old gentleman afterwards
learned the Greek language himfelf, when it became
* Lord Ba- more fafhionable. Which a noble writer of ours * re-
con’ prefents as a punifhment upon him for his form.er crime.
It feldom happens that the fame perfon excels in each
of thefe charaefers. They feem to require a different
genius, and moft people are naturally led to one of them
more than another : though all of them are requifite for
an orator upon different occafions, as we fhall fhow here¬
after.
Chap. V. Of the Low Style.
ftyle con- This we (hall confider under two heads, thoughts and
fidered language; in each of Which the feveral characters are
both as to diftinguifhed from one another.
thoughts I. And with refpeff to the former, as the fubjefts
proper for this ftyle are either common things, or fuch
g S Vol. XV. Part I.
TORY. - 377
as ftiould be treated in a plain and familiar way •, fu Elocution,
plain thoughts are moft fuitable to it, and diftinguifh it v ^
from the other characters. IGI
Now, by plain thoughts, are meant fuch as are fimple
and obvious, and feem to rife naturally from the fubjeft,
when duly confidered ; fo that any one, upon fir ft hear¬
ing them, would be apt to imagine they mult have oc¬
curred to himfelf. Not that this is really the cafe, but
becaufe the more natural a thing is, the more eafy it
feems to be; though in reality it is often otherwife ;
and the perfection of art lies in its nearelt refemblance
to nature. And therefore, in order to fpeak plainly and
clearly upon any fubjeCt, it muft firft be duly confider-"
ed, well underftood, and thoroughly digefted in the
mind } which, though it require labour and iludy, yet
the more a perfon is mailer of what he fays, the lefs
that labour will appear in his difeourfe. This natural
plainnefs and fimplicity, without any difguife or affeCta-
tion, very much contributes to give credit to what is
faid. Nor is any thing more apt to impofe on us, than
the appearance of this, when artfully affumed. Cicero’s
account of the fight between Milo and Clodius, in
which Clodius was killed, is a remarkable inftance of
this. “ When Clodius knew (fays he) that Milo was
obliged to go to Lanuvium upon a folemn and neceffary
occafion, he immediately haftened from Rome, the day
before, to afiaflinate him before Clodius’s own houfe, as
appeared afterwards by the event. And this he did at
a time, when his turbulent mob in the city wanted his
afliftance ; whom he would not have left but for the ad¬
vantage of that place and feafon to execute his wicked
defign. But the next day Milo was in the fenate, where
he continued till they broke up } then went home $
changed his drefs ; ftaid there fome time till his wife
was ready ; and afterwards fet forward fo late, that if
Clodius had defigned to return to Rome that day, he
might have been here by that time. Clodius, prepared
for his defign, met him on horfeback, having no cha¬
riot, no equipage, no Greek attendants as ufual; and
without his wife, which was fcarcely ever known: where¬
as Milo was in a chariot with his wife, wrapt up in a
cloak, and attended by a large retinue of maid fervants,
pages, and other perfons unfit for an engagement. He
met with Clodius before his houfe, about five o’clock in
the evening •, and was prefently aflaulted from a higher
ground by many armed men, who killed the coachman.
Upon which, Milo, throwing off his cloak, leaped out
of the chariot, and bravely defended himfelf: and thofe
who were with Clodius, having their fwords drawn,
fome made up to the chariot to attack Milo 5 and others,
who now thought he had been killed, began to fall up¬
on his fervants who were behind. And of thefe, fuch
as had courage, and were faithful to their mafter, fome
were killed ; and others when they faw the fldrmilh at
the chariot, and could do their mafter no fervice (for
they heard Clodius himfelf fay that Milo was killed,
and really thought it was fo), did that, not by their
mafter’s order, nor with his knowledge, nor when he
was prefent, which every one would have his own fer¬
vants to do in the like circumftances. I do not fay this
to fix any crime upon them, but only to relate what
happened.” His meaning is, they killed Clodius j
which he avoids mentioning, to render what he fays lefs
offenfive. Can any thing be told in a more plain and
fimple manner than this ? Here is nothing faid, but
3 B what
578 O R A T
Elocution, what in itfclf feems highly probable, and what one
*. ^ would imagine the fact might eafily fugged to any ordi¬
nary fpeftator. But in this, both the art and fk.il! of ;t
conful. For in the rvhole account, as, on the one hand,
Milo is fo defcribed as to render it highly improbable he
could have any defign at that time againft Clodius } fo
on the other, no o;ie circumflance is omitted winch
might feem proper to periuade the hearers that Clodius
was the aggrelfor in that engagement. And yet, if we
may believe Afconius, the quarrel was begun by feme
of Milo’s retinue, and Clodius was afterwards killed by
his exprefs order. But as things are fometimes bed il-
ludrated by their oppodtes, we {hall here produce a
contrary indance of a very afiefled and unnatural wray
of relating a faff. \ al. Maximus tells us of a learned
man at Athens, who, by a blow which he received by
a done upon his head, entirely forgot all his learning,
though he continued to remember every thing elfe.
And therefore, as he fays, fmee this misfortune depriv¬
ed him of the greated enjoyment of his life, it had been
happier for him never to have been learned, than after¬
wards to lofe that pleafure. This is the plain fenfe of
the dory. But now let us hear him relate it, “ A man
(fays he) of great learning at Athens, having received a
blow upon his head by a done, retained the memory of
all other things very perfectly, and only forgot his learn¬
ing, to which he hacP chiefly devoted himfelf. The
direful and malignant wound invading his mind, and as
it were deflgnedly furveying the knowledge repofited
there, cruelly feized on that part of it in particular from
which he received the greated pleafure, and buried the
lingular learning of the man with an invidious funeral.
Who fince he was not permitted to enjoy his dudies, had
better never have obtained accefs to them, than after-
wards to have been deprived of the delight they adbrded
him.” What an unnatural tvay is this of relating fuch
an accident, to talk of a wound invading the mind, and
furveying the knowledge repoftled there, and cruelly feez¬
ing a particular part oj it, and burying it with an invidi¬
ous funeral ? There is nothing in the dory could lead
him to this, but an over-fondnefs to refine upon it in a
very afreffed manner. But there are two properties of
„ plain thoughts, one of which ought condantly to at¬
tend them in common with all thoughts, and the
other is often neceffary to animate and enliven this cha-
rafter.
The former of thefe is judnefs and propriety, which
is what reafon dictates in all cafes. What Cicero fays
■ of the death of Craifus the orator, feems very jud, as
well as natural. “ It was (fays he) an affliction to his
friends, a lofs to his country, and a concern to all good
men : but fuch public calamities followed upon it, tnat
heaven feemed rather to have favoured him with death,
than to have deprived him of life.” This thought feems
very jud, and agreeable to the fentiments cf a good
man, as Craffus was j to choofe death rather than to
outlive the happinefs of his country, to which he him¬
felf had fo much contributed. Quintilian has a reflec¬
tion upon a like occafion, which is not fo jud and be¬
coming. It is upon the death of his only fon, a youth
of very uncommon parts, as he reprefents him •, and for
whofe ufe he had defigned his Injlitutions of oratory ;
but be died before they w'ere finiihed. I he pafiage is
this : “ I have lod him of whom I had formed the great-
eft hopes, and in whom I had repofed the greateft com-
O II Y. Fdtt III.
fort of my old age. What can I do now ? or of what Elocution.
farther uie can 1 think myfelf to be, thus difappointed
by heaven ? What good parent will pardon me, n I can
any longer dudy, and nut condemn fuch refolution, if,
thus furviving all my family, I can make any other ute
of my voice, than to accufe the geds, and declare that
providence does not govern the world Adowance
may be made for the failles of paflion, even in wife men,
upon fome (hocking occafions 5 but wfflen it proceeds to
fuch a degree as to become impious, it is very indecent,
as well as unjud. And all indecency is unnatural, as
it is difagreeable to icafon, which always d.redds to a
decorum. That feems to be a very natural as well as
jud thought of Pliny the Younger, when he fays,
“ The death of thefe perfons always appears to me too
lu.vy and unfeafonable, who are preparing feme lading
work. For perfons wholly devoted to pleafures, live,
as it were, from day to day, and daily finffli the end for
which they live ; but thofe who have a view to poderi-
ty, and preferve their memory by their labours, always
die untimely, becaufe they leave fomething unfinilhed.”
We fhall mention but one more indance ; and that in a
comparative view, to make it the mere evident, d he
two Ions of Junius Brutus, the fad Roman conful, hav¬
ing been convidded of treafbn, in aflbeiating with 1 ar-
quin’s party, wrere ordered, among others, to be put to
death 5 and their father not only pronounced the fen-
tence, but prefided at the execution. I his facl is men.
tioned by leveral of the Roman hidorians } and, as it
carries in it not only the appearance of rigorous juitice,
but likewife of cruelty in Brutus, to have been _ prefent
at the execution of his fons, they endeavour to vindicate
him different ways. What I rorus fays feems rather an
affeflation of wit, than a jud defence of the net. “ He
beheaded them (fays he), that being a public paient,
he might appear to have adopted the whole body of the'
people.” Nor does Val. Maximus come up to the cafe,
who fays, “ He put off the father to act the conful j
and chole rather to lofe the fons, than be wanting to
public judice.” This might be a realon for condemn¬
ing them •, and would have been equally true, had he
not been prefent at their execution. But Livy, whofe
thoughts are generally very jud and natural, affigns the
bed reafon which perhaps can be given for his vindica¬
tion, when he fays, “ Fortune made him the execution¬
er of the fentence, wfflo ought not to have been a Ipec-
tator.” By [-ifmg fortune made him fo, he represents
it not as a matter of choice, like tne other hidorians,
but of neceflity, from the nature of bis office, which
then obliged him to fee the execution of that lenience
he had himfelf before pronounced ; as is the cudcm at
prefent, in fome popular governments.
The other property, which diould often accompany
plain and Ample thoughts, is, that they be gay and
fprightly. This, as has been faid, is neceffary to ani¬
mate and enliven fuch difeourfes as. require the low
dyle. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the . greater
fpirit and vivacity is requifite to prevent, its being diy
and jejune. A thought may be very biifk and lively,
and at the fame time appear very natural, as the effeft
of a ready and flowing wit. Such thoughts, attended
with agreeable turns, are very fuitable to this Ayle j but
care fflould be taken, led, while fancy is too much in¬
dulged, the judnefs of them be overlooked. We fhall
give one mftance, m winch this feems to ha\e been the.
Part III.
O R A T
Elocution, cafe, from a celebrated Englifii work, where the inge-
-v ’ nious writer endeavours to fhpw the difadvantages of
perfonS' not attending to their natural genius, but affecl-
ino- to imitate others in thofe things for which they were
not formed. “ The great misfortune (fays he) of this
affectation is, that men not only lofe a good quality, but
alfo contract a bad one ; they not only are unfit for
what they are defigned, but they aflign themfelves to
what they are unfit for : and inftead of making a very
good figure one way, make a very ridiculous one an¬
other. Could the wmrld be reformed to the obedience
of that famed diftate, Follow nature, which the oracle
of Delphos pronounced to Cicero when he coniulted
what courfe of ftudies he fhould purfue, we fhould lee
almoft every man as eminent in his proper iphere as
Tully w'as in his. For my part, I could never confi-
der this prepofterous repugnancy to nature any other-
wife, than not only as the greatefl folly, but alfo one
of the moft heinous crimes ; fince it is a direft oppofition
to the difpofition of providence, and (as fully expreffes
it) like the fin of the giants, an adlual rebellion againft
heaven.” The advantages that arife from perfons at¬
tending to their own genius, and purfuing its dictates,
are here reprefented in a very lively and agreeable man¬
ner. But there is one thing afferted, wdrich we fear
will not hold ; which is, that, Could the world be re¬
formed to that diClate, “ Follow Nature,” we jhouldfee
almojl every man as eminent in his proper Jphere as Ful¬
ly iuas in his. For though doubtlefs perfons would ge¬
nerally fucceed bell if they kept to this rule 5 yet differ¬
ent degrees of ability are often found, where the bias
and inclination is the lame, and that accompanied wuth
equal labour and diligence. If this was not fo, howr
happened it that no one came up to l ully in the art of
oratory } efpecially in his own age, wdren there. were
the greatell opportunities for that fludy, and the highefl
encouragements wrere given to it, as it paved the wTay
to riches, honours, and all the grand offices of the flale ?
It cannot well be queftioned but that there rvere other
gentlemen, who had all the fame advantages, accom¬
panied with as flrong a paflion for this art, as lully
had, wdro yet fell much fhort of him in point of fuccefs.
And experience fhowTs, that the cafe has been the fame
in all other purfuits.
III. But it is time to proceed to the other head,
the language proper for this ftyle. And here it may
be obferved in general, that the drefs ought to be
agreeable to the thoughts, plain, fimple, and unaf-
feded. •
But the firft thing that comes under confideration
is elegance, or a proper choice of words and exprefiions \
which ought always to fuit the idea they are defigned to
convey. Amd theretore wThen an ancient writer, fpeak-
ing of cruelty, calls it nwvus crudelitatis, the blemijh of
cruelty ; and another, applying the fame word to ingra¬
titude, fays tucvus ingratitudinis, the blemijh of ingrati¬
tude ; that term does not fufliciently convey to us the
odious nature of either of thofe vices, as indeed it was
not their defign it fhould. But otherwife, where the
fpeaker has not fome particular view in doing it, to
fink too low is as much a fault as to rife too high. So
Jo call ancient Rome the miftrefs of Italy, would as
much leffen the juft notion of Rm extent of her power,
as the Roman writers aggrandife it when they fiyle her
mlflrefs of the world. But purity, both in the choice
ioa
The lan¬
guage pi O'
per for
this ftyle.
O ft Y. 379
of words and expreflions, is never more neceffary tnan E;ocuiioin
it is here. This may be called neatnefs in language.
And to be plain and neat at the fame time, is not only
very confident, but the former can no other way recom¬
mend itfelf, than as joined with the latter. Befides,
the fewer advantages any thing has to fet it off, the more
carefully they ought to be obferved. Perfpicuity is al¬
ways to be regarded •, and ferves very much to keep up
the attention, where other ornaments are wanting. E-
pithets fliould be fparingly ufed, fince they enlarge the
images of things, and contribute very much to heighten
the llyle. Indeed they are fometimes neceffary to fet a
thing in its juft light ■, and then they ftiouid not be
dropped. Thus, in fpeaking of Xerxes, it wmuld be
too low and fiat to fay, He defeended with his army into
Greece. Here is no intimation given of their vaft and
unparalleled numbers, which ought to be done. Hero¬
dotus fays, his whole army, of fea and land forces, a—
mounted to 2,317,000 and upwards. Therefore, unlefs
the number be mentioned, the leaft that can be faid is,
that he defeended with a vajl army. •
The next thing to be regarded is compofition, which
here does not require the greateft accuracy and exact-
nefs. A feeming negligence is fometimes a beauty in
this ftyle, as it appears more natural. Short fentences,
or thofe of a moderate length, are likewife upon the
whole bell fuited to this charadler. Long and accurate
periods, finely wrought up with a gradual rife, harmo¬
nious numbers, a due proportion of the feveral parts,
and a juft cadency, are therefore improper, as they are
plainly the effect of art. But yet fome proportion ftiouid
be obferved in the members, that neither the ears be
too much defrauded, nor the fenfe obfeured. Of this
kind is that expreflion of a Greek orator, blamed by
Demetrius : Ceres came readily to our affiance, but A-
rflides not. The latter member of this fentence is too
fliort 5 and by dropping fo fuddenly, both difappoints
the ears, and is fomewhat obfeure. It wmuld have been
plainer and more agreeable thus, but Ar 'flides did not
come. As to order, the plained: and cleareft difpofition,
both of the words and members of fentences, and wdrat
is moft agreeable to the natural conftruclion, beft fuits
with this charafler. For one of its principal beauties is
perfpicuity. And a proper conneflion likewife of fen¬
tences, with a regular order in the dependence of things
one upon another, very much contributes to this end.
With regard to the collifion of fyllables in different
words, for preventing either a hollownefs or afperity of
found, greater liberty may be taken in this ftyle than
in the other charadlers. Here it may be allowed to fay,
Virtue is amiable to all, though all do not purfue it. But
in a higher chara&er, perhaps, in order to prevent the
hollow found of the words though all, a perfon would
choofe to vary the expreffion a little, and fay, though
few purfue it. So, Xerxes’1 expedition, may be tolerable
here*, but in the florid ftyle, the expedition of Xerxes
would found much better.
The laft thing to be confidered, with refpcfl to the
language, is dignity, or the ufe of tropes and figures.
And as to tropes, they ought to be wed cautioufly *, un
lefs fuch as are very common, and by tune have either
come into the place of proper words, or at leaft are
equally plain and clear. So in the inftance mentioned
above, Diodorus Siculus, fpeaking of the forces ot
Xerxes, calls them an innumerable company. Where,
2 B 2 * ' by
38°
ORATORY.
Part III.
Elof.ution. by a fynecdoche, lie has chofen to make ufe of an uncer-
tajn number for a certain, as lefs liable perhaps to ex¬
ception. Other examples might be given if neceffary.
And with regard to figures, as molt of thofe which con-
fill in words, and are therefore called verbal figures,
ferve chiefly to enliven an expreflion, and give an
agreeable turn, they are often not improper for this
character. Nor are figures of fentences wholly to be
excluded, efpecially fuch as are chiefly ufed in reafon-
ing or demonftration. But thofe which are more pecu¬
liarly adapted to touch the paflions, or paint things in
the llrongeft colours, are the more proper ornaments of
the higher ftyles, as will be fhown hereafter.
Upon the whole, therefore, pure nature, without any
colouring, or appearance of art, is the diftinguifhing
mark of the low Ityle. The defign of it is to make
things plain and intelligible, and to fet them in an eafy
light. And therefore the proper fubjefls of it are
e piffles, dialogues, philofophical diflertations, or any
other difcourfes, that ought to be treated in a plain and
familiar manner, without much ornament, or addrefs to
the paflions. A freedom and eafe both of thought and
expreflion, attended with an agreeable humour and
pleafantry, are its peculiar beauties that engage us. As
we fee perfons of fafliion and good breeding, though in
the plainefl: habit, have yet fomething in their air and
manner of behaviour that is very taking and amiable.
Somewhat of the like nature attends this ftyle.. It has
its difficulties, which are not fo eafily difcerned but
from experience. For it requires no fmall {kill to treat
a common fubjefl in luch a manner as to make it enter¬
taining. The fewer ornaments it admits of, the great¬
er art is neceflary to attain this end. Lofty fubjects of¬
ten engage and captivate the mind by the fublimity of
the ideas. And the florid ftyle calls in all the afliftance
of language and eloquence. But the plain ftyle is in a
great meafure ftripped of thofe advantages ; and has lit¬
tle mor* to recommend it, than its own native beauty
and fimplicity.
Chap. VI. Ofithe Middle Style.
This we ftiall treat in the fame manner as we did the
former, by confidering firft the matter, and then the
language proper for it.
The mitidh as t^ie ProPer f°r this ftyle are things
Itjie confi- weight and importance, which require both a gravity
derecl as to and accuracy of expreflion ; fo fine thoughts are its di-
matter and ftinguiihing mark, as plain thoughts are of the low cha-
language. ra£ter, and lofty thoughts of the fublime. Now a fine
thought may deferve that character from fome or other
of the following properties.
And the firft property we {hall mention is gravity
and dignity. Thus Cicero in a fpeech to Csefar, fays,
“ It has been often told me, that you have frequently
faid, you have lived long enough for yourfelf. I believe
it, if you either lived, or was born for yourfelf only.”
Nothing.could either be more fit and proper, than this
was, when it was fpoken j or at the fame time a finer
comoliment upon Caefar. For the civil war was now
over, and the whole power of the Roman government
in the hands of Csefar ; fo that he might venture to fay
he had lived long enougli for himfelf, there being no
higher pitch of glory to which his ambition could afpire.
But then there were many things in the ftate that
103
wanted redrefling, after thofe times cf diforder and con.; Elocution,
fufion, which he had not yet been able to efifeft, and of * *
which Cicero here takes an opportunity to remind him.
We fhall produce another example from Curtius. Phi-
lotas, one of Alexander’s captains, having formed a con-
fpiracy againft him, was convicted of it, and put to
death. Amintas, who was fufpected of the fame crime,
by reafon of his great intimacy with Philotas, when he
comes to make his defence, among other things fpeaks
thus : “ I am fo far from denying my intimacy with
Philotas, that I own I courted his friend (hip. Do you
wonder that we ffiowed a regard to the fon of Parme-
nio, whom you would have to be next to yourfelf, giv¬
ing him the preference to all your other friends ? You,
Sir, if I may be allowed to {peak the truth, have
brought me into this danger. For to whom elfe is it ^
owing, that thofe who endeavoured to pleafe you, ad-
dreffed themfelves to Philotas ? By his recommendation
we have been raifed to this ffiare of your friendffiip.
Such was his intereft with you, that we courted his fa¬
vour, and feared his difpleafure. Did we not all in a man¬
ner engage ourfelves by oath, to have the fame friends,
and the fame enemies, which you had ? Should we have
refufed to take this, which you as it were propofed to
us ? Therefore, if this be a crime, you have few inno¬
cent perfons about you ; nay, indeed none. For all
defired to be the friends of Philotas •, though all could
not be fo who defired it. Therefore, if you make no
difference between his friends and accomplices, neither
ought you to make any between thofe who defired to be
his friends, and thofe who really were fo.” Could any
thing be finer fpoken, more proper, and becoming the
character of a foldier, than this defence ; efpecially to a
prince of fo great and generous a fpirit as Alexander ?
There is fomething which appears like this in Tacitus
with relation to the emperor Tiberius, but falls vaftly
ffiort of it in the juftnefs and dignity of the fentiment.
Sejanus, his great favourite, and partner in his crimes,
falling under his difpleafure, was, like Philotas, put to
death for a confpiracy. Now a Rom&n knight, who ap¬
prehended himfelf in danger on account of his friendftnp
with Sejanus, thus apologizes for himfelf to the emperor,
i» the manner of Amintas : “ It is not for us to exa¬
mine the merit of a perfon whom you raife above others,
nor your reafons for doing it. The gods have given you
the fovereign power of all things, to us the glory of
obeying. Let confpiracies formed againft the ftate, or
the life of the emperor, be punilhed j but as to friend-
fhips and private regards, the fame reafon that juftifies
you, Csefar, renders us innocent.” The turn of the ex-
preflions is not much different from that in the cafe of
Amintas ; but the beauty of the thought is fpoiled by
the flattery of complimenting Tiberius upon an ex-
cefs of power, which he employed to the deftruftion of
many excellent men. There is not that impropriety
in the defence of Amintas, which is equally brave and
juft.
Another property of a fine thought is beauty ~^ndi
elegance. It is a fine compliment which Pliny pays to
the emperor Trajan, when he fays, “ It has happened
to you alone, that you was father of your country, be¬
fore you was made fo.” Some of the Roman emperors
had been complimented with the title of father of their
country, who little deferved it. But Trajan had a long
time refufed it, though he was really fo, both by his
good
Part nr. ORATORY. 381
1-ioeiition. good government, and m the efteem of his fubjefts, be- ed him with thofe endowments which others gradually Elocution.
fore he thought fit to accept of it. And Pliny, among acquire by ftudy and application. ” J
otlier inftances of the generofity of that prince, which 1 he ialt property of a fine thought, which we fliall
he mentions in the fame dncourfe, fpeaking of the h- take notice of, is noveltxj. Mankind is naturally plea-
berty that he gave the Romans to purchafe eftates which fed with new things 5 and when at the fame time they
had belonged to the emperors, and the peaceable poffef- are fet in an agreeable light, this very much heightens
lion they had of them, does it by a turn of thought no the pleafure. Indeed there are few fubjedts, but what
iefs beautiful than the former. “ Such (fays he) is the have been fo often confidered, that it is not to be ex-
prince’s bounty, fuch the fecurity of the times, that he pefted they fhould afford many thoughts entirely new j
thinks us worthy to enjoy what has been poffeffed by but the fame thought fet in a different light, or applied
emperors j and we are not afraid to be thought fo.” to a different occafion, has in fome degree a claim of
J here is a fpnghtlinefs in this image, which gives it a novelty. And even where a thing hath been fo well
beauty; as there is likewife in the following paffage of faid already, that it cannot cafily be mended, the revl-
the fame difcourfe, where, he fays to Trajan, “ Your val of a fine thought often affords a pleafure and enter-
life is difpleafing to you, if it be not joined with the tainment to the mind, though it can have no longer the
public fafety ; and you fuffer us to wifh you nothing claim of novelty. Cicero, in his treatife of an orator,
but what is for the good of thofe who wifh it. ’ And among feveral other encomiums which he there gives to
of the fame kind is that of Cicero to Cahar, when he Craffus, fays of him, “ Craffus always excelled every
fays, “ h ou, Csefar, are wont to forget nothing but in- other perfon, but that day he excelled himfelf.” He
juries.” It is a very handfome, as well as juft reflec- means as an orator. But elfewhere he applies the fame
tion, made by Tacitus upon Galba’s government, that thought to Caefar, upon another account 5 and with
“ He feemed too great for a private man, while he was fome addition to it. u You had (fays he) before con-
but a private man 5 and all would have thought him quered all other conquerors by your equity and cle-
worthy of the empire, had he never been emperor.” mency, but to-day you have conquered yourfelf *, you
e beauty of a thought may give us delight, though feem to have vanquiihed even victory herfelf, therefore
t re fubject be forrowful 5 and the images of things in you alone are truly invincible. This thought, with a
themfelves unpleafant may be fo reprefented as to be- little variation of the phrafe, has fince appeared in feve-
come agreeable. Sifigambis, the mother of Darius, af- ral later writers j and it is now grown common to fay
ter the death of her fon, had been treated by Alexander of a perfon, who excels in any way, upon his doing
with^the greateft regard and tendernefs, in whofe power better than he did before, that he has outdone himfelf.
the tnen was. So foon as fhe heard therefore that he The like has happened to another thought, which, with
was dead., file grew weary of life, and could not bear to a little alteration, has been varioufly applied. It was
outlive him. . Upon which (.). Curtius makes this fine faid by Varro, That if the Mufes were to talk Latin,
redechon : “ Though fhe had courage to furvive Da- they would talk like Plautus. The younger Pliny, ap-
nus, yet fhe was afhamed to outlive Alexander.” plying this compliment to a friend of his, fays, His let-
The next property of a fine thought, which we fhall ters are fo finely written, that you would think the Mufes
mention, is delicacy. As, in.the objects of our fenfes, themfelves talked Latin. And Cicero tells us, It was
thofe things are faid to be delicate which affeft us gra- faid of Xenophon, that the Mufes themfelves feemed to
ually in. a foft and agreeable manner j fo a delicate /peak Greek with his voice. And elfewhere, that Phi-
thought is that which is not wholly difcovered at once, lofophers fay, if Jupiter fpeaks Greek, he mufi fpeah
degrees opening and unfolding itfelf to the mind, like Plato. The thought is much the fame in all thefe
di doles more than was at firft perceived. Quintilian inftances, and has been fince revived by fome modem
ieems to refer to this, when he fays, “ Thofe tilings are writers.
grateful to the hearers, which, when they apprehend, II. We fliall now confider theproper for the The lan-
they are delighted with their own fagacity ; and pleafe middle ftyle. And in general it may be obferved, that Suage.of
themfelves, as though they had not heard, but difcover- as the proper fubjecls of it are things of weight and im-.1^
e. .them- , Such thoughts are.not unlike the fketches portance, though not of that exalted nature as wholly toJ e*
o ome pictures, which let us into the defign of the ar- captivate the mind, and divert it from attending to the
til , and help us to difcern more than the lines them- diction, fo all the ornaments of fpeech, and beauties of
ielves exprefs. Of this kind is that of Salluft : “ In the eloquence, have place here.
greateft fortunes, there is the leaft liberty.” This is And firft with regard to elegance, it is plain that a
not.o ten fo in fact, but ought to be j both to guard difterent choice of words makes a very great difference
agamft an abufe of power, and.to prevent the effefts of in the ftyle, where the fenfe is the fame. Sometimes
a a example to inferiors. Pliny, fpeaking of the em- one fingle word adds a grace and weight to an expref-
peror l raj an s entry into Rome, fays, “ Some declared, lion, which, if removed, the fenfe becomes flat and
upon eeing you, they had lived long enough •, others, lifelefs. Now fuch words as are moft full and expreftive
that now they were more defirous to live.” The com- fuit beft with his charafter. Epithets alfo, which are
p ment is fine either way, fince both muft efteem the proper and well chofen, ferve very much to beautify
to im.the greateft happinefs in life ; and in that and enliven it, as they enlarge the ideas of things, and
ccnfiftency lies the delicacy of the thought. It was a fet them in a fuller light.
fine character given of Grotius, when very young, on 'I he moft accurate compofition, in all the parts of it,
the account o. his furprifing genius and uncommon, pro- has place here. Periods, the moft beautiful and harmo-
ciency in earning,.that he was born a man : As if na- nious, of a due length, and wrought up with the moft .
tqre, at is coming into the world, had at once fumifh- exadl order, juft cadency, eafy and fmooth connec¬
tion, .
1
382 O R A T
Elocution, tion of the words, and flowing numbers, are the genuine
 ' ornaments, which greatly contribute to form this c.;a-
rafter.
But the principal diftin&ion of ftyle arifes from
tropes and figures. By thefe it is chiefly animated and
raifed to its difierent degrees or characters, as it receives
a lefler or greater number of them } and thole either
more mild, or ftrong and powerful.
As to tropes, thofe which afford the moft lively and
pleafing ideas, efpecially metaphors, fuit the middle cha¬
racter. It is a pretty remark, which has been made by
fome critics upon two verfes of Virgil; one m his
Eclogues, and the other in his Georgies. The former
of thefe works is for the moft part written in the low
ftyle, as the language of ftiepherds ought to be j but the
latter in the middle ftyle, fuitable to the nature ot the
fubieCt, and the perfons for whom it was defigned, the
greateft men in Rome not thinking it below them to
entertain themfelves with rural affairs. Now m tue
Eclogue, as fome copies read the verfe, the ftiepherd,
complaining of the barrennefs of his land, fays,
Infelix loliutn et Jienles nafeuntur avence.
In Englifh thus :
Wild oats and darnel grow inftead of corn.
But in the Georgic, where the fame fenfe is intended,
inftead of the proper word nafeuntur, grow, the au¬
thor fubftitutes a metaphor, dominantur, command, and
fays,
Infelix lolium et JleriUs dominantur avence.
That is in Englifh *,
Where corn is fown, darnel and oats command.
It was fit and natural for the ftiepherd to exprefs his
fenfe in the plaineft terms ; and it would have been
wron'T to reprefent him going fo far out. of his. way, as
to fetch a metaphor from government, in talking upon
his own affairs. But in the Georgic, where the poet
fpeaks in his own perfon, the metaphor is much more
beautiful, and agreeable to the dignity of the work.
This inftance may fliow in fome meafure how the ityle
is heightened by tropes, and the fame thought may be
accommodated to the feveral charafters of ftyle by the
different manner of expreftion.
The like may alfo be faid of .figures either of. words
or fentences, in reference to this character •, which ad¬
mits of the fineft deferiptions, moft lively images, and
brighteft figures, that ferve either for delight, or to in¬
fluence the paflions without tranfnort or ecftaly^ which
is the property of the fublime. This is. indeed the pro¬
per feat of fuch embellifhments, which fupport and
make up a principal p^rt of the middle or florid ftyle.
Having treated largely upon thefe in feveral preceding
chapters, we {hall here only briefly mention fome ot the
Io(’ moft confiderable. ..
Befmp- Deferiptions are not only a great ornament to a dil-
mental and com*, but reprefent things in a very lively and agree-
plcafant. able manner. In what a beaut.ful hght has C.cero pla-
ced the polite arts and fciences, when, defcribing them
from their effefts, he thus reprefents to us the great ad¬
vantages, as well as pleafure, which they afford to the
mind ? “ Other ftudles neither fuit with all times, nor
all ages, nor all places: but thefe improve youth, de-
4
O R Y.
Part III.
light old age, adorn profperuy, afford a reiuge and ij- l.lunitior...
lace in adverhtyrpleale at home, are no hinderance v "*
abroad ; deep, travel, and retire, with us.” And they
often affedt us very powerfully, when they are addreffed
to the fenfes. Quintilian has painted the calamities ot
a city taken by itorm in the brighteft and ftrongeft co¬
lours, which he reprefents by “ Flames fpreading them¬
felves over the houfes and temples, the cracking of fall¬
ing buildings, and a confufed noife from a variety ot
cries and {bouts ; fome running they. know not where,
others in the laft embraces of their friends, the Ihrieks
of children, women, and old men unhappily r.eferved to
fuch diftrefs \ the plundering of all places civil and fa-
cred, the hurry and confufion in carrying off the booty,
captives driven before their victors, mothers endeavour¬
ing to guard their infants, and quarrels among the con¬
querors where the plunder is largeft.” Ihis feems to
be a very natural, as well as moving, image ol lo dread¬
ful a calamity. .-
Profopopeia is another very ftrong and beautiiul h-Profopo -
gure, very proper for this character. Seneca has a
inftance of it in his “ Confolatory Letter to Marcia, thig cha_
upon the death of her fon. After many arguments he rafteri>
had made ufe of to alleviate her grief, he at Taft intro¬
duces her father, Cremutius Cordus, as thus addreflmg
to her : “ Imagine your father (fays he) from the ce-
leftial regions, {peaking to you in this manner : Daugh¬
ter, why do you fo long indulge your grief ? why are.
you fo ignorant, as to think it unhappy for your ion,
that, weary of life, he has withdrawn himfelf to his an-
ceftors ? Are you not fenfible what diiorders fortune oc-
cafions everywhere ? and that Ihe is kindeft to. thole-
who have leaft concern with her ? Need I mention to
you princes who had been extremely happy, had a more
timely death fecured them from impending evils ? or
Roman generals, who wanted nothing to confummate
their glory but that they lived too long ? Why then is
he bewailed longeft in our family who died moft happi¬
ly ? There is nothing, as you imagine, defirable among
you, nothing great, nothing noble j but, on the' con¬
trary, all things are mean, full of trouble and anxiety
and partake very little of the light which we enjoy.'
This advice was very fuitable for a philofopher 5 and he
feems to have chofen this way of introducing it, to en¬
force the argument drawn from the. happmefs of good
men in a future ftate, from the tefti.mony o a per on
who was a finally in the poffeflion of n. xoS
Similitudes and comparifons are another great orna-similitudes
men, of this ftyle, and ofteneft found here. , n,.
can be finer than the comparifon between thoie two. ^
great orators, Demofthenes and Cicero, made by ^um-liere.
tilian, when he fays, “ Demofthenes and C.eero d.her
in their elocution ; one is more clofe, and the other
more copious ; the former concludes more conci e y,
and the latter takes a larger compafs j the one always
with pungency, and the other generally wuth weight ,
one can have nothing taken from him, and the other no¬
thing added to him ; the latter has more of art and the
former more of nature. But this muft be allowed to
Demofthenes, that he made Cicero m a great meafure
what he was. For as Tally gave himfelf wholly to an
imitation of the Greeks, beseems to me to have expreff-
ed the force of Demofthenes, the. fluency of P^t0’ aT^
the pleafantry of Ifocrates.” Similitudes, taken from
natural things, ferve very much to enliven the ftyle.
Part III.
O R A
109
Antithefis
h;is aifo a
fine effect.
Elocution, anu give it a clieerfu’nefs j which- is a thing fo common
'r and well known, that we need not Hay to give any in-
flances of it.
Antithefi,?, or oppofition, both in the words and
fenfe, has often the like beautiful e lie cl. There is an
■ agreeable contrail in that paffage of Seneca : “ Caefar
does not allow himfelf many things, becaufe he can
do all things : his watching defends all others ileep,
his labour their quiet, his induftry their pleafure, his
bufmefs their eafe ; lines he has governed the world
he has deprived himfelf of it.” Had he laid no more
than only in general, that Ca-far dues not allow himfelf
many things, becaufe he can do all things, it might have
palled for a fine thought j but, by adding fo many par¬
ticulars, all in the fame form of expreffion, and begin¬
ning each member with the fame word, he has both
enlarged the idea, and beautified the antithefis, by a
bright verbal figure.
Thefe, and inch like florid figures, are fometimes
found in hilforians, but oftener in orators; and in¬
deed this middle charailer, in the whole of it, is bell ac-
' commodated to the fubjecls of hillory and oratory.
Chap. VII. Of the Sublime Style.
■ The nobleft The fubhme is the moll noble, as well as the moft
and the difficult, part of an orator’s province. It is this prin-
moft diffi- cipally which Cicero requires in his perfedl orator,
an orator’"f v^10rn could not deferibe in words, but only con-
province is ce*ve his mind. And indeed, the noblelt genius
the fublime. and greateft art are both requilite to form this cha-
rafter. For wdiere nature has been moll liberal in fur-
nilhing the mind with lofty thoughts, bright images,
and flrong expreffions; yet without the affilfance of
art there will fometimes be found a mixture of what
is low, improper, or mifplaced. And a great genius,
like a too rich foil, mull produce flowers and weeds
promifcuoufly, without cultivation. But the jullell pro¬
priety, joined with the greateft llrength and highell
elevation of thought, are required to complete the true
fublime. Art, therefore, is neceffary to regulate and
perfeft the talfe of thofe who are defirous to excel in
this charafter.
In explaining the nature and properties of this cha¬
rafter, we lhall, as in the two former, ccftifider firlt the
thoughts, and then the language; in each of which it is
diltinguifhed from them.
§ r. Sublime, as it relates to Thoughts.
Sublimity Lofty and grand fentiments are the balls and faun¬
as it relates dation of the true fublime. Longinus therefore ad-
to thoughts, yifes thofe who afpire at this excellence, to accuftom
themfelves to think upon the noblell fubjefts. A mind
that always dwells upon low and common fubjefts can
never raife itfelf fufficiently to reprefent things great
and magnificent in their full extent and proper light.
But he who inures himfelf to conceive the highelt and
moll exalted ideas, and renders them familiar to his
thoughts, will not often be at a lofs how to exprefs
theip \ for where proper words are wanting, by meta¬
phors and images taken from other things, he will be
able to convey them in a juft and adequate manner.
What is more common than for two perfons to con¬
ceive very differently of the fame thing from the difte-
T O R Y. , 385
rent manner of thinking to which they have been ac- Elocution,
cuftomed ? After the great battle in Cilicia, between, -“'—'v
Alexander and Darius, in which the latter was routed,
he lent ambaffadors to Alexander with propofals of
peace, offering him half his kingdom with his daughter
in marriage. Parmenio, one ol Alexander’s chief cap¬
tains, fays to him upon this occaiion, “ For my part,
7‘ was I Alexander, I would accept of thefe conditions.”
“ And f » would I (replies that afpiring monarch), was
I Parmenio.” The half of fo vail a kingdom at pre-
fent, and a right of fucceftion to the whole by marriage,
was the higheit ambition to which the thoughts of Par¬
menio could rife. But Alexander had vailly higher
views; he aimed at nothing lefs than univerfal mo¬
narchy ; and therefore fuch a propoial feemed much
beneath his regard. Noble and lofty thoughts are
principally thofe which either relate to divine objefts,
or fuch things as among men are generally efteemed
the greateft and moft illutlrious.
Of the former fort is that of Homer, when deferibing
the goddefs Difcord, he fays, that llie
Walks on the ground, and hides her head in clouds.
This ftretch of thought, fays Longinus, as great as
the diftance between heaven and earth, does not more
reprefent the ftature of the goddefs, than the meafure
0! the poet’s genius and capacity. But Inch images,
however beautiful in poetry, are not fo proper for an
orator, whofe bufinefs it is to make choice of thofe
which are fuited to the nature of things and the com¬
mon reafon of mankind. When Numa the fecond
king of Rome was fettled in his government, and at
peace with his neighbours, in order to ioften the fierce
and martial temper of his fubjefts, who had been al¬
ways accuftomed to wars during the reign of his pre-
deceffor Romulus, he endeavoured to imprefs their
minds with an awe of the Deity ; and for that end in¬
troduced a number of religious ceremonies, which he
pretended to have received from the goddefs Egeria *. * ^ee
This mull be efteemed an artful piece of policy atGERIA'
that time. But that fentiment is far more juft and
noble, with which Cicero endeavours to inlpire the
members of a community, in his treatife Of Laws,
when he fays, that “ Citizens ought firft to be per-
fuaded, that all things are under the rule and govern¬
ment of the gods; that every affair is direfted by
their wifdom and power ; that the higheft regard is
due to them from men, lince they oblerve every one’s
conduft, how he afts and behaves himfelf, and with
what temper and devotion he worlhips them; and
that they make a difference between the pious and im¬
pious.” Perfons under the influence of fuch a perfua-
lion, could not fail of behaving well in fociety. And
what he fays to Caefar is no lets in this ftyle, when, in¬
terceding for Ligarius, he tells him, that “ men in no¬
thing approach nearer to deity, than in giving life to
men.” And Velleius Paterculus, fpeaking of Cato,
gives him this fublime charafter, “ That he was more
like the goci than men; who never did a good thing,
that he might feem to do it.”
The other kind of lofty thoughts mentioned above,
are thofe which relate to power, wifdom, courage, be¬
neficence, and fuch other things as are of the higheft
efteem among mankind. “ Your fortune (fays Tully
to Caefar) has nothing greater than a power, nor your
nature
ft Oo
84
ORATORY.
Part ITT.
locution, nature than a will, to fave many.” He fubjoins this
^ “v compliment to what we juft now cited from him } and
applies that to Caefar, wliich was before only expreffed
in general, leaving him to drawr the inference of his
fimilitude to deity from the clemency of his nature.
And elfewdiere, as in a fort of tranfport for his fuccefs
in defeating the confpiracy of Catiline, he thus be-
fpeaks the Roman fenate : “ You have always decreed
public thanks to others for their good government of
the ftate, but to me alone for its prefervation. Let
that Scipio thine, by whofe conduft and valour Hanni¬
bal wras forced to leave Italy, and retire to Africa;
let the other Scipio be greatly honoured, who deftroy-
ed Carthage and Numantia, twm cities the moft dan¬
gerous to this empire; let Lucius Paulus be in high
efteem, whofe triumphal chariot was adorned with
Perfes, once a moft powerful and noble prince •, let
Marius be in eternal honour, w'ho twice delivered Italy
from an invation and the dread of fervitude j let Pom-
pey’s name excel all thefe, whofe actions and virtues
are terminated by no other bounds but the courfe of
the fun;—yet among all their praifes, there will ftill
fome place be left for my glory ; unlefs indeed it be
a greater thing to open for us new provinces to which
we may refort, than to fecure a place for our victo¬
rious generals to return in triumph.” And Velleius
Paterculus, as if he thought no encomium too high
'for this great orator, laments his unhappy fate in thefe
lofty (trains, addreffed to M. Antony, by whofe order
he was put to death : “You have taken from Cicero
old age, and a life more miferable than death under
your government; but his fame, and the glory of his
aCtions and words, you have been fo far from deftroy-
ing, that you have increafed them. He lives, and will
live in the memory of all ages ; and while this fyitem
of nature, however conftituted, (hall remain (which
fcarce any Roman but himfelf conceived in his mind,
comprehended by his genius, and illuftrated with his
eloquence), the praife of Cicero fnall accompany it j and
all pofterity, wdiile it admires his writings againft you,
will curfe your treatment of him ; and fooner (hall man¬
kind be loft to the world than his name.” It was a
noble reply of Poms the Indian king, when, after his
. defeat by Alexander, being brought before him, and
afked How he expeBed to he treated ? he anfwered, Like
a king. And Valerius Maximus, fpeaking of Pompey’s
treatment of Tigranes king of Armenia after he had
vanquiftied him, exprefles it in a manner fuited to the
dignity and beneficence of the aCfion, wLen he fays,
“ He reftored him to his former fortune, efteeming it as
. glorious to make kings as to conquer them.”
But the true fublime is confiftent with the greateft
. plainnefs and fimplicity of expreflion. And, gene¬
rally fpeaking, the more plain and natural the images
appear, the more they furprife us. How fuccinCt,
and yet how majeftic, is that expreflion of Coefar upon
his victory over Pharnaces ? I came, IJaw, I conquered.
But there cannot be a greater or more beautiful ex¬
ample of this, than what Longinus has taken notice of
from Mofes. “ The legiilator of the Jew's (fays he),
no ordinary perfon, having a juft notion of the power
and majefty of the Deity, has expreffed it in the be¬
ginning of his law's in the following words : And God
faid—what ? Let there he light; and there u>as light.
* * 1 1 ^ T'VilQ in_
ftance from the divine writer, and the charaCter here Elocution,
given of him by that excellent critic, is the more re-' ’"'v
markable, as he W’as himfelf a Pagan. And certainly
no laboured defcription could raife in the mind a higher
conception of the infinite pow'er of the Deity, than this
plain and (liort narration. To command nature itfelf
into being by a word, reprefents it at once altogether
boundlefs and unlimited.
It fometimes very much" contributes to heighten the
image of a thing, wdien it is expreffed in fo undeter¬
mined a manner, as to leave the mind in fufpenfe what
bounds to fix to the thought. Of this kind is that of
Cicero, when he firft railes an objeCtion againft the ne-
ceffity of an acquaint ance with polite literature in order
to form a great man, and then anfw'ers it. The ob¬
jection is founded upon the examples of feveral great
and excellent perfons among the Romans, wTho had
raifed themfelves to the higheft pitch of honour and
dignity, and been very ferviceable to their country, by
the help of a good genius, without the advantage of
much learning. In reply to which, he allows, that,
w'here thefe are not united, nature or genius is of itfelf
much preferable, and will carry a perfon further in the
purfuit of great and noble defigns, than learning with¬
out a genius \ but that both are neceffary to complete
and perfeCt a truly great man. But wTe (hall give what
he fays himfelf on this head, by which that property of
a fublime thought we are now endeavouring to explain,
will appear from his manner of expreflion : “ I ac¬
knowledge (fays he) that many perfons of an exalted
mind and virtue have, from a divine temper, without
inftruCfion,- become moderate and grave j and I add
likewife, that nature, without the afliftance of learning,
has frequently more contributed to honour and virtue,
than learning where a genius has been wanting: But
yet I muft fay, that where the direCHon and improve¬
ment of learning is added to a great and excellent ge¬
nius, it is wont to produce fomething admirable and
Angular which I know' not how to defcribe.” He knew
very w'ell, that by leaving the minds of his hearers thus
in fufpenfe, they would form to themfelves higher con¬
ceptions of what he intended, than from any idea he
could convey to them in wrords. We may add to this
another example from the fame great orator, where he
fays, “ Truly, if the mind had no views to pofterity,
and all its thoughts w'ere terminated by thofe bounds
in w'hich the fpace of life is confined, it would neither
fatigue itfelf w ith fo great labours, nor be difquieted with
fo many cares and w'atchings, nor fo often expofe itfelf
to death. But there is a certain aftive principle in
every good man, which conftantly excites his mind by
motives of glory 5 and reminds him, that the remem¬
brance of his name is not to end with his life, but extend
itfelf to all pofterity.” Of the like nature is that of
Milton, when he defcribes Satan as flying from hell
in queft of our earth, then newly formed. For having
reprefented that his w'ings failed him in the vaft vacuity,
he thus defcribes his fall:
Dowm he drops
Ten thoufand fathom deep 3 and to this hour
Dow'n had been falling, had not by ill chance
The ftrong rebuff of fome tumultuous cloud,
Inftinfi; with fire and nitre, hurried him
As many miles aloft.
A
Part Ilf. ORA
Elocution. Thofe words, by which his fall is exprefled,
Down had been falling,
And to this hour,
leave the mind in fufpenfe, and unable to fix any bounds
to the vacuity j and by that means raife a’ 'greater and
more furprifing idea of its fpace than any direft expref-
fion could have done. This image is very beautiful
where it Hands j but fo "much out of the common way
of thinking, as to fuit better with an epic poem than the
difcourfe of an orator.
§ 2. The Sublime, with regard to Language.
in
Sublimity What we have to offer upon this fubjeft will come
as to lan- under the three heads of Elegance, Compojition, and
guagc. Dignity ; which comprehend all the properties of ftyle.
ir3 I. Elegance. Thofe words and expreflions chiefly
contribute to form the fublime, which are moft fono-
rous, and have the greateft fplendor, force, and dignity.
And they are principally fuch as thefe. Long words,
when equally expreflive, are rather to be chofen than
ihort ones, and efpecially monofyllables. So to con¬
quer or vanquifh an enemy, carries in it a fuller and
grander found, than to beat an enemy. For which
reafon, like wife, compound words are often preferable
to Ample ones. So if we fay, Ceefar's army, when he
was prefent, was always invincible ; this manner of ex-
preffion has more of fublimity in it, than ffiould we
fay, Ciefar's army, when he was prefent, could never be
conquered* But the ancient languages have much the
advantage of ours in both theie refpedts j for their
words are generally longer, and they are abundantly
more happy in their compofitions. The ufe of proper
epithets does alfo in a particular manner contribute to
this character. For as they denote the qualities and
modes of things, they are as it were ffiort defcriptions ;
fo that being joined to their fubjects, they often greatly
enlarge and heighten their image. Thus when the
character of divine poet is given to Homer or Virgil,
or prince of orators to Demofthenes or Cicero, it con¬
veys to the mind a more fublime idea of them, than the
bare mention of their name.
II. Compojition i The force of which, as Longinus
obferves, is fo great, that fometimes it creates a kind
of fublime where the thoughts themfelves are but
mean, and gives a certain appearance of grandeur to
that which otherwife would feem but common. But
compofition confifts of feveral parts •, the firfi: of which,
in the order we have hitherto confidered them, is period.
And here the cafe is much the fame as with animal
bodies, which owe their chief excellency to the union
and juft proportion of their parts. The feveral mem¬
bers, when feparated from each other, lofe both that
beauty and force, which they have when joined toge¬
ther in a complete body. In like manner, fublimity
arifes from the feveral parts of a period fo connedfted,
as to give force, as well as beauty, to the whole.
The periods therefore in this character fliould be of a
proper length. If they are too ftiort, they lofe their
juft weight and grandeur, and are gone almoft before
they reach the ear *, as, on the contrary, when they
are too prolix, they become heavy and unwieldy, and
by that means lofe their force. But more efpecially,
nothing fuperfluous ought to be admitted, which very
Vql. XV. Part I.
T 0 It Y. 385
much enervates the force of a fentence. We fhall ex- Elocution,
emplify this in a paffage from Herodotus, where he
is giving an account of the famous battle at Ther-
mopylte between the Perfians and Lacedemonians.-
“ Dieneces (fays he) the Spartan, being told by a;
Trachinian, before the engagement with the Medes,
that when the barbarians came to flioot their arrows,
they would fly fo thick as to obfcure the light of the
fun 5 he was fo far from being terrified at this, that
defpifing their number, he replied, he “ was pleafed
with what his friend told him, fince if the fun -was ob-
fcured, they fliould fight in the fliade, and not in the
fun.” The fenfe here is great and noble, but the
fublimity of expreflion is fpoiled in a great meafure by
thofe laft words, and not in the fun, which are wholly
fuperfluous. Cicero was fenfible of this, and therefore
he omits that member in relating the fame ftory, and
fays only: “ A Spartan, hearing that one of the
Perfians fliould fay in an infulting manner, that when
they came to engage, they IhouM not be able to fee
the fun, for the multitude of their darts and arrows,
replies, Then we fliall fight in the fliade.” By flop¬
ping here he gives the fentence much more life and
emphafis. The next thing to be confidered in compo¬
fition, is the order and difpofition of the feveral words
and members of a fentence. The different placing but
of one or two words will fometimes wholly deftroy
the grandeur of a fentence, and make it extremely
flat* “ This public aft (fays Demofthenes) difpelled
the danger which at that time, like a cloud, hung
over the city.” Let us vary the order a little, and
read it thus : “ This public aft difpelled the danger,
which like a cloud hung over the city at that time.”
What a different turn does the expreflion receive for
the worfe! The fpirit and majefty of it are entirely
loft. And in placing the feveral parts or members,
they ought to be fo difpofed, that what is moft weigh¬
ty and important fliould ftand laft. So Tully fays of
Catiline, “ We ought to return thanks to heaven,
that we have fo often efcaped fo odious, fo frightful,
fo dangerous a plague of the ftate.” A thing may be
odious and frightful, and yet not dangerous ; there¬
fore he puts this in the laft place, to give it the
greater force, and make the deeper impreflion. Ano¬
ther thing to be attended to in compofition, is the
conneftion of the words with regard to the found;
that the pronunciation, in pafling from one to another,
may be moft agreeable to the ear, and beft fuited to
the nature of the fubjeft. And as this is generally
fomething grand and magnificent, fuch a contexture
of them as will give the greateft force and energy to
the expreflion is moft proper for the fublime. Soft
and languid founds are very unfuitable to this charafter.
They foothe and pleafe the ear; but rather fink and de-
prefs the mind, than excite it to things great and noble.
In this refpeft, therefore, our tongue, by its multitude
of confonants, is more fuitable for fublime difcourfes
than fome other modem languages, which abound with
vowels.
III. The laft head to be confidered, is the proper
ufe of tropes and figures, which is here fo neceffary, 1
that the title of dignity feems to have been given to
this part of elocution, from the afliftance it more efpe¬
cially affords to this charafter. For if, as has been ob-
ferved from Longinus, compofitions will fometimes create
3 C
386
Elocution.
ii<5
O R A T
u fort of fublimity; this much oftener happens from
the force and efficacy of tome lively tropes and ftrong
figures.
And as to tropes, bright metaphors are peculiarly
{luted to raife and animate the ftyle. This is manifeit
from the nature of them, as they confift of contra&ed
fimilies, reduced to a lingle word j which, if taken
from things lofty and grand, muft of confequence
give a fubiimity to the Uyle. What can fugged to
us a greater idea of the valour of Ajax, than Ho¬
mer’s calling him the bulwark of this Greeks ; or of the
Scipios, than when they are ityled by Virgil, the two
thunderbolts of war. A number of thofe, well chofen,
contributes no lefs to the grandeur than to the beauty
of difcourfe. Hyperbole fometimes gives the fame
force to an expreffion, if cautioufly ufed; and fo as
not to exceed all appearance of truth. But the chief
ufe of it is, where proper words will not exprefs the juft
idea of the thing defigned to be conveyed ; and it may
feem rather the offsjAng of neceffity than choice. Of
this nature is that of Herodotus, when fpeaking of the
Lacedaemonians at Thermopylae, he fays, “ They de¬
fended themfelves with the fwords they had left, and
even with their hands and teeth, till the barbarians
buried them under their arrows.” It cannot be fup-
pofed itriclly true, that fo many arrows were thrown
at them as to bury them •, but having in the former
part of the fentence reprefented their refolute defence
in the ftrongeft terms, by faying, that naked and with¬
out arms, they engaged armed men with their hands and
teeth, the following hyperbole feems not unnatural, and
to intimate nothing paore than what was neceftary to
quell fuch obftinate refolution and courage.
As to fgures, whether verbal or thofe which con-
fift in the fenfe, the nature of this character will eafily
direfl to fuch as are moft proper. But with refpeft
to the latter, poets take greater liberties in the ufe of
them than would be allowed in an orator. As their
images are often formed for pleafure and delight, fo
they carry in them more of rapture and tranfport. But
the orator’s ufe of them being to fet things in a ftronger
and clearer light, they are more fedate and moderate.
Befides, an orator fcarce ever has occafion for fuch fi6Ii-
tious images as we often meet with in poetry; though
his ought to appear as natural, and its painting as ftrong
and lively. We lhall juft mention fome of the chief of
thofe figures which feem beft fuited for this purpofe;
though they are no lefs fuited to the middle ftyle, as has
been ftiown already, when taken from fubjects of an in¬
ferior nature.
i. Defcription. Of this Juftin gives us a fine in-
ftance, in a fpeech of King Philip of Macedon, where¬
in he reprefents the neceffity of falling upon the Ro¬
mans, who at that time were engaged in a war with
Hannibal. “ I behold (fays he) a cloud of a moft:
dreadful and bloody war rifing in Italy. I fee a
ftorm of thunder and lightning from the weft, which
will overfpread all places with a vaft (bower of blood,
into whatever country the temped: of viftory (hall
drive it. Greece has undergone many violent (hocks
in the Perftan, Gallic, arid Macedonian wars; but
thefe would all be found unworthy, of regard, if the
armies now engaged in Italy (hould march out of that
country. I view the terrible and cruel wars which
involve thofp nations through the courage of their
”7
o R Y. Fait III.
forces, and (kill of their generals. This rage and fury Elocution.
cannot ceafe by the deftrutftion of one party, without  v J
the ruin of their neighbours. Indeed, Macedon has
lefs reafon to dread the (avage conquerors than Greece j
becaufe more prepared, and better able to defend itfelf j
but I am fenlible, thole who attack each other fo impe-
tuoufly will not confine their viclones within thofe
bounds, and that it will be our lot to engage the con¬
querors.” So lively a piftureof imminent and threat¬
ening danger muft needs alarm the moft timorous, and
exeke them to a refolution to defenej. their country, and
all that was dear to them. Such images give life and
vigour to a difcourfe, and being artfully interwoven
with proper arguments, influence the mind, and carry
it away by an irreftftible force, fo that the hearer is not
barely left to conclude the certainty of the thing, but
moved by it, as it were, from ocular demonitratiom.
The images therefore of the orator ought to be drawn
from real things, or at lead fuch as are prccablej for
if they are wholly fitliticus and incredible, as many
poetical images are, they may give pleafure, but will
not convince the mind, nor fway the paffions.
2. Enumeration has fome affinity with the former
figurej by which, if the feveral parts hafe each fome-
thing grand in them, the whole, when brought toge¬
ther, and difpofed in a juft: order, very much contri¬
butes to the fublimity. We fhall produce an example
of this from an English writer, containing a def'erip-
tion of our globe, upon a furvey of it after the gene¬
ral conflagration, winch he reprefents in this ftrong
light: “ Such is the vanity and tranfient glory of this
habitable world ! By the force of one element break¬
ing loofe upon the reft, all the varieties of nature, all
the works of art, all the labours of man, are reduced
to nothing; all that we admired and loved before, as
great and magnificent, is obliterated and vanifhed, and
another form and face of things, plain, fimple, and
everwhere the fame, overfpreads the whole earth. Where
are now the great empires of the world, and their great
imperial cities ? their pillars, trophies, and monuments
of glory ? Show me where they flood, read the inferip-
tion, tell me the viclor’s name. What remains, what
imprefiions, what difference or diftinftion, do you fee
in this mafs of fire ? Rome itfelf, eternal Rome, the great
city, the emprefs of the world, whofe domination or
fuperftition, ancient or modern, make a great part of the
hiftory of the earth, what is become of her now ? She
laid her foundations deep, and her palaces were llrong
and fumptuous ; fhe glorifed herfelf and lived deliciouf-
hj, andfaid in her heart I ft a queen, andJhallfee no
farrow: but her hour is come, (he is wiped away from
the face of the earth, and buried in everlafting oblivion.
But it is not cities only, and the works of men’s hands ;
the everlafting hills, the mountains and rocks of the
earth, are melted as wax before the fun, and their place
is nowhere found. Here flood the Alps, the load of
the earth, that covered many countries, and reached
their arms from the ocean to the Black fea. This
huge mafs of (lone is foftened and diifolved, as a ten¬
der cloud into rain. Here llocd the African moun¬
tains, and Atlas with his top above the clouds. There
was frozen Caucafus, and Taurus, and Imaus, and the
mountains of Afia 5 and yonder, towards the north,
flood the Riphean hills, clothed in ice and fnow ; all
thefe are vanifhed, dropped away as the fnow upon
their
Part III.
Elocution, their heads *.n Thefe particulars confidered feparately
i v  are ai| truiy great and noble, and every way fuited to the
* Burnet s nature of the fubject ; but as they are here difpofed,
Theory. an(j rjpe jn order, they both enlarge the idea, and heighten
the image, of that grand cataftrophe.
x xS 2* Similitude : which ferves very much for beauty
and ornament) and, when taken from great and fub-
lime objects, adds a grandeur and magnificence to the
things illuftrated by it. We need go no farther for
an example of this, than to the great critic fo often
mentioned already, who has treated upon the fublime
in a ftyle every way equal to the fubjedf. He, then,
comparing thofe two great works of Homer, his Iliad
and Odyfley, thus defcribes them : “ Homer compofed
his Iliad when his mind was in its full ftrength and
vigour •, the whole body of the poem is dramatic, and
full of aftion : whereas the belt part of the Odyfiey is
taken up in narrations, which feem to be the genius
of old age. So that one may compare him in this
latter work to the fetting fun, which llill appears with
the fame magnificence, but has no longer the fame
heat and force.” And foon after, fpeaking of the
Odyffey, he fays, “ That piece may be called the re¬
flux of his genius, which like the ocean ebbs, and
deferts its Ihores.” What nobler idea could pofiibly
have been given of that great poet, than by thofe two
fimilitudes of the fun and the ocean ? And elfewhere,
comparing thofe trvo great orators Hemofthenes and
Cicero, he (hows the like fublimity of thought. “ De-
mofthenes (fays he) is fublime, in that he is clofe and
concife •, Cicero, in that he is diffufe and extenfive.
'The former, by reafon of the violence, rapidity,
ftrength, and fury, with which he rages and bears all
before him, may be compared to a lempeft, and thun¬
der ; but the latter, like a great conilagration, de¬
vours and confumes all he meets, with a fire that is
never extinguilhed, but wherever it advances continu¬
ally gathers new ftrength.”
It9 4. Antithefts, or a fentence confifting of oppofite
parts, has often the fame effect *, as in the following
inftance of Cicero, where his view is to reprefent
Pompey as a molt confummate general. “ Who
(fays he) ever was, or need bo more knowing than
this man ? who from his childhood, and inftruftion at
fchool, went into the army of his father, and learned
the military art, in a very great war againft the fier-
ceft enemies: who, while yet a boy, became a foldier
under the greateft general 5 and when but a youth
was himfelf commander of a very great army : who
has oftener engaged with the enemy in battle, than
any other perfon with his adverfary in private contefts :
has waged more wars than others have read, and con¬
quered more provinces than others have wifhed to go¬
vern : whofe youth has been fpent in acquiring the art
of war, not by the precepts of others, but his own com¬
mands; not by defeats, but victories; not by campaigns
but triumphs.”
120 5. Afiofrophe. Among the articles charged againft
Demofthenes by his great adverfary and rival /Efchi-
nes, one was, that he had advifed the Athenians to en¬
gage in a war againft King Philip, wherein they had
received a very great defeat. When JDemofthenes
comes to anfwer that part of the charge, he does not
fay, as he might, “ You have not been milled, my fel¬
low-citizens, in expofing your lives for the liberties and
387
fafety of Greece ; you are not without the moft illuf- Elocution,
trious examples of fuch con duff : for who can fay
thefe great men were mifled, who fought for the fame
caufe in the plains of Marathon ?” But inftead of ex- x
preffing himfelf thus, he gives the matter quite a dif¬
ferent turn ; and in a fort of rapture, appealing to
thofe brave defenders of their country, fays, “ No, my
fellow-citizens, you have not done wrong, you have
not; I proteft by the ghofts of thofe great men who
fought for the fame caufe in the plains of Marathon.”
By this appeal to thofe ancient worthies'whofe memo¬
ries were in the higheft efteem at Athens, that it was
the caufe, and not the fuccefs, which rendered their
adlions fo glorious, he artfully corroborates his affertion
in a way which he knew mult have the greateft weight
with his audience.
As the proper fubjecls of this charadler are either
divine things, or fuch as are in the higheft efteem and
regard among mankind, which often require laudatory
difeourfes, or panegyric ; thefe naturally admit of all
the ornaments and affiftance of eloquence. Which,
however, muft be ufed with diferetion; for when the
mind is wrapt up in thought, and ftretched to the
utmoft of its povrers in the purfuit of feme noble and
fublime idea, it cannot attend to all the leffer fineries
and niceties of language; but from its own vigour,
and lively conception of things, rvill be led to exprefs
them in terms the moft emphatical, and bell fuited to
their nature. In fuch cafes, therefore, the fublimity
muft appear rather from the elevation of the thought,
attended with a fimplicity of expreffion, than from
the ornaments and drefs of the language. Thefe
things feem more natural when the mind is relaxed,
and employed upon lower objects. Though, upon
the whole, grandeur and majefty of expreffion is the
proper mark of this character with relation to the
language, as beauty and fplendor is of the middle ftyle.
Chap. VIII. Of the Style of ati Orator.
The flyle of an orator comprehends all the cha- j-jJ
rafters already explained, of low, middle, and fublwie, middle, and
as they are applied by him in the different parts olfublime
his province. For that the language muft be fuited
to the nature of the fubjeft, we have had occafion orator_
often to obferve already ; and the different view of the
fpeaker or writer neceffarily occafions a variety in
the manner of expreffion. Now an orator lias three
things in his view ; to prove what he afferts, to re-
prefent it in an agreeable light, and to move the paf-
fions. Thefe are all neceffary, we do not mean in the
order wherein we have noiv mentioned them, but that
the difeourfe may upon the whole have its defired
effeft upon the audience. For unlefs the mind be
convinced of the truth of what is offered by folid and
cogent arguments, neither will the moft eloquent dif¬
eourfe afford a lafting pleafure, nor the moft pathetic
long influence the affeftions. Though, on the other
hand, the hearers expeft to be entertained at the
fame time they are informed ; and, therefore, unlefs
the language be agreeable to their tafte, they will foon
call off their attention, and think but meanly of the
fpeaker. And unlefs both thefe are warmed and ani¬
mated by a becoming pathos, the fpeaker may very
probably mifs of his end in bringing his audience
3 C 2 oven
ORATORY.
S8S O R A T
^Elocution, over to Lis fentmieftts. For bare jconviftion is not
Lofficieut v.’ilh many perfons to excite them to action.
They will acquiefce in the truth of a thing which
they cannot contradict, or will not give themfelves
the trouble to examine 5 and at the fame time remain
unconcerned to profecute it. And the pleafure of a
tlorid diicourfe will of itfelf foon vanilli, like the har¬
mony of mufic, or the charms of a fine poem. And
therefore to captivate his audience, fecure them in his
interelt, and pufii them upon aCtion, it is necefiary
for the orator to engage their affeCtions 5 thefe are,
as it were, the fprings of the foul, -which, managed
by a fkilful hand, move and direCt it at pleafure.
Now each of theie parts of an orator’s province re¬
quires a different llyle. The low~Jhjle\s molt proper
for proof and information \ becaufe he has no other
viexv here but to reprefent things to the mind in the
plained light, as they really are in themfelves, without
colouring or ornament. The middle Jhjle is molt fuited
for pleafure and entertainment, becaufe it confifts of
fmooth and w7ell-turned periods, harmonious numbers,
with florid and bright figures. But the fublime is ne-
ceffary in order to fway and influence the paflions.
Here the orator calls in all the afliftance both of na¬
ture and art; the molt raifed and lofty thoughts,
clothed with the brighteft and ftrongeft colouring, enter
into this charafter.
But as an orator has frequently each of thefe views
in the fame difcourfe, we Ihall firit give a fummary
defcription of the feveral characters of ftyle, which we
have Formerly difcourfed on more at large; that, by
placing them together in one viewy the difference be¬
tween them may be more plain and obvious : and then
We fhall proceed to fhow to what particular parts of a
difcourfe each of them is more efpecially to be applied.
I. Firit, then, as fliorter periods are proper in the
lowjiyl6, fo lefs care is neceffary in their turn and ca¬
dency. If a fentence now and then drop unexpectedly
and difappoint the ear, or has fomething rough and
harfh in its compolition, it is no blemilh in this cha¬
racter. For as it is fuited to the manner of common
difcourfe, an appearance of regard to the fubjeCt, ra¬
ther than the form of expreflion, is more becoming
than any beauties of art. But the words fhould be
well chofen and proper, fuited to the ideas they are
defigned to convey *, the expreflions plain and clear,
and the artificial ornaments few and modelt. By ar¬
tificial ornaments, are here meant tropes and figures ;
and they are called artificial, becaufe they vary from
the natural drefs of language, either in the words or
manner of expreflion : though they are often ufed by
thofe who are wholly unacquainted with the rules of
art; and particularly metaphors, which perfons who
have the leaf! command of language frequently run
into through mere neceflity, for want of a fiffficient
Itock of proper words to convey their ideas. The low
Xlyle therefore admits of thefe : but care Ihould be
taken to choofe fuch as have been rendered familiar
by ufe, or at leaft where the fimilitude is very plain and
evident. Bold or lofty metaphors, or where the allu-
fion is dark and remote, ought to be avoided. Nor is
fche moderate ufe of the other tropes wholly difagreeable
Jo this ftyle. And the fame thing is to be laid with
Tefpeft to verbal figures, or fuch as confift in the parti¬
cular difpofition of the fentence, fo that if the form of it
o R Y. Part III.
be changed, the figure is loft. Of thefe, fuch as come Elocution,
neareft to the natural way of expreflion are moft proper
for this ftyle ; arid therefore thofe which confift in a
jingle of words, arifing from the fame or a like found,
are to be avoided, as carrying in them too much the
appearance of art. Thofe likewife which confift in a
repetition of the fame w7ord have often too great a force
and vehemence for this mild and gentle character. And
as to figures of fentences, which do not depend on the
conftru&ion of words, but lie in the fenfe, many of
them are too gay and fprightly, and others too rapid
and impetuous, for the fimplicity of the low7 ftyle ; fo
that only the more moderate and fedate ones are to be
allowed a place here. It is therefore no wmnder if per¬
fons are often miftaken in their notions of this charac¬
ter : the beauty of which confifting in a certain plain-
nefs and fimplicity, without any thing in it but wrhat
feems natural and common, every one is apt to imagine
he can readily be mailer of it, till by experience he finds
the contrary. For the cafe is much the fame here, as
in perfons of fafhion and good breeding, whofe beha¬
viour and addrefs is attended with that agreeable free¬
dom and feeming negligence, w7hicb in appearance is
very eafy to exprefs, but in reality is fcarce imitable by
others.
As the middlefiyle is more adapted for pleafure aricl de¬
light, it admits of all thofe beauties and ornaments which
foothe and entertain the mind. It has more force and
energy than the low ftyle, but lefs than the fublime.
Smooth and harmonious numbers, well turned periods, of
a juft length, delightful cadency, and accurate difpofition
of the wmrds, are fuited to this ftyle. The moft beautiful
and Ihining tropes, wdiich ftrike the fancy, and all thofe
verbal figures w7hich, by a repetition, fimilitude, or pro¬
portion of founds, pleafe and gratify the year, help to
form this charafter. The like is to be faid as to figures-
of fentences : The moft florid and beautiful, fuch as enu¬
meration, defcription, fimilitude, and the like, are here
the moft proper.
But it is the fiubl'wicfiyle which perfects the orator.
This requires the moft forcible and emphatical w7ords,.
the boldeft metaphors and ftrongeft figures. In verbal
figures, repetitions, fynonyms, gradations, contraries,
wuth others of a like force and energy, are chiefly
employed here. But figures of fentences are the moil
confiderable, and principally contribute to make up
this charafter. Among thefe are limilies taken from
lofty fubjedts, profopopoeia, apoftrophe, exclamation,
epiphonema, apofiopefis, and others of a like nature.
But due care mull likewife be taken of the form, con-
ftrudlion, and harmony of the periods 5 which feem
bell difpofed, wThen long and ftiort ones are inter¬
mixed. For though round and fwelling periods carry
in them fomething grand and majeftic, yet many
times they move too flow to ftrike the paflions; wdiere-
as Ihort ones are more acute and pungent, and by re¬
turning quick, awaken the mind, and raife the paflions.
But to render it complete, it mull be fupported with
ftrong rea-fon, grandeur of thought, and fentiments eve¬
ry wray equal to the expreflion j without w7hich it will
be very liable to fvvell into bombaft, and end barely in
amufement.
II. Having given a lliort Iketcb of this part of the
orator’s furniture, we Ihall now go on to fhow where,
and in wdiat manner, be is to make ufe of it. This
will
PartHI. ORATOR Y. * 389
Elocution, will bell appear by confidering his principal view in
* each part of his dilcourfe. Now the parts cf a juft
oration (as we have formerly ihown) are fix; Introduc¬
tion, Narration, Proportion, Confirmation, Confutation,
and Conclujion. Not that all thefe are neceffary in every
difcourfe, but it is proper they ftiould all be mentioned,
that we may confider what ftyle is fitteft for them when
they are neceffary.
12a In the Introduction, the orator has three things be¬
fore him; to gain the efteem of his hearers, to fecure
their attention, and to give them fome general no¬
tion of his fubjedh To let out modeftly is undoubt¬
edly the moft likely way to recommend himfelf. For
to attempt to inflame an audience, before they are
prepared for it, or fee the reafon of much warmth, is
highly improper. A prudent fpeaker will, like De-
mofthenes, begin with temper, and rife gradually, till
he has infenfibly warmed his hearers, and in fome
degree engaged their affeftions in his favour. So
that this part fcarcely rifes above the middle ftyle.
And if it carry in it an air of pleafantry and good-
humour, it is generally the more apt fo engage the at¬
tention.
113 The introduction is ufually followed by the narra¬
tion, or a recital of fuch things as either preceded, ac¬
companied, or followed upon the fubjedl under confi-
deration. Now, as the qualities that recommend a
narration are clearnefs, brevity, and probability \ thefe
fufficiently point out the ftyle. Perfpicuity arifes from
the choice of proper words, and fuch tropes as have been
rendered moft familiar by ufe ; brevity requires mode¬
rate periods, whofe parts are but little tranfpofed; and
a plain and Ample drefs, without ornament or colouring,
is beft fuited to reprefent things probable : all which
are the properties of the low ftyle. And therefore Ci¬
cero fays, narrations come pretty near to our ordinary dif¬
courfe. Indeed, fometimes it is neceflary not only to relate
the facts themfelves, but likewife to defcribe the manner
in which they were performed. And then a further de¬
gree of art may be requifite to reprefent them with all
their circumftances, and paint them to the mind in their
proper colours.
,24 The next part in order is the propofition, or fubjeft
of the drfcourfe, in which there can be no room for
ornament. But as it is the bafis and foundation of the
orator’s whole defign, it ought to be laid down in the
plaineft and cleareft terms, fo as to leave no room for
doubt or uncertainty what it is which he intends to dif¬
courfe upon.
f25 The next thing is confirmation, wherein the orator
endeavours to maintain and defend his own caufe, and
to convince his hearers of the truth of it by reafon
and argument. Now the low ftyle is certainly fitteft
for cool reafoning and debate. But the orator’s me¬
thod of reafoning often very much differs from that of
the philofopher. The latter contents himfelf wTith the
moft plain and familiar manner of reprefenting the
truth, and thinks it fufficient if what he fays be clear¬
ly underftood. But the former, at the fame time that
lie convinces the judgement, endeavours likewife to af-
fe<ft the paftions, and that in a great variety of ways.
So that in this part of the difcourfe the ftyle is very
different, according to the nature and circumftances
of the cafe. Sometimes, while he is dwelling upon
the proof of a thing, he talks coolly, and reafons
with the fedatenefs of a philofopher j and where any Elocution,
part of his argument appears doubtful or obfcure, he v
endeavours with the fame even temper to explain and
clear it up. But frequently he intermixes with his
proofs all the arts of perfuafion, and embellilhes his
reafons with the greateft ornaments and beauties of elo¬
quence.
Confirmation is ufually followed by confutation, in 120
which the orator endeavours to enervate and overthrow
all that has been advanced in favour of the oppofite fide
of the queftion. But as the ftyle is much the fame here
as in the former part, what has been faid upon that may
be fufficient for this likewife.
The laft part abovementioned is the conclufion. I27
This confifts of twro branches, recapitulation, and ad-
drefs. Recapitulation is a ffiort recital of the feveral
arguments, at the leaft the chief of them, which were
before advanced in fupport of the caufe 5 that, being
brought together into a narrow compafs, they may
appear in a ftronger light. Wherefore the language
here ought rather to be forcible and ftrong than flo¬
rid, becaufe brevity and concifenefs is a neceffary qua¬
lity. The other branch of the conclufion confifts in
an addrefs to the paffions, and is wholly perfuafive y
for which the fpeaker is now entirely at leilure. In¬
deed, this is often done occafionally in other parts of
the difcourfe, particularly in the introduftion and con¬
firmation: But, as in the former of thefe, his view is
principally to fecure the good opinion of the hearers,
and excite their attention 5 and in the latter to defend
his own fide of the queftion by reafon and argument
when thefe two points are gained, he has nothing left
but to prevail with them to fall in with his defign, and
declare for him. And the beft way to attain this is,,
by engaging their paffions in his intereft. Hence,
then, to ufe Quintilian’s words, “ All the fprings of elo¬
quence are to be opened. Now we are paft the rocks
and ffiallows, all the fails may be hoifted. And as the
greateft; part of the conclufion confifts in illuftration,
the moft pompous language and ftrongeft figures have
place here.”
All the variety above mentioned, however, is not
always neceffary. Regard muft be had to the nature
of the fubjett, the time, place, perfons, and other cir~
cumftances •, by all which the ftyle is to be regulated.
To difcourfe in a lofty and grand way upon a common
topic, or in a low and flat manner upon a fublime ar¬
gument, are both equally injudicious. Cicero refers
us to fome difcourfes of his owrn, as inftances of each
kind. His oration for Caecina, he fays, is written in
the low ftyle, that for the Manilian law in the middle
ftyle, and that for Rabirius in the fublime; and his
Actions againft Verres, with fome others, are patterns
of the variety here mentioned. And he gives us a very
comprehenfive defcription of a perfect orator in very
few words, when he fays, “ He is one who can fpeak
upon a low fubjebt acutely, upon a lofty fubjecl with
fublimity, and upon a moderate fubjecl temperately.” By"
which he means no more, than one wffio is mafter of the
three characters here defcribed, and knows when and
how to ufe them. But although he mentions feveral a='
mong the Greeks, and fome few among the Romans,
who excelled in one or other of thefe different kinds j
yet one w-ho excelled in them all, he fuppofes never to
have exifted, except in the imagination. The reafon
perhaps
39° ORATORY. Part IV.
Tiomtncia- perhaps may be, becaufe each of them feems to require a one to purfue that which nature feems moft inclined to, Pronunda-
. t'°n' , ''try different genius, fo that it is fcarce poflible for the and to excel in it, than to drive againft their genius. v ^on-
fame perfon to fucceed in them all. Since therefore it For every kind has its perfections ; and it is more com- ' v '
is fo rare and difficult a matter to gain the command of mendable to be mallet of one thing, than to do feveral
each in any good degree, it is better perhaps for every but indifferently.
Part IV. Of P R O N U N C I AT I O N.
Chap. I. Of Pronunciation in general.
Ihonim. PRONUNCIATION is alfo called Action by fome
elation a of the ancients. Though, if we attend to the proper
conformity fignification of each of thefe words, the former refpedts
voiceand t:^e vo*cei anc^ the latter the geftures and motions of the
gefture to body. Rut if we confider them as fynonymous terms,
the fubjeifl. in this large fenfe pronunciation or action may be faki
to be a fuitable conformity of the voice, and the feveral
motions of the body, in [peaking, to the fuhjedi matter of
the difeourfe.
The belt judges among the ancients have reprefent-
ed this as the principal part of an ofator’s province,
from whence he is chiefly to expedt fuccefs in the art
of perfuaffon. When Cicero, in the perfon of Craffus,
has largely and elegantly dilcourfed upon all the other
parts of oratory, coming at laft to fpeak of this, he
fays : “ All the former have their effedt as they are
pronounced. It is the adtion alone that governs in
fpeaking ; without which the belt orator is of no va¬
lue, and is often defeated by one in other refpedls
much his inferior.” And he lets us know, that l)e-
mofthenes was of the fame opinion, who, when he was
alked what was the principal thing in oratory, re¬
plied, adtion j and being alked again a fecond and a
third time, what was next conliderable, he Hill made
the fame anfwer. By which he feemed to intimate,
that he thought the whole art did in a manner confiff
in it. And indeed, if he had not judged this highly
neceffary for an orator, he would fcarce have taken fo
-much pains in corredting thofe natural defects, under
vrhich he laboured at firft, in order to acquire it. For
he had both a WTeak voice, and likewife an impedi¬
ment in his fpeech, fo that he could not pronounce di-
ftindtly fome particular letters. The former of which
defedts he conquered, partly by fpeaking as loud as he
could upon the fliore, when the fea roared and was
boifterous *, and partly by pronouncing long periods
as he walked up hill •, both of which methods contri¬
buted to the ftrengthening of his voice. And he found
means to render his pronunciation more clear and ar¬
ticulate, by the help of fome little ftones put under
his tongue. Nor was he lefs careful in endeavouring
to gain the habit of a becoming and decent gefture 5
for which purpofe he ufed to pronounce his difeourfes
alone before a large glafs. And becaufe he had got
an ill cuftom of drawing up his fhoulders when he
fpoke *, to amend that, he ufed to place them under a
Iword, which hung over him with the point down¬
ward. Such pains did this prince of the Grecian ora¬
tors take to remove thofe difficulties, which would
have been fufficient to difeourage an inferior and lefs
alpiring genius. And to how7 great a per feci: ion he
arrived in his adlion, under all thefe difadvantages, by
* 2
his indefatigable diligence and application, is evident
from the confeffion of his great adverfary and rival in
oratory, Atfchines. Who, when he could not bear
the difgrace of being worlted by Demoffhenes in the
caufe of Ctefiphon, retired to Rhodes. And being
defifed by the inhabitants to recite to them his own
oration upon that occafion, which accordingly he did j
the next day they requefted of him to let them hear
that of Demofthenes; which having pronounced in a
molt graceful manner, to the admiration of all who
•were prefent, “ How much more (fays he) would you
have wrondered if you had heard him Ipeak it himfelf!”
By which he plainly gave Demofthenes the preference
in that refpect. We might add to thefe authorities
the judgement of Quintilian, v ho fays, that “ if is not
of fo much moment what our compolitions are, as how
they are pronounced •, finee it is the manner of the de¬
livery by which the audience is moved.” And there¬
fore he ventures to aff’ert, that “ an indifferent dilcourfe,
affifted by a lively and graceful action, will have greater
efficacy than the fineft harangue which wants that ad¬
vantage.”
The truth of this fentiment of the ancients concern¬
ing the power and efficacy of pronunciation, might be
proved from many inllances) but one or two may here
fuffice. Hortenfius, a contemporary with Cicero, and
wffiile living next to him in reputation as an orator, rvas
highly applauded for his action. But his orations after
his death, as Quintilian tells us (for we have none of
them now7 remaining), did not appear anfw7erable to his
character from whence he jultly concludes, there mult
have been fomething pleating when he fpoke by which
he gained his character, which was loft in reading them.
But perhaps there is fcarce a more conftderable inftance
of this than in Cicero himfelf. After the death of
Pompey, '.hen Caefar got the government into his own
hands, many of his acquaintance interceded with him In
behalf of their relations and friends, who had been of
the contrary party in the late wars. Among others,
Cicero folicited for his friend Ligarius j which Tubero
underftanding, who owed Ligarius a grudge, he oppofed
it, and undertook to reprefent him to Caefar as unwor-'
thy of his mercy. Caefar himfelf was prejudiced againft:
Ligariusand therefore, when the caufe was to come
before him, he faid, “ We may venture to hear Cicero
difplay his eloquence } for I know the perfon he pleads
for to be an ill man, and my enemy.” But, however,
in the courfe of his oration, Cicero fo worked upon his
paffions, that by the frequent alteration of his counte¬
nance, the emotions of his mind w7ere very confpicuous.
And when he came to touch upon the battle of Pharfa-
lia, which had given Caefar the empire of the world, he
reprefented it in that moving and lively manner, that
Ciefar could no longer contain himfelf, but wns throwm
into fuch a fit of fhivering, that he dropped the papers
which
Part IV. ORA
Pronuncia- which, he held in his hand. This was the more remark-
tion. abie, beeaufe Ccefar was himfelf one ox the greateft
^ T orators of that age, knew ail the arts of addrefs, and
Rvenues to the paffionsj and confequently was better pre¬
pared to guard againft them. Eut neither his {kill, nor
relblution of mind, was of fufficient force againft the
power of oratory ; but the conqueror of the world be¬
came a coftqueit to the charms of Cicero’s eloquence;
i’o that, contrary to his intention, he gave into his plea,
and pardoned Ligarius. Now that oration is itill ex¬
tant, and appears exceedingly wel 1 calculated to touch
the foft and tender paflkms and 1’pfings of the foul; but
we believe it can fcarce be difcernible to any in reading
it, how it fhould have had fo furprifing an effect; which
muft therefore have been chiefly owing to the wonderful
addrefs and conduct of the fpeaker.
The more natural the pronunciation is, k will of con-
fequence be the more moving, iince the perfection of art
conftfts in its neareft refemblance to nature. And there¬
fore it is not without good reafon, that the ancients
make it one qualification of an orator, that he be a good
man j becaufe a perfon of this character will make the
caufe he efpoufes his own, and the more fenfibly he is
touched with it himfelf, his adtion will be the more na¬
tural, and by that means the more eafily affect others in
the fame manner. Cicero, fpeaking upon this fubject,
fays, “ It is certain that truth (by which he means na¬
ture) in every thing excels imitation •, but if that was
fufficient of itfelf in adtion, we fhould have no occafion
for art.” In his opinion therefore (and who was ever
a better -judge), art, in this cafe as well as in many
others, if well managed, will affift and improve nature.
But that is not all ; for fometimes we find the force of
it fo great and powerful, that, where it is only counter¬
feit, it will for the time work the fame effedt as if it was
founded in truth. This is well known to thofe who
have been converfant with the reprefentations of the
theatre. In tragedies, thotigh we are fenfible that every
thing we fee and hear is feigned and counterfeit, yet
fuch is the power of aftion, that we are oftentimes af¬
fected by it in the fame manner as if they were all reali¬
ties. Anger and refentment at the appearance of cruel¬
ty, concern and folicitude for diftrefled virtue, rife in our
breafts; and tears are extorted from us for oppreffed in¬
nocence, though at the fame time, perhaps, we are
ready to laugh at ourfclves for being thus decoyed. If
art then has fo great an influence upon us, hvhen fup-
ported only by fancy and imagination, how powerful
muft be the effect of a juft and lively reprefentation of
what we know to be true and real ?
blow agreeable it is both to nature and reafon, that
a warmth of expreffion and vehemency of motion fhould
rife in proportion to the importance of the fubjeCt and
concern of the fpeaker, will further appear, by looking
back a little into the more early and fimple ages of the
world. For the higher we go, the more we ftuill find
of both. We fhall give the obfervation of a very
r.in! of great man upon this head, in his own words. “ The
Eloquence, Romans (fays he) had a very great talent this way, and
p. $2. the Greeks a greater. The eaftern nations excelled in
it, and particularly the Hebrews. Nothing can equal
the ftrength and vivacity of the figures they employed
in their difeourfe; and the very actions they ufed to ex-
prefs their fentiments, fuch as putting allies on their
beads, and tearing their garments, and covering theni-
TORY. 391
felves with fackcloth under any deep diftrefs and forrow Proriurida-
of mind. I do not fpeak of what the prophets did to t:^n' ,
give a more lively reprefentation of the things they
foretold, becaufe fuch figurative actions were the effedt
of divine infpiration. But even in other cafes we find
thoie people underftood much better than we do how to
exprefs their grief, and fear, and other paffions. And
hence, no doubt, arofe thofe furprifing effeCts of eloquence,
which we never experience now.” Thus fax this ex¬
cellent writer. And what he fays here with refpedt
to the adtions of the eaftern nations, was in a good mea-
fure cuftoniary among the Greeks and Romans; if not
entirely of the lame kind, yet perhaps as vehement and
expreflive. They did not think language of itfelf fuf¬
ficient to exprefs the height of their paflion?, unlefs en¬
forced by uncommon motions and geftures. Thus, when
Achilles had driven the Trojans into their city with the
greateft precipitation and terror, and only Hedtor ven¬
tured to tarry without the gates to engage him; Horner
reprefents both King Priam and his queen under the
higheft confternation for the dan per of their fon. And
therefore, in order to prevail with him to come into the
city, and not fight with Achilles, they not only intreat
him from the walls in the moft tender and moving lan¬
guage imaginable; but be tears off his grey locks with his
hands ; and fhe, in a Hood of tears, expoies her breafts, and
adjures him by thofe paps which fuckled him, to comply
with their requeft. The poet knew very well, that no
words of themfelves could reprefent thofe agonies of
mind he endeavoured to convey, unlefs heightened by
the idea of fuch actions as were expreffive of the deep-
eft: forrow. And indeed this was anciently efteemed fo
requifite in an orator, that in matters of importance he
wTas fcarce thought to be in earneft who wranted it. In
one of Cicero’s orations, he does not flick to argue in
that manner with his adverfary. “ Would you talk
thus (fays he) if you wTas ferrous r1 Would you, who are
wont to difplay your eloquence fo warmly in the danger
of others, aft fo coldly in your own ? Where is that
concern, that ardour, which ufed to extort pity eveil
from children ? Here is no emotion either of mind or
body : neither the forehead {truck, nor the thigh, nor
fo much as a ftarnp of the foot. Therefore, you have
been fo far from inflaming our minds, that you have
fcarce kept us awake.”
As aftion therefore was judged fo neceffary a quali¬
fication in an orator among the ancients, fo they made
ufe of feveral methods and expedients for the better
attaining it. The principal of which we fhall briefly
mention.
Decency of pronunciation is an habit. And as all
habits are gained by time, fo the fooner they are learn¬
ed, they are generally acquired with greater eafe. For
while perfons are young, they are not only more flexi¬
ble, and capable of any particular bent, but they are like-
wife free from the trouble of encountering and fubduing
contrary habits, which doubles the labour, and increafes
the difficulty of attaining any laudable quality". Quin¬
tilian wras very fenfible of this in the cafe here before
us j and therefore, in order to have perfons trained up
to it, he begins with them in their childhood, and de-
feends fo low as even to give direftions how they fliould
be taught to pronounce when they firff learn to read.
And he advites, that they fhould then be inftrufted
where to fufpend their voice, and make the proper pau-
39$ ORA!
Pronuncia- fes, both In illftinguithing the feveral parts of the fame
. t1^1' ^ fentence, and in feparating one fentence from another ;
likewife when to raife or link their voice, or give it a
proper inflexion ; to be flower or fatter, more vehement
or fedate, as the nature of the things may require j and
that the tone of their voice be always manly and grave,
but at the fame time mixed with an agreeable fweetnefs.
Thefe things may perhaps appear in themfelves fmall $
but if duly attended to, they will be found of confide-
rable fervice to bring us to a juit and proper pronun¬
ciation. For in every thing that is to be attained by
practice, it is a great advantage to fet out right at
firfl.
The ancients likewife had perfons whom they called
phonafci, whofe proper bufinefs it was to teach them how
to regulate and manage their voice ; and others* who in-
ftrudted them in the whole art of pronunciation, both
as to their voice and geftures. Thefe latter we^e gene¬
rally taken from the theatre, being fome eminent expe¬
rienced aftors. So Quintilian, treating of the province
* f thefe perfons, fays, “ The comedian ought to teach
them how to relate fadts, with what authority to ad-
vife, with what vehemence to exprefs anger, and
with what foftnefs compaflion.” And fpeaking of ge-
ftures, he fays, “ He fhould admonifli them to raife their
countenance, not diftort their lips, or ftretch their
mouths.” With feveral other diredlions of the like
kind. Ajid we are told concerning the emperor M.
Antoninus, ufually called the philbfopher, that His JirJl
majiers vocYc Euphoria the grammarian^ and Geminus
the comedian.
But though they made ufe of actors to inflruct their
youth in forming their fpeech and geftures, yet the ac¬
tion of an orator was much different from that of the
theatre. Cicero very plainly reprefents this diftindtion
in the words of Cralfus, wThen, fpeaking of orators, he
fays, “ The motions of the body ought to be Anted to
the expreflions, not in a theatrical wray, mimicking the
words by particular gefticulations, but in a manner ex-
preflive of the general fenfe, with a fedate and manly
infledtion of the tides ; not taken from the ftage and
adtors, but from the exercife of arms and the paleftra.”
And Quintilian fays to the fame purpofe, “ Every ge-
flure and motion of the comedians is not to be imitated,
nor to the fame degree.” They thought the adtion of
the theatre too light and extravagant for the imitation
of an orator j and therefore, though they employed ac¬
tors to inform young perfons in the flrft rudiments, yet
they were afterwards fent to the paleftra, or fchools de-
figned on purpofe, to teach them a decent and graceful
management of their bodies. And fuch fchools, as
Quintilian informs us, were in ufe both among the
Greeks and Romans : Juft as of later ages children
learn to dance, in fome meafure with the fame inten¬
tion.
Being thus far prepared, they wTere afterwards fent
to the fchools of the rhetoricians. And here, as their
buflnefs wras to cultivate their ftyle, and gain the whole
art of eloquence •, fo particularly to acquire a juft and
accurate pronunciation by thofe exercifes, in which for
that end they were conftantly employed. And as the
Greeks were moft celebrated for their {kill in all the
polite arts, and efpecially oratory 5 the Roman gentry
and nobility generally fent their fons abroad, and placed
them under the tuition of fome Grecian mafter, to in-
O R Y. Part IV.
ftrubt them in the art of fpeaking, and -by that means Pronuncia,.
to fit them for the fervice of their country, either in t101’'
the courts of judicature or the fenate. Thus Cicero Y '
was fent to Rhodes, to ftudy under the famous Molo,
and Brutus under Pammenes*, Caftar wyas going to the
fame place when taken by pirates; and Auguftus after-
wards ftudied there under Apollodorus.
Nor, after all this pains and induftry, did they yet
think themfelves fufficiently qualified to take upon them
the charafter of orators. But it was their conftant cu-
ftom to get together fome of their friends and acquaint¬
ance who were proper judges of fuch performances, and
declaim before them in private. The bufinefs of thefe
perfons was to make obfervations both on their language
and pronunciation. And they were allowed the great-
eft freedom to take notice of any thing they thought
amifs, efther as to inaccuracy of method, impropriety of
ftyle, or indecency of their voice or actions. This
gave them an opportunity to cor reft any fuch defefts at
firft, before they became habitual. What effefts might
not juftly be expefted from fuch an inftitution ! Per¬
fons trained up in this manner, with all thofe advantages,
joined to a good natural genius, could not fail of ma¬
king very complete orators. Though even after they
came to appear in public, they did not lay afide the cu-
ftom of declaiming. For Quintilian tells us, that C.
Carlo ufed to pra&ifc it daihj in his tent. And Au¬
guftus is reported to have continued it during the war
of Mutina againft M. Antony. Nor is it to be fuppo-
fed, that fo conftant an attendance to this praftice was
only ferviceable to them in their public performances j
but it muft neceflarily affeft their whole conduft, give
them a freedom of fpeech, ealinefs of addrefs and beha¬
viour, and render them in all refpefts fine gentlemen as
wrell as excellent orators. And from hence, perhaps,
We may fee lefs reafon to wonder at the furprifing effefts
of fome of their difcourfes, when we confider what pains
they took to arrive at fhofe abilities.
Having thus far treated on pronunciation in general,
we {hall now proceed to confider the parts of it fepa-
rately j wduch are voice and gejlure.
Chap. II. Of the Voice.
Voice is one kind of founds. Now the influence
founds, either to raife or allay our paflions, is evident kind of
from mulic. And certainly the harmony of a fine dif-found
courfe, well and gracefully pronounced, is as Capable to a^”
move us, if not in a wray fo violent and ecftatic, yet notices
lefs powerful, and more agreeable to our rational facul- paffions,
ties. As the bufinefs of this chapter is to offer fome either by
confiderations for the juft and decent management of r^lin£ or
the voice, it may not be improper in the firft place to^1^111^
obferve in general wrhat nature does when free and un-
conftrained. As perfons are differently affected when
they fpeak j fo they naturally alter the tone of their
voice, though they do not attend to it. It rifes, finks,
and has various infleftions given it, according to the
prefent ftate and difpofition of the mind. When the
mind is calm and fedate, the voice is moderate and even •,
when the former is dejefted with forrowq the latter is
languid j and when that is inflamed by paflion, this is
raifed and elevated. It is the orator’s bufinefs, there¬
fore, to follow' nature, and to endeavour that the tone
of hLs voice appear natural and unaflefted. And for
PartlV. O R A P O 11 Y.
Pronuncia- this end, he mud take care to fult it to the nature of-
^ ^_on' the fubjeft 5 but Hill fo as to be always grave and de-
v cent. Some perfons continue a difcourfe in fuch a
low and drawling manner, that they can fcarce be
heard by their audience. Others again hurry on in
lo loud and boifterous a manner as if they imagined
their hearers were deaf. But all the mufic and harmo¬
ny of fpeech lies in the proper temperament of the
voice between thefe extremes. In order to fet this
matter in a juft light, it will be neceffary to conftder
the principal affections or properties of the voice, and
how they are to be regulated by an orator. Now thefe
may all be referred either to quantity or quality.
The quantity of the voice confifts in its highnefs or
lownefs, fw/tnefs or Jlowncfv, and the intermediate de¬
grees between them.
Every perfon who fpeaks in public fhould endeavour,
if he can, to fill the place where he fpeaks. But ftill
he ought to be careful not to exceed the natural key
of his voice. If he does, it will neither be foft nor
agreeable, but either harfh and rough, or too fhrill and
fqueaking. Befides, he will not be able to give every
fyliable its full and diftinft found } which will render
what he fays obfcure, and difficult to be underftood.
He fhould therefore take care to keep his voice with¬
in reach, fo as to have it under management, that he
“may raiie or fink it, or give it any inflexion he thinks
proper : which it will not be in his power to do if he
put a force upon it, and ftrain it beyond its natural tone.
The like caution is to be ufed againft the contrary
extreme, that the voice be not dropped, and fuffered to
fink too low. This will give the fpeaker pain in railing
it again to its proper pitch, and be no lefs offenfive to
the hearers. For though the muffc of fpeech confifts
in the variations of the voice, yet they muff; be gradual
to render them pleafant. ■ Such fudden and great chan¬
ges at once are rather to be efteemed chafms in fpeak-
ing than variations. Betides, as they often prevent
the hearers from taking in the fenfe of what is faid,
it gives them no fmall uneafinefs that they aro obliged to
ftretch their attention. Many perfons are too apt to be
guilty of this,- efpecially at the end of a fentence, by
dropping the laft word 5 which ought, in a particular
manner, to be exprefied diftinftly, becaufe the meaning
of the whole fentence often depends upon it.
'The medium between thefe two is a moderate and
even voice. But this is not the fame in all ; that which
is moderate in one -would be high in another. Every
perfon, therefore, muff: regulate it by the natural key of
his own voice. A calm and fedate voice is generally
beft j as a moderate found is moft pleating to the ear, if
it be clear and diftinft. But this equality of the voice
muff; alfo be accompanied with a variety, otherwife there
can be no harmony ; fince all harmony confifts in varie¬
ty. Nothing is lefs pleating than a difcourfe pronoun¬
ced throughout in one continued tone of the voice,
without any change or alteration. Befides, a variation
of the voice is an cafe to the fpeaker j as the body is
relieved by thifting its pofture. The equality, there¬
fore, we are here fpeaking of admits a variety of inflec¬
tions and changes within the fame pitch. And when
that is altered, the gradations, whether higher cr lower,
fliouid be fo gentle and regular as to preferve a due pro¬
portion of the parts and harmony of the whole , which
cannot be done when the voice is fuddenlv varied with
Vol, XV. Part I.
too great a diftinftion. And therefore it ffiould move Promi
from one key to another, fo as rather to glide like a
gentle ftream, than pour down like a rapid torrent,
as an ingenious writer has well expreffed it: An
even voice is beft fitted to keep the mind to clofe
attention. « And therefore, in fubjedls defigned on¬
ly for inftruflion, without any addrefs to the paflions,
there is little room for a variety of voice. For the
voice ought to agree with the ftyle 5 and as upon fuch
fubjefts this ftiould be equal, moderate, and fmooth, io
fliouid the other. Every thing, as wre fay, is beautiful
in its feafon ; and there is a certain propriety in things
which ought always to be regarded. And, therefore,
an affe£ted variety, ill-placed, is as difagreeable to a
judicious audience as the w;ant of it, where the fubjeft
requires it. We may find feme perfons, in pronouncing
a grave and plain difcourfe, aftccl as many different tone:*,
changes, and variations of their vole?, as if they w-ere
acling a comedy 5 which is doubtlefs a very great im¬
propriety. But the orator’s province is not barely to
apply to the mind, but likewife to the paflions ; which
require a great variety of the voice, high or low, vehe¬
ment or languid, according to the nature of the paflions
he defigns to affect. So that for an orator always to
ufe the fame tone or degree of his voice, and expefl to
anfwer all his views by it, would be much the fame
thing as if a phyfician fhould propofe to cure all diftem-
pers by one medicine. From hence it is evident, that
although various inflations and tones of the voice are
requifite to make it harmonious and pleafing to the ear;
yet the degree of it fhould differ according to the nature
of the fubjeef, and defign of the fpeaker. And,, as a
perfeft monotony is always unpleafant, fo it can never be
neceffary in any difcourfe.
The next property of the voice above-mentioned was
fiviftnefs. That fome expreflions ought to be pronoun¬
ced falter and fwifter than pthers, is very manifell.
Gay and fprightly ideas fnould not only be expreffed
louder, but alfo falter, than fuch as are fad and melan¬
choly. And when we prefs an adverfary, the voice
fhould be brifk and quick. But to hurry on in a pre¬
cipitant manner, without paufing till ftopt for want of
breath, is certainly a very great fault. This fleftroys,
not only the neceffary diftiniftion between fentence and
fentence, but likewife between the feveral words of the
fame fentence ; nay, and often occafions us to exprefs
our words by halves, while one is thrown fo faff: upon
another, that wre are not able to give each its full and
juft found. By this means all the grace of fpeaking is
loft, and in a great meafure the advantage of hearing.
For when the ears of the hearers cannot keep pace with
the volubility of the fpeaker’s tongue, they will be lit¬
tle the better for what he fays. BefldeS, by not
commanding his voice, and eafing his breath at the
proper paufes and points of diftinftion, he is often obli¬
ged to flop in the middle of a fentence ; and fo di¬
vides wfliat fhould be continued, and joins what fhould
be feparated; which muff; neceffarily deftroy the fenfe,
and confound his difcourfe. Young perfons are very
liable to this, efpecially at firft fetting out. And it
often arifes from diffidence. They are jealous of their
performances, and the fuccefs they may have in fpeaking,
which gives them a pain till it is over j and this puts
them into a hurry of mind, -which incapacitates them
from governing their voice, and keeping it under that
3 D d ue
394 O R A T
pjonuncia* clue regulation which perhaps they propofed to them-
   ^Ives before they began to fpeafc. And the greater
degree fuch per ions have of a native and ingenuous mO-
dcdy, accompanied with a laudable ambition to excel,
they are commonly more expofed to this. For while,
on the one hand, they are fired with an ardent defire to
recommend themfelves, and on the other are fearful of
the event, this dubious ft ate of mind is very apt to
throw them oft' their guard, and run them into this
excels. From which we may fee the great advantage
of having the voice well formed betimes ; for when
once it is become habitual to fpeak with juftnefs and
propriety, perfons readily pvaftife it without much atten¬
tion or concern.
And as a precipitant and hafty pronunciation is cul¬
pable, fo likewife, on the other hand, it is a fault to
fi>eak too flow. ! his feems to argue a heavinefs in the
ipeaker. A-d as hr appears cool himfelf, he can never
expect to warm his hearers, and excite their afteftions.
Vs hen not only every word, but every fyllable is drawn
out to too great a length, the ideas do not come faft
enough to keep up the attention without much uneafr-
neis. bor till the lento is completed, the mind is in
lufpeide j and, il it be held long in that fituatien, it
will of courfe flag and grow tired. Indeed, in lome
cafes, it is requifite the pronunciation fliould be flower
than in others ; as in reprefenting things great and dif¬
ficult ; or in exprefling fome particular paflions, as ad¬
miration or grief. Eut the extreme we are now fpeak- -
ing ot, is a flownefs equally continuing through a whole
Jj'courfe, which muft necefiarily render it flat and lifelefs.
Now, to avoid either of the two extremes laid men¬
tioned, the voice ought to be fedate and difiintft. And
ii order to render it diftinft, it is neceflary, net only
that each word and fyllable fhould have its juft and full
found, both as to time and accent; but likectdfe that
every fentence, and part of* a fentence, fliould be fepa-
rated by its proper paufe and interval. This is more
cafy to be done in reading, from the afliftance of the
points j but it is no lefs to be attended to in {peaking,
if we would pronounce in a diftinct and graceful man¬
ner.. For every one fhould fpeak in the fame man¬
ner as he ought to read, if he could arrive at that
exaclnefs. Nov/ the common rule given in paufing is,
that we flop our voice at a comma till we can teil one,
at a femicolon two, at a colon three, and at a full peri¬
od four. And as tkefe points are either accommodated
to the feveral parts of the fame fentence, as the firft
three ; or different leniences, as the laft ; this occaflons
the different length of the paufe, by which either the
dependence of what precedes upon that which follows,
or its diftinction from it, is reorefented. And, there¬
fore, in the firft three itops, the voice is rather to be fu-
fpended in different degrees or meafures of time than
entirely dropt, to (how that the fenfe is not yet comple¬
ted. But between fentence and fentence wTe refpire,
and begin anew. So that in long period' the voice
ihould be favoured by beginning low and fedately, that
it may hold to the end without refpiration •, or if it will
not, the breath ought to be recovered without finking
the voice. For if once the voice chop for want of
breath before the period be finiflied, not only the beau¬
ty, but likewife the fenfe of it, will be loft. Quintilian
lays a gteat ftrefs'upon a due attention to thefe paufes ;
and fays, “ Though it may appear net fo confiderable
° R t. _ Tan IV.
in itfeii, yet ail the other virtues of a good prohuncia- Pronuncia¬
tion are deficient without it.” tiou.
Hitherto we have confidered fuch properties of the 1 ’v~-—
vo:ce as refpect quAntilu, we come now to {peak of its
quaiaics. And the chief of thele are Jlrcngth. or
xi'eaknefs, clearnefs or obfeurenejs, fuluefs or fmcllhejs,
fmoothnefs or roughnefs. Now, one half of thefe is
what every one would willingly choofe, as he would
with to be free from the others. Eut it is not in our
power to give ourfelves what qualities of the voice we
pleafe y but only to make the belt ufe we can of what
nature has bellowed upon us. However, feveral defects
ol the voice are capable of being helped by care and
proper means ; as, on the other hand the heft voice may
be greatly hurt by ill management and indiferetion.
Temperance is a great prefervative of the voice, and all
excels is highly prejudicial to it. The voice muft ne-
ceffariiy fuffer, if the organs of fpeech have not their
proper tone. And in order to their having this, they
muft be kept in a due temperature ; that is, they mull
neither be too moift nor too dry. If they abound with
fluids, thefe will obftrudt the clearnefs of the voice,
and render it obfeure and confufed 5 and if they
aie parched with drought, the voice wall be harfh and
rough. Now all exceffes, as well as fome bodily indii-
pofitions, are apt to affeCl the organs one or other of
thefe ways.
A ftrong voice is very ferviceahle to an orator, be-
-Caifte if it want fome other advantages, he is, however,
capable to make himfelf heard. And it at any time
ne is forced to ftrain it, he is in lefs danger of its failing
him beiore he lias finiflied his difeourfe. Eut he who
has a weak voice, -fliould be very careful not to ftrain
it, efpecially at firft. Fie ought to begin Iciv, and rile
gradually to luch a pitch as the key of his voice will
well carry him, without being obliged to fink again af¬
terwards. Frequent inflections of the voice will like¬
wife be feme afliftance to him. Eut efpecially he fliould
take care to {peak deliberately, and cafe his voice, by
allowing due time for refpiration at all the proper pau-
ies. It is an extreme much lefs inconvenient for fuch
a perfon rather to fpeak too flow, than too faft. Eut
this defedl of a weak voice is fometimes capable of
being helped by the ufe ol proper methods ; as is evi¬
dent irom the inftance of Demofthenes, before-men¬
tioned.
A voice is faid to be clear, when the organs of fpeech
are fuited to give every Angle letter, and all the combi¬
nations of them in fyllables and words, their proper and
diftindt found. Such a voice is very pleafing and agree¬
able to the hearers; and no lefs an happinefs to the
fpeaker, as it faves him a great expence of fpirits. For
a moderate voice, if clear, will be as diftindly heard, as
one much louder, if thick and obfeure. Which is a
great advantage to the fpeaker, becaufe he can better
keep his voice under command, and modulate it at plea-
fure, as the feveral parts and circumftances cf his dif¬
eourfe may require. On the contrary, an obfeure and
confufed voice is not always occafioned from a deficien¬
cy in the organ ; but many times is t?ie effetl of cuftom
and a bad habit. Some perfons, either fiom want of
due care in their education at firft, or from inadverten¬
cy and negligence afterwards, run into a very irregular
and confufed manner of exprefling their words ; either
by mifplacing the accent, confounding the found of the
letters.
Part IV. O II A T
Pronuncia- letters, or huddling the fyllablce one upon another, fo
tion. as to render what they fay often unintelligible. Indeed,
v iomeLimes this anfes from a natural defedt, as m the cafe
of Demolthenes j who found a method to rectify that,
as well as the weaknefs of his voice. But in faults of
this kind, which- proceed from habit, douhtlefs the molt
likely way to mend the* i is to fpeak deliberately.
A full voice is not the fame as a ftrong or a loud
voice. It fills the ear, but it is often not pleafant.
And therefore to render it to, as well as audible, it
(hould be frequently varied. However, this feems bet¬
ter fuited to the character of an orator, than a. fmall
and thrill voice 5 becaufe it has fomething in it more
grave and manly. And thofe who have the misfor¬
tune of a very fmall voice, {hould be -cautious of railing
it to too high a pitch, efpecially at once ; becaufe the
fudden compreffure of the organ -is apt to occafion a
fqueaking and very difagreeable found.
A foft and fmooth voice is of all the mot! mufical,
efpecially if it be flexible. And, on the contrary, no¬
thing is lefs harmonious than a voice that is harflr and
rough. For the one grates as difagreeably upon the
ear, as the other gives it pleafure and delight.
From the confideration of thefe feveral properties of
the voice, we may conclude that-to be the beft, and fitted
for an orator, which is moderate, dittinct, firm, clear, and
fifiooth, and withal eafily flexible to the feveral degrees
and variations of found which every part of the difeourfe
may require’.
O 11 Y; 395
in fo lively a manner to convey both our ideas and paf- Piormucia.
But with refpect to oratory, gefture may \cry Uoru, ,
Gefture is
the confor¬
mity of the
motions of
the counte¬
nance, See.
to the na¬
ture of the
difcouife.
Chap. III. Of'GeJlwe.
By this is meant, a fuitable conformity of the mo¬
tions of the countenance, and feveral parts of the body,
in fpeak'mg, to the fubjcct-matter of the difeourfe.
’1 he word ^ejluve is here uied in a larger fenle than is
ordinarily done in common language. For we rarely
make ufe of that word to denote the motions of the
countenance, or any parts of it j but as thefe make a
confiderable part of our prefent fubject, they muft here
be comprehended under this term.
It is not agreed among the learned, whether voice
or geflure has the greater influence upon us. But as
the latter ailecls us by the eye, as the former does by
the ear, gefture in the nature of it feems to have this
advantage, that it conveys the impreffion more fpeedi-
ly to the mind •, for the fight is the quickeft of all our
fenfes. Nor is its influence lefs upon our pafiions •,
nay, in fome inftances it appears to aft more powerfully.
A call of the eye {hall exprefs delire in as moving a
manner as the fofteft language ; and a different motion
of it, refentment. Tearing the hands, tear the hair,
or ftrike the breaft, are ail ftrong indications of forrow.
Arid he who claps his hand to his fword, throws us into
u greater panic than one who only threatens to kill us.
Nor is it in fome refpefts lefs various and extenfive than
language. Cicero tells us, he often diverted himfelf
by trying this with Rofcius the comedian } who could
exprefs a fentence as many ways by his geftures, as he
himfelf by words. And fome dramas, called panto¬
mimes, have been carried on wholly by mutes, who have
performed every part by geftures only, without words,
in a way very intelligent, as well as entertaining to the
1’peftators. Well, therefore, might Cicero call action
{ox gefture) (he language of the body, fince it is capable
lions.   A . . w .
properly be called the fecondpart of pronunciation,
which, as the voice {hould be juried to the impreffions it
rec-: \ s from the mind, fo the feveral motions of the
body ought to be accommodated to the various tones
and inflections of the voice. When the voice is even
and moderate, little gefture is required •, and nothing is
more unnatural than violent motion, in difeouriing upon
ordinary and familiar iubjefts. The motions of the bo¬
dy {hould rife therefore in proportion to the vehemence
and energy of the expreflion, as the natural and genuine
effeft of it.
But as gefture is very different and various as to the
manner of it, which depends upon the decent conduft
of feveral parts of the body ; it will not be amifs to con-
lider more particularly the proper management of each
of thofe parts. Now all gefture is either natural, or
from imitation. By natural gefture we mean fuch ac¬
tions and motions of the body, as naturally accompany
our words, as thefe do the impreflions of our minds. And
thefe either refpeft the whole body, or fome particular
part of it. But before we enter upon this, give us le*ve
juft to obferve, that it has been cuftomary in all ages
and countries, in making a fet difeourfe before an affem-
bly, to do it handing. Thus we read, that Abraham
food up, and fpahe unto the children of Heth. And it
feems as if he fat down when he had ended his fpeech ;
becaufe, immediately after the account of their anfwer,
it is faid again, that Abraham food up and bowed him¬
felf to the people of the land, the children of Heth. In
like manner Homer reprefents the Grecian princes, as
handing up, when they made a ipeech, either to the
army, or in their councils. So when Achilles has
affembk'd the army, to inquire into the reafon of the
great plague which at that time raged among them,
he rifes up before he begins to fpeak, and fits down
again when he has done. After him the prophet
Calchas rifes, and charges if upon Agamemnon; who
rifingmp in a paflion, does not refufe to comply with
what Calchas propofed, but expreiTes his refentment
at him for faying it. And upon another occafion
both Agamemnon and Neltor do the fame ill council.
And Cicero acquaints us, that when Lentulus had
been charged in the fenate as an affociate with Catiline,
he flood up to make his defence. Nor does the advan¬
tage of being better heard, feem to have been the only
reafon for fo general an agreement in this pofture ^ but
it appears likewife to have been chofen, as the moft de¬
cent and refpeftful. Sitting carries in it an air of au¬
thority, and is therefore apofture fcarce ufed upon fuch oc-
caflons, unlefs perhaps where that is defigned to be expref-
fed by it. Wherefore it w»s a thing very much refented,
that when Caefar after he had got the power into his
hands, once addreffed the fenate, either refufed to rife,
as fome fay, or as others, one of his friends held him
down by his gown.
But though Handing appears to be the moft proper
pofture for fpeaking in public, yet it is very unbe¬
coming for the body to be entirely without any mo¬
tion like a ftatue. It {hould not long continue in
the fame pofriion, but be conftantly changing, though
the motion be very moderate. J. here ought to be no
appearance of ftiffnefs, but a certain eafe and pliable-
ne.% naturally fluting ilfeif to every expreflion,; by
3 D 2 which
w ic means, w'hen a greater degree of motion is
nece ary, it will appear lefs fudden and vehement :
or as t e railing, finking, and various inflexions of
the voice muft be gradualf0 likewife fliould the mo¬
tions o. t ic body. It is only on fome particularjoc-
caiions that an hafty vehemence and impetuofity is pro¬
per m either cafe.
As to the feveral parts of the body, the head is the
moi confiderable. J o lift it up too high has the air
o airogance and pride ; to ftretch it out too far, or
t-iov\ it back, looks clownifh and unmannerly 5 to
hang it downwards on the breaft, (hows an unmanly
badifulnefs and want of fpirit; and to fuffer it to lean
on either flioulder, argues* both floth and indolence.
■ v hereiore in calm and fedate difcourfe it ought to
keep its natm*al ftate, an upright pofture. However,
it fliould not be long without motion, nor yet always
movang 5 but gently turn fometimes on one fide, and
lometimes on the other, as occafion requires, that the
voice may be heard by all who are prefent; and then
return again to its natural pofition. It flrould always
• accompany the. other aXions of the body, and turn on
the fame fide with them ; except when averfion to any
t nng is exprefled, which is done by firetching out the
right hand, and turning the head to the left. ^ The an¬
cients ereXed a flatue of Venus in this pofture, who rvas
caded by the Greeks airorgoipice, and by the Latins Vtr-
ticordia, and in Englifh may be termed the forbidding
Venu9,. But nothing is more indecent than iyolent mo¬
tions and agitations of the head. And therefore when a
wutty wnriter, who is well known among us, would convey
the moll ridiculous idea of a pretender to knowdedge, he
expreffes it thus:
For having three times ftiook his head
To ftir his wit up, thus he faid. HuDibras.
But it is the countenance that chiefly reprefents both
the paflions and difpofition of the mind. By this we
exprefs love, hatred, joy, forrow*, modefty, and con¬
fidence : by this we fupplicate, threaten, foothe, in¬
vite, foibid, confent, or refufe j and all this without
fpeaiung. Nay, from hence we form a judgement not
only of a perfon’s prefent temper, but of Ins capacity
and natural difpofition. And therefore it is common
to fay, fuch an one has a promiftng countenance, or that
he promifes little by his countenance. It is true, this
jf? no certain rule of judging ; nor is it in the power of
any one to alter the natural make of his countenance r
however, it may put us upon endeavouring to gain
the moft pleafing afpeX we can; fince it is fo natural
for mankind to draw fuch conclufions from it : and
fome perfons are fo unhappy, as to render their coun¬
tenance more difagre^able, than othenvife it would be,
by ill habits.
But the feveral parts of the face bear their part,
and contribute to the proper and decent motion of the
whole. In a calm and fedate difcourfe, all the features
Retain their natural ftate and fituation. In forrow, the
forehead and eyebrow's lower, and the cheeks hang
down. But in expreflions of joy and cheerfulnefs, the
forehead and eyebrows are expanded, the cheeks con-
traXed, and the corners of the mouth drawm upwards.
Anger and refentment contraX the forehead, draw the
brows together, and thruft out the lips. And terror
elevates both the brows and forehead. As thefe are the
ORATORY.
, . Part IV
natural figns of fuch paflions, the orator fhould endea- Pronunc.V*
vour to conform to them. tIon
. -^ut as ,the *yes are moft aXive and fignificant, it ' v~—^
is the advice of.Cicero that the greateft care thould
be taken in their management. And he gives this
reafon ior it, “ Becaufe other parts of the countenance
have but few motions j whereas VI the paflions of the
ioul are exprefled in the eyes, by fo many different*
actions, which cannot poflibly be reprefented by any
geftures of the body, if the eyes are kept in a fixed pof¬
ture.” Common experience does in a great meafure
confirm the truth of this obfervation. We readily guefs
at a perfon’s intention, or how he is affeXed to ys, by
. Afs- And any fudden change or emotion of the
mind is prefently followed by an alteration in the look.
In fpeaking therefore upon pleafant n^d delightful fub-
jeXs, the eyes are brilk and cheerful \ as on the contra-
ry, thejr fink and are languid in deliverinp' any thing
melancholy and forrowful. This is fo agreeable to mt
tuie, that before a perlon fpeaks, we are prepared with
the expeXation of one or the other from his different af-
Peft*r hkewife. in anger, a certain vehemence and
intenxnefs appears in the eyes, which, for want of pro¬
per words to exprefs it by, we endeavour to reprefen t by
metaphors taken from fire, the moft violent and rapid
element, and fay, in fuch cafes, the eyes fparhle, burn
or are inflamed. In expreflionr of hatred or deteftatich
it is natural to alter the look, either by turning the eyes
afide, or downwards. Virgil has very jt q y obferved
this : for when he deferibes /Eneas meeting with Dido
in the Elyfian {hades, and addrefling her, he reprefents
her difregard of him, by faying,
Difdainfully fhe look’d ; then turning round,
Siill fix’d her eyes unmov’d upon the ground.
She flrow'ed her refentment for his former treatment of
her, by not vouchfafing to look on him. Indeed, the
eyes are fometimes turned downwards upon other occaficns
as to exprefs modefty. And if at any time a particular
objeX be addreffed to, whatever it be, the eyes ftiould
be turned that way. And therefore Philoftratus very
deservedly ridicules a certain rhetorician as guilty of a
folecifm in gefture, who, upon faying, 0 Jupiter! turned
his eyes downward ; and when he faid, 0 earth ! looked
upward. A flaring look has the appearance of giddi-
nefs and want of thought 5 and to contraX the eyes,
gives fufpicion of craft and defign. A fixed look may
be occafioned from intenfenefs of thought, but at the
fame time fliows a .difregard to the audience ; and a too
quick and wandering motion of the eyes denotes levity
and wantonnefs. A gentle and moderate motion of the
eyes is therefore in common mo^fintabie, always direc¬
ted to fome of the audience, and gradually turning from
fide to fide with an air of refpeX and modefty, and
looking them decently in the face, as in common dif-
couife : Such a behaviour will of courfe draw an atten¬
tion. As in converfation, when a perfon addreffes us in
an handfome and becoming manner, we prefently put
ourfelves in a pofture to give what he fays a proper re¬
ception. But as all the paflions are in the moft lively
manner exprefled in the eyes, their motions ought to
vary according to the different nature of thofe, paflions
they are fuited both to difeover in the fpeaker, and corw
ve.y to.his hearers 5 fince, as the quickeft aoccfs to the
mind is by the fight, a proper well-timed look will
fometimes
Part IV. O R A 1
Pronuncia- fometimes fooner effeft this than it can be done by
t^n- words ; as in difchargh'ig a cannon we are it ruck with
'v the light before wTe hear the found.
As to the other parts of the body diltinft from the
head, the (boulders ought not to be elevated 5 for this
is not only in itfelf indecent, but it likevife contracts
the neck, and hinders the proper motion of the head.
Nor, on the other hand, (hould they be drawn down,
and depreffcd \ becaufe this occailons a ftiffnefs both
to the neck and the whole body. Their natural pof-
ture therefore is beft, as being mod eafy and graceful.
To ill rug the (houlders has an abjedt and fervile air 5
and frequently to heave them upwards and downwards
is a very difagreeable light.
A continued motion of the arms any way, is by all
means to be avoided. Their action Ihould generally be
very moderate, and follow that of the hands, unlefs in
very pathetic expreflions, where it may be proper to
give them a more lively fpring.
The hands need never be idle. Quintilian feems to
think them as neceffkry and powerful in aftion, as
Cicero does the eyes. “ The hands (fays he), without
which all gefture is lame and wTeak, have a greater va¬
riety of motions than can well be expreffed \ for they
are almoft equal to our w’ords. Do not w'6 dehre with
them, promife, call, difmifs, threaten, befeech, deteft,
fear, inquire, deny ? Do not they exprefs joy, for-
row, doubt, confeflion, penitence, meafure, plenty,
number, and time ? Do not they excite, reftrain, prove,
admire, and ihame ? that in fo great a variety of fpeech
.among all nations and countries, this feems to me the
common language of all mankind.” Thus far Quinti¬
lian. Now, all bodily motion is either upward or down¬
ward, to the right or left, forward or backward, or elfe
circular. The hands are employed by the orator in all
thefe, except the laft. And as they ought to correfpond
with our expreffions, fo they ought to begin and end
with them. In admiration, and addrefles to heaven,
they mufl be elevated, but never rarfed above the eyes j
and in fpeaking of things below us, they are directed
downwards. Side motion, fhoilld generally begin from
the left, and terminate gently on the right. In demon-
flrating, addreffing, and on feveral other occahons, they
are moved forward ; and in threatening, fometimes
thrown back. But when the orator fpeaks of himfelf,
his right-hand ihould be gently laid on his breaft. When
no other motion is neceffary, the hands ihould be kept
about as high as the breaft, fo as to make near a right angle
with the arm. This is not only graceful, but likewftfe the
moil eafy pofture, and gives the lead ftrain to the muf-
cles. They {hould never be fuffered to hang down, nor
to loll upon the cuiluon or bar. The left hand ihould
never move alone, but accommodate itfelf to the mo¬
tions of the right. In motions to the left fide, the
right hand ihould not be carried beyond the left fhoul-
der. In promifes and expreffions of compliment,' the
motion of the hands Ihould be gentle and flow •, but
in exhortations-and'applaufe more fwift, The hands
ihould generally be open 5 but in expreflions of com-
punftion and anger they may be cloied. All fipical.
and trifling aftions of the fingers ought to be avoided ;
nor fliould they be ftretched out and expanded in a flift’
and rigid failure, but kept eafy and pliable.
Neither the breaft nor the belly ihould be thruft out ;
which in itfelf looks ungainly, and hinders the free mo..
o R Y. 397
tion of the trunk 5 which ought not to be kept too fliiT Prcnuncia-
and upright, but eafy and flexible, always fuiting itfelf. tl”n'
to the motions of the head and hands. The feet {hould
continue fteady, and not give the body a wavering and
giddy motion by frequently {hifting •, though iome per-
fons fall into that habit without moving their feet. Cu¬
rio, a Roman orator, as Cicero tells us, was addrfted to
this j which occafioned a friend of his once to pafs a
joke upon him, by afking, Who that was talking out of
a boat ? The jell is too plain to need explication •, for
every one knows the waving of a boat will give the bo¬
dy fuch a motion. a
The geftures we have hitherto difeourfed of, are-
fuch as naturally accompany our expreffions. And we
believe thofe we have mentioned, if duly attended to,
will be found fufheient to anfwer all the purpofes of
our modern pronunciation. The ancients, indeed, ufed
feveral more vehement actions and geftures than we
are accuftomed to j as we have formerly ftiown. Philip
the Roman orator, as Cicero informs us, did not ute
to prepare his difeourfes ; but fpoke, as we fay, off¬
hand. And he was wont to tell his friends, “ he was-
never fit to talk till he had warmed his arm.” lie
doubtlefs, therefore, ufed a more violent motion with
his arms and hands than is common with us. And
Cicero calls the arm projected the orator's weapon. In¬
deed, to extend or brandifh the arm, carries in it an air
of command and authority, which was not unbecoming
the charafter of Philip, who was a perfon of the higheii
rank and quality. And therefore young orators, both
among the Greeks and Romans, for a time ufed no mo¬
tion of the arm, but kept it confined in their garment,
as an argum ent of modefty, till age and experience al¬
lowed them to ufe greater freedom. Nor was it uncom¬
mon for the ancient orators to exprefs the excefs of their-
paflions by tears. They thought nothing unbecoming
that was natural : and judged it agreeable to the clia-
raders even of the braveft men, to be touched with a
fenfe of humanity in great calamities: And therefore
we find both Homer and Virgil make their greateft he¬
roes filed tears on feme cccafions.
The other fort of geftures above-mentioned are fuch
as arife from imitation; as where the orator deferibes
feme action, or perfonates another fpeakmg. But here
great care is to be taken not to over'-aft his part, by
running into any ludicrous or theatrical mimicry. It is
fuflicient for him fo to reprefent things of this nature, as
may beft convey the image of them in a lively manner
to the tninds of the >.irers} without any fuch change
either of his aftkms or voice as are not fuitable to his
own charafter.
Ch ap. IV. Some particular Rules for the Voice and,
Gejhire.
The fuhject of pronunciation is-of fo great impor-RuLa tor
tance to an orator, that it can neither be too clearly the voice.-
laid down, nor too ftrongly inculcated. If we inquire <inci
into the-caufes of that furprifing power it-has over us, lu,e'
and by what means it fo . ftrongly affects us,-this.-may
in fome meafure appear by reflecting on thfc frame
and conitilution of hitman nature. Tor our infinitely
wife and great Maker has fo formed us, that not only
the actions of the body are fubject to the direflion of
the mind, but we ate likewife. endowed with various
pa (lions
/
o R A T
pafirons and affeclions, that excite us to purfue thofe
tilings n. hieh rnake fox- our happineis, and avoid others
v/hith are hurtful to-us. And as we are made for fo-
cietv, we are alfo furnifhed with fpeech, which enables
us to converfe with one another. And fuch is the con-
tiivance of our make, and influence of our minds upon
tae mechanifm of our bodies, that we can not only
communicate our thoughts to each other, but likewife
our paflions. For, as Cicero well obferves, u Every
motion of. the mind has naturally, its peculiar counte-
nance, voice, and gefture } and the whole body, every
pofition of the lace, and found of the voice, like the
llnngs of an inftrument, a& agreeably to the impreffion
they receive from the mind.” Nor is this all: btit as
every one is differently affected himfelf, he is capable to
make the like impreflions upon others, and excite them
to the fame motions which he feels in himfelf. As when
two fnftruments are fet to the fame pitch, the firings of
the one being touched, produce in the other the like
found. This common fympathy in the human frame
flrows how necefl'ary it is that an orator Ihould not only
in general be well acquainted with the rules of pronun¬
ciation, but. like wife know how to ufe them as occafxon
requires ; i^r a general knowledge of the rules of art is
not of itfelf fufficient to perfeci an artift, without a fur-
tlier acquaintance with the particular application of them
to their feveral cafes and circumftances. Thus, for in-
ffance, it is not enough for an orktor to underftand
■all the beauties and ornaments of language, and which
' of them are failed to form ■ the feveral kinds of ft vie
.xinlefs he can likewife accommodate each of thofe cha-
radters to their proper iubjecl. And fo likewile in
pronunciation, he* ought not only to know rue feveral
qualities of the voice, and proper geftures of the body,
but alfo when and where to make ufe of them. For
not only different fubjecls, but alfo different parts of
the fame _ difeourfe, and even particular expreffions,
often require a difference in the manner of pronuncia¬
tion, both as to the voice and gefture. Having there¬
fore treated on both thefe parts of pronunciation in
general, it may not he amifs now to conflder how
they are to be applied in each of the two refpefts lall
mentioned.
We fhall begin with the parts of a difeourfe, and
treat of them in their natural order. And here the
view and deflgn of the fpeaker in each of them will
eafily help us to lee the proper manner of pront»ncia-
tion.
Let us fuppofe then a perfon „ refenting himfelf be¬
fore an affembly, in order to make a Aifcourfe to them.
It cannot be decent immediately to begin to fpeak Fo
focn as ever he makes his appearance. He will fi x ft
fettle himfelf, compofe his countenance, and take a
reipedfful view of his audience. J. his prepares them
for filence and attention. J o begin prefentlv, and
burry on, without firft allowing either himfelf or his
hearers time to compofe themfeives, locks as if he was
rather performing a tafk than had, any deflgn to pleafe
them ; which will be very apt to make them as uneafy
till he has done, as he feems to be h'mfelf. Perfons
commonly form feme opinion of a fpeaker from their
firfi: view ot hjm, which prejudices them either in his
favour, or oil;; nvite, as to what he fays afterwards.
A grave ’and fed ate afpect inclines them to think him
fcdous j that ho has ccnfldered his fubiccl, and may-
3
tion.
O R 1. Part IV.
have fomething to offer worth tlifiir attention. A haugh- Pronuncia-
ty and forbidding air occafions diffaite, as it looks like
dritefpeef. A w andering giddy countenance argues le- '
vity. A dejefted drooping appearance is apt to raife
contempt, unlefs where the fubjeft is melancholy. And'
a cheerful afqect is a -proper prelude to a pleafant and
agreeable argument.
5 b° bpeak. low at firft: has the appearance of mo-
defty, and is belt for tlie voice ; which, by riftno* trra-
dually, will with more eafe be carried to any pttch
that may be afterwards neceffary, without ftraining it.
However, lome variation of the voice is always proper
to give it an harmony. Nay, and fometimes it is not
improper for an orator to fet out with a confiderable
degree of warmth, expreffed by fuch an elevation of
the voice, and geftures of the body, as are fuited to
rep re fen t the emotions of his mind. Tut this is not
ordinalily the cale. W e have fome feiv inftances of
this m Cicero ; as in his oration for Rofcius Amerinus,.
where the heinoufnefs of the charge could not but ex- *
cite his indignation againrt the accuflcrs. And li)
hkewile in that againft Pifo, and the tw'O firft againft
Catiline, which begin in the fame manner, from the
i efentment he had conceived againft their perfons and
conduft.
^ In the narration, the voice ought to be raifed to
fome what an higher pitch. Matters of faft ftiould be
lelated in a very-plain and diftincf manner, with a pro¬
per Itrefs and emphafis laid upon each circumftance, ac¬
companied with a fuitable addrefs and motions of the
body, to engage the attention of the hearers. For there
is a certain grace in telling a ftory, by which thofe who
are mafters or it feldom fail to recommend themfeives in
conyerfation. j he beauty of it confifts in an eafy and
familiar manner of expreflion, attended with fuch ac¬
tions and geftures as are luited to the nature of the
things reiated, ana help to enliven each particular cir¬
cumftance and part of the difeourfe.
The propefition, or lubjeft of the difeourfe, ftiould
be delivered with a very clear and audible voice. For
it this be not plainly heard, all that follows in proof
of it cannot well be underftood. And for the fame
reafon, if it be divided into feveral parts or branches,
they ftiould each be expreffed very deliberately and di-
ftintfly. But as the defign here is only information,
there can be little room for gefture.
The confirmation admits of great variety both of the
voice and geftures. In reafomng, the voice is quick
and pungent, and ftiould be enforced with fuitable ac¬
tions. . And as deferiptions likewife have often a place
here, in painting out the images of things, the orator
ftiould fo endeavour to adapt both his voice, and the mo¬
tions of his body, particularly the turn of his eyes, and
adlion ci his hands, as may beft help the imagination of
his hearers. Where he introduces another perfon fpeak-
ing, or addreffc; to an abfent peifon, it Ihould be with
fome degree of imitation. And in dialogue the voice
ftiould alter with the parts. When he diverts from his
ftibjeff by any digreflion, his voice ftiould be lively and
cheerful; fince that is raftier defigned for entertainment
than inftruclion.
In confutation, the arguments of the adverfe party
ought firft to be repeated in a plain and dirndl man¬
ner, that the fpeaker may not feem to conceal, or
avoid the force of them, unlefs they appear trifling
and
Partly. ORATORY. , 399
Pronuncia- and unwortl’y of a ferious anfwer; and then a face-
tious manner, both of expreffion and gefture, may be
, the propereit way to confute them. For to attempt
to anfwer in a grave and feriu .s manner, what is in it-
felf empty and ludicrous, is apt to create a fufpicion
of its having more in it than it really has. So when
Tubero, in his accuiaticn of Ligarius before Caefar,
had made it part of his charge, that Ligarius was in
Africa during fome part of the civil war between Cae-
far and Pompey ; Cicero, in his anfwer, not thinking
it deferved a ferious reply, contents himfelf with bare¬
ly mentioning it ironically. For thus he begins bis
defence of Ligarius : “ Caefar, my kinfman lubero
has laid before you a new crime, and till this day un¬
heard of, that O. Ligarius was in Africa.” Every
one mull early perceive, by the manner in which thei'e
words were pronounced, that the defign of them wras
to make the charge appear ridiculous. But caution
fhould be ufed not to reprefent any argument of weight
in a ludicrous wav, left by fo doing the fpeaker Ihould
more expofe himfelf than his adversary.
In the conclunon, both the voice and gefture ftiouid
be briik and fprightly, which may feem to arife irom
a fenfe of the fpeaker’s opinion of the goodnefs of his
cauie, and that he has offered nothing but vdiat is
agreeable to reafon and truth ; as likewife from his af-
furance that the audience agree with him in the lame
fentiments. In every undertaking that requires care
and thought, perfons are apt at lirft to be fedate and
moderate ; but when it is drawing to an end, and is near
fnilhed, it is very natural to appear more gay. If an
enumeration of the principal arguments of the difeourfe
be convenient, as it fometimes is, where they are pretty
numerous, or the difeourfe is long, they ought to be
expreffed in the meft clear and forcible manner. And
if there be an addrefs to the paflions, both the voice
and gefture mult be fuited to the nature of them, of
which more will be faid prelently.
We proceed nowr to the conlideration of particular
expreffions. And what we lhall offer here, wall be firft
in relation to tingle words, then fentences, and laftly
the paflions.
133 I. Even in thofe fentences 'rich are expreffed in
the molt even and fedate manner, there is often one
or more words which require an emphalis and diftinc-
tion of the voice. Pronouns are often of this kind •,
as, This is the man. And fuch are many words that
denote the circumftances and qualities of things. Such
as heighten or magnify the idea of the thing to which
thoy are joined, elevate the voice ; as nolle, admirable,
' majt/Hc, ^really, and the like. On the contrary, thofe
which leffcn the idea, or debafe it, deprefs the voice,
or at leaft protract the tone; of which lort are the
words little, mean, poor lit, contemptible, with many others.
Some tropes likewife, as metaphors and verbal figures,
which confift in the repetition of a fingle word, fhould
have a particular emphafis. As when \ irgil fays of
the river A raxes, It dfdained a bridge. And Nifus of
himfelf in the fame poet, /, I am the man ; where the
repeated word is loudeft. This diftinftion of words,
and giving them their proper emphafis, ■ does net only
render the expreflion more clear and intelligible, but
very much contributes to the variation of the voice, and
the preventing a monotony. And the different pronun¬
ciation of thefe words will alfo require a peculiar gef- Prormr (na¬
ture. t'on.-
II. In fentences, regard Ihotild be had to their
length, and the number of their parts, in order to di-
ftinguilh them by proper paufes. The frame and ftruc-
ture of the period ought likewise to be confidered, that
the v: • :e may be fo managed as to give it the moll
mufical accent. Unlefs there be fome Ipecial reafon for
the contrary, it Ihould end louder than it begins. And
this difference of tone between ihe end of the former
fentence and the begii n'ng of the next, not only helps to
diftinguifh the fenfe, but adds to the harmony of the
voice. And that the laft fyilables of a fentence might
become more audible and di ft in St, was dcubtlefs one
reafon wdiy the ancient rhetoricians diftike ftiort feet at
the end of a period. In an antithefis, or a fentence
conftfting of oppofite parts, one contrary muft be louder
than the other. As, “/A is gone, but by a gainful
remove, from painful labour to quiet reft j from un¬
quiet defires to happy contentment ; from forrow to
joy ; and from, tranfitory time to immortality.” In a
climax or gradation, the voice fliould rife with it. So,
“ There iv no enjoyment of property ’without govern¬
ment ; no government without a magillrate ; no magif-
trate without obedience •, no obedience where every one
aBs as he pleafes.” And fo in other gradations of a
different form. As, “Since concord was lof, friendfliip
was /of, fidelity was bf, liberty was lojl, all was IqflB
And again, “You would pardon him whom the fenate
hath condemned, whom the people of Rome have con¬
demned, whom all mankind have condemned^ We
might mention feveral other figurative exprefixonsy ■
which require a particular .conformation and manage- •
ment of the voice ; but thefe, we prefume, with fome
others we (hall have cccafion to name prefently when
we come to the paftions, may be fufficient to guide us
in the reft. But that it may appear more evidently
how^ necetTary a different inflection and variation of the
voice is in meft fentences, give us leave to fticw how
Quintilian illuftrates it, by a paffage-which he takes
from Cicero. The place is the beginning of Cicero’s
defence for Milo, and the words are thefe : “Although
I am apprchenftve it may feem befe to difeover fear
when I (n/er upon the defence of a moft courageous man,
and it may appear very indecent, when Milo difeovers
more concern for the public fafety than fer his own,
not to jleow a greatmfs of mind equal to his caife, yet
this new form of the court terrifies my eyes, which can¬
not difeern the ancient manner of the forum, and for-
mer euftom cf trials, whatever way they I00L : your
bench is not furrounded with its ufual attendents.”
This fentence ccnfifts cf four members. And Quin¬
tilian fuppofes, that though thefe words are the be¬
ginning of a fpeech, and wrere accordingly expreffed
in a calm and fubmiffive manner, yet that the orator
ufed a great deal of variety in the pronunciation of
their feveral parts. In the firft member (as he ima¬
gines) his voice was more elevated in exprefilng the
words, a mof courageous man, than in thofe other parts
of it I am apprehenfve it may feem befe, and, to difeover
fear. In the lecond member he role higher, in faying,
when Milo difeovers more concern for the public fafety
than for his own •, and then again, as it we ret checked
himfelf in what follows, not to Jhow a greatnefs of mind
canal- -
400 0 R A T
Prontincia- equal to his caufe. The beginning of the third member,
. ti^>l>' carrying a refleftion in it, was fpoke wnth a ditTerent
tone of the voice, this new form of the court terrifies
my eyes ; and the other part of it more loud and di-
ftinclly, which cannot difcern the ancient manner of the
forum, and former cujlom of trials. And the lafl
member was itill more raifed and audible, your bench is
not furrounded with its ufual attendants. And it mull
be fuppofed, that while he was faying this, he call his
eyes round the aflembly, and viewed the foldiers whom
Pompey had placed there, which renders the expreffion
ftill more grave and folemn. If this Was the manner of
the ancient orators, and they were fo exact and accurate
in expreffing their periods, and the feveral parts of them,
as we have reafon to believe they were, it mult have
given a very great force, as well as beauty, to their
pronunciation.
III. That the paflions have each of them both a
different voice and action, is evident from hence 3 that
we know in what manner a perfon is affected, by the
tone of his voice, though we do not underitand the
fenfe of what he fays, or many times fo much as fee
him : and we can often make the fame judgement from
Rts countenance and geftures. Love and efteem are
expreffed in a fmooth and cheerful tone : but anger and
refentment, with a rough, harlh, and interrupted voice 3
for when the fpirits are difturbed and ruffled, the organs
are moved unequally. Joy raifes and dilates the voice,
as forrow fmks and contrails it. Cicero takes notice
of a paffage in an oration of Gracchus, wherein he be¬
wails the death of his brother, who was killed by Sci-
pio, which, in his time was thought very moving : “ Un¬
happy man (fays he), whither Jhall I betake rmjfelf?
where fhall I go ? Into the capitol ? that flows with
my brother's blood. Shall I go home 3 and behold my
unhappy mother all in tears and defpair Though
Gracchus had a very ill defign in that fpeech, and his
view was to excite the populace againft their governors,
yet (as Cicero tells us) when he came to this paffage,
he expreffed himfelf in fuch moving accents and geftures,
that he extorted tears even from his enemies. Fear
occafions a tremor and hefitation of the voice, and af-
furance gives it ftrength and firmnefs. Admiration
elevates the voice, and ftiould be expreffed with pomp
and magnificence : 0 furprfing clemency, worthy of
the highefl praife and greatefl encomiums, and fit to be
perpetuated m lafltng monuments ! This is Cicero’s com¬
pliment to Caefar when he thought it for his purpofe.
And oftentimes this paflion is accompanied with an ele¬
vation both of the eyes and hands. On the contrary,
contempt finks and protra&s the voice. In the difpute
between Cicero and Cecilius, which of them ftiould
accufe Verres, Cicero puts this contemptuous queftion to
0 R Y- .. Part IV.
him : ‘‘How are you qualified, Cecilius, for fuch an un- Prommcia-
dertakmg >. I will not afk, when you ever gave a proof tiorv
of it 3 but when you fo much as attempted'dt ? Do vou
coniider the difficulty qf managing a public caufe ?”
with much more to the fame purpofe. Thoucffi fuch
kind of exprenions require little gefture/yel fometimes
a motion of the hand may not be improper, to fignify
dildain or averfion. We may fuppofe Cicero toliave
a£led thus in his defence of Rabirius. For to (how his
affurance of his client’s caufe, having ufed this expref¬
fion in a very audible manner, “ I wifti I had it to fav
tiiat Rabinus had with his own hand killed Saturninus
who was an enemy to the Roman ftate,” fume perfons
m the crowd began to raife a clamour, juft as of later
times hilling has been praftifed on the like occafions.
Upon which Cicero immediately replies, “ This noife
does not difturb me, but pleafe me* fince it ftidws,
though there are fome weak perfons, yet they are but
few.” Then prefently after follows the expreffion we
refer to “ Why do not you ceafe your clamour, fince
it only difeovers your folly, and the fmallnefs of your
number ?” All exclamations fliould be violent. When
we addrefs to inanimate things, the voice ftiould be
higher than when to animated beings 3 and appeals-
to heaven muft be made in a loftier tone than thofe to
men.
Thefe few hints for exprefling the principal paflions
may, if duly attended to, fuffice to diredl our pradlice
in others. 1 hough, after all, it is impofiible to gain
a juft and decent pronunciation of voice and gefture
merely from rules without pradlice and an imitation
of the beft examples. Which {hows the wifdom of
the ancients, in training up their youth to it, by the
affiftance of mafters, to form both their fpeech and ac¬
tions.
But there is one thing which ought always to be at
tended to 3 namely, that perfons ftiould well confider
their own make and genius, efpecially with refpeft to
the paflions. We feldom find, that any aflor can excel
in all charadlers 3 but if he performs one well, he is de¬
ficient in another : And therefore they are commonly
fo prudent as to confine themfelves to fuch as beft fuit
them. The cafe is the fame in an orator 3 who Ihould
therefore keep within thofe bounds which nature feems
to have preferibed for him. Some are better fitted for
adlion than others, and moft for fome particular aflions
rather than others 3 and what fits well upon one would
appear very awkward in another. Every one, there¬
fore, fliould firft endeavour to know himfelf, and ma¬
nage accordingly. Though in moft cafes, nature may
be much aflifted and improved by art and exercile. See
Profeffor Ward’s System of Oratory.
Oratory,
Orb.
ORE
Oratory, among the Romanifts, a clofet or like
apartment near a bed-chamber, furniftied with an altar,
crucifix, &c. for private devotions.
ORB, in Aflronotny, denotes a hollow globe or
fphere.
Orb, in taflics, is the difpofing of a number of fol-
ORB
diers in circular form of defencCi The orb has beeii
thought of confequence enough to employ the attention
of the famous Marfhal de Puyfeguf in his Art of War,
who prefers this pofltion to throw a body of infantry in
an open country, to refill cavalry, or even a fuperior
force of infantry 3 feecaufe it is regular, and equally
ftrong,
Orb.
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