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Encyclopaedia Britannic a.
A.
A,
Abbreviat.
THE firft letter of the alphabet, in all the fignified 500 ; and when a dafh was added on the top, A,
_ — - * *“ _ _ _ _ xvd Dreviat.
A 9 known languages of the world, that of Ethi¬
opia excepted, in which it is the 13th. It has de-
fervedly the firft place in the alphabet, on account of
its firaplicity, very little more being neceffary to its
pronunciation than opening the mouth.
In the Englifh language A is the mark of three dif¬
ferent founds, termed, by our grammarians, the broad,
the open, and the /lender A. The firft refembles that
of the German A, is found in feveral monolyllables, as
wall, fait, &c. and is pronounced as au in caufe. It
is probable that the Saxons exprefled only this broad
found of the letter, as it is ftill commonly retained in
the northern diftricts of England, and univerfally
throughout Scotland ; as, tank for talk, wauk for walk
or wake.—The open A refembles that of the Italians
in adagio, and is the fame with that of a h\ father, ra¬
ther, »kc. The flender found is peculiar to the Englifh
language, and refembles the found of the French diph¬
thong ai in pais, or their a mafculine, or perhaps it is
a middle found between them. This is exemplified in
place, wafe, &,c. alfo in toleration, jujlif cation, and
all other wTords ending with ation.
A is fometimes added after wwds In burlefque poetry j
in which cafe it only makes an additional fyllable with¬
out any alteration of the fenfe, as the interje&ion O
very often does in our ballads. It is alfo fometimes
redundant, as in the words arife, awake, &c. which
are not different in fignification from rife, wake, &c.
It is fometimes a word, either noun or interjection 5
in which laft cafe, it is commonly an expreflion of
grief, and joined with the afpirate, as ah! When a
noun, it is only with refpecf to itfelf; as great A,
little a, &.c.
A is very frequently ufed as an articlein which cafe
it has no plural fignification, and is ufed to denote the
number one, as a houie, a field, &c. When placed as
an article before any of the vowels, y and w only ex¬
cepted, It is joined with the letter n ; as an ifland, an
orator, &.c.—In the three following cafes it is a pre-
pontion: 1. When it goes before a participle, or noun
derived from a participle 5 as, I am a doing this or
that. 2. When ufed before local furnames; as Corne¬
lius a Lapide, Thomas a Kempis, &c. 3. When it
is ufed in compofition 5 as, a foot, a deep, &c. In fome
inftances it denotes the proportion of one thing to ano¬
ther •, as, fo much a week, a man, a head, &c.
A, among the ancients, w'as a numeral letter, and
Vol. I. Part I.
Ax j ,
A, in the Julian calendar, is the firft of the feven
dominical letters. It had been in ufe among the
Romans long before the eftablifhment of Chriftianity,
as the firft of the eight nundmales literce ; in imitation
whereof it was that the dominical letters w^ere firft
introduced.
A is alfo an abbreviation ufed with different inten¬
tions. Hence,
A, among logicians, is ufed to denote an univerfal
affirmative propofition; according to the verfe,
AJferat A, negat E, verum generaliter ambee.
Thus, in the firft figure, a fyllogifm confifting of three
univerfal affirmative propofitions, is faid to be in Bar-
ba-ra ; the A thrice repeated, denoting fo many of the
propofitions to be univerfal, &c. See Barbara.
A, among the Romans, was ufed in giving votes
or fuffrages.—When a new law was propofed, each
voter had two wooden ballots put into his hand ;
the one marked with a capital A, fignifying antique,
q. d. antiquam volo ; and the other with U. R. for uti
rogas. Such as were againft the larv, caft the firft into
the urn \ fignifying, I refufe it, I antiquate it; or, 1
like the ancient law, and defire no innovation.
A, in the trials of criminal caufes, alfo denoted ab~
folution : Whence Cicero, pro Milone, calls A, litcra
falutaris, a faving letter.—Three ballots were diftri-
buted to each judge, marked with the letters, A for
abfolvo, I acquit •, C for condetnno, I condemn ; and
A. L. for non liquet, It is not clear. From the num¬
ber of each caft into the urn, the praetor pronounced
the prifoner’s fate. If they were equal in number, he
was abfolved.
A, in the ancient inferiptions of marbles, &c. oc-
cafionally Hands for Augufus, ager, aiunt, &c. When,
double it denotes Augufli; when triple aurum, argen¬
tum, ecs; and fometimes its meaning can only b®
known by the reft of the infeription. Ifidore adds,
that wdren it occurs after the word miles, (foldier), it
denotes him young. On the reverfe of ancient medals,
it denotes that they were ftruck by the city of Argos,
fometimes by that of Athens } but on coins of modern
date, it is the mark of Paris.
A, as an abbreviation, is alfo often found in modern
writers *, as A. D. for anno Domini; A. M. artium
magifter, mafter of arts; anno mundi, &c.
A A,
AAR [
A A, the letter a, with a line above it, thus a, is ufed
in medical prefcriptions for ana, of each; fometimes it
a‘° ^ is written thus, aa : e. g. R Mel. Sacchar. et Mann,
a, vel aa, 3-j. i. e. Take of honey, fagar, and manna,
of each, one ounce.
A, put to bills of exchange, is in England an ab¬
breviation of accepted, and in France for accepte. It
is likewife ufual among merchants to mark th'eir fets
of books with the letters A, B, C, &c. inilead of the
numbers I, 2, 3, &c.
A. A.A. The chemical abbreviation for Amalgama,
or Amalgamation.
AA, the name of feveral rivers in Germany and
Swifferland.
AACH, a little town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, near the fource of the river Aach, and almoft
equally diftant from the Danube and the lake Con-
fiance. It belongs to the houfe of Aullria. E. Long.
9. o. N. Lat. 47. 55.
A AH US, a little town of Germany, in the circle ol
Weftphalia and bifhopric of Munfter. It is the capital
of Aahus, a fmall diftrifi ; has a good caftle ; and lies
north-eaft of Coesfeldt. E. Long. 7. I. N. Lat. 52. 10.
A AM, or Haam, a liquid meafure in common ufe
among the Dutch, containing 128 meafures called
mingles, each weighing nearly 36 ounces avoirdupois ;
vrhence the 'Jlam contains 288 Englifli, and 148-j-pints
Paris meafure.
AAR, the name of two rivers, one in Swillerland,
and another in Weftphalia in Germany. It is alfo the
name of a fmall ifland in the Baltic.
AARASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Pi-
fidia, in the Hither Alia, thought to be the Anaflus
of Ptolemy.
AARON, high-prieft of the Jews, and brother to
Mofes, was by the father’s fide great grandfon, and by
the mother’s, grandfon of Levi. By God’s command
he met Mofes at the foot of Mount Horeb, and they
went together into Egypt to deliver the children of If-
rael: he had a great ftiare in all that Mofes did for
their deliverance. The Scriptures callhim the prophet of
Mofes, and he afted in that capacity after the Ifraelites
had paffed over the Red fea. He afcended Mount Si¬
nai with two of his fons, Nadab and Abihu, and fe-
venty elders of the people ; but neither he nor they
went higher than half way, from whence they faw the
glory of God ; only Mofes and Jofhua went to the top,
where they ftaid forty days. During their abfence,
Aaron, overcome by the people’s eager entreaties, fet
up the golden calf, which the Ifraelites worlhipped by
his confent. This calf has given rife to various conjec¬
tures. Some rabbles maintain that he did not make
the golden calf, but only threw the gold into the fire,
to get rid of the importunities of the people ; and that
certain magicians who mingled with the Ifraelites
at their departure from Egypt, call this gold into
the figure of a calf. According to fome authors,
the fear of falling a facrifice to the refentment of the
people, by giving a refufal, made Aaron comply with
their defire : and they allege alfo, that he hoped to
elude their requeft, by demanding of the wromen to
contribute their ear rings, imagining they would rather
choofe to remain without a vilible deity, than be de¬
prived of their perfonal ornaments. This affair of the
golden calf happened in the third month after the If-
2 ] AAR
raelites came out of Egypt. In the firft month of the Aaron
following year, Aaron was appointed by God high- A |
prieft ; which office he executed during the time that ^,alfcns'
the children of Ifrael continued in the wildernefs. He
died in the fortieth year after their departure from
Egypt, upon Mount Hor, being then 123 years old ;
A. M. 2522, of the Julian period 3262, before the
Chriftian era 1452.
Aaron, the Caraite, a learned Jew who flourilhed
about the year 1299. He left many works on the Old
Teftament, among which there is one entitled, “ A
Commentary on the Pentateuch,” which has been much
valued. It was written in Hebrew, and printed in fo¬
lio with a Latin tranfiation, at Jena, in 1710.
Aaron, another Caraite Jew, who lived in the 15th
century, wrote a concife Hebrew grammar, entitled
Chelil 'Jophi, “ the Perfection of Beauty,” which was
printed at Conftantinople in 1581.
Aaron and Julius, Saints, were brothers who fuf-
fered martyrdom together, during the perfecution un¬
der the emperor Dioclefian, in the year 303, about the
fame time with St Alban the firft martyr of Britain.
We are not told what their Britifti names were, it'be¬
ing ufual with the Chriftian Britons, at the time of bap-
tifm, to take new names from the Greek, Latin, or
Hebrew. Nor have we any certainty as to the parti¬
culars of their death; only that they fuffered the moil
cruel torments. Two churches were dedicated to the
brothers, in which their bodies were interred, at Caer-
Leon, the ancient metropolis of Wales.
Aaron, or Harun, Al Rafchid, a celebrated caliph,
or Mahometan fovereign of the Saracen empire; whofe
hiftory is given under the article Bagdad.
A ARSENS, Francis, Lord of Someldyck and
Spyck, was one of the greateft minifters for negotia¬
tion the United Provinces could ever boaft of. His
father, Cornelius Aarfens, was regifter to the States ;
and being acquainted with Mr Pleffis Mornay, at the
court of William prince of Orange, he prevailed up¬
on him to take his fon under him, with whom he con¬
tinued fome years. John Olden Barneveldt, who pre-
fided over the affairs of Holland and all the United
Provinces, fent him afterwards agent into France,
where he learned to negotiate under thofe profound
politicians Henry IV. Villeroy, Silleri, Roffie, Jaon-
nin, &c. and he acquitted himfelf in fuch a manner as
to obtain their approbation. Soon after, he was in¬
verted with the charafter of ambaffador, and was the firft;
who was recognized as fuch by the French court; at
which time Henry IV. declared, that he Ihould take
precedence next to the Venetian minifter. He refided
in France 15 years; during which time he received
great marks of efteem from the king, who created him
a knight and baron; and for this reafon he was re¬
ceived among the nobles of the province of Holland.
However, he became at length fo odious to the French
court, that they defired to have him recalled. He
was afterwards deputed to Venice, and to feveral Ger¬
man and Italian princes, upon occafion of the troubles
in Bohemia. He was the firft of three extraordinary
ambaffadors fent to England in 1620, and the fecond
in 1641 ; in which latter embaffy he was accompanied
by the lord of Brederode as firft ambaffador, and
Heemfvliet as third, to negotiate the marriage of
Prince William^ £bn of the prince of Orange, with a
daughter
ABA [
Aafar daughter of Charles I. He was likewlfe ambaflador
extraordinary at the French court in 1624, at the be-
, ginning of Cardinal Richlieu’s adminiftration, who had
a high opinion of him. The memoirs which he has
left, of the negotiations in which he was engaged, ftiow
him to have been one of the ableft men of his time,
and worthy of the confidence and truft repofed in him
by his country. But his charadler is not altogether
without ftain. His enmity to the remonflrants was bit¬
ter and unrelenting; and he is fuppofed to have great¬
ly encouraged the violent meafures purfued by Prince
Maurice againfl the venerable Barneveldt, and to
have been the principal advifer for affembling the fa¬
mous and perfecuting fynod of Dordrecht. He died
at a very advanced age } and his fon, who furvived
him, was reputed the wealthieft man in Holland.
AASAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine,
in the tribe of Judah, fituated between Azotus and
Afcalon. In Jerome’s time it was a hamlet.
AB, the eleventh month of the civil year of the
Hebrews, and the fifth of their ecclefiaftical year, which
begins with the month Nifan. It anfwers to the moon
of July} that is, to part of our month of the fame
name, and to the beginning of Auguft: it confifts of
thirty days. The Jews faft on the firft of this month,
in memory of Aaron’s death ; and on the ninth, becaufe
on that day both the temple of Solomon, and that
erefted after the captivity, were burnt 5 the former by
the Chaldeans, and the latter by the Romans. The
fame day is alfo remarkable among that people for the
publication of Adrian’s edift, wherein they were for¬
bidden to continue in Judea, or even to look back when
at a diftance from Jerufalem, in order to lament the de-
folation of that city. The 18th of the fame month is
alfo a faft among the Jews ; becaufe the lamp in the
fanctuary was that night extinguiflied, in the time of
Ahaz.
Ab, in the Syriac calendar, is the name of the laft
fummer month. The firft day of this month they call!
ed Suum-Miriam, the faft of the virgin, becaufe the
eaftern Chriftians fafted from that day to the fifteenth,
which was therefore called Fathr-Miriam, the ceflation
of the faft of the virgin.
A^A (or rather Abau) Hanifah or Hanfa, fur-
named Al-Nooma, was the fon of Thabet, and born
at Coufah in the 80th year of the Hegira. This is the
moft celebrated do&or of the orthodox Muffulmans,
and his fedt is held in greateft efteem among the four
which they indifferently follow. Notwithftanding this,
• he was not very well efteemed during his life; infomuch
that the caliph Almanfor caufed him to be imprifoned
at Bagdad, for having refufed to fubfcribe to the opi¬
nion of abfolute predeftination, which the Muffulmans
call Cadha. But afterwards Abou Jofeph, who was
the fovereign judge or chancellor of the empire under
the caliph Hadi, brought his dodlrine into fuch credit,
that it became a prevailing opinion, That to be a good
Muffulman was to be a Hanifite. He died in the
150th year of the Hegira, in the prifon of Bagdad :
and it was not till 335 years after his death, that
Melick Schah, a fultan of the Selgiucidan race, creel¬
ed to his memory a magnificent monument in the fame
city, and a college for his followers, in the 485th year
ol the Hegira, and Anno Chrifti 1092. The moll
3 ] ABA
eminent fucceffors of this doflor were Ahmed Benali,
A1 Giaffas, and Al Razi who was the mafter of Naf-
fari j and there is a mofque particularly appropriated,
to them in the temple of Mecca.
Aba, Abas, Abas, or Abus, in Ancient Geography,
the name of a mountain of Greater Armenia, fituated
between the mountains Niphatos and Nibonis. Ac¬
cording to Strabo, the Euphrates and Araxes rofe from
this mountain ; the former running eaftward, and the
latter weftward.
Aba. See Abac.
Aba, Albon, or Ovon, a king of Hungary. He
married the filler of Stephen I. and was elecled king
on the depolition of Peter in 1041. The emperor
Henry III. preparing to reinftate Peter on the throne,
Aba made an incurfion into his dominions, and return¬
ed loaded with booty ; but was next year obliged to
make reftitution, by paying a large fum, in order to
prevent a threatened invafion from the emperor. He
indulged in great familiarity with the lower clafs of
the people, on account of which, and his feverity to
their order, he became univerfally odious to the nobi¬
lity. The fugitive nobles, aided by the emperor, ex¬
cited a revolt again!! him. After a bloody battle,
Aba was put to flight 5 and was murdered by his own
foldiers in 1044, having reigned three years.
ABAA, a river in Theffaly, fuppofed by fome to be
the Peneus of the ancients.
ABACiENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Me¬
dia, and another of Caria in the Hither Alia.
ABACiENUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Sicily, whofe ruins are fuppofed to be thofe lying near
Trippi, a citadel on a high and fteep mountain not far
from Meflina. The inhabitants were called Abaceenini.
ABACH, a market town of Germany, in Lower
Bavaria, feated on the Danube, 12 miles S. W. of
Ratilhon. It is remarkable for Roman antiquities, and
for fprings of mineral waters which are faid to be good
for various diftempers. E. Long. 11. 56. Lat. 48?53^
ABACINARE, or Abbacinare, in writers of
the middle age, a cruel fpecies of punilhment, confift-
ing in the blinding of the criminal, by holding a red-
hot bafon or bowl of metal before his eyes.
ABACK (a fea term), the fituation of the fails when
the lurfaces are flatted agamft the mails by the force
of the wind. The fails are faid to be taken aback when
they are brought into this fituation, either by a fudden
change of the wind, or by an alteration in the Ihip’s
courfe. I hey are laid aback, to effeft an immediate re¬
treat, without turning to the right or left; or, in the
fea phrafe, to give the Ihip Jlern-Uoay, in order to avoid
fome danger difeovered before her in a narrow channel,
or when Ihe has advanced beyond her llation in the line
of battle, or otherwife. The fails are placed in this
pofition by flackening their lee braces, and hauling in
the weather ones j fo that the whole effort of the wind
is exerted on the fore part of their furface, which rea¬
dily pufties the Ihip aftern, unlefs Ihe is reftrained by
fome counteracting force. It is alfo ufual to fpread
fome fail aback near the Hern, as the mizen-top-fail,
when a Ihip rides with a fingle anchor in a road, in
order to prevent her from approaching it fo as to en¬
tangle the flukes of it with her llackened cable, and
thereby loofen it from the ground.
A 2
A ba
Aback,
ABACOT,
ABA [ 4 ] ABA
ABACOT, the name of an ancient cap of Hate
worn by the kings of England, the upper part whereof
__ was in the form of a double crown.
ABACTORS, or Abactores, a name given to
thofe who drive away, or rather fteal, cattle by herds,
or great numbers at once 5 and are therefore very pro¬
perly diitinguifhed from fares or thieves.
ABACUS, among the ancients, was a kind of cup¬
board or buffet. Livy, defcribing the luxury into
which the Romans degenerated after the conqueft of
Alia, fays they had their abaci, beds, &c. plated over
with gold.
Abacus, among the ancient mathematicians, figni-
fied a table covered with duff, on which they drew
their diagrams 5 the word in this fenfe being derived
from the Phoenician abak, duff.
Abacus, or Abaciscus, in ArchileBure, lignifies
the fuperior part or member of the capital of a column,
and ferves as a kind of crowning to both. Vitruvius
tells us the abacus was originally intended to reprefent
a fquare tile laid over an urn, or rather over a bafket.
See Architecture, N° 15.—The form of the abacus
is not the fame in all orders : In the Tufcan, Doric,
and Ionic, it is generally fquare ; but in the Corin¬
thian and Compolite, its four fides are arched inwards,
and embellilhed in the middle with fome ornament, as
a rofe or other flower.. Scammozzi ufes abacus for a
concave moulding on the capital of the Tufcan pedef-
tal; and Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus,
or boultin, in the Tufcan and Doric orders, by the
fame name.
Abacus is alfo the name of an ancient inffrument
for facilitating operations in arithmetic. It is variouf-
ly contrived. That chiefly ufed in Europe is made by
drawing any number of parallel lines at the diftance of
two diameters of one of the counters ufed in the cal¬
culation. A counter placed on the loweft line, figni-
fies 1 ; on the 2d, 10; on the 3d, 100; on the 4th,
1000, &c. In the intermediate fpaces, the fame coun¬
ters are eftimated at one half of the value of the line
immediately fuperior, viz. between the iff and 2d, 5 5
between the 2d and 3d, 50, &c. See Plate I. fig. 1.
where the feme number, 1802 for example, is repre-
fented under both divifions by different difpofitions of
the counters. A farther illuftration of this mode of
notation is given in fig, 2.
National debt, according to Mr Addington, iff Feb.
1802, - - L. 400,709,832
According to Mr Tierney, - 457,154,081
According to Mr Morgan, - 558.418,628
New finking fund, - - 3,275,143
Old finking fund, - - 2,534,187
Abacus is alfo ufed by modern writers for a table
of numbers ready caff up, to expedite the operations of
arithmetic. In this fenfe we have Abaci of addition,
of multiplication, of divifion. This inftrument for
computation is, under fome variations, in ufe with moft
nations, as the Greeks, Romans, Germans, French,
Chinefe, &c.
Grecian Abacus-, was an oblong frame, over which
were ftretched feveral brafs wires, ftrung with little
ivory balls, like the beads of a necklace } by the va¬
rious arrangements, of which all kinds of computations
were eafily made.
Roman Abacus was a little varied from the Gre¬
cian, having pins Aiding in grooves, inftead of firing* Abacui
or wires and beads. II
Chinefe Abacus, or Shwanpan, like the Grecian, A' ail‘eL
confifts of feveral feries of beads ftrung on brafs wures, *
ftretched from the top to the bottom of the inftru¬
ment, and divided in the middle by a crofs piece from
fide to fide. In the upper fpace every ftring has tw o
beads, which are each counted for 5 \ and in the low¬
er fpace every ftring has five beads, of different values,
the firft being counted as 1, the. fecond as 10, the third
as 100, and fo on, as with us.
Abacus Pythagoricus, the common multiplication
table, fo called from its being invented by Pythagoras.
Abacus Logijiicus, is a rectangled triangle, whofe
fides, forming the right angle, contain the numbers
from 1 to 60 ; and its area, the fafta of each two of
the numbers perpendicularly oppofite. This is alfo
called a canon of fexagefmals.
Abacus et Palmulee, in the Ancient Mufic, denote
the machinery, whereby the firings of polyple&rai or
inftruments of many firings, w?ere ftruck with a plec¬
trum made of quills.
Abacus Harmonicas, is ufed by Kircher for the
ftrufture and difpofition of the keys of a mufical in¬
ftrument, whether to be touched with the hands or the
feet.
Abacus Major, in Metallurgic Operations, the name
of a trough ufed in the mines, wherein the ore is waffl¬
ed.
ABADDON, is the name which St John in the
Revelation gives to the king of the locufts, the angel
of the bottomlefs pit. The infpired writer fays, this
word is Hebrew, and in Greek fignifies KnoKAvuv, i. e.
a dejiroyer. That angel-king is thought to be Satan
or the devil: but Mr le Clerc thinks with Dr Ham¬
mond, that by the locufts which came out of the abyfs,
may be underftood the zealots and robbers, w ho mife-
rably aTRi&ed the land of Judea, and laid it in a man¬
ner wafte, before Jerufalem wras taken by the Romans 5
and that Abaddon, the king of the locufts, may be.
John of Gifchala, who having treacheroufly left that
towrn a little before it wras furrendered to Titus, came
to Jerufalem, w here he foon headed part of the zealots,
who acknowledged him as their king, whilft the reft
wTould not fubmit to him. This fubdivifion of the zea¬
lot party brought a thoufand calamities on the Jews.
ABADIR , a title which the Carthaginians gave to
gods of the firft order. In the Roman mythology, it,
is the name of a ftone which-Saturn fwallowed, by the
contrivance of his wife Ops, believing it to be his new¬
born fon Jupiter : hence it became the objeft of reli¬
gious wTorfhip.
ABIE, or Aba, in Ancient Geography, a towm of
Phocis in Greece, near Helicon ; famous for an oracle,
of Apollo older than that at Delphi, and for a rich
temple which wTas plundered and burnt by the Perfians.,
ABAFT, a fea term, fignifying the hinder part of
a {hip, or all thofe parts both within and without
which lie towards the ftern, in oppofition to afore ;
which fee.—Abaft, is alfo ufed as a prepofition, and
fignifies further aft, or nearer the jlcrn ; as, the barri¬
cade Hands abaft the main-maft, i. e. behind it, or
nearer the ftern.
ABAIS3ED, abaijfe, in Heraldry, an epithet apT
plied to the wings of eagles, &c. when the tip looks
downwards
ABA [
Abaka do^Tiwards to the point of the fhield, or when the
(I wings are font; the natural way of bearing them being
Ahar^a^, extended.
v ABAKA khan, the eighth emperor of the Mo¬
guls, a wife and good prince, afcended the throne in
1264. He reigned 17 years, and is by fome authors
faid to have been a Chriftian. It may be admitted,
indeed, that he joined with the Chriftians in keeping
the feaft of Eafter, in the city Hamadan, a ihort time
before his death. But this is no proof of his Chriftia-
nity ; it being common, in times of brotherly love, for
Chriftians and Mahometans to join in keeping the fame
feafts, when each would compliment the other with
doing honour to his folemnity.
ABAKANSKOI, a town of Siberia, which was
founded by Peter the Great in 1707, It is provided
with a garrifon, to protect the hunters who are em¬
ployed in catching martens and foxes on account of
their furs, which are here an important article of com¬
merce. It is fituated in E. Long. 94. 5. N. Lat.
53- 3°* . .
AB AL AK, a fmall town of Siberia, two miles from
Tobollk, in E. Long. 64. 10. N. Lat. 57. 1. Aba-
lak is famous as the refort of many pilgrims wdio viftt
an image of the virgin Mary, which is annually car¬
ried in proceftion to Tobolik.
AB ALIENATION, in Zr/iu, the act of transfer¬
ring one man’s property to another.
ABALLABA, the ancient name of Appleby, a
town in Weftmorland, remarkable only for its anti¬
quity, having been a Roman ftation. W. Long. 1. 4.
N. Lat. 55. 38.
ABALUS, in Ancient Geography, fuppofed by the
ancients to be an illand in the German ocean, called
by Timseus Bajiha, and by Xenophon Lampfacenus
Bahia ; now the peninfula of Scandinavia. Here, ac¬
cording to Pliny, fome imagined that amber dropped
from the trees.
ABANA, or Aman A, in Ancient Geography, a river
of Phoenicia, which, riling from Mount Hermon, wafti-
ed the fouth and weft fides of Damafcus, and falls into
the Phoenician fea to the north of Tripolis, called Chry-
forrheas, by the Greeks.
ABANGA. See Ady.
ABANO, a town of the Paduano, in the republic
of Venice, famous among the ancients for its hot baths.
AB ANTES, a people who came originally from
Thrace, and fettled in Phocaea, a country of Greece,
v/here they built a town which they called Aba, after
the name of Abas their leader ; and if we may credit
fome ancient authors, the Abantes went afterwards in¬
to the illand Eubcea, now called Negropont: others
lay the iVbantes of Euboea came from Athens. The
A bantes were a very warlike people, clofing with their
enemies, and fighting hand to hand.
AB ANTI AS, or Abantis, in Ancient Geography^ a
name of the bland Euboea in the Egean fea, extending
along the coaft of Greece, from the promontory Sunium
in Attica to Theffaly, and feparated from Bceotia by a
narrow ftrait called Euriptis. From its length the
illand was formerly called Macris ; afterwards Aban-
ha.i or Abantis, from the Abantes, a people originally
of Thrace, called by Homer 07ri<r6tv Koptuylt?, from
wearing their hair long behind, having in a battle ex-
^ciienced thq incpnvenience of wearing long hair be-
5 1 . A B A
fore. From cutting their hair before, they were call- Abaptifton
ed Curetes. ai ^
ABAPTISTON, in Surgery, the perforating part .
of the inftrument called a trepan. This inftrument,
which is mentioned by Galen, Fabricius ab Aquapen-
dente, and others, was a conical faw with a circular
edge. Modern practitioners, however, prefer the cy*
lindrical form ; and various contrivances have been re¬
commended to obviate the danger that may arife from
want of dexterity, or from raftmefs, in performing the
operation of trepanning. A new inftrument has been
lately invented and delineated for this purpofe, by Mr
Rodman, furgeon in Paifley. This inftrument is fo
contrived, that it can be fitted to cut any thicknefs of
bone without danger of injuring the brain *, and as no
pivot or centre-pin is neceffary, the dreadful accidents
which have fometimes happened by not removing it,-
when the inftrument in common ufe is employed, are
completely avoided. (Bhilofoph. Mag. April 1802.)
ABARA, a town in the Greater Armenia, under
the dominion of the Turks : it is often the refidence-
of the archbifhop of Nakfivan. E. Long. 46. 25.
N. Lat. 39. 45.
ABARANER, a town of Alia, in the Greater Ar¬
menia, belonging to the Turks : it is feated on the ri¬
ver Alingena. E. Long. 46. 30. N. Lat. 39. 50.
ABARCA, an ancient kind of flioe ufed in Spain,
for palling the mountains with. It was made of raw
hides, and bound with cords, which fecured the feet of
travellers againft the fnowr.
ABARIM, high mountains of fteep afcent, fepara-
ting the country- of the Ammonites and Moabites from
the land of Canaan, where Mofes died. According ta
Jofephus, they flood oppofite to the territory of Jeri¬
cho, and were the laft ftation but one of the Ifraelites
coming from Egypt. Nebo and Pifgah were parts of
thefe mountains.
ABARIS,. the Hyperborean-; a celebrated fage of
antiquity, whofe hiftory and travels have been the fub-
jeft of much learned difcuflion. Such a number of fa¬
bulous ftories * were told of him, that Herodotus him- * Tamblich.
felf feems to fcruple to relate them. He tells us on- VitaPyhag.
ly f, that this barbarian was faid to have travelled ^ Lib iv
with an arrow, and to have taken no fuftenance : but cap. 30.
this does not acquaint us with the marvellous proper¬
ties which wTere attributed to that arrow ; nor that it
had been given him by the Hyperborean Apollo.
With regard to the occafion of his leaving his native1
country, Harpocration t tells us, that the whole earth 1 Under the
being infefted with a deadly plague, Apollo, upon be-wor^A”“£/iV:
ing confulted, gave no other anfwer, than that the
Athenians fhould offer up prayers in behalf of all other
nations; upon which, feveral countries deputed ambaf-
fadors to Athens, among whom was Abaris the Hy¬
perborean. In this journey, he renewed the alliance
between his countrymen and the inhabitants of the
ifland of Delos. It appears that he alfo went to La-
cedcemon ; fince, according to fome writers jj, he there !| Paufanias,
built a temple confecrated to Proferpine the SalutaryT'5-in.
It is afferted, that he was capable of foretelling earth- P’
quakes, driving away plagues, laying ftorms §, &c.J Porphyry
He wrote feveral books, as Suidas * informs us, viz.11? ^,ia A"
Apollo’s arrival in the country of the Hyperboreans ; * pjnder
The nuptials pf the river Hebrus ; Qioycvm, or the Ge- the word
neration of the Gods; A collection of oracles, &c:
Himerius
ABA
[ 6 ]
.^batfticala-Himerius the fophift applauds him for fpcaking pure
tion. Greek ; which attainment will be no matter of won-
'"’“■'“v'   der to fuch as confider the ancient intercourfe there
was between the Greeks and Hyperboreans. —If the
Hebrides, or Weftern iflands of Scotland, (fays Mr
f Account Toland f ), were the Hyperboreans of Diodorus %,
of the Dru-then the celebrated Abaris was of that country } and
ids, in his likewife a druid, having been the prieft of Apollo.
P of humous Suidas> w]10 knew not the diftinaion of the infular
vof^n-idi Hyperboreans, makes him a Scythian •, as do fome
i Diod. Sic! others, milled by the fame vulgar error > though Dio-
lib. ii. iii. dorus has truly fixed his country in an ifland, and not
on the continent. Indeed the fiaions and iinitakes
concerning our Abaris are infinite: however, it is
agreed by all that he travelled quite over Greece,, and
from thence into Italy, where he converfed familiarly
with Pythagoras, who favoured him beyond all his dif-
ciples, by inftruaing him in his doarines (efpecially
his thoughts of nature) in a plainer and more compen¬
dious method than he did any other. 1 his diftinaion
could not but be very advantageous to Abaris. The
Hyperborean, in return, prelented the Samian, as
though he equalled Apollo himfelf in wifdom, with
the facred arrow, on which the Greeks have iabulouf-
^Jamblichily related * that he fat aftride, and Hew upon it,
Vita Py- through the air, over rivers and lakes, forefts and
ti-ig. p. 128. mountains • in like manner as our vulgar ftill believe,
particularly thofe of the Hebrides, that wizards and
witches fly whitherfoever they pleafe on their broom-
flicks. The orator Himerius above mentioned, though
one of thofe who, from the equivocal fenfe of the word
Hyperborean, feem to have miftaken Abaris for a Scy¬
thian, yet defcribes his perfon accurately, and gives
him a very noble charafter. “ They relate (fays he)
“ that Abaris the fage was by nation a Hyperborean,
appeared a Grecian in fpeech, and.refembled a Scy-
“ thian in his habit and appearance. He. came to.A-
thens, holding a bow in his hand, having a quiver
“ hanging on his fhoulders, his body, wrapt up in a
plaid, girt about the loins -with a gilded belt, and
“ wearing trowfers reaching from his waift down-
“ ward.” By this it is evident (continues Mr To-
iand) that he was not habited like the Scythians, who
were always covered with fkins } but appeared in the
native garb of an Aboriginal Scot. As to what re¬
lates to his abilities, Himerius informs us, that “ he
“ was affable and pleafant in converfation, in.difpatch-
4‘ ing great affairs fecret and induftrious, quick-fight-
ed in prefent exigencies, in preventing future dan-
Ai gei,s circumfpeft, a fearcher after wifdom, defirous
“ of friendfhip, trufting little to fortune, and having
4‘ every thing trufted to him for his prudence.” Nei¬
ther the Academy nor the Lycseum could have fur-
nifhed a man with fitter qualities to travel fo far
abroad, and to fuch wife nations, about affairs no lefs
arduous than important. And if we further attentive¬
ly confider his moderation in eating, drinking, and the
ufe of all thofe things which our natural appetites in-
ceffantly crave *, joining the candour and fimplicity of
his manners with the folidity and wifdom of his an-
fwers ; all which we find fufficiently attefted 5 it muft
be owned that the world at that time had few to com¬
pare with Abaris.
ABARTICULATION, in Anatomy, a fpecies of
articulation, admitting of a manifeft motion j called al-
/ A B A
fo Diarthrojts, and Dearticulatio, to diftmguifli it from
that fort of articulation which admits of a very obfcure
motion, and is called Synarthrojis.
ABAS, a weight ufed in Perfia for weighing pearls.
It is one-eighth lefs than the European carat.
Abas, in Heathen Mythology, was the fon of Hy-
pothoon and Meganira, who entertained Ceres, and
offered a facrifice to that goddefs; but Abas ridiculing
the ceremony, and giving her opprobrious language,
ftie fprinkled him with a certain mixture Are held inker
cup, on which he became a newt or w;ater lizard.
Abas, Schah, the Great, was third fon of Coda-
bendi, 7th king of Perfia of the race of the Sophis. Suc¬
ceeding to his father in 1585, at the age of 18, he found
the affairs of Perfia at a low ebb, occafioned by the con-
quefts of the Turks and Tartars. Pie regained feveral
of the provinces they had feized } but death put a flop
to his vidlories in 1629, after a reign of 44 years. He
wTas the greateft prince wrho had reigned in Perfia for
many ages j and it was he who made Ifpahan the me¬
tropolis of Perfia. His memory is held in the higheft
veneration among the Perfians.
Abas, Schah, his grandfon, 9th king of Perfia of
the race of the Sophis, fucceeded his father Sefi at 13
years of age. He was but 18 when he made himfelf ma¬
iler of the city Candahar, which had furrendered in his
father’s reign to the Great Mogul, and all the province
about it *, and he preferved it afterwards againft this
Indian emperor, though he befieged it more than once
with an army of 300,000 men. He was a very merci¬
ful prince, and openly prote&ed the Chriftians. He had
formed a defign of extending the limits of his kingdom
toward the north, and had for that effeft levied a
powerful army 5 but death put a flop to all his great
defigns, at 37 years of age, A. D. 1666.
ABASCIA, or Abcassia, the northern diftrifl of
the weftern divifion of Georgia in Afia, fitpated on the
coaft of the Black fea, and tributary to the Turks.
The inhabitants are poor, thievifti, and treacherous,
fo that there is no trading with them without the
utmoft caution. They trade in furs, buck and tyger
Ikins, linen yarn, boxwood, and bees wax : but their
principal traffic confifts in the fale of their own chil¬
dren to the Turks, and to one another. They are de-
ftitute of many neceffaries of life, and have nothing
among them that can be called a town; though we
find Anacopia, Dandar, and Czekorni, mentioned in
the maps. They have the name of Chriftians j but
have nothing left but the name, any more than the
Mingrelians their northern neighbours. The men are
robuft and aftive, and the women are fair and beauti¬
ful j on which account the T urks have a great value
for the female flaves which they purchafe from among
them. Their cuftoms are much the fame as thofe of
the Mingrelians •, wdiich fee. E. Long, from 390 to
430 N. Lat. from 430 to 450.
ABASCUS, a river of Afiatic Sarmatia, which,
rifing from IVIount Caucafus, falls into the Euxme, be¬
tween Pityus to the eaft, and Nofis to the weft.
ABASITIS, in Ancient Geography, a traft of Afiatic
Myfia, in which was fituated the city of Ancyra.
ABASSA, The Greater and the Smaller, two
diftrifts in the vicinity of the Caucafian mountains. The
latter, according to Pallas, is inhabited by fix tribe*
who were formerly Chriftians, but the nobles now pro-
fefs
Ah 5$
li
Abaffa.
ABA [ 7 ] ABA
.Aftafli fefs the Mahometan religion. In manners, drefs, mode
H . of life, and, in fome degree, in language, they refemble
Abatis' the Circaflians. They praftife agriculture, but chiefly
JliJ "w depend on pafturage for their fubfiftence. They are
celebrated for a fine breed of large horfes. They are
frequently haraffed and plundered by the Circaflian
princes.
ABASSI, or Abassis, a filver coin current in Per-
fia, equivalent in value to a French livre, or tenpence
halfpenny fterling. It took its name from Schah Ab¬
bas II. king of Perfia, under whom it was ftruck.
ABASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Greater Phrygia, on the confines of the Toliflobagii, a
people of Galatia in Afia.
ABATAMENTUM, in Law, is an entry to lands
by interpofition, i. e. when a perfon dies feifed, and
another who has no right enters before the heir.
To ABATE, (from the French abattre, to pull
down, overthrow, demolilh, batter down, or deilroy),
a term ufed by the writers of the Englifti common law
both in an a&ive and neutral fenfe j as, To abate a
caftle, is to beat it down. To abate a writ, is, by fome
exception, to defeat or overthrow it. A ftranger abat-
eth ; that is, entereth upon a houfe or land void by the
death of him that laft poffefled it, before the heir takes
polfeflion, and fo keepeth him out: wherefore, as he
that putteth out him in pofleffion is faid to diffeize, fo
he that fteppeth in between the former pofleffor and his
heir is faid to abate. In the neuter fignification thus :
The writ of the demandant fhall abate ; that is, {hall
be difabled, fruftrated, or overthrown. The appeal
abateth by covin j that is, the accufation is defeated
by deceit.
Abate, in the manege, implies the performing any
downward motion properly. Thus a horfe is faid to
abate or take down his curvets, when he puts both his
hind legs to the ground at once, and obferves the fame
exa&neis in all the times.
ABATELMENT, in Commerce, a term ufed for
a prohibition of trade to all French merchants in the
ports of the Levant who will not Hand to their bargains,
or refufe to pay their debts. It is a fentence of the
French conful, which muft be taken off before they
can fue any perfon for the payment of their debts.
ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, an accidental figure
fuppofed to have been added to coats of arms, in or¬
der to denote fome diihonourable demeanour or {lain,
whereby the dignity of coat armour was rendered of
lefs efteem. See Heraldry.
Abatement^ in Law. See To Abate.
Abatement, in the Cufloms, an allowance made
upon the duty of goods, when the quantum damaged
is determined by the judgment of two merchants upon
oath, and afcertained by a certificate from the furveyor
and land waiter.
ABATIS, an ancient term for an officer of the
ftables.
Abatis, or Abattis, in Military Affairs, a kind
of retrenchment made of felled trees. In fudden emer¬
gencies, the trees are merely laid lengthwife befide
each other, with the branches pointed outwards to
prevent the approach of the enemy, while the trunks
ferve as a breaftwork to the defendants. When the
abatis is employed for the defence of a pafs or entrance,
the boughs of the trees are Gripped of their leaves and
pointed, the trunks are planted in the ground, and Abatofr
the branches interwoven with each other. H .
ABATON, a building at Rhodes, ere&ed as a. a^‘
fence to the trophy of Artemifia, queen of Halicarnaf-
fus, Coos, &c. raifed in memory of her viftory over
the Rhodians ; or rather to conceal the difgrace of the
Rhodians from the eyes of the world : for to efface or
deftroy the trophy was with them a point of religion.
ABATOR, in Law, a term applied to a perfon who
enters to a houfe or lands void by the death of the laft
poffeffor, before the true heir:
ABATOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
lake Moeris, formerly famous for its papyrus. It was
the burial place of Ofiris.
ABAUZIT, Fir min, a learned Frenchman, was
born at Ufez, in Languedoc, in November 1679. His fa¬
ther died when he was but two years of age. In confe-
quence of the revocation of the edict of Nantz, in the
time of Louis XIV. to avoid the rigours of perfecution
to which the Proteftants of France were expofed, young'
Abauzit’s mother, who was a Proteftant, not without
difficulty, efcaped with her fon to Geneva, where he
remained fecure from danger, and enjoyed the benefit
of education. From his 10th to his 19th year, his time
was wholly devoted to' literature y and having made
great progrefs in languages, he ftudied mathematics,
phyfics, and theology. In the year 1698, he travelled
into Holland, where he became acquainted with the learn¬
ed Bayle, with Bafnage and Jurieu. Thence he pafs-
ed over into England, and was introduced to Sir Ifaac
Newton, who entertained a very high opinion of his
merit. For this philofopher afterwards fent him his
Commercium Epiftolicum, accompanied with a very ho¬
nourable teftimony. “ You are well worthy, fays
Nevcton, to judge between Leibnitz and me.” The
reputation of Abauzit reached the ears of King Wil¬
liam, who encouraged him by a very handfome offer
to fettle in England ; which he declined, and returned
to Geneva. In 1715 he entered into the fociety form¬
ed for the purpofe of tranflating the New Teftament
into the French language, and contributed valuable
affiftance to this work. The chair of philofophy in the
univerfity was offered to him by that body in 1723,
which he refufed on account of his health and diffidence
of his talents. Butin 1727 he accepted of the office
of librarian to the city, the duties of which were nei¬
ther burdenfome, nor fubjected him to any particular
reftraint.
Abauzit, who was deeply converfant in phyfical and
mathematical knowledge, wTas one of the firll who em¬
braced the grand truths which the fublime difcoveries
of Newton exhibited to the world. He defended the
doctrines of that philofopher againff Father Caftel 5
and difcovered an error in the Principia, which was
corrected by Newton in the fecond edition of his work.
He was a perfect mafter of many languages ; he un~
derftood hiftory fo exa&ly, that he remembered the
names of the principal charafters and the dates of the
events j his knowledge of phylics was deep and exten-
five, and he was well acquainted with medals and an¬
cient manufcripts. The different fciences which he
had ftudied, were fo tvell digefted and arranged in his
retentive mind, that he could at once bring together
all that he ever knew on any fubjeft. A remarkable
itdiance of this occurred in a converfation with
RouiTeaw-
ABB [
Rouffeau on the mufic of the ancients, while the latter
was employed in compiling his Dictionary of Mufic.
He had been at great pains in giving an accurate account
of ancient mufic. But how much was he furprifed to
find that Abauzit could give him a full and clear hif-
tory of all that he had with much labour collected $
and the more fo, when he was informed that 30 years
had elapfed fmce his inquiries led him to confider that
fubje£t. It was probably in confequence of this inci¬
dent that Rouffeau addreffed to Abauzit one of the
fineft panegyrics which he ever wrote.
A very fine compliment is faid to have been paid to
Abauzit by Voltaire. A ftranger having addreffed
the poet in a flattering manner, by faying he had come
to Geneva to fee a great man, Voltaire aiked him,
whether he had feen Abauzit ?
This excellent man having enjoyed that otium cum
dignitate, fo much talked of, and fo eagerly fought af¬
ter, but rarely obtained, having thus lived univerfally
refpefted to the great age of 87 years, died in the
year 1767, lamented by the republic, and regretted
by the learned.
Abauzit was a fincere Chriftian \ his piety was pure
and unaffe&ed ; his benevolence was extenfive. Li¬
beral in his opinions, he was indulgent and forbearing
to thofe whofe fentiments and opinions were different
from his own. Simple and eafy in his manners, every
thing about him, his houfe, his perfon, and his way of
life, difcovered a firong averfion to fhow and luxury.
He carefully avoided the officious obfervances of ce¬
remony, and anxioufly withdrew from the fulfome praife
of flattery. His converfation, free from pedantry and
oftentation, initru&ive and entertaining, was always
heard with eagernefs, and liftened to with attention.
The writings which Abauzit left behind him are
chiefly on religious fubjects. He wrote an “ Effay on
the Apocalypfe,” in which he endeavoured to ffiow,
that the predictions in that book were to be applied to
the deftruction of Jerufalem. This work was tranflated
into Englilh} to which a refutation was added, which
fatisfied Abauzit fo much that he was miffaken in his
views, that he ordered an edition then ready for pub¬
lication in Holland to be flopped. His other works
are, “ Reflections on the Eucharift j On Idolatry $
On the Myfteries of Religion ; Paraphrafes and Ex¬
planations of fundry parts of Scripture ; Several Criti¬
cal and Antiquarian Pieces 5 and various Letters.”
ABA VO, in Botany, a fynonyme of the A dan son 1 A.
ABB, a term among clothiers applied to the yarn
of a weaver’s warp. They fay alfo Abb-wool in the
fame fenfe.
ABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, near Carthage.
Abba, in the Syriac and Chaldee languages, lite¬
rally fignifies a father} and figuratively, a fuperior,
reputed as a father in refpeCt of age, dignity, or af-
feCtion. It is more particularly ufed in the Syriac,
Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, as a title given to the
biftiops. The bilhops themfelves beftow the title Abba
more eminently on the biffiop of Alexandria 5 which
occafioned the people to give him the title of Baba,
or Papa, that is Grandfather; a title which he bore
before the bifliop of Rome. It is a Jewifh title of ho¬
nour given to certain rabbins called Tanaites: and it
ii alfo particularly ufed, by fome writers of the middle
8 ] ABB
age, for the fuperior of a monaftery, ufually called Abbadie
ABBOT1. It
ABBADIE, Jambs, an eminent Proteftant divine, A
born at Nay in Bern in 1654 5 firft educated there un¬
der the famous John la Placette, and afterwards at the
univerfity of Sedan. From thence he went into Hol¬
land and Germany, and was minifter in the French
church of Berlin. He left that place in 1690 •, came
into England *, wras fome time minifter in the French
church in the Savoy, London 5 and was made dean of
Killalo in Ireland. He was ftrongly attached to the
caufe of King William, as appears in his elaborate de¬
fence of the Revolution, and his hiftory of the affafli-
nation-plot. He had great natural abilities, which he
improved by true and ufeful learning. He was a moft
zealous defender of the primitive doctrine of the Pro-
teftants, as appears by his writings 5 and that ftrong
nervous eloquence for which he was fo remarkable,
enabled him to enforce the doftrines of his profeflion
from the pulpit with great fpi-rit and energy. He pof-
feffed uncommon powers of memory. It is faid that
he compofed his wrorks without committing any part
to writing, till they were wanted for the prefs. He
died in London in 1727, after his return from a tour
in Holland. He publilhed feveral works in French
that were much efteemed ; the principal of which are,
A Treatife on the Truth of the Chriftian religion}
The Art of Knowing one’s Self; A Defence 6f the
Britiffi Nation 5 the Deity of Jefus Chrift effe’ntial to
the Chriftian Religion ; The Hiftory of the laft Con-
fpiracy in England, written by order of King William
III. j and The Triumph of Providence and Religion,
or the opening the Seven Seals by the Son of God.
ABBAS, fon of Abdalmotalleb, and Mahomet’s
uncle, oppofed his nephew with all his power, regard¬
ing him as an impoftor and traitor to his country ; but
in the fecond year of the Hegira, being overcome and
made a prifoner at the battle of Beder in 623, a great
ranfom being demanded for him, he reprefented to
Mahomet, that his paying it would reduce him to beggary,
which would bring dilhonour on the family. Mahomet,
who knew that he had concealed large fums of money,
faid to him, “ Where are the purfes of gold that you gave
your mother to keep when you left Mecca ? Abbas, who
thought this tranfaftion fecret, was much furprifed, and
conceiving that his nephew was really a prophet, em¬
braced his religion. He became one of his principal
captains $ and faved his life when in imminent danger at
the battle of Honain, againft the Thakefites, foon after
the reduction of Mecca. But befides being a great
commander, Abbas was one of the firft doftors of If-
lamifm, the whole of whofe fcience confifted in being
able to repeat and explain the Koran, and to preferve
in their memory certain apocryphal hiftories. He is
faid to have read le6lures on every chapter of the
Koran, as his nephew pretended to receive them from
heaven. He died in 652, and his memory is held in
the higheft veneration among the Muffulmans to this
day.
Abul-ABBAS, furnamed Sqffah, one of his grandfons,
was proclaimed caliph a century after his death j and
in him began the dynafty of the
ABBASSIDES, whopoffeffed the caliphate for 524
years. There were 37 caliphs of this race who fuc-
ceeded one another without interruption.
ABBE',
ABB [
Abb£ ABBE', in a monaftic fenfe, the fame with Abbot.
11 Abb b', in a modern fenfe, the denomination of a
» >e^‘ . clafs of perfons which has been popular in France.
They were not in orders j but having received the ce¬
remony of tonfure, were entitled to enjoy certain pri¬
vileges in the church. The drefs of abbes was that of
academics or profefled fcholars. In colleges they were
the inftru&ors of youth, and were employed as tutors
in private families. Many of them have rifen to a di-
ftinguilhed rank in the Hate, while others have been
no lefs eminent in fcience and literature.
ABBESS, the fuperior of an abbey or convent of
nuns. The abbefs has the fame rights and authority
over her nuns that the abbots regular have over their
monks. The fex indeed does not allow her to perform
the fpiritual functions annexed to the prieithood, with
which the abbot is ufually invefted; but there are in-
ftances of fome abbeffes who have a right, or rather a
privilege, to commiflion a prielt to a£t for them. They
have even a kind of epifcopal jurifdidtion, as well as
fome abbots who are exempted from the vifitation of
their diocefans.
Martene, in his treatife on the rights of the church,
obferves, that fome abbeffes have formerly confeffed
their nuns. But he adds, that their excefhve curiofity
carried them fuch lengths, that there arofe a neceffity
©f checking it. However, St Bafil, in his Rule, allows
the abbefs to be prefent with the prieft at the confeffion
of her nuns.
ABBEVILLE, a confiderable city of France in
Picardy, and the capital of Ponthieu. The river Somme
divides it into tw*o parts. It has a collegiate church
and twelve parifli churches, the moll confiderable of
which are St George’s and St Giles’s; befides a great
number of monafteries and nunneries, a bailiwick, and
a prefidial court. It i« a fortified town ; the walls are
flanked with baltions, and furrounded by large ditches.
It was never taken ; from which circumftance it is
ibmetimes called the Maiden Town ; and hence too its
motto, Semper Jidelis. The number of the inhabitants
amounts to 36,000. The fituation in the midll of a
fertile valley is pleafant and healthy. It is famous for
its woollen manufa&ory eftablifhed in 1665 under the
aufpices of Colbert. The fluffs manufaftured here are
faid to equal in fabric and quality the fineft in Europe.
There is alfo a manufactory of fire arms, and a confi¬
derable trade in grain, lint? and hemp. It is about fif¬
teen miles eaft of the Britilh channel, and ftiips may
come from thence by the river Somme to the middle of
the town. E. Long. 2. 6. N. Lat. 50. 7.
ABBEY, a monaftery, or religious houfe, governed
.by a fuperior under the title of abbot or abbefs.
Abbeys differ only from priories, that the former are
under the direction of an abbot, and the others of a
prior; for abbot and prior (we mean a prior conventual)
are much the fame thing, differing in little but the name.
Fauchet obferves, that, in the early days of the French
monarchy, dukes and counts were called abbots, and
duchies and counties abbeys. Even fome of their kings
are mentioned in hiftory under the title of abbots. Phi¬
lip I. Louis VI. and afterwards the dukes of Orleans,
are called abbots of the monafery of St Aignan. The
dukes of Aquitain were called abbots of the monafery
of St Hilary at Poiciiers / and the earls of Aniou. of
St Aubin, &c.
Yob. I. Part L
9 ] A B B.
Monafteries were at firft eftabliftied as religious Abbey,
houfes, to which perfons retired from the buftle of the -v"—
world to fpend their time in folitude and devotion. But
they foon degenerated from their original inftitution,
and obtained large privileges, exemptions, and riches.
They prevailed greatly in Britain before the Reforma¬
tion, particularly in England ; and as they increafed
in riches, fo the ftate became poor : for the lands
which thefe regulars poffeffed were in mortua menu,
1. e. could never revert to the lords who gave them.
This inconvenience gave rife to the ftatutes againft: gifts
in mortrnaine, which prohibited donations to thefe re¬
ligious houfes ; and Lord Coke tells us, that feveral
lords, at their creation, had a claufe in their grant,
that the donor might give or fell his land to whom he
would, fxceptis vims rehgiofs et “Judcets} excepting
monks and Jews.
Thefe places were wholly aboliftied in England at
the time of the Reformation; Henry VIII. having
firft appointed vifitors to inquire into the lives of the
monks and nuns, which were found in fome places
to be extremely irregular, the abbots, perceiving their
diffolution unavoidable, were induced to refign their
houfes to the king, who by that means became inveft¬
ed with the abbey lands : thele were afterwards grant¬
ed to different perfons, whofe defendants enjoy them
at this day : they were then valued at 2,853,000!./>er
annum, an immenle fum in thofe days.
Though the fuppreflion of religious houfes, even con-
fldered in a political light only, was a great national
benefit, it muft be owned, that, at the time they flou-
riftied, they were not entirely ufelefs. Abbeys or mo¬
nafteries were then the repofitories, as well as the fe-
minaries, of learning j many valuable books and nation¬
al records, as well as private hiftory, having been pre-
ferved in their libraries, the only places in which they
could have been fafely lodged in thofe turbulent times.
Many of thofe, which had efcaped the ravages of the
Danes, were deftroyed with more than Gothic barbarity
at the diffolution of the abbeys. Thefe ravages are pa¬
thetically lamented by John Bale, in his declaration up¬
on Leland’s Journal 1549. “ Covetoufnefs,” fays he,
“ was at that time fo bufy about private commodity,
that public wealth, in that moft necefiary and of re-
fpeft, was not anywhere regarded. A number of
them which purchafed thefe fuperftitious manfions, re-
ferved of the library books, fome to fetye their jakes,
fome to fcour the candlefticks, and fome to rub their
boots ; fome they fold to the grocer and foapfeller ;
and fome they fent over fea to the bookbinders, not
in fmall numbers, but in whole ftiips full ; yea, the
Univerfities of this realm are not clear of fo detelfable
a fadl. I know a merchant that bought the contents
of two noble libraries for 40s. price ; a fhame it is to
be fpoken ! This fluff hath he occupied inftead of gray
paper, by the fpace of more than thefe ten years, and
yet he hath ftore enough for as many years to come.
I fliall judge this to be true, and utter it with heavi-
nefs, that neither the Britons under the Romans and
Saxons, nor yet the Englifh people under the Danes
and Normans, had ever fuch damage of their learned
monuments as we have feen in our time.”
In thefe days every abbey had at leaf! one perfon
whofe office it was to inftruft youth ; and the hiftori-
ans of this country are chiefly beholden to the monks
B for-
ABB [ i
Abbey- for the knowledge they have of former national events,
boyle jn thgfg houfes alfo the arts of painting, archite&ure,
Abbot. and printing, were cultivated. They were hofpitals
. > for the lick and poor, and afforded entertainment to
travellers at a time when thef$ were no inns. In them
the nobility and gentry who were heirs to their foun¬
ders could provide for a certain number of ancient and
faithful fervants, by procuring them corodies, or Hated
allowances of meal, drink, and clothes. They were
likewife an afylum for aged and indigent perfons of
good family. The neighbouring places were alfo
greatly benefited by the fairs procured for them, and
by their exemption from foreft law$ j add to which,
that the monadic effates were generally let at very
eafy rents, the fines given at renewals included.
ABBEYBOYLE, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Rofcommon, and province of Connaught. W.
Long. 8. 32. N. Lat. 56. 54. It is remarkable for an
old abbey.
ABBEYHOLM, a town in Cumberland, fo called
from an abbey built there by David king of Scots. It
Hands on an arm of the fea. W. Long. 2. 38. N. Lat.
54- 45-
ABBOT, or Abbat, the fuperior of a monaHery
of monks eredled into an abbey or priory.
The name Abbot is originally Hebrew, where it fig-
nifies father. The Jews call father, in their language,
Ab; whence the Chaldeans and Syrians formed Abba j
thence the Greeks which the Latins retained
and hence our Abbot, the French Abbe, &.c. St
Mark and St Paul ufe the Syriac Abba in their Greek,
by reafon it was then commonly known in the fyna-
gogues and the primitive affemblies of the Chriflians 5
adding to it, by way of interpretation, the word fa¬
ther, Abocs 0 7rctrr,£, ii Abba, lather j” q. d. Abba,
that is to fay, Father. But the name Ab, or Abba,
which at fiiit was a term of tendernefs and affeftion in
the Hebrew and Chaldee, became at length a title of
dignity and honour : The Jewilh doctors affected it j
and one of their moH ancient books, containing the
layings or apophthegms of divers of them, is entitled
Pirke Abboth or Avoth i. e. Chapters of the Fathers.
It was in allufion to this affe&ation, that Jefus Chriff
forbade Iris difciples to call any man their father on
earth j which word St Jerome turns againfl the fupe-
riors of the monafferies of his time, for affuming the
title of Abbots, or Fathers.
The name Abbot, then, appears as old as the infli-
tution of monks itfelf. The governors of the primi¬
tive monafleries affumed indifferently the titles Abbots,
* ^ec and Archimandrites *. They were really diffinguiflied
‘mandrils ^rom ^ie clergy 5 though frequently confounded with
them, becaufe a degree above laymen.
In thofe early days, the abbots were fb.bjeft to the
bifhops and the ordinary paffors. Their monafferies
being remote from cities, built in the fartheff folitudes,
they had no fliare in ecclefiaffical affairs. They went
on Sundays to the pariffi church with the reff of the
people or, if they were too remote, a priefl was fent
them to adminiffer the facraments ; till at length they
were allowed to have prieffs of their own body. The
abbot or archimandrite himfelf was ufually the prieff :
but his fundtion extended no farther than to the fpiri-
tual afliflance of his monaHery 5 and he remained Hill
in obedience to the bilhop. There being among the
o ] ABB
abbots feveral perfons of learning, they made a vigo- Abbot,
rous oppofition to the rifing herefies of thofe times ; ‘1 " d~~-
which firff occafioned the bifhops to call them out of
their deferts, and fix them about the fuburbs of cities,
and at length in the cities themfelves from which era
their degeneracy is to be dated. Then the abbots
threw off their former plainnefs and fimplicity, affumed
the rank of prelates, afpired at being independent of
the bifhops, and grafped at fo much power, that fevere
laws were made againfl them at the council of Chalct-
don. Many of them, however, carried the point of
independency, obtained the appellation of /ord, and
were diffinguifhed by other badges of the epifeopate,
particularly the mitre.
Hence arofe new diftinftions between the abbots.
Thofe were termed mitred abbots, who were privileged
to wear the mitre, and exercife epifcopal authority
within their refpective precinfte, being exempted from
the jurifdiclion of the bifliop. Others w ere called cro-
fered abbots, frorfi their bearing the crofier or pafforal
flaff. Others were ffyled ecumenical or univerfal ab¬
bots, in imitation of the patrxarcli of Conffantinople :
while others were termed cardinal abbots, from their
fuperiority over all other abbots. In Britain, the
mitred abbots were lords of parliament; and called
abbots-fovereign, and abbots-general, to diftinguifh
them from the other abbots. And as there wrere lords-
abbots, fo there w^ere alfo lords-priors, who had ex¬
empt jurifdiftion, aild were likewife lords of parlia¬
ment. Some reckon 26 of thefe lords abbots and
priors who fat in parliament. Sir Edward Coke fays,
that there wTere 27 parliamentary abbots and two priors.
In the parliament 20 Rich. II. there were but 25 ab¬
bots and two priors : but in the fummons to parliament
anno 4 Ed. III. more are named.
In Roman Catholic countries, the principal diflmc-
tions obferved between abbots are tbofe of regular and
commendatory. The former take the vow and wear
the habit of their order whereas the latter are fecu-
lars who have received tonfure, but are obliged by
their bulls to take orders when of proper age.
Anciently the ceremony of creating an abbot con-
fifled in clothing him with the habit called cuculus,
or cowd 5 putting the pafforal flaff into his hand, and
the flioes called pedales on his feet: but at prefent, it
is only a fimple benediction, improperly called, by
fome, confecration.
Abbot is alfo a title given to others befide the fu-
periors of monafleries: thus bifhops whofe fees were
formerly abbeys, are called abbots. Among the Ge-
noefe, the chief magiftrate of the republic formerly
bore the title of abbot of the people. It was like¬
wife ufual, about the time of Charlemagne, for feveral
lords to affume the title of count-abbots, abba-comites ;
becaufe the fuperintendancy of certain abbeys was com¬
mitted to them.
Abbot, George, archbifhop of Canterbury, was
born O&ober 29. 1562, at Guildford in Surrey. He^
was the fon of Maurice Abbot a cloth-worker. He
ftudied at Oxford, and in 1597 was chosen principal
of Univerfity college. In 1599, he wras inftalled detm
of Winchefler : the year following, he was chofen vice-
chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford, and a fecond
time in 1603. In 1604, the tranflation of the Bible
p.ow in ufe was begun by the direction of King James j
J
ABB [ i
AMjof. and Dr Abbot \vas the fecond of eight divines of Ox-
««-V-«wf0rd, to whom the care of tranflating the whole New
'i'eftament (excepting the Epiftles) was committed.
'The year following, he was a third time vice-chancel¬
lor. In 1608, he went to Scotland with George
Hume earl of Dunbar, to aflift in eftablifhing an union
. between the churches of Scotland and England ; and
in this bufinefs he conducted himfelf with fo much ad-
drefs and prudence, that it laid the foundation of all
his future preferment. King James ever after paid
great deference to his advice and counfel j and upon
the death of Dr Overton bilhop of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, he named Dr Abbot for his fucceffor, who
was accordingly eonhituted bilhop of thofe two united
fees in December 1609. About a month afterwards
he was tranllated to the fee of London, and on the fe¬
cond of November following was raifed to the archie-
pifcopal fee.
It is not however improbable, that his extravagant
adulation of his royal mailer, in which he went as far
as any other court-chaplain could do, contributed not
a little to his rapid preferment. In the preface to a
pamphlet which he publilhed, the following fpecimen
of ridiculous flattery occurs: Speaking of the king, he
lays, “ whofe life hath been fo immaculate and un-
tpotted, &c. that even malice ixfelf, which leaves no¬
thing unfearched, could never find true blemilh in it,
nor call probable afperfion on it.—Zealous as a Da¬
vid ; learned and wife, the Solomon of our age ; reli¬
gious as Jolias ; careful of fpreading Chrilt’s faith as
Conftantine the Great •, jull as Mofes j undefiled in
all his ways as a Jehofhaphat and Hezekiah 5 full of
clemency as another Theodolius.”—If Mr Walpole had
been this pafiage, he certainly would not have faid, that
“ honeit Abbot could not flatter.”
His great zeal for the Protellant religion made him
a ftrenuous promoter of the match between the Eledlor
Palatine and the Princefs Elizabeth 5 which was ac¬
cordingly concluded and folemnized the 14th of Fe¬
bruary 1612, the archbilhop performing the ceremony
on a llage erected in the royal chapel. In the follow¬
ing year happened the famous cafe of divorce between
the lady Frances Howard, daughter of the earl of Suf¬
folk, and Robert carl of Effex’, which has been confi-
dered as one of the greateft blemilhes of King fames’s
reign. The part which the archbifliop took in the hu-
linefs, added much to the reputation he had already
acquired for incorruptible integrity. It was referred
by the king to a court of delegates, wfliofe opinion the
king and court wiflied and expelled to be favourable
to the divorce. But the archbifhop, unawed by roval
authority, with inflexible firmnefs refilled it, and pub-
liflied his reafons for perfifting in bis opinion, to which
the king, difappointed in his views, thought fit to re¬
ply : Sentence was given in the lady’s favour. In
1618, the king publilhed a declaration, which he or¬
dered to be read in all churches, permitting fports and
pailimes on the Lord’s day : this gave great uneafinefs
to the archbilhop j who, happening to be at Croydon
on the day it was ordered to be read, had the courage
to forbid it.
_ Being now in a declining Hate of health, the arch-
bilhop ufed in the fummer to go to Hampflnre for the
<ake of recreation •, and being invited by Lord Zouch
to hunt in his park at Bramzill, he met there with the
1 ] ABB
greatell misfortune that ever befel him j for he acci- Abbot,
dentally killed the game-keeper by an arrow from a
crofs-bow which he ihot at one of the deer. 'Phis fa¬
tal accident threw him into a deep melancholy 5 and
he ever afterwards kept a monthly fall on Tuefday,
the day on which it happened 5 and he fettled an an¬
nuity of 20I. on the widow *. Advantage was'taken* Fuller’s
of this misfortune, to leffen him in the king’s favour 5 Church
but bis majefty faid, “ An angel might have mi fear- ccn^*
ried in this fort.” His enemies alledging that he hadX'"'a : ’ ‘
incurred an irregularity, and was thereby incapacitated
for performing the oflices of a primate •, the king di¬
rected a commilfion to ten perfons to inquire into this
matter.
The refult, however, was not fatisfatfory to his
Grace’s enemies •, it being declared, that, as the mur¬
der was involuntary, he had not forfeited his archi-
epifcopal chara&er. The archbiihop after this feldom.
alTilled at the council, being chiefly hindered by his
infirmities 5 but in the king’s laft illnefs he was fent
for, and conftantly attended till his Majelly expired
on the 27th of March 1625. He performed the ce¬
remony of the coronation of King Charles I. though
very infirm and diftrelfed with the gout. He was ne¬
ver greatly in this king’s favour •, and the duke of
Buckingham being his declared enemy, watched an op¬
portunity of making him feel the weight of his dif-
pleafure. This he at lalf accomplilhed, upon the arch-
bilhop’s refilling to licenfe a fermon, preached by Dr
Sibthorpe to juftify a loan which the king had de¬
manded, and pregnant with principles which tended
to overthrow the confutation. The archbilhop was
immediately after liifpended from all his iunclions as
primate ; and they were exercifed by certain bifnops
commiffioned by the king, of whom Laud, the arch-
bilhop’s enemy, and afterwards his fucceffor, was one :
while the only caufe afligned for this procedure was,
That the archbilhop could not at that time perfonally
attend thofe fervices which were otherwife proper for
his cognizance and direction. He did not, however,
remain long in this fituation ; for a parliament being
abfolutely neceffary, his Grace was fent for, and rello-
red to his authority and jurifdiftion. But not proving
friendly to certain rigorous meafures adopted by the
prevailing church party, headed by Laud, whofe power
and interell at court were now very confiderable, his
prefence became unwelcome there j fo that, ‘Upon the
birth of the prince of Wales, aftenvards Charles II.
Laud had the honour to baptize him, as dean of the
chapel. The archbilhop being worn out with cares
and infirmities, died at Croydon, the 5th of Auguit
1633, ag$d 71 years j and was buried at Guildford,
the place of his nativity, where he had endowed anho-
fpital with lands to the amount of 300I. per annum.
A liately monument was eredled over the grave, with
his effigy in his robes.
He proved himfelf, in moll circumllances of his life,
to be a man of great moderation to all parties ; and
was delirous that the clergy Ihould gain the refpeft of
the laity by the fanftity and purity of their manners,
rather than claim it as due to their funftion. His opi¬
nions and principles, however, have drawn upon him
many fevere refieclions ; particularly, from the earl of
Clarendon. But Dr Welwood has done more jullicej.
to his merit and abilities f. He wrote feveral trails Svo, 1700,
B 2 upon P1 3s*
ABB [ i
Abbot
Abbotfbury
* HeyKn’s
JJiJinry of
Frejbyte-
p.-83.
upon vafiotls fubjefts •, and, as already mentioned, tranf-
lated part of the New Teilament, with the reft of the
Oxford divines, in i5i 1.
There was another writer of the fame name, who
flourilhed fomewhat later. This George Abbot wrote
A' Paraphrafe on Job, A Vindication of the Sabbath,
and A Paraphrafe on the Pfalms.
Abbot, Robert, elder brother to the former, was
born at Guildford in 1560, and completed his ftudies
at Baliol college, Oxford. In 1582, he took his de¬
gree of mafter of arts, and foon became a celebrated
preacher; and to this talent he chiefly owTed his pre¬
ferment. Upon his firft fermon at Worcefter, he was
chofen leflurer in that city, and foon after reftor of
All-faints in the fame place. John Stanhope, Efq.
happening to hear him preach at Paul’s-crofs, was fo
pleafed with him, that he immediately prefented him
to the rich living of Bingham in Nottinghamfhire.
In 1597, he took his degree of dodftor in divinity:
and, in the beginning of King James’s reign, was ap¬
pointed chaplain in ordinary to his Majefty j who had
fuch an opinion of him as a writer, that he ordered the
doftor’s book De Antichrifto to be printed, wflth his
owrn commentary upon part of the Apocalypfe. In
1609, he w^as ele&ed mafter of Baliol college ; which
truft he difcharged with the utmoft care and afliduity,
by his frequent leisures to the fcholars, by his conti¬
nual prefence at public exercifes, and by promoting
temperance in the fociety. In November 1610, he
was nfade prebendary of Normanton in the church of
Southwell j and, in 1612, his Majefty appointed him
regius profeffor of divinity at Oxford. The fame of
his leftures became very great; and thofe which he
gave upon the fupreme powrer of kings, againft Bellar-
snine and Suarez, fo much pleafed his Majefty, that
wflien the fee of Saliftmry became vacant, he named
him to that bifhopric, and he was confecrated by his
own brother at Lambeth, December 3. 1615. When
he came to Salisbury, he found the cathedral falling to
decay, through the avarice and negligence of the cler¬
gy belonging to it •, however, he found means to draw
five hundred pounds from the prebendaries, wdiich he
applied towards repairing it. Here he devoted him-
felf to the duties of his function with great diligence
and afiiduity, viflting his -whole diocefe in perfon, and
preaching every Sunday. But his fedentary life, and
clofe application to ftudy, brought upon him the gra¬
vel and ftone ; of wdiich he died on the 2d of March
1618, in the 58th year of his age; having filled the
fee only two years and three months. Dr Fuller *,
fpeaking of the two brothers, fays, “ that George was
“ the more plaufible preacher, Robert the greateft
“ fcholar; George the abler ftatefman, Robert the
“ deeper divine: gravity did frown in George, and
“ fmile in Robert.” He publilhed feveral pieces ; and
left behind him fundry manufcripts, which Dr Corbet
prefented to the Bodleian library.
ABBOTSBROMLEY, a town in Staffbrdfhire.
After the difiblution of the monafteries, it was given
to the Lord Paget j and has fince been called Paget's
Bromley. But it retains its old name in the king’s
books, and with regard to the fairs. W. Long. 1.2.
N. Lat. 52. 45.
ABBOTSBURY, a fmall town in Dorfetfhire, in
¥7» Long. 1. 17. N. Lat. 50. 40. The abbey near
2 ] ABB
this town was founded by a Norman lady, about the Abbots*
year 1026. Edward the Confeffor and William the Langley-
Conqueror were confiderable benefactors to it. Abbrevia-'
ABBOTS-Langley, a village in Herts, four miles tion.
from St Alban’s, famous as the birthplace of Pope —y-**
Adrian IV.
ABBREVIATE of Adjudications, in Scots „
Law, an abftra£t or abridgment of a decreet of adjudi¬
cation, which is recorded in a regifter kept for that pur-
pofe.
ABBREVIATION, or Abbreviature, a con-
traflion of a wmrd or paflage, made by dropping fome
of the letters, or by fubftituting certain marks or cha¬
racters in their place. A late philofophical writer on
grammar, divides the parts of fpeech into words which
are neceffary for the communication of thought, as the
noun and verb, and abbreviations which are emploved.
for the fake of difpatch. The latter, ftrictly fpeaking,
are alfo parts of fpeech, becaufe they are all ufeful in
language, and each has a different manner of fignifica-
tion. Mr Tooke, however, feems to allow that rank
only to the neceffary words, and to confider all others
as merely fubftitutes of the firft fort, under the title of
abbreviations. They are employed in language in
three ways; in terms, in forts of words, and in con-
ftruCIion. Mr Locke in his Effay treats of the firfi:
clafs \ numerous authors have written on the laft ; and
for the fecond clafs of abbreviations, fee Diverjions of
Pur ley. Lawyers, phyficians, &c. ufe many abbre¬
viations, for the fake of expedition. But the Rabbins
are the moft remarkable for this praClice, fo that their
writings are unintelligible without the Hebrew abbre¬
viatures. The Jewifh authors and copyifts do not con¬
tent themfelves with abbreviating words like the Greeks
and Latins, by retrenching fome of the letters or fylla-
bles} they frequently take away all but the initial let¬
ters. They even take the initials of feveral fucceed-
ing words, join them together, and, adding vowels to
them, make a fort of barbarous Word, reprefentative of
all thofe wdiich they have thus abridged. Thus, Rabbi
Mofes ben Maimon, in their abbreviature is Rambam, &c.
The following Abbreviations are of mojl frequent
occurrence in the TVritings and Infcriptiom oj the
Romans,
A
AB. Abdicavit.
AB. AUG. M. P. XXXXI. Ab AugulU millia paf-
fuum quadraginta unum.
AB. AUGUSTOB. M. P. X. Ab Auguftobriga mil¬
lia paffuum decern,
ABN. AbnepoS.
AB. U. C. Ab urbe condita.
A. CAMP. M. P. XL A Camboduno millia paffuujn
undecim.
A. COMP. XIIII. A Compluto quatuor decern.
A. C. P. VI. A capite, vel ad caput pedes fex.
A. D. Ante diem.
ADJECT. H-S.IXco . AdjeClis feftertiisnovemmilie,
ADN. Adnepos.
ADQ^Adquiefcit, vel adquifita pro acquifita.
JED. II. II.VIR. IL JEdilis iterum, duum-vir iterum,
JED. II. VIR. QUINQ^ JEdilis duum-vir quinquen*
nalis.
ABB [
AWbrevIa. JET). Q^II. VIR. iEdilis quinquennalis duum-vir.
tion- /EL. /Elius, /Elia.
ve/ AIM. iEmilius, /Emilia.
A. K. Ante kalendas.
A. G. Animo grato : Aulus Gelli»5.
AG. Ager, vel Agrippa.
ALA. I. Ala prima.
A. MILL. XXXV. A milliari triginta quinque, vel
ad milliaria triginta quinque.
A. M. XX. Ad milliare vigefimum.
AN. A. V. C. Anno ab urbe condita.
AN. C. H. S. Anno cent, hie fitus ell.
AN. DCLX. Anno fexcentefimo fexagefimo.
AN. II. S. Annos duos femis.
AN. IVL. Annos quadraginta fex.
AN. N. Annos natus.
ANN. LIII. H. S. E. Annorum quinquagefim. trium
hie fitus ell.
ANN. NAT. LXVI. Annos natus fexaginta fex.
ANN. PL. M. X. Annos ve/ annis plus minus deceim.
AN. 0. XVI. Anno defundtus deeimo fexto.
AN. V. XX. Annos vixit viginti.
AN. P. M. Annorum plus minus.
A. XII. Annis duodecim.
AN. P. M. L. Annorum plus minus quinquaginta.
A. XX. H. EST. Annorum viginti hie ell.
AN. P. R. C. Anno poll Romam conditam.
AN. V. P. M. II. Annis vixit plus minus duobus.
AN. XXV. STIP. VIII. Annorum viginti quinque
llipendii, ve/ llipendiorum octo.
A. P. M. Amico pofuit monumentum.
AP. Appia, Appius.
A. P. V. C. Annorum poll urbem conditam.
APVD. L. V. CONV. Apud lapidem quintum con-
venerunt.
A. RET. P. III. S. Ante retropedes tres femis.
AR. P. Aram pofuit.
ARG. P. X. Argenti pondo decem.
ARR. Arrius.
A. V. B. A viro bono.
A. V. C. Ab urbe condita.
B.
B. Balbus, Bulbius, Brutus, Belenus, Burras.
B. Beneficiario, beneficium, bonus.
B. Balnea, beatus, bultum.
V, berna pro verna, bixit pro vixit, bibo pro vi¬
vo, bidlor pro vidlor, bidua pro vidua.
B. A. Bixit annis, bonus ager, bonus amabilis, bona
aurea, bonum aureum, bonis auguriis, bonis aufpiciis.
B. B. Bona bona, bene bene.
B. DD. Bonis deabus.
B. F. Bona fide, bona femina, bona fortuna, bene fac¬
tum.
B.F. reversed thus, g* Bona femina, bona filia.
B. H. Bona hereditaria, bonorum hajreditas.
B. I. I. Boni judicis judicium.
B. L. Bona lex.
B. M. P. Bene merito pofuit.
B. M. P. C. Bene merito ponendum curavit.
B. M. S. C. Bene merito fepulcrum condidit.
BN. EM. Bonorum emptores.
BN. H. I. Bona hie invenies.
B. RP. N. Bono reipublicas natus,
£. A. Bixit, id ej}, vixit annis.
13 ] ABB
BIGINTI. Viginti. Abbrevir-
BIXIT. BIXSIT. BISSIT. Vixit. tl0n- .
BIX. ANN. XXCI. M. IV. D. VII. Vixit annis oc-'—~r~=J
toginta unum, menfibus quatuor, diebus feptem.
EX. AN VS. VII. ME. VI. DI. XVII. Vixit annos
feptem, menfes fex, dies feptem decim.
C
C. Csefar, Caio, Caius, cenfor, civitas, conful, condem-
no.
C. C. Cariflimae conjugi, calumnia caufa, confilium
cepit.
C. C. F. Caius Caii filius.
C. B. Commune bonum.
C. D. Comitialibus diebus.
C. H. Cullos hortorum w/haeredum
C. I. C. Caius Julius Caefar.
CC. VV. Clariffimi viri.
CEN. Cenfor, centuria, centurio.
CERTA. QUINCbROM. CO. Certamen quinquen-
nale Romae conditum.
CL. Claudius.
CL. V. Clariflimus vir.
CH. COH. Cohors.
C. M. vel CA. M. Caufa mortis.
CN. Cneus.
C. O. Civitas omnis.
COH. I. velll. Cohors prima vel fecunda.
COS. ITER. ET TERT. DESIG. Conful iterum et
tertium defignatus.
COS. TER. vel QUAR. Conful tertium, vel quartum.
COSS. Confutes.
COST. CUM. LOG. H-S.odD. Cullodiam cum loc«
fellertiis mille quingentis.
C. R. Civis Romanus.
CS. IP. Crnfar imperator.
C. V. Centum viri.
n
D. Decius, decimus, decuria, decurio, dedicavit, dedifcg,
devotus, dies, divus, Deus, dii, Dominus, domus,
donum, datum, decretum, &c.
D. A. Divus Augullus.
D. B. I. Diis bene juvantibus^
D. B. S. De bonis fuis,
DCT. Detradlum.
DDVIT. Dedicavit.
D. D. Donum dedit, datis, datio, Deus dedit.
D. D. D. Dono dederunt, vel datum decreto decurio-
nem.
D. D. D. D. Dignum Deo donum dedicavit.
DDPP. Depofiti.
D. N. Dominus noller. D. D. N. N. Domini noftri,
D. D. Q^O. H. L. S. E. V. Diis deabufque omnibus
hunc locum facrum eiTe yoluit.
DIG. M. Dignus memoria.
D. M. S. Diis manibus facrum.
D. O. M. Deo optimo maximo.
D. O. JE. Deo optimo ceterno,
D. PP. Deo perpetuo.
DR. Dxufus.
DR. P. Dare promittit,
D. RM. De Romanis.
D. RP. De republica.
D. S. P. F. C. De fua pecunia faciundum curavit,
DT. Duntaxat.
DVL, vel. DOL. Pulafliraus,
DEC.*"
ABB [ 1+ 1 A B
jVbbrevia- DEC.* XIII. AVG. XII. POP.XI. Decurlonibusdena- GL. S. Callus Sempronius.
tion- riis tredecim, auguftalibus duodeclm, populo undecim.
‘d. IIII. ID. Die quarta idus.
D. VIIII. Diebus novem.
D. V. ID. Die quinta idus.
E
E. Ejus, ergo, effe, eft, erexit, exa£lum, &c.
E. C. F. Ejus caufa fecit.
E. D. Ejus domus.
ED. Ediiftum.
E. E. Ex edifto.
EE. N. P. Effe non poteft. >
EG. Egit, egregius.
E. H. Ejus haeres.
EID. Idus.
EIM. Ejufmodi.
E. L. Ea lege.
E. M. Elexit vel erexit monumentum.
ECb M. Equitum magifter. i
EQ^O. Equefter ordo.
EX. A. D. K. Ex ante diem kalendas.
EX. A. D. V. K. DEC. AD. PRID. K. IAN. Ex
ante diem quinto kalendas Decembris ad pridie ka¬
lendas Januarias.
EX.H-S.X.P. F.I. Ex feftertiis decern parvis fieri juflit.
EX. H-S. CION. Ex feftertiis mille numnuim.
EX. H-S.' oo co co co Ex feftertius quatuor millia.
EX. H-S. N. CC. L. oo D. XL. Ex feftertiis num-
morum ducentis quinquaginta millibus, quingentis
quadraginta.
EX. H-S. DC. oc D. XX. Ex feftertiis fexcentis mil¬
libus quingentis viginti.
EX. KAL. IAN. AD. KAL. IAN. Ex kalendis
Tanuarii ad kalendas Tanuarii.
F
F. Fabius, fecit, faclum, faciendum, familia, famula^
faftus, Februarius, feliciter, felix, fides, fieri, fit, fe-
mina, filia, filius, frater, finis, flamen, forum, fiu-
vius, fauftum, fuit.
F. A. Filio amantiflimo vel filire amantiflimje.
✓ F. AN. X. F. C. Filio vel filise annorum decern faci-
undum curavit.
F. C. Fieri vel faciendum curavit, fidei commiffum.
F. D. Flamen Dialis, filius dedit, fadtum dedicavit.
F. D. Fide juffor, fundum.
FEA. Femina.
FE. C. Ferme centum.
FF. Fab re faclum, filius familias, fratris filius.
F. F. F. Ferro, flamma, fame, fortior, fortuna, fato.
FF. Fecerunt.
FL. F. Flavii filius.
F. FQ. Filiis filiabufque.
FIX. ANN. XXXIX. M. I. D. VI. HOR. SCIT.
NEM. Vixit annos triginta novem, menfem unum,
dies fex, boras fcit nemo.
B
GN. Gneus pro Cneus, genius, gens.
GNT. Gentes.
GRA. Gracchus.
GRC. Grsecus.
H
H. Hie, hft.bet, haftatus, haeres, homo, iiora, hofds,
herus.
H. A. Hoc anno.
HA. Hadrianus.
HC. Hunc, huic, hie.
HER. Haeres, hereditatis, Herenmus.
HER. >ye/HERC. S. Herculi facrum.
H. M. E. H-S. CCIDD. CCIDD. I3D. M. N. Hoc
monumentum erexit feftertiis viginti quinque mille
nummum.
H. M. AD. H. N. T. Hoc monumentum ad haeredts
non tranfit.
H. O. Hoftis occifus.
HOSS. Hoftes.
H. S. Hie fitus vel fita, fepultus vel fepulta.
H-S. N. IIII. Seftertiis nummum quatuor.
H. S. CCCC. Seftertiis quatuor centum.
H-S. co. N. Seftertiis mille mummum.
H-S. co CCI30. N. Seftertiis novem mille nummum.
H-S. CCI33. CCI33. Seftertiis viginti mille.
H-S. XXM. N. Seftertiis viginti mille nummum.
Ar.brevjJT*
tion.
H. SS. Hie fupra feriptis.
FO. FR. Forum.
F. R. Forum Romanum.
G
G. Gellius, Gaius pro Caius, genius, gens, gaudium,
gefta, gratia, gratis, &c.
GAB. Gabinius.
GAL. Gallus, Gallerius.
G. C. Genio civitatis.
GEN. P. R. Genio populi Romani.
13L. Gloria.
I. Junius, Julius, Jupiter, ibx, ideft,_ immortalis, impe-
rator, inferi, inter, invenit, invictus, ipie, iterum,
judex, juflit, jus, &.c.
IA. Intra.
I. AG. In agro.
I. AGL. In angnlo.
IAD. Jamdudum.
IAN. Janus.
IA. RI. Jam refpondi.
I. C. Juris confultus, Julius Csefar, judex cognitionuia,
IC. Hie.
I. D. Inferis diis, Jovi dedicatum, Ifidi dese, juffu desc.
ID. Idus.
I. D. M. Jovi Deo magno.
I. F. vel I. FO. In foro.
IF. Interfuit. IFT. Interfuerun**
I. FNT. In fronte.
IG. Igitur.
I. H. Jacet hie.
I. I. In jure.
IM. Imago, immortalis, imperator.
I. M. CT. In medio civitatis.
IMM. Immolavit, immortalis, immunis.
IM. S. Impenfis fuis.
IN. Inimicus, inferipfit, interea.
IN. A. P. XX. In agro pedes viginti.
IN. w/INL. V. I. S. Inluftris vir infra fenptus.
I. R. Jovi regi, Junoni reginee, jure rogavit.
I. S. vel I. SN. In fenatum.
I. V. Julius vir.
IVD. Judicium.
IVV. juventus, Juvenalis.
II. V. Duum-vir, vcl duum-viri.
III. V. vellll. VIR. Trium-vir, vel trium-viri.
IIII. VIR. Quatuor-vir, vel quatuor-viri, vel quatuor
viratus' mm.
ABB
[ 1S ]
ABB
At/brevia- IIIIII. V. w/VIR. Sextum-vir, ve/ fe-vxr, ve/ fex-vir.
ti°n. IDN£. ve/ IND. aut INDICT. Indiftio, W indic-
lJ tione.
K
K. Cajfo, Caius, Caio, Ceelius, Carolus, calumnia, can-
didatus, caput, cariflimus, clariflimus, caftra, cohors,
Carthago, &c.
K. KAL. KL. KLD. KLEND. Kalends, aut kalen-
dis $ et Jic de eceteris ubi menjlu?7i apponuntur no-
tnina.
KARC. Career.
KK. Cariffimi.
KM. Cariffimus.
K. S. Carus fuis.
KR. Chorus.
KR. AM. N. Carus amicus nofler.
L
L. Lucius, Lucia, Laelius, Lollius, lares, Latinus, la¬
tum, legavit, lex, legio, libens vel lubens, liber, li¬
bera, libertus, liberta, libra, locavit, &c.
L. A. Lex alia.
LA. C. Latini coloni.
L. A. D. Locus alteri datus,
L. AG. Lex agraria.
L. AN. Lucius Annius, vel quinquaginta annis,
L. AP. Ludi Apollinares.
LAT. P. VIII. E. S. Latum pedes ofto et femis.
LONG. P. VII. L. P. III. Longum pedes feptem,
latum pedes tres.
L. ADQ^ Locus adquifitus.
LB. Libertus, liberi.
L. D. D. D. Locus datus decreto decurionum.
LECTIST. Leftifternium.
LEG. I. Legio prima.
L. E. D. Lege ejus damnatus.
LEG. PROV. Legatus provinciae*
LIC. Licinius.
LICT. Liaor.
LL. Libentiflime, liberi, libertas.
L. L. Seftertius magnus.
LVD. SyE,C. Ludi faeculares,
LVPERC. Lupercalia,
LV. P. F. Ludos publicos fecit.
M
M. Marcus, Marca, Martius, Mutius, maceria, magi-
fter, magiftratus, magnus, manes, mancipium, mar-
moreus, marti, mater, maximus, memor, memoria,
menlis, meus, miles, militavit, militia, mille, miffus,
monumentum, mortuus, &c.
MAG. EQ. Magifter equitum.
MAR. VLT. Mars ultor.
MAX. POT. Maximus pontifex.
MD. Mandatum.
MED. Medicus, medius.
MER. Mercurius, mercator.
MERK. Mercurialia, mercatus.
MES. VII. DIEB. XL Menfibus feptem, diebus un¬
de cim.
M. I. Maximo Jovi, matri Ideae w/Ifidi, militite jus,
monumentum jufiit.
MIL. COH. Miles cohortis.
MIN. vel MINER. Minerva.
M. MON. MNT. MONET. Moneta,
M. vel MS. Menfis vel menfes,.
MNF. Mamfeftus.,
MNM. ManumiiTus. Abbrevia-
M. P. II. Millia pafluum duo.
MV. MN. MVN. MVNIC. Municipiuaa vel mu- ^
niceps.
N
N. Neptunus, Numerius, Numeria, Nonius, Nero, nam,
non, natus, natio, nefaftus, nepos, neptis, niger, no¬
men, nonaa, nofter, numerarius, numerator, numerus,
nummus vel numifma, numen.
NAV. Navis.
N. B. Numeravit bivus pro vivus.
NB. vcl NBL. Nobilis.
N. C. Nero Csefar, vel Nero Claudius.
NEG. vel NEGOT. Negotiator.
NEP. S. Neptuno facrum.
N. F. N. Nobili familia natus.
N. L. Non liquet, non licet, non longS, nominis LatinL
N. M. Nonius Macrinus, non malum, non minus.
NN. Noftri. NNR. vel NR. Noftrorum.
NO. Nobis.
NOBR. November.
NON. AP. Nonis Aprilis.
NQ. Namque, nufquam, nunquam.
N. V. N. D. N. P. O. Neque vendetur, neque dona-
bitur, neque pignori obligabitur.
NVP. Nupthe. '
o
O. Officium, optimus, olla, omnis, optio, ordo, olfaj
oftendit, &c.
OB. Obiit.
OB. C. S. Ob cives fervatos.
OCT. O&avianus, Oftober.
O. E. B. Q^,C. Offa ejus bene quiefcant condita.
O. H. F. Omnibus honoribus fundus.
ONA. Omnia.
OO. Omnes, omnino. O. O. Optimus ordo.
OP. Oppidum, opiter, oportet, optimus, opus.
OR. Ornamentum.
OTIM. Optimse.
P
P. Publius-, paflus, patria, pecunia, pedes, perpetuus,^
pius, plebs, populus, pontifex, pofuit, poteftas, prse-
fes, praetor, pridie, pro, poft, provincia, puer, pu-
blicus, publice, primus, &c.
PA. Pater, Patricius.
PAE. ET. ARR. COS. Paeto et Arrio confulibus.
P. A. F. A. Poftulo an Has audor.
PAR. Parens, parilia, Parthicus.
PAT. PAT. Pater patriae.
PBLC. Publicus.
PC. Procurator.
P. C. Poft confulatum, patres confcriptr, patronus co-
loniae, ponendum curavit, praefedus corporis, pac¬
tum conventum.
PED. CXVS. Pedes centum quindecim femis.
PEG, Peregrinus.
P. II. co- L. Pondo duarum femis librarum.
P. II. S. :: Pondo duo femis et triente.
P. KAL. Pridie kalendas.
POM. Pompeius.
P. P. P. C. Propria pecunia ponendum curavit.
P. R. C. A. DCCCXLIIII. Poft Romam conditam an*
nis odingentis qiuadraginta quatuor.
PRO. Proconful. P. PR. Pro-pr^etor, P. PRR. Pro-
prtetores,.
PR*.
B
A B
[ 16 ]
ABB
Abbrevk- PR, N. Pro nepos.
tion. r# v. x. Populi Romani vota deccnnalta.
PS. PaiTus, plebifcitum.
PUD. Pudicus, pudica, pudor.
PUR. Purpureus.
CL.
Q. Quinquennalis, quartus, qumtus, quando, quantum,
qui, quae, quod, Quintus, Quintius, Quintilianus,
quaeftor, quadratum, quaefitus.
Q^B. AN. XXX. Qui bixit, idefi vixit, annos triginta.
QM. Quomodo, quem, quoniam.
QQ^ Quinquennalis. QQ^V. Quoquo verfum.
Q^R. Quaeftor reipublicae.
Q^V. A. III. M. II. Qui vel quae vixit annos tres,
menfes duo.
R
R. Roma, Romanus, rex, reges, Regulus, rationalis,
Ravennae, recta, refto, requietorium, retro, roftra,
rudera, &c«
RC. Refcriptum.
R. C. Romana civitas.
REF. C. Reficiendum curavit.
REG. Regio.
R. P. RESP. Refpublica.
RET. P. XX. Retro pedes viginti.
REC. Requiefcit.
RMS. Romanus.
ROB. Robigalia, Robigo.
RS. Refponfum.
RVF. Rufus.
S
S. Sacrum, facellum, fcriptus, femis, fenatus, fepultus,
fepulcrum, fanctus, fervus, ferva, Servius, fequitur,
ftbi, fitus, folvit, fub, ftipendium, &c.
SAC. Sacerdos, facrificium.
SAL vel SAiC. Saeculum, faeculares.
SAL. Salus.
S. C. Senatus-confultum.
SCI. Scipio.
S. D. Sacrum diis.
S. EQ^Q^O. ET. P. R. Senatus, equefterque ordo
et populus Romanus.
SEMP. Sempronius.
SL. SVL. SYL. Sylla.
S. L. Sacer ludus, fine linguS.
S. M. Sacrum manibus, fine manibus, fine malo.
SN. Senatus, fententia, fine.
S. P. Sine pecunia.
s. P. CLR. Senatus populufque Romanus.
S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit.
S. T. A. Sine ue/ fub tutoris audloritate.
SLT. Scilicet.
S. E. T. L. Sit ei terra levis.
SIC. V. SIC. X. Sicut quinquennalia, fic decennalia.
SSTVP. XVIIII. Stipendiis novem decim.
ST. XXXV. Stipendiis triginta quinque.
T
T. Titus, Tullius, tantum, terra, tibi, ter, teftamen-
tum, titulus, terminus, triarius, tribunus, turma, tu¬
tor, tutela, &c.
TAB. Tabula. TABVL. Tabularius.
TAR. Tarquinius.
TB. D. F. Tibi dulcifiimo filio,.
TB. PL. Tribunus plebis.
7B. TI. TIB. Tiberius.
T. F. Titus Flavius, Titi filius.
THR. Thrax.
T. L. Titus Livius, Titi libertus.
TIT. Titulus.
T. M. Terminus, thermae.
TR. PO. Tribunitia poteftas.
TRAJ. Trajanus.
TUL. Tullus vel Tullius.
TR. V. Trium-vir.
TT. QTS. Titus Quintus.
© vel TH. AN. Mortuus anno.
@xin. Defunctus viginti tribus.
M V
V. Quinque, quinto, quintum.
V. Vitellius, Volera, Volero, Volufus, Vopifcus, vale,
valeo •, Vefta, veftalis, veftis, vefter, veteranus, vir,
virgo, vivus, vixit, votum, vovit, urbs, ulus, uxor,
viAus, vidlor, &c.
V. A. Veterano aflignatum.
V. A. I. D. XL Vixit annum unum, dies undecim*
V. A. L. Vixit annos quinquaginta.
V. B. A. Viri boni arbitratu.
V. C. Vale conjux, vivens curavit, vir confularxs, vir
clariflimus, quintum conful.
VDL. Videlicet.
V. E. Vir egregius, vifum eft, verum etiam.
VESP. Vefpafianus.
VI. V. Sextum-vir. VII. V. Septem-vir. VUI.vTR,
o&um-vir.
VIX. A. FF. C. Vixit annos ferme centum,
VIX. AN. w* * Vixit annos triginta.
k .
ULPS. Ulpianus, Ulpius.
V. M. Vir magnificus, vivsns mandavit, volens me*
rito.
V. N. Quinto nonas.
V. MUN. Vias munivit.
VOL. Volcania, Voltinia, Volufus.
VONE. Bonae.
VOT. V. Votis quinquennalibus.
VOT. V. MULT. X. Votis quinquennalibus, multii
decennalibus.
VOT. X. Vota decennalia.
VOT. XX. vel XXX. vel XXXX. Vota vicennalk,
aut tricenmalia, aut quadragenalia.
V. R. Urbs Roma, votum reddidit.
VV. CC. Viri clariftimi.
UX. Uxor.
X
X. AN. Annalibus decennalibus.
X. K. OCT. Decimo kalendas O&obris.
X. M. Decern millia. X. P. Decern pondo.
X. V. Decem-vir XV. VIR. Quindecim-vir.
Abbreviation of fraclions, in Arithmetic and Al¬
gebra, is the reducing them to lower terms.
ABBREVIATOR, in a general fenfe, a perfon wh*
abridges any large book into a narrower compafs.
Abereviators, a college of 72 perfons in the chan¬
cery of Rome, who draw up the pope’s brieves, and
reduce petitions, when granted by him, into proper
form for being converted into bulls.
ABB’S (St) Head, a promontory of land in the
fouthern extremity of the frith of Forth, in Scotland,
jo miles north of Berwick, and newly the fame di-
2
A B D [ '7 ] A B D
Abbutali ftatiC'e foutli of Dunbar. W. Long. 1. 56. N. Lat.
ABBUTALS, figniry tbe buttings or boundings of
»—land towards any point. Limits were anciently diflin-
guifbed by artificial hillocks, which were called bots-
tnines ; and hence butting. In a defcription of the fite
of land, the fides on the breadth are more properly ad-
jacentes, and thofe terminating the length are abbutan-
tes ; which, in old furveys, were fometimes exprefied
by capitarey to head, whence abbutals are now called
head lands.
ABCEDARY, or Abcedarian, an epithet given
to compofitions, the parts of vdhch are difpofed in the
order of the letters of the alphabet: thus we fay, Ab-
cedarian pfalms, lamentations, hymns, &c. fuch are
Pfal. xxv. xxxiv. cxix. &c.
• ABCOURT, a towrn near St Germains, four leagues
from Paris. Here is a brilk chalybeate water, which
is alfo impregnated with carbonic acid and foda ; and
refembling the waters of Spa and Ilmington.
ABDALLA, the fon of Abdalmotalleb, was the
father of the prophet Mahomet. He was the moft
beautiful and modeft of the Arabian youth, and when
he married Amina, of the noble race of the Zahrites,
200 virgins are faid to have died of jealoufy and de-
fpair. Several other Arabians of eminence bore the
iame name.
ABDALMALEK, the fon of Mirvan, and the 5th
taliph of the race of the Ommiades. Pie furpafied all
his predeceffors in power and dominion *, for in hia
reign the Indies were conquered in the eaft, and his
armies penetrated Spain in the wreft : he likewife ex¬
tended his empire toward the fouth, by making him.
felf mailer of Medina and Mecca. Under his reign
the Greek language and character were excluded from
the accounts of the public revenue. If this change,
fays Gibbon, wras produ&ive of the invention or fami¬
liar ufe of the Arabic or Indian cyphers, which are
eur prefent numerals, a regulation of office has promot¬
ed the moft important difcoveries of arithmetic, alge¬
bra, and the mathematical fciences. His extreme ava-
*ice expofed him to the contempt and derifion of his
fiibjefts, who gave him the appellation of the fweat of
a Jlone; and his fetid breath, it is faid, poifoned the
fies which accidentally lighted on his lips, whence he
was called the father of fies. He began his reign in
*he 65th of the Hegira, A. D. 684 ; reigned 15 years 5
And four of his fons fucceffively enjoyed the caliphate.
Abdalmalek, Ben Zohar, an eminent phyfician,
eommonly called by the Europeans Aven%oar. Sec
Ay ENZOAR.
ABDALMOTALLEB, or Abdol Motalleb,
the fon of Haffiem, the father of Abdalla, and grand¬
father of Mahomet the prophet of the Muffulmans, was,
it is faid, of fuch wonderful comelinefs and beauty, that
all women wffio faw him became enamoured : wffiich
may have given occafion to that prophetic light, which,
according to the Arabians, ffione on the foreheads of
him, his anceftors, and defcendants; it being certain
that they were very handfome and graceful men. He
died when Mahomet, of wrhom he had taken peculiar
care, was only eight or nine years old ; aged, accord¬
ing to fome, 110, and according to other writers 120.
ABDALONYMUS, or Abdolonymus, mClafic
Mi/lory, of the royal family of Sidon, and defcended
Vox,. I. Part L
Abdera.
from King Cinyras, lived in ohfcurity, and fubiifted by Abdals
cultivating a garden, while Strato was in poffeffion of the
crown of Sidon. Alexander the Great having depofed .
Strato, inquired whether any of the race of Cinyras was "
living, that he might fet him on the throne. It was
generally thought that the whole race was extinct:
but at laft Abdalonymus was thought of, and mention¬
ed to Alexander 5 tvho immediately ordered fome of
his foldiers to fetch him. They found the good man
at -work, happy in his poverty, and entirely a ftranger
to the noife of arms, with which all Alia was at that
time difturbed *, and they could fcarcely perfuade him
they were in earneft. Alexander was convinced of hi*
high defcent by the dignity of his perfon 5' but was de-
firous of learning from him in what manner he bore
his poverty. “ I wifti” faid Abdalonymus, “ I may
bear my new condition as vrell: Thefe hands have
fupplied my neceffities : I have had nothing, and I
have wanted nothing.” This anfwer pleafed Alexan¬
der fo much, that he not only bellowed on him all that
belonged to Strato, but augmented his dominions, and
gave him a large prefent out of the Perfian fpoils.
ABDALS, in the Eaftern countries, a kind of faints
fuppofed to be infpired to a degree of madnefs. The
word is perhaps derived from the Arabic, Abdallah,
the fervant of God. The Perlians call them devaneh
kboda, fimilar to the Latin way of fpeaking of prophets
and fibyls, q. d. furentes dco, raging with the god.
Hurried on by excefs of zeal, efpeciaily in the Indies,
they often run about the ftreets, and kill all they
meet who are of a different religion. The Englilh
failors call this, running a much, from the name of the
inftrument, a fort of poniard, wThich they employ on
thofe defperate occafions. If they are killed, as it com¬
monly happens before they have done much mifchief,
they reckon it highly meritorious ; and are efteemed,
by the vulgar, martyrs for their faith.
ABDARA, or Abdeka, in Ancient Geography, a
town of BoeticainSpain, a Phoenician colony; wow Aar a,
to the weft of Almeira in the kingdom of Granada.
ABDERA, in Ancient Getgraphy, a maritime town of
Thrace, not far from the mouth of the river Neffus,on the
eaft fide. The foundation, according to Herodotus, was
attempted to be laid by Timefius the Clazomenian 5 but
he was forced by the Thracians to quit the defign. The
Teians undertook it, and fucceeded and fettled' in this
place, in order to avoid the xnfults and oppreffion of
the Perfians.—Several Angularities, are told of Abdera *. * Piinii Ilk.
The grafs of the country round it was of ffich a qua- ^xv‘ c: 8-
lity, that the horfes which fed on it were feized wfith ^ j
madnefs. In the reign of Caffander king of Macedon,
this city was fo irifefted with frogs and rats, that the
inhabitants wrere forced for a time to quit it.—The
Abderites, or Abderitani, were very much derided for
their want of wit and judgment : yet their city has
given birth to feveral eminent perfons ; as Protagoras,
Democritus, Anaxarchus, Hecataeus the hiftorian, Ni-
censetus the poet, and many others, who wTere mention¬
ed among the illuftrious men.—In the reign of Lyfima-
chus, Abdera was afflicted for fome months with a moft
extraordinary difeafe f : this was a burning fever, whofe j- Lucianus
crifis was always on the feventh day, and then it left quomdo
them ; but it fo diftra<fted their imaginations, that they-^^/?V^, e0nA
fancied themfelves players. Alter this, they were
'repeating vorfcs from ibme tragedy, and particularly
C from
A B D [ i
ABder- from tKe Andromeda of Euripides, as if they had
ahnu been Up0n thg ftage j fo that many of thefe pale mea-
£Mication.Sre actors were pouring forth their tragic exclama-
> . tions in every ftreet. 1'his delirium continued till the
winter following j whieh was a very cold one, and
therefore fitter to remove it. Lucian, who has de-
fcribed this difeafe, endeavours to account for it in this
manner: Archelaus, an excellent player, afted the
Andromeda of Euripides before the Abderites, in the
height of a very hot fummer. Several had a fever at
their coming out of the theatre j and as their imagina¬
tions were full of the tragedy, the delirium which the
fever raifed perpetually reprefented Andromeda, Per-
feus, Medufa, &c. and the feveral dramatic incidents,
and called up the ideas of thofe obje&s, and the plea-
fure of the reprefentation, fo ftrongly, that they could
not forbear imitating Archelaus’s action and declama¬
tion : And from thefe the fever fpread to others by in-
fe&ion.
ABDERAHMA, a Saracen viceroy in Spain, who
revolted and formed an independent principality at Cor¬
dova. He had feveral fucceffors of the fame name.
A viceroy and captain-general of this name led the
Saracens and their followers into France, ravaging the
country wherever they came. At length he was met
at Tours by Charles Martel, who had received rein¬
forcements of Germans and Gepidse ; and after many
Ikirmifhes the Saracen army, in a general aftion, was
totally routed, and Abderahma was killed with 370,000
Moors. This great event, which firft broke the power
of the Saracens, and taught the Europeans that they
were not invincible, happened about the year 732 of
the Chriftian era, and of the Hegira 114.
ABDEST, a Perfian word, properly fignifying the
water placed in a bafon for walking the hands j but is
ufed to imply the legal purifications praftifed by the
Mahometans before prayer, entering the mofque, or
reading the Alcoran.
ABDIAS or Babylon, one of the boldeft le¬
gend writers, who boafted that he had feen Chrift, that
he was one of the 70 difciples, had been eye-witnefs
©f the aftions and prayers of feveral of the apoftles
at their deaths, and had followed into Perfia St Simon
and St Jude, who, he faid, made him the firft bilhop
of Babylon. His book, entitled Hijioria Certaminis
Aftq/Iolici, was publifhed by Wolfgang Lazius, at Bafil,
3551; and has paffed through feveral editions m other
places.
ABDICATION, the a£Hon whereby a magiftrate,
or perfon in office, renounces and gives up the fame be¬
fore the term of fervice is expired.
This word is frequently confounded with rejigna-
tion; but differs from it 5 for abdication is done purely
and Amply, whereas refignation is in favour of fome
third perfon. In this fenfe, Dioclefian is faid to have
abdicated the crown 5 Philip the IV. of Spain refigned
it. It is faid to be a renunciation, quitting, and re-
linquilhing, fo as to have nothing further to do with a
thing; or the doing of fuch actions as are inconfiftent
with the holding of it. On King James’s leaving the
kingdom, and abdicating the government, the lords
propofed that the word defertion ftiould be employed *,
but the commons thought that it was not fufficiently
comprehenfive. Among the Roman writers it is more
particularly ufed for the act whereby a father difeard-
8 ] A B D
ed or difclaimed his fon, and expelled him the family. Ablofta-
It is diftinguifhed from exhecredatio or dijinheriting, in dph.
that the former was done in the father’s lifetime j the
latter, by will at his death : fo that whoever was abdi¬
cated, was alfo difinherited but not vice verfa.
ABDOLLATIPH, a phyfician, was born at Bag¬
dad in the 557th year of the Hegira, A. D. 1161.
Having been educated with the greateft care by his fa¬
ther, who was himfelf a man of learning, and refided
in a capital -which abounded with the beft opportuni¬
ties of inftru&ion, he early diftinguilhed himfelf not
only by proficiency in rhetoric, hiftory, and poetry,
but alfo in the more fevere ftudies of Mohammedan
theology. To the acquirement of medical knowledge
he applied with efpecial diligence; and it was chiefly
with this view that, in his 28th year, he left Bagdad,
in order to vifit other countries. At Moful, in Me-
fopotamia, whither he firft direfted his courfe, he found
the attention of the ftudents entirely confined to the
chemiftry of that day, with which he was already fuf¬
ficiently acquainted. Having fpent a year at Moful,
he removed to Damafcus in Syria, where the gramma¬
rian A1 Kindi then enjoyed the higheft reputation j
and wdth whom he is faid to have engaged in a con-
troverfy on fome fubjedts of grammar and philology,
which terminated in favour of Abdollatiph.
At this time, Egypt had yielded to the arms of Sa-
ladin, who wras marching againft Paleftine for the pur-
pofe of wrefting that country from the hands of the
Chriftians : yet towards Egypt Abdollatiph was irre-
fiftibly impelled by that literary curiofity which fo
ftrongly marked his charadter. To the fuccefsfiil pro-
fecution of this journey, the confent and patronage of
the fultan were indifpenfably neceffary : but when the
Arabian phyfician arrived at the camp near Acca,
(the ancient Ptolemais, now Acre) to folicithis power¬
ful protedlion, he found the Saracens bewailing a
defeat which they had recently experienced j a de¬
feat fo honourable to the fkill and valour of our Eng-
lilh Richard, that nothing lefs than the late match-
lefs defence of this fortrefs, by a handful of Britifli fea-
men and marines, could have detradled from hs im¬
portance, or eclipfed its glory. Hence the lofty fpirit
of the fultan was plunged into a morbid melancholy,
which excluded the traveller from his prefence; bu*
the favours which he received evinced the munificence
of Saladin, and he perfifted in his defign of exploring
the wonders of Egypt. One ftrong inducement which:
influenced him on this occafion, was the inftrudHom
which he hoped to derive from the fociety of the cele¬
brated Maimonides j and by A1 Kadi A1 Fadel, who
had earneftly but unavailingly folicited him to return
to Damafcus, he was furnilhed- with fuch recommen¬
dations as procured for him the moft flattering recep¬
tion at'Cairo. His talents and his virtues confirmed
and increafed the kindnefs with which he was wel¬
comed on his firft arrival •, and the Egyptians of the
higheft rank continued to vie wdth each other in cul¬
tivating his friendftiip.
From this intercourfe, however, with the great and
the learned, Abdollatiph withdrew, in order to pre-
feht himfelf before the fultan y who, having concluded;
a truce wdth the Franks, then fefided in the Holy-
City. Here he was received by Saladin wdth every
expreifioa of efteem for his character and attainments.
To
A B D [ 1
Abdomen, To a dignified politenefs, and condefeendmg freedom,
AWomina- prince Js faid to have adderl a munificent liberality
. in the patronage of fcience and of art; and of this
fatl, indeed, we have a laudable inftance in the pen-
fion which he granted to Abdollatiph, and which a-
mounted to 30 dinars per month. After the death of
the fultan, this fum was raifed by his fons to 100 di¬
nars, till the ambition of their uncle forced them from
the throne of Egypt and of Syria ; and thus was our
traveller compelled to refort again to Damafcus, after
a. fhort abode at Jerufalem : where his ledlures, and
his treatifes, were equally the objedls of general admi¬
ration.
In the capital of Syria, his purfuits were of the fame
nature, and attended with fimilar fuccefs. His prac¬
tice as a phylician was ertenfive. To the Undents in
the college of A1 Aziz, he freely communicated the
ample ftores of his cultivated mind ; and in the works
which he compofed on the principles of medicine, he
difplayed that depth of refearch and that felicity of il-
luftration, which are the rare effefls of genius com¬
bined with diligence, judgment, and erudition.
Such is the teftimony given to the exertions of our
author ■, and it is added that they were rewarded at
Damafcus not with fame alone, but alfo with riches.
Aet neither the applaufe of the wife nor the patronage
of the wealthy had power to detain him, when other
fcenes or other fbciety promifed to gratify his curxofity,
or to increafe his knowledge. On this account, pro¬
bably, he left Damafcus, and, after having vifited
Aleppo, refided feveral years in Greece. With the
fame view he travelled through Syria, Armenia, and
Afia Minor, ftill adding to the number of his works;
many of which he dedicated to the princes whofe
courts he vifited, or whofe fubiedls he laboured to in-
ftrucl.
After having thus enriched his own mind, and con¬
tributed fo fuccefsfully to the improvement of others,
fentiments of devotion induced him to undertake a pil¬
grimage to Mecca. In the mean time, however, he
leems to have experienced the full force of that de¬
lire, which in the native of Switzerland has often been
known to fuperfede every other,—the defire of once
more beholding the place which gave him birth. He
wifhed alfo to prefent the fruits of his travels, and
of his {Indies, to the caliph A1 Moftanfer Billah. He
therefore eagerly journeyed towards Bagdad, -which,
after fo long an abfence, he no doubt beheld with
emotions of tender exultation :—but all his hopes were
difappointed! Scarcely had he reached his native
city, when he was fuddenly taken ill, and died in his
63d year, A. D. 1223. Of 150 treatifes which he
compofed on various fubje&s of medicine, natural phi-
lofophy and polite literature, only one, entitled HiJIo-
rice JEgypti Compendium, has furvived the ravages of
time. This manufeript, the only one which has been
difeovered, was brought to Europe by the celebrated
orientalift Pococke, and is now preferved in the Bod¬
leian library. Dr White of Oxford published an edi¬
tion of the original Arabic, with an elegant Latin
verfion in 410, in 1800. {Month. Rev.")
ABDOMEN, in Anatomy, is that part of the trunk
of the body which lies between the thorax and the
bottom of the pelvis. See Anatomy.
ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, con-
> ] ABE
ftitute the Fourth Order of the Fourth Chifs of Ani- Abdudllo*
mals, in the Linnsean fyftem. See Ichthyology. V »
ABDUCTION, in Logic, a kind of argumentation, . ^
by the Greeks called apagoge, wherein the greater ex¬
treme is evidently contained in the medium, but the
medium not fo evidently in the leffer extreme as not to
require fome farther medium or proof to make it ap¬
pear. It is called abduefion, becaufe, from the con-
clufion, it draws us on to prove the propofition af-
fumed. Thus, in the fyllogifm, “ All whom God ab-
folves are free from fin ; but God abfolves all who are
in Chrift 5 therefore all who are in Chrift are free from
fin,”—the major is evident 5 but th& minor, or aflump-
tion, is not fo evident without fome other propofition
to prove it, as, “ God received full fatisfaclion for fin
by the fufferings of Jefus Chrift.”
ABDUCTOR, or Abducent, in Anatomy, a name
given to feveral of the mufcles, on account of their
ferving to withdraw, open, or pull back the parts to
which they belong.
ABEL, fecond fon of Adam and Eve, was a fliep-
herd. He offered to God fome of the firltlings of his
flock, at the fame time that his brother Cain offered
the fruits of the earth. God was pleafed with Abel’s
oblation, but difpleafed with Cain’s ; which fo exafper-
ated the latter, that he rofe up againft his brother and
killed him. Thefe are the only circumftances Mofes
relates of him 5 though, were we to take notice of the
feveral particulars to which curiofity has given birth
on this occafion, they would run to a very great length.
But this will not be expefted. It is remarkable, that
the Greek churches, who celebrate the feafis of every
other patriarch and prophet, have not done the fame
honour to Abel. His name is not to be found in any
catalogue of faints or martyrs till the loth century j
nor even in the new Roman martyrology. However
he is prayed to, with fome other faints, in feveral Ro¬
man litanies faid for perfons who lie at .the point of
death.
ABEL-Kerarnim, or Vinearum, beyond Jordan, in tfte
country of the Ammonites, where Jephthah defeated
them, feven miles diftant from Philadelphia, abounding
in vines, and hence the name. It was alfo called Abela.
AnEL-Meholah, the country of the prophet Elilha*
fituated on this fide Jordan, between the valley of Jez-
reel and the village Bethmael, In the plains of Jordan,
where the Midianites were defeated by Gideon.
Judges vii. 22.
AnEL-Mi%raim, (called alfo the Threlhing-fioor of
Atad), fignifying the lamentation of the Egyptians ;
in allufion to the mourning for Jacob, Gen. i. 3, iq,
11. Suppofed to be near Hebron.
AsEL-Mofch, or Abelmufch, in Botany, the trivial
name of a fpecies of the Hibiscus.
AsEL-Sattijn, or Sittim, a town in the plains of Moab,
to the north-eafi: of the Dead Sea, not far from Jordan,
where the Ifraelites committed fornication with the
daughters of Moab: So called, probably, from the
great number of fittim trees there.
ABELARD, Peter, an eminent fcholaftic philo-
fopher of France, the fon of Berenger, of noble def-
cent, was born at Palais near Nantes in Bretagne, in
the year 1079. Abelard had received from nature a
vigorous and a£five mind; but it was his lot to live at
a period, when logic, metaphyfics, and polemic theo-
C 2 logy7
ABE [ i‘
logy conflituted a learned education, when abitrufe
fpeculations and verbal fubtleties occupied the ingenu¬
ity of literary men, and diftinguiihed talents for depu¬
tation led to honour and preferment. Devoted to let¬
ters by his father’s appointment, and by his own incli¬
nation, his literary attainments could at this time only
be exhibited in the field of fcholaftic philofophy ; and,
that he might be fitted for his deftined career of life,
he was placed, after a previous courfe of grammatical
Itudies, under the tuition of Rofceline, a celeorated
metaphyfieian, and founder of the fe£t of the Nomi-
nahfts. Under the inftru£fions of this able mailer, at
the early age of fixteen, he furnilhed himfell with a
large ftore of fcholaftic knowdedge, and acquired a
fubtlety and quicknefs of thought, a fluency of fpeech,
and facility of expreflion, wdiichwere neceliary qualifi¬
cations in fcholaftic deputation.
Having fpent fome time in vifiting the fchools of fe-
veral provinces, after the example of the ancient phi-
lofophers who travelled in fearch of wifdom, in the
twentieth year of his age, he fixed his refidence in the
imiverfity of Paris, then the firft feat of learning in
Europe. The mailer, William de Champeaux, was at
that time in high repute for his knowledge of philofo¬
phy, and his Ikill in the dialectic art; to him he com¬
mitted the dire£iion of his ftudies, and wras at firft con¬
tented with receiving inftruftion from fo eminent a
preceptor. De Champeaux wras proud of the talents
of his pupil, and admitted him to his friendlhip.. But
the afpiring youth ventured to contradict the opinions
of his mailer, and in the public fchool held deputations
with him, in which he wTas frequently viftorious.. The
iealoufy of the mailer and the vanity of the pupil na¬
turally occafioned a fpeedy feparation.
Elated by fuccefs, and confident of his own powers,
Abelard, without hefitation, at the age of twenty-two,
opened a public fchool of his own. “ I was young in¬
deed,” fays he, “ but confident of myfelf, my ambi¬
tion had no bounds : I afpired to the dignity of a pro-
fefibr, and only waited till I could fix on a proper
place to open my ledftures.” Melun, a town ten
leagues from Paris, where the court frequently refided,
wras the place which die chofe for this bold difplay of
his talents. But it was not without confiderable diffi¬
culty that Abelard executed his plan } for de Cham¬
peaux, who regarded him as a rival, openly employ¬
ed all his intereft againft him. Abelard at length
prevailed, his fchool wras opened, and his leisures wrere
attended by crowded and admiring auditories. Em¬
boldened by this fuccefs, and perhaps ftimulated by
unworthy refentment, Abelard refolved to maintain an
open conteft with his mafter, and for this purpofe re¬
moved his fchool to Corbeil near Paris. The difpu-
tants frequently met in each other’s fchools } and the
conteft wTas fupported on each fide with great fpirit,
amidft crowds of their refpeftive fcholars. The young
champion wras in the end victorious, and his antagonift
was obliged to retire.
Conftant application and violent exertions had now
fo far impaired Abelard’s health, that it wTas become
neceflary for him to interrupt his labours} and, with
the advice of his phyfician, he withdrew to his native
country. Two years afterwards, he returned to Cor¬
beil , and found that de Champeaux had taken the mo-
naftic habit among the regular canons in the convent
> ] A B E
of St Vi&or *, but that he ftill continued to teach rhe- Abelard
toric and logic, and to hold public diiputations in the- v—
ology. Returning to the charge, he renewed the con-
teft, and his opponent was obliged to acknowledge
himfelf defeated j and the fcholars of de Champeaux
deferted him, and went over in crowds to Abelard.
Even the new profeffor, who had taken the former
fchool of de Champeaux, voluntarily furrendered the
chair to the young philofopher, and requefted to be
enrolled among his difciples. A triumph fo complete,
while it gratified the vanity of Abelard, could not fail
to provoke the refentment of his old mafter, who had
influence to obtain the appointment of a new profeflbr,
and drive Abelard back to Melun. De Champeaux’s
motive for this violent proceeding was foon perceived j
even his friends were aftiamed of bis conduft and he
retired from the convent into the country. When A-.
belard was informed of the flight of his adverfary, he
returned towards Paris, and took a newr ftation at the
abbey on Mount St Genevieve. His rival, the new
profeffor, was unequal to the conteft, and w as foon
deferted by bis pupils, who flocked to the leftures of
Abelard. De Champeaux too, returning to his mo-
naftery, renewed the ftruggle; but fo unfuccefsiully,
that Abelard was again victorious.
During a ftiort abfence, in which Abelard vifited
his native place, de Champeaux wras preferred to the
fee of Chalons. The long and Angular conteft between
tbefe philofophers terminated j and Abelard, perhaps
for wTant of a rival to ftimulate bis exertions, or pofli-
bly through envy of the good fortune of bis rival, de¬
termined to exchange the ftudy and profeffion of phi¬
lofophy for that of theology. He therefore quitted his
fchool at St Genevieve, and removed to Laon, to be¬
come a fcholar of Anfelm. From, this celebrated ma¬
fter he entertained high expectations} but they were
foon difappointed. On attending his leCtures be found,
that, though he pofleffed uncommon fluency of lan-'
guage, he left bis auditors without inftruCtion. “ You
would have thought,” fays Abelard, “ he w^as kindling
a fire, when inftantly the whole houfe w'as filled with
fmoke, in which not a Angle fpark was yifible : he
was a tree covered with a thick foliage, which pleafed
the diftant eye ; but, on a nearer infpeCtion, .there
was no fruit to be found : I went up to this tree in full
expectation, but I faw that it was the fig-tree v hich tus
Lord had curfed.” (Rift. Calamity Abelard gra¬
dually retired from thefe unprofitable leCtures, but
without offering offence either to the veteran profeffor,
or his fcholars. In convcrfation one of them afked
him, what he thought of the ftudy of the Scriptures ?
Abelard replied, that he thought the explanation of
them a talk of no great difficulty j and, to prove his
affertion, he undertook to give a comment, the next
day, upon any part of the Scriptures they fhould men¬
tion. They fixed upon the beginning of the prophecy
of Ezekiel; and the next morning he explained the
paffage in a theological leClure, which was heard with
admiration. For feveral fucceffive days, the leClures
were, at the requeft of the audience continued 5 the
whole town prefled to hear them 5 and the name of
Abelard was echoed through the llreets of Laon. An-
felm, jealous of the rifing fame of this young theolo¬
gian, prohibited his kaures, under the pretence that
fo young a lecturer might fall into miftakes, which
4 u would
ABE [ 21 ] ABE
Abelard, tvo-uld bring difcredit upon his mafter. Abelard,
whofe ambition required a wider field than that of
Laon, obeyed the prohibition, and withdrew. He
returned to Paris, whither the fame of his theological
talents had arrived before him, and opened hi« fchool
with his lectures on the prophecy of Ezekiel. His au¬
ditors were delighted j his fchool was crowded with
fcholars j and he united in his lectures the fciences of
theology and philofophy with fo much fuccefs, that
multitudes repaired to his fchool from various parts of
France, from Spain, Italy, Germany, Flanders, and
Great Britain.
Hitherto Abelard has appeared with high diftinc-
tion, as an able difputant, and a popular preceptor :
we mult now view him under a difterent character,
and, when nearly arrived at the fober age of forty,
fee him, on a hidden, exchanging the fchool of philo¬
fophy for the bower of pleafure, and even difgracing
himfelf, as will too plainly appear in the fequel, by
forming and executing a deliberate plan for the feduc-
tion of female innocence. It happened that there wa§
at this time, refident in Paris, Heloife, the niece of
Fulbert, one of the canons of the cathedral church, a
lady about eighteen years of age, of great perfonal
beauty, and highly celebrated for her literary attain¬
ments. Abelard, whofe vanity had been fatiated with
fame, and the vigour of whofe mind was now ener¬
vated by repofe, found himfelf inclined to liften to the
voice of paffion. He beheld with ardent admiration
the lovely Heloife, and confident that his perfonal at-
tra6Hons vrere ftill irrefiftible, he determined to capti¬
vate her affections. Fulbert, who doubtlefs thought
Ijimfelf honoured by the vifits of fo eminent a fcholar
and philofopher, received him into his houfe as a learn¬
ed friend. He was foon afterwards prevailed upon,
by a handfome payment which Abelard offered for his
board, to admit him into his family 5 and, apprehend¬
ing no hazard from a man of Abelard’s age and pro-
feffion, confidentially requefted him to undertake the
inftruftion of Heloife. Abelard accepted the truft,
but, as it feems, without any other intention than to-
betray it. The hours of inllruflion were employed in
other leffons than thofe of learning and philofophy ;
and to fuch a mafter as Abelard, it was not furprifing
that Heloife was an apt fcholar. Fulbert’s refpeflful
opinion of the philofopher, and his partiality for his
niece, long concealed from him an amour, which was
become the fubjecl of general converfation. At length
the difeovery burft upon him like a clap of thunder.
Upon difeovering her pregnancy, it was thought ne-
ceffary for her to quit her uncle’s houfe, and Abelard
conveyed her to Bretagne, wdiere his filler was pre¬
pared to receive them. Here Heloife wTas delivered of
a fon, to whom they gave the whimfical name of Aftro-
labus. Abelard, upon the birth of the child, pro-
pofed to Fulbert to marry his niece, provided the mar¬
riage might be kept fecret : Fulbert confented, and
Abelard returned to Bretagne to fulfil his engagement.
Heloife, partly out of regard to the honour of ikbe-
lard, whofe profeffion bound him to celibacy, and
partly from, a romantic notion that love like hers ought
not to fubmit to ordinary reftraints, at firft gave Abe¬
lard a peremptory refufal. He, however, at laft pre-
vailed, and they wrere privately married at Paris. He-
loife from this time ttgvt with fevere treatment from
her uncle, which furnilhed Abelard with a plea for Abelard,'
removing her from his houfe, and placing her in the * 1
abbey of Benedidline nuns, in which flie had been
educated. Fulbert concluded, perhaps not without
reafon, that Abelard had taken this itep, in order to
rid himfelf of an incumbrance wdiich obftru&ed his fu¬
ture profpedts. Deep refentment took poffeflion of his
foul, and he meditated revenge. He employed feve-
ral ruffians to enter his chamber by night, and inflift
upon his perfon a difgraceful and cruel mutilation.
The deed was perpetrated ; the ruffians were taken,
and fuffered, according to the Lex TalLtm, the pu-
niffiment they had infiicled ; and Fulbert, for his fa-
vage revenge, was deprived of his benefice, and his
goods were confifcated. Unable to fupport his morti¬
fying reflexions, Abelard refolved to retire to a con¬
vent. At the fame time he formed the felfiffi refolu-
tion, that, fince Heloife could no longer be his, Ihe
fhould never be another’s, and ungeneroufly demanded
from her a promife to devote herfelf to religion} and
even infilled upon her taking the holy vow before him,
fufpeXing, as it feems, that if he firft engaged himfelf, •
fhc might violate her promife, and return to the wmrld;
a circumftance, with which ffie afterwards thus ten¬
derly reproached him : “ In that one inftance, I con-
fefs, your miftruff of me tore my heart; Abelard, I
blulhed for you.” Fleloife fubmitted to the harffi in-
junXion, profeffed herfelf in the abbey of Argenteuil,-
and receiving the religious habit, exclaimed in the
words of Cornelia :
     — 0 maxime conjux /
0 thalamis indigne meis ! hoc juris hahebat
In tantum fortuna caput ? cur impia nupfi.
Si miferum faBura fui ? nunc accipe pesnas,
Sed quas fpante luam. Lucan.
“ Ah ! my once greateft lord ! Ah ! cruel hour !
Is thy viXorious head in Fortune’s pow’r i
Since miferies my baneful love purfue,
Why did I wed thee, only, to undo ?
But fee, to death my willing neck I bowT $
Atone the angry gods by one kind blow7.” Rowe,
A few days after Heloife had taken her vowrs, Abe¬
lard affumed the monaftic habit in the abbey of St De¬
nys, determined as it feems to forget, in hope of being
forgotten by, the world. However, his admirers and
fcholars in Paris were unwilling that the world ffiould
lofe the benefit of his labours, and fent deputies to en¬
treat him to return to his fchool. After fome delibe¬
ration, he again yielded to the call of ambition 5 and
at a fmall village in the country, he refumed his lec¬
tures, and foon found himfelf furrounded with a nume¬
rous train of fcholars. The revival of his popularity
renewed the jealoufy of other profeffors, who took the
firfl: opportunity of bringing him under ecclefiaftical
cenfure. A treatife which he publiffied at this time,
entitled, “ The Theology of Abelard,” was fuppofed -
to contain fome heretical tenets. A fynod was called
at Soifibns in the year 11 z 1 5 the work was condemned
to be burnt, and Abelard was commanded to throw it-
into the flames. After being involved in other con-
troverfies, new charges were brought againft him, and
he fled to the convent of St Ayoul at Provins in Cham¬
pagne, the prior of which was his intimate friend.
The place of diis ret;cat was foon difsovered, and
threat*
ABE
[ 22 ] ABE
‘Abelard, threats and petfualions were in vain employed to re-
cal him : at lafl he obtained permiflion to retire to
fome folitary retreat, on condition that he fhould never
again become a member of a convent.
The fpot which he chofe was a vale in the foreil
of Champagne, near Nogent upon the Seine. Here
Abelard, in 1122, ere6ted a fmall oratory, which he
dedicated to the Trinity, and which he afterwards en¬
larged and confecrated to the Third Perfon, the Com¬
forter, or Paraclete. Here he was foon difcovered,
and followred by a train of fcholars. A ruftic college
arofe in the foreft, and the number of his pupils foon
increafed to fix hundred. Jealoufy again provoked the
exertions of his enemies, and he was meditating his ef-
cape, when, through the intereft of the duke of Bre¬
tagne, and with the confent of the abbot of St Denys,
he was defied fuperior of the monaftery of St Gildas,
“in the diocefe of Vannes, where, though not without
frequent and grievous vexations, he remained feveral
years.
About this time, Suger the abbot of St Denys, on
the plea of an ancient right, obtained a grant for an¬
nexing the convent of Argenteuil, of which Heloife
was now priorefs, to St Denys, and the nuns, wTho
were accufed of irregular practices, were difperfed.
Abelard, informed of the diftreffed fituation of Heloife,
invited her, with her companions, eight in number, to
take poffelTion of the Paraclete.
It was during Abelard’s refidence at St Gildas, that
the interefting correfpondence pafied between him and
Heloife, which is ftill extant. The letters of Heloife,
in this correfpondence, abound with proofs of genius,
learning, and tafte, which might have graced a better
age. It is upon thefe letters that Mr Pope has formed
his “ Epiftle from Eloifa to Abelard 5” a piece, which
is entitled to the higheft praife for its poetical merit,
but which deviates in many particulars from the ge¬
nuine charafler and ftory of Heloife, and culpably vio¬
lates moral propriety. Here, too, Abelard probably
wrote his “ Theology,” which again fubjefted him to
perfecution. His opinions were pronounced heretical
by a council} and although he appealed to Rome, the
judgment of the council was confirmed by the pope 5
/ and he was fentenced, unheard, to perpetual filence and
imprifonment. By the interpofition of fome friends,
howrever, and by a fubmiflive apology, he obtained his
pardon, with permiffion to end his days in the mona¬
ftery of Cluni.
At Cluni he was retired, ftudious, and devout. The
monks of the convent importuned him to refume the
bufinefs of inftrudlion. In a few occafional efforts he
complied with their folicitation •, and his ledlures were
heard with undiminifhed applaufe. But his health and
fpirits were much enfeebled, and gradually declined
till he died in the 63d year of his age, A. D. 1142. His
body was fent to Heloife to be interred in the convent
of the Paraclete. Heloife furvived her hufband 21
years, a pattern of conjugal affedtion, and monaftic
virtue ; and was buried in the fame grave, as appears
ihy the following epitaph :
Hie,
Sub eoclem mar more, jacenl
Hujus MonaJIerii
Condi tor, Petrus Ahelardus,
Et abbatijpx prime, He/oifa, Abel,
01 bn Jludiis, ingenio, infaujiis nuptiis Abelian*,
Et pcenitentia, 1—
isunc etterna, ut fperamus, felicitate,
ConjunBi.
Petrus obiit 21 Apr ills tixz,
Heldifa 17 Mail 1163.
The amour, which has given Abelard fo much cele¬
brity, will remain an eternal blot upon his memory.
It was not a juvenile indiferetion of which Abelard
was guilty, but, according to his own confeffion, the
fedudlion of innocence, deliberately planned, and re-
fblutely executed. It was accompanied with breach
of confidence, violation of duty, and degradation of'
character. Except in the grant of the Paraclete as an
afylum to Heloife and her fifterhood, an uniform felf-
iftmefs appears in Abelard’s conduel. In Heloife, the
criminality, though not obliterated, was palliated by
youthful ardour and inexperience ; and extreme fenfi-
bility, romantic attachment, noble generofity, and dif-
interefted invincible conftancy, united to throw a veil
over human frailty. Confidered apart from this dif- f
graceful affair, Abelard appears with more advantage.
His writings, indeed, will not give the reader a high
idea of his genius or tafte : but it cannot be queftion-
ed, that the man who could foil the firft mafters of the
age at the weapons of logic, could draw round him
crowded and admiring auditories, and could collect
fcholars from different provinces and countries where-
ever he chofe to form a fchool, muft have poffeffed ex¬
traordinary talents. Had his love of truth been equal
to his third; of fame, and had his courage in adhering to
his principles been equal to his ingenuity in defending
them, his fufferings and perfections might have ex¬
cited more regret, and his title to honourable remem¬
brance would have been better eftablilhed. - Upon the
whole, of Abelard it may perhaps with truth be faid,
that he was too vain to be truly great, and too felfilh
to be eminently good, and that his character is rather
adapted to excite admiration than to command refpe<ft.
His principal works, written in Latin, are, “ A»
Addrefs to the Paraclete on the Study of the Scrip¬
tures ; Problems and Solutions 5 Sermons on the Fefti-
vals ; A Treatife againft Herefies ; An Expofition of
the Lord’s Prayer •, A Commentary on the Romans 5
A Syftem of Theology ^ and his Letters to Heloife
and to others.” [Gen. Biogi)
ABEL tree, or Abele tree, an obfolete name
for a fpecies of the poplar. See Pop ulus. Botany-
Index.
ABELIANS, Abeolites, or Abelonians, in
Church Hi/lory, a fed of heretics mentioned by St Au-
ftin, which arofe in the diocefe of Hippo in Africa,
and is fuppofed to have begun in the reign of Arca-
dius, and ended in that of Theodofius. Indeed it was
not calculated for being of any long continuance.
Thofe of this feft regulated marriage after the example
of Abel 5 who, they pretended, was married, but died
without ever having known his wife. They therefore
allowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined
them to live in continence ; and, to keep up the feft,
when a man and woman entered into this fociety, they
adopted a boy and a girl, who were to inherit their
goods, and to marry upon the fame terms of not be¬
getting
ABE [ 23 ] ABE
Abella getting children, but of adopting two of different
H fexes.
thick°" ABELLA, anciently a town of Campania, near the
1 river Clanius. The inhabitants were called Abellani,
and faid to have been a colony of Chalcidians. The
nux Avellana, called alfo Prcene/lina, or the ha%el nut,
takes its name from this town, according to Macrobius.
Now Avella.
ABELLINUM, anciently a town of the Hirpini,
a people of Apulia 5 diftant about a mile from the ri¬
vulet Sabatto, between Beneventum and Salernum.
Pliny calls the inhabitants Abellinates, with the epithet
Protopi, to diltinguiih them from the Abellinates Marfi.
Wow Awl lino. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 210.
ABEN EZRA, Abraham, a celebrated rabbi, bom
at Toledo in Spain, called by the Jews, The wife, great,
and admirable Doftor, was a very able interpreter of
the Holy Scriptures } and was well fkilled in grammar,
poetry, philofophy, aftronomy and medicine. He was
alfo a perfeft mafter of the Arabic. His principal
work is, “ Commentaries on the Old Teftament,” which
is much efteemed : thefe are printed in Bomberg’s and
Buxtorf’s Hebrew Bibles. His ftyle is clear, elegant,
concife, and much like that of the Holy Scriptures :
he almoft always adheres to the literal fenfe, and every¬
where gives proofs of his genius and good fenfe : he,
however, advances fome erroneous fentiments. The
fcarceft of all his books is entitled “ Jefud Mora which
is a theological work, intended as an exhortation to the
ftudy of the Talmud. He alfo wrote Elegantice Gram¬
matics, printed in oftavo at Venice in 1548. He
died in 1174, aged 75.
Aben Melles., a learned rabbin, who wrote a com¬
mentary on the Old Tellament in Hebrew, entitled,
‘‘'The Perfection of Beauty.” This rabbin generally fol¬
lows the grammatical fenfe and the opinions of Kimchi.
The belt edition is that of Holland.
ABENAS, a town of France, in Languedoc and in
the Lower Vivarais, feated on the river Ardefch, at the
foot of the Cevennes. E. Long. 4. 43. N. Lat. 44. 40.
ABENEL gauby, a fixed ftar of the fecond or-
third magnitude, in the fouth fcale of the conftellation
Libra.
ABENSPERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle and duchy of Bavaria, and in the government of
Munich. It is feated on the river Abentz, near the
Danube. E. Long. 11. 38. N. Lat. 48. 45.
ABERAVON, a borough town of Glamorganlhire.
in Wales, governed by a portreeve. It had a market,
which is now difcontinued. The vicarage is difcharged,
and is worth 45I. clear yearly value. It is feated at
the mouth of the river Avon, 194 miles weft of Lon-.
dk>n. W. Long. 3. zi. N. Lat. 51. 40.
ABERBROTHICK, or Arbroath, one of the
royal boroughs of Scotland, fituated in the county of
Angus, about 40 miles N. N. E. of Edinburgh, in
W. Long. 2. 29. and N. Lat. 56. $6; It is feat¬
edon the difcharge of the little river Brothic into the
fea, as the name imports, Aber in the Britifti implying
fuch a fituation. It is a fmall but flourilhing place,
well built, and ftill increafing. The town has been in
an improving ftate for the laft forty years, and the
number of inhabitants greatly augmented j which is
owing to the introduction of manufactures. The po¬
pulation in 1801 was above 7000. The inhabitants
1
confiil chiefly of weavers of coarfe brown linens, and Abercon-
fome fail-cloth j others are employed in making white .,way’
and coloured threads: the remainder are either en- D^rora-
gaged in the (hipping of the place, or in the neceffary . , V ,.
and common mechanic trades. The brown linens, or
Ofnaburgs, were manufactured here before any encou¬
ragement was given by government, or the linen com¬
pany ereCted at Edinburgh. It appears from the books
of the ftamp-office in this town, that feven or eight
hundred thoufand yards are annually made in the place,
and a fmall diftriCt round. Befides this export and
that of thread, much barley and fome wheat is fent
abroad. The foreign imports are flax, flax-feed, and
timber, from the Baltic. The coafting trade confifts
of coals from Borrowftounnefs, and lime from Lord
Elgin’s kilns in Fife. At this place, in default of a
natural harbour, a tolerable artificial one of piers has
been formed, where, at fpring tides, which rife here fif¬
teen feet, (hips of two hundred tons can come, and of
eighty at neap tides ; but they muft lie dry at low iva-
ter. This port is of great antiquity : there is an agree¬
ment yet extant between the abbot and tbe burghers of
Aberbrothick, in 1194, concerning the making of the-
harbour. Both parties were bound to contribute their
proportions; but the largeft fell to the (hare of the
former, for which he was to receive- an annual tax pay¬
able out of every rood. of land lying within the bo¬
rough. The glory of this place was the abbey, whofe
very ruins give fome idea of its former magnificence.
It was founded by William the Lion in 1178, and de¬
dicated to our celebrated primate Thomas a Becket.
The founder was buried there ; but there are no re¬
mains of his tomb, or any other, excepting that of a
monk of the name of Alexander Nicol. The monks
were of the Tyronenfian order 5 and were firft brought
from Kelfo, whofe abbot declared thofe of this place,
on the firft inftitution, to be free from his jurifdiCtion. .
The laft abbot was the famous Cardinal Beaton, at the
fame time archbilhop of St Andrew’s, and, before his
death, as great and abfolute. here as Wolfey was in
England. King John, the Englifti monarch, granted
this monaftery moft uncommon privileges j for, by
charter under the great feal, he exempted it a teloniis et
confuetudine in every part of England, except London.
At Aberbrothick is a chalybeate water, fimilar to thofe
of Peterhead and Glendye.
ABERCONWAY, or Conway, Caemarvonfliire,
North Wales 5 fo called from its fituation at the
mouth of the river Conway. It is a handfome town,
pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill, and’has many
conveniences for trade 5 notwithftanding which it is
the pooreft town in the county. It was built by Ed¬
ward I. and had not only walls, but a ftrong caftle
which is now in ruins. Here* is an infeription on the
tomb of one Nicholas Hooks, importing that he was
the one-and-fortieth child of his father, and had twen- -
ty-feven children himfelf. It is 229 miles from Lon¬
don. W. Long. 3. 47. N. Lat. 53. 20.
ABERCROMBY, The Honourable Alexan¬
der (Lord Abercromby), a judge in the courts of fef-
fion and judiciary in Scotland, was the youngeft fon of
George Abercromby, of Tullibody, E^. of a refpec-
table family in Clackmannanlhire, and was bom on
the 15th O&ober 1745. Mr Abercromby was early
ftdlined for the prokflion,. of the law, and with this
ABE [ 24 ] ABE
Abercmm-^view.lie was educated at the univerfity of Edinburgh,
by> Tvhere he pafled through the requiiite courfe of lan-
v~w guages, philofophy, and law, and was admitted .advo¬
cate in the year 1766 : but neither during the time of
his education, or for fome years after he entered his
profeffional career, did he give much promife of
thofe eminent abilities and that afliduous application
which afterwards diftinguifhed him as a pleader and a
judge. The vivacity of his difpofition, and the
fprightlinefs of his manners, led him to prefer the
gayer amufements of life, and the fociety of men of
fafhion and pleafure, to the arduous profecution of phi-
lofophical ftudies, and to the lefs inviting and more
barren paths of legal diiqtiifitions. When, however,
either during his academical courfe, or the fir ft years
of his practice at the bar, occafions required the exer¬
tion of his talents, the quicknefs of his perception, and
the acutenefs and ftrength of his underftanding, enabled
him to difplay fuch powers of attention and applica¬
tion to bufinefs as are feldom acquired but by regular
and uniform habits of induftry, and by the force of
conftant application. But, to attain that diftinction
and eminence to which he afpired, and to fecure that
independence which the patrimony of a younger fon
of a family, more refpeftable than opulent, could not
afford him, he found it necefiary to withdraw from
thofe fcenes of amufement and pleafure, and to feclude
himfelf from that fociety which his gaiety and agree¬
able manners had enlivened and entertained, and to
think ferioufly of applying to the labours of his profef-
fion. With much credit to himfelf, and with undimi-
nifhed vigour of mind, he threw off the chara&er of
the man of faihion, and devoting his time and talents
to the toilfome detail of bufinefs as a lawyer, by his
fuccefsful efforts he foon gave folid proofs of the di¬
ftinguifhed abilities which he poffeffed. About this
time, he was engaged as counfel in a caufe in which
jrablic curiofity and opinion were much interefted and
•divided. This caufe, which was of a very intricate
nature, afforded an opportunity of making a more emi¬
nent difplay of his profeffional talents. By a fpeech
which he delivered on this occafion, confpicuous for
accurate difcrimination, ftrength of argument, and im-
preffive eloquence, he gave a favourable prefage of his
future celebrity. The marks of approbation which he
now received probably taught him to appreciate thofe
talents which had hitherto remained concealed or un¬
employed, and encouraged him to call them forth in-
Jo exertion.
In 1780, Mr Abercromby refigned the office of
fheriff-depute of Stklingfhire, which he had held for
feveral years, and accepted of that of depute-advocate,
with the hope of extending his employment in the line
of his profeffion. In this ftep he was not difappoint-
ed ; for his reputation and bufinefs rapidly increafed,
and foon raifed him to the firft rank of lawyers at the
Scotch bar. In the midft of the laborious duties of
his profeffion, Mr Abercromby did not entirely pre¬
clude himfelf from indulging in the elegant amufe¬
ments of polite literature. He was one of that fo¬
ciety wTho let on foot two periodical papers, the Mirror
and Lounger, publiffied at Edinburgh 5 the former in
1779, and the latter in 1785. To the Mirror he con¬
tributed ten papers, and to the Lounger nine. The
of the authors have been publilhed in the late
Z
editions of thefe works, which renders it unneceflitryAbercrotu-
to point out thofe papers of which Mr Abercromby
was the author. x v
In May 1792, he was appointed one of the judges
of the .court of feffion, and in December following he
was'Called to .a feat in the court of jufticiary. Lord
Abercromby continued to difeharge the arduous du¬
ties of thefe important offices till fummer 1795, when
he was feized with a pe&oral complaint, of which he .
died on the 17th November the fame year, at Ex¬
mouth in Devonfliire, where he had gone for the re¬
covery of his health.
As a lawyer, Lord Abercromby had acquired great
reputation. His papers on law-cafes' were diftinguiffi-
ed for precifion and perfpicuity. His fpeeches were
elegant, animated, and eloquent. With the moft pa¬
thetic feeling he pled the caufe of the unfortunate y
while he could affume the fevere tone of virtuous in¬
dignation in rebuking injuftice and oppreffion. With
fuch qualifications, added to the ftridleft attention and
punctuality, he could not fail to become an able and
refpe&able judge. In this high ftation, his deport¬
ment was grave, dignified, and decided. His elocu¬
tion was folemn and deliberate ; and his opinions, de¬
livered in this manner, had an impreffive effedl. A-
voiding a detail of circumft&nces, and never arguing
the caufe as a lawyer, he pronounced with brevity and
precifion the opinion of a judge drawn from its ftriking
and prominent features. His only writings are the
papers in the periodical publications already alluded
to. They are marked by an eafy turn of expreffion,
manly and virtuous • fentiments, and, when the fub-
je& required it, by delicate irony or unaffeded tender-
nefs. {Phi/. Tranf. Edin.')
Abercromby, Sir Ralph, knight of the Bath,
and a lieutenant-general in the Britiffi army, an elder
brother of the preceding, wus born in the year 1738.
Being deftined for the army, he obtained, in May
1756, a cornet’s commiffion in the 2d dragoon guards j
and rofe, April 24. 1762, to the rank of a captain ia
the 3d regiment of horfe. Afcending through the in¬
termediate gradations of rank, he wTas appointed, No-'
vember 3. 1781, to the colonelcy of the 103d infan¬
try. September 28. 1787, he was promoted to the
rank of major-general. November 5. 1795, he ob¬
tained the command of the 7th regiment of dragoons.
Having been nearly 40 years in the army, having-
ferved with honour in two wars, and being efteemea
one of the ableft, cooleft, and moft intrepid officers in
the whole Britifh forces, he was employed on the con¬
tinent under his royal highnefs the duke of York, in
the commencement of the prefent war. In the addion
on the heights of Cateau, he commanded the advanced
guard $ and was wounded at Nimeguen. He con-
dufted the march of the guards from Deventer to 01-
denfaal, in the retreat of the Britiffi out of Holland, in
the winter of 1794-5. In Auguft 1795, he was ap¬
pointed to fucceed Sir Charles Grey, as commander in
chief of the Britiffi forces in the Weft Indies. March
24. 1796, Grenada was fuddenly attacked and taken
by a detachment of the army under his orders. He
afterwards obtained poffeffion of the fettlements of De-
marara and Ifiequibo, in South America. St Lucia
was next taken by more difficult exertions, in which
the ability ©f this eminent commander was fignally dif-.
played.
ABE F 2? ] ABE
•Abefcfonv played. St Vincent’s was, by the middle of June, ad-
by- ded to the BritiFh conquefts. Trinidad, in February
J‘797> fliared the fame fate. He returned the fame
year to Europe, and, in reward for fuch important fer-
vices, was invefted with the red ribbon, appointed to
the command of the regiment of Scots Greys, entruft-
ed with the governments of the Ifle of Wight, Fort
George, and Fort Auguftus, and raifed to the high mi¬
litary rank of lieutenant-general. He held, for a
time, the chief command of the forces in Ireland. In
that command, he laboured to maintain the difcipline
of the army, to fupprefs the rifing rebellion, and to
prote& the people from military oppreflion, with a care
worthy alike of the great general and the enlightened
and beneficent ftatefman. From that ftation he was
called to the chief command of the forces in Scotland.
His conduct in this diftinguilhed appointment gave
univerfal fatisfaftion. When the great enterprife
againft Holland was refolved upon, Sir Ralph Aber-
cromby was called again to command, under his royal
highnefs the duke of York. The difficulties of the
ground, the inclemency of the feafon, delays, though
inconvenient, yet unavoidable, the diforderly move¬
ments of the Ruffians, and the timid duplieity of the
Dutch, difappointed our hopes of that expedition.
But, by the Dutch, the French, the Britifh, it was
ootifeffed, that even viftory, the moft decifive, could
not have more confpicuoufly proved the talents of this
illuftrious officer. His country applauded the choice,
when he was fent with an army to difpolfefs the French
of Egypt. His experience in Holland and Flanders,
and in the climate of the Weft Indies particularly, fit¬
ted him for this new command. He accompliffied
fome of the firft duties of a general, in carrying his ar¬
my in health, in fpirits, and with the requifite intelli¬
gence and fupplies, to the deftined fcene of adlion*
The landing, the firft difpolitions, the attacks, and the
courage oppofed to attack, the fpirit writh which his
army appears to have been by confidence in their lead¬
er infpired, the extraordinary fuperiority which the
Britifti infantry under his command evinced to that
which was thought the braveft and beft difciplined in¬
fantry in the world, demonftrate that all the beft
qualities of the greateft commanders were in Sir
Ralph Abercromby united—that they were all fum-
moped forth into activity, in the glorious achieve¬
ments amid which he fell.—-In his private charadter he
was modeft, difinterefted, benevolent, and honourable.
General Lord Hutchinfon, who fucceeded him in the
command, in the difpatches with the account of his
death, has given a fine eulogium on his character as a
foldier, and ftrongly expreffive of the high eftimation in
which he was held by the army.—We'have fuftain-
*d an irreparable lofs in the perfon of our never fuffi-
-.ciently to be lamented commander in chief, Sir Ralph
Abercromby, who was mortally wounded in the ac¬
tion, and died on the 28th of March. I believe he
•was wounded early, but he concealed his fituation from
thofe about him, and continued in the field, giving his
•orders with that coolnefs and perfpicuity which had
ever marked his character, till long after the aftion
was over, when he fainted through weaknefs and lols
of blood. Were it permitted for a foldier to regret
any one who has fallen in the fervice of his country,
I might be excufed for lamenting him more than any
Vol. I. Part I. 6
other perfon ; but it is fome confolation to thofe who Aberdeen,
tenderly loved him, that, as his life was honourable, fo ■v'"*—
was his death glorious. His memory will be record¬
ed in. the annals of his country—will be facred to eve¬
ry Britiffi foldier—and embalmed in the recolleftion
of a grateful pofterity.” His remains were convey¬
ed on board Admiral Lord Keith’s flag (hip to Malta,
attended by Colonel Sir John Dyer, and were interred
in the commandery of the Grand Matter, with the
higheft military honours.
A monument to his memory, to he erefted in St
Paul’s church, London, at the public expence, was vo¬
ted by the houfe of commons. His widow has been
created a peerefs, and a penfion of -2000I. a-year for
her and three lives fettled on the family. {Gent. Mag-.')
ABERDEEN, the name of two cities in Scotland,
called the Old and New Town, fituated on the German
ocean, in W. Long. 2. 8. and N. Lat. ST
Aberdeen, Old, is a place of great antiquity.
According to tradition, it was of note in the reign of
Gregory, who conferred on it fome privileges about
the year 893. In 1004, Malcolm II. founded a bi-
ftiopric at a place called Mortlich in Banffshire, in
memory of a fignal vitftory which he there gained over
the Danes : which biffiopric was tranflated to Old A-
berdeen by David I. ; and in 1163, the then biffiop of
Aberdeen obtained a new charter from Malcolm IV.
There is extant a charter of Alexander II. by which,
in 1217, the king grants to Aberdeen the fame privi¬
leges he had granted to his town of Perth-.
The Old Town lies about a mile to the north of the
New, at the mouth of the river Don, over which is a
fine Gothic bridge, of a Angle arch, greatly admired-,
which refts on a rock on each fide. This arch,
faid to have been built by a bifkop of Aberdeen about
the year 1290, is 67 feet wide at the bottom, and 34^
feet high above die furface of the river, which at ebb
tide is here 19 feet deep. The Old Town was formerly
the feat of the biffiop, and had a large cathedral com¬
monly called St Mach dr's* Two very antique fpires,
•and one aifle, which is ufed as a church, are now the
only remains of it. The biftiopric was founded in the
time of David I. as above mentioned. The cathedral
had anciently two rows of flone pillars acrofs the
church, and three turrets } the fteeple, which was the
largeft of thefe turrets, refted upon an arch, fupported
by four pillars. In this cathedral there was a fine li¬
brary 5 but about the year 1560, it was almoft totally
deftroyed. But the capital building is the King’s Col¬
lege on the fouth fide of the town, which is a- large and
ftately fabric. It is built in form of a fquare, with cloi-
fters on the fouth fide. The chapel is very ruinous with¬
in s but there ft ill remains fome wood work of exquifite
workmanffiip. This was preferved by the fpirit of the
principal at the time of the Refonnation, who armed
his people and checked the blind zeal of the barons of
the Mearns j who, after ftripping the cathedral of its
roof, and robbing it of the bells, were going to violate
this feat of learning. They (hipped their facrilegious
booty, with an intention of expofing it to fale in Hol¬
land : but the veffel had fcarcely gone out of port,
when it periffied in a ftorm with all its ill-gained lad¬
ing. The fteeple is vaulted with a double crofs arch 5
above which is an imperial crown, fupported by eight
(tone pillars, and doled with a globe and two gilded
D croffes.
ABE [ 26 ] ABE
Aberdeen, croffes. In the year 1651 this fleeple was thrown
' down by a ftorm, but was foon after rebuilt in a more
ftately form. This college was founded in 1494, by
William Elphinfton bifhop of this place, lord chancel¬
lor of Scotland in the reign of James III. and lord
privy feal in that of James IV. But James IV. claimed
the patronage of it, and it has fince been called the
King's College. This college, and the Marifchal Col¬
lege in the New Town, form one univerflty, called the
Vniverjity of King Charles. The library is large, but
not remarkable for many curiofities. Heftor Boethius
Was the firft principal of the college j and fent for from
Paris for that purpofe, on an annual falary of forty
merks Scots, at thirteen pence each. The fquare tower
on the fide of the college was built by contributions
from General Monk and the officers under him then
quartered at Aberdeen j for the reception of ftudents 5
of which about a hundred attend the college, many of
whom lodge in it.
Aberdeen, New, is the capital of the (hire of A-
berdeen. For extent, trade, and beaqty, it greatly
exceeds any town in the north of Scotland. It is built
on a hill or riling ground, and lies on a fmall bay
formed by the Dee, deep enough for a fhip of 200 tons,
and above two miles in circumference—The buildings
(which are of granite from the neighbouring quarries)
are generally four ftories high ; and have, for the mod
part, gardens behind them, which give it a beautiful
appearance. On the high flreet is a large church which
formerly belonged to the Francifcans. This church
was begun by Bifhop William Elphinfton j and finifli-
ed by Gavin Dunbar, bifhop of Aberdeen, about the
1500. Bifhop Dunbar is faid likewife to have built
the bridge over the Dee, Which confifts of feven
arches. In the middle of Caftle-ftreet is an odagon
building, -with neat bas-relievos of the kings of Scot¬
land from James I. to James VII. The town-houfe
makes a good figure, and has a handfome fpire in the
centre. The grammar fchool is a low but neat build¬
ing. Gordon’s hofpital is handfome ; in front is a good
flatue of the founder : it maintains forty boys, who are
* apprenticed at proper ages. The infirmary is a large
plain building, and fends out between eight and nine
hundred cured patients annually. But the chief pub*
lie building in the New Town is the Marifchal Col¬
lege, founded by George Keith earl Marifchal, in the
year 1593 ; but fince greatly augmented with addi¬
tional buildings. There are about 140 ftudents be¬
longing to it. In both the Marifchal and King’s col¬
lege the languages, mathematics, natural philofophy,
divinity, &c. are taught by very able profeffors. The
convents in Aberdeen were : One of Mathurines or of
the order of the Trinity, founded by William the
i.ion, who died in 1214; another of Dominicans, by
Alexander II. ; a third of Obfervantines, a building
of great length in the middle of the city, founded by
the citizens and Mr Richard Vans, &c. j and a fourth
of Carmelites, or White Friars, founded by Philip de
Arbuthnot in 1540.
Aberdeen, including the Old Town, is fuppofed to
contain 25,000 inhabitants. Its trade is confiderable,
but might be greatly extended by an attention to the
white fifheries.
The harbour was long a great detriment to its trade,
and occafioned the lofs of many lives and much pro¬
perty. A ftranger could never depend upon finding it
as he left it} while veffels lay at anchor in the road till Abenleem
the tide fhould make, they have often been wrecked by 1 v~—'
ftorms which fuddenly arofe. It was very narrow at
the mouth, having the eafterly rocky point of the
Grampian mountains on the fouth, and a flat blowing
fand on the north,' extending along the coaft for many
miles. By the eafterly and north-eaft ftorms the fand.
was driven in a long ridge acrofs the harbour’s mouth,
and formed what wras called the har.^ Upon this bar
the depth of water at low tide was fometimes not above
three feet. Clearing away the fand, though but a par¬
tial and temporary remedy, wus a matter of great ex¬
pence to the community. If it was cleared one %veek
fo as to have five or fix feet of wrater at ebb, a frefh
ftorm the next week undid all that had been done. The,
town at lafi: came to the refolution of ere&ing a ftrong
pier on the north fide of the harbour. This pier is
I2CO feet in length, and gradually increafes ip thick-
nefs and height as it approaches to the fea, wdiere the
head or rounding is 60 feet diameter at the bafe, and
the perpendicular elevation is 38 feet. The wEole is
built of granite, which is a very durable ftone : many
of the outfide ftenes are above three tons weight, with
hewn beds. It was built under the direftion of Me
Smeaton; and the expence, amounting to above
17,000!. is .defrayed by doubling the harbour dues,
which are chiefly paid by the inhabitants.
A little to the fouth of the bar, they have now a
depth of 17 fathoms at low water ; and at the har¬
bour’s mouth, from eight to nine fathoms, where they
had formerly but a few feet.
Aberdeen once enjoyed a good (hare of the tobacco
trade. At prefent, its imports are from the Baltic •, and
a few merchants trade to the Weft Indies and North
America. Its exports are ftockings, thread, falmon,
and oatmeal. The firfl: is a moft important article, as
appears by the following ftate of it : For this ma-
nufa&ure, 20,Bool, worth of wool is annually im¬
ported, and 1600I. worth of oil. Of this wool are
annually made 69,333 dozen pairs of dockings^
worth, at an average, il. 10s. per dozen. Thefe
are the work of the country people in almoft all parts
of this great county, who get 4s. per dozen for fpin-
ning, and 14s. per dozen- for knitting \ fo that there
is annually paid them 62,329!. 14s. There is, befides,.
about 2000I. value of ftockings manufaftuted from the
wool of the county. The thread manufacture is ano¬
ther confiderable article, though trifling in companion
of the wmollen. The falmon filheries on the Dee and
the Don are a good branch of trade. About 46 boats
and 130 men are employed on the firfl: j and in feme
years 167,0001b. of filh have been fent pickled to
London, and about 930 barrels of faked fifh exported
to France, Italy, &c.—The filhery on the Don is far
lefs confiderable. The filh of this river are taken in
cruives above the bridge \ a praftice contrary to the
ancient law's of the kingdom, unlefs where the nature
of the water rendered the net filhery impracticable.
The inhabitants likewife export confiderable quantities
of pickled pork, which they fell to the Dutch for
vidtualling their Eaft India Ihips and men of wTar j
the Aberdeen pork having the reputation of being the
belt cured of any in Europe for keeping on long
voyages.
“ It is however remarkable, Mr Knox obferves,
that there is not a Angle decked veffel fitted put from
Aberdeen
A B E
[
A.bet3een- Aberdeen fertile herring or white fitheries; where is now
ihuc. an excellent harbour, an aftive people, converfant in
-J tra(je^ ancj pofl'effed of capital ■, feated within fix hours
failing of Long Fortys, and two days failing of the
Shetland ifies. " This inattention is the more extraor¬
dinary, as the exports of Aberdeen, though very con-
fiderabie, do not balance the imports in value. The
herring and wThite fifheries, therefore, if profecuted
with vigour, and cured and dried with judgment, ivould
not only extend the fcale of exports, but alio furniih
the outward bound veffels with freights, and better ai-
fortments for the foreign markets. The falmon of the
Dee and Don are taken in great abundance, cured in
the higheil perfection, and greatly valued at the Eu¬
ropean markets. If the merchants, in addition to thefe,
Should alfo export the cargoes of 50 or 60 vefiels con-
(lantly employed in the herring and white fifheries, the
port of Aberdeen would in a few years become the
tnoft celebrated mart of fith now exifting,”
From a round hill at the weft end of the city, flow
two fprings, one of pure water, and the other of a
quality refembling the German Spa. Aberdeen, with
Aberbrothick, Brechin, Montrofe, and Inverbervy, re¬
turns one member to parliament.
ABERDEENSHIRE, an extenfive county in Scot¬
land, is bounded on the north and eaft by the German
ocean; on the fouth by the counties of Kincardine,
Angus, and Perth *, and on the weft by Banff, Mur¬
ray, and Invernefs {hires. It extends in length about
90 miles, from fouth-weft to north-eaft, and about 46
in breadth, from the mouth of the river Dee to where
St is bounded by the {hire of Banff. Its extent in
fquare miles maybe eftimated at 1170. It compre¬
hends the diltriCts of Marr, Garioch, Aberdeen Pro¬
per, and great part of Buchan. The diftriCt of Marr,
which may be confidered as the centre of Scotland,
is wild, rugged, and mountainous ; fome of the hills
riling with precipitous {ides, to the height ot 2000
feet above the level of the fea. The tides of the hills
are covered with extenfive natural forefts; in many
places impenetrable to human footfteps. Buchan is lefs
hilly j but very barren, bleak, and inhofpitable to the
view. The reft of the country is more fertile, having
a gradual defeent from the central diltriCt eaftward, to
the fea. The coaft is in general very bold and rocky.
The Boilers or Bullers of Buchan, arreft the attention
of all ftrangers, by their ftupendcus craggy precipices.
The foil, an fo extenfive a diftrhft, is as various as can
be well fuppofed. The ftate of agriculture in the in¬
terior parishes of the county is very rude ; but the ex¬
ample of many patriotic proprietors is producing won¬
ders even in the moft barren foils. Prejudices in huf-
bandry, when deeply rooted, are with difficulty over¬
come ; but, even thefe are yielding to a more regular
and modern fyftem. The average produce of the farms
in the wdrole county, is eftimated in proportion to
the rent, as five to one. This produce, confiderable
as it is, compared with the produce formerly, is
fcarcely one-half of what may be expected from the
improvements which are daily made. The principal
rivers of Anerdeenfhire are, the Dee and Don, the
Ythan, the Ugie, and the Cruden. The Deveron alfo
forms its boundary with Banffshire for many miles. All
thefe rivers have been long celebrated for the excel¬
lence of the falmon with which they abound. The
7 ] ABE
rents of the fitlungs are eftimated at 2480I. />fr annum, Aberdeen.
and the produce at upwards of io,ocol. Befides the ^ ur''‘
fiflungs of the rivers, the fea coaft of Aberdeenfliire
abounds with all kinds of excellent fiih 5 and a num¬
ber of fiftiing vefiels are fitted out from the fea ports of
the county, particularly Peterhead and Fraferburgh.
Under the article of fiiheries, we may mention the
celebrated pearl fiftiing in the river Ythan. In this
river fome pearls have been found, which fold fingly
fo high as 2I. and 3I. With regard to mineralogy,
little wealth of that defeription has hitherto been found
in this county. The granite quarries are the moft va¬
luable articles. From thofe in the neighbourhood ot
Aberdeen, 12,000 tons and upwards are annually ex¬
ported to London, the value of which may be efti¬
mated at about 8400L There are feveral quarries in
the parilh of Aberdour, which yield excellent mill-
ftones. There is a quarry of blue fiate wrought in the
parilh of Culfalmond, and a vein of manganeie in the
neighbourhood of Old Aberdeen. The county abounds
with limeftone j but, from the want of coal, it cannot
be wrought to much advantage, except near a fea port.
In Old Machar and Old Deer pariffies, about 55,000
bolls of lime are annually burnt, valued at 2750I. Some
kelp is made on the coaft, the value of wffiich muft be
confiderable. Mr Pennant mentions an exceeding
large piece of amber, thrown aftiore on the coaft of
Buchan j and fmaller pieces are frequently found. on
the fame coaft. In the pariih of Leflie, a beautiful
green amianthus, with white and gray {pots, is found
in confiderable quantities. It is eafily wrought, and
formed into fnuff boxes and other ornaments by the
country people. Plumbago is found on the banks of
the Deveron. Amethyfts, emeralds, and topazes, are
found in the parifh of Crathie, and on the {hore at Pe¬
terhead. Ouyx and agates are frequently to be met
with. On the eftate of Invercauld, there are found
large fpecimens of rock cryftals. Befides thefe, afbe-
ftos, talc, mica, fchiftus, and other curious minerals,
are found in many parts of the county. T he princi¬
pal manufafture carried on in the county, is the knit¬
ting of {lockings and hofe, in which all the wromen,
and moft cf the old men and boys, are employed the
greater part of the year. The other manufactures are
too trifiing to deferve particular notice. Aberdeen-
ftiire contains three royal boroughs j Aber.dekh, Kin-
tore, and Invbrury : and feveral large and hand-
fome towns ; as Peterhead, Fraferburgh, Huntly, and
Old Meldrum. It is divided into 85 pariflies. Not-
wjthftanding the remote fituation of Aherdeenfhire, it
is ornamented wdth many fine feats of the nobility and
gentry. Slains caftle, the feat of the earl of Errol,
Aboyne caftle, of the earl of Aboyne ; Ellon, of the
earl of Aberdeen •, Inverury, of the earl of Kintore 5
are the chief refidences in the county.
The following account of the population
deenfhire, at tw’o different periods, is taken
Stati/L HiJI. of Slotland.
Parifh. Population
P 7*1755.
I Aberdeen, Old, or Old Machar 4945
Aberdeen, New, including 1
Footdee, or Fittie j
Aberdotflr - - 1397
D 2
10785
of Aber-
from the
Population
777 I7pO-f?8.
8107
16120
I306
Aboyne
ABE
TT!;f:
Aboyne - •* l^9S
5 Alford - - 990
Auchindore - - 839
Auchterlefs - - 1264
Belhelvie - - 1471
Birfe - - 1126
jo Bourty - - 525
Cabrach - - 960
Cairny - - 2690
Chapel of Garioch - 1351
Clatt - - 559
15- Clunie - - 994
Coldftone, Logie - 1243
Coul - - . 751
Crathie and Braemarr - 2671
Crimond - - 765
20 Cruden - - 2549
Culfalmond - - 810
Cufhnie, now annexed to Leochel   
JDaviot - - 975
Deer, New - - 2313
25 Deer, Old - - 2813
Drumblade - - 1125
Drumoak - - 760
Dyce - - - 383
Echt _ - - 1277
30 Ellon - - 2523
Fintray - - 905
Forbes - - 456
Forgue - - 1802
Foveran - - 1981
35 Fraferburgh - - 1682
Fyvie - - 2528
Gartley - - 1328
Glafs - - 1093*
Glenbucket - - 430
40 Glenmuick, &c. - 2270
Huntly - - 1900
Infch - 995
Inverury - - 730
Keig - - - 499
Keith-hall - - 1111
Kemnay - - 643
Kildrummie - - 562
Kincardine O’Niel - 1706
King Edward - J352
Kinnellar - - 398-
Kinnethmont - - 791
Kintore - - 973
Leochel, including Culhnie 1286
Leflie - - " S1*?
55 Logie Buchan - * 575
Longfide - - I979
Lonmay - - 1^74
Lumphanan - - 682
Machar, New - - 1191
60 Meldrum, Old - - 1603
Methlick - - 1385
Midxnarr - - 979
Montquhitter - - 997
Monymulk - - 1005
65 Newhills - - 959
Oyne - - 643
45
5°
[ 23
Ptpulatio
1790-98..
1050
663
590
1264
1318
1300
456
700
2600
1035
425
8&<r
76a
2251
9X7
2028
745
950
2800
3267
886
.692
352
963
1830
851
37°
1778
1230
2060
2x94
1800
776
449
2117
3600
900
732
475
838
61 x
426
2075
1577
342
830
812
642
418
5°9
1792
1650
621
1030
1490
io35
945
1500
1130
1181
639
ABE
Tarijh.
Peterculter
Peterhead
Pitfligo
70 Premnay
Rathen
Rayne
Rhynie and ElTey
Skene
75 Slains
Strathdon
Stricken
Tarland
Tarvas
80 Tillynefsle
Tough
Towie
TurrefF
Tyrie
85 Udny
Population
in I75S*
755
2487
1224
448
1527
1131
836
1251
1286
175°
1158
1300
2346
335
570
656
1897
596
1322
Population Aberdmtr-
1790-98. ||
Abernethy;,
1002 ■ ■
4100
I 300
450
1730
681
1233
1117
1524
1400
IO50
1690
412
560
550
2029
949
1137
Total, 116,836 122,921
116,836
Increafe, 6085
ABERDOUR, a fmall town inFifelhire, Scotland*,
on the frith of Forth, about ten miles north-weft of
Edinburgh. In old times it belonged to the Viponts j
in 1126 it was transferred to the Mortimers by mar*
riage, and afterwards to the Douglafes. William, lord
of Liddefdale, furnamed the Flower of Chivalry, in the
reign of David II. by charter conveyed it to James
Douglas, anceftor of the prefent noble owner the earl
of Morton. The monks of Inchcolm had a grant for a.
burial place herefrom Allan de Mortimer, in the reign
of Alexander III. The nuns, ufually ftyled the Poor
Clares, had a convent at this place.
ABERFORD, a market town in the weft riding
of Yorkfhire, ftands in a bottom ; and is about a mile
in length, and pretty well built. It is near a Ro¬
man road, which is raifed very high, and not far from
the river Cock; between which and the town there is
the foundation of an old caftle ftill vifible. It is 182
miles north-by-weft from London. W. Long. 2. 45-.
N. Lat. 55. 52^.
ABERGAVENNY, a large, populous, and flou-
rifhing town in Monmouthfhire, feated at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Uik and Gavenny. It has a fine
bridge over the Ulk, confifting of fifteen arches ; and
being a great thoroughfare from the weft part of Wales
to Bath, Briftol, Gloucefter, and other places, i*s well
furnifhed with accommodation for travellers. It is
furrounded with a wall, and had once a caftle. It car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in flannels, which are
brought hither for fele from the other parts of the
county. It is 142 miles diftant from London. W.
Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 5.1. 50. Abergavenny appears
to have been the Gibbanium of Antoninus* and the town
of Ulk his Burrium.
ABERNETHY, John, an eminent diffenting mi-
nifter, wasthefon of Mr John Abernethy, a diffenting
minifter in Coleraine, and was born there on the
19th of O&ober 1680. When about nine years of age,
Jie was feprsted fruia his parents, his father being olv
liged.
ABE [ 29 ] A B E
Abernetfcy Hged to attend fome public affairs in London; and his
II . mother, to (belter herfelf from the mad fury of the
■Aberration, rebels, retiring to Derry, a relation who had him
*, v—, uncjer j.r-g care> having no opportunity of conveying
him to her, carried him to Scotland; and thus he
efcaped the hardihips and dangers of the fiege of Derry,
in which Mrs Abernethy loft all her other children.
He afterwards ftudied at the univerfity of Glafgow,
where he remained till he took the degree of mafterof
arts ; and, in 1708, he was chofen minifter of a dif-
fenting congregation at Antrim, in which fituation he
continued above 20 years. About the time of the Ean-
gorian controverfy (for which fee Hoadley), a dif-
ienlion arofe among his brethren in the miniftry at
Belfaft, on the fubject of fubfcription to the Weftmin-
fter confeflion of faith. In this controverfy he became
a leader on the negative fide, and incurred the cenfure
©f a general fynod. The agitation of parties began to
be alfo felt among the members of his congregation.
Many of them deferted him y which induced him to ac¬
cept of an invitation to fettle in Dublin, where his
preaching was much admired. Here he continued for
ten years, refpeifted and efteemed. But his labours
were terminated by a fudden attack of the gout in the
head, to which he had been fubjecf 5 and he died in
December 1740,; in the 60th year of his age. His
writings, as was his character, are diftinguiftied for
candour, liberality, and manly fentiment. He publilhed
a volume of fermons on the Divine Attributes; after
his death a fecond volume was publilhed by his friends j
and thefe wTere fucceeded by four other volumes on
different fubjetfts : all of which have been greatly ad¬
mired.-
Abernethy, a fmall towif in Strathem, a diftritft
of Perthlhire in Scotland, fituated on the river Tay,
a little above the mouth of the Erne. It is faid to have
been the feat of the Pi£li(h kings} and was afterwards
the fee of an archbilhop, which was afterwards trans¬
ferred to St Andrew’s. In the churchyard of Aber¬
nethy, there is a tower of lingular conftruflion. It is
of a circular form, is 74 feet in height, and 48 feet in
circumference. The tower at Brechin is the only one
of a fimilar ftruflure in Scotland. The refearches of
the antiquarian have hitherto failed in difcovering the
ufes of thefe infulated buildings,. Conjecture, there¬
fore, has fupplied the place of certainty, by fuppofing
that they are of Pi&ilh origin, and that they were in¬
tended as places <if confinement for religious devotees
in performing penance, and hence they have been de¬
nominated towers ofreoentance.-
ABERRATION, in AJlronomy, an apparent me*
lion of the celeftial bodies, produced by the progreffive
motion of light, and the earth’s annual motion m her
orbit.
This effefl may be explained and familiarized by
the motion of a line parallel to itfelf, much after the
manner that the compofition and- refolution of forces
are explained-
M.de Maupertuis, in his “ Elements of Geography,”
gives a familiar and ingenious idea of the aberration,
in this manner : “ It is thus,” fays he, “ concerning
the direction in which a gun muft be pointed to ftrike
a bird in its flight ; iaftead of pointing it ftraight to
the bird, the fowler will point a little before it, in the
path of its flight, and that fo much the more as the
flight of the bird is more rapid, with relpevl to the Abe*i-ati«uv
flight of the lliot.” In this way of confidering the v——'
matter, the flight of the bird reprefents the motion of
the earth, and the flight of the iliot reprefents the mo¬
tion of the ray of light.
Mr Clairaut too, in the Mem. de 1’ Acad, des Sciences
for the year 1746, illuftrates this effeft in a familiar
way, by fuppofing drops of rain to fall rapidly and
quickly after each other from a cloud, under which a
perlon moves with a very narrow tube 5 in which cafe
it is evident that the tube muft have a certain inclina¬
tion, in order that a drop which enters at the top, may
fall freely through the axis of the tube,without touch¬
ing the fides of it 5 which inclination muft be more or
lefs according to the velocity of the drops in refpecl
to that of the tube ; then the angle made by the di~
redbion of the tube and of the falling drops, is the ab¬
erration arifing, from the combination of thofe two-
motions.
This difeovery, which is one of the brighteft that
have been made in the prefent age, we ovre to the ac¬
curacy and ingenuity of the late Dr Bradley, aftro-
nomer royal 5 to which he was occafionally led by the
refult of fome obiervations which he had made with a
view to determine the annual parallax of the fixed
liars, or that which arifes from the motion of the earth
in its annual orbit about the fun.
The annual motion of the earth about the fun had
been much doubted, and warmly contefted. The de¬
fenders of that motion, among other proofs of the re¬
ality of it, conceived the idea of adducing an incon-
teftable one from the annual parallax of the fixed ftars,
if the ftars Ihould be within fuch a diftance, or if in-
ftruments and obfervations could be made with fuch ac¬
curacy, as to render that parallax fenfible. And with
this view various attempts have been made. Before the
obiervations of M. Picard, made in 1672, it was the
general opinion, that the ftars did not change their po-
lition during the courfe of a year. Tycho Brahe and
Ricciolus fancied that they had affured themfelves of is
from their obfervations j and from hence they concluded
that the earth did not move round the fun, and that
there was no annual parallax in the fixed ftars. M. Pi¬
card, in the account of his Voyage eP Uranibourg, made
in 1672, fays that the pole ftar, at different times of
the year, has certain variations, which he had obferved
for about lO years, and which amounted to about 40,;
a year : from whence fome, who favoured the annual-
motion of the earth, were led to conclude that thefe va¬
riations were the effeft of the parallax of the earth’s
orbit. But it was impqftible to explain it by that pa¬
rallax ; becaufe this motion rvas in a manner contrary
to what ought to follow only from the motioa of the
earth in her orbit.
In 1674 Dr Hook publilhed an account of obferva¬
tions which he laid he had made in 1669, and by
which he had found that the ftar y Draconis was 23''
more northerly in July than, in October : obfervations
which, for the prefent, deemed to favour the opinion of
the earth’s motion, although it be now known that
there could not be any truth or accuracy in them.
Flamfteed having obferved the pole ftar with his
mural quadrant, in 1680 and the following years, found
that its declination was 40" lefs in July than in Den
cember j which obfervations, although very juft, wet*
yc-t,
ABE [ 3<
A.'berration.yet, liowcver, improper for proving the annual parallax;
v'“—- anci he recommended the making of an inftrument of
15 or 20 feet radius, to be firmly fixed on a ftrong
foundation, for deciding a doubt which was otherwife
not foon likely to be brought to a conclufion.
In this Hate of uncertainty and doubt, then, Dr
Bradley, in conjunction with Mr Samuel Molineux,
in the year 1725, formed the project of verifying, by
a feries of new obfervations, thofe’ which Dr Hook had
communicated to the public almoft 50 years before.
And as it w as his attempt that chiefly gave rife to this,
fo it was his method in making the obfervations, in
feme meafure, that they followed; for they made choice
of the fame ftar, and their inftrument was conftructed
'upon nearly the fame principles : but had it not great¬
ly exceeded the former in exa&nefs, they might ftill
have continued in great uncertainty as to the parallax
of the fixed ftars. For this, and many other conveni¬
ent and ufeful aftronomical inftruments, philofophers aje
indebted to the ingenuity and accuracy of Mr Graham.
The fuccefs of the experiment evidently depending
fo much on the accuracy of the inftrument, this be¬
came a leading objeft of confideration. Mr Moli-
neux’s apparatus then having been completed, and fit¬
ted for obferving, about the end of November 1725,
on the third day of December following, the bright
ftar in the head of Draco, marked y by Bayer, was
for the firft time obferved, as it pafled near the zenith,
and its fituation carefully taken with the inftrument.
The like obfervations were made on the fifth, eleventh,
and twelfth days of the fame month; and there ap¬
pearing no material difference in the place of the ftar,
a farther repetition of them, at that feafon, feemed
needlefs, it being a time of the year in which no fen-
fible alteration of parallax, in this ftar, could foon be
expefted. It was therefore curiofity that chiefly urged
Dr Bradley, who was then at Kewr, where the inftru¬
ment was fixed, to prepare for obferving the ftar again
on the 17th of the fame month ; when, having adjuft-
ed the inftrument as ufual, he perceived that it paffed
a little more foutherly this day than it had done before.
Not fufpefling any other caufe of this appearance, it
was aferibed to the uncertainty of the obfervations, and
that either this, or the foregoing, was not fo exafl as
had been fuppofed. For which reafon they propqfed
to repeat the obfervation again, to determine from what
caufe this difference might proceed : and upon doing
it, on the 20th of December, the doflor found that the
ftar paffed ftill more foutherly than at the preceding
obfervation. This fenfible alteration furprifed them
the more, as it wras the contrary wray from what it
wmuld have been, had it proceeded from an annual pa¬
rallax of the ftar. But being now pretty wTell fatisfied,
that it could not be entirely owing to the want of ac¬
curacy in the obfervations, and having no notion of
any thing elfe that could caufe fuch an apparent mo¬
tion as this in the ftar; they began to fufpefl that fome
'Change in the materials or fabric of the inftrument it-
felf, might have occafioned it. Under thefe uncer¬
tainties they remained for fome time ; but being at
length fully convinced, by feveral trials, of the great
■exaclnefs of the inftrument; and finding, by’the gra¬
dual increafe of the ftar’s diftance from the pole, that
•there muft be fome regular caufe that produced it ;
' .they took care to examine very nicely, at the time of
, ] ABE
each obfervation, how much the variation was; till Aberration.
about the beginning of March 1726, the ftar was found s—
to be 20" more foutherly than at the time of the firft
obfervation : it now indeed feemed to have arrived at
its utmoft limit fouthward, as in feveral trials, made a-
bout this time, no fenfible difference was obferved in
its fituation. By the middle of April it appeared to
be returning back again towards the north ; and about
the beginning of June, it paffed at the fame diftance
from the zenith, as it had done in December, when it
was firft obferved.
From the quick alteration in the declination of fhe
ftar at this time, increafing about one fecond in three
days, it was conjectured that it would now proceed
northward, as it had before gone fouthward, of its pre-
fent fituation ; and it happened accordingly ; for the
ftar continued to move northward till September fol¬
lowing, wdien it again became ftationary ; being then
near 20" more northerly than in June, and upwards of
39" more northerly than it had been in March. From
September the ftar again returned towards the fouth,
till, in December, it arrived at the fame fituation in
which it had been obferved twelve months before, al¬
lowing for the difference of declination on account of
the preceflion of the equinox.
This was a fufficient proof that the inftrument had
not been the caufe of this apparent motion of the ftar ;
and yet it feemed difficult to devife one that ftiould be
adequate to fuch an unufual effect. A nutation of the
earth’s axis was one of the firft things that offered itfelf
on this occafion ; but it was foon found to be infuffici-
ent; for though it might have accounted for the change
of declination in y Draconis, yet it would not at the
fame time accord with the phenomena obferved in the
other ftars, particularly in a fmall one almoft oppofite
in right afeenfion to y Draconis, and at about the fame
diftance from the north pole of the equator : for though
this ftar feemed to move the fame way, as a nutation of
the earth’s axis would have made it; yet changing its
declination but about half as much as y Draconis in the
fame time, as appeared on comparing the obfervations
of both made on the fame days, at different feafons of
the year, this plainly proved that the apparent motion
of the ftar wras not occafioned by a real nutation; for
had this been the cafe, the alteration in both ftars
wmuld have been nearly equal.
The great regularity of the obfervations left no room
to doubt, but that there was foxrie uniform caufe by
which this unexpected motiort was produced, and
which did not depend on the uncertainty or variety of
the feafons of the year. Upon comparing the obferva¬
tions with each other, it was difeovered that, in both
the ftars above mentioned, the apparent difference of
declination from the maxima, was always nearly propor¬
tional to the verfed fine of the fun’s diftance from the
equinoCHal points. This was an inducement to think
that the caufe, whatever it was, had fome relation to the
fun’s fituation with refpeft to thofe points. But not
being able to frame any hypothefis, fufficient to account
for all the phenomena, and being very defirous to
fcarch a little farther into this matter, Dr Bradley be¬
gan to think of ere&ing an inftrument for himfelf at
Wanftead ; that, having it always at hand, he might
with the more eafe and certainty inquire into the laws
of this newT motion. The confideration like wife of
being
ABE [ 3
Aberration, being able, by another inftrument, to confirm the
truth of the obfervations hitherto made with that of
Mr Molineux, was no fmall inducement to the under¬
taking ; but the chief of all was, the opportunity he
fnoukl thereby have of trying in what manner other
ftars (hould be affefled by the fame caufe, whatever it
might be. For Mr Molineux’s inftrument being ori¬
ginally deiigned for obferving y Draconis, to try whe¬
ther it had any fenfible parallax, it was fo contrived, as
to be capable of but little alteration in its direction ;
not above feven or eight minutes of a degree : and
there being but few itars, within half that diltance
from the zenith of Kew, bright enough to be well ob-
ferved, he could not, with his inftrument, thoroughly
examine how this caufe afifetted ftars that were differ¬
ently fituated, with refpedt to the equinoctial and fol-
ftitial points of the ecliptic.
Thefe confiderations determined him; and by the
Contrivance and direction of the fame ingenious perfon,
Mr Graham, his inftrument was fixed up the 19th of
Auguft 1727. As he had no convenient place where
he could make ufe of fo long a telefcope as Mr Moli¬
neux’s, he contented himfelf with one of but little
more than half the length, namely of 12 feet and a half,
the other being 24 feet and a half long, judging from
the experience he had already had, that this radius
would be long enough to adjuft the inftrument to a
fufficient degree of exaftnefs : and he had no reafon
afterwards to change his opinion 5 for by all his trials
he was very well fatisfied, that when it was carefully
reCfified, its fituation might be fecurely depended on
to half a fecond. As the place where his inftrument
was hung, in fome meafure determined its radius j fo
did it alfo the length of the arc or limb, on xvhich the
divifions were made, to adjuft it : for the arc could
not conveniently be extended farther, than to reach
to about bj: degrees on each fide of his zenith. This
however was futficient, as it gave him an opportunity
of making choice of feveral ftars, very different both
in magnitude and fituation ; there being more than two
hundred, inferted in the Britifh Catalogue, that might
be obferved with it. He needed not indeed to have
extended the limb fo far, but that he was willing to
take in Capella, the only ftar of the firft magnitude
that came fo near his zenith.
His inftrument being fixed, he immediately began
to obferve fuch ftars as he judged moft proper to give
him any light into the caufe of the motion already
mentioned. There was a fufficient variety of fmall
ones, and not lefs than twelve that he could obferve
through all feafons of the year, as they were bright
enough to be feen in the day time, when neareft the
fun. He had not been long obferving, before he
perceived that the notion they had before entertained,
that the ftars were fartheft north and fouth when the
fun was near the equinoxes, was only true of thofe
ftars which are near the folftitial colure. And after
continuing his obfervations a few months, he difcover-
ed what he then apprehended to be a general law ob-
ferved by all the ftars, namely, that each of them be¬
came ftationary, or was fartheft north or fouth, when
it pafied over his zenith at fix of the clock, either in
the evening or morning. He perceived alfo that what¬
ever fituation the ftars were in, with refpeCt to the car¬
dinal points of the ecliptic, the apparent motion of
] ABE
every one of them tended the fame way, when they Aberration,
pafted his inftrument about the fame hour of the day v-—■^-v—
or night j for they all moved fouthward when they
pafied in the day, and northward when'in the night;
fo that each of them was fartheft north when it came
in the evening about fix of the clock, and faitheft
fouth when it came about fix in the morning.
Though he afterwards difeovered that the maxima,
in moft of thefe ftars, do not happen exa&ly when they
pafs at thofe hours j yet, not being able at that time
to prove the contrary, and fuppofing that they did, he
endeavoured to find out what proportion the greateft
alterations of declination, in different ftars, bore to
each other j it being very evident that they did not all
change their declination equally. It has been before
noticed, that it appeared from Mr Molineux’s obfer¬
vations, that y Draconis changed its declination above
twice as much as the before-mentioned fmall ftar that ,
was nearly oppofite to it; but examining the matter
more nicely, he found that the greateft change in the
declination of thefe ftars, was as the fine of the lati¬
tude of each ftar refpeftively. This led him to fufpeft
that there might be the like proportion between the
maxima of other ftars 5 but finding that the obferva¬
tions of fome of them would not perfecfly correfpond-
with fuch an hypothefis, and not knowing whether the
fmall difference he met with might not be owing to
the uncertainty and error of the obfervations, he de¬
ferred the farther examination into the truth of this hy¬
pothefis, till he fhould be furniffied with a feries of ob¬
fervations made in all parts of the year; which would
enable him not only to determine what errors the ob¬
fervations might be liable to, or how far they might
fafely be depended on •, but alfo to judge, whether
there had been any fenfible change in the parts of the'
inftrument itfelf.. ,
When the year was completed, he began to exa¬
mine and compare his obfervations •, and having fatif-
fied himfelf as to the general laws of the phenomena,
he then endeavoured to find out the caufe of them.
He was already convinced that the apparent motion
of the ftars was not owing to a nutation of the earth’s
axis. The next that occurred to him, was an altera¬
tion in the direction of the plumb-line, by which the
inftrument was conftantly adjufted ; but this, upon
trial, proved infufficient. Then he confidered what
refraction might do 5 but here aifo he met with no fa-
tisfaClion. At laft, through an amazing fagacity, he
conjeCtured that all the phenomena hitherto mention¬
ed, proceeded from the progreffive motion of light,
and the earth’s annual motion in her orbit : for he
perceived, that if light were propagated in time, the
apparent place of a fixed object would not be the
fame when the eye is at reft, as when it is moving in
any other direction but that of the line palling through
the objeCt and the eye ; and that when the eye is mo¬
ving in different directions, the apparent place of the-
objeCt would be, different. {Hutton's Math. Dici.)
A&er rat ion, in Optics, the deviation or difperfion
of the rays of light, when reflected by a fpeculum,
or refraCted by a lens, which prevents them from
meeting or uniting in the fame point, called the geo¬
metrical focus, but are fpread over a fmall fpace, and
produce a confufion of images. There are two fpecies
of aberration cliitinguifticd by their different caufes j
A & G [ 32 ] A B I
Aberration the one arifes from the figure of the lens or fpeculum,
A. il the other from tlie unequal refrangibility of the rays
. of Hp-ht. This laft fpecies is fometimes called the
Newtonian, from the name of its difeoverer. See Op¬
tics.
SIberratiov of the Planets, is equal to the geocen-’
trie motion of the planet, the fpace it appears to move
ms feen from the earth, during the time that light em¬
ploys in palling from the planet to the earth. Thus,
in the fun, the aberration in longitude is con Handy
20", that being the fpace moved by the fun, or, which
is the fame thing, by the earth, in the time of 8' 7",
which is the time in which light paffes from the fun to
the earth. In like manner, knowing the diftance of
any planet from the earth, by proportion it will be, as
the diftance of the fun is to the diftance of the planet,
fo is 8' 7" to the time of light palling from the planet
to the earth : then computing the planet’s geocentric
motion in this time, that will be the aberration of the
planet, whether it be in longitude, latitude, right
afeenfion, or declination. ( Hutton"'s Math. Dicl.)
ABERYSTW1TH, a market-town of Cardigan-
ftiire, in Wales, feated on the Ridal, near its con¬
fluence with the Iftwith, where it falls into the fea. It
is a populous, rich town, and has a great trade in lead,
jand a confiderable filhery of whiting, cod, and her¬
rings. It was formerly furrounded with walls, and
fortified with a caftle ; but both are now in ruins. Its
fiiftance from London is 203 miles W. N. W. W.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 52. 30.
ABE ST A, or Avesta, the name of one of the fa-
cred books of the Perfian magi, which they aferibe to
their great founder Zoroafter. The Abefta is a com-
.mentary on two others of their religious books called
2<end and Pattend; the three together including the
whole fyftem of the Ignicolae or rvorlhippers of fire.
ABETTOR, a law term, implying one who en¬
courages another to the performance of fome criminal
action, or who is art and part in the performance itfelf.
Treafon is the only crime in which abettors are ex¬
cluded by law', every individual concerned being con-
fidered as a principal. It is the fame with art-and-part
in the Scots law.
ABEX, a country of Higher Ethiopia, ,in Africa,
bordering on the Red fea, by which it is bounded on
the eaft. It has Nubia or Sennar on the north ; Sen-
nar and Abyflinia on the vreft 5 and Abyflinia on the
fouth. Its principal towns are Suaquem and Arkeko.
It is fubjeft to the Turks, and has the name of the
Beglerbeglik of Habelekh. It is about five hundred
miles in length and one hundred in breadth, is a moun¬
tainous country, fandy, barren, and unhealthy, much
infeited with wild beafts ; and the forefts abound with
ebony trees.
ABEYANCE, in Law, the expe&ancy of an eftate.
Thus if lands be leafed to one perfon for life, with re-
verfion to another for years, the remainder for years is
in abeyance till the death of the leflee.
ABGAR, or Abgarus, a name given to feveral of
the kings of Edeffa in Syria. The tnoft celebrated of
them was one vrho, it is faid, vras cotemporary with
Jefus Chrift 5 and who having a diftemper in his feet,
and hearing of Jefus’s miraculous cures, requefted him
* ECCYb ' ^ ^e^ter 1:0 come an<l cure him. Eufebius *, who be-
- '■ lieved, that this letter was genuine, and alfo an anfwg:
our Saviour is faid to have returned to it, has tranf-
lated them both from the Syriac, and afierts that they
were taken out of the archives of the city of Edefla.
The firft is as follow's : “ Abgarus, prince of Edeffa,
“ to Jefus the holy Saviour, who hath appeared in the
“ flelh in the confines of Jerufalem, greeting. I have
“ heard of thee, and of the cures thou haft wrought
“ without medicines or herbs. For it is reported thou
“ makeft the blind to fee, the lame to walk, lepers to
“ Ire clean, devils and unclean fpirits to be expelled,
“ fuch as have been long difeafed to be healed, and
“ the dead to be raifed ; all which when I heard con-*
“ cerning thee, I concluded with ffiyfeif, That either
“ thou rvaft a God come down from heaven, or the
‘s Son of God fent to do thefe things. I have there-
fore written to thee, befeeching thee to vouchfafe to
“ come unto me, and cure my difeafe. For I have
“ alfo heard that the Jews ufe thee ill, and lay fnares
“ to deftroy thee. I have here a little city, pleafantly
•“ fituated, and fufficient for us both. Akgarus.”
To this letter, Jefus, it is faid, returned an anfwer by
Annanias, Abgarus’s courier j which was as follow's :
“ Bleffed art thou, O Abgarus ! who haft believed in
“ me whom thou haft not feen } for the Scriptures fay
“ of me, They who have feen me have not believed in
“ me, that they wdio have .not feen, may, by believing,
“ have life. But whereas thou writeft to have me
“ come to thee, it is of neceffity that I fulfil all things
“ here for which I am fent 5 and having finiftred them,
e‘ to return to him that fent me : but when I am re-
“ turned to him, I will then fend one of my difciples
“ to thee, wTho {hall cure thy malady, and give life to
“ thee and thine. Jesus.” After Jefus’s afcenfion,
Judas, who is alfo named Thomas, fent Thaddeus, one
of the feventy, to Abgarus j who preached the gofp«]
to him and his people, cured him of his diforder, and
wrought many other miracles : which was* done, fays
Eufebius, A. D. 43.—Though the above letters are
acknowledged to be fpurious by the candid writers of
the church of Rome ; feveral Proteftant authors, as
Dr Parker, Dr Cave, and Dr Grabe, have maintained
that they are genuine, and ought not to be rejefted.
A-BGILLUS, John, furnamed Prefter John, was
fan to a king of the Frifcii 5 and, from the aufterity of
his life, obtained the name of Prefer, or Prieft. He
attended Charlemagne in his expedition to the Holy
Land ; but inftead of returning with that monarch to
Europe, it is pretended that he gained mighty con-
quefts, and founded the empire of the Abyflines, call¬
ed, from his name, the empire of Prefter John. He is
faid to have written the hiftory of Charlemagne’s jour¬
ney into the Holy Land, and his own into the Indies 5
but they are more probably trifling romances, written
in the ages of ignorance.
ABIANS, anciently a people of Thrace, or (ac¬
cording to fome authors) of Scythia. They had no
fixed habitations 5 they led a wandering life. Their
houfes were waggons, which carried all their poffef-
fions. They lived on the flclh of their herds and
flocks, on milk and cheefe, chiefly on that of mare’s
milk. They wrere unacquainted with commerce.
They only exchanged commodities with their neigh¬
bours. They poffeffed lands, but they did not culti¬
vate them. They alfigned their agriculture to any
who would undertake it, referving only to themfelves
a
A B I r 33 1 A B I
Abiathar a tribute ; which they exacted, not with a view to live
li in affluence, but merely to enjoy the neceffaries of life.
. They never took arms but to oblige thofe to make
good a promile to them by whom it had been broken.
They paid tribute to none of the neighbouring Hates.
They deemed themfelves exempt from fuch an impo-
fition ’y for they relied on their ftrength and courage,
and confequently thought themfelves able to repel any
invalion. The Abians, we are told, were a people of
great integrity. This honourable eulogium is given
them by Homer. (Strabo).
ABIATHAR, high prieft of the Jews, fon to Ahi-
melech, who had borne the fame office, and received
David into his houfe. This fo enraged Saul, who ha¬
ted David, that he put Ahimelech to death, and 81
priefts ■, Abiathar alone efcaped the maflacre. He af¬
terwards was high prieft > and often gave King David
teftimonies of his fidelity, particularly during Abfa-
lom’s confpiracy, at which time Abiathar followed
David, and bore awray the ark. But after this, con-
fpiring with Adonijah, in order to raife him to the
throne of King David his father $ this fo exafperated
Solomon againft him, that he diverted him of the
priefthood, and banifhed him, A. M. 3021, before
Chrift 1014.
ABIB, fignifying an ear of corn, a name given by
the Jew's to the firrt month of their ecclefiaftical year,
afterwards called Nifan. It commenced at the vernal
equinox ; and according to the courfe of the moon, by
which their months were regulated, anfwered to the
latter part of our March and beginning of April.
ABIDING iy Writings, iniSc-ofa Law: When a
perfon founds upon a waiting alleged to be falfe, he
may be obliged to declare judicially, wfflether he will
Hand or abide by it as a true deed.
ABIES, the Fir-tree. See Pinus, Botany In¬
dex.
ABIGEAT, an old law term, denoting the crime
of ftealing cattle by droves or herds. This crime was
feverely punifhed ; the delinquent being often con¬
demned to the mines, banifhment, and fometimes capi¬
tally.
ABIHU, brother to Nadab, and fon to Aaron.
The two former had the happinefs to afcend Mount
Sinai with their father, and there to behold the glory
of God : but afterward putting ftrange fire into their
cenfers, inftead of the facred fire commanded by God,
fire rufhing upon them killed them. Though all the
people bewailed this terrible cataftrophe, Mofes for-
bade^ Aaron and his twT> fons Eleazar and Ithamar to
join in the lamentation.
ABII Scytha:, taken by Strabo to denote the Eu¬
ropean Sarmatae, bordering on the Thracians and Ba-
rtanae : They were commended by Curtius for their
love of juftice, and by Ammiefius for their contempt
of earthly things.
ABIMELECH, king of Gerar, a country of the
Philiftines, was cotemporary with Abraham. This pa¬
triarch and his family being there, his wife Sarah,
though 90 years of age, w-as not fafe in it ; for Abi-
melech carried her off, and wras fo enamoured of her,
that he refolved to marry her. Abraham did not de¬
clare himfelf Sarah’s hufband ; but gave out fire w^as
his filler. But th.* king being warned in a dream, that
ftie was married to a prophet, and that he rtiould die
Vot. I* Part I»
if he did not rertore her to Abrahafia, the king obey- Abiificlecli
ed 'y at the fame time reproving Abraham for his dif- . II
ingenuity ; who thereupon, among other excufes, faid A-biponians*
fhe was really his firter, being born of the fame fa-
ther, though of a different mother. Abimelech after¬
wards gave confiderable prefents to Abraham 5 and a
covenant, that of Beerlheba, w^as entered into between
them, A. M. 2107. After the death of Abraham,
there being a famine in the neighbouring countries,
Ilaac his fon alfo withdrew into Gerar, which wras then
likewife governed by a king called
Abimelech, probably the fucceffor of the former.
Here Rebekah’s beauty forced her hufband to employ
Abraham’s artifice. Abimelech difcovering that they
were nearly related, chid Ifaac for calling his wife his
fifter ; and at the fame time forbade all his fubjefls,
upon pain of death, to do the leaf! injury to Ifaac or
Rebekah. Ifaac’s profperity loft him the king’s
friendlhip, and he wras defired to go from among them.
He obeyed 5 but Abimelech aftenvards entered into a
covenant with him, A. M. 2200.
Abimelech, the natural fon of Gideon, by his con¬
cubine. His violent a£ls and death are recorded in
Judges, chap. ix. A. M. 2769.
ABINGDON, a market-towTi in Berkfhire, fitua-
ted on a branch of the Thames, derives its name from
an ancient abbey. The ftreets, wfflich are well paved,
terminate in a fpacious area, in which the market is
held -y and in the centre of this area is the market-
houfe, which is fupported on lofty pillars, with a large
hall of freeftone above, in which the fummer aftizes for
the county are held, and other public bufinefs done,
the Lent aflizes being held at Reading. It has two
churches ; one dedicated to St Nicholas, and the othef'
to St Helena : the latter is adorned with a fpire, and
both are faid to have been erefled by the abbots of
Abingdon. Here are alfo two hofpitals, one for fix,
and the other for thirteen poor men, and as many poor
women ; a free fchool; and a charity fchool. The
town was incorporated by Queen Mary. It fends two
members to parliament, who are chofen by the inha¬
bitants at large not receiving alms. Its great manu-
faflure is malt, large quantities of which are fent by
water to London. It is feven miles fouth of Oxford,
47 eaft of Gloucefter, and 55 weft of London. This
town is fuppofed by Biftiop Gibfon to be the place
called, in the Saxon annals, CloveJhcOy where two fy-
nods are faid to have been held, one in 742, and the
other in 822. W. Long. 1. 12. N. Lat. 51. 42.
ABINTESTATE, m Civil Law, is applied to a
perfon who inherits the right of one who died inteftate
or without making a will. See Intestate.
ABIPON1ANS, a tribe of American Indians, who
formerly inhabited the diftrift of Chaks in Paraguay ;
but the hoftilities of the Spaniards have now obliged
them to remove louthrvard into the territory lying be-
ttveen Santa Fe and St Jago. The only account we
have of them is that publiifhed by M. Dobrizhoffer in
1785. This gentleman, who lived feven years in
their country, informs us that they are not numerous,
the whole nation not much exceeding 5000 , for which
he affigns as a reafon an unnatural cuftom among their
women of fometimes deftroying their own children,
from motives of jealoufy left their hufbands ftiould
take other mates during the long time they give fuck*
E which
A B L [ j
Atiram 'wliicla is not lefs than two years. They are naturally
j white, but, by expofure to the air and fmoke, be-
. come of a brown colour. They are a ftrong and har¬
dy race of people j which our author attributes to their
marrying fo late, an Abiponian feldom or never think¬
ing of marriage till 30 years of age. They are great¬
ly celebrated on account of their chaftity and other
virtues; though, according to our author, they have
no knowledge of a Deity. They make frequent in-
curfions into the territories of the Spaniards, mounted
on the horfes which run wild in thofe parts. They
have a kind of order of chivalry for their warriors j
and are fo formidable, that 100* of their enemies will
fly before ten of thefe horfemen. The hatred which
thefe favages, whofe manners, though rude and uncul¬
tivated, are in many refpedls pure and virtuous, bear
to the Spaniards, is invincible. “ Thefe pretended
Chriftians,” fays our author, “ who are the fcum of
the Spanilh nation, pra&ife every kind of fraud and
villany among thefe poor barbarians j and their cor¬
rupt and vicious morals are fo adapted to prejudice
the Abiponians againft the Chriftian religion, that the
Jefuit miflionaries have, by a fever# law, prohibited
any Spaniard from coming, without a formal permif-
fion, into any of their colonies.”—From his account
of the fuccefs of the Jefuits in converting them to Chri-
ftianity, however, it does not appear that they have
been able to do more than bribe them to a compliance
with the ceremonies of the Popifh fuperftition ; fo that
in general they are quite ignorant and uncivilized ; a
moft ftriking inftance of which is, that in counting
they can go no further than three ; and all the art of
the Jefuits to teach them the fimpleft ufe and expref-
flon of numbers has proved unfuccefsful.
ABIRAM, a feditious Levite, who, in concert
with Korah and Dathan,, rebelled againft Mofes and
Aaron, in order to fbare with them in the government
of the people j when Mofes ordering them to come
with their confers before the altar of the Lord, the
earth fuddenly opened under their feet, and fwallowed
up them and their tents ;, and at the fame inftant fire
came from heaven, and confumed 250 of their follow¬
ers. Numb. chap. xvi.
ABISHAI, fon of Zeruiah, and brother to Joab,
was one of the celebrated warriors who flourifhed in
the reign of David: he killed wuth his own hand 300-
men, with no other weapon but his lance $ and flew a
Philiftine giant, the iron of whofe fpear weighed 300
fhekels. 1 Sam. chap., xxvi. 2 Sam. chap- xxiii.
ABJURATION, in our ancient cuftoms, implied
an oath, taken by a perfon guilty of felony, and who
had fled to a place of fanftuary, whereby he folemnly
engaged to leave the kingdom for ever.
Abjuration, is now ufed to fignify the renouncing,
difclaiming, and denying upon oath, the Pretender to
have any kind of right to the crown of thefe kingdoms.
sIb jurat ion of Herefy, the folemn recantation of
any doftrine as falfe and wicked .
ABLACTATION, or weaning a child from the
breaft. See Weaning.
Ablactation, among the ancient gar dener s, the fame
with what is now called Grafting by approach, is a me¬
thod of engrafting, by which the cyon of one tree being
for fome time united to the flock of another, is afterwards
cut off, and, as it were, weaned from the parent tree.
II
Able.
4 ] A B L
ABLAI, a country of Great Tartary, the inhabi- Ablacquea-
tants of which are called Buckars or Buchares. See tl0n
Ablay.
ABLACQUEATION, an old term in Gardening, _
fignifies the operations of removing the earth, and bar¬
ing the roots of trees in winter, to expofe them more
freely to the air, rain, fnowrs. See.
ABLANCOURT. See Per rot.
ABLATIVE, in Grammar, the fixth cafe of Latin
nouns. The word is formed from auferre, “ to take
away.” Prifcian alfo calls it the comparative cafe; as
ferving among the Latins, for comparing, as wTell as
taking away.
The ablatiye is oppofite to the dative ; the firft:
exprefling the adtion of taking away, and the latter
that of giving.
In Englifti, French, See. there is no precife mark,
whereby to diftinguifh the ablative from other cafes £
and we only ufe the term in analogy to the Latin.
Thus, in the two,phrafes, the magnitude of the city%
and he fpoke much of thev. ity ; we lay, that of the city-
in the firft is genitive, and in the latter ablative; be-
caufe it would be fo, if the two phrafes were expreffed
in Latin.,
The queftion concerning the Greek ablative has
been the fubjedt of a famous literary war between two-1-
great grammarians, Frifchlin and Crufius y the former
maintaining, and the latter oppofing, the reality of it...
The difpute ftill fubfifts among their refpedlive follow¬
ers. The chief reafon alleged by the former is, that '
the Roman w riters often joined Greek words with the,
Latin prepofitions which govern ablative cafes, as
well as with nouns of the fame cafe.. To which their
opponents anfwer, that the Latins anciently had no ab¬
lative themfelves j but inftead thereof, made ufe, like,
the Greeks, of the dative cafe; till at length they
formed an ablative, governed by prepofitions, which,
were not put before the dative : that, at firft:, the twro
cafes had always the fame termination, as they ftill.
have in many inftances: but that this was afterwards
changed in certain words.. It is no wonder then, that.
the Latins fometimes join prepofitions which govern am
ablative cafe, or nouns in the ablative cafe, with Greek
datives, fince they wrere originally the fame j and that
the Greek dative has the fame effedl as the Latin abla¬
tive..
Ablatiye Absolute, in Grammar, h & phrafe
detached or independent of the other parts of a fen—
tence or difeourfe. In the Latin language it is fre¬
quent, and it has been adopted by the moderns.
ABLAY, in Geography, a country of Great Tar¬
tary, governed by a Calmuck chief, but fubjedt to
Ruffia, to obtain its protedlion. It lies eaft of the ri¬
ver Irtifch, and extends 500 leagues along the fouthern
frontiers of Siberia, from E. Long. 72° to 83°. N. Lat.
from 510 to 540.
ABLE, or Abel, Thomas, chaplain to Queen
Catharine confort to Henry VIII. diftinguifhed him-
felf by his zeal in oppofing the proceedings againft
that unfortunate pxincefs for a divorce. For this pur-
pofe he wrote a piece, entitled “ TraBatus de non dif-
folvendo Henrici et Catharince matrimonio, i. e. “ A
Treatife proving that the'marriage of King Henry and
Queen Catharine ought not to be diffoly^d.” But the
title of the book,vaccording to Biftiop Tanner, was
InviBa,
ABN
[ i5 1
ABO
AhkiU Invlcia Veritas. He took the degree of bachelor of
il arts at Oxford on the 4th of July 1513, and that of
Abner. mafter Qf arts on the 27th of July 1516. In 1534
IJ", ¥' ' ' he fell under a profecution for being concerned in the
affair of Elizabeth Barton, called the Holy Maid of
Kent. This was an infamous impoltor, luborncd by
the monks to ufe ftrange gelliculations, exhibit fifti-
tious miracles, and to feign the gift of prophecy 5 and
fo well did fhe aft her part, that (lie drew fome per-
i'ons of refpeflability to her intereft : but being delet¬
ed, die was condemned and executed, after difcover-
incr the names of her principal accomplices and infti-
t^fftors. On her account Able was charged with mifpri-
lion of treafon, by flat. 25. Hen. VIII *, and being alfo
one of thofe who denied the king’s fupremacy over the
■ church, he was apprehended and imprifoned; during
which time his confinement was fo rigorous, that the
keeper of Newgate was committed to Marfhalfea pri-
fon for fuffering him to go out upon bail. He was af¬
terwards hanged, drawn, and quartered, at Smithfield
in 1540. Bouchier gives him the charabler of a very
learned man} and tells us, that he ufed to teach the
queen mufic and the learned languages.
ABLECTI, in Roman Antiquity^ a felefl body of
foldiers chofen from among thofe called Extraordi-
KARM. , ....
ABLEGMINA, in Roman Antiquity, thofe choice
parts of the entrails of vittims which were offered in
facrifice to the gods. They were fprinkled with flour,
and burnt upon the altar; the priefts pouring fome
wine on them.
ABLOE, in Geography, a town of Little Tartary,
which lies between the river Dnieper and the Black
fea. E. Long. 33. 15. N. Lat. 46. 20.
ABLUENTS, in Medicine, the fame with diluters
•or Diluents.
ABLUTION, in a general fenfe, fignifies the wafh-
ing, or purifying fomething with water.
Ablution, in a religious fenfe, a ceremony in ufe
among the ancients, and Hill pracliled in feveral parts
of the world : it confided in wrafhing the body, which
was always done before facrificing, or even entering their
houfes. Ablutions appear to be as old as any ceremo¬
nies, and external worfhip itfelf. Mofes enjoined them j
'the heathens adopted them 5 and Mahomet and his fol-
dowers have continued them : thus they have got foot¬
ing among moll nations, and make a confiderable part
of molt eflabliihed religions.—The Egyptian priefts
had their diurnal and noftumal ablutions } the Grecians
their fprinklings ; the Romans their luftrations and la-
vations .j the Jews their walhing of hands and feet, be-
iftde their baptifms.—The ancient Chriftians had their
ablutions before communion 3 which the Romifh church
itill retain before their mafs, fometimes after. The Sy¬
rians, Copts, &c. have their folemn wafhings on Good
Friday : the Turks their greater and leffer ablutions 3
■their Ghaft and Wodou, their Aman, Taharat, &c.
ABNER, the fon of Ner, father-in-law to Saul,
and general of all his forces, ferved him on all oc-
cafions with fidelity and courage. After the death of
that prince, Abner fet Ifhbofheth, Saul’s fon, on the
throne. A war breaking out between the tribe of Ju¬
dah, who had defied David king, and Ifrael, Abner
■marched againft that prince with the flower of his troops,
but was defeated. Abner afterward, being difguifed,
Abnoba
went over to David, and induced the chiefs of the ar-
my" and the elders of Ifrael to declare for him. He Ab(jjcc;St
was received by David with every mark of affeflion, t ^—
which gave offence to Joab, by whom he was infidi-
oufiy put to death, A. M. 2956.
ABNOBA, now Abenow, in Geography, a long
range of mountains in Germany, extending from the
Rhine to the Necker, andhaving different names accord¬
ing to the different countries through which they ftretch.
About the river Maine they are called the Oden or Ot-
enwald; between Heffe and Franconia, the Spejfart;
and about the duchy of Wirtemberg, where the Danube
takes its rife, they receive the name of Baar.
ABO, a maritime town in Sweden, fituated on the
promontory formed by the gulfs of Finland and Both¬
nia, 120 miles north-eaft from Stockholm, in E. Long*
21. 28. and N. Lat. 60. 10. It is a ftapelftad, or ci¬
ty which has the privilege of a foreign trade, and be¬
longs to the lane or government and diocefe of Abo.
It is built on both fides of the river Aurajocki, which
have a communication by a wmoden bridge. I he
ftreets and lanes of Abo amount to 102 3 the number of
houfes to 1100, which in 1780 contained above 2000
families. In 1791 the number of inhabitants was
8500.
A gymnafium was eftablilhed at Abo by Guftavus
Adolphus in 1626, which was converted by Queen
Chriftina, in 1640, into an academy Or univerfity, in
which are now taught, anatomy, natural hiftory, che-
miftry, and economics. The library founded by Queen
Chriftina confifts of above 10,000 volumes, befides ma-
nufcripts, ancient coins, medals, &c. 1 he fchool of
anatomy is in confiderable repute ; and enjoys, it is
faid, one very extraordinary privilege. By a particu¬
lar regulation, all perfons who hold lands or penfions
from the crown are bound to leave their bodies to be
diffected for the inftrucKon of the ftudents.
The trade of Abo is confiderable. The exports
confift of iron, copper, pitch, tar, deals, &c. The im¬
ports are tobacco, coftee, fugar, wane, fait, grain, hemp,
and fpiceries. In Abo are manufa&ured filk ribbands,
fuftian, fail-cloth, leather, tiles, watches and clocks,
paper, fugar, and tobacco. The plantations of to- ,
bacco in this neighbourhood produce not lefs than
152,000 cw't. annually. {Acerbds Travels.')
Abo-hus, or Abo-slot, a very ancient caftle in
Finland, fituated at the mouth of the river Aura, was
the refidence of Duke John, and the prifon of King
Eric in the 16th century. It is at prefent employed
as a magazine for corn and gunpowder, and as a pri¬
fon for ftate offenders.
ABOARD, the infide of a flrip. Hence any perfon
who enters a fhip is faid to go aboard: but wrhen an
enemy enters in the time of battle, he is laid to hoardi
a phrafe which always implies hoftility .—To fall Q-
board of, is to ftrike or encounter another fliip when one
or both are in motion, or to be driven upon a fliip by
the force of the wind or current.—Aboard-main-tacky
the order to draw the main-tack, i. e. the lower-corner
of the main-fail, down to the Chess-tree,
ABOASAR, in Geography, a village in Lower
Egypt, fuppofed to be the ancient Bufiris.
ABOCCIS, in Ancient Geography, the Abuncis of
Ptolemy, a towrn of Ethiopia, fituated on the wreftern
fide of the Nile near the great catarad.
E 2 ABOCRO,
ABO t 3<5 ] ABO
A'nacro
0
Abomafus.
ABOCRO, or Aborrel, in Geography, a town near
the river Ankobar or Cobre, on the African Gold
coaft. It gives name to a republican province.
ABOLA, in Geography, a divifion of the Agow, in
Abyffinia, is a narrow valley, through which runs a
river of the fame name, whofe waters receive many
tributary Breams from the lofty, rugged, and woody
mountains that form the valley. In none of the rivers
are any fifh found, which Bruce afcribes to their being
dried up in the fummer, and great rapidity in winter.
ABOLITION, implies the adl: of annulling, de-
Broying, making void, or reducing to nothing. In
our law, it fignines the repealing any law or flatute.
The leave given by a prince or judge to a criminal ac-
cufer to deliB from farther profecution of the accufed,
is in the moft appropriate fenfe denominated abolition.
Abolition is particularly ufed among civilians, for
remitting the punilhment of a crime. It is, in this
fenfe, a kind of amnefty} the punifhment, not the in¬
famy, is taken off.
Abolition, in the Roman Law, is the annulling a
profecution, or legal accufation : and in this fenfe, it
is different from amnefty 5 for, in the former, the ac¬
cufation might be renewed by the fame profecutor, but
in the latter, it was extinguiftied for ever. Within 30
days after a public abolition, the fame accufer, with the
prince’s licence, was allowed to renew the charge j
after a private abolition, another accufer might renew
it, but the fame could not. Abolition was alfo ufed for
expunging a perfon’s name from the public lift of the
accufed, hung up in the treafury. It was either pub¬
lic, as that under Auguftus, when all the names which
had long hung up, were expunged at once ; or pri¬
vate, when it was done at the motion of one of the
parties. Abolition of debts, according to the laws of
the Theodofian code, was fometimes granted to thofe
who were indebted to the ftfcus. A medal of the em¬
peror Adrian reprefents that prince with a fceptre in
his left hand, and a lighted torch in his right, with
which he fets fire to feveral papers in prefence of the
people, who teftify their joy and gratitude by lifting
up their hands towards heaven. The legend on the
medal is, Reliqua vetcra h. s. nummis abolita.
ABOLLA, in Antiquity, a warm kind of garment,
lined or doubled, wrorn by the Greeks and Romans,
chiefly out of the city, in following the camp.—Cri¬
tics and antiquaries are greatly divided as to the form,
ufe, kinds, &.c. of this garment. Papias makes it a
fpecies of the toga, or gown \ but Nonnius, and moft
others, fuppofe it to be a fpecies of the pallium, or
cloak. The abolla feems rather to have flood oppofed
to the toga, which wras a garment of peace, as the
abolla was of war ; at leaft Varro and Martial place
them in this oppofite light. There feem to have been
different kinds of abollce, appropriated to different
charadters and occafions. Even kings appear to have
vfed the abolla : Caligula was offended with King
Ptolemy for appearing at the ihows in a purple abolla,
the fplendour of which drew the eyes of the fpedlators
from the emperor to himlelf.
ABOMASUS, Abomasum, or Abomasius, names
of the fourth itomach of ruminating animals. It is in
the abomafus of calves and lambs that the runnet or
earning is formed wherewith milk is curdled. See
Comearatjy.e Anatomy.
ABOMINATION, a term ufed in Scripture with Abomina-
regard to the Plebrews, who, being ftiepherds, are faid tion
to have been an abomination to the Egyptians, becaufe Aboi| ^
they facrificed the facred animals of that people, as f ongme;
oxen, goats, Iheep, &c. which the Egyptians efteemed
as abominations, or things unlawful. The term is alfo
applied in the facred writings to idolatry and idols, be¬
caufe the worihip of idols is in itfelf an abominable
thing, and at the fame time ceremonies obferved by
idolaters were always attended with licentioufnefs and
other odious and abominable actions. The abomination
of defolation, foretold by the prophet Daniel, is fup-
pofed to imply the ftatue of Jupiter Olympius, which
Antiochus Epiphanes caufed to be placed in the temple
of Jerufalem. And the abomination of defolation, men¬
tioned by the Evangelifts, fignifies the enfigns of the
Romans, during the laft fiege of Jerufalem by Titus, on
which the figures of their gods and emperors were em¬
broidered, and placed upon the temple after it was taken.
ABON, Abona, or Abonis, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a tmvn and river of Albion. The town, accord¬
ing to Camden, is Abingdon 5 and the river, Abhon
or Avon. But by Antonine’s Itinerary, the diftance
is nine miles from the Venta Silurum, or Caer-Went;
others, therefore, take the town to be Porfhut, at the
mouth of the river Avon, near Briftol. Abhon or
Avon, in the Celtic language, denotes a river.
ABORAS, in Ancient Geography, by Xenophon
called Araxes, a river of Mefopotamia, which flows
into the Euphrates at Circefium. In the negotiation
between Dioclefian and Narfes, near the end of the
third century, it was fixed as the boundary between
the Roman and Perfian empire.
ABORIGINES, in Hi/lory, (Dionyfius ofHalicar-
naffus, Livy, Virgil) 5 originally a proper name, given
to a certain people in Italy, who inhabited the an¬
cient Latium, or country now called Campagna di Ro¬
ma. In this fenfe the Aborigines are diftinguilhed
from the Janigenae, who, according to the falfe Be-
roius, inhabited the country before them; from the
Siculi, whom they expelled; from the Grecians,
from whom they defcended ; from the Latins, whofe
name they affumed after their union with /Eneas and
the Trojans ; laftly, from the Aufonii, Volfci, Oeno-
trii, &c. neighbouring nations in other parts of the
country. Whence this people came by the appellation
is much difputed. St Jerome fays, they were fo call¬
ed, as being, abfque origine, the primitive planters of
the country after the flood : Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus
accounts for the name, as denoting them the founders of
the race of inhabitants of that country : others think
them fo called, as being originally Arcadians, who
claimed to be earth-born, and not defcended from any
people. Aurelius Viflor fuggefts another opinion, viz.
that they were called Aborigines, q. d. Aberrigines,,
from ah “ from,” and errart “ to wander as having
been before a wandering people. Paufanias rather
thinks they were thus called «5ra ogsa-q “ from moun-
tain$ j” which opinion feems confirmed by Virgil, who,
fpcaking of Saturn, the legiflator of this people, fays,
Is genus indocile ac difperfum montibus aids
Compofuit, legefque dedit.- 
The Aborigines -were either the original inhabitants
of the country, fettled there by Janus, as feme ima-
ciney
Abortion.
ABO
gine ; or by Saturn, er Cham, as others j not . w
after the difperfion, or even, as feme think, before it:
Or, they were a colony fent from fome other nation $
who expelling the Siculi, the ancient inhabitants, fet¬
tled in their place. About this mother nation there
is great difpute. Some maintain it to be the Arca¬
dians, parties of wrhom were brought into Italy at dif¬
ferent times 5 the firft under the conduft of Oenotrius,
fon of Lycaon, 450 years before the Trojan war j a
fecond from Theffaly j a third under Evander, 60
years before the Trojan war > befides another under
Hercules ■, and another of Lacedemonians, who fled
from the fevere difcipline' of Lycurgus : all thefe uni¬
ting, are faid to have formed the nation or kingdom
of the Aborigines. Others will have them of barba¬
rian rather than Grecian origin, and to have come
from Scythia ; others from Gaul. Laftly, Others will
have them to be Canaanites, expelled by Jofliua. .
The term Aborigines, though fo famous in antiqui¬
ty, is ufed in modern geography only occaiionally as
an appellative. It is given to the primitive inhabi¬
tants of a country, in contradiftinftion to colonies, or
new races of people.
ABORTION, in Midwifery, the premature exclu-
fion of a foetus. See Midwifery.
The practice of procuring abortions was prohibited
by the ancient Greek legiflators Solon and Lycurgus.
Whether or not it was permitted among the Romans,
has been much difputed. It is certain the pra&ice,
which was by them called vifeeribus vim inferre, was
frequent enough : but whether there was any penalty
on it before the emperors Severus and Antonine, is
the queftion. Nodt maintains the negative ; and fur¬
ther, that thofe princes only made it criminal in one
particular cafe, viz. of a married woman’s pra&ifing
it out of refentment againrt her huiband, in order to
defraud him of the comfort of children : this was or¬
dered to be punifhed by a temporary exile. The foun¬
dation on which the praftice is faid to have been al¬
lowed, was, that the foetus, while in utero, was repu¬
ted as a part of the mother, ranked as one of her own
vifeera, over which ihe had the fame power as over the
reft : befides, that it was not reputed as a man, homo ;
nor to be alive, otherwife than as a vegetable : confe-
quently, that the crime amounted to little more than
that of plucking unripe fruit from the tree. Seneca
reprefents it as a peculiar glory of Helvia, that fhe had
never, like other women, whofe chief ftudy is their
beauty and fliape, deftroyed the foetus in her womb.
The primitive fathers, Athenagoras, Tertullian, Mi-
nutius Felix, Auguftin, &c. declaimed loudly againrt
the practice as virtual murder. Several councils have
condemned it. Yet we are told that the modern Ro-
milh ecclefiaftical laws allow of difpenfations for it.
Egane mentions the rates at which a difpenfation for
it may be had.
The praftice of artificial abortion is chiefly in the
hands of women and nurfes, rarely in that of phyfi-
cians j who, in fome countries, are not admitted to the
profeffion without abjuring it. Hippocrates, in the
oath he would have enjoined on all phyficians, includes
their not giving the pejfus abortivus ; though elfewhere
he gives the formal procefs whereby he himfelf pro¬
cured in a young woman a mifearriage. It may, how¬
ever, be cbferved, that often all the powers of art
[ 37 ] A B R
long prove ineffe&ual, and no lefs often do the attempts Abortion
prove the means of puniftiment by their fatal confe- Abraj*anei;
quences. _
Abortion, among gardeners, fignifies fuch fruits
as are produced too early, and never arrive at matu¬
rity.
ABORTIVE, is, in general, applied to whatever
comes before its legitimate time, or to any defign which
mifearries.
Abortive Corn, a diftemper of corn mentioned by
M. Tillet, and fufpefted to be occafioned by infedls.
It appears long before harveft, and may be known by
a deformity of the ftalk, the leaves, the ear, and even
the grain.
Abortive Vellum, is made of the ikin of an abortive
calf.
ABOTRITES, or Abodrites, in Hi/lory, the
name of a people bordering on Bulgaria, in that part
of Dacia contiguous to the Danube. The country of
the Abodrites, noTv called Mecklenburg, was a part
of the ancient Vandalia.
ABOUKIR, a fmall town of Egypt, fituated in
the defert between Alexandria and Rofetta. It is the
ancient Canopus, and is fituated, according to Mr ba-
vary, fix leagues from Pharos. Pliny fays, from the
teftimonies of antiquity, that it was formerly an ifland :
and its local appearance makes this credible 5 for the
grounds around it are fo low, that the fea ftill covered
a part of them in the days of Strabo. I he town is
built upon a rock, which forms a handfome road for
(hipping, and was out of the reach of inundations.
In the bay of Aboukir, a fignal vidtory was obtained
in 1798 by the Englifli fleet over the French fleet.
The town was taken from the ft urks, after a vigorous
defence, by the French in I799v an^ retaken by the
Englilh in 1801.
ABOUT, the fituation of a (hip immediately after
(he has tacked, or changed her courfe by going aoout
and (landing on the other tack.—About Jhip ! the or¬
der to the (hip’s crew for tacking.
ABOUTIGE, a town of Upper Egypt, in Africa,
near the Nile, where they make the bed opium in all
the Levant. It was formerly a large, but now is a
mean place. N. Lat. 26. 50.
ABRA, a filver coin, (truck in Poland, and worth
about one (hilling fterling. It is current in feveral
parts of Germany, atConftantinople, Aftracan, Smyrna,
and Grand Cairo.
ABRABANEL, Abarbanel, or Avravanel,
Isaac, a celebrated rabbi, defeended from King David,
and born at Lifbon A. D. 1437’ became coun-
fellor to Alphonfo V. king of Portugal, and afterwards
to Ferdinand the Catholic 5 but in 1.492 was obliged
to leave Spain with the other Jews. In llrort, after re¬
dding at Naples, Corfu, and feveral other cities, he
died at Venice in 1508, aged 71. Abrabanel parted
for one of the mod learned of the rabbis j and the Jews
gave him the names of the Sage, the Prince, and the
Great Politician. Wb have a commentary of his on
all the Old Teftament, which is pretty fcarcehe there
principally adheres to the literal fenfe 5 and his ftyle is
clear, but a little diffufe. His other works are, A
Treatife on the Creation of the World', in which he re¬
futes Ariftotle, who imagined, that the world was
eternal: A Treatife on the Explication of the Prophe-
A B R
3
t
abraca
abrac
abra
abr
ab
A
Abracada-cles relating to tlie Meffiah, againfl tlie Cli riftians: A
■,r]a’ book concerning Articles of Faith j and fome others
\Lua ::im- |e^. after. Though Abrabanel difcovers his im¬
placable averlion to Chr'utianity in all his writings, yet
he treated Chriftians with politenefs and good manners
in the common affairs of life.
ABRACADABRA, a magical word, recommended
by Serenus Samonicus as an antidote againft agues and
feveral other difeafes. It was to be written upon a piece
of paper as many times as the word contains letters,
omitting the laft letter of the former every time, as in
the margin f, and repeated in the fame order j and
^bracadab^it^ien Upended about the neck by a linen thread, sl-
abracadab bracadabra was the name of a god worlhipped by the
abrac ad a Syrians ; fo wearing his name was a fort of invocation
abracad 0f fjg . a pra&ice which, though not more ufeful,
yet was lefs irrational, than is the equally heathenifli
pradlice among thofe who call themfelves Chriftians, of
wearing various things, in expe&ation of their opera¬
ting by a fympathy , whofe parents were Ignorance and
Superftition.
ABRAHAM, the father and flock whence the
faithful fprung, was the fon of Terah. He was de-
fcended from Noah by Shem, from whom he was nine
degrees removed. Some fix his birth in the 130th year
of Terah’s age, but others place it in his father’s 70th
year. It is highly probable he was born in the city of
Ur, in Chaldea, which he and his father left when they
went to Canaan, where they remained till the death of
Terah j after which, Abraham refumed his firft defign of
going to Paleftine. The Scriptures mention the feve¬
ral places he flopped at in Canaan j his journey into
Egypt, where his wife was carried off from him 5 his
going into Gerar, where Sarah was again taken from
him, but reftored, as before 5 the vidlory he obtained
over the four kings who had plundered Sodom ; his
compliance with his wife, who infifted that he fttould
make ufe of their maid Hagar in order to raife up
children-, the covenant God made with him, fealed
with the ceremony of circumcifion j his obedience to
the command of God, who ordered him to offer up
his only fon as a facrifice, nnd how this bloody aft was
prevented; his marriage with Keturah ; his death at
the age of 175 years; and his interment in the cave
of Machpelah, near the body of Sarah his firft wife.
It would be of little ufe to dwell long upon thefe par¬
ticulars, fince they are fo well known. But tradition
has fupplied numberlefs others, the mention of one or
two of which may not be unacceptable.
Many extraordinary particulars have been told re¬
lating to his converfion from idolatry. It is a pretty
general opinion, that he fucked in the poifon with his
milk ; that his father made ftatues, and taught that
'* SniJas in they were to be wojftiipped as gods *. Some Jewifh
T TxnfT authors relate f, that Abraham followed the fame trade
f Apud Ge- with Terah for a confiderable time. Maimonides J
neb rand, in fays, that he was bred up in the religion of the Sa-
Chron. baeans, who acknowledged no deity but the liars ; that
} More Ne-his refieftions on the nature of the planets, his admira-
voelj. c. 29. tjon 0£- motions, beauty, and order, made him
conclude there mull be a being fuperior to the ma¬
chine of the univerfe, a being who created and govern¬
ed it; however, according to an old tradition, he did
not renounce Paganifm till the 50th year of his age.
It is related j[., that his father, being gone a journey,
3
J| Heideg¬
ger, Hijl.
patriarch.
tom. iii.
P- 3<>-
8 ] ABR
left him to fell the ftatues in his abfence ; and that a Abraham,
man, who pretended to be a purchafer, afked him how
old he was : Abraham anfwered, “ Fifty.”—“ Wretch
that thou art (faid the other), for adoring at fuch an
age a being which is but a day old 1” Thefe words
greatly confounded Abraham. Some time afterwards,
a woman brought him fome flour, that he might give
it as an offering to the idols ; but Abraham, inftead
of doing fo, took up a hatchet and broke them all to
pieces, excepting the largeft, into the hand of which
he put the weapon. Terah, at his return, alked
whence came all this havock ? Abraham made an-
fwer, that the ftatues had had a great conteft which
ftiould eat firft of the oblation; w Upon which (faid
he), the god you fee there, being tbe ftouteft, hewed
the others to pieces with that hatchet.” Terah told
him this was bantering ; for tbofe idols bad not the
fenfe to aft in this manner. Abraham retorted thefe
words upon his father againft the worfhipping of fuch
gods. Terah, ftung with this raillery, delivered up
his fon to the cognizance of Nimrod, the fovereign of
the country : "who exhorted Abraham to worfhip the
fire ; and, upon his refufal, commanded him to be
throwm into the midlt of the flames: “ Nowt let your
God (faid he) come and deliver you.” But (adds
the tradition) Abraham efcaped from the flames un¬
hurt.—This tradition is not of modern date, fince it
is told by St Jerome § ; w7ho feems to credit it in ge-$ 'Trad'd.
neral, but dilbelieves that part of it which makes Te- Hebraic, m
rab fo cruel as to be the informer againft bis owm fon. lTn'
Perhaps the ambiguity of tbe word Ur * might have * It is the
given rife to the fiftiem altogether. Such as lay ftrefsPr°per
on the following words which God fays to Abraham ftame 0^a.
(Gen. xv. 7.), lam the Lord that brought thee out ‘Z/alfofignifi-*
Ur of the Chaldees, imagine that he faved him from a tAfirC The
great perfecution, fince he employed the very fame Lat. verfion
words in the beginning of the decalogue to denote the EUras ix.
deliverance from Egypt. _ _
Abraham is faid to have been wrell ikilled in many^, de igne
fciences, and to have w rote feveral books. Jofephusf Chaldeorum.
tells us that he taught the Egyptians arithmetic and I Antiq.
geometry ; and, according to Eupolemus and Artapan, gl5, u caP-7*
he inftrufted the Phoenicians, as w^ell as the Egyp- * -
tians, in aftronomy. A wrork which treats of the crea¬
tion has been long aferibed to him: it is mentioned in
the Talmud f, and the Rabbis Chanina and Hofchiat Heidegger
ufed to read it on the eve before tbe Sabbath. In the Patri~
firft ages of Chriftianity, according to St Epiphanius t01”‘
a heretical feft, called Sethinians, difperfed a piece ^ ^gfoerf.
which had the title of Abraham"1 s Revelation. Origen /A?,-, p.^sfr.
mentions alfo a treatife fuppofed to be wrote by this
patriarch. All the feveral works which Abraham
compofed in the plains of Mamre, are faid to be con¬
tained in the library of the monaltery of the Holy
Crofs on Mount Amaria in Ethiopia §. T he book on \ Kirchemt
tbe creation was printed at Paris 1552, and tranflated T>e*tife of
into Latin by Poftel: Rittangel, a converted Jew, and Lll)rariest
profeffor at Konigfberg, gave alfo a Latin tranflationP' I42’
of it, with remarks, in 1642.
Abraham, Ben Chaila, a Spanifti rabbi, in tbe
13th century, who profeffed aftrology, and affumed the
charafter of a prophet. He pretended to predift the
coming of the Mefliah, which was to happen in the
year 1358 ; but fortunately be died in 1303, fifty-five
years before the time when the prediftion was to be
fulfilled.
A B R [ 39 ] A B R
Abraham
II
Abraxas.
fulfilled. He wrote a book, De Nativitatilus, which
was printed at Rome in 1545.
Abraham Usque, a Portuguefe Jew, who, in con-
jun&ion with Tobias Athias, tranilated the Hebrew
Bible into Spanilh. It was printed at Ferrara in
1553, aut^ reprinted in Holland in 1630. This Bible,
eipeciaily the firft edition, which is moft valuable, is
marked wfith ftars at certain words, which are defign-
ed to fhow that thefe words are difficult to be under-
llood in the Hebrew, and that they may be ufed in a
different fenfe.
Abraham, Nicholas, a learned Jefuit, born in
the diocefe of Toul, in Lorrain, in 1589. He obtain¬
ed the rank of divinity profeffor in the univerfity of
Pont-a-Moufon, wffiich he enjoyed 17 years, and died
September 7. 1655. Pie wrote Notes on Virgil and
on Nonnius j A Commentary on fome of Cicero’s O-
rations, in tw7o vols. folio j an excellent colledfion of
theological pieces in folio, entitled Phams Veteris Tef-
tamenti; and A Hebrew Grammar in verfe.
ABRAHAMITES, an order of monks extermina¬
ted for idolatry by Theophilus in the ninth century.
Alfo the name of another fe<T of heretics wrho had
adopted the errors of Paulus. See Paulicians.
ABRAN'FES, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadu-
ra, feated on an eminence, in the midft of gardens and
olive trees, near the river Tajo, belongs to a marquis
of the fame name. It contains 35,000 inhabitants,
four convents, an alms-houfe, and an hofpital. W.
Long. 7. 18. N. Lat. 39. 13.
ABRASAX, or Abraxas, the fupreme god of the
Bafilidlan heretics. It is a myftical or cabbaliftic
word, compofed of the Greek letters t&, Q, g, a, §, a ?,•
■which together, according to the Grecian mode of nu¬
meration, make up the number 365.. For Bafilides
taught, that there were 365 heavens betwreen the earth
and the empyrean ; each of which heavens had its an¬
gel or intelligence, which created it ; each of wffiich
angels likewife was created by the angel next above
it ; thus afcending by a fcale to the Supreme being, or1
firit Creator. The Bafilidians ufed the wrord Abraxas
by wray of charm or amulet.
ABRASION is fometimes ufed among medical
writers for the effeft of (harp corrofive medicines or
humours in wearing away the natural mucus which co¬
vers the membranes, and particularly thofe of the fto-
mach and inteftines. The word is compofed of the
Latin ab and rado, to fnave or Jcrape off.
ABRAVANNUS, in Ancient Geography, the name
of a promontory and river of Galloway in Scotland, fo
called from the Celtic term Aher, fignifying either the
mouth of a river or the confluence of two rivers, and
Avon, a river.
ABRAUM, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
fbme writers to a fpecies of red clay, ufed in England
by the cabinetmakers, &c. to give a red colour to new
mahogany wood. We have it from the ifle of Wight j
but it is alfo found in Germany and Italy.
ABRAXAS, an antique ftone with the word abraxas
engraven on it. They are of various flzes, and moft: of
them as old as the third century. They are frequent
in the cabipets of the curious 5 and a colleftion of them,
as complete as poflible, has been defired by feveral.
Tlrere is a fine one in the abbey of St Genevieve, which
has occaffoned much fpeculation. IVIoft of them feem
Abridge¬
ment.
to have come from Egypt; whence they are of fome Abreaft
ufe for explaining the antiquities of that country.
Sometimes they have no other infcription befides the
word : but others have the names of faints, angels, or
Jehovah himfelf annexed 5 though moft ufually the
name of the Bafilidian god. Sometimes there is a re-
prefentation of Ifis fitting on a lotus, or Apis1 fur-
rounded with ftars j fometimes monftrous compofitions
of animals, obfcene images, Phalli and Ithyphalli. The
graving is rarely good, but the word on the reverfe is
fometimes faid to be in a more modern ftyle than the
other. The characters are ufually Greek, Hebrew,
Coptic, or Hetrurian, and fometimes of a mongrel
kind, invented, as it wmuld feem, to render their mean¬
ing the more infcrutable. It is difputed whether the
Veronica of Montreuil, or the granite obelifk mention¬
ed by Gori, be Abraxafes.
ABREAST (a fea term), fide by fide, or oppofite
to ; a fituation in which two or more fliips lie, with
their fides parallel to each other, and their heads equal¬
ly advanced. This term more particularly regards the
line of battle at fea, where, on the different occafions
of attack, retreat, or purfuit, the feveral fquadrons or"
divifions of a fleet are obliged to vary their difpofitions,
and yet maintain a proper regularity by failing in right'
or curved lines. When the line is formed abreaft, the
wffiole fquadron advances uniformly, the (hips being
equally diftant from and parallel to each other, fo that
the length of each fhip forms a right angle with the
extent of the fquadron or line abreaft. The commander
in chief is always ftationed in the centre, and the fe-
cond and third in command in the centres of their re-
fpeClive fquadrons.—Abreajl, within the fhip, implies
on a line with the beam, or by the fide of any objeft
aboard ; as, the frigate fprung a leak abreajl of the
main hatchway, i. e. on the fame line with the main
hatchway, croifing the fliip’s length at right angles, in
oppofition to afore or abaft the hatchway.
ABRETTENE, or Abrettine, i\\ Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a diftrift of Myfia, in Alia. Hence the epithet
Abrettenus given to Jupiter (Strabo) j whofe prieft'
■was Cleon, formerly at the head of a gang of robbers,
and wffio received many and great favours at the hand
of Antony, but afterwards went over to Auguftus.
The people were, called Abretteni; inhabiting the
country between Ancyra of Phrygia and the river
Rhyndacus-
ABRIDGMENT, in Literature, a term fignifying
the reduftion of a book into a fmaller compafs.
The art of conveying much fentiment in fewT wTords,
is the happieft talent an author can be poffeffed of.
This talent is peculiarly neceflary in the prefcnt ftate
of literature ; for many writers have acquired the dex¬
terity of fpreading a few trivial thoughts over feveral
hundred pages. When an author hits upon a thought
that pleafes him, he is apt to dwell upon it, to view it
in different light*, to force it in improperly, or upon
the flighteft relations. Though this may be pleafant
to the writer, it tires and vexes the reader. T here is
another great fource of diffufion in compofition. It is
a capital objeCt with an author, whatever be the fub-
jeft, to give vent to all his beft thoughts. When he
finds a proper place for any of them, he is peculiarly
happy. But rather than facrifice a thought he is fond
of, he forces it in by way of digrefixon, or fuperfluous-
illuftratioru
Abridge¬
ment.
A B R [40
illuftration. If none of tliefe expedients anfwer his
purpofe, he has recourfe to the margin, a very conve¬
nient apartment for all manner of pedantry and imper¬
tinence. There is not an author, however correft,
but is more or lefs faulty in this refpeft. An abridger,
however, is not fubjedl to thefe temptation^. The
thoughts are not his own } he viewrs them in a cooler
and lefs affe&ionate manner ; he difcovers an impro¬
priety in fome, a vanity in others, and a want of utili¬
ty in many. His bufmefs, therefore, is to retrench fu-
perfluities, digreflions, quotations, pedantry, &c. and
to lay ..before the public only w hat is really ufeful.
This is by no means an eafy employment: To abridge
fome books, requires talents equal, if not fuperior, to
thofe of the author. The fafts, manner, fpirit, and
reafoning mull be preferved ; nothing effential, either
in argument or illuftration, ought to be omitted. The
difficulty of the talk is the principal reafon wffiy we
have fo few good abridgments : Wynne’s abridgment
of Locke’s Elfay on the Human Under-Handing, is per¬
haps the only unexceptionable one in our language.
Thefe obfervations relate folely to fuch abridgments
as are defigned for the public. But,
Wrhen a perfon wants to fet dow-n the fubllance of
any book, a ihorter and lefs laborious method may be
followed. It would be foreign to our plan to give ex¬
amples of abridgments for the public : But as it may
be ufeful, efpecially to young people, to know how to
abridge books for their own ufe, after giving a few di-
reftions, we ffiall exhibit an example or two, to (how,
with wdiat eafe it may be done.
Read the book carefully} endeavour to learn the
principal view of the author •, attend to the arguments
employed : When you have done fo, you wall general¬
ly find, that what the author ufes as new or additional
arguments, are in reality only collateral ones, or ex-
tenfions of the principal argument. Take a piece of
paper or a common-place book, put down what the
author wrants to prove, fubjoin the argument or argu¬
ments, and you have the fubltance of the book in a few
lines. For example,
In the Elfay on Miracles, Mr Hume’s defign is to
prove, That miracles which have not been the imme¬
diate objefts of our fenfes, cannot reafonably be be¬
lieved upon the teftimony of others.
Now, this argument (for there happens to be but
one) is,
“ That experience, which in fome things is variable,
“ in others uniform, is our on/y guide in reafoning
“ concerning matters of fact. A variable experience
“ gives rife to probability only *, an uniform experi-
“ ence amounts to a proof. Our belief of any faft
“ from the tefiimony of eye witneffes is derived from
“ no other principle than our experience in the vera-
ii city of human teftimony. If the fa<ft attefted be
“ miraculous, here arifes a conteft of two oppofite
“ experiences, or proof againft proof. Now, a mi-
“ racle is a violation of the law's of nature 5 and as a
“ firm and unalterable experience has eftabliihed thefe
“ laws, the proof againft a miracle, from the very na-
“ ture of the fa£l, is as complete as any argument
“ from experience can poffibly be imagined } and if
“ fo, it is an undeniable confequence, that it cannot be
furmounted by any proof whatever derived from hu-
W ;jian teftimony,”
] A B R
In Dr Campbell’s Diftertation on Miracles, the au¬
thor’s principal aim is to ffiow- the fallacy of Mr Hume’s
argument •, which he has done moft fuccefsfully by an¬
other fmgle argument, as follows :
“ The evidence arifing from human teftimony ts not
“folely derived from experience : on the contrary, te-
“ ftimony hath a natural influence on belief antecedent
“ to experience. The early and unlimited aflent given
“ to teftimony by children gradually contracts as they
“ advance in life : it is, therefore, more confonant to
“ truth to fay, that our diffidence in teftimony is the
“ refult of experience, than that our faith in it has this
“ foundation. Befides, the uniformity of experience,
“ in favour of any faft, is not a proof againft its be-
“ ing reverfed in a particular inftauce. The evidence
“ arifing from the fingle teftimony of a man of know;n
“ veracity will go farther to eftabliffi a belief in its be-
“ ing actually reverfed : If his teftimony be confirmed
“ by a few others of the fame charafter, w'e cannot
“ withhold our affent to the truth of it. Now, though
“ the operations of nature are governed by uniform
“ laws, and though w'e have not the teftimony of our
“ fenfes in favour of any violation of them ; ftill, if in
“ particular inftances we have the teftimonjf of thou-
“ fands of our fellow-creatures and thofe too men of
“ ftrihl integrity, fwayed by no motives of ambition or
“ intereft, and governed by the principles of common
“ fenfe, That they W'ere aftually eye witnelfes of thefe
“ violations, the conftitution of our nature obliges us
“ to believe them.”
Thefe two examples contain the fubftance of about
400 pages.—Making private abridgments of this kind
has many advantages : it engages us to read with ac¬
curacy and attention ; it fixes the fubje<ft in our minds $
and, if we ffiould happen to forget, inftead of reading
the books again, by glancing a few lines, w-e are not
only in poffeffion of the chief arguments, but recal in a
good meafure the author’s method and manner.
Abridging is peculiarly ufeful in taking the fub¬
ftance of what is delivered by profefibrs, &c. It is
impoffible, even with the affiftance of fhort-hand, to
take down, verbatim, what is faid by a public fpeaker.
Befides, although it w'ere practicable, fuch a talent
w’ould be of little ufe. Every public fpeaker has cir¬
cumlocutions, redundancies, lumber, which deferve not
to be copied. All that is really ufeful may be com¬
prehended in a ffiort compafs. If the plan of the dif-
courfe, and arguments employed in fupport of the dif¬
ferent branches, be taken dowrn, you have the wffiole.
Thefe you may afterwards extend in the form of a dif-
courfe dreffed in your owm language. This would not
only be a more rational employment, but would like-
wife be an excellent method of improving young men
in compofition j an object too little attended to in all
our univerfities.
“ The mode of reducing, fays the author of the Cu-
riofities of Literature, wffiat the ancients had writ-
in bulky volumes, pra&ifed in preceding centu-
came into general uie about the fifth. As the
Abridge*
ment.
ten
ries,
number of Undents and readers dimini Hied, authors
negledled literature, and were difgufted with com¬
pofition; for to write is feldom done, but when the
writer entertains the hope of finding readers. Inftead
of original authors, there fuddenly arofe numbers of
abridgers. Thefe men, amidft the prevailing difguft
2 for
A B R [ 4:
Auilncata- for literature, imagined they fliould gratify the public
rum, by introducing a mode of reading works in a few hours,
Atiorfa" wkich otherwife could not be done in many months j
« I, ^ and, obferving that the bulky volumes of the ancients
lay buried in dull, without any one condefcending to
examine them, the difagreeable neceffity infpired them
with an invention that might bring thofe works and
themfelves into public notice, by the care they took of
renovating them. This they imagined to efteft by form¬
ing abridgments of thefe ponderous volumes.
All thefe Abridgers, however, did not follow the
fame mode. Some contented themfelves with making
a mere abridgment of their authors, by employing their
own expredions, or by inconfiderable alterations. Others
compofed thofe abridgments in drawing them from va¬
rious authors, but fromwhofe works they only took what
appeared to them moil worthy of obfervation, and dref-
fed them in their own ftyle. Others, again, having be¬
fore them feveral authors who wrote on the fame lub-
jeft, took pafiages from each, united them, and thus
formed a new work. They executed their delign by
digelting in common places, and under various titles,
the moll; valuable parts they could colleft, from the
bell authors they read. To thefe lall ingenious fcholars,
we owe the refcue of many valuable fragments of an¬
tiquity. They happily preferved the bell maxims, the
characters of perfons, defcriptions, and any other fub-
jeCls wdiich they found interelting in their lludies.
There have been learned men who have cenfured
thefe Abridgers, as the caufe of our having loll fo many
excellent entire works of the ancients; for pollerity be¬
coming lefs ftudious, wTas fatisfied with thefe extrafts,
and negleCted to preferve the originals, whofe volumi¬
nous lize was lefs attractive. Others on the contrary
fay, that thefe Abridgers have not been fo prejudicial
to literature, as fome have imagined ; and that had it
not been for their care, which fnatched many a perilh-
able fragment from that fhipwreck of letters, wTich
the barbarians occalioned, we Ihould perhaps have had
no rvorks of the ancients remaining.
Abridgers, Compilers, and even Tranllators, in the
prefent failidious age, are alike regarded with contempt}
yet to form their works with Ikill requires an exertion
of judgment, and frequently of talle, of which their
contemners appear to have no conception. It is the
great misfortune of fuch literary labours, that even when
performed with ability, the learned wall not be found
to w^ant them, and the unlearned have not difcernment
to appreciate them.”
ABRINCATARUM oppidum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, the town of the Abrincates or Abrincatui; now
Avranches, in France, lituated on an eminence in the
fouth-vrelt of Normandy, near the borders of Brit¬
tany, on the Englilh channel. W. Long. 1. 10. N.
Lat. 48. 40.
ABROGATION, the aCt of abolilhing a law, by
authority of the maker ; in wdrich fenfe the word is fy-
nonymous wdth abolition, repealing, and revocation.
Abrogation Hands oppofed to rogation: it is diftin-
guilhed from derogation, wThich implies the taking
awTay only fome part of a law; from /abrogation, which
denotes the adding a claufe to it ; from abrogation,
wrhich implies the limiting or reftraining it } from dif-
penfation, which only fets it afide in a particular in-
Vo l. I. Part L
] A B R
fiance } and from antiquation, which is the refunng to Abrokani
pafs a law\ , !l
ABROKANI, or Mallemolli, a kind of muflin, ,A '
or clear white fine cotton cloth, brought from the
Eafl Indies, particularly from Bengal } being in
length 16 French ells and 3 quarters, and in breadth
5 eighths.
ABROLHOS, in Geography, dangerous fhoals or
banks of fand, about 20 leagues from the coafl of Bra¬
zil. S. Lat. 18. 22. W. Long. 38. 45.
ABROMA, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ABROTANUM, in Botany. See Artemisia,
Botany Index.
ABROTONUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and
harbour on the Mediterranean, in the diftridt of Syrtis
Parva, in Africa } one of the three cities that formed
Tripoly.
ABRUG-Banya, in Geography, a populous town of
Tranfylvania, in the dill riel of Weiffenburg. It is
fituated in a country which abounds with mines of gold
and filver, and is the refidence of the mine office, and
chief of the metal towns. E. Long. 23. 24. N. Lat.
46- 5°*
ABRUS, in Botany, the trivial name of the Gly¬
cine.
ABRUZZO, a province of Naples. The river
Pefcara divides it into tvTo parts } one of which is call¬
ed Ulterior, of wffiich Aquila is the capital } and the
other Citerior, whofe capital is Chieti. Befides the
Apennines, there are twTo confiderable mountains, the one
called Monte Cavallo, and the other Monte Majello }
the top of which lafl is always covered with fnow. A-
bruzzo is a cold country} but the rigour of the climate
is not fo great as to prevent the country from produ¬
cing in abundance every thing requifite for the fupport
of life. Vegetables, fruits, animals, and numberlefs
other articles of fuftenance, not only furnilh ample
provifion for the ule of the natives, but alfo allow of
exportation. It produces fo much wffieat, that many
thoufands of quarters are annually (hipped off. Much
Turkey wheat is fent out, and the province of Teramo
fells a great deal of rice little inferior in quality to
that of Lombardy. Oil is a plentiful commodity, and
wines are made for exportation on many parts of the
coaft } but wool has always been, and Hill is, their
ftaple commodity : the docks, after paffing the whole
fummer in the fine pailures of the mountains, are driven
for the winter into the wrarm plains of Puglia, and a
few fpots near their owm coaxt, where the fnow does not
lie. There are no manufactures of woollens in the pro¬
vince, except two fmall ones of coarfe cloth. The
greatell part of the wool is exported unwrought. No
filk is made here, though mulberry trees would grow
W'ell in the low grounds.
Formerly the territory of Aquila furniffied Italy al-
moft exclufively with faffron } but fince the culture of
that plant has been fo much followed in Lombardy, it
has fallen to nothing in Abruzzo. In the maritime
tra&s of country the cultivation of liquorice has been
increafed of late years, but foreigners export the roots
in their natural Hate : in the province of Teramo there
is a manufactory of pottery w^are, for which there is a
great demand in Germany, by the way of Triefte, as
it is remarkably hard and fine } but even this is going
F to
A B R [ 42
Abruzzo. to decay, by being abandoned entirely to the igno-
> —ranee of common workmen. It is not to be expected
that any improvements will be made in arts and manu¬
factures, where the encouragement and attention of fu-
periors is wanting, and no pains taken to render the
commodity more marketable, or to open better channels
of fale for it. The only advantages thefe provinces
enjoy, are the gift of benevolent nature ; but Ihe has
itill greater prefents in ftore for them, and waits only
for the helping hand of government to produce them.
This whole coaft, one hundred miles in length, is ut¬
terly deftitute of fea ports } and the only fpots where
the produce can be embarked are dangerous inconve¬
nient roads, at the mouths of rivers, and along a lee-
Ihore : the difficulty of procuring {hipping, and of load¬
ing the goods, frequently cauies great quantities of
them to rot on hand j which damps induflry, and pre¬
vents ail improvements in agriculture. 1 he hufband-
man is a poor difpirited wretch, and wretchednefs pro¬
duces emigration: the uneven furface of the country
occaiions it to be inhabited by retail, if the expretiion
may be ufed, rather than in large mafies j for there is
not a city that contains ten thoufand people, and few
of them exceed three thoufand. Villages, caftles, and
feudatory eftates are to be met with in abundance }
but the numbers of their inhabitants are to be reckoned
by hundreds, not thoufands : in a word, the political
and focial fyftem of the province fhotvs no figns of the
vigour which nature fo remarkably difplays here in all
her operations.
The antiquary and the naturalift may travel here
with exquilite pleafure and profit} the former will find
treafures of inferiptions, and inedited monuments be¬
longing to the warlike nations that once covered the
face of the country 5 the natural philofopher will have
a noble field for obfervation in the itupendous moun¬
tains that rife on all fides. Monte-corno and Majello
are among the moft interefting. 1 he firft is like an aged
monument of nature, bald, and horribly broken on
every afpeft : from various appearances, it is evident
that its bowels contain many valuable veins of metallic
ore •, but the great difficulty of accefs renders the fearch
of them almofl imprafticable. Majello has other merits,
and of a gayer kind :—nature has clothed its declivities
and elevated fields with an infinite variety of plants.
The charaaer of the inhabitants varies a little among
fehemfelves, according to fituation and climate, but ei-
fentially from the difpofition of the natives of the more
fouthern provinces. Ihis proceeds from a difference
of origin : for the Lombards, who were barbarians,
but not cruel; poor, but hofpitable ; endowed with
plain honeil fenfe, though poffeffed of little acutenefs
or fubtlety 5 remained peaceable proprietors of thefe
mountainous regions, till tne Normans, who were ac-
cuftomed to a fimilar climate, came and difpoffeffed
them. The Greeks who retained almofl; every other
part of the kingdom under their dominion, never had
any fway here. For this reafon the Abruzzefi fhll
bear a great refemblance to their northern progenitors
or mailers : to this day one may trace in them the
fame goodnefs of heart, but great indolence and re¬
pugnance to lively exertions ; a fault that proceeds ra¬
ther from a want of aftive virtue, than a dilpofition to
wickednefs. Hence it comes, that in thefe provinces,
where the proximity of the frontier almoft; enfures im-
A B S
punity, fewer atrocious and inhuman deeds are heard Abfalom
of than in other parts of the realm. Remnants of an- Abfi|aru^
cient northern cuftoms exifted here fo late as the be¬
ginning of this century, and, among the mountaineers,
very evident traces of the Frank and Teutonic lan¬
guages may be difeovered.
ABSALOM, in Scripture Hi/lory, the fon of Da¬
vid by Maacah, was brother to Tamar, David’s daugh¬
ter, who was ravifhed by Amnon their eldeft brother
by’another mother. Abfalom waited two years for an
opportunity of revenging the injury done to his filler .
and at laft procured the aiiaffination of Amnon at a
feaft which he had prepared for the king’s fons. He
took refuge with Talmai king of Gefliur } and was no
fooner reftored to favour, but he engaged the Ifraelites
to revolt from his father. Abfalom was defeated in
the wood of Ephraim : as he was flying, his hair
caught hold of an oak, where he hung till Joab came
and' thru ft him through with three darts: David had
exprefsly ordered his life to be fpared, and extremely
lamented him. The weight of Abialom’s hair, which
is Hated at “ 200 ffiekels after the king’s weight,”
has occafioned much critical difeuffion. If, according
to fome, the Jewifti fliekel of filver was equal to half
an ounce avoirdupois, 200 Ihekels would be 6 b pounds j
or, according to Jolephus, il the 200 Ihekels be equal^
to 5 mime, and each mina t \ pounds, the weight of
the hair would be I2y pounds, a fuppofition not veiy
credible. It has been fuppofed by others, that the ftie-
kel here denotes a w-eight in gold equal to the value
of the Giver fhekel, or half an ounce, which will re¬
duce the wTeight of the hair to about 5 ounces} or that
the 200 ftiekels are meant to exprefs the value, not
the weight. But it 'is not improbable, as fome have
alleged/that the whole difficulty has arifen from an
error in tranferibing the Hebrew numerals.
ABSCESS, in Surgery ; from abfeedo, to feparate ;
a cavity containing pus \ or a colleftion of puriforra
matter in a part : So called, becaufe the parts which
were joined are now leparated } one part recedes from
another, to make way for the colleaed matter. See
Surgery.
ABSCISSE, in Conics, a part of the diameter or
tranfverfe axis of a conic fecHon intercepted between
the vertex or fome other fixed point and a femiordi-
nate. See Conic Sections.
ABSCONSA, a dark lantern ufed by the monks
at the ceremony of burying their dead.
ABSENCE, in Scots Law : When a perfon cited
before a court does not appear, and judgment is pro¬
nounced, that judgment is faid to be in abfence. No
perfon can be tried criminally in abfence.
AESIMARUS, in lliflcry, having dethroned Leon¬
tius, cut off his nofe and ears, and {hut him up in a
monaftery, was proclaimed by the foldiers emperor of
the Eaft, A. D. 698. Leontius himfelf was alfo an
ufurper. He had dethroned Juftinian 11. who, after¬
wards, with the affiftance of the Bulgarians, furprifed
and took Conftantinople and made Abfimarus priioner,
Juftinian, now fettled on the throne, and having both
Abfimarus and Leontius in his power, loaded them wit 1
chains, ordered them to lie down on the ground, and
with a barbarous pleafure, held a foot on tiie neck of
each for the fpace of an hour in prefence of the people,
who with fhouts and exclamations fung, Super afpi-
A B S r 43 ] A B S
Al'fmtlila- Jem et baJUifcum ambulabis, ct conculcabis leonetn et dra-
ted conem. “ Thou (halt walk on the afp and the baiilifk,
/hfolute anL^ treaf^ on the lion and the dragon.” By the orders
v, r-^ ,,, of Juftinian, Abfnnarus and Leontius were beheaded,
A. D. 705.
ABSINTHIATED, any thing tinged or impreg¬
nated with abfmthium or wormwood. Bartholin men¬
tions a woman whofe milk was become abfinthiated,
a id rendered as bitter as gall, by the too liberal ufc
of wormwood**
Vinum abfintbites, or poculum abjinthiatwn, “ worm¬
wood wane,” is much fpoken of among the ancients as
a wholelome drink, and even an antidote againft
drunkennefs. Its medical virtues depend on its aro¬
matic and bitter qualities. Infufed in wine or fpirits,
it may prove beneficial in cafes of indigeftion or debi¬
lity of the itomach.
ABSINTHIUM, in Botany, the trivial name of
the common wormwood. See Artemisia, Botany
Index.
ABSIS, in AJIrcnomy, the fame with apfis. See
Arsis.
ABSOLUTE, in a general fenfe, fomething that
Bands free or independent.
Absolute is more particularly underflood of a being
or thing which does not proceed from any caufe, or
does not fubfift by virtue of any other being, confider-
ed as its caufe 5 in which fenfe, God alone is abfolute.
Abfolute, in this fenfe, is fynonymous with independent,
and Hands oppofed to dependent.
Absolute alfo denotes a thing that is free from
conditions or limitations j in which fenfe, the word is
IVnonymous with unconditional. We fay, an abfolute
decree, abfolute promife, abfolute obedience.
Absolute Government, that in which the prince is
left folely to his own will, being not limited to the. ob-
fervance of any laws except thofe ol his own difere-
tion.
Absolute Equation, in AJlronomy, is the aggregate
of the optic and eccentric equations. The apparent
inequality of a planet’s motion arifmg from its not be¬
ing equally diftant from the earth at all times, is call¬
ed its optic equation, and -would fubfift even if the pla¬
net’s real motion wrere uniform. The eccentric ine¬
quality is caufed by the planet’s motion being uniform.
To illuftrate which, conceive the fun to move, or to
appear to move, in the circumference of a circle, in
whofe centre the earth is placed. It is manifert, that
if the fun moves uniformly in this circle, it muft appear
to move uniformly to a fpeclator on the earth, and in
this cafe there will be no optic nor eccentric equation j
but fuppofe the earth to be placed out of the centre of
the circle, and then, though the fun’s motion Ihould
be really uniform, it would not appear to be fo, w hen
feen from the earth 5 and in this cafe there would be
an optic equation, wuthout an eccentric one. Imagine
farther, the fun’s orbit to be not circular, but elliptic,
and the earth in its focus ; it will be as evident that
the fun cannot appear to have an uniform motion in
fuch ellipfe : fo that his motion will then be fubjeft to
two equations, the optic and the eccentric.
Absolute Number, in Algebra, is any pure number
Banding in any equation without the conjunftion of li¬
teral charafters ; as 2.v + 36 = 48 j wdiere 36 and 48
are abfolute numbers, but 2 is not, as being joined Abiolut cn
w’ith the letter x. r v
ABSOLUTION, in Civil Law, is a fentence -where- V ' n n.'
by the party acculed is declared innocent of the crime
laid to his charge.—Among the Romans, the ordinary
method of pronouncing judgment was this : after the
caufe had been pleaded on both Tides, the prseco ufed
tire word dixerunt, q. d. they have laid what they had
to fay 5 then three ballots w^eve diftributed to each
judge, marked as mentioned under the article A 5 and
as the majority fell of either mark, the accufed was ab-
folved or condemned, 8cc. If he were abfolved, the
praetor difmiffed him with videlur non feciffe, or jure vi-
detur fecife.
Absolution, in the Canon Law, is a juridical acl,
whereby the prieft declares the lins of fuch as are peni¬
tent remitted.—The Romanifts hold ablolution a part
of the facrament of penance •, the council of Trent,
felf. xiv. cap. iii. and that of Florence, in the decree
ad Armenos, declare the form or effence of the facrament
to lie in the words of abfolution, I abfolve thee of thy
lins. The formula of abfolution, in the Romilh church,
is abfolute : in the Greek church, it is deprecatory;
and in the churches of the reformed, declarative.
Absolution is chiefly ufed among Proteftants for
a fentence by which a perfon who Hands excommuni¬
cated, is releafed or freed from that punilhment.
ABSORBENT, in general, any thing poffefling '
the faculty of abforbing, or fwallowing up another.
Absorbent Medicines, teftaceous poivders, or fub-
ftances into which calcareous earth enters, as chalk,
crabs eyes, &c. which are taken inwardly for drying up
or abforbing any acid or redundant humours in the fto-
mach or inteftines. They are like wife applied exter¬
nally to ulcers or fores with the fame intention.
Absorbents, or Absorbing Vejfels, in Anatomy,
a name given promifeuoully to the lacteal veflels,
lymphatics, and inhalant arteries, a minute kind of
veffels found in animal bodies, which imbibe fluids
that come in contaft with them. On account of
their minutenefs and tranfparency, they efcape obfer-
vation in ordinary diffeftion. They have, however,
been detedled in every tribe of animals, and, in the ani¬
mals which have been examined, in every part of the
body. Thofe which open into the ftomach and intef¬
tines, and convey the chyle, which is a milky fluid,
from thefe organs to the blood, have received the name
of lacleals, or lafteal veflels 5 and thofe which open
on the external furface, and the furface of all the cavi¬
ties of the body, have been denominated lymphatics,
from the lymph or colourlefs fluid which they contain.
See Anatomy.
ABSORBING, the fwallowing up, fucking up, or
imbibing any thing : thus blaclc bodies are faid to pb-
forb the rays of light; luxuriant branches, to abforb
or wafte the nutritious juices which Ihould feed the
fruit of trees, Sec.
ABSORPTION, in the animal economy, is the
fundlion of the abforbent veflels, or that power by
which they take up and propel fubftances. This power
has been aferibed to the operation of different cau-
fes, according to the theories which phyfiologifts have
propofed. Some attribute it to capillary attra&ion,
others to the preffure of the atmofphere, and others to
F 2 an
A B S r 4+
.Abfovpt'onan ambiguous or unknown caufc, wnich they denomi¬
nate fu&icn ; for this lait is nothing elfe than the ela-
ftic power of one part of the air reftoring the equili¬
brium, which has been deftroyed by the removal or ra-
refaftion of another part.
Absorptions of the Earth, a term ufed by Kircher
and others for the finking in of large tra£i.s of land by
means of fubterranean commotions, and many other
accidents.
Pliny tells us, that in his time the mountain Cym-
botus, with the town of Cuntes, which flood on its
fide, were wholly abforbed into the earth, fo that not
the leaf! trace of either remained ; and he records the
like fate of the city of Tantalis in Magnefia, and after
it of the mountain Sypilus, both thus abforbed by a
violent opening of the earth, Galanis and Gamales,
towns once famous in Phoenicia, are recorded to have
met the fame fate *, and the vail promontory, called
Phegium, in Ethiopia, after a violent earthquake in the
night-time, was not to be feen in the morning, the
whole having difappeared, and the earth clofed over
it. Thefe and many other hiftories, attefted by the
authors of greatelt credit among the ancients, abun¬
dantly prove the fa£t in the earlier ages ; and there
have not been w-anting too many inftances of more mo¬
dern date. {KirCher's Mund. Sub ter. p. 77.)
Picus, a lofty mountain in one of the Molucca ifles,
which was feen at a great diftance, and ferved as a
land-mark to failors, was entirely deftroyed by an
earthquake ; and its place is now occupied by a lake,
the Ihores of which correfpond exaftly to the bafe of
the mountain. In 1556, a fimilar accident happened
in China. A whole province of the mountainous part
of the country, with all the inhabitants, funk in a mo¬
ment, and was totally fwallowed up : 1 he fpace which
was formerly land is alfo covered with an extenfive
lake of water. And, during the earthquakes which pre¬
vailed in the kingdom of Chili, in the year 1646,^0-
veral whole mountains of the Andes funk and difap¬
peared.
ABSORUS, Apsorus, Absyrtis, Absyrtides,
Apsyrtides, Apsyrtis, and Absyrtium, (Strabo,
Mela, Ptolemy) ; iflands in the Adriatic, in the gulf
of Carnero ; fo called from Abfyrtus, Medea’s bro¬
ther, there flain. They are either one ifiand, or two
feparated by a narrow7 channel, and joined by a bridge;
and are now called Cherfo and Ofero.
ABSTEINEN, in Geography, a diftrift near the
river Memel in Little Lithuania. It is a mountainous
country, but is fertile in grain, and abounds with fheep
and excellent horfes.
ABSTEMII, in Church Hijlory, a name given to
fuch perfons as could not partake of the cup of the ra-
ehprift on account of their natural averfion to wine.
Calvinifts allow thefe to communicate in the fpecies or
bread only, touching the cup with their lip ; which,
on the other hand, is by the Lutherans deemed a pro¬
fanation.
ABSTEMIOUS, is properly underftood of a per-
fon who refrains abfolutely from all ufe of wine.
The hiftory of Mr Wood, in the Medic. Tranf.
vol. ii. p. 261. art. 18. is a very remAkable exem¬
plification of the very beneficial alterations which may
be effe&ed on the human body^by a Uriel co.urfe of
abftemioufnefs.
] A b S
The Roman ladies, in the firtt ages of the republic, AUlemias
were all enjoined to be abftemious ; and that it might A,,ftJ„ncc
appear, by their breath, whether or no they kept up to ' ^ "
the injunction, it v'as one of the laws ol the Roman
civility, that they ftiould kifs their friends and relations
whenever they accofted them.
ABSTEMIUS, Laurentius, a native ofMacera-
ta, profeffor of belles lettres in Urbino, and librarian
of Duke Guido Ubaldo, under the pontificate of A-
lexander VI. He wrote, 1. Notes on moft difficult
paffages of ancient authors. 2. Hecatomythium, i. e.
A colledtion of an hundred fables, &c. which have
been often printed with thofe of Ah fop, Phaedrus, Ga-
brias, Avienus, &c. and a preface to the edition of A u¬
relius Vicfor publifhed at Venice in I5C5*
ABSTERGENT medicines, thofe employed for
refolving obftruhtions, concretions, &c. fuch as foap,
&c.
ABSTINENCE, in a general fenfe, the aft or ha¬
bit of refraining from fomething to which there is a
ftrong propenfity. Among the fews, various kinds of
abftinence wTerc ordained by their law7. T he Pytha¬
goreans, when initiated, wrere enjoined to abftain from
animal food, except the remains of facrifices ; and to
drink nothing but water, unlefs in the evening, wdren
they wTere permitted to take a fmall portion of wine.
Among the primitive Chriftians, fome denied them-
felves the ufe of fuch meats as were prohibited by that
law7, others regarded this abftinence with contempt ;
of which St Paul gives his opinion, Rom. xiv. 1—3.
The council of Jerufalem, which w7as held by the apo-
ftles, enjoined the Chriftian converts to abftain from
meats ftrangled, from blood, from fornication, and
from idolatry. Abftinence, as preferibed by the gof-
pel, is intended to mortify and reftrain the paffions,. to
humble our vicious natures, and by that means raiie
our minds to a due fenfe of devotion. But there is
another fort of abftinence, which may be called ritual,
and confifts in abftaining from particular meats at cer¬
tain times and feafons. It was the fpiritual monarchy
of the weftern world which firft introduced this ritual
abftinence ; the rules of which were called rogations ;
but grofsly abufed from the true nature and defign of
falling. In England, abftinence from ileffi has been
enjoined by ftatute fince the Reformation, particularly
on Fridays and Saturdays, on vigils, and on all com-
monly called f/h days. The like injunftions were.re¬
newed under Queen Elizabeth : but at the fame time
it was declared, that this was done not out of motives
of religion, as if there wTere any difference in meats.;
but in favour of the confumption of filh, and to multi¬
ply the number of fifhermen and manners, as w7ell as
to fpare the ftock of Iheep. d he great fall, fays St
Auguftin, is to abftain from fin.
Abstinence is more particularly ufed for a fpare
diet, or a {lender parfimonious ufe of food. Phylicians
relate wTonders of the effefts of abftinence in the cure
of many diforders, and protrafting the term of life.
The noble Venetian Cornaro, after all imaginable
- means had proved vain, fo that his life was defpaired
of at 40, recovered, and lived to near 1.00, by the
mere efieft of abftinence ; as he lumlelf gives the ac¬
count. It is indeed furprifing to what a great age the
primitive Chriftians of the eaft, who retired from tin*
perfecudons into the deferts of Arabia and Egypt, li¬
ved*
A B S
Abftmence. ved, Healthful and cheerful, on a very little
w-y—' Cafllan aflures us, that the common rate for 24 hours
was 12 ounces of bread, and pure water : with fuch
frugal fare St Anthony lived 105 years 4 James the
Hermit, 104 ; Arfenius, tutor of the emperor Arca-
dius, 120 ; St Epiphanius, 115 ? Simeon the Stylite,
112 ; and Romauld, 120. Indeed, we can match
thefe inftances of longevity at home. Buchanan in¬
forms us, that one Laurence arrived at the great age
of 140 by force of temperance and labour 5 and Spotf-
wood mentions one Kentigern, afterwards called St
Mongah or Mungo, who lived to loj by the fame
means. Abftinence, however, is to be recommended
only as it means a proper regimen 5 for in general it
muft have bad confequences when obferved without a
due regard to conftitution, age, ftrength, Sec.. Ac¬
cording to Dr Cheyne, moil of the chronical difeafes,
the infirmities of old age, and the fhort lives of Eng-
lifhmen, are owing to repletion ; and may be either
cured, prevented, or remedied by abftinence ; but then
the kinds of abilinence which ought to be obferved,
either in ficknefs or health, are to be deduced from the
laws of diet and regimen.
Among the inferior animals, we fee extraordinary
inftances of long abftinence. The ferpent kind, in par¬
ticular, bear abftinence to a wonderful degree. We
have feen rattle-fnakes which had lived many months
without any food, yet ftill retained their vigour and
fiercenefs. Dr Shaw fpeaks of a couple of ceraftes (a
fort of Egyptian ferpents), which had been kept five
years in a bottle clofe corked, without any lort of food,
unlefs a fmall quantity of fand in which they coiled
themfelves up in the bottom of the veffel may be rec¬
koned as fuch : yet when he faw them, they had new¬
ly caft their Ikins, and were as brilk and lively as if
juft taken. But it is natural for divers fpecies to pafs
four, five, or fix months every year, without either eat¬
ing or drinking. Accordingly,-the tortoife, bear, dor-
moufe, ferpent, See. are obferved regularly to retire, at
thofe feafons, to their refpedftive cells, and hide them¬
felves, fome in the caverns of rocks or ruins 5 others
dig holes under ground *, others get into woods, and
lay themfelves up in the clefts of trees ; others bury
themfelves under wrater, &c. And thefe animals are
found as fat and flefny, after fome months abftinence, as
* Phil. before.—Sir G. Ent * weighed his tortoife feveral years
I'ranf. fucceffively, at its going to earth in Oftober, and coming
out again in March 5 and found, that of four pounds
four ounces, it only ufed to lofe about one ounce. In¬
deed we have inftances of men pafling feveral months
as ftrittly abftinent as other creatures. In particular,
the records of the Tower mention a Scotchman im-
prifoned for felony, and ftrictly watched in that fortrefs
for fix weeks, during which time he did not take the
leaft fuftenance ; and on this account he obtained his
pardon. Numberlefs inftances of extraordinary ab¬
ftinence, particularly from morbid caufes, are to be
found in the different periodical Memoirs, Tranfaftions,
Ephemerides, &c. It is to be added, that, in moft in¬
ftances of extraordinary human abftinence related by
naturalifts, there wTere faid to have been apparent
marks of a texture of blood and humours, much like
that of the animals above mentioned. Though it is
no improbable opinion, that the air itfelf may furnifti
iomething for nutrition, it is certain, there are fub-
[ 45 1   A I* S 
food, ftances of all kinds, animal, vegetable, &c. floating Abfdrents
in the atmofphere, which muft be continually taken in
by refpiration; and that an animal body may be nouriih-
ed thereby, is evident in the inftance of vipers ; which
if taken when firft brought forth, and kept from every
thing but air, will yet grow very confiderably in a few
days. So the eggs of lizards are obferved to increafe
in bulk, after they are produced, though there be no¬
thing to furnifti the increment but air alone 5 in like
manner as the eggs or fpawn of fifties grow and are
nourifhed with the water. And hence, fay fome, it is
that cooks, turnfpit dogs, &c, though they eat but
little, yet are ufually fat. See Fasting.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstinentes, a fet of here¬
tics that appeared in France and Spain about the end
of the third century. They are fuppofed to have bor¬
rowed part of their opinions from the Gnoftics and Ma~
nicheans, becaufe they oppofed marriage, condemned
the ufe of fleftr meat, and placed the Holy Ghoft in
the clafs of created beings. We have, however, no
certain account of their peculiar tenets.
ABSTR ACT, in a general fenfe, any thing fepa-
rated from fomething elfe.
Abstract Idea, in Metaphyfics, is a partial idea of
a complex objeft, limited to one or more of the compo¬
nent parts or properties, laying afide or abftradding from
the reft. Thus, in viewing an objebt with the eye, or
recollecfting it in the mind, we can eafily abftrabt from
fome of its parts or properties, and attach ourfelves to
others : we can attend to the rednefs of a cherry, with¬
out regard to its figure, tafte, or confiftence. See Ab¬
straction.
Abstract Mathematics, otherwife called Pure Ma¬
thematics, is that which treats of magnitude or quantity,
abfolutely and generally confidered, without reftriclion
to any fpecies of particular magnitude 5 fuch are A-
rithmetic and Geometry. In this fenfe, abftraft ma¬
thematics is oppofed to mixed mathematics ; wherein
fimple and abftraft properties, and the relations of
quantities primitively confidered in pure mathematics,
are applied to fenfible objebls, and by that means be¬
come intermixed with phyfical confiderations : fuch are
Hydroftatics, Optics, Navigation, &c.
Abstract Numbers, are affemblages of units, con¬
fidered in themfelves without denoting any particu¬
lar and determinate things. Thus 6 is an abftraft
number, when not applied to any thing j but if we
fay 6 feet, 6 becomes a concrete number. See the ar¬
ticle Number.
Abstract Penns, words that are ufed to exprefs ab-
ftraft ideas. Thus beauty, uglinefs, whitenefs, round-
nefs, life, death, are abftraft terms.
Abstract, in Literature, a compendious view of any
large work ; fhorter and more fuperficial than an
abridgment.
ABSTRACTION, in general, the art of abftraft-
ing, or the ftate of being abftratled.
Abstraction, in Metaphyf.es, the operation of the
mind when occupied by abftraft ideas. A large oak
fixes our attention, and abftra&s us from the fhrubs
that furround it. In the fame manner, a beautiful
woman in a crowd, abftrafts our thoughts, and engrof-
fes our attention folely to herfelf. Thefe are examples
of real abftraftion : when thefe, or any others of a fi~
jjiilar kind, are recalled to the mind after the objechs
themfelve®
Abftrufe
Abfyrtus.
A B S [ 4^ 1 ABU
tlaemfelves are removed from our figlit, tliey form what ABTHANES, in Hi/Jory, a title of honour ufed by Abtktnes,
is called abflratt ideas, or the mind is faid to be em- the ancient inhabitants of Scotland, who called their Abubeker.
ployed in abftradl ideas. But the potver of abftraclion
is not confined to objects that are feparable in reality
as well as mentally : the fize, the figure, the colour of
a tree are infeparably connected, and cannot exilt inde¬
pendent of each other ; and yet we can mentally confine
our obfervations to any one of thefe properties, ne¬
glecting or abftraCting from the reft.
Ab(traction is chiefly employed thefe three ways.
Firft, When the mind confiders any one part of a
thing, in fome refpeCt dill inch from the whole j as a
man’s arm, without the confideration of the reft of the
body. Secondly, When we confider the ?node of any
fubftance, omitting the fubftance itfelf \ or when we
feparately confider feveral modes which fubfift toge¬
ther in one fubjeft. This ab ft r aCtion the geometricians
make ufe of when they confider the length of a body
feparately, which they call a line, omitting the confi-
dcration of its breadth and thicknefs. Thirdly, It is
by abftraftion that the mind forms general or univerfal
ideas : omitting the modes and relations of the parti¬
cular objcCts whence they are formed. Thus, when
we would under ft and a thinking being in general, we
gather from our felf-conicioufnefs what it is to think j
and omitting thofe things which have a particular re¬
lation to our own minds, or to the human mind, we
conceive a thinking being in general.
Ideas formed in this manner, which are what we
properly call abJlraEl ideas, become general reprefenta-
tives of all objeCls of the fame kind •, and their names
applicable to whatever exifts conformable to fuch ideas.
Thus the idea of colour that we receive from chalk,
{how, milk, &c. is a reprefentative of all of that kind ;
and has a name given it, whitenefs, which fignifies the
fame quality wherever found or imagined.
ABSTRUSE, fomething deep, hidden, concealed,
or far removed from common apprehenfions, and there¬
fore not eafily underftood } in oppofition to what is
obvious and palpable. Thus metaphyfics is an abftrufe
fcience 5 and the doClrine of fluxions, and the method
de maximis et minimis, are abftrufe points of know¬
ledge.
ABSURD, an epithet applied to any thing that is
contrary to human apprehenfion, and contradicts a ma-
nifeft truth. Thus, it would be abfurd to fay that 6
and 6 make only 10, or to deny that twice 6 make 12,
When the term abfurd is applied to aCtions, it has the
fame import as ridiculous,
ABSURDUM, reduciio ad abfurdutn, is a mode of
demonftration employed by mathematicians when they
prove the truth of a propofition by demonftrating that
the contrary is impoffible, or leads to an abfurdity. It
is in this manner that Euclid demonftrates the fourth
propofition of the firft book of the Elements, by (bow¬
ing that the contrary involves a manifeft abfurdity, viz.
“ That two fraight lines can inclofe a/jjaceT
ABSYNTHIUM. See Artemisia, Botany-
Index.
ABSYRTUS, in Heathen Mythology, the fon of
iEtes and Hypfea, and the brother of Medea. The
latter running away with Jafon, after her having aflift-
ed him in carrying oft' the golden fleece, was purfued
by her father j when, to flop his progrefs, {he tore Ab-
rvrtus in pieces, and fcattered his limbs in his way.
1
nobles thanes, which in the old Saxon fignifies l,ing'ls
mi aiders ; and of theie the higher rank were ft} led ab~
thanes, and thofe of the lower under thanes.
ABUBEKER, or Abu-Becr, the firft caliph, the
immediate facceffor of Mahomet, and one of his firft
converts. His original name was Abdulcaaba, ftgni-
fying, fervant of the caaba or temple, which, after his
converfion to Mahometan!fm, was changed to Abdalh.h,
fervant of God; and on the marriage of the prophet
with his daughter Ayeiha, he received the appellation
of Abu-Becr, Father of the virgin. Uluftrious by his fa¬
mily, and poiTeffed of immenfe wealth, his influence and
example were powerful means of propagating the faith
he had adopted, and in gaining converts to the new re¬
ligion. Abubeker was a found believer, and although
he lived in the greateft familiarity with Mahomet, he
had always the higheft veneration for his character.
He vouched for the truth of his revelations after his
nightly vifits to heaven, and thus obtained the appella¬
tion of the faithful. He was employed in every mil¬
lion of truft or importance, was the conftant friend of
the prophet, and when he was forced to fly from Mecca,
was his only companion. But notwithftanding his
blind devotion to Mahometanifm, his moderation and
prudence were confpicuous in checking the fanatical
zeal of the difciples of the new religion, on the death
of Mahomet. This event threatened deftruflion to the
doclrines of Iflamifm. Its followers could not doubt
that it had taken place, and they were afraid to believe
it. In this uncertainty and fluftuation of belief, Omar
drew his fword, and threatened to cut in pieces all who
dared to aftert that the prophet vras dead. Abubeker,
with more coolnefs and wifdom, addrefied the people,
Is it, fays he, Mahomet whom you adore, or the God
whom he has revealed to you ? Know that this God is
alone immortal, and that all thofe whom he has created
arc fibjeel to death. Appeafed and reconciled by this
fpeech, they defied him fucceffor to Mahomet, and he
aflumed the modeft title of caliph, which has continued
with all his fucceflbrs. Ali, the fon-in-law of the pro¬
phet, regarding the elevation of Abubeker as a viola¬
tion of his legal rights to the fucceftion, refufed at firft
to recognife the appointment, till he was forced by
threats into compliance and fubmiffion. His partifans,
however, ftill confidered him as the legitimate fuccef-
for, and their opinion has prevailed among many Muf-
fulmans, who believe that the fovereign authority, both
fpiritual and temporal, remains with his defeendants.
The firft part of the reign of Abubeker wras unfet¬
tled and turbulent. Many of his fubjefls returned to
idolatry, fome embraced Chriftianity, new impoftors, a-
rofe. Seduced by the example of Mahomet, they were
dazzled with the hope of power and diftinflion, and
were thus led on to deftruftion. He alone Was received
as the true prophet, all others were falfe. Abubeker,
with the affiftance of- Caled, an able general, foon re¬
duced to fubmiflion and obedience, or punilhed with
death, all thofe who difputed or refilled his authority.
Tranquillity being eftablifhed at home, he fent out his
armies, under the fame general, to propagate the Ma¬
hometan faith in Syria, which, after a bloody battle,
was compelled to fubmit to a new power, and to adopt
a new religion. Damafcus was afterwards befieged j
ABU [ 47 J A B Y
Abucco and on the very day that it furrendered and opened its
11 gates to his victorious arms, Abubeker expired, in the
Abundant. ^ year of the Hegira#
_v The public conduct of this caliph was marked by
prudence, equity, and moderation. Mild and ftmple in
his manners, frugal in his fare, he difcovered great in¬
difference to riches and honours. Such was his libe¬
rality to the poor and to his foldiers, that he beffowed
on them the whole of his revenue. The treafury being
on this account quite exhaufted at his death, made
Omar fay, “ that he had left a difficult example for his
fucceffors to follow.” A ffiort time before his death,
he dictated his will in the following words : “ This is
the will of Abubeker, which he dictated at the mo¬
ment of his departure from this world : At this moment
when the infidel ffiall believe, when the impious lhall
no longer doubt, and liars lhall fpeak truth, I name
Omar for my fucceffor. Muffulmans, hear his voice,
and obey h;s commands. If he rule jultly, he will con¬
firm the good opinion which I have conceived of him ;
but if he deviate from the paths of equity, he mult
render an account before the tribunal of the fovereign
judge. My thoughts are upright, but I cannot fee
into futurity. In a word, they who do evil, lhall not
always efcape with impunity.” Abubeker firlt col¬
lected and digelted the revelations of Mahomet, which
had hitherto been preferved in detached fragments, or
in the memories of the Muffulman believers j and to
this the Arabians gave the appellation Atmofhaf, or
the Book. The firlt copy was depofited in the hands
of Hafeffa, the daughter of Omar and the widow
of Mahomet.
ABUCCO, Abocco, or Abocchi, a weight ufed
in the kingdom of Pegu. One abucco contains 12-t-
teccalis 5 two abuccos make a giro or agire ; two giri,
half a hi%a ; and a hi%a weighs an hundred teccalis ;
that is, two pounds live ounces the heavy vceight, or
three pounds nine ounces the light weight of Venice.
ABUKESO, in Commerce, the fame with Aslan.
ABULFARAGIUS, Gregory, fon of Aaron a
phylician, born in 1226, in the city of Malatia, near
the fource of the Euphrates in Armenia. He followed
the profeffion of his father j and praCHfed with great
fuccefs : but he acquired a higher reputation by the llu-
dy of the Greek, Syriac, and Arabic languages, as
well as by his knowledge of philofophy and divinity j
and he wrote a hillory which does great honour to his
memory. It is written in Arabic, and divided into dy-
nafties. It conlifts of ten parts, being an epitome of
univerfal hillory from the creation of the world to his
own time. The parts of it relating to the Saracens,
Tartar Moguls, and the conquelfs of Jenghis Khan, are
eileemed the moll valuable. He profeffed Chriftianity,
and was bifhopqf Aleppo, and is fuppofed to have belong¬
ed to the feci of the Jacobites. His contemporaries
fpeak of him in a llrain of moll extravagant panegyric.
He is Ityled the king of the learned, the pattern of
his times, the phoenix of the age, and the crown of the
virtuous. Dr Pococke publiffied his hiilojj^ with a La¬
tin tranflation in 1663 ; and added, by way of fupple-
ment, a ffiort continuation relating to the hillory of the
eallern princes.
ABUNA, the title given to the archbilhop or me¬
tropolitan of Abyffinia.
ABUNDANT n umber, in Arithmetic, is a num¬
ber, the fum of whofe aliquot parts is greater than the AlnmcLn-
number itfelf. Thus the aliquot parts of 12, being 1, tia
2? 3> 4> and 6, they make, when added together, 16. yd os
An abundant number is oppofed to a deficient number, ■ fi" ' .
or that which is greater than all its aliquot parts taken
together j as 14, whofe aliquot parts are 1, 2, and 7,
which makes no more than 10 : and to a per feci num¬
ber, or one to which its aliquot parts are equal, as 6,
whofe aliquot parts are 1,2, and 3.
ABUNDANTIA, a heathen divinity, reprefent-
ed in ancient monuments under the figure of a wo¬
man with a plealing afpedt, crowned with garlands
of flowers, pouring all forts of fruit out of a horn
which the holds in her right hand, and fcattering
grain with her left, taken promifcuoufly from a iheaf
of corn. On a medal of Trajan lire is reprefented with
two cornucopia.1. N
ABUSAID, Ebn Aljaptu, fultan of the Moguls,
fucceeded his father, anno 7 r 7 of the Hegira. He was
the lalt monarch of the race of Jenghis Khan, who
held the undivided empire of the Moguls ; for after
his death, which happened the fame year that Tamer¬
lane wras born, it became a fcene of blood and defola-
tion, and was broken into feparate fovereignties.
ABUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Britain,
formed by the confluence of the Ure, the Derwent,
Trent, &c. falling into the German fea, between York-
Ihire and Lincolnihire, and forming the mouth of the
Humber.
ABUSE, an irregular ufe of a thing, or the introdu¬
cing fomething contrary to the true intention thereof.
In grammar, to apply a word abufivcly, or in an alt five
fenfe, is to mifapply or pervert its meaning.—A per¬
mutation of benefices, without the confent of the bilhop,
is termed ahfive, and confequently null.
ABUTILON, in Botany, the trivial name of feve-
ral fpecies of the fida. See Sid a,’Botany Index.
ABYDOS, in Ancient Geography, anciently a town
built by the Milefians. in Afia, on the Hellefpont,,
where it is fcarce a mile over, oppofite to Seftos on the
European fide. Now both are called the Dardanelles.
Abydos lay midway betw-een Lampfacus and Ilium, fa¬
mous for Xerxes’s bridge, (Herodotus, Virgil) ; and for
the loves of Leander and Hero, (Mufreus, Ovid); cele¬
brated alfo for its oyfters (Ennius, Virgil). The iidia-
bitants were a foft effeminate people, given much to de-
tradlion ; hence the proverb, Ne temere Abydum calc are,
when we w ould caution againft danger, (Stephanus).
Abydos, in Ancient Geography, an inland town of
Egypt, betwTefen Ptolemais and Diofpolis Parva, to¬
wards Syene j famous for the palace of Memnon and
the temple of Ofiris. A colony of Milefians j (Stepha¬
nus). It Was the only one in the country into which
the fingers and dancers were forbidden to enter.
The city, reduced to a village under the empire of
Auguftus, now prefents to our view only a heap of
ruins without inhabitants j but to the v'cff of thefe
ruins is ftill found the celebrated tomb of Ofymqndes..
The entrance is under a portico 60 feet high, and fup-
ported by two rows of maffy columns. The immove¬
able folidity of the edifice, the huge maffes wffiich com-
pofe it, the hieroglyphics it is loaded with, ftamp it a
wTork of the ancient Egyptians. Beyond it is a temple
300 feet long and 145 wide. Upon entering the mo¬
nument we meet with an immenfe hall, the roof of
which.
A B Y
Abyla.
[ 48 ]
a b r
wliich is fupported by 28 columns 60 feet high, and 19
^ in circumference at tire bale. Idiey aie 12 te^t ddlant
from each other. The enormous itones that form the
ceiling, perfectly joined and incrufted, as it were, one
in the other, offer to the eye nothing but one folid plat¬
form of marble 126 feet long and 26 wide. The walls
are covered with hieroglyphics. One fees there a mul¬
titude of animals, birds, and human figures with point¬
ed caps on their heads, and a piece of fluff hanging
down behind, dreffed in loofe robes that come down
only to the waift. The fculpture, however, is clumfy 5
the forms of the body, the attitudes and proportions of
the members, ill obferved. Amongft thefe we may di-
ilinguiffi fome women fuckling their children, and men
preienting oft'erings to them. Here alfo ive meet with
the divinities of India. Monfieur Chevalier, formerly
governor of Chandernagore, who refided 20 years in
that country, carefully vifited this monument on his re¬
turn from Bengal. He remarked here the gods Jag-
(rrenate, Gones^ and Vcchuou or Wijlnou^ fuch as they are
reprefented in the temples of Indoftan. . A great gate
opens at the bottom of the firft hall, which leads to an
apartment p6 feet long by 2 2 wide. Six fipiare pillars
fupport the roof of it; and at the angles are the doors
of four other chambers, but fo choked up with rub-
bifli that they cannot now be entered. The laft hall,
64 feet long by 24 wide, has flairs by which one de-
fcends into the fubterraneous apartments of this grand
edifice. The Arabs, in fearching after treafure, have
piled up heaps of earth and rubbiih. In the part we
are able to penetrate, fculpture, and hieroglyphics are
difc over able as in the upper ftory. The natives fay that
they correfpond exaftly with thofe above ground, and
that the columns are as deep in the earth as their
height above the furface. It would be dangerous to
go "far into thofe vaults j for the air of them is fo load¬
ed with a mephitic vapour, that a candle can fcarce be
kept burning in them. Six lions heads, placed on the
two Tides of the temple, ferve as fpouts to carry off the
water. You mount to the top by a ftaircafe of a very
Angular ftruclure. It is built with ftones incrufted in
the wall, and projecting fix feet out } fo that being
fupported only at one end, they appear to be fufpended
in the air. The walls, the roof, and the columns of
this edifice, have fuffered nothing from the injuries of
time ; and did not the hieroglyphics, by. being cor¬
roded in fome places, mark its antiquity,, it would ap¬
pear to have been newly built. The folidity is fuch,
that unlefs people make a point of deftroying it, the
building muft laft a great number of ages. Except the
coloffal figures, whole heads ferve as an ornament to
the capitals of the columns, and which are fculptured
in relievo, the reft of the hieroglyphics which cover the
infide are carved in ftone. To the left of this great
building we meet with another much fmaller, at the
bottom of which is a fort of altar. . This was probably
the fancluary of the temple of Oliris.
ABYLA (Ptolemy, Mela) 5 one of Hercules’s
pillars, on the African fide, called by the Spaniards
Sierra de las Monas, oppofite to Calpe in Spain, the
other pillar •, fuppofed to have been formerly joined,
but feparated by Hercules, and thus to have given en¬
trance to the fea now called the Mediterranean ; the li¬
mits of the labours of Hercules (Pliny).
4BYSS, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething pro-
Abyfs.
found, and, as it were, bottomlefs. The word.is ori- ^
ginally Greek, ; compounded of the privative "
a, and q. d. without a bottom.
Abyss, in a more particular fenie, denotes a deep
mafs or fund of waters. In this ieide, the word is
particularly ufed in the Septuagint, for the water
which God created at the beginning with the earth,
which encompaffed it round, and which our tranflators
render by deep. Thus it is that darknefs is faid to ha%e
been on the face of the abyfs.
Abyss is alio ufed for an immenfe ca'vern in the
earth, in which God is fuppofed to have colle£ted all
thofe waters on the third day } which, in oui verfion,
is rendered the fcas, and elfewhere the great deep. Li
Woodward, in his Natural Hiftory of the Earth, af-
ferts, That there is a mighty collection of waters en-
clofed in the bowels of the earth, conftituting a huge
orb in the interior or central parts of it; and over the
furface of this water he fuppofes the terreftrial ftrata to
be expanded. This, according to him, is what Mofes
calls the great deep, and what moft authors rendei t!'£
great abyfs. The water of this vaft abyfs, he alleges,
communicates with that of the ocean, by means of cer->
tain hiatufes or chafms palling betwixt it and the bot¬
tom of the ocean } and this and the abyfs he fuppoies
to have one common centre, around which the water
of both is placed ; but fo, that the ordinary furface of
the abyfs is not level with that of the ocean, nor at ±o
great a diftance from the centre as the other, it being
for the moft part reftrained and depreffed by the ftrata
of earth lying upon it : but wherever thele ftrata are
broken, or fo lax and porous that water can pervade
them, there the water of the abyfs afcends } fills up all
the clefts and fiffures into which it can get admittance }
and faturates all the interftices and pores of the earth,
ftone, or other matter, all around the globe, quite up
to the level of the ocean.
The exiftence of an abyfs or receptacle of fubterra¬
neous waters, is controverted by Camerarius * 5 and
defended by Dr Woodward chiefly by two arguments : ^
the firft drawn from the vaft quantity of water which tom.
covered the earth, in the time of the deluge } the fe- p, 24.
cond, from the confideration of earthquakes,, which he
endeavours to Ihow are occalioned by the violence .of
the waters in this abyfs. A great part of the terreftrial
globe has been frequently Ihaken at the fame mo-
ment *, which argues, according to him, that the wa¬
ters, which were the occafion thereof, were coextend¬
ed with that part of the globe. There are even in-4
fiances of univerfal earthquakes; which (fays he) the Earth.
fhow, that the whole abyfs muft have been agitated ; Journal de
for fo general an effecT muft have been produced by as
general a caufe, and that caufe can be nothing bin the ^
fubterraneous abyfs f . ... Memoirs of
To this abyfs alfo has been attributed the origin oi Literature-.
fprings and rivers; the level maintained in. the ^r-tom^ vm
fpas : and their not overflowing their v- ’
&c.
faces^of different feas ; and their not overflowing their - Hcl/
banks. To the effluvia emitted from it, lome even Jntr{ill to
attribute all the diverfities of weather and change in WoodivarJ's
our atmofphere f. Ray j|, and other authors, ancient Hijl.ofthe
as well as modern, fuppofe a communication between
as well as modern, mppuiC a A£ia Erud.
the Cafpian fea and the ocean by means of a lubterra- ,,
in 1 j E 1.. A-1 t «-»4-4-vt n 4-» 14 r >i 4 I 1 — ,, ■»-. r /-
LHC xv,**. ——   * . - f id*/*1
nean abyfs : and to this they attribute it that the Lai- y P/jyj
pian does not overflow, notwithftanding the great num- ‘Theol
ber of large rivejrs it receives, of which Kempfer rec-Difc n.c.r.
0 i kous P- 7°*
A B Y [ 49 ] A B Y
Abyfs, kons akove 50 in the compafs of 60 miles ; though
Abydutia. others fuppofe that the daily evaporation may fuffice to
v_ keep the level.
The different arguments concerning this fubjedt may
be feen colledled and amplified in “ Cockburn’s Inquiry
into the Truth and Certainty of the Mofaic Deluge,”
p. 271, &c. After all, however, this amazing theory
of a central abyfs is far from being demonftrated : it
will perhaps in feveral refpedts appear inconfiftent with
found philofophy, as well as repugnant to the pheno¬
mena of nature. In particular, if we believe any thing
like eledlive attraction to have prevailed in the forma¬
tion of the earth, we muff believe that the feparation
of the chaos proceeded from the union of limilar par¬
ticles. It is certain that red is favourable to fuch ope¬
rations of nature. As, therefore, the central parts of
the earth were more immediately quiefcent than thofe
remote from the centre, it feems ablurd to liippofe that
the heavier and denfer bodies gave place to the more
light and fluid ; that the central part fhould confift of
water only, and the more fuperficial part of a cruft or
fliell. Vid. “ Whitehurft’s Inquiry into the original
Formation of.the Strata,” &c. See Deluge.
Abyss is alfo ufed to denote hell j in which fenfe
the word is fynonymous with what is otherwife called
Barathrum, Erebus, and Tartarus; in the Engliih Bible,
the bottomlefs pit. The unclean fpirits expelled by
Chrift, begged, ne imperaret ut in abyjfum irent, ac¬
cording to the vulgate •, w? dfivro-ov, according to the
Greek, Luke viii. 31. Rev. ix. 1.
Abyss is more particularly ufed, in Antiquity, to de¬
note the temple of Proferpine. It was thus called on
account of the immenfe fund of gold and riches depo-
fited there ; fome fay hid under ground.
Abyss is alfo ufed in Heraldry to denote the centre
of an efcutcheon. In which fenfe a thing is faid to be
borne in abyfs, en abyftne, when placed in the middle of
the Ihield, clear from any other bearing : He bears
_< azure, a flower de lis, in abyfs.
ABYSSINIA, Abassia, or Upper Ethiopia, in
Geography, an empire of Africa within the torrid zone,
which is comprehended between the 7th and 16th de¬
gree N. Lat. and the 30th and 40th degree of E. Long.
By* fome writers of antiquity the title of Ethiopians
was given to all nations whofe complexion was black :
hence we find the Arabians, as well as many other Afia-
tics, fometimes falling under this denomination ; be-
ftdes a number of Africans whofe country lay at a di-
ftsnce from Ethiopia properly fo called. Thus the
Africans in general rvere divided into the w-eftern or
Helperian Ethiopians, and thofe above Egypt fituated
to the eaft •, the latter being much more generally
known than the former, by reafon of the commeice
they carried on with the Egyptians.
Different From this account wTe may eafily underftand why
names. there ftiould be fuch a feeming difagreement among
ancient authors concerning the fituation of the empire
of Ethiopia, and likewife why it ftiould pafs under fuch
a variety‘of names. Sometimes, for example, it -was
named India, and the inhabitants Indians; an appel¬
lation likewife applied to many other diftant nations.
It was alfo denominated Atlantia and Etheria, and in
the moft remote periods of antiquity Cephenia; but
more ufually Abafene, a word fomewhat refembling
Vol. L Part I.
AbaJJia or Abyjfmia, its modern names. On the other AWflmia.
band, we find Perlia, Chaldaea, Affyria, &c. ftyled '•““’“V
Ethiopia by fome writers ; and all the countries extend¬
ing along the coafts of the Red lea were prornifcuoully
denominated India and Ethiopia. By the Jews the
empire of Ethiopia was ftyled Cujh and Ludim.
Notwithftanding this diverfity of appellations, and
vaft diffufion of territory aferibed to the Ethiopians,
there was one country to which the title was thought
more properly to belong than to any of the reft ; and
which was therefore called Ethiopia Propria. This Situation of
was bounded on the north by Egypt, extending all Ethtcpia
the way to the leffer cataracl of the Nile, and an iiland ?rot'r>a-
named Elephantine; on the weft it had Libya Interior;
on the eaft the Red fea, and on the fouth unknown
parts of Africa ; though thefe boundaries cannot be
fixed with any kind of precifion.
In this country the ancients diftinguifhed a great va- Different
riety of different nations, to whom they gave names nations ac-
either from forne perfonal circumftance, or from their cor^m£ t0
manner of living. The principal of thefe were, 1. 7'he
Blemmyes, feated near the borders of Egypt; and who,
probably from the Ihortnefs of their necks, were faid
to have no heads, but eyes, mouths, &c. in their breafts.
Their form muft have been very extraordinary, if we
believe Vo pi feus, who gives an account of fome of the
captives of this nation brought to Rome. 2. The No-
batce, inhabiting the banks of the Nile near the ifland
Elephantine already mentioned, faid to have been re¬
moved thither by Oafis to reprefs the incurfions of the
Blemmyes. 3. The Troglodytes, by fome writers faid
to belong to Egypt, and deferibed ‘as little fuperior to
brutes. 4. The Nubians, of whom little more is known
than their name. 5. The Pigmies, by fome fuppofed
to be a tribe of Troglodytes ; but by others placed-on
the African coaft of the Red fea. 6. The Aualitce or
Abalitce, of which we know nothing more than that
they were fituated near the Abalitic gulf. 7. The
Struthiophagi, fo called from their feeding upon oftrich-
es, wrere fituated to the fouth of the Memnones. 8. The
Acridophagi; 9. Chelonophagi; 1 o. Ichthyophagi;
11. Cynamolgi; 12. Elephantophagi; 13. Rhmophagi;
14. Spermatophagi; 15. Hylophagi; and, 16. Ophio-
phagi: all of whom had their names from the food they
made ufe of, viz. locufts, tortoifes, fifh, bitches milk,
elephants, roots, fruits or feeds, and ferpents. 17. The
Uylogones, neighbours to the Elephantophagi, and
who were fo favage that they had no houfes, nor any
other places to fleep in but the tops of trees. 18. The
Pamphugi, who ufed almoft every thing indiferimi-
nately for food. 19. The Agriophagi, who lived on
the flefli of wTild beafts. 20. The Anthropophagi, or
man-eaters, are now fuppofed to have been the Caffres,
and not any inhabitants of Proper Ethiopia. 21. The
Hippophagi, or horfe-eaters, who lay to the northward
of Libya Incognita. 22. The Macrobii, a powerful
nation, remarkable for their longevity : fome of them
attaining the age of 120 years. 23. Fire Sanibri, fi¬
tuated near the city of Tenupfis in Nubia upon the
Nile : of whom it is reported that all the quadrupeds
they had, not excepting even the elephants, were de-
fiitute of ears. 24. The Afachce, a people inhabiting
the mountainous parts, and continually employed in
hunting elephants. Befides thefe, there were a num-
G ber
A B Y [
Abyffinia. bef of other nations or tribes, of whom we fcarce know
*■“     any thing but the names; as the Gapachi, Ptoem-
phanes, Catadupi, Pechini, Catadrse, &.c.
Firft fettle- In a country inhabited by fuch a variety of nations,
ment. all in a date of extreme barbarifm, it is rather to be
wondered that we have any hiftory at all, than that it
is not more diftinft. It has already been obferved,
that the Jews, from the authority of the facred writers
no doubt, bellowed the name of Cuff) upon the empire
of Ethiopia j and it is generally agreed that Culh was
the great progenitor of the inhabitants. In fome paf-
fages of Scripture, however, it would feem that Cujh
was an appellation bellowed upon the whole peninfula
of Arabia, or at lead the greater part of it. In others,
the word feems to denominate the country watered
by the Araxes, the feat of the ancient Scythians or
Culhites} and fometimes the country adjacent to
Egypt on the coad of the Red fea.
A number of authors are of opinion, that Ethiopia
received its fird inhabitants from the country lying to
Peopled ori-the ead of the Red fea. According to them, the de-
Jrom A a ^cen^ants Culh, having fettled in Arabia, gradually
" migrated to the fouth-eallern extremity of that coun¬
try ; whence, by an eafy paffage acrofs the draits of
Babelmnndel, they transported themfelves to the Afri¬
can fide, and entered the country properly called Ethio¬
pia : a migration which, according to Eufebius, took
place during the refidence of the Ifraelites in Egypt ;
but, in the opinion of Syncellus, after they had taken
poffelfion of Canaan, and were governed by judges.
Abyffinian Mr Bruce makes mention of a tradition among the
tradition Abydinians, which, they fay, has exided among them
concerning £rom tjme immemorial, that very foon after the fiood,
Culh the grandfon of Noah, with his family, paffed
through Atbara, then without inhabitants, till they
came to the ridge of mountains which feparates that
country from the high lands of Abydmia. Here, dill
terrified with the thoughts of the deluge, and appre-
henfive of a return of the fame calamity, they chofe
to dwell in caves made in the fides of thefe moun¬
tains, rather than trud themfelves in the plains of At¬
bara ; and our author is of opinion, that the tropical
rains, which they could not fail to meet with in their
journey fouthward, and which would appear like the
return of the deluge, might induce them to take up
Original their habitations in thefe high places. Be this as it
^fons will, he informs us that it is an undoubted fa£l, “ that
Cuihites. here the Culhites, with unparalleled indudry,. and with
indruments utterly unknown to us, formed to them¬
felves commodious, yet wonderful habitations in the
heart of mountains of granite and marble, which re¬
main entire in great numbers to this day, and promife
to do fo till the confummation of all things.”
The Culhites having once edablilhed themfelves
among thefe mountains, continued to form habitations
of the like kind in all the neighbouring ones ; and thus
following the different chains (for they never chofe to
defeend into the low country), fpread the arts and
Iciences, which they cultivated, quite acrofs the Afri¬
can continent from the eadern to the wedern ocean.
According to tire tradition above-mentioned, they
built the city of Axum early in the days of Abraham.
Deicription This, though now an inconfiderable village, was an-
of the city ciently noted for its fuperb druftures, of which fome
el Axum. xeraabis are dill vilible. Among thefe are fome be-
50 ] A B Y
longing to a magnificent temple, originally no feet AbyfPma.
in length, and having two wings on each fide ; a v-—-y——'
double porch j and an afeent of 12 deps. Behind this
Hand feveral obelilks of different fizes, with the re¬
mains of feveral others which have been dedroyed by
the Turks. There is alfo a great fquare done with an,
infeription, but fo much effaced that nothing can be
difeovered excepting fome Greek and Latin letters,
and the word Bqfi/ius. Mr Bruce mentions fome
“ prodigious fragments of coloffal datues of the dog-
dar” dill to be feen at this place ; and “ Setr (adds
he), which, in the language of the Troglodytes, and
in that of the low country of Meroe, exactly corre-
fponding to it, fignifies a dog, indrudts us in the rea-
fon why this province was called Sire, and the large
river which bounds it Sir is.'n
Soon after building the city of Axum, the Cudiites
founded that of Meroe, the capital of a large idand or
peninfula formed by the Nile, much mentioned by an¬
cient hidorians, and where, according to Herodotus,
they purfued the dudy of adronomy in very early ages
with great fuccefs. Mr Bruce .gives two reafons for Meroe why
their building this city in the low country after having founded,
built Axum in the mountainous part of Abyffinia.
1. They had difeovered fome inconveniencies in their
caves both in Sit'e and the country below it, arifing
from the tropical rains in which they were now involved,
and which prevented them from making the celedial
obfervations- to which they were fo much addidled.
2. It is probable that they built this city farther from
the mountains than they could have wifhed, in order to
avoid the fly with w hich the fouthern parts were infeded.
This animal, according to Mr Bruce, who has given
a figure of it, is the mod troublefome to quadrupeds Defcription
that can be imagined. He informs us, that it infeds°^a Peftl_
thofe places within the tropical rains where the foil islenUa
black and loamy, and no other place whatever. It is
named Zimb (by wffiom we are not informed), and has
not been deferibed by any other naturalid. It is of a
fize femewhat larger than a bee, thicker in proportion,
and having broader wings, placed feparate like thofe
of a fly, and quite colourlefs, or without any fpots.
The head is large, with a fharp upper jawat the end
of wffiich is a drong pointed hair about a quarter of an
inch long •, and the lower jaw has twro of thefe hairs :
all of which together make a refidance to the finger
equal to that of a drong hog’s bridle. One or all of
thefe hairs are ufed as w eapons of offence to the cattle j
but what purpofe they anfwrer to the animal itfelf, our
author does not fay. So intolerable, however, are its
attacks to the cattle, that they no fooner hear its buz¬
zing, than they forfake their food, and run about till
they fall down with fright, fatigue, and hunger. Even
the camel, though defended by a thick and drong flein
with long hair, cannot refid the pundlures of this in-
fe£l} which feem to be poifonous, as they produce large
putrid fwellings on the body, head, and legs, which at
lad terminate in death. To avoid this dreadful enemy,
the cattle mud all be removed as quick as poffible to
the fandy parts of Atbara, where they day as long as
the rains lad, and where this dreadful enemy never
ventures to follow them. The elephant and rhinoceros,
who, on account of the quantity of food they require,
cannot remove to thefe barren places, roll themfelves
in the mud, which, when dry, coats them over fo hard,
A B Y [5
Abyffinia. that they are enabled to refill the pun£lures of the in-
. though even on theie fome tubercles are gene¬
rally to be met with, which our author attributes to
this caufe. Mr Bruce is of opinion, that this is the fly
mentioned by Ifaiah, chap. vii. 18. 19. “ And it flrall
come to pafs, in that day, that the Lord fhall hifs for
the fly that is in the uttermofi: part of the rivers of E-
gypt •, and they (hall come and ihall reft all of them in
the defolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks, and
upon all thorns, and upon all buflres.” ‘ That is (lays
Mr Bruce), they (hall cut off from the cattle their
ufual retreat to the defert, by taking poffelfion of thefe
places, and meeting them there, .here ordinarily they
never come, and which therefore are the refuge of the
cattle.’
Meroe, which lay in N. Lat. 160, the exaft limit of
the tropical rains, was without the bounds afligned by
nature to thefe deftruaive infeas ; and confequently a
place of refuge for the cattle. Mr Bruce, on his return
through the defert, faw at Gerri, in this latitude, ruins,
fuppofed to be thofe of Meroe, and caves hi the moun¬
tains immediately above them j for he E of opinion,
that they did not abandon their caverns immediately
after they began to build cities. As a proof of this,
lie mentions that Thebes, in Upper Egypt, was built
by a colony of Ethiopians } and that near the ruins of
that city, a vaft number of caves are to be feen even
up to the top of a mountain in the neighbourhood : all
of which are inhabited at this day. By degrees, how¬
ever, they began to exchange thefe fubterraneous ha¬
bitations for the cities they built above ground } and
thus became farmers, artificers, &c. though originally
their foie employment had been commerce.
Magnifi- On this fubjeft Mr Bruce has given a very curious
cence ot differtation 5 though how far the application of it to the
the ancient Ethiopians may be juft, w^e cannot pretend to deter-
EavntTanf mine* He begins with obferving, that the magnifi-
fc" cence of the Indians and Egyptians has been celebrated
from the moll remote antiquity, without any account
of the fources from whence all this wealth was derived :
and indeed it mull be owned, that in all hlftories of
thefe people, there is a ftrange deficiency in this re-
fpeft. The kings, we are to fuppofe, derived their
fplendour and magnificence from their fubjeefts •, but we
are quite at a lofs to know whence their fubjecls had
it : and this feems the more ftrange, that in no period
of their hiftory are they ever reprefented in a poor
or mean fituation. Nor is this difficulty confined, to
thefe nations alone. Paleftine, a country producing
neither filver nor gold, is reprefented by the facred
writers as abounding in the early ages with both thofe
metals in a much greater proportion than the moll
powerful European Hates can boaft of, notwithftanding
the vaft fupplies derived from the lately difeovered con¬
tinent of America. The Affyrian empire, in the time
of Semiramis, wTas fo noted for its wealth, that IVT.
Montefquieu fuppofes it to have been obtained by the
conqueft of fome more ancient and richer nation •, the
fpoils of wdiich enriched the Affyrians, as thofe of the
latter afterwards did the Medes. This, however, Mr
Bruce very juftly obferves, will not remove the diffi¬
culty, becaufe wTe are equally at a lofs to knowT whence
the wealth wras derived to that former nation ; and it
is very unufual to find an empire or kingdom of any
extent enriched by conqueft. The kingdom of Mace-
1 ] A B Y
don, for inftance, though Alexander the Great over- Abyfnnu.
ran and plundered in a very fhort time the richeft etr- 'v
pire in the wrorld, could never vie with the wealth of
Tyre and Sidon. Thefe laft were commercial cities *,
and our author juftly confiders commerce as the only
fource from whence the wealth of a large kingdom ever
or could be derived. The riches of Semiramis,
therefore, wrere accumulated by the Eaft India trade
centering for lome time in her capital. Vv line this
was fuffered to remain undiilurbed, the empire flounfti-
ed : but by an abfurd expedition againft India itfeif,
in order to become miftrefs at once of all the w ealth it
contained, fhe loft that v’hich (he really poffefied j and
her empire wTas foon after entirely ruined. To the
fame fource he attributes the riches of the ancient E-
gyptians j and is of opinion, that Sefoftris opened up
to Egypt the commerce with India by fea *, though
other authors fpeak of that monarch in very different
terms. As the luxuries of India have fomehow or
other become the objects of defire to every nation in
the v’orld, this eafily accounts for the wealth for which
Egypt has in all ages been fo much celebrated, as well
as for that with which other countries abounded j while
they ferved as a medium for tranfmitting thofe luxuries
to other nations, and efpecially for the riches of thofe
which naturally produced the Indian commodities fo
much fought after. This was the cafe particularly
with Arabia, fome of the produ&ions of which were
very much coveted by the weftern nations 5 and being,
befides, the medium of communication between the
Eaft Indies and weftern nations, it is eafy to fee why
the Arabian merchants foon became poffeffed of im-
menfe wealth.
Befides the territories already mentioned, the Cuftiites
had extended themfelves along the mountains which
run parallel to the Red fea on the African .fide;
wfliich country, according to Mr Bruce, has “ in all
times been called Sabo, or Azabo, both which figni.y
South an epithet given from its lying to the fouth-
ward of the Arabian gulf, and which in ancient times
was one of the richeft and moft important countries in
the world. “ By that acquifition (fays our author),
thev enjoyed all the perfumes and aromatics in the
eaft ; myrrh, and frankincenfe, and caflia ; all which
grow fpontaneoufly in that ftripe of ground from the
bay of Bilur weft of Azab to Cape Gardafui, and
then fouthward up in the Indian ocean, to near the
coaft of Melinda, wffiere there is cinnamon, but of an
inferior kind.” As the Cuffiites or Troglodytes ad¬
vanced ftill farther fouth, they met not only with moun¬
tains, in which they might excavate proper habitations,
but likewife with great quantities of gold and filver
furniffied by the mines of Sofala, which, our author
fays, furniffied u large quantities of both metals in
their pure and unmixed ftate, lying in globules wfith-
out any alloy or any neceflity of preparation or lepa-
ration.” In other parts of his work, he labours to
prove Sofala to have been the Ophir mentioned in
Scripture.
Thus the Ethiopians, for fome time after their fet- The Ethio-
tlement, according to Mr Bruce, muft have been »^vi_
nation of the firft importance in the world. Theiizedand
northern colonies from Meroe to Thebes built cities, learned
and made improvements in archite&ure ; cultivated people,
commerce, agriculture, and the arts; not forgetting
G 2 the
A B Y [ 52 ] A B Y
Abyffinia. the fcience of aflronomy, for which they had an ex-
* Y"*—' cellent opportunity by reafon of the clearnefs of the
fky in the Thebaid. Their brethren farther to the
fouth, or thofe who inhabited Ethiopia properly fo
called, were confined for fix months to their caves by
reafon of the tropical rains, whence they were natural¬
ly led to purfuits of another kind. “ Letters*, at leaft
* ^Bruce's one kind of them, and arithmetical characters (we are
Ltavels. told), were invented by this middle part of the Cufhites;
while trade and aftronomy, the natural hiitory of the
winds and feafons, were what neceffarily emploved that
part of the colony eitabliihed at Sofala molt to the
fouthward.”
Account of While the Culhites were thus employed at home in
1 finish10" collecting gold, gathering and preparing fpices, &c.
herds. £P" comm°dities were lent abroad into other, coun¬
tries by another let of people named Shepherds, who
aCted as carriers to them, and who afterwards proved
fo formidable to the Egyptians. Thefe differed in
their appearance from the Ethiopians, having long
hair, and the features of Europeans ; and were of a
very dark complexion, though not at all like tiro black-
moors or negroes. They lived in the plain country
in huts or moveable habitations, attending their cattle,
and wandering up and down as various circunlftances
required. By aCling as carriers to the Culhites, they
became a great and powerful people, poffefling vaft
numbers of cattle, as well as a very confiderable ex¬
tent of territory. They poffeffed a ftripe of land along
the Indian ocean ; and to the northward of that an¬
other along the Red fea : but their principal habita¬
tion was the flat part of Africa between the northern
tropic and the mountains of Abyflinia, which country
is now called Beja. This reaches from Mafuah along
the fea-coaft to Suakem ; then turns well ward, and
continues in that direftion, having the Nile on the
fouth, the tropic of Cancer on the north, with the
deferts oi Sehma and Libya on the weft. The next
diftriCI belonging to thefe people was Meroe, now
called Atbara, lying between the rivers Nile and Afta-
boras. A third diftriCI, now called Derkin, is a fmall
plain lying betrveen the river Mareb on the eaft and
Atbara on the weft. But the moft noble and warlike
oi all the Shepherds were thofe who poffeffed the
mountains of Habab, reaching from the neighbourhood
of Mafuah to Suakem j which diftriCI is ftill inhabited
by them.
Different Thefe Shepherds, according to our author, were di-
tb'nT ftinguiihed by feveral different appellations, which may
be iuppofed to denote different degrees of rank among
them, ft hofe called fimply Shepherds, our author fup-
pofes to have been the common fort who attended the
flocks. Another fet wrere called Hycfos or Ayfos, fig-
nifying “ armed Ihepherds,” who are fuppofed to have
been the foldiers. A third were named Agcig, fuppo¬
fed to be the chiefs or nobles of thefe armed Ihepherds *,
whence the title of king of kings, according to Mr
Bruce, is derived ; and he fuppofes A gag killed by Sa¬
muel to have been an Arabian Ihepherd.
The building of Carthage augmented the power of
the Shepherds to a confiderable degree, by reafon of
the vaft quantity of carriage naturally belonging to a
place of luch extenfive commerce, and which fell into
the hands of the Lehabim, Lubim, or Libyan pea-
lants. An immenfe multitude of camels, in the early
ages, anfwered the purpofe of navigation : and thus Abyffinia.
we find that commerce was carried on by the Ilhmael- ' v'*—'
ites as early as the days of Jofeph, from the fouthern
extremity of the Arabian peninfula. Thefe Shep-Reafon of
herds, howrever, though generally the friends and allies t^e er‘m‘tf
of the Egyptians, who were alfo Culhites, fometimes thelhe1
proved very bitter enemies to them, as is related in herds and
the hiftory of that country. The reafon of this may Egyptians,
be deduced from the great oppofition betwixt their
manners and cuftoms. The Egyptians worftiipped
black cattle, which the Shepherds killed and ufed as
food ; the latter worfhipped the heavenly bodies, while
the Egyptians were ti e groffeft idolaters, and worftiip¬
ped idols of all kinds that can be imagined. Hence
a mere difference in religion might occafion many
bloody quarrels ; though, if the above account can be
depended upon as authentic, it is natural to imagine
that the mutual connexion of intereft ftiould have ce¬
mented their friendflup, whatever difference there might
happen to be in opinions of any kind.
Befides the Cuflfttes and Shepherds, however, wTe Origin of
muft now7 feek for the origin of thofe different nations the differ-
which have already been mentioned. Mr Bruce allows ent ^thio-
that there are various nations inhabiting this country, na"
who are fairer than either the Cuftiifes or the Shep¬
herds, and which, though they have each a particular
name, are all known by the general title of Hahejk;
which may be tranftated by the Latin word convener,
fignifying a number oi diftindt people meeting acciden¬
tally in one place *, and which our author maintains
againft Scaliger, Ludolf, and a number of others, to he
a very juft tranilation, and quite confonant to the hi¬
ftory of the country.
The moft authentic ancient hiftory of this country, F;rft fettle-
according to Mr Bruce, is the chronicle of Axum ; ment of
the charadler of which, among the modern Abyfiinians, Et!l!0P,a>
Hands next to the facred writings themfelves ; and ^he aSl
confequently muft be efteemed the higheft Abyffmian fmjan hid
authority we have on the fubjtft. According to this ftory.
book, there wras an interval of 5500 years between,
the creation of the world and the birth of Chrift j
1808 years before which laft event the empire of A-
byffmia or Ethiopia received its firft inhabitants.
Two hundred years after its fettlement, it w-as fo de-
ftroyed by a flood that it received the name of Cure
Midra, or a country laid wafte ; “ or (fays our author) The conn-
as it is called in Scripture, a land which the waters or try laid
floods had fpoiiedfl (Ifatah xviii. 2.) The peopling a
of the country was finiihed about 1400 years before at'ia&e'
Chrift, by the lettlement of a great number of people,
fpeaking different languages, wrho fat down peaceably
in the high lands of Tig re, in the neighbourhood of
the Shepherds, with whom they wrere in friendihip.
Thefe people, according to tradition, came from Pa~
leftine *, and our author is inclined to believe the whole
of the relation to be true, as the time coincides with
the expullion of the Canaanitifh nations by Joffma,
which happened about 1490 B. C. ten .years before
which there had been, according to Paufanias, a flood
in Ethiopia which occafioned prodigious devaftation.
Ethiopia, he thinks, would afford the moft ready afy-
lum for the fugitive Can anites, as they muff have
long had a commercial intercourfe with that country j
and he fupports the opinion likewdfe from what Proco¬
pius mentions of two pillars extant in his time, on the
coaft
A B Y [S3 ] A B Y
Abyflinia. coafl; of Mauritania, with the following infcriptron in
^ the Phoenician language : “We are Canaanites, flying
from the face of Jofhua the fon of Nun, the robber.”
The authenticity of thefe infcriptions, however, is
much difputed, and therefore it cannot go a great
way in ellablilhing any hiftorical point. The firfl: and
moft ccnfiderable of the colonies above mentioned
fettled in the province of Amhara} the fecond in Da-
mot, one of the fouthern provinces ; the third in ano¬
ther province called Lqfta, or 'Tchera t % - Ago w, from
Tchera their principal habitation ; and a fourth in the
territory of Galat.
Our author goes on to prove, that the Ethiopians in
ancient times were not only the moft learned people
in the world, but that they fpoke the original lan¬
guage, and wrere the inventors of writing. In what
manner they came to degenerate from this character,
and into their prcfent ftate of barbarity, cannot be
known 5 this being a phenomenon equally unaccount-
Ethiopia able with the degeneracy of the Egyptians. Accord-
conquered ing to fome authors, the Ethiopians were conquered
by .Moles, gy ]\£0fes • 0f which tranfaftion we have the follow¬
ing account. Before the time of that legiflator, the
Ethiopians pofleffed the country of Thebais in Egypt :
but, not content with this, they made an irruption
into Lower Egypt, and penetrated as far as Mem¬
phis ; where, having defeated the Egyptians, they
threatened the kingdom with total deftrudlion. The
Egyptians, by the advice of their oracles, put Mofes at
the head of their forces 5 who immediately prepared for
invading the enemy’s country. The Ethiopians ima¬
gined that he would inarch along the banks of the
Nile ; but Mofes chcfe rather to pars through fome of
the interior countries, though greatly infefted with fer-
pents, and where confequently his march muft be at¬
tended with much danger. To preferve his men, he
conftrufted a number of chefts or panniers of the
Egyptian reed papyrus, which he filled with the birds
named Ibis, celebrated for their antipathy to ferpents.
As foon as he approached the tracl abounding with
theie reptiles, a fufficient number of the birds were
let out, who prefentiy cleared the way for the army
by deftroying the ferpents. Thus the Ethiopians
were furprifed in their own country, where they had
dreaded no invafion ; their forces, being defeated in
the field, were at laft {hut up in the capital Meroe, a
city almoft impregnable, by being furrounded with
three rivers, the Nile, Aftapus, and Aftaboras. The
daughter of the Ethiopian monarch, however, having
an opportunity of feeing Mofes from the walls, fell in
love with him, and offered to deliver up the city, pro¬
vided he would fwear to marry her. With this re-
quifition the Jewifh legiflator complied ; but treated
the inhabitants with great feverity, plundering the
city, and putting many of the inhabitants to death.
After this he ravaged the whole country, difmantling
all the places of ftrength 5 and having thus rendered the
Ethiopians incapable of attempting any thing againft
other nations for a confiderable time, he returned in
triumph to Egypt, after an abfence of-ten years.
From the time of Mofes to that of Solomon, there
is a chafm in the Ethiopic hiftory. After this, how¬
ever, we are furnilhed with fome kind of regular ac¬
counts. The hiftory commences with the queen of
Sheba, who came to vilit the Jewifli monarch, and Abyffinia.
whom the Abyffinians fuppofe to have been fovereign '”1 v-—'
of Ethiopia Propria j but Mr Bruce is of opinion that.
{he was only fovereign of that territory on the eaftern 01
coaft of Africa named Saba, which he fays .ought to
be her title inftead of Sheba. In favour of this opi¬
nion, he likewife urges, that it was cuftomary for the
Sabeans, or inhabitants of the African diftrict named
Saba, to be governed by women 5 n hereas thofe who
inhabited the oppofite fide of the Arabian gulf, and
who were named Saba an Arabs or Homerites, were not
only governed by kings, but would not allow their
fovereigns to go abroad anywhere under pain of being
ftoned to death. The Abyffinians, as has been already
hinted, claimed her for their fovereign ; and he informs
us, that having received an account fromTamerin, an E-
thiopian merchant, of the furpriung wifdom and wealth
of Solomon, ihe undertook the journey mentioned in
Scripture, to afeertain the truth of the report. In
this the was attended by a great many of her nobility,
carrying along with her alio magnificent prefents lor
the monarch ilie intended to vifit. According to the
Abyflinian hiftorians, fhe was a Pagan at the time this
journey was undertaken; but being ftruck with ad¬
miration at the fight of Solomon’s grandeur, and the
wifdom he difplayed, ihe became a convert to the true
religion. Another part of her hiftory, by no means
inconfiftent with the charadler of Solomon, is, that fire
returned in a ftate of pregnancy ; and within a year
was delivered of a fon, named David by Solomon ; but
by his mother Menilek, Menelech, or Meneleheck ; that is,
another felf. When he grew up, he was fent to be edu¬
cated at the court of his father Solomon ; where having
{laid fome time, he was accompanied home by many
doftors of the law, and other Ifraelites of diftimftion,
particularly Azariah the fon of 2<adoc the high-prieft.
By thefe the Jewifir religion was eftabliflied in Abyflinia,
where it continued till the intreduftion of Chriftianity..
The princefs we fpeak of is named Makeda, Balkis, or
Bulkis, by the Abyftmians. By our Saviour, and in the
Ethiopic verfion of the Scripture, fhe is ftyled Dhe ®ueen
of the South, and is faid to have come from the uttermoft
parts of the earth, or of the habitable world. Plence
the compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory have inferred,
that the princefs ftyled The fucen of Sheba in Scripture
was really fovereign of Ethiopia. “ Ethiopia (fay
they) is more to the fouth of Judsea than the territory
or kingdom of Saba in Arabia Felix ; confequently
has a better claim than that country for the dominions
of the princefs whom our Saviour calls The ^ueen of
the South. Ethiopia is ftyled the remote]} part of the ha¬
bitable woidd by Herodotus and Strabo ; and therefore,
better agrees with what our Saviour has laid of the
queen of Sheba, that ibe came from ‘ the uttermoft
parts of the earth,’ than Arabia. Nor can it be deem¬
ed a fufficient reply to this argument, that Arabia
Felix was the uttermoft part of the earth in refpeft to
Judaea, fince it was bounded by the Red fea : for that
not only Egypt, but even Ethiopia, regions beyond
that fea, were known to, and had a communication-
with the Jews, both before and in our Saviour’s time,
is indifputably clear. Laftly, From what has been
fuggefted, it appears no improbable conjecture, that.
Judaifni was not only known, at leaft in a part o£
Ethiopia,
A B Y
[ 54 ]
A B Y
Ah-^inia. Ethiopia, but nearly related to the eftabliflied religion
' there, at the beginning of the apoftolic age, if not
much earlier. After all, thefe two opinions, fo con¬
trary in appearance, may be made coniiftent without
great difficulty *, fmce it is agreed, that Arabia and
-itthiopia have anciently borne the fame name, been
included during certain intervals in one empire, and
governed by one prince. Part of the Arabs and
Ethiopians had the fame origin, and very considera¬
ble numbers of the Abafeni tranfported themfelves
from Arabia Felix into Ethiopia*, a circumftance
which Sufficiently proves the intercourfe that formerly
fubfifted between the Cuihites or Ethiopians of Afia
and Africa.
The Abyffinian hiftorians farther inform us, that the
young prince Menilek was anointed and crowned king
in the temple of Jerufalem, before he returned to his
own country} that Azariah was constituted high-prieft j
that he brought with him a Hebrew tranfcript of the
law 5 and though this book is now loft, having been
burnt along with the church of Axum, the office is ftill
continued in the line of Azariah, whofe fucceffors are
Styled Nebrits, high-priejls, or keepers of the church, in
that city *, both church and ftate being modelled ex¬
actly after that of Jerufalem. Makeda continued to
enjoy the Sovereignty for 40 years *, and the laft aft of
her reign was to fettle the fucceffion to the throne.
By this aft the crown was declared hereditary in the
family of Solomon for ever it was alfo determined,
that after her no woman Should be entitled to wear the
crown or aft as fovereign of the country 5 but that
the fovereignty Should defcend to the moft diftant heirs
male, rather than to the females, however near 5 which
two articles were to be confidered as fundamental laws
of the empire, not to be abolished. Laftly, That the
male heirs of the royal family Should always be fent
prisoners to a high mountain, where they were to be
confined till they Should be called to the throne, or as
long as they lived. This cuftom, according to Mr Bruce,
was peculiar to Abyffinia ; the neighbouring Shepherds
being accuftomed to have women for their Sovereigns,
which prevailed in the laft century, and perhaps does
lb at prefent.
Makeda having eftabliShed thefe laivs in fuch a man¬
ner as not to be revocable, died in the year 986 B. C.
The tranfaftions of her Son Menilek after his acceffion
are not pointed out, farther than that he removed his
capital to Tigre. His reign can by no means be ac¬
counted profperous 5 Since in his time the empire was
invaded by ShiShak or Sefak the king of Egypt, who
plundered the temple of Jerufalem under Rehoboam.
Ethiopia The like fate attended a rich temple which had been
conquered bup[t at Saba the capital of the Ethiopian empire, and
by Shiihak. might very probably occafion the removal of the
imperial feat to Tigre, as already mentioned. _ It is
indeed pretty plain from Scripture, that Ethiopia, or
great part of it, was fubjeft to this monarch 5 as the
Ethiopians or CuShites, mentioned in his army which
invaded Judea, are joined with the Lubims or Liby¬
ans, and muft therefore be accounted inhabitants of
Ethiopia Proper. This is indeed no fmall confirma¬
tion of the opinion of Sir Ifaac Newton, who agrees
with Jofephus in fuppofing ShiShak to have been the
celebrated Sefoftris of profane hiftorians. . Thus- far
vye are certain, that in the paffage of Scripture juft
now alluded to, the facred hiftorian indireftly aferibes AbySWa*
the fovereignty of Ethiopia to ShiShak ; and W'e do ' "““v
not find it anywhere hinted that another Egyptian
monarch was pofleSTed of this fovereignty. Herodotus
alfo plainly tells us, that Sefoftris w*as mafter of Ethi¬
opia, and "that no other Egyptian but himfelf ever
poSTeffed that empire.
During the reign of ShiShak, w^e know no parti- Revolutions
culars concerning the Ethiopians $ but after his death,
Sir Ifaac Newton is of opinion, that they defended 5^^
Egypt againft the Libyans, who had taken an oppor¬
tunity of invading the country during the civil wTar
which took place on the death of that great conqueror.
In about ten years aftenvards, however, according to
the Same author, they became aggreffors; drowmed the
fucceffor of Shiffiak in the Nile, and feized on the
whole kingdom; at which time Libya alfo fell into their
hands. In the time of Afa king of Judah, we find the
combined hoft of the Ethiopians and Lubims or Li¬
byans, making an attack on the territories of that
prince, to the number of more than a million. This Defeat of
may be reckoned a considerable confirmation of the Zerah by
piece of hiftory juft mentioned 5 as it .is not eafy to 0f jucja£
conceive howT the twTo Should combine m fuch a man¬
ner, unlefs Zerah was mafter of both. The total over¬
throw which the allied army received from Afa, gave ~
the inhabitants of Lower Egypt an opportunity of re¬
volting j who being fuftained by an army of 20,000
auxiliaries from Phoenicia and Paleftine, obliged Mem-
non, fuppofed to be the fame wuth Amenophis, to re¬
tire to Memphis. Soon after this he was forced, to
leave Egypt altogether, and to retire into Ethiopia j
but in about 13 years he returned with his fon Ra-
maffes at the head of a powerful army, and obliged the
CanaanitiSh forces to retire out of Lower Egypt; a
tranfaftion denominated by the Egyptian writers the
fecond expulfwn of the Shepherds.
Sir Ifaac Newton is of opinion, that the Egyptian Of Menes
princes Menes, Memnon, and Amenophis, w*ere the and his fuc-
fame perfon ; and that by him Memphis was eithercel ors*
originally built or fir ft fortified, in order to prevent
the Egyptians from entering Ethiopia. He is alfo
fuppofed to have been the fon of Zerah, and to have
died at a very advanced age about 90 years after the
deceafe of Solomon. Thus, according to Sir Ifaac
Newton’s chronology, the moft remarkable tranfac-
tions of antiquity will be brought lower by ages than
by the ufually received computations. According to
this, the Argonautic expedition happened in the time
of Amenophis 5 though fome Greek wuiters inform us,
that the fame prince affifted Priam king of Troy with
a body of forces. He was fucceeded by Ramafles, al¬
ready mentioned, who built the northern portico of the
temple of Vulcan at Memphis. The next was Moeris }
who adorned Memphis, and made it the capital of his
empire, about two generations, after the Trojan war.
Cheops, Caphrenus, and Mycerinus, fucceeded in order
to Moeris; the laft being fucceeded by his fifter Ni-
tocris. In the reign of Afychis her fucceffor, both
Ethiopia and Affyria revolted from Egypt*, which,
being now divided into feveral fmall kingdoms, w*as
quickly fubdued by Sabacon or So, the emperor of
Ethiopia. This monarch, foon after his acceffion. to
the throne of Egypt, allied himfelf with Hoffiea king
of Ifrael; by which means the latter was induced to
o revolt
A B Y
[ 55 ]
Abyfilnia.
Sennache¬
rib defeat¬
ed by Se-
thon.
Ethiopia
fubdued by
• Efarh ad¬
don.
Unfuccefs-
ful expedi¬
tion of
Cambyfes
againft this
country.
revolt from tlie Aflyrians j and in conrequence of this,
an end was put to the kingdom of Ifrael by Shalma-
nefer king of Affyria, in the 24th year of the era of
Nabonaffar, and 720th before the commencement of
the Chrilcian era. According to Herodotus, this mo¬
narch voluntarily refigned the crown of Egypt after he
had enjoyed it $o years j but Africanus relates, that
after a reign of eight years, he died in Egypt, in the
ninth year of Hezekiah king of Judah. His fuccefior
Sethon, fuppcfed to be the Sevechus of Manetho, ad¬
vanced to Pelufmm with a powerful army againft Sen¬
nacherib king of Affyria ; when the bowftrings of the
Affyrians were gnawed in pieces by a great numoer of
rats or mice, and thus they were eaftly defeated with
great daughter by the Egyptians. Hence Herodotus
informs us, that the ftatue of Sethon which he faw in
Egypt, had a moufe in its hand. Sir Ifaac Newton,
however, explains the whole in an allegorical mannei.
As the moufe among the Egyptians was a fymbol of
deftruHion, he conjectures, that the Affyrians were on
this occafton overthrown with great daughter} and
that Sethon, in conjunction with Terhakah, either king
of the Arabian Cufhites, or a relation of Sethon, and
his viceroy in Ethiopia Proper, furprifed and defeated
Sennacherib betwixt Libnah and Pelufium, . making
as great daughter among his troops as if their diield-
ftraps and bowftrings bad been deftroyed by mice.
In the 78th year of the era of Nabonaffar, the em¬
pire of Ethiopia was fubdued by Elarhaddon king of
Affyria-, who held it three years, committing enor¬
mous cruelties both in that country and in Egypt.
After his death the Ethiopians (hook off the yoke, and
maintained their independency till the time of Cyrus
the Great, the firft king of Perfia 5 who, according to
the Greek hiftorian Xenophon, feems to have alfo been
fovereign of Ethiopia. After nis death they revolted,
and his fon Cambyfes unfuccefsfully attempted to re¬
duce them. Herodotus informs us, that before he un¬
dertook this expedition, he fent fome of the^Ichthya-
phagi ambafladors to the king of the Macrobii or long-
lived Ethiopians, under pretence of foliciting his friend-
ftiip, but in reality to obferve the ftrength of the coun¬
try. Of this the Ethiopian prince was aware, and told
the ambaffadors that he knew their defign, reproached
Cambyfes with his injuftice and ambition, and gave
them his bow 5 telling them at the fame time, that the
Perfians might think of invading Ethiopia when they
could eafily bend it ; and in the mean time, that their
mafter ought to thank the gods who had never in-
fpired the Ethiopians with a defire of extending their
territories by conqueft. Cambyfes had fent by the
ambaffadors a rich purple robe, gold bracelets, a box
of precious ointment, a veffel full of palm wine, and
other things, which he imagined would be acceptable
to the Ethiopian monarch. But all thefe, excepting
the wine, were defpifed. This,_he owned, was fuperior
to any liquor produced in Ethiopia ; and he did not
fcruple to intimate, that the Perfians, (hort-lived as
they were, owed moft of their days to the ufe of this
excellent liquor. Being informed by the ambaffadors
that a confiderable part of the food made ufe of by
the Perfians was bread, he faid that it was no wonder
to find people who lived on dung unable to attain the
longevity of the Macrobian Ethiopians. In Ihort, the
A B Y
whole of his anfwer was fo contemptuous and' aifguft- ^.byfcp'iu
ing, that Cambyfes was filled with the greateft indig- ‘ " ""Y '~"'a
nation ; in confequence of which, he inftantly began
his march without taking time to make the neceffary
preparations, or even to procure provifions of afty kind
for his army. Thus a famine enfued among them 5
which at laft became fo grievous, that the foldiers were
obliged to eat one another: and Cambyfes himfelf,
finding his life in great danger, was obliged to give
orders, for marching back again \ which was not ac~
compliftied without the lofs of a great number _ of
men. Another army which he lent on an expedition
againft Ammonia, in order to deftroy the celebrated
oracle of Jupiter Ammon, perifhed entirely in the de-
ferts, being overwhelmed with the vaft clouds ox fand
frequently raifed there by the wind.
At this time, it is doubtful whether Cambyfes would Ethiopia at
have accomplilhed his purpofe even if he had found a
pra£hcable to march into the heart of Ethiopia. 1 his gj-jjpije.
empire had but a fhort time before received a very
confiderable acceftion of ftrength by the defertion of
240,000 Egyptians who had been polled by Pfamme-
nltus in different places on the frontiers. I hele not
having been relieved for three ysjirs, had gone over at.
once to the emperor of Ethiopia, who placed them in
a country difaffefted to him 5 ordering them to expel
the inhabitants, and take poffeflion of their lands. Not- Ethiopia
withftanding this, however, Sir Ifaac Newton hints, b7
that Cambyfes conquered Ethiopia about the 223d or Newton to
224th year of the era of Nabonaflarbut his opinion have been
in this reipeft does not appear to be well founded, conquered
We are told indeed, that the Perfian monarch, not- JT Camby-
withftanding the misfortunes he met with in the expe¬
dition above mentioned, did really make himlelf ma¬
fter of fome. of the Ethiopic provinces which bordered
on Egypt 5 and that thefe, together with the Troglo¬
dytes, 'fent him an annual prefent of two choenixes of
unrefined gold, 200 bundles of ebony, five Ethiopian
boys, and 20 elephants teeth of the largeft fize : but
it appears improbable to the laft degree, that even
though. Cambyfes had employed the whole of his reign
in the attempt, he could have conquered the vaft .re-
gionsof Ethiopia Proper, Sennaar, and Abaflia, which
were all included m the Ethiopia of the ancients.
When Xerxes invaded Greece, we find his army, Ethiopiatis%
according to Herodotus, was partly compoled of Ethi-employed
opians, of whom Herodotus mentions two diftimft races by Xerxes,
of people. One of thefe inhabited the Afiatic coaft,
and differed from the Indians only in their hair ^and
language. Their arms were the fame with thoie of
India > they wore helmets made of the fkins of horfes,
the ears and manes of which ferved them for tufts and
plumes of feathers } their ihields being made of the
Ikins of cranes, ff he hair of the Afiatic Ethiopians
was long, but that of the weftern tribes was frizzled.
The latter were alfo differently armed, having darts
lighted at one end and covered with leather.. We are
not informed particularly from what nations theie
troops were brought, nor whether they were naturae
fubjecls of the king of Perfia, or only auxiliaries : of
confequence we can conclude nothing certain concern¬
ing the dominion of the Perfian monarchs at this time
over Ethiopia, farther than that they might poff-ft
fouie of the provinces next to Egypt 3 while the mam
body
A B Y
AbyfTirmi. body of tlic empire being in a Rate of independence,
' and unconnecled with other parts of the world, is not
taken notice of by the hiftorians of thofe times.
Though Alexander the Great had a defire to know
the fources of the Nile, he did not fuffer himfelf to be
diverted by this curiofity from purfuing his grand ex-
Ethiopia pedition into Perfia. Ptolemy Euergetes, however,
conquered appears to have carried this curiofity to fuch an extre-
by Ptolemy m;ty as to invade Ethiopia for no other purpofe. It
^ ' is furprifing that the particulars of this expedition are
not recorded by any hiftorian, as it appears by an in-
fcription that he penetrated to the fartheft parts of the
empire, and conquered the mod powerful nations in it.
Of this we have the following account, which is looked
upon by the bed hidorians to be authentic. It was
copied on the fpot (being the wedern entrance to A-
dule, one of the cities of Ethiopia) by Cofmas Egypti-
us, or, as fome call him, Cofmas Indicopleudes, in the
time of the emperor Judin I. by order of Eled)aan
king of the Axumites, and of which the following ac¬
count is given by the perfon who copied it. “ Here
(fays he), facing the road to Axuma, dood a chair of
white marble, confiding of a fquare bafe, a fmall thin
column at each angle of this bafe, with a larger
wreathed one in the middle, a feat or throne upon
thefe, a back and two fides. Behind this chair there
xvas a large done three cubits high, which had fudain-
ed confiderable injury from time. This done and
chair contained an infcription to the following pur¬
pofe : ‘ Ptolemy Euergetes penetrated to the farthed
parts of Ethiopia. Pie fubdued Gaza, Agame, Signe,
Ava, Tiamo or Tziamo, Gambela, Zingabene, An-
gabe, Tiama, Athagaos, Calaa, Semene, Lafine, Zaa,
Gabala, Atalino, Bega, the Tangaitae, Anine, Metine,
Sefea, Raufo, Solate, the territory of Raufo, and feve-
ral other kingdoms. Among the nations he reduced,
were fome inhabiting mountains always covered with
a deep fnow ; and others feated upon the ridges of hills,
from whence iflued boiling deams, and craggy preci¬
pices, which therefore feemed inaccedible. Having
finally, after all thefe conqueds, affembled his whole
army at Adule, he facrificed to Mars, Neptune, and
Jupiter j for his great fuccefs, he dedicated this chair
or throne to Mars.’
'Conqueft From the time of this conqueror to that of the em-
«f Ethiopia peror Augudus, we meet with nothing of any confe-
•ty the Ro- qUence relating to Ethiopia Proper. The Roman
forces having about this time been drawn out of E-
gypt, in order to invade Arabia, Candace queen of E-
thiopia, or perhaps rather of the ifland or peninfula of
Pvleroe, took the opportunity of their abfence to make
an irruption, with a numerous army, into the province
of Thebais. As there was at that time no force to
oppofe her, fhe met for fome time with great fucccfs;
but hearing at lad that Petronius, governor of Egypt,
was in full march to attack her, die retired into her
own dominions. Petronius purfued her as far as
Pfelcha, where with 10,000 men he gained an eafy
vi&ory OA'er 30,000 undifciplined Ethiopian favages,
armed only with poles, hatchets, and other clumfy or
infignificant weapons of a fimilar nature. This vic¬
tory was foon followed by the reduftion of feveral
fortreffes ; however, as the Roman foldiers were ex-
ceffively incommoded by the heat of the climate, Pe-
.i-fonius, notwithftarxling his fuccefs, was obliged at
[ 56 ]
A B Y
lad to retire. Soon after, Candace fent ambafiadors Abyfllnin
to Augudus himfelf with fuch magnificent prefents,"V—*■'
that the emperor is faid to have been thereby induced
to grant her a peace on her own terms. From this
time the Remans accounted themfelves maders of
Ethiopia. Augudus was complimented on the great
glory he had acquired ; and that he had, by reducing
a country till that time unknown even to the Romans,
finidied the cpnqued of Africa. No material altera¬
tion, however, took place in the adairs of Meroe, in
confequence of this conqued, whether real or pretend¬
ed. Pliny informs us that it had been governed by
queens, who bore the title of Candace, for feveral ge¬
nerations before that time ; and fo it continued to be
afterwards, as we learn from Scripture, where we are
informed that, in the reign of Tiberius, the fovereign
of Ethippia was dill named Candace. Some indeed
are of opinion that the Candace mentioned in the Adds
of the Apodles was the fame with her who had been
conquered by Augudus ; but this feems by no means
probable, as the interval of time is by far too long to
be allorved for the reign of a dngle princefs.
From an anecdote of the debauched emperor Helio-
gabalus who was accudomed to confine his favourites,
by way of diverfion, with old Ethiopian women, we
may learn that fome interccurfe took place between
the two empires, and probably that the Ethiopians
owned fome kind of fubjedHon to the Romans. The
Blemmyes,~a gang of mondrous banditti, who inhabited Account of
the frontiers of Thebais, were vanquifhed by the em-^16^63^*
peror Probus : but, towards the clofe of the third cen-'
tury, we find them again become fo powerful, that in
conjunclion with another nation called Nabate?, who
inhabited the banks of the Nile near Upper Egypt,
they committed fuch depredations in the Roman ter¬
ritories, that Dioclefian was obliged to affign lands to
the latter, and to pay both of them a confiderable fum
annually, to defid from their former pradlices. Thefe
expedients did not anfwer the purpofe •, the favages
continued their depredations till the time of the em¬
peror Tudinian, who treated them with more feverity,
and obliged them to remain at peace. We are told
by Procopius, that before the time of Diocledan, the
Roman territories extended fo far into Ethiopia, that
their boundaries were not 23 days journey from the
capital, fo that probably the whole empire had been in
a date of dependence on them.
From the time of this emperor to that of their con-
veriion to Chridianity, we find nothing remarkable in
the hidory of the Ethiopians. Three hundred and
twenty feven years are counted from the time of our
Saviour to that of Abreha and Atzbeha, or from A-
bra and Afba, who enjoyed the kingdom when the Ethiopians
gofpel was preached in Ethiopia by Frumentius. Thd converted
man was a kinfman and companion of a philofopher j°
named Meropius, a native of Tyre ; who having tra- ^rumen-
velled all over India, died on an ifland of the Red fea. this.
After his death Frumentius, with another named /E-
defius, who had alfo been his companion, were brought
before the king of Ethiopia, to wham that idand was
fabjeft. He took them into his fervice ; making the
one his treafurer and the other his butler. On the
death of this prince, the queen conceived fuch a favour
for them, that fhe refufed to allow them to depart out
of the kingdom 3 but committed the management of
her
' /•
A B Y
the ele-
fhaxit.
AhyltJnia. Tier f ffalrs entirely to Frumentius, who made ufe of
his influence to diffufe the Chriftian religion through¬
out the country, and at lafl: was appointed bifliop of
Axuma. It is faid, however, that the court and prin¬
cipal people, if not the nation in general, relapfed into
idolatry, which continued to prevail till the year 521,
when they were again converted by their king Adad
or Aidog.
The two princes Abra and Afba, who reigned joint¬
ly in Ethiopia in the time of Frumentius, lived in fuch
harmony together, that their friendlhip became almoft
The two proverbial. After being converted to Chriftianity,
kings re- they adhered llriftly to the orthodox doftrine, refufing
fufe to ad- to admit an Arian bifhop into their country. In the
t'rae ^ie emperor Conftantius, however, this herefy
wras introduced, and greatly favoured by that monarch;
and an attempt was made to depofe Frumentius on ac¬
count of his refufal to embrace it.
Account of The reign of thefc princes is remarkable for an ex-
the war of pedition into Arabia Felix, called by the Mohamme¬
dan writers the war of the elephant, and which was
undertaken on the following occafion : The temple of
Mecca, fituated nearly in the middle of the Arabian
peninfula, had been held in the greateft veneration for
near 1400 years; probably from the notion entertain¬
ed by the people in the neighbourhood, that Adam
pitched his tent on that fpot. Here alfo was a black
Hone fuppofed to poflefs extraordinary fan&ity, as be¬
ing that on wrhich Jacob laid his head wdien he had
the vifion of angels. The molt probable account of
the real origin of this temple, according to Mr Bruce,
is, that it was built by Sefoftris, and that he himfelf
was worfhipped there under the name of Ofiris.
On account of the veneration in which this tower
and idol were held by the Arabians, Mr Bruce fup-
pofes that the thought was firft fuggefted of making
it the emporium of the trade between India and Afri¬
ca ; but Abra, in order to divert it into another chan¬
nel, built a very large temple near the Indian ocean
in the country of the Homerites ; and, to encourage
the refort of people to this new temple, he bellowed
upon it all the privileges of the former which Hood in
the city of Mecca. The tribe of Arabians named
Korei/h, in whofe country Mecca Hood, being exceed¬
ingly alarmed at the thoughts of having their temple
deferted, entered the new one in the night, burned all
that could be confumed, and befmeared the remains
■with human excrements. Abra, provoked at this fa-
crilege, aflembled a confiderable army, with which he
inverted Mecca, himfelf appearing on a white elephant,
from w'hence the wrar took its name already mentioned.
Miraculous The termination of the w7ar, according to the Arabian
tfeftruxftion hiltorians, was miraculous. A vaft number of birds
®i the E- named Ababil came from the fea, having faces like
^ lions; each carrying in its claws a fmall ftone about
the fize of a pea, which they*let fall upon the Ethio¬
pian army in fuch numbers, that every one of them
was deftroyed. At this time it is faid that the fmall-
pox firrt made its appearance ; and the more probable
account of the deftruftion of the Ethiopian army is,
that they perilhed by this diftemper.
The war of the elephant is fuppofed to have termi¬
nated in the manner above mentioned about the year
360; from which time to that of Elefhaan, named al¬
fo Caleb, and probably the fame with the Adad or A-
Vol. I. Part I.
[ 57 1
A B Y
Firft ap¬
pearance
of the
Tinail-pox
dag already mentioned, we meet with nothing re- AbyfTmU*
markable in the Ethiopic hiftory. He engaged in a
war with the Homerites or Sabaeans in Arabia Felix, Reconver-
rvhom he overthrew in battle, and put an end to their fon to
kingdom; after which he embraced the Chriftian reli-
gion in token of gratitude for the fuccefs he had met E’eflmn.
with. In the time of this prince a violent perfecution chnftians
of the Chriftians took place in Arabia. The Jewifh perfecuted
religion had now fpread itfelf far into that peninfula ; in Arabia,
and in many places the profeflbrs of it were become
abfolute mafters of the country, infomuch that feveral
Jewifli principalities had been eredted, the fovereigns
of which commenced a fevere perfecution againft the
Chriftians. Among the reft, one Phineas diitinguilh- Cruelty of
ed himfelf by his cruelty, having prepared a great Phineasa
number of furnaces or pits filled wuth fire, into w ’hich Jewiih
he threw thofe who refufed to renounce Chriftianity. ijU‘x"
The Chriftians applied for relief to the emperor Juftin ;
but he being at that time engaged in a war with the
Perfians, could not interfere : however, in the year
522, he fent an embafly to Elefbaan, who wTas now
alfo a member of the Greek church, intreating him
to exert himfelf for the relief of the Chriftians of Ara¬
bia. On this the emperor commanded his general A-
breha, governor of the Arabian province Yemen, to
march to the afliftance of Aretas, fon to a prince of
the fame name whom Phineas had burnt; while he
himfelf prepared to follow wuth a more confiderable
force. But before the arrival of the Ethiopian mo- He is tie-
narch, young Aretas had marched againft Phineas, feated.
and entirely defeated him. In a fliort time afterwards
the emperor himfelf arrived, and gave Phineas a fe-
cond defeat ; but notwuthftanding thefe misfortunes, it
does not appear that either the principality of Phineas
or any of the other Jewifti ones, wTas at this time over¬
turned, though it feems to be certain, that at the time
we fpeak of, the Ethiopians poffefled part of the Ara¬
bian peninfula. According to the Arabian hiftorians,
the wTar of the elephant, with the miraculous deftruc-
tion of the Ethiopian army, already mentioned, took
place in the reign of Elelbaan.
Some hiftorians mention, that the Ethiopian mo-
narchs embraced the doiftrines of Mahomet foon after
the impoftor mode his appearance ; but this feems not
to be well-founded ; though it is certain that the
Najajhi or Ethiopian governor of Yemen embraced
Mahommedanifm, and that he w7as related to the royal
family. On this occafion, however, the Ethiopians
loft all the footing they once had in Arabia ; the go¬
vernors being expelled by Mohammed and his fuccef-
foi-s. They fled to the African fide of the Red feaEtKi0p[am
with numbers of their fubjefts, where they erefted fe- driven out
veral fmall kingdoms, as Adel, Wypo, Hadea, Mara, of Arabia,
and others, which ftill continue.
During the conquefts of the caliphs, the Jewrs were
for fome time everywhere driven out of their domi¬
nions, or opprefled to fuch a degree that they volun¬
tarily left them. Ethiopia offered them an afylum : Krurnber of
and in this country they became fo powerful, that a jews in E-
revolution in favour of Judaifm feemed ready to take thiopia in-
place. One family had ahvays preferved an indepen- creaf£h
dent fovereignty on a mountain called Samen, the
royal refidence being on the top of a high rock ; and
feveral other high and rugged mountains were ufed by
that people as natural fortreffes. Becoming by de-
H grees
A B Y
[ 58 ]
A B Y
Royal fa¬
mily of E-
thiopia
mafl'acred
by Judith.
The king
efcapes.
Judith u-
fiirps the
throne.
Abyffinia. grees more and more powerful, Judith the daughter
of one of their kings formed a defign of overturning
the Ethiopian government, and fetting afide the family
of Solomon, who had hitherto continued to enjoy the
fovereignty. This defign was facilitated by feveral cir-
cumftances. The empire had been weakened by an un-
fuccefsful war, famine, and plague ; the throne was
poffeffed by an infant •, and the abfurd cuftom of con¬
fining the whole royal family on a rock named Damo,
gave her an opportunity of cutting them all off at once
by furprifing that place. Fortunately, however, the
king himfelf efcaped the general catailrophe, and was
conveyed by feme of the nobility of Amhara to the
province of Xoa or Shoa; by which means the line of
Solomon was preferved, and aftemards reftored, though
not till after a very confiderable interval.
Judith having by this maffacre eftablifhed her own
powder, aflumed the imperial dignity, though in direct
oppofition to an eltablifhed and fundamental law of
the empire already mentioned, that no woman fhould
enjoy the fovereign authority. The people, however,
feem to have fubmitted quietly to her government,
as (he fat on the throne for 40 years, and afterwards
tranfmitted the fovereignty to her pofterity; five of
whom reigned fucceiTively in this country. We are
not furnifhed with any particulars concerning their
reigns ; farther than that, during them, the people were
greatly oppreffed. By fome means, of which hiftorians
have not given any account, another revolution took
place } and a new fet of ufurpers, related to the family of
Judith, but not their direct lineal defeendants, fucceed-
ed to the throne. Thefe were Chriftians, and govern¬
ed with much greater lenity than the Jewifh foyereigns
had done ; but ftill, being ufurpers, none of their tranf-
aftions are recorded in the Abyfiinian annals, excepting
thofe of Lalibala, who was accounted a faint. He
lived in the end of the 12th or beginning of the yjth
century, and proved a great prince. At that time
the Chriftians in Egypt were grievoufty perfecuted by
the Saracens, who had a particular abhorrence at ma-
fons, builders, and ftone-cutters; looking upon them
as the chief promoters of idolatry by the ornaments
they put upon their works. Thefe wrere joyful¬
ly received by Lalibala j who by affording them an
afylum in his dominions, foon collected a great num¬
ber. -They were employed by him in hewing churches
out of the folid rock, after the example of the an¬
cient Troglodytic habitations; and many works of this
kind remain in the country to this day. He under¬
took, however, a ftill more difficult and arduous talk;
no lefs than that of leffening the ftream of the Nile,
undertakes and thus ftarving the whole kingdom of Egypt, now
to diminifh jn han(ls Gf his enemies, and who perfecuted thofe
the ftream ^ ^ reiigion> From the account given by Mr Bruce
of this projedl, it appears that there really is a poffibili-
ty in nature of accomplilhing it ; not indeed by turn¬
ing the courfe of the Nile itfelf, but by diverting that
of many of its branches, which are the means of con¬
veying into it the water fupplied by the tropical rains,
and by wffiich it overflows its banks annually. We are
like wife affured by the fame author, that Lalibala fuc-
ceeded in his enterprife fo far as to divert the courfe
of two large rivers from the Nile, and that they have
ever fince flowed into the Indian ocean. He next pro¬
ceeded to carry a level towards a lake named Zacvia,
A new re¬
volution.
Chriftians
perfecuted
in Egypt
f’ y to E-
thiopia.
into which many rivers, whofe ftreams contribute to Aby«iirfia^
increafe that of the Nile, empty themfelves; and had *
this been accompliffied, there is no doubt that the lofs
of fo much water would have been very fenfibly felt by
the Egyptians. According to moft hiftorians, this
enterpriftng monarch was prevented by death from pul¬
ing his defign in execution ; though Mr Bruce informs
us&of a written account at Shoa, in which it was a;-
ferted, that he wras diffuaded from it by ceitain monks,
who told him, that by fending down fucb a quantity
of water to the eaftern and dry parts of Africa, theie
countries would loon become, fo fertile and populous
that they would rival the empire of Ethiopia, oj' at ^eaiJ
withdraw their allegiance from it entirely. I he re¬
mains of thefe works were feen by the Portuguefe am-
baffador in 1522
Lalibala
W the Nile.
IICILIVAA All A A* • r 1
All this time the princes of the line of Solomon Reftoratlon
had been obliged to content themfelves with the f°- ‘Lmon
vereignty of the province of Xoa or Shoa, without
making any attempt to regain their former dignity ;
but they were unexpedledly reftored without blood-
ftied or difturbance by Naacueto Laeb the giandion
of Lalibala. This prince, who was of a gentle and
pacific difpofttion, was perfuaded by a monk named
Tec/a Haimanout, much celebrated for nis fanebty,
to refign the crown, to which, though he received it
from his father, he could not pretend any abfolute
right. In confequence of the mediation of this mon*.,
therefore, it was agreed that Naacueto ffiould give up
the empire to Icon Amlac the lineal defeendant of So¬
lomon," who then poffeffed the fovereignty of Shoa; In
confequence of this a portion of lands ftiould be irre¬
vocably and irredeemably affigned to him and his
heirs ; and he ffiould likewife be allowed fome marks
of fovereignty as a teftimony of his former grandeur.
In this treaty, however, the good monk did not for¬
get his own intereft. He had founded a famous mo-
naftery in Shoa, and was primate of the whole empire
under the title of Abuna. He now infilled that one
third of the kingdom Ihould be abfolutely ceded to
bimfelf for the maintenance of his own dignity, and
the fupport of the clergy, convents, &c» throughout
the country ; he alfo infilled that no native Abyffi-
nian fhould ever enjoy the fame dignity with himfelf,
even though he ffiould have been chofen and ordained
at Cairo, as was the cuftom with the Abyffinian pre-
lates.
Theie extraordinary terms were complied with, and uncertain*
Icon Amlac raifed to’the throne of Ethiopia. He did ty of the
not, however, remove the feat of government from the Abyffinian
province of Shoa ; but continued at Tegulat the capi- hlkolT
tal of that province during the whole of his lifetime,
which continued 15 years after nis acceffion to the
throne. We are ignorant of the tranfaftions of his
reipn, as well as that of feveral of his fucceffois ; fi\c
of whom afeended the throne in as many.years. From
this quick fucceffion Mr Bruce is of opinion, tnat a ci¬
vil war had taken place among the candidates for the
throne \ but the A.byffiruan annals make no mentu.?i
of this ; neither have we any particular account of .the
tranfaftions of the empire till the time of Amda Sion,
who began to reign in 1312. . He was the fon of We- Reign of
dem Araad, the youngeft brother of Icon. Amlac, Amda Sioa>
and fucceeded to the throne on the death of his father.
He profeffed the. Chriftian religion; but his practice
icqais
A B Y [ 59
Aityfimia. feems to have been very oppofite to its precepts. He *
*—-v—-• began his reign with living publicly with a concubine of
He is ex- b[s father’s : and quickly after committed inceft with his
communj- two fj([ers> Qn this he was firft exhorted to repen-
i«cek. tance, and then excommunicated, by llonorius, a
monk greatly celebrated for his faridfity, and who has
fince been canonizedi The prince, enraged at this
indignity, caufed the faint to be feverely whipped
through every ftreet of his capital. That night the
town was by fome unknown means fet on fire and re¬
duced to allies : the clergy perfuaded the people, that
the blood of Honorius had turned to fire as it dropped
on'the ground, and thus occafioned the cataftrophe ;
The monks but the king fufpedting that the monks themfelves had
baukhed. been the incendiaries, banilhed or imprifoned them all,
fo that their hopes of exciting an infurredtion were dif-
appointed *, and being difperled into thofe provinces
where the inhabitants were moftly Jews or Pagans,
they were now obliged to apply to what was certainly
more incumbent upon them, viz. the diftufion of the
knowledge of the gofpel.
While the king was bufied with the monks, one of
the fadtors, who had been entrufted with fome of his
commercial interefts, was affaflinated by the Moors in
the province of Ifat; on which, without making the
His expedi- lead complaint or expoftulation, he affiembled his
tionagainft troops, and with feveii horfemen (a) fell upon the
the Maho. neareft Mahometan fettlements, maffacring all he met
without exception. Putting himfelf then at the head
of his army, he proceeded in the moil rapid career of
defolation, laying wafte the whole country whk fire
and fword, and carrying off an immenfe booty.
For fome time the Moors were fo furprifed that
they did not think of making oppofition 5 but at laft
they took up arms, and attempted to furprile the Abyf-
finian monarch in his c&mp, hearing that he had fent
They at- out moll of his army in detachments. With this view
tack his they approached the camp in the night time, expedf-
camp in the jng to have found the king and his few foldiers im-
cuffacceb merfed in ileep. Unexpedledly, however, he had been
’ joined by a confiderable part of his army, wdiom he
drew up in battle array to receive his enemies. An
engagement enfued, in which the king behaved wdth
great valour •, killed the Moorifh general with his own
hand, and gained a complete victory. He then com¬
manded fuch of his foldiers as could not find houfes
ready built, to build huts for themfelves, and a large
trad! of land to be plowed and fowm, as if he meant to
Hay in the country of the enemy during the rainy fea-
They fub- ^n. The Mahometans now perceiving that they wTere
mit, but in danger of being totally exterminated, willingly fub*
quickly re- mitted to the terms.he pleafed to impofe upon them j
-Volt again. the monarch conciliated the affedlions of his
people by dividing among them the vail plunder he
had acquired in this expedition.
The Moors no fooner found themfelves freed from
.any apprehenfions of immediate danger, than they pre¬
pared for a new revolt. The king having intelligence
] A B Y
of their defigns, fecretly prepared to fubdue them be- Aby&nia.
fore they could have time to bring their matters to a
fufficient bearing. The Moors, however, being better
prepared than he expedted, began hoftilities by fnr-
prifing and plundering fome villages belonging to the
Chriftians, and deilroying their churches. A mcft
formidable combination had taken place j and as the
the confequence of allowing the confederate rebels to
join their forces might have been very dangerous, the
king ufed his utmoft endeavours to prevent it. This
defign was in fome meafure facilitated by the fuperfli-
tion of Amano king of Hadea, one of the principal re¬
bels. This man, by the advice of a conjurer in whom
he put great confidence, inflead of marching his troops
to the alliftance of his allies, remained at home with
them, wdiere he vras defeated and taken prifoner by a King of
detachment of the king’s army. The governor of Am-Hadea de-
hara wras next defpatched againft Saber-eddin the re>-fe*ted at!
Volted governor or ratigar, with orders to lay walte foner_
the country, and ufe every method to force him to a
battle, if he ftiould be difinclined to venture it himfelf.
Thefe orders wmre punfilually executedSaber-eddin Another
wras compelled to Hand an engagement, in which he rebel chief
was defeated 5 the victors plundered his houfe and took^*ieatecla
his wife and children prifoners. But in the mean time
intelligence was received of a new revolt among the
Falafha, who had aflembled a great army, and threat¬
ened to become very formidable ; their chief keeping
a clofe correfpondence with Saber-eddin, as well as
with the king of Adeh Thefe, however, ftiared theTheFala-
fame fate with the reft, being entirely defeated by dia defeat-
Tzaga Chriftos another Abyffinian general, who foone^‘
after joined the king with his whole army. This proved
fatal to the rebel caufe : Saber-eddin, no longer able
to fupport himfelf againft the royal forces, was obliged
to furrender at difcrction, and all the reft were quickly
reduced } fo that the king was at leifjre to march
againft the kings of Adel and Mara, who having now
united their forces, refolved to give him battle. At The king
this the Abyflinian monarch w'as fo exafperated, that marches a-
he determined to take a moft ample vengeance on hisgamftAdel)
enemies. In the prefence of his whole army, thefe- ^ara’
fore, and a monk of uncommon fanclity dreffed in the
fame habit in which he ufually performed divine fer-
vice, the king made a long fpeech againft the Maho¬
metans. He recounted the many violences which they
had committed ; and of which the kings of Adel and and oath in
Mara had been principal promoters. He enumerated ;>refence of
many examples of murder, facrilege, &c. of whichU1S army-
they had been guilty \ fetting forth alfo that they had
carried off great numbers of Chriftians into flavery,
and that the view of making Haves was now a great
motive with them for making war. He difclaimed
every idea of commencing hoftilities from any avarici¬
ous motive j as a proof of which, he denied that he
would accept of any part of the plunder for his own
ufe 5 concluding with a declaration, that he was now
about to fwear on the holy eucharift, that, “ though
H 2 but
(a) On tins Mr Bruce remarks, tbat “ it has been imagined the number ftrould be increafed to 70 5 but
there would be little difference in the raftmefs of the aftion.” The word in the Abyffinian annals which he
traniiates is feven ; but if we increafe the number at all, it ought more probably to be /even hundred than
fbvenjy.
A B Y
[ 60 ]
A B Y
Exceffive
fuperftition
of both par¬
ties.
Abyffinia. but 20 of his army fhould join him, he would not
v”—"W   turn his back upon Adel or Mara, till he had either
forced them to tribute and fubmiflion, or entirely ex¬
tirpated them and annihilated their religion.” After
this fpeech, he took the oath in the prefence of the
whole army j who not only applauded him with loud
fliouts, but protefted that they looked upon themfelves
Enthufiafm to be all bound by the oath he had taken. As he had
of his mentioned in his fpeech that the plunder had been pur-
troops. chafed by the lives of their Chriilian brethren, they
determined to fliow their abhorrence at keeping any
of it on thefe terms. Taking lighted torches in their
hands, therefore, they fet fire to the whole plunder
that had been amafied fmce the beginning of the war ;
and having thus reduced themfelves to a Hate of po¬
verty, they prepared to fhow their Chriftianity by
thirfting, not after the wealth, but the blood of their
enemies.
Notwithftanding the enthufiafm of the whole army
on this occaiion, the expedition was attended with
great difficulties. Thefe arofe principally from fuper¬
ftition ; and as, on the one hand, the Abyffinians were
by this principle laid under confiderable difadvantages,
their adverfaries on the other enjoyed equal advanta¬
ges from no better caufe. The Abyffinians, according
to Mr Bruce, are very credulous with refpect to genii
or fpirits which go about doing mifchief in the dark.
Hence they are afraid of travelling, but efpecially of
fighting, in the night-time ; becaufe they imagine that
the world is then entirely given up to thefe beings, who
are put out of humour by the motions of men, or of
any other terreftrial creature. In the night-time there¬
fore an Abyffinian dares not even throw a little water
out of a baibn, left it fhould fall upon fome fpirit and
provoke it to vengeance. The Moors, on the other
hand, though equally fearful, fecure themfelves againft
thefe mvifible enemies by means no lefs ridiculous than
the fears themfelves. A verfe of the Koran, fewed up
in leather, and worn round their neck or arm, is fuffi-
cient to defy the power of the moft mifchievous ipirit.
Under fuch powerful proteciion, therefore, they laugh
at the terrors of the Abyffinians, and are on all occa-
ftons ready to attack them in the night-time, and even-
prefer that feafon rather than any other for coming t3>
an engagement. Senlible of this advantage, and en¬
couraged by the little lofs which attended even a de¬
feat in thefe nodlurnal encounters, they determined on
the prefent occafion to avoid any pitched battles, and
to content themfelves with haraffing the king’s army
by continual fkirmifhes of this kind. Thus, though
the Abyffinian monarch had always the advantage, his
troops foon began to complain 5 and, on the com¬
mencement of the rainy feafon, infilled' on being allow¬
ed to return. This was by no means agreeable-to as
prince of fuch a martial difpofition as Amda Sion. He
therefore told them, that, if they were afraid of sains,
he would conduit them to a country where there were
none 5 meaning Adel, which, though hkewife within
the limits of the tropical rains, has them at another
feafon than that in which they fall in Abyffinia. Thus
he perffiaded his army again to fet forward : but was
fo grievoufly haraffed by the noiturnal attacks of the
Moors, that he was once more in danger of being de-
fe-rted ; and when by his eloquence he had found
means to diffipate the apprehenftons of the fokliers, he
The king’s
troops ha-
ralled.
was feized with a violent fever which threatened his Abyffinia.
life. The foldiers now expefted that they were foon ''
to return j but while they indulged themlelves in the The king is
carelcffhefs which ufually attends an expeftation of feized with
this kind, they accidentally received intelligence that j!; ^§erovw
the Moors, having aftembled an army of 40,000 men,
were in full march to attack them, and at a very fmail
diftance. The king tvas now free from fever, but fo
weak that he fainted on attempting to put himfelf in
readinefs for going out to battle. Still, however, his-
refolution continued firm and unalterable ; having re¬
covered from his faint, wafhed and refrefhed himfelf^
he made a fpeech to his foldiers, filled with the moth
enthufiaftic expreffions of confidence in the juftice and
goodnefs of the caufe in which he was engaged, and in
the continuance of the divine favour and prctcclxon.
“ As it never was my opinion (faid he), that it was
my own ftrength and valour, or their want of it, which,
has fo often been the caufe of preferving me from their
hands 5 fo I do not fear at prefent that my accidental
weaknefs will give them any advantage over me, as,
long as I truft in God’s power as much as I have ever
done.” By this fpeech the drooping fpirits of the A-
byffinians were revived ; and they only begged that
their monarch would now tmft to the valour of his
troops, and not expofe his perfon to fuch danger as he
had ufually done. He promifed to comply with their H*s tr00pS.
requeft but matters were foon thrown into confufion difliearten-
by a report that the Moors had poiioned the wells and cd.
enchanted all the running water in the front of the ar¬
my. The poifoned wells, however, were eafily avoid¬
ed 5 and a prieft of vaft fanftity was difpatched a day’s
journey before the army to diienchant the waters by
his bleflings 5 which, having the advantage of the good,
qualities aft the element itfdf on their fide, were dcubt-
lefs more- powerful than the fpells of the infidels. Not
content with this, the king caufed a river to be conic-
crated by the name of Jordan ; but while his men were
employed in bathing themfelves in this holy water, the
FiiS-Sluraris, an officer who had been difpatched with
» party of men who always go before the Abyflrnian
armies, was attacked and driven back on the main bo¬
dy by a detachment of the enemy, w Lo had along with
them a number of women provided with drugs to poi-
fon and fpells to enchant the waters. A dreadful pa- Struck
nic now ieized the whole army. Unmindful of the with a pa-
pro mifes made to their king, they not only refnied to
advance, but for the moft part reiolved to leave the ^
camp, and return homewards without delay. The.
king, fenfible that all was loft if this pernicious fcheme
fhould be adopted, did his utmoft to encourage and.
periuade them to return to their duty } but perceiving
that nothing was to be gained by reafoning with men.'
fo much terrified, hs only requefted that fuch as could
not be induced to fight, would not leave their places,
but ft and quiet fpeftators of the battle. Even this He begins
had very little effect: fo that, finding the'enemy now the fight
ready to make an attack, he ordered his mailer of the v^th a very
horfe, with only five others, to attack the left wing^ of
the enemy } while he, with a ftnall party of his fer-
vants, made an attack on the right. 1 his defperate
action was attended with fuccefs.. The king, notwith¬
ftanding the weaknefs he yet laboured under, killed
with his own hand- two of the commanding officers of
the enemy’s right wing } while his fon difpatched ano¬
ther
A B Y [ 61 ] A B Y
Abyffinia. tlier of conflderable rank belonging to tbe left. This
had fuch an effedt upon the whole Moorifh array, that
they began evidently to lofe courage } while the Abyf-
finians, afhamed of their condudt, now rufhed furioufly
on to refcue their prince from danger. The battle
continued for fome time with great obftinacy j but at
lafl the centre and left wing of the Moors were entire-
The Moors *7 defeated. The right wing, compofed principally
defeated, of Arabians, retired in a body ; but not knowing the
country, they entered a deep valley lurrounded by per¬
pendicular rocks entirely covered with wood. The A-
byffinians, imagining they had nothing more to do,
began to ftrip and mangle the bodies of the; killed and
wounded} but the king, perceiving that the Arabians
had brought themfelves into a fituation from whence
they never could be extricated, obliged his foldiers to
defift from this barbarous employment, and even killed
and almoft two of them who difobeyed his orders. The army
entirely cut was then divided into two parts, one of which fur-
rounded the devoted Arabians, while the ether was font
a day’s journey after the remainder of the Moors.
Both parties proved equally fuccefsful. The king,
with part of his divifion, attacked the Arabians in
front, while the reft rolled great ftones down from the
tops of the rocks upon them. By this they were
thrown into fuch confuiion, that being neither able to
fly nor refill, they were all killed to a man. The fate
of the Moors wTas little better. The other divifion of
the Abyflinian army found them lying round a large
pool of water, which they lapped like as many dogs.
In this helplefs fituation there was nothing requifite
but to order them to be flaugbtered y and this cruel or¬
der was punctually executed. The foldiers imagining
they fliould now difeharge their vow to heaven, wea¬
ried themfelves with daughter j till at laft, being al¬
moft fatiated with blood, they made a few prifoners,
among whom was Saleh king of Mara, with his queen 5
the former of whom was hanged by order, of Amda
Sion, and the latter cut in pieces, and her body given
to the dogs by the foldiers.
Ainda Sion This iignal victory was gained in the end of July
purfueshis 131-6 ; but as the rains at that feafon fet in with vio-
aftvantage, lence, moft of the army now again infifted on their re¬
turning home without delay. The king and principal
officers, however, were of opinion, that the advantages
fo dearly purchased ought by all means to be purfued-
till they had either reduced the Mahometans to fubjec-
tion, or at leaft deprived them of all power to make at¬
tacks on the empire with any profpeft of fuccefs. This
opinion being adopted; the king fent back the bag¬
gage, women, and others who could be-of no ufe to
tfte army;. retaining only the veteran foldiers, who
were able to encounter more than fix times the num¬
ber of fuch enemies as he could expeCl to meet with.
Hts further Advancing farther into the Mahometan territories, he
uaupiefts. took up his refidence in a large town called ;
from whence he, that very night, fent out a detach¬
ment to furprife a large village in the neighbourhood
named Taraca. This was executed with fuccefs-*, the
men were maflacred, and the women kept to fupply
the places of thofe who had been fent away. Conti¬
nuing ftill to advance, he detached parties to lay wane
the countries all round ; and in this expedition he had
the good fortune to cut oft two of the principal authors
of. the confpiracy againft him. He then proceeded to
invade Talab and Abalge in the territories of the king Abyflinia..
of Adel. I hat monarch, now rendered defperate by v—■v-"-'
the view of approaching ruin, had affembled all the Adel inva-
troops he could raife, in order to make one laft effort ded.
againft the enemy; but conduced himfelf with much
lefs prudence than he ought to have done when con¬
tending with fuch an experienced and vigilant adver-
fary. Amda Sion, confident of fuccerfs, took no lefs
care how to prevent the enemy from efcaping than
how to gain the victory. For this purpofe he de-
fpatched parties of horfe to lie in wait in all thofe ave¬
nues by which he, fuppofed that the Moors might at¬
tempt to’make their efcape ; after which, falling furi¬
oufly on the Adelians himfelf, and being well fupport-
cd by his troops, he gained a complete vidlory ; the The king
king of Adel, with great numbers of his men, being of Adel de-
killed on the fpot, and almoft all the reft by the par- an(l
ties of horfe whom the Abyffmian monarch had polled klilet *
in ambuffi to intercept them.
As the lofs of this battle rendered the affairs of the
Adelians quite defperate, the three young princes, fbns
of the late king, with their uncle, waited upon Amda
Sion with rich prelents, which they laid at his feet
in the moft humble manner putting their foreheads pr;nce3
in the dull, and intreating his pardon ; profeffing their of Adelfub-
fubjeftion and readinefs to obey his commands, provid-mffi
ed that he would fpare the remainder of their country
and property. To this the king made a very unfa¬
vourable reply, reproaching them with indignities done
to himfelf; but efpecially with the facrilege they had
committed in burning churches and murdering priefts,
deftroying alfo defencelefs people in villages, merely
becaufe they imagined that he would not protefl them..
To punifli thefe and other crimes, he faid, he was now
in the heart of their country; and he was determined
never to turn his back upon Adel while he had ten men
capable of drawing their fwords; for which reafon he
commanded them to return and expe£l the approach of
his army.
By this fierce fpeech the brother and two eldeft
children of the king of Adel were fo difheartened, that
they could not fpcak ; but the youngeft fon made a
very fpirited fpeech, in which he attempted to foften
the king by complimenting his valour, and ftiowing
that it was unworthy of his charadler to puffi the war
againft the people who were already conquered and de¬
fencelefs. All the anfwer he could obtain, however, Are unfa-
was, that unlefs the queen with the reft of the royal vourably
family, and the principal people of the nation, would 1'eceived<'
come by to-morrow evening and furrender themfelves
as the princes had done, he would lay walle the terri¬
tory of Adel, from the place where he fat to the Indian
ocean. On this the princes earneftly requefted their
mother to fubmit without referve to the clemency of
the Abyffinian monarch, and to wait upon him next
morning y but (lie- was prevented from this by fome of
the nobility who had formerly advifed the war, and who -
juftly fufpe&ed danger to themfelves if they ffiould be
obliged to fubmit unconditionally to the conqueror. T, e r.„r
Theyrefolved, therefore, once more to venture a battle; COnti^L
and the better to enfure fuccefs, they bound themfelves
by an oath to Hand by. each other to the laft extremity.
At the fame time they difpatched meffengers to the
princes, requefting them to make their efcape with all
manner of expedition, and to head the army themfelves j
A B Y
iyfrvffinia.
An obfli-
aate battle.
[ 62 ]
A B Y
The Moor-
ifh army
entirely cut
©ff.
Dreadful
devalua¬
tions.
The royal
family not
.confined
as former-
iy-
Reign of
Saif Araad.
Of Theodo-
. . r.us.
all bf whom were determined to conquer or die asfoon
as the royal family fliould be out of the enemy’s hands.
By this conduit the Abyffinian monarch was fo much
irritated, that he divided his army into three parts j two
of which he commanded to enter the territory of the
enemy by different routes, and to exterminate both man
and beall wherever they came ; while hehimfelf, with
the third, took the ftraight road to the place where
the new Adelian army was encamped. Here he found
a number of infantry drawn up and ready to engage
him j but, befides thefe, there was a multitude of old
men, women and even children, all armed with fuch
■weapons as they could procure. Surprifed at this
fight, he ordered a party of horfe to difperfe them 5 but
this was found impoffible ; fo that he was obliged to
call in the detachments he had fent out, with orders to
fall upon the enemy by the neareft way they could ad¬
vance. The engagement was for a long time very
doubtful; and in oppofition to Amda Sion appeared
the young king of Wypo, wrho everywhere encoura¬
ged his troops, and made the molt obftinate refillance.
The Abyflinian monarch having obferved him, fheathed
his fwrord, and arming himfelf wTith a bow, chofe the
broadeft arrow he could find, and took fo juft an aim,
that he fhot the young prince through the fide of the
neck, and his head inclining to one fhoulder he foon
fell down dead. On this the fpirit of the Adelians en¬
tirely forfook them, and they betook themfelves to
flight 5 but unluckily falling in with two Abyflinian
detachments coming to the king’s relief, they were lb
completely deftroyed, that only three of them are faid
to have made their efcape. On the fide of the Abyf-
finians, however, the victory was dearly purchafed $
many of the principal officers being killed, and fcarcely
one of the cavalry efcaping without a wound.
The remainder of this expedition confined only in
the deftru£Hon and burning of towns and villages, and
maffacres of helplefs people, on pretence of retaliating
the injuries committed by the Mahometans againft the.
Chriftians. At laft, weary of conqueft and of carnage,
this victorious monarch, who never fuffered a defeat in
any battle, returned in triumph to his capital, where
he ended his days after a reign of 30 years. In his
time we find that the royal family were not confined,
as had been the ufual practice from the time of the
queen of Sheba to the maffacre by Judith ; for Saif
Araad, the fon and fucceflbr of Amda Sion, diftinguifti-
ed himfelf in one of the battles in which his father was
engaged.
Though the new prince, as appears from what has
been juft now obferved, was by no means deftitute of
military talents, the Abyflinian empire enjoyed a pro¬
found peace during his reign. The only remarkable
tranfaclion was the relief given by him to the Coptic
patriarch, wfttom the fultan of Egypt had throwm into
prifon. At this time a great trade was carried on
through the defert by caravans between Cairo and A-
byflinia, as well as from Cairo to Suakem on the Red
fea •, but the Ethiopic monarch having feized the mer¬
chants from Cairo, and fent parties of horfe to interrupt
the caravans in their paflage, the fultan was foon con¬
tent to releafe the patriarch, whom he had imprifoned
only with a view to extort money.
In the reign of Theodorus, wrho held the crown of
Ethiopia from the year 1409 to 1412, we find an in-
3
fringement made on the treaty between Icon Amlac and Abyffim's.
the Abuna Tecla-Haimanout formerly mentioned. By ~v—«-*
that treaty the Abuna was to have a full third of the
whole empire for the fupport of his own dignity and
that of the church : but Theodorus, juftly confidering
this as an unreafonable acquifition,' reduced it very con-
fiderably, though he ftill allowed a very ample revenue
out of every province of the empire •, and even this has
been confidered by feveral of his fucceffors as far too
large, and confequently has been frequently abridged
by them. The annals of this prince’s reign are very
defective, and Mr Bruce fuppofes that they have been
mutilated by the ecclefiaftics •, which, confidering what
we have juft now related of his reducing their revenues,
is by no means improbable. By his fubjedls he wasls.celebra.
confidered as fuch a faint, that to this day the people teJ as a
believe he is to rife again and to reign a thoufand years ^nt'
in Abyflinia ; during which period w ar is to ceafe, and
happinefs to be univerfally diffufed.
From the time of Theodorus to that of Zara Jacob
who began his reign in 1434, the Abyflinian annals fur-
nilh us with little or nothing of any confequence. The zara jaco^
character of this prince is reprefented as by no means in- faid to e-
ferior to that of Theodorus, or indeed of any monarch qu£d Solo-
that ever fat on the throne of Ethiopia, or any othermon*
kingdom in the world. He is, in ftiort, fet forth as
another Solomon, and a model of what fovereigns
ought to be; though, from feme particulars of his
reign, his charatter ftiould feem to be rather exag¬
gerated. The firft remarkable tranfa&ion of this Sends an
great monarch was his fending an embaffy to the embafly to
council of Florence. The ambaffadors wTere certain ''f
priefts from Jerufalem, who in that aflembly adhered0 *
to the opinions of the Greek church; and the em¬
baffy itfelf was judged to be of fuch confequence as to
be the fubjefl of a pitfture in the Vatican. This prince
obtained alfo a cbnvent at Rome from the pope for
the ufe of the Abyffmians; which is ftill preferved,
though very feldom vifited by thofe for whom it was
defigned. He feems to have been very defirous of
keeping up a correfpondence with the Europeans as
well as the Afiatics ; and in his time we firft read of
a difpute in Abyflinia with the Frangi or Franks on
the fubjeft of religion. This was carried on in pre- a party for
fence o"f the king between one Abba George and a Ve-the church
netian painter, Francifco de Branco Lone, in which „
the former confuted and even convinced his antago- orme
nift ; but from this time we find a party formed for the
church of Rome, and which probably took its rife from
the embaffy to the council of Florence.
The prince of whom wre now treat was the firft who
introduced perfecution on a religious account into his
dominions 5 and for this reafon, moft probably, he is
fo highly commended by the ecclefiaftics. The ft ate Religious
of religion in Abyffmia was now indeed very corrupt, perfecution
1’he Greek profeflion had been originally eftabliftiedintro<iuce^
from the church of Alexandria; but in the low pro¬
vinces bordering on the coaft of Adel, the Mahome¬
tan fuperftltion prevailed. Many of that perfuafion
had alfo difperfed themfelves through the towns and
villages in the internal parts of the empire, fthile in not
a few places the groffeft idolatry ftill took place; fuch
as the worftiip of the heavenly bodies, the wind, trees,
cows, ferpents, &c. All this had hitherto paffed un¬
noticed ; but in the reign of Zara Jacob, fome fami-
_ lies
A B Y [ 63 ] A B Y
Abyflinia. Hcs being accufed of worfhipping tbe coT.v and fer-
pent, were brought before the king, who pronounced
fentence of death upon them. Their execution -was
followed by a royal proclamation, that whoever did
not carry on his right hand an amulet with thefe
words upon it, “ I renounce the devil for Chrift our
Lord,” fhould not only forfeit his perfonal eftate, but
Amda Sion be liable to corporal puniftiment. The fpirit of per-
a cruel in- fecution thus begun, quickly diffufed itfelf, and an in-
giuiitor. quifitor wTas appointed to fearch for criminals. This
was one Amda Sion, the king’s chief confidant, who
pretended to all that abfurd and auitere devotion com¬
mon to religious hypocrites. In this he was flattered
with uncommon parade and attendance, the ufual re¬
wards of people of that flamp ; as he never appeared
abroad but with a great number of foldiers, trumpets,
drums, and other enfigns of military dignity waiting
upon him. He kept alfo a number of fpies, who
brought him intelligence of thofe who were fecretly
guilty of any idolatrous or treafonable practices ; after
which, proceeding with his attendants to the houfe of
the delinquent, he caufed the family firfl fupply him-
felf and his party with refrefhments, and then ordered
the unhappy wretches to be all put to death in his pre-
Murderof fence. Among thofe'who fuffered in this barbarous
manner were the two fons-in-law of the king himfelf,
la— who had been accufed by their wives, the one of adul¬
tery, and the other of inceft ; on which flight ground
they were both put to death in their own houfes in
fuch a manner as defervedly threw an odium on the
Perfecution king. His conduct was afterwards fo feverely con-
fyppreU'ed. demneq by acertain clergyman from Jerufalem, that a re¬
formation feems to have been produced ; and no men¬
tion is afterwards made of the inquifltor or perfecution
during this reign.
Affairs of The attention of the king was now called off from
the king- religion to the hate of his affairs in the different pro-
^reSu- vinces of the kingdom. As .the Moorifh provinces
were very rich, by reafon of the extenfive trade they
carried on, and frequently employed their wealth in
exciting rebellions, it became neceffary that the fove-
reign himfelf fhpuld examine into the circumhances
and diipofitions of the feveral governors ; which was
likewife proper on another account, that he might af-
fign to each the fum to be paid. On this occanon he
divided the empire more dihinctly, and increafed the
number of governments confiderably ; which being
Churches done, he fet about repairing the churches throughout
repaired, the country, which had fallen into decay, or been de-
flroyed in the war with the Mahometans. So zealous
was he in this refpeft, that having heard of the de-
flruflion of the church of the Virgin in Alexandria
by fire, he inftantly built another in Ethiopia, to repair
the lofs which Chrilfianity might have fuffered.
The laft public tranfa&ion of this prince’s reign was
the qiiafhing of a rebellion which fome of his govern¬
ors had entered into ; but whatever glory he might
acquire from this or any other exploit, his behaviour
with regard to his domeiiic affairs mull certainly place
The queen him in a very difadvantageous light. In the decline of
put to a ^ the king’s liie, the mother of the heir-apparent ccn-
cruel death. ceived fuch an extreme defire to behold herfon in pof-
fellion of the throne, that fhe began to form fchemes
f°_r obliging his father to take him into partnerfhip
witu nun in the government. Thefe being difeovered,
her hufband cruelly caufed her to be whipped to death : Abyffinitn
and finding that his fon afterwards performed certain " y-—
folemnities at her grave in token of regard for her, he
caufed him to be loaded with irons and banifhed to the
top of a mountain ; where he would probably have been
put to death, had not the monks interfered. Thefe
having invented prophecies, dreams, and revelations,
that none but the young prince Baeda Mariam was to
pollefs the throne, the old king fubmitted to the de¬
crees of Heaven, and relaxed in his feverity.
On the acceffion of the new king in 1468, the old The royal
law for imprifoning all the royal family was revived, family
and a mountain named GeJJjcn chofen for the purpofe. con~
Having thus fecured himfelf from any danger of a rival
in cafe he Ihould undertake a foreign expedition, he
proclaimed a pardon to all thofe who had been banilh-
ed during the former reign, and thus ingratiated him-
felf with his people : after which he began to prepare
for war. At this the neighbouring princes, particu¬
larly the king of Adel, being alarmed, fent anabalfa-
dors requefting the continuance of peace. The Abyf-War with-
finian monarch told them, that his defign was to de-^10 Dobas -
ftroy the Dobas 5 a race of Ihepherds very wealthy, r,;lo'ved
but extremely barbarous, profelfmg the Pagan religion,
and greatly refembling the Gallas. The reafon of
his commencing hoftilities againft them was, that they
made continual inroads into his country, and commit¬
ted the greateft cruelties 5 on which account he deter¬
mined not to make wrar as with a common enemy, but
to exterminate and deftroy them as a nuifance. The
king of Adel was no fooner polfelfed of this piece of
intelligence, than he communicated it to the Dobas j
defiring them to fend their women and children, with
their molt valuable effe&s, into his country, till the in-
vafion Ihould be over. This propofal was readily em-arj?
braced j but Bfeda having got notice of it, feized anmaffacred.
avenue through which they mull necelfarily pafs, and
malfacred every one of the company. After this, en¬
tering their country, he committed fuch devallations,
that they were glad to fubmit, and even to renounce
their religion in order to free themfelves from fuch a
dreadful enemy. The king then turned his arms a-
gainll Adel, where he was attended with his ufual fuc-
cefs ; a moll complete vi£lory being gained over the
Moors by the Abylfmian general: but while the king Qeath 0f *
himfelf was advancing towards that country, with a full the king,
refoluticn to reduce it to the moll ahjeff Hate of mi-
fery, he was feized with a pain in his bowels, which
occafioned his death.
The difeovery of the kingdom of Ethiopia or Abyf-
finia by the Europeans took place about this time. It
has already been obferved, that foine intercourfe by
means of individuals had been carried on betwixt this
country and Italy*, but the knowledge conveyed to
Europeans in this manner was very iraperfeft and ob-liifcoverT
feure. Even the fituation of the country had been°I
forgot ; and though fome confufed notions were enter- t^ie i'u~
tained of a diftant Chrillian prince who was likewife arukc-*-‘s-
priell, Marco Paulo, the famous Venetian traveller, ()t~ preacr
affirms-that he had met with him in Tartary j and it j0hn.
was univerfally agreed that his name was Joannes"
Prejbyter, Prete janni, or PreJIer John. Vfhen the
Portuguefe began to extend their difeoveries along the
coall of Africa, more certain intelligence concerning
this prince was obtained. Bemoy, one of the kings of
tW
A B Y [ 64 ] A B Y
Ambafla-
dors fent
from the
king of
^Portugal.
Abyflinia. tlie Jalofles, a nation on the weftern coaft of Africa,
had affured the Portugueie navigators of the exiftence
of fuch a prince fo ilrongly, that the king determined
to fend ambafladors to him ; and the difcovery was of
the greater confequence, that a paflage to the Eaft In¬
dies was now attempted both by land and fea. The
ambaffadors were named Peter Covillan and Alphonfo
de Paiva. Thefe were fent to Alexandria in Egypt,
from whence they were to fet out on their journey j the
intent of which was, to explore the fources of the In¬
dian trade, the principal markets for the fpice, &.c.
but above all, to difcover whether it was poflible to
arrive at the Eaft Indies by failing round the continent
of Africa.
Account of In the profecution of this fcheme our two travellers
^211 tra~ went from Alexandria to Cairo 5 from thence to Suez
Ve i* at the bottom of the Red fea } from Suez they took
their route to Aden, a wealthy and commercial city
beyond the ftraits of Babel Mandel. Covillan now fet
fail for India, and De Paiva for Suakem. The latter
loft his life without making any difcovery; but Covil¬
lan pafled over to Calicut and Goa. From thence he
returned to the continent of Africa, vifiting the gold
mines of Sofala, and pafling from thence to Aden and
Cairo ; at which laft place he was informed of the death
of his companion. In this city he was met by two
Jews with letters from the king of Abyffinia. One of
thefe Jews was fent back with letters to the Abyflmian
monarch 5 but with the other he proceeded to the
iiland of Ormus in the Perfian gulf. Here they fepa-
rated ; the Jew returning home, and Covillan repafling
the ftraits of Babel Mandel, whence he proceeded to
Aden, and afterwards entered the Abyflinian domi¬
nions.
The reigning prince at this time was named Alex*
ander ; and when Covillan arrived, he was employed
in levying contributions upon his rebellious fubjecls.
He met with a kind reception j and was conveyed to
the capital, where he was promoted to the higheft
pofts of honour, but never allowed to return to Europe
’important again. The intelligence, however, which he tranfmit-
intelligence ted to the court of Portugal proved of much import-
conveyed ance. He not only defcribed all the ports of India he
b° CovlP1 feen> whh the fituation and wealth of Sofala, but
lan. V advifed the king to profecute the difcovery of the paf-
fage round Africa with the utmoft diligence ; affirm¬
ing, that the Cape at the fouthern extremity of the
continent was well known in India; and accompany¬
ing the whole with a chart which he had obtained from
a Moor, and which ffiowed exactly the fituation of the
Cape and neighbouring countries.
•Reign of Covillan arrived in Ethiopia about the year 1490;
Alexander, and the prince to whom he addreffed himfelf was A-
lexander the fon of Baeda Mariam, a prince endowed
with many good qualities, and no lefs verfed in mili¬
tary affairs than any of his predeceffors. His reign
was difturbed by plots and rebellions, which at laft
Meditates proved fatal to him. From his early years he mani-
a war a- fefted a great defire to make war on the king of Adel,
.gainftAdel. wb0 feems to have been the natural rival of the Ethio-
pic princes. But the Adelian monarch, having now
become fenfible that he was not able to cope with fuch
powerful adverfaries, took the moft eifeclual way of
fecuring himfelf; viz. by gaining over a party at the
-court of Abyffinia. In this he had now lucceeded fo
well, that when Alexander was about to invade Adel, Abyffinia.
Za Saluce the prime minifter, with many of the prin- '
cipal nobility, were in the intereft of his adverfary.
Not being apprized of this treachery, however, Alex-He isde-
ander intrufted this minifter with the command of a ferted by
great part of his forces j and with thefe the latter aban- prime
doned him in the heat of an engagement. Alexander 0f
and the few troops who remained with him, however, his army in
were fo far from being diftieartened by this treachery, battle, but
that they feemed to be infpired with freffi courage. Kams a v^c*
The king having killed the ftandard-bearer of the ene-tor^'
my, and thus become mafter of the green enfign of
Mahomet, the enemy began to give way ; and on his
killing the king of Adel’s fon, immediately after, they
quitted the field altogether. The vi&ory was not by
any means complete 5 neither was Alexander in a fi¬
tuation to purfue the advantage he had gained. Hav¬
ing therefore challenged the Moors to a fecond engage¬
ment, •which they declined, he returned with a defign
to punifti his perfidious minifter Za Saluce, who had
endeavoured to excite the governors of all the provin¬
ces to revolt as he went along. The traitor, however, Alexamfer
had laid his plots too well j fo that his fovereign was murdered,
murdered in two days after his arrival in the capital.
Za Saluce did not enjoy the rewards he expe&ed from
his treachery : for having attempted to excite a revolt
in the province of Amhara, he was attacked by the
nobility there; and his troops deferring him, he was
taken prifoner without any refiftance, his eyes were put
out, and himfelf expofed on an'afs, to the curfes and
derifion of the people.
Alexander was fucceeded by an infant fon, who Rejgn 0f
reigned only feven months j after which his, younger Naod.
brother Naod was chofen king by the unanimous voice
of the people. He proved a wife and virtuous prince j
but the late misfortunes, together with the corruption
introduced at court by the Mahometans, had fo un¬
hinged the government, that it became very difficult to
know how. to manage matters. Judging very proper¬
ly, however, that one of the moft effectual methods of
quieting the minds of the people would be an offer of
a general pardon} he not only proclaimed this, but
likewife, “ That any perfon who flrould upbraid an¬
other with being a party in the misforftmes of paft
times, or fay that he had been privy to this or that
confpiracy, had received bribes from the Moors, &c.
ftiould be pdt to death without delay.” On his enter- Maffudi
ing upon government, he found it neceffary to prepare ravages the
againft an enemy -whom we have not heretofore men- Abyffiman
tioned, viz. Maffudi, prince of a diftriA named Arar,terntones*
which lay in the neighbourhood of Adel. This chief-
tan being a man of a very enterprifing and martial
difpofition, and a moft violent enthufiaft in the Maho¬
metan caufe, had made a vow to fpend 40 days annual¬
ly in fome part of the Abyffinian dominions during the
time of Lent. For this purpofe he kept a finall body
of veteran troops, with whom he fell fometimes on
one part, and fometimes on another of the frontiers,
putting to death without mercy fuch as made refiftance,
and carrying off for flaves thofe who made none. For
30 years he continued this praftice ; beginning exaftly
on the firft day of Lent, and proceeding gradually up
the country as the term advanced. His progrefs was
greatly facilitated by the fuperftition of the people
themfelves, who kept that faft with fuch rigour as al-
moft
Me is de¬
feated.
David III.
A E Y [6S
AllyfTmia. moil entirely to exhaull their ftrength ; fothat Maffudi
having never met with any oppofition, was always fure
of fuccefs, and thus came to be reckoned invincible.
On the prefent occalion, however, he experienced a
prodigious reverfe of fortune. Naod having enjoined
his foldiers to live in the lame full and free manner
during the fall as at any other time, and having fet the
example himfelf, marched out againft his enemy 5 who,
being ignorant of the precaution he had taken, advan¬
ced with his ufual confidence of fuccefs. The Abyfli-
nian monarch, full pretending fear, as if on account of
the weaknefs of his men, pitched his camp in very
llrong ground, but left fome paflages open to it, that
the enemy might make an attack. This w'as done
contrary to the advice of their leader ; and the confe-
quence was, that almoft every one of them was cut off.
On this the king of Adel fent ambaffadors to folieit a
Continuance of the peace with himfelf; which was
granted, upon condition that he reftored all the Haves
whom Maffudi had carried off in his laft year’s expe¬
dition'; with which the Mahometan chief thought pro¬
per to comply rather than engage in fuch a dangerous
war.
Naod having thus freed his country from the dan¬
ger of any foreign invafion, applied himfelf to the cul¬
tivation of the arts of peace, and reforming the man¬
ners of his fubjefts, in which he fpent the remainder
of his days. He died in 1508, after a reign of 13
years ; and was fucceeded by his fon David III. a child
of 11 years of age. Though the affairs of the empire
were at prefent in fuch a Hate as required a very pru¬
dent and active adminiftration, the emprefs Helena,
widow of Baeda hlariam, had interefl: enough to get
the crown fettled on the infant juft mentioned. This
proceeded partly from her defire of engroffing all the
power into her own hands, and partly from a wilh to
keep peace with Adel her native country. Thefe ends
could not be accomplilhed but by keeping a minor on
the throne of Abyflinia ; which was therefore her con-
ftant objeft as long as Ihe lived. But though this
might not have been attended with any very bad con-
fequence had the two nations been left to decide the
quarrel by themfelves, the face of affairs was now quite
changed by the interference of the Turks. That peo¬
ple having now conquered almoft the whole of Arabia
to the Indian ocean, being likewife on the point of re¬
ducing Egypt, and having a great advantage over their
adverfaries in ufing fire-arms, now projected the con-
queft of India alfo. In this indeed they were always
difappointed by the fuperior valour of the Portuguefe ;
but as this conqueft remained a favourite objeff with
them, they did not abandon their attempts. In the
countries which they had conquered, they exacted ilich
enormous contributions from the merchants, that vaft
numbers of them fled to the African fide of the Red
fea, and fettled on the coaft of Adel. The Turks,
furprifed at the mcreafe of trade in this country, which
they themfelves had occafioned, refolved to ftiare in the
profits. For this purpofe they took poffeftion of Zeyla,
a fmall ifland in the Red fea, diredlly oppofite to the
coaft of Adel ; and erefted a cuftomhoufe in it, where
they oppreffed and ruined the trade as in other places.
Ihus both Adel and Abyflinia were threatened with
a molt formidable enemy, which it would have been
utterly out of-their power to have refilled, had not the
Vox 1. Part I,
Abyflinia
»n danger
from the
Turks.
] A B Y
defire of poflefling India conftantly prevented the Turks "Abyflima>
from directing their ftrength againft thefe countries. v—
Helena wras lenfible enough of the dangerous fituation ^ embafl’y
of the empire, but preferred the gratification of Iter Por~
ambition to the good of her country ; however, that
flie might preferve herfelf from the attacks of fuch a
formidable enemy, it wns now thought proper to enter
into an alliance with the Portuguefe. The ambafla-
dor from Portugal, Peter Covillan, was denied the li¬
berty of returning to his own country, as has been al¬
ready related ; and as, for fome time paft, it had not
been obvious how he could be of much ufe, he had
begun to fall into oblivion. The prefent emergency,
however, recovered his importance. The emprefs wTas
fenfible of the neceffity Ihe lay under of having fome
perfon wdro underftood both the Abyffinian and Por¬
tuguefe languages before fhe could open any correfpon-
dence with that nation, and who might likewife in¬
form her of the names of the perfons to wiiom her let¬
ters ought to be addreffed. By him flie was now' in-
ftnnfted in every thing neceffary to the fuccefs of her
embaffy. The meffage wras committed to one Matthew
an Armenian merchant, with whom a young Abyffi-
nian was joined ; but the latter died by the way. The
letters they carried are by Mr Bruce fuppofed to have
been partly the work of Covillan and partly of the
lefs experienced Abyffinian confidants of the emprefs.
They began with telling the king, that Matthew wmuld
give him information of her whole purpofe, and that
he might depend on the truth of what he laid ; but in
the latter part the whole fecret of the embaffy was
difcloied, and a force fufficient to deftroy the Turkifti
power was exprefsly folicited. Among the other par¬
ticulars of this embaffy alfo it is laid, that a third part
of Abyflinia w'as offered in cafe her requifitions were
complied with ; but this, as well as the embaffy itfelf,
was always denied by David when he came of age.
Matthewq though raifed from the rank of merchant xhe amVtf
to that of an ambaffador, could not, it feems, add ac-fadorill
cording to his new dignity in fuch a manner as tol,fed.
fereen himfelf from the moft mortifying and dangerous
imputations. Having arrived at Dabul in the Eaft
Indies, he was feized as a fpy, but relieved by Albu¬
querque the viceroy of Goa ; and that not out of any
regard to his character as ambaffador, but becaufe he
himfelf had a defign upon Abyffinia. This viceroy
ufed his utmoft endeavours to induce Matthew to de¬
liver his commiffions to him ; but the ambaffador con¬
ftantly refufed to Ihow any letter he had, except to
the king of Portugal in perfon, and in his own king¬
dom. This put him out of favour with the viceroy ;
W'hile his attendants, cilfpleafed at the mean appear¬
ance of the man, infilled fometimes that he was a fpy
from the fultan, at others that he was a cook, an im-
poftor, or a menial fervant. Matthew', however, per¬
ceiving that he w'as now out of danger, maintained
that his perfon was facred, and infilled on being treat¬
ed as the reprefentative of a fovereign. Fie let the
viceroy, bilhop, and clergy know, that he had with
him a piece of the wood of the true crofs, fent as a
prefent to the king of Portugal ; and he required
them, under pain of facrilege, to pay refpefl to the
bearer of fuch a precious relic, and to celebrate its ar¬
rival as a feftival. This w'as inftantly complied with,
and a folemn proceflion inftkuted; but very little re-
I gard
f.
A B Y
Abyflinia. gard appears to have been paid to this ambaffador ei-
ther in his temporal or fpiritual charafter, as he could
not obtain leave to depart for Portugal till 1513, which
was three years after he arrived in India. In his paf-
fage he was extremely ill-treated by the ftiipmafters
with whom he failed : but of this they foon had caufe
to repent $ as on their arrival at Lilbon they were all
put in irons, and would probably have died in confine¬
ment, had not Matthew made interceflxon for them
with the king.
Maffudi re- In the mean time, Maffudi having recovered from
news his the defeat given him by Naod, and formed alliances
with the Turks in Arabia, had renewed his depreda¬
tions on the Abyffinian territories with more fuccefs
than ever. Such a number of Haves had been, by his
afliduity, fent to Mecca, that he was honoured with
a green filk ftandard (an emblem of the true Mahome¬
tan faith), with a tent of black velvet embroidered
with gold, and he was likewife made Sheykh of Zey-
la ; fo that, as this ifland was properly the key to the
Abyflinian empire, he could neither be rewarded with
greater honour nor profit. This happened when David
had attained the age of 16} and in confequence of
fuch furprifing fuccefs, the king of Adel, never a
hearty friend to Abyflinia, determined to break the
peace with that empire and make an alliance with
Maffudi. Having taken this refolution, the two princes
invaded Abyfiinia with their joint forces, and in one
year carried off 19,000 Chriftian Haves, fo that a ge¬
neral terror was fpread over the whole empire. David,
already impatient of the injuries his people had fuftain-
ed, determined to raife an army, and to head it in per-
fon as his anceftors had done, contrary to the advice
of the emprefs, who confidering only his youth and in¬
experience in military affairs, wifhed him to have em¬
ployed fome of his veteran officers. A very powerful
David army was raifed, and ample fupplies of all kinds were
marches a- procured. With one part of his forces the emperor
gainft him. t00k_ the road to Auffa the capital of Adel j fending the
other under the command of an officer named the Be-
tivudet, to meet the Mooriffi army, which was then ra¬
vaging part of Abyffinia. It was natural to be ima¬
gined, that the Moors, on hearing that an army was
marching to deftroy the capital of their country, wTould
abandon the thoughts of conquefi: or plunder to pre-
ferve it. In doing this, David knew that they had
certain defiles to pafs before they could reach Adel.
He ordered the Betwudet therefore to allow them to
enter thefe defiles j and before they could get through,
he himfelf, with the main body of the army, marched
to attack them at the other end. Thus the Moors
were completely hemmed in by a fuperior army : but
befides this unfavourable fituation, they were farther
Maffudi difpirited by Maffudi. That hero came, on the morn-
rophelies ing of the engagement, to the king of Adel, inform-
eauT0 ing him that his own time was now come ; that he
had been certainly told by a prophet, long ago, that
if this year (1516) he ffiould fight the king of Abyfli-
nia in perfon, he ffiould lofe his life. He was aflured
that the Abyffinian monarch was then prefent, having
feen the fcarlet tent which was ufed only by the fove-
[ 66 ] A B Y
reigns of that country 5 and therefore advifed the king Abyflinia.
of Adel to make the beft of his w^ay over the lead
deep part of the mountain before the engagement be¬
gan. The Adelian monarch, who had at any rate no
great inclination to fight, was not infpired with cou¬
rage by this fpeech : he therefore follow ed the advice
given him ; and«, with a few of his friends, pafled the
mountain, leaving his troops to their fate. The
Moors, in the mean time, being abandoned by one
leader, and having another devoted to deffru&ion,
ffiowed an uncommon backwardnefs to engage, which
was taken notice of by their enemies. Maffudi, how¬
ever, as foon as he fuppofed the king of Adel to be
out of danger, fent a trumpet to the Abyffinian camp,
with a challenge to any man of quality in the army to
fight him ; on condition that the party of the victori¬
ous champion ffiould be accounted conquerors, and
that the armies ffiould immediately feparate without
further bloodffied. The challenge was inftantly ac¬
cepted by a monk named Gabriel Atidreas; who, in
the reign of Bteda Mariam, had been condemned to
lofe the tip of his tongue for fpeaking flightly of the
king’s proclamation of amnefty. Maffudi ffiowed no He is killed
reluCtance to prefent himfelf 5 but received fuch a
ftroke from his antagonift with a twTo-handed fword as
almoft cut his body in two, and he immediately fell
dowrn dead. Andreas cut off his head j and throwing
it at the king’s feet, cried out, “ There is the Goliath
of the infidels.” This became the fignal for a general
engagement, notwithttanding the terms ftipulated by
Maffudi before the combat. The Moors were quickly
repulfed by the king’s troops, and driven backward Je^a^or3
through the defile. At the other end they wTere met and de-
by the Betwudet (b), who drove them back to the ftroyed.
king’s forces 5 fo that at laft being forced to fly to the
mountains, they wrere all Haughtered by the peafants
or periflied with hunger and thirft.
The fame day that this victory was gained over the ^ ia ta
Moors by David, being in the month of July 1516, ken by the
the ifland-of Zeyla in the Red fea was taken and the Portuguefe.
town burnt by the Portuguefe fleet under Lopez Sua¬
rez de Alberguiera. The Abyffinian ambaffador,
Matthew, in the mean time, had been received with
the greateff marks of efteem in Portugal. The utmoft
attention was paid to his embaffy •, he was lodged in
the molt fplendid manner ; and his maintenance was
fuitable to his lodging. The king prepared an em- „ , „
baffy on his part, and fent home Matthew on board
the Indian fleet commanded by Lopez. The ambaffa- king of
dor ordered for Abyffinia was one Edwrard Galvan, a Portugal,
man who had filled many ftate departments with the
utmoft applaufe ; but who by reafon of his age, being
now 86, was certainly very unfit for fuch a diftant and
perilous voyage. He died accordingly on the ifland
of Camaran in the Red fea, where Suarez had impru¬
dently landed, and paffed the winter in the utmoft di-
ftrefs for want of provifions of every kind. This ad¬
miral was fucceeded by Lopez de Seguyera ; who failed
firft to the ifiand of Goa in the Eaft Indies, where he
fitted out a ftrong fleet •, after which he returned to
the Red fea, and landed on the ifland of Mafuah, hav¬
ing
(b) This is the title of one of the officers in Abyffinia, not the proper name of a man.
A B Y [ <>7 ] A B Y
A Portu-
guefe fleet
arrives on
the coaft
of Abyfll-
Difficult
journey
the ambaf-
fadors
through
Abyffinia.
Are very
indifferent¬
ly received
by the em¬
peror, and
long detain¬
ed.
ing along with him Matthew, about the authenticity
of whofe miflion there had been fuch difputes. At his
firft approach the inhabitants tied j but at laft he was
accofted by a Chriftian and a Moor from the continent,
who informed him that the coaft oppofite to Mafuah
was part of the kingdom of Abyftinia, and that it was
governed by an officer named the Baharnagajh ; that all
the mhabitants of the iftand were Chriftians ; that the
reafon of their flying at the fight of the Portuguefe
fleet was that they took them for Turks, who fre¬
quently made defcents, and ravaged the ifland, &c.
The admiral difmiffed them with prefents ; and foon
after had a vifit from the governor of Arkeeko, a town
on the continent; who informed him, that about 24
miles up the country there was a monaftery, feven of
the members of which were now deputed to wait upon
him. Thefe inftantly knew Matthew, and congratu¬
lated him in the warmeft manner upon his return from
fuch a long voyage. An interview foon took place
between the Baharnagalh himfelf and Lopez. The
Abyflinian informed him, that the coming of the Por¬
tuguefe had been long expe&ed, in confequence of cer¬
tain ancient prophecies } and that he himfelf and all
the officers of the emperor were ready to ferve him.
They parted with mutual prefents j and all doubt about
Matthew being now removed, he prepared to fet out
for the emperor’s court j while Roderigo de Lima was
nominated ambaffador in place of Galvan who died.
Along with them were 15 Portuguefe ; all men of the
moft determined courage, and who would hefitate at
nothing which they thought might contribute to the
glory of their king, their own honour, or the advan¬
tage of their country. Their prefent journey indeed
was much more perilous than- their voyage from Por¬
tugal to Abyflinia. The emperor was at this time in
the fouthern part of his dominions, but the Portuguefe
had landed on the northern part j fo that they had al-
moft the whole breadth of the empire to pafs before
they could meet wqth him. The very firft journey
they attempted was through a wood fo thick that it
could fcarce afford a paffage either to man or beaft,
wdiile the interftices of the trees were fo interwoven
with briers and thorns of various kinds, that their paf¬
fage was rendered almoft imprafticable. This was ren¬
dered ftill more terrible by the vaft numbers of wild
hearts they faw, and which feemed only to be prevented
from devouring them by the appearance of fo many
men together. The rainy feafon was alfo now begun;
fo that they were expofed to inceffant deluges of water
defcending from the clouds, befides frequent and vio¬
lent ftorms of wind, thunder, and lightning, &c. To
add to their misfortunes, an epidemic fever broke out
among them, which carried off Matthew and one of
the fervants of Don Roderigo. At laft, after a moft
tedious and toilfome journey, from the 16th of April
to the 18th of Oftober 1520, the Portuguefe ambaffa¬
dor, with his retinue, came within fight of the Abyf-
finian camp at the diftance of about three miles. His
reception was by no means favourable 5 for inftead orf
being immediately admitted to the prefence of the em¬
peror, he was waited on by one of the officers of ftate,
ftyled, in token of humility, HadugRas, ox commander
°f aJFes i who caufed him pitch his tent three miles
farther off from the camp : and it was not till five years
afterwards that he was enabled to finifti the bufinefs
of his embaffy, and obtained leave to depart for Por- Atyftniai
During all this time, not a fingle word had paffed
relating to the affairs of the two nations ; fo that it is
difficult to imagine what might have been the defign
of the Abyflinian emperor. At lart, having refolved ^ ^ aI-
to fend an embaffy to Portugal, he allowed Roderigo
to depart, but detained two of his people •, appointing^anffiafla-
Zaga Zaab, an Abyflinian monk, his ambaffador to dor from
Portugal. the empe-
This long intercourfe betwixt two fuch diftant na-ron
tions, however, could not but greatly alarm the Maho-Bacl
metan powers, who were natural enemies to both. Se- t^s
lim, the Turkiih fultan, having been conftantly defeat-
ed by the Portuguele in the eaft, and alarmed at the
thoughts of having a fleet of that nation in the Red
fea, where they might greatly annoy his fettlements
on the coaft of Arabia, determined to carry his arms
to the African fide 5 while the king of Adel, having
ftrengthened himfelf by alliances with the Turkifh of¬
ficers in Arabia, was now become a much more for¬
midable enemy than before. This was foon experien-The empe-
ced in a battle with the Adelians ; in which the Abyf-ror defeat-
finian monarch was overthrown with the lofs of almoft
all his great officers and principal nobility, befides a
vaft number of private men. The victory was princi¬
pally owing to the afliftance given by the Turks ; for
the army was commanded by Mahomet furnamed
Gragne, i. e. left-handed, governor of Zeyla, which had
now received a Turkifh garrifon. This man, having
the conqueft of Abyffinia greatly at heart, refolved, as
foon as poffible, to effect fomething decifive 5 and
therefore having fent to Mecca all the prifoners taken
in his late expedition, he obtained in return a confide-
rable number of janizaries, with a train of portable ar¬
tillery. Thus the fortune of the war was entirely de- The Ade-
cided in favour of the Adelians and Turks j the empe-hans, affift-
ror was defeated in every battle, and frequently hunt-ec* by tbe
ed from place to place like a wild beaft. The Moors,
finding at laft no neceffity for keeping up an army, emperor,
overran the whole empire in fmall parties, everywhere
plundering and burning the towns and villages, and
carrying off the people for flaves.
This deftruftive war continued till the year 1537 j
when Gragne fent a meffage to the emperor, exhorting
him not to fight any longer againft God, but to make
peace while it was in his power, and give him his
daughter in marriage : on which condition he would
withdraw his army j but otherwife he would reduce
his empire to fuch a ftate that it fhould be capable of
pr@ducing nothing but grafs. David, however, ftill
refufed to fubmit; replying, that he put his confidence
in God, who at prefent only chaftifed him and his He reffifes
people for their fins $ but that Gragne himfelf, being to fubmit.
an infidel, and enemy to the true religion, could not
fail of coming in a ffiort time to a miferable end. This
unfuccefsful negotiation was followed by feveral en¬
counters, in which the emperor was conftantly defeat¬
ed ; in one of them his eldeft fon was killed, and in
another his youngeft was taken prifoner : fo that he
now feemed entirely deftitute, being obliged to wan¬
der on foot, and all alone, hiding himfelf throughout
the day among the buflies on the mountains.
The invincible conftancy with which this forlorn
monarch bore his misfortunes, proved a matter of fur-
I 2 prife
A B Y [ 6S ] A B Y
AbyiTmia. prife both to friends and enemies. Many of his vcte-
'T—ran foldiers, compaflionating the diftrefl.es of their fo-
vereign, fought him out in his hiding places } fo that
he once more found himfelf at the head of a fmall ar¬
my, with which he gained fome advantages that ferved
to keep up his own fpirits and thofe of his adherents.
His greateft enemy was Ammer, one of Gragne’s of¬
ficers, who headed the rebellious Abyflinians, and who
had formed a fcheme of aflaflinating the king j but,
inftead of accomplifhing his purpofe, he himfelf was af-
faflinated in 1538 by a common foldier, on what ac¬
count we are not informed.
By the death of Ammer and the fmall fuccefles
which David himfelf had obtained, the affairs of Abyf-
finia feemed to revive 5 but ftili there was no probabi¬
lity of their being ever brought to a fortunate iffue.
A new em- An embaffy to Portugal was therefore thought of in
bafly to good earneft, as the mifehievous effefts of flighting the
Portugal, proffered fnendlhip of that power were now fufticient-
ly apparent. One of the attendants of Roderigo, na¬
med John Bermudes, who had been detained in Abyf-
ftnia, was chofen for this purpofe } and to his tempo¬
ral character of ambaffador rvas-added that of Abuna,
primate or patriarch. John, who was not a clergy¬
man originally, had received all the inferior ecclelia-
tlical orders at once, that the fupreme one might be
thus conferred upon him 5 but happening to be a great
bigot to the popifh religion, he would not accept of
his new dignity but with a provifo, that his ordination
ihould be approved by the pope. This was indireftly
fubmitting the church of Abyffinia to that of Rome $
to which David would never have agreed, had it not
been for the defperate fttuation of his affairs at that
time. John was therefore allowed to do as he thought
proper : when palling through Arabia and Egypt to
Italy, he had his ordination confirmed by the pope }
after which he fet out on the bufinefs of his embaffy.
On his arrival at Lifbon, he was acknowledged by the
king as patriarch of Alexandria, Abyffmia, and of the
fea ; for this laft title had alfo been conferred upon
him by his Holinefs. Entering then upon the pur¬
pofe of his embaffy, he began by putting Zaga Zaab in
irons for having wafted fo much time, and done no-
A body of thing effeclual lince he had left Abyffinia. I hen he
PcfuS»ele reprefented to the king the diftreffes of the Abyftinians
affifTthe0 in fuch a ftrong %ht, and infilled fo violently for re¬
emperor. hef to them, that an order was very foon procured for
400 mulketeers to be lent by Don Garcia de Noronha
to their relief. To accelerate the progrefs of the in¬
tended fiiccours, John himfelf propofed to fail in the
fame fleet with Don Garcia ; but his voyage was de¬
layed for a whole year by ficknefs, occaftoned, as he
fuppofed, by poifon given him by Zaga Zaab, the monk
whom he had imprifoned, and who had been fet at li¬
berty by the king. After his recovery, however, he
fet fail for India, where he arrived in fafety. The
death of Don Garcia, which happened in the mean
time, occafioned another delay j but at laft it was re-
folved, that Don Stephen de Gama, who had fucceed-
ed to Don Garcia, fhould undertake an expedition to
the Red fea, in order to burn fome lurkilh galleys
which then lay at Suez. But intelligence having in
the mean time been received of the intended voyage,
thefe veffels had withdrawn themfelves. Anchoring
then in the port of Mafuah, Don Stephen fent over to
Arkeeko on the continent to procure fiefh water and Abyffinia<.
other proviftons j but the Turks and Moors being now v——'
entirely mailers of that coatt, the goods he had lent inplie pic"?
exchange were feized without any thing being given e
in return. A meflage was brought back, importing, the town 0f
that the king of Adel was now mailer of all Ethiopia, Arkceko,
and confequently that no trade could be carried on
without his leave ; but if Don Stephen would make
peace with him, the goods Ihould be reftored, a plen¬
tiful fupply of water and all kinds of provifions grant¬
ed, and amends likewife made for 60 Portuguele who
had been killed at Zeyla. Thefe had run away from
the fleet on its firft arrival in the Red fea, and landed
on the coaft of Adel, where they could procure no wa¬
ter •, of which the barbarians took advantage to decoy
them up the country ; where, having perfuaded them
to lay down their arms, they murdered them all. To
this Don Stephen returned a fmooth anlwer, fent more
goods, obtained provifions, and promifed to con e aftiore
as foon as a Mahometan feftival, which the lavages
were then celebrating, ftiould be over. This treaty
was carried on with equal bad faith on both fides j but'
Don Stefphen had now the advantage by obtaining the
provifions he Hood in need of. Thefe were no fooner
brought on board, than he ftridlly forbade all inter-
courfe with the land ; and choofing out 600 men, he
attacked the town of Arkeeko, killed the governor,
and fent his head to the Abyffintan cou't; maffacring
at the fame time all the people in the town he met
with.
During this long interval, a confiderablfe change Affairs of
had taken place in the Abyffmian affairs. Vi e have Abyffinia.
already feen that David had been reduced to great di- aum)g thi*
ft refs 5 but afterwards met with fome little fuccefles,intxna ~
which feemed to indicate an approaching change of
fortune. In thefe, however, he was foon difappoint-R j fa_
ed. A Mahometan chief called Viz-ir Mvgdid made mily maf-
an attack upon the rock Geihen, where the royal fa- facied.
mily were kept 5 and finding it entirely unguarded, ai-
cended without oppofition, and put every perfon to the
fword. This laft difafter feems to have been too great Death of
for the refolution even of this heroic prince, as he died David, and
the fame year 1540. He was fucceeded by his fon of
Claudius, who, though then but about 18 years of age,
was endowed with all the great qualities neceffary for
managing the affairs of the empire in fuch a dreadful
crifis, and had made conftderable progrefs before the
arrival of the Portuguefe.
On his acceflion, the Moors, defpifing his youth, in-a powerful
ftantly formed a league among themfelves to crufh him league
at once ; but, like aimoft all others too confident 0f formed a-
vi&ory, they neglefted to take the proper precautions
againft a furpriie. This was not unobferved by Clau- ror. ‘ '
dins ; who falling upon one party which lay next to
him, gave them a total defeat. The king purfued Tpe Moor*
them the whole day of the engagement, the enluing defeated,
night, and part of the following day ; putting to death
without mercy every one who fell into his hands. T his
exceftive ardour very much damped the fpirits of his
enemies, and at the fame time infpired his own party
with the moft fanguine hopes of iucceis 5 whence he
foon appeared at the head of fuch an army as convin¬
ced his enemies that he was by no moans to be defpi-
fed. They now found it neceffary to deftft from the
practice they had fo long continued, of plundering and
ravaging
A B Y [
Abyflinia. ravaging the count / ; to call in their fcaltered par-
  7—— ties, unite their troops, and fpend the rainy feafon in
fuch parts of AbyUraia as they had conquered, with¬
out returning into Adel, as had hitherto been ufual
with them. They now came to a refolution to force
the king to a general engagement, in which they ho¬
ped to prove victorious by dint of numbers. For this
purpofe all the rebel chiefs in Abyffinia were called in,
and a formidable army collected. They waited only
for one very experienced chief named Jonathan ; after
whofe junction they determined to attack the royal ar¬
my without delay. But Claudius took his polls at all
times with Inch judgment, that any attempt upon his
Jonathan, a camp would have been almoft defperate 5 and getting
rebel chtef, intelligence vrhere Jonathan lay with his forces, he
and kill* 1 marched out in the night time, came upon him quite
1 J-e~' unprepared, defeated and killed him, fending his head
to the reft of the confederacy by a prifoner, the only
one he had fpared out of all thofe who wrere taken.
By the fame meffenger a defiance was lent to the
Moors, and many opprobrious epithets were bellowed
upon them; but though the armies approached one
another, and continued for feveral days under arms,
the Moors were fo much intimidated that they would
by no means venture an engagement.
By this viflory the fpirits of the Abyffinians were fo
much elevated, that they flocked in from all parts to
join their prince ; and even many of the Mahometans,
having experienced the lenity of the Chriftian govern¬
ment, chole rather to fubmit to Claudius than to the
Unfuccefs- Turks and Adelians. The king, however, was in dan-
ful attempt gey of being affaftinated by one Ammer, a treacherous
nate^Cku Sovernor i w^° knowing that he had retired to fome
dies. diltance from his army to celebrate the feftival of
Taller, attempted to furprife him when almoft defti-
tute of attendants ; but Claudius having timely notice
of his deligns, laid an ambufti for him with a confider-
able part of his army which he headed in perfon. The
rebel, not being equally well informed, fell into the
fnare, was defeated, and almolt his whole army cut off
on the 24th of April 1541.
Such was the lituation of affairs wftren the Portu-
guete arrived. The head of the governor of Arkeeko
had been received by the queen, who regarded it as a
happy inftance of the valour of her allies, and as a
prefage of future viftories. The Portuguefe admiral,
Don Stephen be Gama, loft no time in employing the
men allowed by the king to affift the Abylbnians.
Thefe were in number 450 ; but as the officers who
commanded them were all noblemen of the firft rank,
the army wras conliderably increafed by the number
of their fervants. The fupreme command was given
to Don Chriftopher de Gama the admiral’s youngeft
brother. Almoft every man on board, however, was
ambitious to ffiare in the glory of this enterprife ;
whence great complaints were made by thofe who were
Derivation not allowed to go : and hence, Mr Bruce informs us,
^ — the bay in the ifland of Mafuah, where the admiral’s
Mafuah. galley rode, had the name of Bahia dos Agravados ;
The Porto- the bay of the injured, not of the fich, as has been erro-
gMe under neoufly fuppofed.
ftopher'de gallant army inftantly fet forward by the moft
Gama fet eafy road through the Abyffinian territories, in order
out to meet to join the emperor. Still, however, the way was fo
the em^e- rugged, that the carriages, of their artillery gave way,
69 ] A B Y
and they were therefore obliged to conftrufl new ones AbyiTinii..
as they went along, fplitting the barrels of old muf- —“■'v
kets to furniffi them with iron, which was extremely
Farce in Abyffinia. In this journey the general rvas Interview-
met by the emprefs, attended by her two lifters and a with the
great many others of both fexes, whom he faluted with einPrds-
drums beating and colours flying, accompanied by a
general difeharge of the fire-arms, to their great con-
fuflon and terror, tier majefty, whofe perfon was en¬
tirely covered, indulged the Portuguefe general with
a view of her face ; and after a mutual exchange of ci¬
vilities, the queen returned with too muiketeers ap¬
pointed by him as her guard. After eight days march,
through a very rugged country, Don Chriftopher re¬
ceived a defiance in very infulting terms from Gragne
the Mahometan general, which was returned in the
lame ftyle. An engagement took place on the 25th of-Battle be-
March 1542 i which little was done by either partytween die .
befides wounding both the commanders : however,
Gragne, though greatly fuperior in horfe, had already Moors,
felt fo much oi the Portuguefe valour, that he did not
choofe to venture a fecond battle.
As the feafon was now far advanced, the Portu¬
guefe put themffilves into winter-quarters ; while Grag¬
ne remained in their neighbourhood, in hopes of for¬
cing them to a battle before they could be joined by
the king, who advanced for the purpofe as fall as pof-
fible. This being the cafe, it was to the laft degree
imprudent in Don Chriftopher to think of venturing
an engagement without previoufly forming a junction
with his royal ally j efpecially as Gragne had now dou¬
bled the number of his horfe, increafed his train of
artillery, and otherwife received confiderable rein¬
forcements. Unfortunately, however, the Portuguefe Don ChrU
general fuffered kimfelf to be hurried away by the im- ftopher
petuofity of his own temper ; and paying regard to rafllUen-
the defiances and reproaches of a barbarian whom he dfffdvEm *
ought to have defpifed, was induced, contrary to all tare,
advice that could be given, to venture an engagement
at a vaft difadvantage. Yet when the armies encoun¬
tered each other, the fuperiority of the Portuguefe
was fo great, that viffory feemed likely to be decided
in their favour. On this Gragne ordered fome artille¬
ry to be pointed againft the Abyffinian allies. Thefe,
entirely unaccuftomed to fire arms, fled almoft at the
firft diicharge. Gragne, well knowing, that it was his
intereft to deftroy the Portuguefe, who were only 400
in number, ordered ,no purfuit againft the Abyffinians,
but fell with his whole lorce upon the Europeans. Even
yet his hiccefs was doubtful, till Don Chriftopher, ex-,
poling himfelf too much, was Angled out and fiiot
through the arm. This produced fuch confuflon, that ls wounded
a total defeat, with the lofs of the camp, enfiued ) whenancl defeat •
the barbarians, according to cuftom, put to death alle^‘
the wounded, and began to abide the women, who had
all retired into the tent of the general. This being ob-
ferved by a noble Abyfllnian lady married to one of the
Portuguefe, flic fet fire to fome barrels of gunpowder
which happened to be in the- tent, and thus periffied
along with her raviffiers.
Don Chriftopher, who by his raflmefs had occafioned
this difafter, obftinately refilled to fly, till he was put
into a litter by force, and fent off along with the queen
and patriarch, who happened to be prefent. The two
latter had fet off before the battle 5 but Don Chrifto-
pher
A B Y [ 7° ] A B Y
Takes fliel
ter in a
cave, is ta
ken, and
put to
death.
Gragne, a-
bandoned
by his al¬
lies, is de¬
feated and
.killed.
-Abyffima. -plier Tent fome horfemen in purfuit of them, by whom
w were brought back, and reproached by the gene¬
ral for the bad example they had fhown to the army.
- Arriving at the approach of night in a wood where
there was a cave, Don Chriftopher entered it to have
his wound drelfed, but obftinately refufed to proceed
farther. Next day he was taken 5 betrayed, as is moft
probable, by a wroman whom he loved ; who is faid to
have pointed out this cave to him, and promifed to
fend fome friends to convey him into a place of fafety.
Inftead of this, a party of the enemy entered the cave ;
and on his readily informing them of his name, they
inflantly carried him in triumph to Gragne. Here,
after feveral inlults had palled on both lides, the barba¬
rian, in a fit of paflion, cut off his head ; which was
fent to Conflantinople, and his body cut in pieces and
difperfed through Abyffinia.
This cruelty of Gragne proved more detrimental to
his caufe than a complete victory gained by the other
party could have been. On the one hand, the Portu-
guefe were fo exafperated by the lofs of their leader,
that they were ready to embark in the moll defperate
undertakings, in order to revenge his death ; on the
other, the Turks, on whom he principally depended,
were irritated to the laft degree at the difappointment
of fharing his ranfom, which they imagined would have
been an immenfe fum 5 and therefore abandoned their
leader to return to their owm country. Gragne, thus
left to decide the quarrel with his Africans, was quick¬
ly defeated by Claudius 5 and in another engagement
which took place on the 10th of February 1543, his
troops -were defeated and himfelf killed. This lafl
misfortune was owing to his boldnefs in advancing be¬
fore his army which was giving wray, fo that he be¬
came known to the Portuguefe. On this he wTas
■fingled out by a Portuguefe named Peter Lyon, •who
had been valet de chambre to Don Chriftopher. This
man, to make his aim more fure, crept for a confider-
able wray along the bank of a river towards the place
where Gragne was 5 and when come fufficiently near,
fhot him quite through the body. Finding himfelf
mortally wounded, he quitted the field of battle j and
v.ras followed by Lyon, who in a fhort time faw him
fall from his horfe. He then came up to him, and cut
off one of his ears, which he put in his pocket, and
returned to the battle to do what further fervice he
could. The next day Gragne’s body was found by
an Abyflinian officer, who cut off his head and claim¬
ed the merit of killing him j but Lyon having pulled
out the ear which he carried in his pocket, vindicated
his own right to the reward which was to be given to
the other. On this occafion the Moorifli army was al-
moft entirely deftroyed \ Gragne’s wife and fon were
taken prifoners, with N.ur the fon of Mugdid, who
deftroyed the royal family 5 and it had been happy for
Claudius, as we (hall afterwards fee, that he had put
■thefe prifoners to death. Very foon after this engage¬
ment, the emperor had intelligence that Joram, a rebel
chief who had once reduced his father David to great
diftrefs, was advancing rapidly in hopes of being ftill
able to be prefent at the battle. This was the laft of
his father’s enemies on whom Claudius had to revenge
bimfelf 5 and this was effe&ually done by a detachment
of his army, who polled themfelves in his way, fell up-
Joram a re
bel chief
defeated
and killed.
on him unexpe&edly, and cut him in pieces with all Abyfimia.
Iris men. v~*w
Claudius being now freed from all apprehenfion of
foreign enemies, began to turn his thoughts towards
thp reparation of the damages occafioned by fuch a
long war, and the fettlement of religious affairs. WeDifhirban-'
have already mentioned, that John Bermudes was ap-cesonaf-
pointed by the Pope, as he faid, patriarch of Alexan- hjrs °f
dria, Abyffinia, and of the fea. This however, is faid ^lon'
by others to have been a falfehood 5 that John was
originally ordained by the old patriarch of Abyflinia ;
and that the Pope did no more than give his fandftion
to this ordination, without adding any new7 one of his
own. But whether this was fo or not, certain it is,
that John, wdio was very infolent in his behaviour, and
of a turbulent difpofition, now began to inlift that
Claudius fhould not only embrace the doftrines of the
church of Rome, but eftablilh that religion throughout
the empire, which he faid his father David had engaged
to do \ and which, confidering the extreme diftrefs in
which he w7as involved, it is very probable that he did.
Claudius, however, w?as of a different opinion, and re-Altercation
fufed to alter the religion of the country j upon which betwixt the
a contention began, which wTas not ended but by theemPe[or
total expulfion of the Catholics, and the cutting off all tn'arch6 ^
communication wnth Europeans. At that time the Bermudes.
Portuguefe and Abyflinians intermarried, and attended
religious worlhip promifcuoufly in each others churches:
fo that the tw7o nations might have continued to live in
harmony, had it not been for the milhehaviour of Ber¬
mudes. Claudius, perceiving the violence and over¬
bearing difpofition of the man, took every opportunity
of Ihowing his attachment to the Alexandrian or Greek
church ; denying that he had made any promife of fub-
mitting to the fee of Rome. On this Bermudes told
him that he wras accurfed and excommunicated 5 the
king in return called him a Neftorian heretic 5 to which
Bermudes replied by calling him a liar, and threaten¬
ed to return to India, and carry all the Portuguefe
along wdth him. To this infolent fpeech Claudius an-
fw7ered, that he wufhed indeed that Bermudes would
return to India; but that he would not allow the Por¬
tuguefe, nor any perfon, to leave his territories with¬
out permiflion.
Thus matters feemed likely to come to an open rup¬
ture ; and there can be no doubt that the worft extre¬
mities would have followed, had not the emperor been
reftrained by the fear of the Portuguefe valour on the
one hand if he ftiould attempt any thing againft them,
and the hopes of further advantages ftiould he retain
them in his fervice. For thefe reafons he bore with
patience the infults of the patriarch ; attempting to
gain the reft of the Portuguefe over to his fide. He
fucceeded perfectly with their commander Arius Dias, The Portu-
who privately renounced the church of Rome, and was guefe corn-
baptized into that of Abyffinia by the name of Marcus mander re-
or Marco; in confequence of which, the emperor, "he Romifk
ing upon him as a naturalized fubjeft, fent him a Hand-rep0.ior!i
ard with the Abyffinian arms to be ufed inftead of thofe U
of Portugal. This, however, wras not delivered j for
a Portuguefe named Jatnes Brito, meeting the page
who carried it, took it from him and killed him w7itk
his fword. The apoftafy of Arius is faid to have been
owing to the great honours which had been conferred
2 upon
A B Y [ 7
AbyfTmia. upon liim by the Abyflinian monarch : for having,
‘“'-■v w in an expedition againft Adel, defeated and killed the
king, and taken the queen prifoner, he beftowed her
He is in- in marriage on Arius j and that the match might be
vefted with equal, he raifed him alfo to the royal dignity, by giv-
nity the kingdoms of Doar and Belwa.
The altercation on the fubjeil of religion becoming
every day more violent, Bermudes was prohibited by
the emperor from fending any farther orders to the
Portuguefe, they being now under the command of
Marco the Abyffmian captain-general 5 meaning Arius
Dias, to whom the name of Marco had been lately
given. To this the patriarch replied, that being fub-
jefts of the king of Portugal, they were under no ob¬
ligation to obey a traitor to his king and religion 5 and
that fince his majelly ftill perfifted in refiifing to fub-
mit to the pope, he was refolved to leave the empire
with his forces.. The emperor, however, ftill inlifted
that he was abfolute in his own dominions; and he
expe&ed the Portuguefe to pay obedience to his gene-
Hoftilities ral, and none elfe. The Portuguefe, enraged at this
between declaration, refolved to die fword in hand rather than
fm! a ns and to terms ; and therefore began to fortify
Portuguele. their camp in cafe of any attack. The emperor, on
13 this, thinking a defiance was given him in his own ter¬
ritories, ordered the camp to be inftantly attacked. The
attempt was accordingly made, but with very little
fuccefs 5 the Portuguefe having ftrewed the ground with
gunpowder, fet fire to it as the Abyffmians marched
along, which deftroyed great numbers, and intimida¬
ted the reft to fuch a degree that they inftantly fled.
Finding it in vain to think of reducing them by force,
the emperor is then faid to have been advifed by Mar¬
co to confult his own fafety, and break the power of
the Portuguefe by artifice. With this view he fent
for the patriarch, pretended to be very forry for his
frequent breach of promife, and defirous to make what
amends for it he could. Inftead of complying with the
patriarch’s demands, however, he firft ordered his fub-
jefts to fupply them with no provifions : then he flop¬
ped the mouths of the Portuguefe by a confiderable
quantity of gold, giving the patriarch himfelf a very
valuable prefent 5 adding to all this a large fupply of
provifions 5 but at the fame time taking proper me¬
thods to difperfe their leaders into different parts of
the empire, fo that they fhould find it impoflible ever
to reunite in a body.
Such is the account given of this tranfa&ion by the
Portuguefe hiftorians $ but that of Mr Bruce, who fays
that hetranflatedhis from the Abyflinian annals, is fome-
what different. He only informs us, that the quarrel
betwixt the Portuguefe and Abyflinians was inflamed
by the “ incendiary fpirit of the brutifh Bermudes:
from reproaches they came to blows j and this proceed¬
ed fo far, that one night the Portuguefe affaulted the
king’s tent, where they flew fome and grievoufly wound¬
ed others.” The event, however, was that no abfo¬
lute quarrel ever took place betwixt this emperor and
any of the Portuguefe, excepting this patriarch, whom
he was on the point of baniftiing to one of the rocks
ufed as prifons in Abyflinia. This was difpenfed with
on the interpofition of Gafpar de Suza the new Portu¬
guefe commander (who had fucceeded Arius Dias),
and another named Kafmati Rebel, both of whom were
in great favour with the emperor 3 and Eermudes per-
1 ] A B Y
fuaded to withdraw to India. According to Mr Bruce Abyfiinia.
he repaired to Dobarw'a, where he remained two years v-—-v——'
quite negle&ed and forlorn, faying mafs to no more ®ermuc*es
than ten Portuguefe who hadferttled thereafter the de-!eaZes.A"
feat of Don Chriftopher. He then went to Mafuah ; y ima‘
and the wind foon becoming favourable, he embarked
in a Portuguefe veflel, carrying with him the ten per-
fons to whom he had officiated as prieft. From Goa
he returned to Portugal, and continued there till his
death. On the other hand, the Portuguefe writers
inform us, that he was narrowly watched by order of
the emperor , and that Gafpar de Suza, the Portuguefe
commander, had orders to put him to death if he ffiould
attempt to make his efcape. Bermudes, however, be¬
ing determined at all events to make his efcape, pre¬
tended to be ill of the gout, and that a change of air
was neceffary for his recovery 5 for which reafon he
went to the town above mentioned, -where there was a
monaftery. On this pretence he was allowed to crofs
the kingdom of Tigre, accompanied by eight faithful
fervants, with whom he reached Dobarwa unfufpe&ed.
Here he remained concealed in a monaftery for two
years before he could find an opportunity of getting to
the ifland of Mafuah, from whence he proceeded to
Goa.
The emperor was fcarce freed from this troublefome A new de--
prieft, when he was in danger of being involved in newputation
difficulties by the intrufion of others into his dominions. p0Ba the
Ignatius Loyola, founder of the order of the Jefuits, ^°pe'
was at that time at Rome ; and fo much attached to
the caufe of the pope, that he propofed to go in per-
fon to Abyffinia, in order to make a thorough conver-
fion of both prince and people. His holinefs, how¬
ever, who, from what he had already feen of Ignatius,
conceived that he might be of greater ufe to him by
flaying in Europe, fent in his Head Nugnez Baretto,
one of the fociety of Jefuits, whom he inverted with
the dignity of patriarch, and honoured with a letter to
Claudius. With thefe commiflions, and a number of
priefts, Baretto failed for Goa in the Eaft Indies 5 by
• which, however diftant, the only paffage to Abyflihia
was at that time. On his arrival at that place he was
informed that the Abyffinian monarch had fuch a fteady
averfion to the church of Rome, that there was no pro¬
bability of his meeting with a favourable reception.
For this reafon it was judged more proper to fend fome
clergymen of inferior dignity, with proper credentials,
as ambaffadors to the emperor from the governor of
India, without running the rifle of having any affront
put upon the patriarch. Thefe were Oviedo biflrop of
Hierapolis, Carneyro biffiop of Nice, and feveral others,
who arrived fafely at Mafuah in the year 1558. Clau¬
dius, on hearing of their arrival, was greatly pleafed,
as fuppofing that a new fupply of Portuguefe foldiers
were arrived. Finding, however, that they were only
priefts, he was very much mortified, but ftill refolved
to give them a civil reception. But a more important
confideration, and which concerned the welfare of the
empire in the higheft degree, now claimed his atten¬
tion. This was the appointment of a fucceffor to the
throne, Claudius himfelf having no fon. A proje<ftprince Me.
was therefore fet on foot for ranfoming Prince Menas, nas re¬
tire emperor’s youngeft brother, who had been taken deemed
prifbner by the Moors in the time of David, and hi-fr.om caPt-;'
thexto detained in captivity on a high mountain in Adel.
This'
A B Y f nt A B Y
Abyflinia. This was not likely to be accomplilhed j for the Moors
w-’-V—*■' would not willingly part with one who they knew was
their mortal enemy, that he might be raifed to the fo-
vereignty of a great empire. By detaining him pri-
foner alfo, they might reafonably hope for difputes con¬
cerning the fucceflion to the Abyffinian throne 5 which
would enable them to attack the empire with advan¬
tage. In thefe circumftances, it is probable that Clau¬
dius would have found great difficulty in procuring his
brother’s liberty, had it not been that the fon of the
famous Gragne had been taken in that battle in which
his father was killed, and in like manner confined on
a mountain in AbyfTmia. A propofal was then made
to his mother, who had efcaped into Atbara, that her
fon fliould have his liberty, provided the king’s brother
fhould be reftored. This was accepted j and by means
of the baihaw of Mafuah, an exchange was made.
Four thoufand ounces of gold were given for the ranfom
of Menas, which were divided between the Moors and
the baihaw of Mafuah *, while on his part Claudius fet
at liberty Ali Gerad the fon of Gragn6 without any
farther demand.
According to Bermudes’s account of thefe times,
the widow oif Gragne was taken prifoner at the battle
in which her hufband was killed, and was, afterwards
married to Arius Dias. In this cafe we muft fuppofe
her to have been the fame with the queen of Sid el,
mentioned as his confort by other hiftorians : but Mr
Bruce treats this account as a mere fable 5 and informs
us, that by means of Nur the fon of Mugdid, murderer
of the royal family as already related, die made her
Nur deter- efcape into Atbara. On that occafion Nur fell in love
mines to her . but Ihe refufed to marty any man unlefs he
Claudms. brought her the head of Claudius, who had killed her
former hufband. To attain his wilhes, therefore, Nur,
now governor of Zeyla, undertook the talk 5 and when
Claudius marched towards Adel, fent him a challenge
to fight 5 telling him that there was yet a particular
ifcftrument for fhedding the blood of the AbylTmian
princes, and defiring him to be prepared, as he was
very foon to fet out to attack him. The emperor did
not decline the combat, but is laid to have been advifed
againft this expedition by all his friends. This advice
feems to have proceeded from a number of prophecies,
probably trumped up by the clergy, that he fhould be
unfortunate, and lofe his life in the campaign. Thefe
prophecies ought no doubt to have had weight with
Kim, as they moft certainly indicated a fpirit of dif-
affe&ion among his troops *, and the event accordingly
^Defeat and evinced that it was fo. The Abyffinians fled almoft
death of the on the firft fire, leaving the king in the midfl of his
-emperor, enemies, attended only by 18 Portuguefe and-20 horfe-
men of Abyffmia, who continued faithful to the laft.
All thefe were killed after the moft defperate refift-
ance 3 the king himfelf receiving upwards of 20 wounds
before he fell. His head was cut off, and brought by
Nur to his miftrefs, who hung it up on a tree before
her door. Here it remained for three years,' when it
was at laft bought by an Armenian merchant, who
buried it at Antioch in the fepulchre of a faint of the
fame name. Nur gained on this ocCafion a very com¬
plete victory 3 the king and’, moft of the principal
nobility being killed, a great number made pri-
foners, and the camp taken with an immenfe booty.
-On his return to Adel, he refufed to accept of any
congratulations, or to allow rejoicings to be made fof Abyflinia.
his vidlory, but paffed along in the habit of a common '■—“V——'
foldier mounted on an afs 3 faying, that he owed the
victory to the mercy of God alone, who had imme¬
diately interpofed for the deftrudlion of the Chriftian
army.
This fatal engagement took place on the 22d of
March J559 ; and as the fucceflion had been already
fettled, Menas afcended the throne without any oppo-
fition. On his acceflion he found his affairs in great Reign of
confufion, and he had ftill to contend with foreign and Menas,
domeftic enemies. The firft of thefe w-as Radaet the
king of the Jews, who had a territory in the empire of
Abyflinia, the capital of which was on a rock named
Satnen. The caufe of this quarrel is not known, but
the event was unfortunate 3 the king being obliged to
abandon the enterprife, after having beftowed a conli-
derable time upon it. This was followed by an attempt
to affaflinate him, wdiich had very near taken place ;
and this again by a confpiracy among his principalRebellitfr! of
nobles headed by Ifaac the Baharnagaih. He had been a ^aac tlie
very faithful fervant of the late emperor Claudius 3 but ®a^arna"
ill ufed by Menas, who was of a very haughty and mo- °
rofe difpofition. In attempting to fupprefs this rebel¬
lion, the firft attempts of the emperor wTere likewife in-
effeftual, his forces being attacked by furprife and en¬
tirely defeated. Soon after this, Ifaac proclaimed
Tafcar the nephew of Menas, who was then at liberty,
king of Abyflinia 3 hoping thereby to ftrengthen his
caufe, and enable him to cope with the emperor, who
was affembling a powerful army againft him. This ex¬
pedient did not anfwer the purpofe. His army was He is de-
entirely defeated by Menas 3 Tafcar taken prifoner, feateT
and thrown headlong from*the top of a precipice 3
and Ifaac himfelf efcaped with great difficulty to the
confines of his own government in the neighbourhood
of Mafuah. Here he entered into an alliance with the Allies with
Turkiffi bafhaw of Mafuah 3 whofe friendflup he gained the Turks
by putting him in poffeflion of the town of D.obarwa, an^rPorUl*
with the flat country adjacent, which abounds with the^ue e‘
plovifions wanted at Mafuah, and is looked upon as
the key to the province of Tigre and the high-lands
of Abyffinia. Befides this, Ifaac ftrengthened himfelf
alfo by an alliance with the Portuguefe 3 which, had
their numbers been at all confiderable, muft have been
very formidable. Their inclination to defert their form¬
er protedlor and ally the emperor, proceeded entirely
from the (hameful behaviour of their priefts, who never
wrould be fatisfied without enflaving the emperor as
well as his fubjedts to the tyranny of Rome. We have Reafon of
already feen that Bermudes had proceeded fo far on their quar-
this lubjedl, that he narrowly efcaped with his life. His rel with the
fucceffor Oviedo (for the patriarch Nugnez died by the emPeror-
way) fared ftill worfe. On his introdudlion to the
emperor Claudius, he informed him, that the pope and
king of Portugal now expedled no lefs than an imme¬
diate fulfilment of his engagements of fubmiflion to the
fee of Rome. This requifition was made with fuch an
air of infolence, that the prince could fcarce conceal his
refentment 3 but reftraining his paffion, he promifed to
confider of it, and to call meetings of the learned in
thefe matters to debate the point. This was a very
fmitlefs talk 3 and therefore Oviedo thought proper to
quit the court towards the end of December 1558 3
leaving behind him ah infolent letter addreffed to the
Portuguefe
A B Y
[ 73 ]
A B Y
AbyfTinia. Portuguefe and fuch converts as tliey had made 5 in
'•——‘v——^ which he exhorted them not to converfe with fchifma-
tics, and the AbyfTmians to forfake their errors. Be¬
ing now debarred from accefs to the emperor, he be¬
gan to entertain the people with feditious difcourfes ;
which practice he continued during the remaining part
of the reign of Claudius and the beginning of that of
Menas. The latter, perceiving the pernicious tenden¬
cy of his difcourfes, pofitively commanded him to de-
fiftj which the patriarch refufing, the emperor fell
upon him with his own hands, beat him fevereiy, tore
his clothes and beard, and took his chalice from him
that he might thus be difabled from faying mafs: after
Oviedo ba- which he banilhed him, with Francis Lopez another
nifhed to a of his affociates, to a barren mountain, where they re-
mountain. mained feven months in great mifery. Not content
with this, he iffued many fevere edi&s againft the Por¬
tuguefe } prohibited them from intermarrying with the
Abyffinians 5 and fuch of the Abyffinian women as
were already married to Portuguefe hufbands, he com¬
manded not to accompany them to their churches.
His next ftep was to call Oviedo again into his pre¬
fence, and command him, under pain of death, in-
ftantly to leave his dominions. The infolent and fool-
ifh prieft refufed obedience to this exprefs command :
he declared that he would obey God rather than man *,
and prefenting his bare neck to the emperor, defired
him to llrike and put an end to his life at once. Menas
drew his fword, but was prevented by the queen and of¬
ficers who flood near him from giving the fatal Broke.
' Sentence of A fecond beating and banifhment to the mountain fuc-
banifhment ceeded } and in the latter part of the fentence all the
paHed on all portUgUefe priefts as well as others were included. 1 he
guefe°who Portuguefe, however, determined not to fubmit to fuch
thereupon an indignity j and therefore, to a man, joined Ifaac 5
Is com¬
manded to
leave the
empire,
but refufes.
join the
rebels.
. defeated.
Reign of
Sertza
JJenghel.
who, in expeftation of more auxiliaries from India, pro-
feffed a great defire of embracing the Romifli religion.
The king wTas very apprehenfive, and not without rea-
fon, of the arrival of more Portuguefe j but it appears
that Oviedo had not fufficient intereft to procure the
Ifaac again fupply he promifed. An engagement, therefore, took
place without them, in which Menas was again vi£lori-
ous •, though the battle wras not fo decifive as to put an
end to the rebellion.
The emperor died a flrort time after his vittory, and
was fucceeded in 1563 by his fon Sertza Denghel,
then only 12 years of age. The beginning of his
reign was diflurbed by new rebellions; which, however,
-were happily fuppreffed. Ifaac, with his allies the ba-
<fhaw and the Portuguefe, feem to have remained for fome
time unmolefted ; and in the year 1569, a kind of
.accommodation took place. It is by no means eafy to
day how the Portuguefe were again received into fa¬
vour after fuch flagrant treachery and rebellion. Mr
Bruce only Amply tells us that “ Oviedo, and the Por¬
tuguefe did not appear at court.” This indeed is not
•to be wondered at, as they had been m lately at open
war with the emperor. Other accounts fay, that after
-the laft battle with Ifaac, “ their name became fo odious
to all the Abyflinians, efpecially to their monarchs,
that they would never fuffer any of them to be in their
-army from that time.” Some of thefe accounts fay
alfo, that Menas was defeated and killed in another
battle 5 others, that he was driven to fome high moun¬
tains, where he wandered about till death put an end
Vol. I. Part L
to his mifery. Accounts of this kind, however, are Abyffima.
by Mr Bruce treated as mere falfehoods, and exprefsly ' ^ " """
contradi£lory to the annals of thofe times. All wTe
can fay upon the fubject therefore is, that after the
defeat of Ifaac, the Portuguefe, not excepting Oviedo
himfelf, remained in Abyflinia, where they were more
favourably dealt with by the new emperor than they
had been by his father *, though he was no friend to
their religion, as fuppofmg it to be deftruclive of mo¬
narchy and all civil government. It is probable alfo,
that the various difturbances w’hich happened, together
wflth his own tender age during the beginning of his
reign, would prevent him from paying that attention
to them which he wmuld otherwife have done. I he
Galla, a very barbarous nation, and w7ho have at laid
greatly reduced the power of the Ethiopian monarchs,
made frequent inroads during this reign •, and in the Ifaac and
year 1576, a league was formed by Mahomet king of^
Adel, with Ifaac and the Turkifh bafhaw, who had ei-^
ther continued their hoftilities or renewed them about Adel;
this time. The emperor, however, marched with fuch
expedition, that he did not allow them time to join
their forces; and attacking them feparately, gained abut are en-
complete victory over them all. Almofl the whole
Moorifli army was deftroyed ; but while the emperor
entered Adel with a defign to make a full end of his
enemies on the eaft, he received information that the
Galla had invaded his dominions on the well. I raverfing
the whole breadth of the empire therefore with the utmoil
expedition, he came up with thefe enemies, who tvere
afraid to encounter him. On this he turned his armSxheempe-
againil the Falalha, obliging them to deliver-up their r0r invades
king, whom he banilhed to a mountain. Then in-and ravages
vading the country of the Galla and Falalha, he ra-
vaged it for four years fucceflively, prote&mg at the andFaiania.
fame time the kingdom of Narea from the inroads of
thefe barbarians.
While Sertza Denghel employed himfelf in reprefs-
ing the incurfions of the Galla, one Cadwrard Balha, a
Turkilh officer of great valour and experience, who
had been inverted wdth the office of balhaw1 of Mafuah,
began to make inroads into the province of Tigre. Tigre inva-
The emperor haftened to oppofe him ; but in his paf-ded by Cad-
fage committed great devailation$ in the country of the a
Falaffia, in order to provoke them to defcend from
their mountains and come to an engagement. i here
Falalha profefs the Jewilh religion, and w^ere then go-King of the
verned by a king named Gejhen. This monarch, Prc>-and"
voked at the ravages and dellrudlion he beheld, de-kiUed<‘
fcended vuth vaft numbers of his fubjecls, in order to
revenge it; but was killed, and his army utterly de¬
feated by the Abyffinians, on the 19th of January
1594. The vitlorious Sertza then haftened to encoun¬
ter the baffiawr ; w ho, confident of the fuperiority of his
own troops, not only waited for him patiently, out gave
him every advantage he could delire. A very defperate
battle enfued ; the event of which was doubtful, till
Robel, commander of part of the king’s houlehold
troops, wffio wTere armed wflth pikes, attacked that part
of the Turkilh horfe where he faw the balhawq and kill¬
ed the officer who carried the ftandard. In doing this
he broke his pike ; but though then deftitute of any The ba-
other weapon than a fhort crooked knife which the A- j?iaw de-
byffinians always carry in their girdles, he inrtantly anc
puffied up to the bafhawn and with it wounded him mor-
K tally
A B Y [ 74 J A B Y
AbyfTinia. tally in tlie throat. This unexpected event iuftantly
decided the victory $ the Turkifh horfe betook them-
felves to flight, and the reft of the army foon followed
$heir example. A dreadful {laughter enfued among
the Moors, who were purfued to the ifland of Mafuah j
and many were driven into the deferts, where they pe-
rifhed with thirft. After this, marching back to the
we^ern Par!: °t' -hi5 territories, the emperor proceeded
ror. eir'^e" to Narea, deftroying the Galla as he went along. His
laft expedition was towards Damot to chaftife fome re¬
bels there. Before he fet out, a prieft of great fan£H-
ty and talent for divination, is faid to have warned him
not to undertake the war ■, but his advice was rejedled
with contempt : on which he requefted him only not
to eat the filh taken out- of a certain river ; but this ad¬
vice was alfo negleifted, and the fifh being really of a
„ „ r poilonous nature, the king died in confequence of eat-
Twofuecef-i , ° 1
forsnomi- mg them.
nated. On the death of Sertza Denghel a difpute enfued
about the fucceffion. In the beginning of his ficknefs
the late king had named for his fucceflbr his fon Jacob,
a boy of only feven years of age j but finding death
approaching, he named his nephewr Za Denghel, as be¬
ing come to the years of manhood, and more fit for the
government of fuch a numerous and turbulent people.
This laft refolution proved highly difagreeable to the
queen and fome of the principal nobility, wdio wdfhed
^°r a minoritD during which they might engrofs the
throne. " power into their own hands. In conjundlion with her
two fons-in-law, Kefla Wahad and Ras Athanafius,
therefore, the emprefs determined to raife Jacob to the
throne, notwithftanding the final determination of the
late king above mentioned. This was put in execution
immediately after the death of Sertza Denghel j Jacob
was raifed to the throne, and Za Denghel confined in
an ifland of the lake Dernbea or Tzana. An attempt
waslikewdfe made to feize Socinios, natural fon to Fa-
cilidas grandfon of the unfortunate David, who had
likewife a claim to the throne j for his not being born
of 'a lawful marriage wras no objedlion in Abyflmia.
Socinios, however, no fooner faw the fate of his coufin
Za Denghel, than he withdrew himfelf from the power
of his enemies ; and Za Denghel himfelf, after being a
ftiort time confined in the ifland above mentioned, found
means to efcape, and took refuge among the inacceflible
mountains of Gojam.
Thus difappointed in their attempts on the princes,
the emprefs, with her twTo fons-in-law, v?ere obliged
to pretend loyalty to Jacob, whom they governed till
he was 17 years of age. The yoitng king then per¬
ceiving that his tutors were taking fome fteps to pro¬
long their dominion over him, took the government
into his own hands, and baniftied one Za Selaffe, wdiom
they had employed in the execution of their projedls,
to the kingdom of Narea. The confpirators, alarmed
Zz Berw- this bold exertion of royal prerogative, determined
iiel raifed toinftantly to depofe Jacob, and raife Za Denghel, wrhom
she throne, they had baniftied, to the throne. This, however, was
now a matter of fome difficulty, as he had concealed
himfelf fo effectually among the mountains of Gojam,
that he could fcarce be found out. His retreat being
O
at laft difeovered, Ras Athanafius took an opportunity
of infulting Jacob, even while fitting on the throne j
called him an obftinate, ftubborn, and fooliffi boy ;
declared him degraded from the imperial dignity, and
that Za Denghel was coming to fupplant him. Jacob, AbyAinia,
perceiving by the indolence of this fpeech, that he —v~-—'
was entirely in the power of his enemies, left his pa¬
lace in the night, in order to fly to the mountains
of Samen, where his mother’s relations were, from
whom lie expected proteftion. He got to the bor¬
ders of that country, but w7as there difeovered, feized,
and brought back to his rival, who wras now feated Jacob ba-
on the throne. Za Denghel, howrever, with a clemen- nhhed.
cy not very ufual in Abyffinia, did not either put him to
death, or mutilate him in fuch a manner as to render
him incapable of afterwards enjoying the kingdom j but
contented himfelf with baniftiing him for life to Narea.
Za Denghel was no fooner fettled on the throne,
than he unluckily behaved in fuch a manner as to a-
lienate the aftedlions of his people from him entirely. Decline of
This wTas occafioned by his attachment to the church the Romiih
of Rome. Ever fince the time that the Portuguefe had re%^?nJn
joined Ifaac the Baharnagaflr, the entrance into Abyf-* ^ ‘mia’
finia had been flint up by the Turks, fo that no new
miffionaries could have accefs j and all thofe who
came with Oviedo being dead, the Romifh religion
had languifhed for want of preachers to fupport it.
The laft of thefe died in 1596 ; and all the reft having
been dead fome time before, little could be expected
from the labours of a Angle perfon. Next year Mel¬
chior Sylvanus, a vicar of the church at Goa, w as lent
on a miffion to Abyffinia j being fuppofed to be a proper
perfon for this work, on account of his language and
complexion, which might baffle the vigilance of the
Turks. He entered with out being fufpected j but the
great defeat given the Turks by Sertza Denghel, already
mentioned, had reduced their powrer fo much, that lei’s
danger now attended this expedition than formerly,
and other miffionaries quickly followed.
The moft learned, as well as the beft qualified for Peter Paez
the undertaking in every refpeft, wras Peter Paex, wrho reftores it.
came to this country in the year 1600 j and on his tak¬
ing upon him the w-hole charge of the miffion, Syl¬
vanus returned to India. The newr miffionary did not
at firft affedl; to intrude himfelf on the emperor 5 but
taking up his refidence at the convent of Fremona in
the province of Tigrc, he firft applied to the ftudy of
the learned language of the Abyffinians called GeeK,
and in wffiich their books are ufually written. In this
he made fuch progrefs as quickly to furpafs the na¬
tives them Selves '■> after which he fet up a fchool, where
the children of the Portuguefe and Abyffinians were
taught promifeuoufly. The progrefs made by his
fcholars was fo great, that he was fpoken of at court,
and recommended in the warmeft terms to the emper¬
or Jacob before his depofition. On this he wTas fentHe arrives
for, and appeared before the court in 16043 where, to at court,
the great difiatisfaftion of the Abyffinian monks, he re¬
ceived fuch honours as are ufually beftowred on men of
the firft quality. Next day, in a difpute before the king,
twTo of his fcholars, whom he had brought along with
him, fairly vanquifhed the beft theologians that could
be found to oppofe them. Mafs was then faid in the
Romilh manner ; and this was followed by a fermon,
which in the purity and elegance of its didlion (what¬
ever the fubftance might be) excelled any thing that
had ever been compofed in the Abyffinian language.
Though Paez had been called to court by Jacob, yet
Za Denghel was cn the throne before he arrived, and
it
A B Y [ 75 ] A B Y
Abyfiinia. \t xvas he who witneffed the difpute and heard the fer-
mon. He was fo much charmed with the latter, that
The empe- infl;antly refolved to embrace the religion of the
ces the Ca- church of Rome 5 which refolution he foon after com-
tho'ic reli- municated to feveral of his friends, and even to Paez
gion. himfelf j but under an oath of fecrecy. The emper¬
or’s own zeal, however, rendered this oath of no
ufe •, for in a little time he iffued proclamations for¬
bidding the obfervation of the Jewifh Sabbath, and
wrote letters to Pope Clement VIII. and Philip III.
of Spain, defiring a fupply of mechanics to inftruft
his people in the ufeful arts, and Jefuits to teach them
religion.
His impru- This precipitate condudt had the effecl which might
dent con- }iave been expelled. The Aby{limans were generally
lions are*1” difaffe&ed to the church of Rome, and no pains had
bellion. been taken to gain them over : they were alfo turbu¬
lent, favage, and rebellious $ ever ready to revolt; and
now had a favourable opportunity of excufing their
treafons under pretence of zeal for religion. This Op¬
portunity was quickly made ufe of by Za Selafle,
whom, as we have already mentioned, Jacob had ba-
nifhed j but who, on the advancement of Za Denghel,
The empe- had probably been fet at liberty. This traitor having
ror excom- held many feditious meetings in private, prevailed
on the Abuna, or Abyfimian patriarch, to excommu¬
nicate the king, and abfolve his fubjefts from their al¬
legiance. He then fet out for the territory of Gojam,
where the people had always been remarkable for their
averfion to the church of Rome. In this place, there¬
fore, he found no difficulty in raifing an army to fight
againft his fovereign. Za Denghel, who was an ex-
eainft him. Pert war”or> did not fail to go in quell of him with
what forces he could raife $ but foon found, by the
great defertion among his troops as he pafled along,
how much the excommunication pronounced by the
Abuna had availed. This was fo alarming, that John
Gabriel, an experienced Portuguefe officer, advifed
him to decline a® engagement for the prefent, and
take fhelter in fome fortrefs until his fubjefts fhould
return to a fenfe of their duty. This falutary advice
was rejefled, from the abfurd notion that it wras a dif-
honour not to fight a rebel who had defied his fove¬
reign. In the beginning of the engagement, viftory
feemed to favour the royal caufe. The Portuguefe
carried every thing before them, and routed that wing
He is aban-ofthe enemy which oppofed them. In the other wing,
doned by however, the cowardly and treacherous Abyflinians de-
anVkilled ^erte<^ their king, who was quickly furrounded by his
an 1 e ’ enemies, and left in a defperate fituation. A body of
nobility, with his own officers and domeftics, attended
him and fought defperately in his defence. Za Den¬
ghel himfelf, being an excellent horfeman, and admi¬
rably {killed in the ufe of arms, performed aftonifhing
feats of valour. At laft he was thrown to the ground,
grievoufly wounded in the bread: by a lance. Notwith-
flanding this, he inflantly recovered himfelf, drew his
fword, and refilled his affailants fo violently, that they
were fain to keep at a diflance and annoy him with
miffile weapons. In this fituation he flood till aim oil
fainting with fatigue and lofs of blood ; when the trai¬
tor Za Selaffe, pufhing up his horfe violently againfl
him, threw him to the ground by a blow on the fore¬
head, and a multitude then rufhing upon him he was
difpatched with many wounds.
The news of Za Denghel’s death were received with Abyflinia.
fuch general indignation throughout the Abyffinian ' ——v—
empire, that the rebels durfl not name any fucceffor. Kl.s death
As it feemed natural to think, however, that J^^kmentd7
would now be re-eledled, meffengers wrere difpatched
to acquaint him of his good fortune j but during this
interval Socinios appeared, not as a candidate, but as The empire
already in pofieffion of the empire, and ready to fup- claimed by-
port his rights by force of arms. His firfl flep was5’0C^OSl
to let Ras Athanafius know his pretenfions to the
throne, and defire his affiflance with his army, pro-
mifing to reward him as foon as it fhould be in his
power. Without waiting for any anfwer, he advanced
fo rapidly, that Athanafius had fcarce time to confider
what he fhould reply, when a fecond meffage was fent,
importing that Socinios wTas in the neighbourhood, and
ordering preparations to be made for receiving him as
his fovereign. This expeditious mode of aflion fo
much confounded Athanafius, that he complied with
the requifitions, faluting him king, and joining his
troops to his. Thus fuccefsful in his firll attempt, So¬
cinios made a fimilar one on Za Selaffe. In this, how¬
ever, he was difappointed. Za Selaffe having firfl
fent an equivoc.%1 anfwer, marched againfl him with
his whole army j while Socinios, happening to fall
fick, and putting little confidence in Athanafius, with¬
drew to the mountains of Amhara. Athanafius like- He is ob-
wife, not knowing to whom he fhould attach himfelf, %ed to re¬
withdrew his forces, and flood neuter. t;i^e•
Za Selaffe had refufed to join Socinios, in expecta¬
tion that Jacob would make his appearance, whom he
rather wifhed to enjoy the crown than Socinios ; as
under the former he might hope to engrofs all the
power to himfelf. For a long time, however, no an¬
fwer was returned to his meffages •, his troops became
impatient fo that fearing left a mutiny or general de¬
fertion fhould take place, he difpatched a meffengerto
Socinios, acknowledging him for emperor. But fcarce Jacob fei
wras this done, when a meffenger arrived from Jacob, up in op¬
informing him that he was then in Dembea, and pro- Pofitlon to
mifing Za Selaffe great honours if he wrould acknow- uin'
ledge him for his fovereign. With thefe terms the
traitor inftantly complied, and his example was fol¬
lowed by Athanafius j while Socinios, not as yet able
to refill all his enemies, retired again to Amhara.
This, however, he was not long of accomplifhing.
Jacob was by no means poffeffed of equal military fkili j
and though Za Selaffe was an experienced officer, yet
his extreme perfidy, pride, and obftinacy, rendered it
very dangerous to have any concern wuth him. This
appeared remarkably in the prefent cafe. His pride con-
in the firft place would not allow him to join his forces
to thofe of Jacob, left the latter, who was inferior in Za selafle
military {kill, fhould have a fhare in the vidory he w-as Jacob’s get
to gain. Then, intoxicated with his opinion of him- neral.
felf, he negledled to behave with the caution neceffary
in the neighbourhood of fuch an experienced general
as Socinios, winch gave the latter an opportunity of
cutting off almoft his whole army. Being now obliged
to fly with a few attendants to Jacob’s camp, he met
with an indifferent reception on account of his defeat j
for which reafon he made propofals to join Socinios.
The latter accepted his offer, though he could put no
confidence in one wflio had been guilty of fuch com¬
plicated treachery 3 only he thought it would be an
K 2 advantage
A B Y [ 76 ] A B Y
Abyflinia. advantage to put it out of his power to join his anta-
  v   goniit. Jacob, on the other hand, confident in his
Jacob de- numbers, which are faid to have been almoft 30 to 1,
killed ^ a<^vance^ boldly to give his antagonift battle. Soci-
nios declined the engagement till he had drawn him
into a fituation where his forces could not aft with ad¬
vantage. A dreadful carnage enfued, Jacob himfelf
periihed among the multitude, and his body was
never afterwards found. In this battle alio was killed
the wicked prieft Abuna Petros, who was the occafion
of Za Denghel’s death, as we have already related.
Ras Ath an alius efcaped by the fwiftnefs of his horfe,
and took refuge in a neighbouring monaftery. He
was afterwards pardoned at the interceffion of Peter
Paez 5 but his goods and eftate being confifcated on
various occafions, he fell into univerfal contempt, was
abandoned by his wife, and died at laft of want.
According to the Abyffinian accounts, Socinios or¬
dered the purfuit to be flopped as foon as he faw the
head of Abuna Petros ; but the Portuguefe writers in¬
form us, that he kept it up with the utmoft vigour
throughout the whole day and part of the night. They
particularly mention, that a number of Portuguefe,
wdio had joined the army of Jacob, Icjll their lives on
this occafion, by falling over a precipice which they
could not avoid in the dark. One of thefe named
Manual Gonfahe% had the good fortune to light on a
tree, where he fat till morning in great terror, but at
lall was relieved and made his efcape.
By this viftory Socinios wras fully elfablilhed on the
throne, though his fituation might Hill be accounted
precarious by reafon of the rebellious difpofition of
many of the provinces. He began with making a ge¬
neral proclamation of pardon, excepting only the mur¬
derers of Za Denghel, with whom he had been in terms
of intimate friendftiip. Being informed therefore, that
one Mahardin, a Moor, had given him the firft wound
in that battle in which he was killed, he ordered his
head to be inftantly ftruck off with an axe before the.
gate of the palace.
Socinios fa- The Portuguefe were much favoured by this prince y
vours the and they wrere become very numerous by continual in-
Portuguefe. termarriages with the Abyffinians 5 the male children,
were abvays trained to the ufe of fire arms by their
parents, and incorporated as foldiers with them} and
they were now all united in one body under an expe¬
rienced officer named John Gabriel, wffiom we have al¬
ready had occafion to mention. As their numbers and
valour made them objefts of confideration, Socinios
determined to attach them to himfelf as much as pof-
iible ; and the bell means to do this he knew was by
favouring their priefts. Peter Paez was therefore fent
for to court; where a difpute concerning the fupre-
macy of the pope and the two natures of Chrilt (the
great fubjefts of debate in Abyffinia), took place, and
a fermon wras preached with as great fuccefs as that in
He refolves Za Denghel’s time. The king firft enlarged the t_er-
to embrace ritory poffeffed by the Jefuits at Fremona ; after which
the Catho- }ie declared to Paez his refolution of embracing the
lie religion. rei}gion . giving him at the fame time two
letters, one to the king of Portugal, the other to the
pope, the purport of which was to requeft a number
of more Portuguefe to deliver Abyffinia from the in-
curfions of the Galla, as they had formerly done from
the yoke, of the Moors.
Before any thing of importance could be done in Abyffimav
matters of religion, the king wras called forth to fup- v—'
prefs a rebellion which had already taken place. An An
impoftor had appeared, who called himfelf Jacob the ing^cfbT
late king, and pretended to have efcaped from the the late em¬
battle 5 but fo much wounded in the face that he kept peror Jacob
one fide of it conftantly covered to conceal the defor- appears-
mity. He made his appearance among the mountains
of Habab near Mafuah 5 and being joined by great
numbers of people, Sela Chriftos, brother to the king,
and governor of Tigre, marched againft him. The Is defeated..
impoftor’s troops, though numerous, fled at the firft
onfet) but he efcaped to the mountains, where it was
very difficult to follow him. This, however, was at¬
tempted j and a great many of the ports he had taken
were ftormed like as many forts j but ftill the impoftor
himfelf, though driven from place to place, found
means to make good his retreat to the country lying
between the mountains of Habab and the territory of
the Baharnagaffi. Thither he wTas purfued by Sela.
Chriftos •, but that general, finding the rebellion likely
to. fpread through the whole province of Tigre, thought
proper now to acquaint his brother Socinios with the
ftate of affairs, and to defire his affiftance. The king,
though at that time he had fent away moft of his troops
in an expedition againft the Shangalla and Gongas,
who dwell on the north-weft of Abyffinra, fet out im¬
mediately with fuch troops as he could colleft. Thefe
were but few in number j his cavalry particularly,
amounting to no more than 530, befides a fmall rein¬
forcement brought by his brother Emana Chriftos, go¬
vernor of Amhara. As he proceeded, he was inform¬
ed that a party of Galla were lodged on a hill at no
great diftance from him. Determining to cut them1
off,, he furrounded the hill where they were ported ;
but having caufed his cavalry to advance before, and
pafs a deep ravine, they were almoft entirely deftroy-
ed, while the reft of the army were feized with fuch a
panic that they refufed to ftir. In this extreme dan¬
ger, the Galla parted the ravine to attack them; but
the king having advanced hngly, and killed the firft of
them, his troops, affiamed of their cowardice, ruffied
forward on the enemy,, and gained a complete viftory,.Jhe^Galla.
which obliged the favages to leave the province they e e
infefted at that time.
The misfortune of the cavalry on this occafion
quickly occafioned a report that the king had been
defeated 5 of which the impoftor Jacob did not fail to
take advantage y and defeending from his mountains,
committed great devaftations in the low country. But
though attended by a great multitude, who likewife again (ie_
fought with more obftinacy than formerly, he was ftill feated.
defeated by Sela Chriftos with a force greatly inferior.
But before any thing effeftual could be done for his
reduftion, the Galla made a dreadful irruption into
the fouthern provinces, murdering, all who fell into their
hands, and burning and deftroymg towns, churches,
and villages, in the moft dreadful manner. The king
bore thole excefles for fome time with patience, till at
laft he drew them into fuch a difadvantageous fitua¬
tion, that being furrounded by his forces, and inferior 4n a ^
in number as well as in valour, they were all cut off Gajlacut
to a man, with the lofs of only 400 on the part of off.
the Abyffinians. Soon after this viftory the king un- Coronation
derwent the ceremony of coronation. He then march-ofthe kmS*
ed
A B Y
rebellion
begun by
Melchize-
dec.
Abyffinia. eel againfl; the impoftor Jacob j but^ the latter was
w.--v > too fenfible of the fuperiority of his rival^ to face
him in the field. He therefore retired again to his
mountains, while the king left the fuppreffion of the
rebellion to an experienced officer named Amfala
The impof- Chriftos ) who employed two young men, who had
tot Jacob been outlawed for murder, to afiaffinate the importer,
aflaffinated. This being done, it was found that the pretended
Jacob was no other than a herdlmau among tnoie
mountains to which he lo conftantly lied mr refuge }
and that he had neither wound nor fear on his face,
but had kept one half of it covered to conceal the lit¬
tle refemblance he bore to Jacob whom he perfonaced.
The king being now freed from this rebellion, began
again to turn his thoughts towards religion. His firft
Hep was to make a handfome prefent to the Jeiuits ;
but he loon ffiowed his inexperience in religious matters,
by attempting to reconcile the two contending parties
Dangerous jn empire. Before he could fee the folly of this
attempt, however, his attention was called by a molt
dangerous rebellion, which was begun by one Melchi-
zedec, a lervant of the late Sertza Denghel, bift a
man of great experience in war. He was firft opposed
by Sanuda, a brave officer } but being totally deftitute
of troops, he was obliged to apply to the attendants of
the king of Sennaar, who had been depcied by his
Defeats one ffibje&s, and was at that time in Abyffinia. Thefe
of the king s reajj:[y joined him ; and a bloody battle enfued, in
genera s. Sanuda was fo totally defeated, that he alone
had the good fortune to efcape, and that grievoufty
wounded, his men being all killed on the fpot. On
this misfortune Socinios fent his brother Etnana Chriftos
with a conliderable force to reduce the rebels. Mel-
chizedec finding himfelf oppofed by fuch an able ge¬
neral, exerted himfelf to the utmoft, in order to raife
a force fufficient to refill him j and in this he fucceed-
ed fo well, that his army foon ftruck terror into all
the neighbouring country, notwithftanding the pre-
Caufes Ar- fence and known valour of the king’s brother. A
20 be pro- pnUCe of the blood-royal, named Arxo, was likewife
£oun(j out an(J proclaimed king, in order to give fome
fandlion to the rebels } foon after which they boldly
marched- to meet the royal army. The engagement
took place on the 9th of March 1611, and was fought
■with great obftinacy on both fides } the advantage
even appeared for fome time on that of the rebels j
till Emana Chriftos, perceiving that all was at flake,,
puffied defperately forward to the place where Melchi-
zedec himfelf was. The latter feeing no probability
of avoiding a fingle combat, which he did not cnoofe
to try, inftantly turned his horfe and fled ; and the reft
Is defeated, of the army foon followed his example, Melchizedec,.
taken pri- however,, did not much avail himfelf of this cowar¬
dice j for he was clofely purfued by the peafants, taken
prifoner, and executed as a traitor, together with fe-
veral of his principal officers. T. he fate of Prince Arzo,
whom, to fupport their caufe, the rebels had proclaimed
king, is not known;
This viflory, fo far from extinguifhing the fpirit of
rebellion, feemed to have inflamed it beyond all bounds :
for news were now received that the whole country
round the head of the Nile to the province of ligre
had revolted } fo that there was a neceflity for the im¬
mediate prefence of the emperor himfelf; and even
tills was infufficient, as the rebels were difperfed over
77 ] A B Y
fuch a large traft of territory. His two brothers, AbyiTmA
Emana and Sela Chriftos, were therefore both ern- -v—
ployed againft different rebel chiefs, while the king
marched againft: thofe who were moft formidable. The Cruel^man-
principle pn which this war was carried on feems to’T ^ ^ '
claimed
king.
loner, and
put to
death.
The rebel¬
lion conti¬
nues.
have been very cruel, viz. that of killing all the men, t£e ^vari
and carrying off the women and children for flaves.
This was rigidly executed, firft upon the inhabi¬
tants of a mountainous diftrift named Gufman on the
Nile •, though, at the interceffion of the mifiionary Peter
Paez, the women and children, inftead of being fold
for flaves, were given to the Jefuits to be educated in
the Catholic religion. The Gongas and Agows were
next attacked with equal fuccefs, and ftill greater cruel •
ty ; one of their tribes, named 'Lalabaffa, being almoft
entirely exterminated : but this, inftead of having any
good effefl, feemed to multiply the rebels ftill more.
The Agows and Galla invaded the provinces in the
neighbourhood j and another impoftor, whofe true Amdo, ar-
name was Amdo, but who pretended to be the unfor- other im-
tunate emperor Jacob, appeared as a competitor for up-
the crown. This laft rebel proved much more formi- tjve jews^
dable than any of the reft. He was indeed furprifed
before he had time to colledl any forces ; but Gideon,
king of the Jews of Samen, having killed the guards
who watched him, fet the impoftor at liberty, and
fupported his caufe. dhus he foon collefted a very
formidable army, with which he defeated and killed an
officer named Abram, who oppofed him with a confi-
derable force. This brought Socinios himfelf againft
him, who inftantly attacked the Jewifti monarch Gi¬
deon, as being the principal fupport of his caufe. As ^yar wjtji
the country of the Jews was naturally ftrong, and very Gideon,
full of fortified places, the redu&ion of it was evidently
a very difficult talk. The firft place attacked was a
fortrefs named Majfiraba which, though very ftrongly
fortified and garrifoned, was foon taken by ftorm, and
every one in it put to the fword without diftinflion.
Hotchi and Amba Za Hancaffe, two other ftrong for-
treffes, ffiared the fame fate. A fourth, named Scnga-
nat, no lefs ftrong than any of the former, was alfo
taken ; Gideon himfelf narrowly efcaping with his life
in the attack. Difcouraged therefore by fo many mif-
fortunes, and apprehending the total ruin ol his coun¬
try, this prince at laft was content to fue for peace }
which was granted on condition that Amdo Ihould be
delivered up. This traitor was condemned to a pu- Amdo de-
nifliment very unufual among Chriftians, vi%. that ofliveredup
being crucified ; but in nailing him to the crofs, his t0‘
cries and groans fo much affedled the king, that he ‘ ea
ordered him to be taken down and beheaded.
The v/ar was now refumed againft the Gongas and
Guba •, whom the king annually invaded for the pur-
pofe of making, flaves. In this expedition his officers Other mili-
not only executed their commiffion againft thefe fa- tary expe—
vages, but likewife carried off a great number of cattle dltl0ns-
from the Agows, who were then at peace w ith the
emperor. This conduft was highly refented by Soci-
nics, who obliged them to make reftitution of what
they had taken away 5, and the doing them juftice in
this particular, had more effefl in reducing the reft of
thefe people to obedience, than all the cruelties which
had been committed fince the beginning of the war.
In 1616, the emperor fet out on an expedition a-
gainft the Galla : but this was laid afide on the death
° /vf
A B Y [
Abyflinia. 0f his eldeft Ton, for whom he entertained a great af-
fedtion. It was fucceeded by a very cruel order
enerminat aSa“lft t^e whom Socinios now determined to
ej ' "exterminate without any apparent occalxon. His com¬
mands, however, were executed with the utmoft punc¬
tuality, fo that very few efcaped ; and among the reft
perifhed their prince Gideon lately mentioned. He
was fuppofed to be immenfely rich, and to have con¬
cealed his riches, which have been fought for in vain
by the Abyffinians from that time to the prefent. The
children of the murdered Jews were fold for Haves ;
and fuch of the profeflion as were fcattered through
the empire, had orders to renounce their religion and
be baptized, under pain of death. Thus almoft the
whole Jewilh religion was extinguilhed at once, as moft
of them chofe rather to embrace Chriftianity than fuf-
fer death. In token of the fincerity of their conver-
fion, they were all ordered to plough and harrow on
the Sabbath day.
Succefsful After this maflacre, the expedition againft the Gal-
expedition la was refumed, and carried on with the ufual cruelty:
Gaila1 t!ie while the Galla never once appeared to prevent the
defolation of their country. Next year, however, a
new alfociation was made among thefe favages, and
the empire invaded by them in two different parts at
once. One of their armies was cut off to a man be¬
fore they had time to begin their ravages ; while the
other fled on the firft approach of the royal army, leav¬
ing their wives, children, and baggage, to the mercy
of the enemy. Thus the king was left for a Ihort time
at reft from rebellions or foreign invaflons j and this
interval he determined to make ufe of in making war
War with on his neighbour the king of Sennaar, from whom he
Sennaar, formeriy received an affront. In this expedition
he was aflifted by one Wed Ageeb, a prince of the
Arabs, who lived on the frontiers of Abyflinia. The
allies proceeded with their ufual cruelty, killing all the
men, and felling the women and children for flaves.
Vaft numbers of cattle were carried off; and the vic¬
torious armies returned with an immenfe booty. The
next expedition was againft Fatima queen of the Shep¬
herds, otherwife called queen of the Greeks, who reftded
on the north-eaft of Atbara. In this alfo the king
proved fuccefsful, though lefs blood was ftied than
ufual: but it was not long before this extraordinary
fuccefs met with a fevere check by the entire lofs of
an Abyffmian army 5 the favourite fon of the emperor
himfelf being killed in the engagement, with fome of
the beft officers in the empire.
Progrefs of All this time Peter Paez had applied himfelf with
religio*11^ ^ utmo^: adiduity to the converflon of the Abyfli-
nians to the Catholic faith j and in this undertaking
Excellent he had been attended with wonderful fuccefs. He was
character ofindeed Angularly qualifled for an undertaking of
Peter Paez. tflJs kind am0ng a rude and barbarous people : for be-
Ades an uncommon (hare of learning, he poffeffed an
eminent degree of Hull in the mechanical arts ; by
which he was enabled to teach the Abyffinians how to
build houfes of ftone and lime, -which they had never
known before. In thefe he was at ftrft mafon, car¬
penter, fmith, and architeft, himfelf; and thus, to the
aftonilhment of the whole empire, he built fome
churches and a palace for the king. His univerfal ge¬
nius prepared the people for the reception of his opi¬
nions ; while the barbarous ignorance and favage man-
;8 ] a b y
ners of his antagonifts tended to prejudice every one Abyflinia.
againft their tenets, though ever fo juft in themfelves. '—  
Sela Chriftos, the king’s brother, is laid to have been
converted by only reading the Abyflinian books with
attention j in which, it feems, the ignorance of the
priefts had been difplayed in an extraordinary manner.
We have already feen how well the emperor himfelf
was difpofed towards the Romilh church; and his ex¬
ample was followed by many of the principal people
of the kingdom. At laft the Abyftinian patriarch
named Simon made a complaint, that irregularities in
religion had been committed, and difputes held on
matters of faith without calling him, or permiflion
granted him, to fupport the clergy in thefe controver-
Aes. As Socinios had no high opinion of this prieft’s
learning or eloquence, he did not imagine that any harm
could enfue to the caufe from granting what h,e wanted.
A public difpute was accordingly appointed ; in which
Simon’s inferiority was fo apparent, that Socinios now
publicly declared his belief in the two natures of
Chrilt.
While the converAon wTas in this profperous wTay, Letters
letters arrived from the pope and king of Spain,from tlie
but without any promife of the temporal afliftance ^
which had been folicited ; though they affured him Spain!
of an ally far fuperior, the Holy Spirit himfelf, pro¬
vided the emperor continued Arm in his refolutions of
embracing the Catholic faith. Socinios rvould pro-Determines
bably have been as well fatisfled with an account of at0 fubmit to
reinforcement of foldiers ; but as matters flood, he was t^e P°Pe*
obliged to be content, and refolved to fubmit in form
to the pope, renouncing for ever his connexion with
the Greek church. As it wras improper, however, to
fend letters on a fubjedl of fuch importance by a com¬
mon meffenger, proper perfons were to be appointed
wdio might occaflonally affume the charadler of am-
baffadors, and aft accordingly. This being refolved
on, the next thing w?as to determine the way by wdiich
the ambaffadors w'ere to reach Europe. The ufual
track by Mafuah wms now {hut up on account of the
rebellion wThich exifted in the neighbouring provinces j
fo that the more eligible way feemed to be through
Narea and the provinces to the fouthward, by which
they might reach Melinda, and from thence embark
for Goa.
The ambaffadors were chofen by lot 5 which falling Ambafia-
firft on Antonio Fernandez, he named Fecur Egzie dors fet out
as his companion ; and, all things being fettled, thefe for EuroPe*
two let out for Gojam in the beginning of March
1613. It feems furpriflng that the Abyflinian mo¬
narch fhould have fent ambaffadors on fuch a dangerous
expedition through barbarous countries, without being
accompanied by a proper guard. This, howrever, feems
undoubtedly to have been the cafe ; as wre hear of no
other attendants than ten Portuguefe, wdiom Fecur
Egzie took wdth him, Ax of wrhom were to go no
farther than Narea, but the other four wrere to pro¬
ceed to India ; forty men armed with fliields and
javelins w7ere alfo granted, but this force was much
too fmall to anfwer any ufeful purpofe. Sela Chriftos
indeed furniftied them wdth guides from the barbar¬
ous nations in the neighbourhood of Narea, taking
hoftages for the fecurity of the travellers ; but the in-
fufficiency of thefe precautions foon appeared. Our Account of
travellers had proceeded but twTo days journey into thetheir j°ur-
2 country17'-*'
A B Y [ 79 J A B Y
Abyfimia. country of tire Gongas, when they were treated in
—v"   fuch a hoftile manner, that one of the Portuguefe was
obliged to return with Fernandez to complain of the
treatment of the favages. On this information Sela
Chriftos inftantly difpatched three officers, with a pro¬
per number of troops, to chaftife them •, by which means
the ambaffadors got fafe to Mine, the name of fome
miferable villages on a ford of the Nile. Here they
croiTed the river on Ikins blown up, and next day en¬
tered the country of the Pagan Galla ; and foon after,
though not without great difficulty, they reached the
kingdom of Narea, the moll foutherly province of the
Abyffinian empire, but quite furrounded by the Galla.
Here they were received with great kindnefs’by the
commanding officer of the firft fortified place they came
to j but on being introduced to the king himfelf, they
met with a very indifferent reception. This was owing
to the infinuations of an Abyffinian monk, that they
were to bring Portuguefe foldiers that way into Abyf-
finia ; which would be deftruftive to his kingdom. On
calling a council, it was refolved to fend them into the
kingdom of Bali; fo that they would be obliged to
pafs through a much more difficult and dangerous road
than what was firft intended. Having thus, as he fup-
pofed, provided againft the danger which threatened
his kingdom, he made them a prefent of 50 pieces of
gold, recommending them at the fame time to the am-
baffador from the fovereign of Gingiro, through which
they were next to pafs.
On leaving Narea, they received a convoy of 80 fol¬
diers to conduct them fafely to their next ftage j after
which they paffed four days through countries totally
laid wafte by the Galla, and wdiere they w^ere obliged
to hide themfelves for fear of meeting with thefe fa¬
vages. Proceeding ftill through woods and vafl: chains
of mountains, they came to the river Zebee, or more
properly Kibbee, from its white colour refembling melt-
. . ed butter, as the word imports. Fernandez defcribes
ofthe river river as larger than the Nile, and vaftly more ra-
Zebee. pid. They paffed it by a kind of bridge, but certainly a
moll tremendous one. The channel of the river is full of
rocks *, and betwixt every two of thefe a Angle tree was
laid, fo elaftic that it would bend with the weight of
one perfon •, while the vaft height of the precipice, and
the fight of the roaring current below, w-as fufficient to
ffrike the boldeft with terror. At a fmall diftance from
this bridge was a ford, through which it was neceffary
that their mules ffiould pafs ■, which being accompliffi-
ed without any accident, though with difficulty and
danger, they entered the territory of Gingiro. Here
they were hofpitably received by the fovereign, and
after a mutual exchange of prefents proceeded to San-
ara, the capital of another fmall kingdom named Carn¬
al, which was at this time governed by a Moor named
Amelmal. During the time of their refidence here, one
Manquer, a fchifmatic Abyffinian, arrived, who infi-
nuated to the king that the recommendations they had
brought along with them were falfe. This reduced
them to the neceffity of flaying there till meffengers
could be fent to Socinios to know whether it was fo or
not 5 which occafioned a delay of three months. At
laft orders were brought to fend them off immediately.
This favourable anfwer procured the difmiffion of the
ambaffadors with prefents j while the malicious Man¬
quer was detained prifoner. He efcaped, however, and
overtook them in the next kingdon, named Alaba, Abyflinia.
which was governed by a Moor named Aliko. Here ' /—•/
he accufed them of a defign to overturn the Mahome¬
tan religion altogether : which fo exafperated the bar¬
barian, that he threatened them all with death j and
actually put them in prifon, where fome of the Portu¬
guefe died. At latt, after holding a council, in which The arcbaf-
Manquer gave his voice for putting them to death, it fadors are
was refolved that they fhould be fent back to Amelmal j obllge(lt0
which was accordingly done, and from his dominions
they returned to Abyffinia. Thus ended this memo¬
rable embaffy, by which the pope was deprived of any
authentic documents which might ffiow that any Abyf¬
finian emperor had ever voluntarily fubmitted to him j
and there can be no doubt that this mifcarriage, more
than any thing elfe, prevented the eftabliihment of
Popery in this country.
Socinios had now gone fo far in favour of the Ca- a number
tholic party, that he began to {hare in fome meafure of rebel-
the fate of Za Denghel, numberlefs confpiracies beingll0ns on ac~
formed againft him j which it was undoubtedly owing °^re'
only to the altered fituation of affairs by the preaching S
and affiduity of Peter Paez, that he was able to with-
ftand. The confpirators were at this time fupported,
not only by the Abuna, but by Emana Chriftos him¬
felf, the king’s brother, whom we have frequently had
occafion to mention. Their firft ftep was the very
fame which had been fo fuccefsfully taken by Za Selaffe
in the time of Za Denghel, viz. to pronounce fentence
of excommunication on the emperor. He was at that Tjie AgUI,a
time abfent on an expedition againft the Agows j but excommul
returned immediately on hearing what Was tranfafted nicates the
in his abfence; informing the Abuna, that if he did emperor,
not recal the excommunication without delay, his head bu*15 G¥1‘
ffiould pay the forfeit. This fpirited declaration had frawhif
fuch an effeft, that the anathema was annulled, and the fentence.
confpiracy diffolved for that time. It was next refolv- Attem t
ed between Emana Chriftos the king’s brother, Ju- to affaffi-
lius his fon-in-law, and Kefla Wahad mafter of thenatethe
houfehold, to affaffinate the king in his palace. To emperor..
accomplifh this purpofe it was concerted that they
ffiould defire an audience j that Julius ffiould enter
firft, and prefent a petition of fuch a nature as would
probably be refufed : on this he was to begin an alter¬
cation 5 and during the continuance of it the other two
affaffins were to come up, and ftab their fovereign be¬
fore he had time to put himfelf in a pofture of defence.
Happily for Socinios, however, he was informed of
his danger by a page juft before Julius made his ap¬
pearance : on which, inftead of refufing the petition,
he granted it immediately; fo that there was no room
for difpute. He then got up to walk 5 which was
fcarce done when Emana Chriftos alfo came j on which
Socinios invited them all to the terrace to walk wdth
him. This prevented their falling upon him at that
moment j and as they fuppofed they wuuld have ftill a
better opportunity on the terrace, they readily confent-
ed. But Sccinios having opened a private door, at it m;fcaTX,
which he entered firft, drew it quickly after him ; and ries.
as this door had a fpring-lock ^made by Peter Paez,
which ffiut it in the infide, but could not be opened
from without, the confpirators were difappointed. Be¬
ing alfo fenfible that their defign had been difeovered,
they were obliged for fome time to keep at a diftance,
but did not for that reafon abandon their wicked pro-
je&s-
A B ^ [So ] A B Y
Abyffima. jefts. Their next fcheme was to be put in execution
^ ^inS was abfent on an expedition againft the
li'nrs fCiHt" PeoPle Senuaar, who had made a violent irruption
of tliePcon- into the Abyffmian territories. The object now was not
fpirators the aflaflination of the emperor, but of his brother Sela
continues. Chriftos ; becaufe the emperor had taken the govern¬
ment of Gojam from Emana Chriftos, who was a fchif-
matic, to give it to Sela Chriftos, who was a violent
Julius the Catholic. The enterprile was begun by Julius ; who
fon'hi °Iav7 ^ued a proclamation, that all thofe who believed two
firft appears natures in Chrift ftiould leave the province of Tigre,
in arms. where he was governor ; and that fuch as were true
friends to the Alexandrian faitli ftiould repair to his
ftandard to fight for it. He then ordered the goods of
all the Catholics in Tigre to be confifcated ; and march-
.ed without delay into Gojam, in hopes to furprife Se¬
la Chriftos. But here the whole fcheme was baffled
by the vigilance and activity of the emperor ; for he
having received information of what was going for¬
ward, returned into that province before the confpi-
rators had received certain intelligence of his having
Is deferted left it. This fo much damped the ardour of Emana
by his aflb- Chriftos and Ivefla Wahad, that they ftood aloof with¬
out attempting any thing till Julius fflould try his for¬
tune. That rebel was at firrt very much difconcerted j
but foon recovering his courage, advanced to the place
■where the Nile ifiues out of the lake of Dembea, where
.he met with the Abuna. Being confirmed by that
prieft in his wicked deligns, he refolved, by his ad¬
vice, to fall upon the king before he could be joined
by Sela Chriftos, Simon himfelf (the Abuna) offering
to (hare his 'fortune : and to confirm all, a new and
Socinios ex- folemn excommunication was pronounced againft the
communi- king and all his adherents. Socinios, alarmed at .thefe
conHime' Proceec^ng's> ^ent a meffage to .Sela Chriftos, defiring
him to come to his afliftance as fait as poffible,. In the
mean time he himfelf advanced to meet Julius; but
cliofe his polls fo judicioully, that he could not be for¬
ced to an engagement without great difadvantage on
the part of the enemy. Notwithftanding this, Julius
pitched his camp clofe to that of the king, with a de-
iign to force him to a battle at all events. This rafli
adlion was followed by one Hill worfe. Simon had
perfuaded him, that as foon as the royal army ftiould
fee him, they would abandon the ftandard of the em-
Rafhnefj peror to join his. On this, without farther confidera-
of t^on> he ruftied into the camp of Socinios with a very
few attendants, and reached the emperor’s tent. Here
he w-as known by the guards, and inftantly difpatched
with all his followers .; the wliole army betook them-
felves to flight after his death, and were purfued with
great daughter by the royalifts. The plunder of the
camp was immenfe, Julius having brought all his riches,
which he Jiad amaffed by a long courfe of extortion,
into the field along with him; and all of thefe wrer,e
diftributed among the foldiers. A vaft number of
cattle were likewife taken, which Socinios diftributed
Emana among the priefts, judges, and lay-officers. By this
Chriftos complete victory the whole fcheme of the confpirators
raken, but was overthrown. Emana Chriftos having no forces
' ' capable of coping with his brother, and unwilling, as
we have faid, to aflift Julius openly, had retired to a
high mountain named Melca Amba, in the territory of
Gojam. Here he was invefted by Af Chriftos, an ex¬
perienced general, whom Sela Chriftos had left govern-
3
or when he joined the emperor. Emana, who was Abyffinla.
likewife an expert commander, would have made a vi- v~—'
gorous defence j but unfortunately the mountain was
lb deftitute of wmter, that in three days he was deli¬
vered up by his owm men to fave tliemfelves from pe-
rifiling with thirft. On being brought to the king, he
was tried in a full affembly of judges, and condemned
to death ; but the king pardoned and lent him to Am-
hara.
This terrible confpiracy had been occafioned by the
difpute concerning the two natures of our Saviour :
another quickly followed on account of the difi-
pute concerning the Sabbath-day 5 the Abyflinian
.church infilling on the obfervance of the feventh day
■of the wreek as a Sabbath, and the Romiftr church on
the obfervance of the firft day. The author of this Another
rebellion wras one Jonael, who had been concerned in rebellion by
the expedition formerly mentioned, in which the A-Jonaei-
gows cattle vrere driven away, and afterwards reftored
by the king. It is more than probable that his re-
fentment on this account contributed much to increafe
his zeal on the prefent occafion 5 but whatever was the
veal caufe, religion was the foie pretence. He began
with a moll infolent but anonymous letter to the
king j in which the arguments of the Alexandrians
for the obfervance of the Jewdfti Sabbath were Hated,
and the contrary dodlrine condemned with the utmoil
■virulence of expreffion. The king himfelf was reviled
in. the moll opprobrious manner, compared to another
Dioclefian, the Jefuits faid to be relations of Pontius
Pilate, and all of them devoted to hell without re¬
demption. By this ftupid performance the king was
fo much offended, that he added a claufe to the form-
-er proclamation, commanding that “ all out-door
work, fuch as plowung and fowung, Ihould be publicly
followed by the hufbandman on the Saturday, under
penalty of paying a wTeb of cotton cloth fo/the firft:
omiffion, the value of the cloth to be 5s. *, the fe-
xond offence to be puniftied by a confifcation of move¬
ables, and the offence not to be pardoned for feven
■years.” To this Socinios added a fpeech from the
throne in vindication of himfelf, concerning the part
he had taken in religious matters j and to ftrow that
he wras in earneft, caufed the tongue of a monk to be
cut out for denying the twm natures of Chrift, and
one of his generals to be whipt for obferving the Jew ifti
Sabbath.
In the mean time Jonael having colledled what for¬
ces he could, openly declared againft his fovereign ,j
but not daring to meet him in the field, he retired in¬
to the country of the Galla, on hearing that Socinios
wTas approaching him with an army. On this the king
entered their territories, and laid them wafte j which
created a diffenfion among the favages themfelves ; one
party being for affording him protedlion, the other
for delivering him up. This being made known to jje is muj._
the king, he fent a few prefents to the faithlefs barba- dered by
rians of Jonael’s party ; vdio returned his kindnefs by die Galla.
fending him the head of the rebel, though but a fliort
time before they had fought with their brethren for
his refcue.
A more formidable enemy than Jonael, however, Anoihcr
ftill remained. The province of Damot was one of rebellion,
the moft difaffedled to Soeinios in the whole empire j
and to this place the greateft part of the religious fa¬
natics
A B Y [ 81
Abyffima. natlcs in other provinces had retired. They now mu~
ftered up an army of more than 12,000 men, among
Defperate v/hom were 400 monks, all of them armed with
enthufiafm lances, and fwords •, infpired, befides, with
taonks fuch a degree of religious enthuiiafm, that they expell¬
ed to be rendered invulnerable by all terreftrial wea¬
pons, and that armies of angels would fight in their
caufe. Againil thefe Sela Chriilos was dilpatched with
about 7000 excellent foldiers ; and as the^general him-
felf was a zealous Roman Catholic as well as moil ox
his men, we need not doubt that both parties imagined
themfelves fure of the proteaion of heaven, and con-
fequently that the encounter would be very violent.
The two armies met on the 16th of Odlober 1620 ;
but Sela Chriftos was unwilling to deftroy the infatuated
people, who he knew would be unable to refift his ve¬
teran troops. He therefore firft Ihowed them his fupe-
riority in fome fkirmifhes j and then lent a pat-.ietic
meffage, offering a general pardon if they would lay
down their arms. The meffengers, however, were not
allowed to approach, fo that an engagement became
unavoidable. The numbers of the rebels, as Sela
Chriilos had forefeen, availed very little againft the
difeipline of the veterans he commanded. The 400
monks made a moll obftinate refiftance ■, and did not
yield till after 180 of them had been killed on the
ipot. .
The emper- Socinios, having once more vanquilhed Ins enemies,
or publicly now determined to (how his attachment to the church
tT'Tnf of Rome more openly. Having therefore fent for
andrian Peter Paez, he told him his final refolution to embrace
faith. the Catholic religion in its full extent; after "which he
renounced the Alexandrian church in the moil expli¬
cit manner. His renunciation was followed by a pro¬
clamation vindicating his conduft j in which, belides
* the arguments ufed for the pope’s fupremacy, &c. he
infilled much on the bad lives of the clergy of the op-
pofite party, and for which it appeared that there was
in reality too much foundation. 1 his was the lad
work of the excellent miflionary Peter Paez, who died
of a fever immediately after his leaving the king. The
example of the fovereign, however, had very little ef¬
fect upon his fubjefts. The proclamation was follow-
A new re- ed by a new rebellion in Amhara. Unluckily the ene-
bellion mies of his brother Sela Chriilos had perfuaded Soci-
breaks out. n*os to deprive him of his government : and there was
no other in the kingdom who could be intrufted with
fuch an important commiffion •, fo that the king foon
found himfelf under a neceffity of replacing and com¬
mitting to him the charge of the war againll the re¬
bels. In this he was attended with his ufual fuccefs :
for the rebel chief, finding himfelf unable to contend
with his enemy, repaired for affillance to the Gcilia }
The rebel who no fooner had him in their power than they killed
chief mur- him on the firll offer of the imperial general, mangling
dered by bodv in fuch a manner that fcarce a bit o* it re-
the Galia. majned t0 be fent to his antagonift.
In the mean time news of the revolution m reli¬
gious matters which had taken piace in Abyffmia,
arrived in Kurope. Though the embaffy to the pope
and king of Spain could not pafs, as nas aheady been
related, yet frequent accounts had been ofhervme
A.ne '■ tranfmitted •, which produced fuch an effect, that anew
miffionaries fet of midionaries, with a patriarch (Alphonfo Mendez)
arrive in at their head, were fent to Abyffmia. 1 key arrived
Abyffinia. V0L> f. part I.
] A B Y
at Gorgora, the feat of royal refidence, in the beginning Abyffinia^
of the year 1626 j and at the very firft audience of the
emperor, it was agreed that he (hould take an oath, of
fubmilfion to the pope. The ceremony was perform-Sccinios
ed with all the fplendour that could be contrived : theta^an^
patriarch then preached a fermon on the pope’s fu- miffion t0
premacy in the Portugueie language, intermixed p0pe>
Latin quotations •, which is reported to have gieatly
confirmed the faith of the emperor and his brother,
though neither of them underftood a word of tne I'm*
guages in which it was preached. An anfwer to this
unintelligible difeourfe was made in tiie Amharic lan¬
guage, which was equally unintelligible to the patiiar ch
and his attendants } and to this the patriarch acided^ a
few words of a reply equally ill underftood. At the
conclufion of the difpute, an oath of tne pope s fupie-
macy was taken by the emperor himfelf on his knees,
then by the princes, and afterwards by all present, ac¬
cording to their different ftations. Sela Chriftos, not Violent
contented with taking the oath, drew his fword, andcondudt of
in words not eafily underftood, denounced vengeance ^ ‘
on “ thofe who fell from their duty and he likewife
added to the oath of fupremacy another to the empe¬
ror and Facilidas the prince royal} but if the latter
{hould fail in the defence of the Catholic faith, he
fwore to be his greateft enemy : nor would he be fatis-
fied without impofing this claule upon ail the ofiicers,
whether civil or military, then prefent.
This violent conduft of Sela Chriftos procured kim^d omhe
a number of enemies, and at laft was the occafion m ar,d paub.
his deftruaion-, but that of the king and patriarch arch,
fet the whole empire in a flame. An excommunica¬
tion was firft pronounced upon all who did not keep
the oath : a proclamation was next iflued, that all
priefts fliould previoufly embrace the Catholic religion
under pain of death } and that every one, under the
fame penalty, fliould oblerve Lent and Eailer, accord¬
ing to the rules of the Romifli church. . The patriarch
proceeded in the fame ftyle $ reordaining the clergy,
confecrating the churches over again, rebaptizing the
people, even fuch as were full grown, abrogating cir-
cumcifion, polygamy, and divorce (for thefe had been
allowed by the Alexandrian church), and reducing the
moveable feafls entirely to the rules of the church oi
Rome.
Though polygamy and divorce are no doubt me oil¬
filler! t with the pure dotffrines of the gofpel,. yet it
was very improper to meddle with thele practices at
once in fuch a violent manner. Befides the confufion
that this would naturally occafion in private families,
thefe practices gave occafion to many queftions inlaw,
which it belonged to the civil judges to decide } but
now thefe were all fubjecled to the authority of the
patriarch : and from fome other fteps taken by this
prelate, it appeared that he intended to encroach much
farther upon the civil authority. One of thefe iclated
to the church lands j which in Lthiopia are granted by
the king, and refumed at his pleafure ^ otheis being
granted in their place, fo that neither prieils nor
monks have any property in them . On the prefent An Abvfll-
occafion, an Abyffmian nobleman had poffeffed fome™™0^
lands belonging to a Catholic monk } for which he ivas rmmicated.
called before the patriarch. On his refufing to fub-
mit to this new tribunal, be was inftantly condemned
to reftore the lands j but refufing this alfo, the pat.i-
L arch
Abyffinia.
Body of an
Abyffini-
an faint
thrown out
of the
grave.
Catholic
liturgy al¬
tered.
An army
cut off by
the Galla.
Tecla Ge-
orgis, the
king’s fon-
in-law, re¬
volts.
Is defeated,
taken, and
executed.
Revolt of
the Agows,
who fet up
Melcha
•Chrilios.
A B Y [82
arch took an opportunity, as he was attending the em¬
peror at church, to pronounce fentence of excommu¬
nication againft him, giving him over at once, foul and
body, to the devil.—On hearing this terrible fentence
pronounced, the nobleman fainted away, and was with
difficulty recovered. On the interceflion of the em¬
peror, however, the curfe was taken off 5 but the in¬
cident produced a very difagreeable effeft on the
minds of the people, who from that day began to en¬
tertain a greater averfion than ever to the Roman Ca¬
tholics and their priefts. This averfion was greatly
increafed by the abfurd conduft of the patriarch, in
ordering the body of an Abyffinian faint to be taken
up, and thrown out of the grave in an ignomipiq.us
manner, becaufe it had been buried under the altar of
a church, which he imagined was thus defiled. In all
other refpects, the patriarch behaved in fuch an infolent
and overbearing manner, that the efl^&s of his op-
preflion foon began to be univerfally felt, and the
Catholic religion began very quickly to decline.—
The firft ffroke given to it was the alteration of the
liturgy j which was done at the defire of the empe¬
ror. Ever fince the eftablifhment of the Catholic re¬
ligion, the Latin mafs book, &c. had been made ufe
of according to the practice of the church of Rome j
but as it feemed very unreafonable to impofe this at
oftce upon the Ethiopians, Socinios ordered the patri¬
arch to make fuch alterations in the old Abyflinian li¬
turgies as he thought proper, that the people might
thus have an opportunity of paying their devotions in
a language they underffood. The patriarch, not being
able to affign any folid reafon to the contrary, was
obliged to comply j but no fooner was this done than
the people made ufe of their old liturgies entirely, with¬
out the leaft regard to the innovations of the patriarch.
In the midft of the confufion which daily took place
from thefe caufes, the Galla made a dreadful invafion,
and cut off one of the emperor’s generals with his
whole army : nor were all the abilities of Sela Chri-
ftos, who had fo often diftinguifhed himfelf, fufficient
to retrieve matters, j. fo that the favages, after having
ravaged the country for fome time at pleafure, return¬
ed home loaded with booty. This misfortune was
followed by the revolt of Tecla Georgis the king’s fon-
in-law ; who not only made religion the pretence for
taking up arms, but infulted the Catholics in the moft
outrageous manner 5 collecting their images and other
religious trinkets into a heap, and then publicly fet-
ting fire to them. After this he called before him his
own chaplain, named Abba Jacob, who was a Catholic,
ftripped him of his pontificals, and killed him with his
own hand. A reconciliation with Socinios was now
impoffible ; fo that he had no refource but in arms. In
this, however, he was equally unfuccefsful with the
other rebels in this reign $ being defeated, taken pri-
foner, and put to death along with his filler Abdera,
notwithllanding the interceflion of a Catholic miflion-
ary for him, and that of the queen and ladies of the
court for his filler.
As the reafons given by the king for refilling fuch
powerful interceflion were purely religious, the people
becaxrc more and more averfe to a profeflion fo ex¬
tremely oppreflive and fanguinary as that of Rome
feemed to be. A revolt of the Agows quickly follow¬
ed 3 not that religion had really any fhare in their de-
] A B Y
terminations, but that they were exafperated by the Abyflmia.
llavery and oppreflion to which they faw themfislves
fubjefted. They now therefore fet up Melcha Chri-
Itos, a prince of the royal blood, as a pretender to the
crown 3 and foon put on fuch a formidable appearance,
that the king himfelf thought proper to march againll
them with an army of 30,000 fighting men, which
with the fervants and other attendants amounted to
more than 80,000. Melcha Chrillos retired with his
troops to the craggy mountains of the country 3 and
being imprudently followed by the emperor, rolled
down fuch quantities of Hones from the precipices, that
Socinios was obliged to retreat with great precipitation,
after having loll almolt one half of his army.
On this defeat the emperor found himfelf obliged to The rebels
apply to Sela Chrillos, whom he had again difgraced defeated b^
and deprived of his government. He fucceeded in giv- Clin-
ing the rebels a dreadful overthrow, which for fome L^a Ma-
time entirely broke their power ; but this fuccefs was riam’s re-
quickly followed by the revolt of Lseca Mariam, a volt and
near relation of the king. He alfo was defeated, anddeath*
obliged to retire to a mountain fo lleep, that though
he alcended it in fafety, he was dallied in pieces with
many of his followers in attempting to defcend 3 the
reft, who efcaped this danger, being killed by their
purfuers. Still, however, the rebel Melcha Chriftos Several
was unfubdued 3 againft whom Prince Facilidas, the misfortunes
heir-apparent to the throne, was fent, having under befalthe
him a nobleman of moft diftinguilhed charadler named emPeror‘
Keba Chvijlos. The latter was defeated and killed,
without its being in the power of Facilidas to do any
thing towards the fuppreflion of the rebellion. This
misfortune was followed by the death of Fecur Egzie,
formerly ambaffador with Antonio Fernandes to the
pope, but now lieutenant-general to Sela Chriftos. He
was cut off with a fmall body of troops by the
Galla 3 and from many misfortunes befalling the
imperial troops, the power of Melcha Chriftos was
augmented to fuch a degree, that he now began to
a£l as a king, and appointed a deputy-governor to
one of the provinces. His opinion of his own impor- A rebel ge-
tance, however, had almoft proved his ruin 3 for the n.eral en-
new governor having appointed a great feftiyal on
Saturday, in oppofition to the royal edidl, he was at¬
tacked by a party of the king’s troops, and entirely
routed with the lofs of 4000 of his men. This defeat pr;nce pa.
was revenged by an overthrow given to Prince Faci-cilidas de-
lidas himfelf 3 the blame of which was laid upon Selafeated-
Chriftos. The latter, as we have often had occafion
to obferve, was not only a moft valiant commander,
but a rigid Catholic 3 and thefe two qualities might
naturally have been thought to fecure him in favour
with the emperor. His violent conduft in regard tOgeja
the Catholic religion, however, had raifed him fo ma-ftos univer-
ny enemies, that accufations were perpetually brought fally hated,
againft him 3 and one difgrace conftantly followed an¬
other, notwithftanding all his fervices. The pjefent
accufation was brought by one Lefana Chriftos, whom
Sela Chriftos had formerly condemned to death. For
this offence he had received a pardon from Socinios 3
and he now revenged himfelf upon his former judge by
accufing him to his fovereign. Sela Chriftos was not
unmindful of this conduct 3 and therefore, as foon as
he had him in his power, put him to death without
regarding the pardon he had received. The emperor
on
A B Y [ 83 1 A B Y
Xbyffinia. on tKis deprived him of the government of Gojam, niftiment of leprofy inflifted upon Uzziah for affum- AbytTmia.
*—-v   which he gave to Serca Chriftos, who was fuppofed to ing the prieit’s otfice. Thus an altercation commen-' v '
Deprived be a dependent ou Prince Facilidas, and was befides ced j and it was evident, from the behaviour of So¬
ot the go- coufm t0 the emperor himfelf. The new governor, cinios, that his extreme favour for the Romilh reli¬
ef gS. on his entering upon office, promifed folemnly to fup- gion began to decline. After this he let out for the
Revolt of part the Catholic religion ; but no fooner did he arrive country of Lafta, where Melcha Chriftos was, and the
the new go-in Gojam, than he folicited Prince Facilidas to rebel entrance to which was guarded by very high and rug-
vernor. againft his father, and re-eftabliffi the Alexandrian ged mountains. Among thefe the rebels had -Itrongly
faith. This was not the only inftance in which he fortified themfelves ; but were driven from four polts
(bowed bis difobedience. He had received the charge by the king’s troops, fo that the latter imagined a
of a caravan which came annually from Narea ; but complete viftory had been gained. Affembling them-
inftead of atting properly in this refpect, he employ- felves, however, on the top of another high mountain,
ed himfelf in driving off the cattle of the Agows and the rebels watched their opportunity ; and defeending
Damots, who expetted no harm, and were confequent- fuddenly upon them, cut off great numbers, and obliged The empe-
ly quite unprepared. Such numbers of them were the reff to make a precipitate retreat. Another cam-r<->r deieat-
carried off on this occafion, that x 00,000 are faid to paign was therefore neceffary 5 but now the army loft c '
have been fent to the Abyffinian market. Socinios, all patience. They were become weary of making war
when informed of fuch an atrocious robbery, ordered on their countrymen, and, after (laughtering them in
him to reftore the cattle, and to furrender himfelf pri- the field, feeing the intervals between the campaigns
loner; but inftead of complying with this order, he filled up with numerous executions of thofe who had
again folicited Facilidas to revolt againft his father. efcaped the fword. A deputation was therefore fent The army
For this he was ffiarply reproved ; but now, deter- from the foldiers by Prince Facilidas, who, though he Braden
mined to make the world believe that the prince had had never declared his fentiments openly,^was ftrongly 0f the Alex-
entered into his fchemes, he fent a public meffage to fufpe&ed of being no friend to the Catholics. The amlrian
him, in which he was defired to come and take poffef- purport of the deputation was, that they did not mean faith,
fion’of the kingdom. Facilidas imprifoned the per- to fay that the Romiffi profeffion was a bad one, but
fon who brought this treafonable meffage, and foqn af- it was fuch as they could not underftand j and confe-
ter fent him to Socinios; but Serca Chriftos ftill per- quently there could be no merit on their part in pro-
fifted in his mad attempts. He now propofed to abo- feffing it. They were ready, however, to lay down
lilh the Romifh religion throughout the kingdom ; and their lives for the public good, provided^ their ancient
with that view attacked a convent which Sela Chriftos religion was reftored j but this was a point they would
had built in Gojam : but the fathers having been fur- not give up, and without which they would neither
nifhed with fome fire-arms, made fo good a defence, concern themfelves in the quarrel, nor even wiffi fuc-
that he was obliged to give over the enterprife. He cefs to the emperor’s arms. With regard to the Ro-
then took the laft ftep to complete his folly, by open- mifli religion, they added this declaration, perhaps the
ly revolting againft the emperor, and fetting up a ftrongeft poffible mark of averfion, that they did not
prince of the blood-royal in oppofition to him, whom wi/h to know any thing about it. Socinios, therefore,
he had found living in obfeurity among his mother’s according to the Abyffinian accounts, promifed to re¬
relations. To ciRoff all poffibility of reconciliation (tore the Alexandrian faith, on condition that he re-
with the emperor, he renewed the facrilegious pra&ices turned vi&orious from Lafta. The army then rea-
of Georgis, and put to death a prieft for refufing to dily agreed to follow him wherever he pleafed ; while
deny the two natures of Chrift. Thus he procured a the rebels, having left their fortreffes in Lafta, pro¬
multitude qf enthufiafts to'join him ; but when the af- bably from a^confidence in their own (Length, boldly
fair came to a decifion, and Prince Facilidas with a marched towards the royal army.. In the engagement,
well-diiciplined army was fent againft him, it then be- however, they did not (how their ufual alacrity, and
came evident how little the fanaticifm of a tumul- were foon defeated with the lofs of 8000 men. Many Melcha
tuous rabble availed againft the (kill of a regular army. of their beft officers were killed on the fpot, and Mel- Chriftos de-
Heisde- The rebels fought, however, with great obftinacy till cha Chriftos himfelf efcaped only by the fwiftnefs ofteated*
heated, ta- moft of them were killed, their commander being ob~ his horfe.
ken and Ugecj to refUge on a mountain ; from whence be- By this victory the power of the rebels was broken ;
deatl° unable to raak-6 hi3 efcape, he at laft came down but it was not attended with the fame fatisfaftion to
and furrendered at diferetion. We need not doubt of the people with which other viftories were wont to be
his fate j but notwithftanding the execution of this accompanied. On viewing the field of battle along
rebel, another ftill remained. This was Melcha Chri- with Facilidas next day, the prince is faid to have made
ftos, againft whom the emperor next prepared to a pathetic fpeech to his father *, in which he told him, Pathetic
march. ' He now found, however, the bad confe- that the bodies of the men he law dead on the field of fpeech of
quences of having afted fo violently in favour of the battle were neither thofe of Pagans nor Mohammedans,
Catholic religion. His army was fo difaffefted, that but of his own Chriftian fubjeds •, and that yiftories of
T rC C™yes* he could fcarcely put any confidence in them. For this kind were like driving a fword into his own en- concerning
in his feveS- this reafon he iffued a proclamation, that fuch as chofe trails. “ * How many men (fays he) have you fiaugh- the war.
rity con- to obferve the Wednefday as a fart inftead of Satur- tered ? how many more have you yet to kill ? We are
cerningre- ha(j liberty to do fo. This and fome other in- become n proverb even to the Pagans and Moors for ,,',^‘^0° *
^^hicb ' dulgencies being reported to the patriarch, the latter carrying on this war 5 and for apoftatizmg, as they fay, ^
refented by ffiarply reproved him as committing an encroachment from the faith- of our anceftors.” The king did not
thepatri- on the priefthood ; and put him in mind of the pu- make any reply at that time 5 but the effefts of the
arch. L 2 prince’s
A B Y [ 34 ] A B Y
AByflinia.
An univer-
fal tolera¬
tion grant¬
ed.
Oppofed by
the patri¬
arch.
The empe¬
ror reltores
the Alex¬
andrian
faith, and
refxgns the
kingdom.
The new
emperor
an enemy
to the Ca¬
tholics.
The patri¬
arch com¬
manded to
quit Abyf-
Snia.
prince’s words were foon apparent. The patriarch took
the tirft opportunity of upbraiding him with his ingra¬
titude to the Catholics, and deferting the religion
whofe profeflbrs had by their prayers obtained fuch a
ilgnal victory. To this Socinios replied in general,
that he had done every thing in his power to eltablilh
the Catholic religion ; for which he had fired the blood
of thoufands, and had Hill as much more to ihed : but
that he fhould confider of the matter, and acquaint him
with his final refolution. This was by no means fa¬
vourable 3 for next day, in a meffage to the patriarch,
he recounted the many rebellions which had been ex¬
cited on account of religion 3 and concluded with tell¬
ing him, that though the faith of Rome was not a
bad one, yet the people of Abyffinia did not underftand
it. For this reafon he was determined to grant a tole¬
ration, by allowing fuch ascprofeffed the Catholic faith
to do fo in peace, and fuch as rather chol’e that of A-
lexandria to do the fame. The patriarch replied, that
he had no objeftion to grant this indulgence to fuch
as had not yet embraced the Catholic faith 3 but thole
who had done fo could not be permitted to renounce
it without a grievous fin. Thus a new fyifem of per-
iecution would have commenced : but the emperor,
underftanding well the purport of his difcourfe, replied,
that if this was the cafe, he was no longer mailer .of his
own kingdom 3 and immediately afterwards ilTued a
proclamation, wherein he declared the Alexandrian
faith reftored, with the altars for the facrament, litur¬
gy, and every other thing belonging to it 3 at the fame
time, that being now old and infirm, he himfeif religned
the crown and empire to Facilidas.
This remarkable proclamation was made on the 1 qth
of June 1632 3 after which Socinios took no farther
care of public affairs 3 nor did he long furvive this
tranfaftion. iie died on the 7th of September this
year, and with him fell all the hopes of the Jefuits.
Facilidas, as had been rightly conjedlured, was an in¬
veterate enemy to the Catholic faith. As foon there¬
fore as he had obtained the government, even before
he took upon himfeif the title of king, the Catholics
were everywhere difplaced from offices of trull and ho¬
nour ; but as foon as he found himfeif ellablifhed on
the throne, a letter was font to the patriarch, informing
him, that as the Alexandrian faith was now rellored,
it was become Jndifpenfably neceffary for him to leave
the kingdom, efpecially as the new Abuna was on the
way, and only deferred his journey till the Romilh
prieils Ihould be out of the country. For this reafon
he commanded the patriarch, with all his brethren, to
leave their convents throughout the empire, and retire
to Fremona in the kingdom of Tigre, there to wait
his further pleafure. The patriarch attempted tofoft-
en him by many concefiions, but in vain 3 on the 9th
of March 1633 he was ordered, with the reft of the
fathers, to proceed immediately for Fremona. This
they were obliged to comply with 3 but the emperor,
Tm|lerftanding that they were about to eftablilh them-
lelves, and to folicit fuccours from Spain to accomplish
their purpofes by force, he fent orders to the patriarch
inftantly to deliver up all the gunpowder they had at
that place, and to prepare without delay to let out for
Mafuah. Still the infatuated and obftinate prieft de¬
termined not to comply with the emperor’s orders. At
laft he thought proper to deliver up the gunpowder 3
but refolved to leave his companions behind him, and Abyffinia.
to difperfe them as much as poflible through the cm- k-'—\r*~*
pire, in cafe he himfeif Ihould be obliged to embark at
Mafuah 3 which, however, he did not by any means
intend. For this purpofe he applied to the Bahama- He 8 „
galh, named Akay, then in rebellion againll the for pfeftec-
emperor 3 who carried them all off from Fremona in tion to the
the night time, under a guard of foldiers, and lodged Barharaa-
them fafely in a ftrong fortrefs named Adicotta. Here fr^’Dg^
the patriarch imagined that he might remain in fafety ‘ ° *
till Jie Ihould be able to procure liiccours from India.
In this, however, he was deceived. John conveyed
them from place to place, through many unwholefome
fituations, till their ftrer.gth as well as their patier.ee
was exhaufted. At laft, on receiving a prefent of gold,
he allowed them to return to their old habitation Adi¬
cotta. Facilidas, then, being determined at all events
to get rid of fuch troublefome guefts, endeavoured to
prevail upon John by bribes to deliver them into his
hands. John was too delicate to comply with this re-
queft, which he fuppofed would be a violation of hof-
pitality 3 but he confented, on receiving a proper com-The patri-
penfation, to fell them to the Turks. Two were left arch and
in Abyffmia, in hopes of foon Sharing the crown of other mif-
martyrdom ; and this indeed Facilidas did not delay
to put them in poiTeffion of, both being ordered for Turks,
execution as foon as he got them into his power.
Not content with this, and being perpetually appre-
henfive of frefti invafions from Europe, he entered into
a treaty with the Turkish baShaws to keep the ports
of Mafuah and Suakem Shut againil them 3 by which
their entrance into Abyftinia would be effetlualiy pre¬
vented.
During thefe tranfaiftions, the emperor took the
moft effedlual methods otherwise to eradicate the Ro¬
mish religion, by cutting off the principal perfons w ho
profeiTed it, or obliging them to renounce their profef-
fion. The principal of thefe was KAuncle Sela Chrif- seIa CTiri-
tos, who had deferved fo well of the late emperor So- Stos put to
cinios, and of the whole empire in general. His ex- death,
ceffive bigotry in religious matters proved the caufe of
his deilruclion, as has formerly been hinted. When
it was propoied to him to renounce his faith, he abfo-
lutcly refufed to do fo, either to avoid the greateft pu¬
nishment the king could inflidl, or to obtain the great-
eft gift he had in his power to bellow. On this he w as
baniShed to an unhealthy diftricl among the mountains
of Samen 3 but as even here he kept up a correfpon-
dence with the Jefuits, and wished to facilitate the in-
troduclion of more Portuguefe from India, he was Sen¬
tenced to be hanged on a cedar tree.
The expulfion of the prefent race of milTionarxes did
not entirely difeourage the Europeans from attempting
to introduce a frclh million into Abyftinia. The ob-
Slinate, haughty, and rebellious fpirit of the Jefuits was
univerfally condemned, and regarded as the caufe of
the extreme averfion Shoved by the emperor and the
W’hole empire againft the doctrines they profeffed. It
wras therefore hoped, and not without feme appearance
of reafon, that the point might Still be gained, provi¬
ded the miffion wTere undertaken by others leis violent
and infidious in their behaviour. After the execution A .j.
of thofe who remained in Abyffinia, fix Capuchins, the (ion um|erJ*
reformed order of St Francis, wTere fent with protec- taken by fix
tions from the Grand Signior to facilitate their paffage Francifcan
into CapucUins.
A B Y [ 8j ] A B Y
! Abyflinia. into Abyflinia, where they hoped to revive the droop*
w—"V—^ing, or rather loft, caufe of the Catholic religion.
The event of this undertaking was truly unfortunate.
Four of The Galla murdered two who attempted to enter A-
them mur- byffxnia by the way of Magadoxa. Two who arrived
theot’her t^e country Were ftoned to death 5 while the’
two return, remaining two, hearing at Mafuah of the fate of their
companions, returned home with the melancholy ac-
Three 0- count of it. This bad fuccefs did not deter three
thers mur- others from making the fame attempt a fhort time af-
dered by terwards j but they having imprudently informed Fa-
Fa'cilidas of their intention, were murdered by the balhaw
of Mafuah, who had received orders from him to this
purpofe. So particular was the emperor with regard
to the execution of this order, that he caufed the ba-
fhaw to fend him the Ikin of their faces and heads *,
that he might know by their faces that they were
Europeans, and by their ftiaved heads that they were
priefts.
Melcha The Catholic faith was now totally fuppreffed, but
continues^* th® fpirit of rebellion ftill prevailed ; and Melcha Chri-
rebeilron inft°s continued as much in oppofition to his fovereign
as when he firft took up arms on pretence of religion.
At firft he met with extraordinary fuccefs ; totally de¬
feated the royal army, though commanded by Facili-
das in perfon; after which, purfuing his good fortune,
he made himfelf mafter of the capital, entered the pa¬
lace, and was formally crowned king. This, how¬
ever, was the laft of his good fortune. Facilidas hav¬
ing quickly recruited his army, fent three able gene¬
rals to attack his rival, who was now acting the fove-
** ;dklf d* reign iti his palace. The rebels were attacked and fur-
an 1 e ’ rounded before they expeded an enemy, rvere almoft
entirely cut off, and Melcha Chriftos himfelf was killed
in the engagement.
The viftory over Melcha Chriftos was followed by
leveral fuccefsful expeditions againft the Agows and
Galla } but in the 6th year of the reign of this empe¬
ror, the rebels of Lafta, who leemed determined not to
yield while there remained a poffibility of refiftance,
The rebels chofe the fon of Melcha Chriftos for their king,, and
fim for their aga^n ^e§an ^eir depredations on the neighbouring
leader. provinces. Facilidas marched againft them with his
ufual activity *, but had the misfortune to lofe the
The emper-greateft part of his army by cold among the mountains
or’5 army 0f Lafta, though it was then the time of the equinox,
with1 cold ant^ confequently the fun was only 12° froip being ver¬
tical, the latitude of Lafta being no more than 120,
and the fun 12 hours in the day above the horizon.—
Before this rebellion could be fuppreffed, another wTas
begun, at the head of which was Claudius the king’s
brother. He had not the fame good fortune with the
Princes of rebels of Lafta 3 but wras quickly defeated, taken pri-
the blood foner, and baniftied to a mountain called Wechne;
again im- which ferved from that time for the imprifonment of
sTmowf °n Princes tbe blood-royal. The fuppreffion of one
tain. rebellion, however, feemed to have no other effedl than
Facilidas °f giving rile to another. A new expedition was
defeated by to be undertaken againft the Agows and Shangalla 3
the Agows but they had polled themfelves fo advantageoully, that
and Shan- royal army was entirely defeated without being
a* able to make any impreflion on their enemies. Faci¬
lidas, however, knowing that this defeat could be at¬
tended with no other bad confequence than the lofs of
the, men, which had already happened, marched dir«dl-
ly againft the rebels of Lafta without .attempting to AbyfTmia.
revenge the defeat he had fuftained. The rebel gene- v~ « #
ral, weary of contention, in which he probably faw d-be rebels
that he would be finally unfuccefsful, chofe to fubmit £u-0I^it.a
unconditionally to the emperor 3 who, though he at
firft affefted to treat him with feverity, foon after re¬
leafed him from prifon, beftowing upon him large pof-
feffions in Begemder, with his daughter Theoclea in
marriage.
Facilidas died in the month of October 1665, and Reign of:
was fucceeded by his fon Hannes. This prince wasHannes*'
fuch an enthufiaft for Chriftianity, that in the very be¬
ginning of his reign he iffued a proclamation, forbid¬
ding the Mahometans to eat any flelh but' what was
killed by Chriftians 3 but fo far was he from any in¬
clination to favour the Catholics, that he ordered all
their books which could be found in the empire to be
colledled and burnt. Much of his time was fpent in
regulations of church matters, and in contentions and
trifling difputes with the clergy 3 which conduft fo
difgufted his fon Yafous, that he fled twice from the
capital, but was purfued and brought back. The lalt
time was in the year 1680, when he found his father
ill of the diftemper of which he died. Hannes expired
on the 19th of July that year, having lived at peace
during the wftiole of his reign, excepting fome trifling
expeditions againft the Shangalla and rebels of Lafta.
Yafous, who fucceeded to the throne with the ap-Reign oft
probation of the whole kingdom, wras of a very differ- Yalous*
ent difpofltion from his father. Generous, aftive, and
brave, he wras lefs bigotted, and differed from him
confiderably in religious principles. Having fettled
church matters as he thought proper, his next ftep,
and the moft glorious action of his whole reign, was
to pay a viflt to thofe of the royal family who were *J1S
confined on the mountain of Wechne. He found them banifhed
in the moft miferable condition 3 all in tatters, and princes,
many almoft naked 3 their revenue having been ill paid
by his father, wrho was of a fordid diipofition, and
the little they received having been embezzled by
their keepers. Yafous was greatly moved at this fpec-
tacle, ordered a large lum of money to be divided
among them for prefent relief, clothed them accord¬
ing to their rank, and fettled matters fo that no part
of their revenue could ever afterw ards be improperly
applied. To the governor of the mountain he aflign-
ed a large traft of territory, to make amends for the
profit he had been accuftomed to derive from the re -
venue of the princes 3 and finally, he left all the prifo-
ners at the foot of the mountain, at perfect liberty ei¬
ther to take up their refidence again on it or any
where elfe. By thefe extraordinary inftances of royal
munificence the emperor fo effedtually gained the af¬
fection of his relations, that they unanimoufly deter¬
mined to return to their former ftate of confinement 3
and during the whole time of his reign not one of them
ever appeared as a competitor for the crown.
Though Yafous is faid to have poffeffed all the qua¬
lities which conftitute a great and good monarch, the
natural turbulence of his fubjeCls, and the reftlefs dif-
pofition of the monks, foon began to {how themfelves
by new feditions. Thefe were preceded by a violent Irr«pdon cf
irruption of the Galla, who wTere overthrown, as ufual,
with great {laughter; but foon after, being folicited 0f tlie
by fome monks who had drawn over a party of the monks, re -
AgOWS-bellkn, £ce.
A B Y f 86 1 A B Y
jfibyflink. Agows to tlieir fide, the difturbances were renewed.
v~—w—' A grandfon of Socinios, who had fled to the Galla
when Facilidas firft banifhed the princes to Wechne,
was proclaimed king. A multitude of lavages imme¬
diately flocked to his ftandard, fo that he was foon at
the head of a very formidable army, while the Agows
and other malcontents were ready to join him as foon
as he Ihould repafs the Nile. The king, however, en¬
tirely difconcerted the fcheme by his adlivity; for,
advancing with the utmoft celerity, he reached the
banks of the Nile before the Galla on the other fide
were ready to join their allies on this fide of it. The
Agows were fo confounded at his prefence, that they
allowed him to pafs the river unmolefted. The Galla
were equally furprifed at feeing the war transferred
into their own country 5 and, with their ufual fickle-
nefs, deferted the prince whofe caufe they had pre¬
tended to efpoufe. A few remained faithful, but were
utterly defeated by the forces of Yafousj the unhap-
11 j P7 Prince himfelf, whofe name was Ifaac, being taken
tythe em- Pr^oner» and put to death in the prefence of his rival,
peror. After this, many great exploits were performed againft
the rebellious Agows, Galla, and other favages : but
which, as they produced no other confequence than
that of eftablilhing the emperor’s charadler for perfon-
al valour and military Ikill, we fhall here pafs over 5
only remarking, that, in the opinion of his fubjedls,
one of his campaigns was the molt glorious ever re-
Attempt corded in the annals of Abyfiinia. The moll memo-
to revive rable events in the prefent reign regarded religion, and
the religi- a renewal of the., correfpondence betwixt Europe and
froinEu0nS Abyflinia ; of which we have a particular account from
rope U" Bruce, to the following purpofe. About the end
of the 17th century, a number of Francifcans from
Italy fettled at Cairo in Egypt, and were maintained
at the expence of the fathers in Paleftine, though pre¬
tending to be independent of their fuperior the guar¬
dian of Jerufalem. The latter, difpleafed at this me¬
thod of proceeding, offered to fupply the miflion to
Egypt entirely at the expence of Paleftine, and like-
wife to furnifh from thence miflionaries capable of in-
ftru&ing the people in the Chriftian religion. This
propofal meeting with a favourable reception at Rome,
.a new fet of miflionaries from Jerufalem, called by our
author Capuchins, appeared at Cairo j from whence the
Francifcans were banifhed, only two of them being
allowed to remain in that city. The others returned
to Rome j where, finding that they could not re-efta-
blifli themfelves by fair means, they had recourfe to
artifice and fidlion. It was now pretended, that, on
the expulfion of the Jefuits from Abyflinia, a great
number of Catholic Chriftians had fled into the neigh¬
bouring countries of Nubia and Sennaar, where they
found themfelves fo grievoufly oppreffed by the Ma¬
hometans, that, without fome fpiritual afliftance, they
would be under the neceflity of renouncing their re¬
ligion. This ftory being confirmed by the two Fran¬
cifcans who remained at Cairo, the caufe of thefe fup-
pofed Chriftians was eagerly efpoufed by the religious
in Italy, and a new miffion fet on foot at the expence
of the pope for their relief, which continues to this
day under the title of the Ethiopic Miffion. The mif-
fionaries had it alfo in charge to penetrate if poffible
into Abyflinia 5 and to keep up, as far as was in their
^ower, the Catholic faith, until a better opportunity
fhould offer of making an attempt to convert the whole AbyffinTa.
empire. For this purpofe a convent was procured for v—
them at Achmim in Upper Egypt 5 and permiflion was
granted, notwithftanding their former banifhment, to
fettle two of their order at Cairo independent of the
fathers of Paleftine.
While thefe tranfa&ions palled in Italy and Egypt,
Louis XIV. of France was in the height of his glory.
Fie had attempted to rival the ancient Greeks and
Romans in the magnificence of his works j but his
conduft with regard to religion, his perfecution of the
Proteftants, and revocation of the edict of Nantz, had
ftigmatized him throughout the greateft part of Eu¬
rope as a bloody and mercilefs tyrant. To wipe off
this ftain, the Jefuits, his great fpiritual directors, form¬
ed a fcheme of inducing the emperor of Abyflinia to
feud an embalfy to France } after which they hoped
that they might get themfelves replaced in the Ethiopic
miflion, to the exclufion of the Francifcans. The king,
whofe pride was very much flattered by the propofal,
readily embraced it; but the pope’s confent was ftill
neceflary. His holinefs was by no means pleafed with
this intrufion of a temporal prince into fpiritual affairs:
neverthelefs, he did not choofe to enter into any conteft j
but that he might undo with one hand what he did
with the other, he appointed fix Jefuits, of whom Ver-
feau, the ambaffador of Louis to himfelf, was one, to
be miflionaries to Abyflinia, but the fuperior of the
Francifcans to be his legate a latere at that court j
providing him with fuitable prefents for the emperor
and principal nobility.
The Jefuits now finding themfelves in danger of be¬
ing fupplanted by the Francifcans, applied to the pope
to know which of the two orders fhould make the firlt
attempt to enter Abyflinia; but received no other
anfwer than that thofe who were moft expert fhould
do fo. Verfeau, probably difpleafed at this conduft
of the pope, went to a convent in Syria of which he
was fuperior, without making any attempt to enter
Ethiopia: therefore the miflion remained in the hands of
two perfons of oppofite profeflions, a Jefuit and Fran-
cifcan \ the name of the latter being Pafchal, an Ita¬
lian ; and of the former Brevedent, a Frenchman.
The latter was accounted a man of learning and pro¬
bity, zealous in the caufe of his religion, but by
no means imprudent or rafti in his attempts to pro¬
mote it.
In the mean time an unforefeen accident procured Yafous falls
admittance to the miflionaries into Abyflinia more and
readily than could have been expefted in the prefent e°^nan
fituation of affairs. Yafous and his fon had both been phyfician.
attacked by a fcorbutic diforder which threatened to
turn to a leprofy , on which one Hagi Ali, a Maho¬
metan faftor at Cairo, received orders to bring w ith
him an European phyfician on his return to Abyflinia.
It happened that this man had formerly been acquaint¬
ed with Friar Pafchal, who had adminiftered fome medi¬
cines to him. He now propofed that Pafchal fhould Friar Paf-
accompany him to Abyflinia in the charafter of achalandan-
phyfician; and that Friar Anthony, another of his own
order, fhould go with him as his companion. But ^ertake the
this fcheme w'as fruftirated by Maillet the French con-office,
ful, who had the charge of the whole from Louis XIV.
and wifhed that the Jefuits alone fhould have the con-
dud of the million. For this purpofe he reprefented
to
A B Y [ 87 ] A B
AbyiTmia. to Hagi Ali, that Friar Pafchal underftood nothing of commercial intercourfe ; though
^ medicine •, but he promifed to furniih him with ano-
Difappoint- ^her, whofe {kill he extolled above all thofe of ancient
MaiUet^" or rno<^ern times. Hagi Ali, who knew nothing of
the matter, readily agreed to Maillet’s propofal} and
Poncet and Charles Poncet a Frenchman, who had been bred a
Breyedent chemift and apothecary, was appointed to the office
appointed. o£ with Father Brevcdent to attend him as
his fervant. Thus the fcheme of the Francilcans was
for the prefent overthrown : but unluckily Maillet em¬
ployed one Ibrahim Hanna, a Syrian, to write letters
to the Abyffinian monarch and fome of his principal
nobility, which he defired him to fubmit to the in-
fpeftion of one Francis, a Capuchin or monk of the
Holy Land, and confequently -an enemy to the Fran-
cifcans. Ibrahim, not being acquainted with the
monk he mentioned, and thinking any other wmuld
anfwer as well, carried the letters to one of the fame
Xhe Fran- name, but of the Francifcan order. Thus the whole
cifcans re- fecret was divulged at once } and the Francifcans, with
folve the the malevolence effential to fuch religious miicreants,
deftrudtion j-gfoiygd ori the deftruftion of Poncet and his attend
fionaries!" dants- At Prefent> however, their Sanguinary- inten-
Poncet fets tions were defeated ; Poncet fet out immediately after
out on his he had received his commiffion, and arrived fafe at
return after Gondar the capital of Abyffinia, with his attendant
-^Ya- Father Brevedent, on the 21ft of July 1699. Breve-
dent died on the 9th of Auguft •, but Poncet lived to
execute his commiffion, by making a full cure of his
royal patient. On the zd of May 1700, he fet out on
his return for Europe, and arrived at Mafuah without
any bad accident.
It has already been obferved, that the main end of
this undertaking was to procure an embaffy from A-
byffinia to the French monarch ; and this end alfo was
gained. An ambaffador was procured, but unluckily
not fuch a one as M. Maillet the chief manager of the
whole projeft delired. This man, intoxicated wuth
abfurd notions of nobility and diftin£Hons of rank,
could not make allowance for the difference between
the appearance of an ambaffador from a barbarous mo¬
narch, however powerful, and one from the Sovereign
of a civilized and polite nation, The ambaffador fent
by Yafous, therefore, having been originally no other
than a cook, could not be agreeable to a man of fuch
a difpoiition. The prefents fent by the Abyffinian
monarch indeed, had they arrived, wmuld have pro¬
bably conciliated matters. Thefe were, an elephant,
fome Abyffinian young women, &c. but unluckily the
elephant died, and the ambaffador was robbed of all
the reft by a Turkifh baffiaw. Maillet, therefore, na¬
turally proud, imperious, and covetous, thought pro¬
per to call in queftion the authenticity of Morat the am-
baffador’s miffion, to call Poncet himfelf a liar, and not
Me is not to a^ow f°rmer t0 proceed to France. The tranf-
allowed to aiftions on this occafion are fet forth at length by Mr
proceed to Bruce, greatly to the difgrace of Maillet •, but as de-
France. tails 0f this kind would Swell the prefent article beyond
due bounds, w^e muft refer the curious reader to the
wrork juft mentioned.
Thus the fcheme of procuring an embaffy from A-
byffinia having proved abortive, the next projeft of the
Jefuits was to get an embaffy fent from France, wffiofe
objedl was to be the cementing a perpetual peace be¬
twixt the two nations; and to eftabliih a Lifting and
The Abyf¬
finian am-
baffador
difagree-
able to
M. Mail-
let.
He is not
  _ o' whatever friendlhip Abyffmnn'
or good-will might take place, it was evident that ""v 1 *
there was not a ftngle article that could be exchan¬
ged between them, nor was there any ready com¬
munication betwixt the two countries either by fea
or land. The perfon pitched upon as ambaffador m. de
was M. de Roule, vice-conful at Damietta. He isRoule fent
charafterized by Mr Bruce as “ a young man of fome j^affador
merit, who had a confiderable degree of ambition, p^ce>
and a moderate {kill in the common languages fpo-
ken in the eaft \ but abfolutely ignorant of that of
the country to which he was going, and, what was
worfe, of the cuftoms and prejudices of the nations
through which he was to pafs. Like moft of his
countrymen, he had a violent predileftion for the drefs,
carriage, and manners of France, and a hearty con¬
tempt for thofe of all other nations: this he had
not addrefs enough to difguife j and this endangered
his life.” Beftdes thefe difadvantages, he had the mil-
fortune to-be under the difpleafure of all thofe of hid
own nation who refided at Cairo ; fo that the mer*
chants were very much averfe to his embaffy; and, as
the Francifcans and Capuchins were his mortal enemies;
he had not a ftngle friend in the world except Maillet
and the Jefuits. Unluckily the conful milled him in
one of the moft material articles, and which was un¬
doubtedly of the utmoft confequence to him in the ac-
compliffiment of his purpofe, viz. the prefents necef-
fary to be taken with him for the barbarous people
through whofe country he wras to pafs. Brocades,
fatins, and trinkets of various kinds, according to Mr
Bruce, were the proper wares ; but, inftead of this, he
had taken along wdth him mirrors of various kinds,
with the pictures of the king and queen of France,
wrearing crowms upon their heads. The former ot
thefe fubje<fted him to the imputation of being a ma¬
gician ; while the latter, if ftiown to a Mahometan,
would bring upon him the charge of idolatry. The
worft misfortune of ail was the malice and treachery
of the Francifcans, who had already prejudiced againft
him the people of the caravan with wffiom he wTas to
go, the governors of the provinces through which his
road lay, and the brutal and barbarous inhabitants of
Sennaar, wffio lie in the way betwixt Egypt and Abyf¬
finia. The confequence of all this was, that he was He is mur-
murdered at the laft-mentioned place with all his reti-clerec!-
nue. The Francifcan friars, who had preceded him
to Sennaar, left it before his arrival, and returned im¬
mediately after. There cannot therefore be the leaft
doubt that they wrere the authors of his murder;
though the bigotted difpofition of Louis XIV. pre¬
vented all inquiry into the matter ; fo that the parti¬
cular fteps they took to accomplilh their defigns were
never publiffied to the w’orld.
The affaffination of De Roule wras preceded by that Yafous af~"
of Yafous emperor of Abyffinia, who-fell by a conipi-faffinatecL
racy of his wife and fon, occafioned by a fit of jealou-
fy in the former. He wras fucceeded by his fon 1 e-
cla Haimanout, wffio had confpired againft him. Be¬
fore his death, he had difpatched a meffage to the
king of Sennaar, requiring him to afford M. de Roule
protection at his court, and a fafe conduct from
it ; but wffien the meflenger was within three days
journey of the capital of that kingdom, he received
news of the affaffination of Yafous, On this he re¬
turned--
A B Y
Abyulma. turned In gteat hafte to Gondar, in order to have the
w ^ ^ letters of proteftion renewed by Tecla Haimanout
the reigning prince. This was readily done : but
before the meiTenger could reach Sennaar, he was in¬
formed that JDe Roule was already affaffmated 5 on
which he returned with Hill greater haite than be-
The new fore. The AbyfTmian monarch, provoked at fuch a
emperor in-fCandalOUs violation of the law of nations, declared
his intention of commencing hoftilities againft the
death; '
ic if mur¬
dered.
Reign of
Theophi-
Ins.
commencing
s of Sennaar} and for this purpofe aTembled his
army. But this was fcarce done, before he was in¬
formed that a rival, named Amda Sion, had been
fet up againft him by the friends of his father Yafous,
and had been for fome time privately colledfing
troops to furprife him before he could be ready to
make any oppofition. It was therefore necefiary to
employ the army deftined againft Sennaar to reduce
this rebel to obedience •, and fcarce was this done,
but is him- when the emperor himfelf was affaflinated : fo that all
l^lr mnr_ *1
thoughts ot revenging the death of M. Roule were
laid alide.
Tecla Haimanout periftied in 1706, and was fuc-
ceeded by his uncle Tiffilis, or Theophilus ; whofe
firft care was to apprehend all thofe fufpe&ed to have
been concerned in the death of his predecelTor. Thus
the murderers of Yafous, whom Tecla Haimanout had
inftigated, imagined themfelves fecure, and came to
court without any fear of danger : but no fooner did
Theophilus get them into his power, than he caufed
them all to be put to death without exception ; the
queen herfelf being publicly hanged on a tree. Not
fatisfied with avenging the death of Yafous by the
execution of his murderers, he did the fame with thofe
of Tecla Haimanout j putting to death all who were
immediately in his own power, and commanding the
governors of the provinces to do the fame with thofe
Tigi revolts, 'vv^om t^ey could find within their jurifdi&ion. One
but is de- of thefe named Tigi, who had been formerly Betwu-
det, having efcaped into the country of the Galla,
raifed a very confiderable army, with which he invaded
Abyffinia, where he committed the mort dreadful
cruelties. Theophilus engaged him on the 28th of
March 1709 ; when, with a force greatly inferior, he
gained a complete viiftory. A number of the Galla
fled to a church, hoping to be protetfted by the fan&i-
ty of the place *, but the emperor telling his foldiers
that it was defiled by thofe who were in it, command¬
ed it to be fet on fire, fo that every one perifhed. Tigi,
with his two fons, were taken prifoners, and put to
death. The king himfelf did not long furvive his vic¬
tory ■, falling lick of a fever, of which he died in Sep¬
tember 1709.
After the death of Theophilus, the line of Solomon
by the queen of Sheba was fuperfeded a fecond time,
and a ftranger of the name of Oujlas feated on the A-
byffinian throne. The extreme feverity of Theophilus
in punifhing the murderers of both Yafous and Tecla
Haimanout gave occafion to this ; for as both princes
had been affaflinated in confequence of confpiracies
formed by the principal people of the nation, the num¬
ber of confpitators was fo great, that the parties con¬
cerned had intereft fufficient to influence the ele&ion
of the new monarch even in this molt capital refpe£t,
of his not being a defcendant of Solomon. Excepting
•this Angle defeat, he was in every refpe£t worthy of
Execution
of the
queen and
other regi¬
cides.
feated, tak¬
en and put
to death.
Line of So
lornon let
afide.
[ 88 ] A B Y
the kingdom, and was already the higheft fubjcct in it. Abyflmia.
Scarce was he feated on the throne, however, when a
dangerous confpiracy was formed againft him by the
very perfons by whom he had been placed upon it.
Ouftas baffled their defigns, by ftizing the principal
confpirators before they had time to bring their fchemes
to a bearing : and feveral people of the firft rank were
condemned to lofe their nofes, or to be put to death.
After this, the emperor undertook an expedition
againft the Shangalla, according to the barbarous cu-
ftom of the Abyffmian monarchs, who hunt thefe poor
people merely for the fake of making Haves; flaugh-
tering the men without mercy as well as many of the
women, and carrying off only the boys and girls into
captivity. In this he met with perfect luccefs 5 and
was about to attempt the conqueft of the whole coun¬
try, when he was called back by the news that his
prime minifter Tafa Chriftos was dead. While the The em-
emperor remained in his capital at Gondar, he was ta- peror fails
ken fuddenly ill ; which he at firft imputed to witch-hck-
craft, and therefore ufed fome antidotes ; among which
the fmokiixg of the palace with gunpowder was one.
But this was done fo carelefsly by the fervants, that
the whole building was confumed \ an accident look¬
ed upon by the people in general as a very bad omen,
efpecially as the king’s complaint increafed every day.
At laft the principal officers came to pay him a vifit of
condolence, as they pretended *, but in reality to ob-
ferve the nature of his diftemper, and to confult whe¬
ther or not it was likely to continue till they could fall
upon means to deprive him of the government. Ou¬
ftas underftood their intentions, and therefore fummon-
ed all his ftrength to affume for a moment the appear¬
ance of health ; fo that the officers found him as ufual
engaged in bufinefs. Being thus difconcerted, it be¬
came neceffary to make fome apology for a vifit fo ex¬
traordinary and formal ; for which they were at firft
fomewhat at a lofs : on recolleftion, however, they
told him, that, hearing he had been fick, which they
happily found was not the cafe, they had come to make
a propofal concerning the fucceffion; profeffmg a de¬
fire that he would quiet the minds of his own family,
and of the people in general, by appointing his fon Fa-
fil fucceffor to the throne after his deceafe. Ouftas
gave them an equivocal anfwer $ but the difeourfe con-
cerning Fafil happening to be overheard by the fol- jjavid pro-
diers, a violent mutiny enfued, and all the officers who claimed
had come to vifit Ouftas were killed. Part of theemPeror*
towm was fet on fire in the confufion ; and at laft a
proclamation was made, that David fon of Yafous was
king of Abyffmia. The prince was then fent for from
the mountain, and arriving at Gondar, tvas crowned on
the 30th of January 1714. The diftemper of Ouftr.s
in the mean time continuing to increafe, he died on the j>eatjj 0f
loth of February the fame year. Ouftas.
The new emperor was a rigid Alexandrian in prin- ^ ^
ciple } but Ouftas had been fo far favourable to the -Da^id> 1
Catholics, as to entertain fome of their priefts, though
in a private manner. As it was the cuftom, horvever,
to call a convocation of the clergy on the acceffion of
every new emperor, the monks and others infilled up¬
on one being called on the prefent occafion 5 the more
efpecially that a new Abuna was come from Egypt,
and the lenity fhown to the Catholics by Ouftas had
excited the jealoufy of the AbyfTmian clergy in the
hightfl
Three Ro-
iniih priefts
put to
death.
A B Y
Ahyffinia. lugKeft degree. This affembly proved
l«.—v ' Roraiih priefts, whom Ouftas had protefted and lup-
ported for iome time. They were brought before the
king and Abyflinian clergy j who ftiortly ailved them,
whether they believed that the council oi Chalcedon
tvas to be accepted as a rule of faith, and that Pope
Leo lawfully prefided in it ? To both thefe queftions
they anfwered in the affirmative : on which, without
farther trial, they were condemned,to be ftoned ; and
the fentence was inftantly put in execution by the fu¬
rious and ignorant multitude, only one perfon in the
whole aftembly exclaiming againft it as unjuiL 1 he
priefts being thus gratified in one inftance,. infilled
that Abba Gregorius, who had a£led as an interpre¬
ter to the three juft mentioned, ffiould alfo be put to
death ; but this was prevented by David, who found,
Upon inquiry, that he had only done fo in obedience to
the exprefs commands oi Ouftas his fovereign.
Here we mull take notice, that though tne faith of
Abyffinia is always faid to be the fame with that of
Alexandria, it is not for that reafon to be imagined
that the clergy are all of the fame. mind. On the
contrary, many different parties exift among them,
who hate one another no lefs than all of theni do the
church of Rome. The principal of thefe in the time
we fpeak of were the monks of Debra Libanos and
thofe of St Euftathius, to which laft the emperor him-
felf belonged. On the arrival of a new abuna, it is
cuftomary to interrogate him before the emperor and
affembly of the clergy, which of the two opinions , he
adheres to. The emperor at prefent, not thinking
his prefence neceffary, fent the betwudet with the prin¬
cipal perfons of both parties to hear the profeffion. of
the new abuna, which was afterwards to be proclaim¬
ed to the people. The latter, probably not willing to
contend with either party, gave an equivocal anfwer.
But with this the king himfelf was diffatislied 5 and
therefore, without confulting the aouna farther, he
caufed it to be proclaimed, that the new abuna’s pro¬
feffion was the fame with that of the monks of St
Euftathius. This was highly refented hy the monks
of Debra Libanos, who inftantly ran to the abuna,
and from him received a profeffion direflly contrary to
what had been proclaimed by the king’s order. Not
fatisfied with this, they continued their tumult, difre-
garding the imminent danger they were in 01 falling
under the “king’s difpleafure. One of their number
was fo infatuated as to cry out, that he faw a cherub
with a ftaming fword guarding the door of the houfe
where they were. Unluckily, however, they continu¬
ed their affembly fo long, and behaved, in fuch a fedi-
tious manner, that the emperor fent againft them a bo¬
dy of Pagan Galla j who fell upon them fword in hand,
killed upwards of 100 of the ringleaders, and then fal-
lying out into the ftreet, d -ftroyed indifcriminately eve¬
ry one they met.
The maffacre continued till the next day at noon,
when a flop was put to it by the king’s proclamation.
The vaft quantity of blood io wantonly {bed, however,
could not but occafton great difcontent throughout the
capital, and the bad effe&s of it foon appeared. The
king was univerfally hated, and numberlels confpira-
cies were talked of1, but before any pretender to the
crown appeared, David himfelf fell fick, the caufe of
which was found to be poifon. 'I he perpetrators of
Vol. I. Part I.
Dlffenfions
among the
Abyffinian
clergy.
Great maf¬
facre of the
clergy and
others.
The king
pouoned.
[ 89 ] A B \
fatal to three this crime being known, were inOantly put to death ; Ai>>lhn:a^
but nothing could fave the life of the emperor, who
died the 9th of March 1719 in great agony.
David was fucceeded by his brother Bacuffa •, wno Reign of
in the beginning of bis reign proved very levere and ’aa,“A-
cruel, cutting off almoft all the nobility who could be
fuppo’fed to have had any ffiare in the confpiracies
and feditions of former reigns. In tne latter patt cn
it he became much more mild, and was beloved by his
fubjecls. He was fucceeded in 1729 by his fon Ya-O-^;
fous II. who continued long under the regency of hxs '
mother j and as foon as he took the management of
affairs upon himfelf, was difturbed with continual iedi-
tions and rebellions. In one of thefe the city of
Gondar was made a field of battle, and was io fre¬
quently fet on fire, as to be almoft entirely reduced to
ruins.' Having at laft fucceeded in reducing all his Cukivates
enemies to obedience, he encouraged and promoted the A
arts of peace, repairing and ornamenting his palaces, in
which he employed iome Greek artifts. lor this lie
renounced the diverfion of hunting, and the barbarous
expeditions againft the Shangalla ; but this way of life Is lampoGh.
proved fo diiagreeable to his turbulent iubjects, that
fevere fatire was publifhed againft him, .unuei the title an(j' uncjcr.
of “ The expeditions of Yafous the Little.” Indig- takes an
nant at this reproach, he determined on an expedition expedition
againft the kingdom of Sennaar j . and. having made the
neceffary preparations, invaded it with a formidable
army, without the leaft pretence of provocation, or
making any declaration of war. As he proceeded.in¬
to the country of the enemy, he allowed his foldiers
everywhere to exercife the greateil cruelties, to deftioy
every living creature with the fword, and every thing
combuftible with fire. Some of the Arabs joined him
as he went along 5 many more fled from his prefence 5
and a body of them tried to oppofe him. I hefe laft
were utterly defeated ; and \ afous without delay pre¬
pared to march to Sennaar the capital of the kingdom.
As he ft ill went on, the king Baady being affifted byAdivifioti
Hamis prince of a territory named Dar Poor, furprifed ^10sftarmy
one divifion of his army fo effeaually, that they were
all cut off to the number of 18,000. Yafous, how¬
ever, ftill continued his deftru&ive progrefs 5 though
he gave over all thoughts of reducing the capital, or
fubduing the kingdom. He returned triumphant to
Gondar, making a great fhow of the plunder he had
acquired ; though the deje&ed countenances of many
of his army ft)owed that they were by no means plea-
fed with expeditions of this kind. The king himfelf
Was fiippofed to behold the diftrefs of his fubjefts on
this occafion with a malicious pleafure, on account of
their impatience and turbulence in times of peace, and
their forcing him into a war when he had no inclina¬
tion for it. In a fliort time, however, the people were
perfectly comforted for the lofs of their brethren. In Religious
the late unfortunate adlion they had loft all thofe ^°ly deemedTt
utenftls, which it is ufual in Abyffinia to carry into the an extrava-
field of battle in order to enfure vidlory. Among gant rate,
thefe was a pidlure of the crown of thorns which was
put upon our Saviour’s head ; fome pieces of the true
crofs upon which he fuffered ; a crucifix which had
fpoken on many occafions *, with many other facred re¬
lics of equal value. Soon after the battle all thefe
were redeemed by the priefts at an extravagant rate ;
no lefs than 8000 ounces of gold having been given
M for
A B Y [
Abyffima. for tne ipeaking crucifix j and for the reft, we are to
ftippofe a proportional price had been paid. On the
arrival of this trumpery at Gondar, the greateft rejoi¬
cings were made, and Yafous was aftoniihed at the
people having fo foon forgot the lofs of their country¬
men and relations.
Soon after thefe tranfaftions the abuna died j but
though it was cuftomary for the Abyffinian monarclis
to advance the money neceffary to bring a new one
from Alexandria, Yafous found himfelf obliged to lay
a tax upon the churches for defraying it at this time,
having fpent all his ready money in repairing and orna-
The mef- menting his palaces. Three priefts, configned to the
fengers fent care of as many Mahometan factors, were fent to
ahuna^n-^ ^gypt f°r_the new patriarch 5 but they were detained
fulted'and ^or ^ome t5me by ^ naybe or prince of Mafuah, who
fobbed. extorted from them one half of the money given by the
emperor for bringing the abuna from Cairo. Yafous
no fooner heard that they were detained at Mafuahg
than he fent orders to Suhul Michael governor of Ti-
gre to refufe provifions to the inhabitants of Mafuah,
which would foon reduce the naybe to obedience : but
as Michael intended foon to quarrel with the king
himfelf, he was not in any hafte to obey the orders he
received. The travellers were therefore detained fo
long, that on their arrival at Jidda,' they found they
had loft the monfoon ; and, what was wwrfe, the fche-
rifif of Mecca would not allow them to pafs without a
frefh extortion. Their money was now- exhaufted ; but
the rapacious fcherif put one of their number in pri-
fon ; where he continued for a twelvemonth till the mo¬
ney arrived : and from this time thefe extortions w-ere
changed into a ftated tribute ; 75 ounces of gold
(about 1861. fterling) being granted for leave of paf-
fage to Cairo for the abuna ; 90 ounces to the fche¬
rif, and as many to the naybe, for allowing the abuna
to pafs from Cairo : an agreement wftiich fublifts to this
day. Several other infults of this kind being received
from the naybe, Yafous at laft difcovered that there
was a ftritft alliance betwixt him, the governor of Ti-
, gre, and the Baharnagalh ; any one of whom, had he
thought proper, could have crufhed this pitiful prince
The empe- with the fmalleft effort. On this the emperor deter¬
ror deter- m;neq to march againft him in perfon j but was pre-
puniih the ventetl by a rebellion which had been purpofely excited
naybe of i11 the country of Azab and that of the Dobas. The
Mafuah, rebels were eafily overthrown : and thus the expedition
buttTe- againft the naybe was delayed for a year ; during which
War with b'rtervA the emperor fent for Michael to Gondar. This
Michael order was politively refufed, and a war enfued. Mi-
governor of chael, unable to contend with the emperor in the open
Tigrc. field, took to a high mountain, the ufual refuge of
Abyffinian rebels. Here alfo his bad fortune purfued
him ; all his pofts were taken by ftorm excepting one,
which, it was evident, would likewife have been carried,
though not without a very great expence of men. Here
Michael Michael requefted a capitulation ; and to enfure favour-
obliged to able terms, he defired to put into the hands of Yafous
™ u a ^ a great quantity of treafure, which would, otherwife be
diiiipated among the common foldiers. This being
done, Michael defeended with a ffone upon his head,
as confeffmg himfelf guilty of a capital crime, w ith a
defign to make fubmiffion to the emperor. This was
prevented for erne day by a violent ftorm of wind and
rain j from which moment the Abyffinians believe he
A ftated
tribute for
the paflage
of the abu-
aa.
90 ] A B Y
began converfe with the devil: but Mr Bruce informs Abyffima*
us, that he has often heard him fay it was Michael the
archangel who was his correfpondent. *
Yafous was firmly determined to put this rebel to Yafous is
death, notwithftanding the quantity of gold he had re- °b%ed to
ceived ; neverthelefs a promife was extorted from him
that he would fpare his life. As foon as Michael came his ow/in-
into his prefence, the emperor was filled with indig-ciination.
nation, retraced his promife, and ordered him to be
carried out and put to death before his tent door. The
execution of the fentence, however, was prevented by
the interceffion of all the officers of any confideration
in the court or army. Such univerfal felicitation
could not be wxthftood : Michael was pardoned 5 but
with thefe remarkable words, that the emperor wafhed
his hands of all the innocent blood which Michael
ffiould ftied before he brought about the deftru£tion
of his country, which he knew he had been long medi¬
tating.
Michael continued for feme time in prifon ; but was He Is fet at
afterwards fet at liberty, and even reftored to his go- ll^erty anii
vernment of Tigre. No fooner was he reinftated in
this dignity, than, collecting an army, he attacked Kaf- honours.^
matiWoldo governor of Amhara, defeated him in two
battles, and forced him to take refuge among the Gal-
la, whom he foon after bribed to murder him. In
other refpeeb he behaved as a moft dutiful fubjeft,
gave the king the beft intelligence, and fupplied him
with foldiers better accoutred than he had ever before
beheld. He was alfo more humble than before his
misfortune •, nor did an increafe of his favour and in¬
fluence make him deviate from the line he had pre-
feribed. Having begun to gain friends by bribery,
he continued to add one bribe to another to fecure the
old, and to gain new ones by the fame means, pre¬
tending all the wdiile to no kind of dignity or honour,
not even to fuch as was juftly due to his own rank.
Thus he became fuch a favourite with the emperor,
that he bellowed upon him the governments of Ender-
ta and Sire, in addition to that of Tigre 5 fo that he
W'as now mailer of almoft one half of Abyffinia. Du¬
ring the reign of Yafous, however, he attempted no- Cjufe of
thing. The foundations of the dillurbances wffiich tlie.Sreat,
fucceeded were laid by the queen-mother, towards the VJ'A’ar m
end of the reign of Yafous. This emperor had been
married when very young to a lady of Amhara, by
whom he had twro fons named Adigo and Aylo 3 but
as his wife pretended to interfere in matters of Hate,
he was perfuaded by his mother to banilh both her and
her children to Wechne. After this his mother chofe
a wife for him from among the Galla ; a people of all
others the moll obnoxious to the Abyllinians, both on
account of the horrid barbarity of their manners, and
the continual wars which from time immemorial had
taken place between the two nations. The new queen
was the daughter of one Amitzo, a prince who had
once hofpitably entertained Bacuffa before he became
emperor •, and his people were efteemed the leail bar¬
barous of the whole. A prejudice againft her, however,
againll her offspring, and the emperor himfelf, never
to be effaced, now took place among the Abyffinians ;
but this did not Ihow itfelf during the reign of Yafous.
The emperor died on the 2lft of June 1753, being the Death of
24th year of his reign, not without fufpicion of being Yafous.
poifoned by his mother’s relations, who were now at¬
tempting
A B Y
t 9
Reign of
loas.
A-oyffinia. tempting to engrofs the whole power of the empire into
' ^eir hands. i /-* n
On the death of Yafous, his fon loas by the Galla
nrincefs iuft mentioned fucceeded to the throne with¬
out anv oppofition. The difcontent which had taken
place in the former reign about the power ailumf d ty
the relations of the old queen, now began to ihow it-
felf more openly *, and it was complained tnat a relation-
fhip to her was the only way to preferment, by which
means the old families, whofe ment had often faved the
Hate, were totally excluded from every (hare of favour.
The Galla On the acceffion of the young king a party oi Galla
Introduced horfe faid to be about 1200 in number, were lent as
into Abyf- ^ 0’ortion of bis mother •, and thefe were quickly
fmia- followed by a number of private perfons from motives
of curiofity, or hopes of preferment, who were embo-
» died to the number of 600 into a troop of infantry,
the command of which was given to Wooflieka. The
great favour in which thefe people were at court loon
induced many others*to make their appearance. T wo
Two of of the king’s uncles were fent for by bis exprels dehre ;
the king’s Rnq ^gy brought along with them a troop of IOOQ
undes ar- the time they arrived the queen was dead *,
cngrofs all but’her two brothers, named Brulhc and Labo, finding
the power, that the king put an entire confidence in them, deter¬
mined to make a party at court. This was eafily ef-
fefted i every thing was governed by Gallas 5 even the
king himfelf affecfed to fpeak their language ; while
the Abyffinians were to the laft degree mortified at fee¬
ing their inveterate enemies thus eftablilhing a domi¬
nion over them in the heart of their own country. At
laft the king thought proper to appoint his uncle Lubo
to the government of Amhara ; but this produced fuch
exceftive difcontent, that be was fain to letracf bis no¬
mination, left a civil war fliould have enfued. While
the empire was thus divided into two paities, Suhul
SulmlMi- Michael came to Gondar in a very fplendid manner,
chad ar- on an application from the exiled prince of Sernaar to
be reftored to his kingdom. When conduced mto
the prefence of the emperor, be proftrated himielt be¬
fore him, owned himfelf bis vafial, and was put in
poffeflion of the government of Ras el Feel upon the
frontiers, with a large revenue, where he was advifed
to ftay till the difputes which fubfifted at that time
ihould fubftde. This falutary advice, however, he had
not prudence to comply with ^ but fuftering himfelf to
be decoyed from his afylum in Atbara, ivas taken pri-
foner and murdered. , .
In the mean time, the Abyflinian prime mmifter,
Welled de I’Oul, died. He had hitherto moderated
the fury of the oppofite parties by his wife and prudent
conduft j but no fooner was he taken out of the way,
than a moft dreadful fcene of confufion and civil war
took place, which raged with the utmoft violence while
State of the ]y[r Bruce was in Abyflinia, and teemed not likely to
different come t0 any termination when he left it. '1 he whole
empire was divided into two great faftions : at the
head of the one was the old queen, mother of Yalous j
and at the head of the other, loas himfelf the emperor,
with his Galla relations. Matters were firft brought
to a crifis by the imprudence of the emperor himieir m
heftowing the government of Begemder upon B ml he
one of his Galla uncles. The government of this pro¬
vince had been lately refigned into the hands of the
queen by an old officer named jiyo ; and it was iuppo-
rives at
court.
King of
Sennaar
murdered.
parties.
1 ] A B Y
fed that his fon named Mariam Bared, umverfally al- Abyffima^
lowed to be one of the moft accompiiftied noblemen of v
the kingdom, was to fucceed him in this government.
This opinion was farther confirmed by the marriage of
Mariam himfelf with Ozoro Efther, a daughter of the
old queen by her fecond hufband. Unfortunately a
quarrel had happened between Kafmati Ayo, the old
governor of Begemder, and Suhul Michael, a little be¬
fore the refignation of the former, and continued unde¬
cided till Mariam took the office upon him. The oc-
cafion was quite trifling j nevertheleis, as Mariam had
refufed to fubmit to the decifion of the judges, whom
he ftigmatized as partial and unjuft, mfifting that tne
kina" fhould either decide the affair in perfon, or that
it fliould be referred to the decifion of the {word, he
thus fell under the imputation of being a difobedient
and rebellious fubjed. In confequence of tins, loas
looked upon him ever afterwards with an evil eye 5 and
now deprived him, by proclamation, of the govern-Brulhe
ment of Begemder, giving it to his own Galla uncle made go-
Brulhe, of whom we have already made fo much men-^rn ^
tion. This unexpected promotion threw the whole un-ver_
empire into a ferment. As Begemder was a frontier fai ferment
province bordering on the country of the Galla, thereenfues.
was not the leaft doubt, that, immediately on the ac-
ceflion of Brulhe to his new office, it would be over¬
run by that race of barbarians, remarkable for their
favage manners almoft beyond all the other nations m
Africa. This was the more dangerous as _ there was
not above a day’s journey betwixt the frontiers of Be
gemder and Gondar, the capital of the whole empire.
Mariam Barea himfelf, who had a high fenie of^ ho¬
nour, was particularly hurt at the manner in which he
was deprived of his dignity, and condemned with his
family to be fuhjeft to a race of Pagans, whom he had
often defeated in battle, and obliged to acknowledge
him as their fuperior. All remonftrance, however, was
vain. Brulhe, under the fauftion of the imperial com¬
mand, advanced with an army to take poffeffion of his
new dignity : but fo exceedingly averle were the A-
byffinians to follow him in this expedition, that tne
armv diffianded itfelf feveral times after it had beta
collected 5 and it took up almoft a year before he could
proceed from the place where his camp was, at the lake
Tzana or Dembea, to the frontiers of Begemder,
though fcarce a day’s journey diftant. Mariam ilarea 0pp0fe<j
beheld his operations with great contempt, employing by Mariam
his time in the difpatch of ordinary bufinefs, and en- Barea.
deavouring to reconcile himfelf to the king, but with¬
out fuccefs. As his laft effort, he fent a remonftrance
to the emperor j in which, after many proteftations or
duty and obedience, he reminded him, that, at his in-
veftiture into the office of governor of Begemder, he
had fworn not to allow any of the Galla to enter his
province : that, fhould he deviate from the obfervance
of this oath, the fafety of the princes in Wecbne would
be endangered j they would conftantly be liable to the
invafions of the Pagans, and probably be extirpatec, as
had already happened at two different times : and he
begged of the emperor, if he was determined to de¬
prive him of his government, to beftow it rather upon
fome Abyffinian nobleman 5 in which cafe he promiied
to retire, and live m private with his old father. xt
had, however, formed a refolution, which he thought
' his duty to fubmit to the emperor, that if his ma-
M 2 Je%
it
A B Y
[ 9
Farther
promotion
of Michael
Bralhe « c-
feated and
killed.
Ahyffinia. jefly IhoulJ think proper to come, at the head of a
Gaila army, to invade his province, he would retire to
the fartheft extremity of it, till he was flopped by the
country of the Galla themfelves ; and, fo far from mo¬
lefling the royal army, he might be aflured, that
though his own men might be ftraitened, every kind of
provifion ihould be left for his majefty. But if an
army of Galla, commanded by one of that nation,
lliould enter the province, he would fight them at the
well of Fernay, on the frontiers, before one of them
ihould drink there, or advance the length of a pike,
into the province..
This remonflrance had no effeft upon the emperor..
He returned a fcoffing anfwer, announcing the fpeedy
arrival of Brulhe, whom he thought fare of viftory :
but, at the fame time, to (how that he did not put his
confidence entirely in his proweft, he created Suhul
Michael governor of Samen, which lay next to Tigre
in the way to Samen, fo that no obftruftion might lie
in the way of that officer’s march to Gondar, in cafe
there ffiould be any occafion for him. Mariam, pro¬
voked at the manner in, which he was undervalued in
the king’s melfage, gave an ironical reply, in which he
alluded to the name of Bru/he, in the Abyffinian lan¬
guage fignifying a kind of bottle; this he told him
would be broken on the rocks of Begemder, if fent
into that country.
On receiving this laft meflage from Mariam, the
king inftantly ordered the army to be put in motion \
but the Abyffinians had unanimoufly determined not
to aft offenfively againft their countrymen. Brulhe
therefore was left to decide the affair with his Galla.
Mariam kept exa&ly to his word in the declaration he
had made to the king, not ftirring out of his province,
nor allowing the leafl attempt to be made to harafs his
enemy, till they were drawn up at the well above men¬
tioned, where he met them with his army. The Galla,
unfupported by the Abyffinian troops, were utterly un¬
able to bear thefhock of Mariam’s army, and therefore
foon betook themfelves to flighty but a part of them,
who were furrounded by the cavalry, fought valiantly
till they were all cut to pieces. Mariam had given the
moft exprefs orders to. take Brulhe alive 3 or, if that
could not be done, to allow him to make- his efcape.
Gne of his fervants, however, obferving him in the
field, puffied up through the enemy to the place where
he was, and running him twice through with a lance,,
left him dead on the fpet.
Mariam Barea was no fooner informed of the death
of his rival, than lie cried out in great emotion, that
Suhul Michael, with the whole army from Tigre,
would attack him before autumn. In this he was not
deceived. Ibas inftantly difpatched'an exprefs for Mi¬
chael, ordering his attendance, and invefting him with
the dignity of Ras, by which he became poffeffed of
unlimited power both civil and military. Michael
himlelf had for a long time feen that matters would
come to this crifis at laft, and had provided for it ac¬
cordingly. He now fet out with an army of 26,000
men, all of them the beft foldiers in the empire, and
10,000 of them armed with mufkets. As he paffed
along, his troops defolated the country wherever they
came, but. he encumbered his army by nothing ufe-
lefs j allowing his men to carry along with them neither
women, tents, beafts of burden, nor even provifions.
Michael
createdRas.
Commits
great de-
xailations.
2 ] A B Y
The fubfiflence of his troops was abundantly provided Atyfimia,
for by the miferable inhabitants of the provinces v—-'
through which he paffed; and, not fatisfied with this,
he infifled on a contribution in money from all the di-
ftri&s within a day’s march of thofe places where he
was y the leaft delay was followed by the flaughter
of the inhabitants and deftruftion of their houfes.
1 owns, villages, and buildings of every kind, were fet
on fire as he paffed along ; the people fled from all
quarters to the capital for refuge, as from the face of
the moft inveterate enemy 5 and loas himfelf was now
fenfible of his having been in the wrong to inveft him
with fuch unlimited power. On his arrival at the ca- Arrives at
pital, Michael took poffeffion of all the avenues, as if Gondar.
he meant to befiege it ; fo that an univerfal confterna-
tion enfued. Inftead of offering any hoftility, how¬
ever, he waited with the utmoffl refpeft on the empe¬
ror, proceeding immediately from the royal prefence
to his own houfe, where he fat in judgment, as the
nature of his office required him to do. No fooner Executes
had he taken upon him this new office, however, than juftice im-
he executed juftice in fuch a rigorous and impartial PartialIy*
manner as made the boldeft offenders tremble. Some
parties of his own foldiers, prefuming upon the licence
that had hitherto been granted them, entered Gondar
and began to plunder as they had done in other places j
but, on the very firft complaint, their commander cau-
fed 12 of them to be apprehended and hanged. Their
execution was followed by 50 others in different quar¬
ters of the city ; after which he gave the charge of the
capital to three officers who were to preftde over three
quarters, himfelf taking care of the fourth. Two ci¬
vil judges were appointed to affift each officer in a di-
ftrift, two were left in the king’s houfe, and four of
them held a court of judicature in his own. Thus the
inhabitants, finding, that inltead of bloodflied and maf-
facre, they were to expedt nothing but ftridt equity
and moderation, became reconciled to Michael the
day after his arrival, and lamented only that he had
not come fooner to relieve them from the anarchy and
eonfufion in which they had been held fo long. To
fo great a degree of periedlion indeed did he bring
his legiflation, that a very ihort time after he entered
the city, a loaf of bread, a bottle of water, and an
ounce of gold, were expofed in the market-place on
the head of a drum night and day for fome time, with¬
out any one offering to take them away. This was the
more remarkable as there was then a fcarcity of pro-
vifions, and Michael himfelf would allow but a very
fcanty fupply of water to be carried into the city ;
thereby giving the inhabitants to underftand, that if
he fhould fet fire to it as he had done to other places,s
it would not be in their power to quench the flames.
The capital being thus fecured in perfeft obedience, Marches
Michael next prepared to let out on his expedition a-againft Ma-
gainft Mariam Barea. Senfible, however, that the r^am Barea.
deftruftion of this worthy nobleman would be attend¬
ed with a great degree of odium, he was refolved that
none of it, or at leaft as little as poffible, Ihould fall'
upon himfelf. For this purpofe, he infilled that the
emperor Ihould march in perfon from Gondar, and
carry all his foldiers along with him. Thus he had an
opportunity of throwing the whole blame upon loas,.
and reprefenting himfelf as no mere than a paffive in-
ftrument in the affair. He alfo took every occafion of
pr ailing
A B Y
[ 9.3 1
A B Y
la, and
cruelly
murdered.
Abyflinia. praiiing his antagonift for his virtues, and cenfuring the
 1 emperor for attempting to cut off fuch an excellent of¬
ficer. . a.
In the mean time Mariam Barea keeping exacay to
the terms of the laft remonftrance he had lent to loas,
retired before him to the extremity of the province,
loas and Michael advanced furioufly, burning and de-
ftroying every thing as they went along. An engage¬
ment at laft enfued at a place called Nejas Mufti,
on the extreme borders of Begemder,^ when Mariam
could not retreat without going out ot the province.
As the royal army was more than twice tne number
Mariam de-of the other, and commanded by an officer of fuperior
feated. (kill, viftory was not long of being decided in its fa¬
vour. Mariam with 12 of his officers, took refuge
Betrayed in the country of the Galla } but were immediately
by the Gal-Slivered up by that faithlefs people. He was put to
1q nn/1 death by Lubo the brother of Brulhe, who is faid
with his own hands to have cut his throat as a ftieep
is commonly killed in this country, and afterwards to
have disfigured the body in a fhocking manner. The
head was cut off, and carried to Michael’s tent, who
would not allow it to be uncovered in his prefence.
It was afterwards fent to the family of Brulhe in the
country of the Galla, to ftrow them what attention
had been given to revenge his death •, and this difplea-
fed the Abyffinians even more than any thing that
had yet happened fmee the beginning of the conteft.
Same of his The 12 officers, who were taken along with him,
officers pro- fou„bt proteftion in the tent of Ras Michael, to which
MichaeL they were fuffered to efcape by Woofheka their keep¬
er. Lubo, however, intended likewife to have facri-
ficed them as he had done Mariam, and therefore lent
Wooffieka to demand them : but no fooner had he un¬
folded his errand, than Michael in a rage, called to his
attendants to cut him in pieces before the tent door •,
which would certainly have been done, had he not fled
with the utmoft precipitation.
The fcandalous afcendency which the Galla always
manifefted over the king, had greatly difpleafed Mi¬
chael j who expreffed himfelf lo freely on the fub-
jefl, that a coolnefs took place between them. A-
nother officer named Waragna FafJ, a Galla by
birth, had infinuated himfelf into the king’s favour,
and greatly diftinguiffied himfelf at the battle of
Nefas Mufa. It was n«~'wonder, therefore, that he
foon became a rival to Michael; and this rivalflnp
was greatly augmented by the following circumftance.
Near5 the field of battle at Nefas Mufa was a houfe
of Mariam Barea, where Ozoro Efther his widow now
was. Being furrounded by pleafant and verdant mea¬
dows, Falil encamped there for the fake of his caval¬
ry. N6 other defign was at that time apparent; how¬
ever, his prefence greatly alarmed the princefs. She
had along with her at that time a nobleman named
jfyto Jylo, who had been at the battle of Sennaar; but
had there been terrified to fuch a degree, that he refoi-
ved to renounce the world ever after and turn monk.
In this char after he was now with Ozuro Efther} and
though he refufed to be concerned in any military af¬
fairs, he was ftill coniulted oy both parties as a Kind
of oracle. In the prefent emergency, therefore, he told
the princefs that there .was only one way by which !Le
could fecure herfclf from the cruelty of the Galla, and
becoming a prey to one or other of the-murderers of
her hufhand ; and that was by immediately efpoufmg
Ras Michael. Ozoro was perfeftly fenfible of the
propriety of the advice, and therefore fet out next
morning in company with Aylo to Michael’s tent.
Here fhe threw herfelf at his feet on the ground ; and
refufing to rife, Aylo explained her errand, informing
the Ras that fhe intended to beftow herfelf upon him
in marriage, as being the only perfon not guilty of ner
former hufband’s death capable of affording her pro¬
tection in her prefent fituatiori. Michael law clearly Michael
the advantages attending fuch a match ; and therefore marries the
having caufed the army to be drawn up. in order ^oro'Eilher.
battle, as if for a review, he fent for a prieft, and wTas
married to the princefs in the fight of all nis men. 1 he
ceremony rvas followed by the loud acclamations of tne
whole army j and loas was foon informed of the rea-
fon. He expreffed his difpleafure at the match, how-
in fuch unequivocal terms, that a mutual hatred
Difagree-
ment be¬
tween the
king and
Michael.
from that moment commenced. This was foon made
public by a very trifling accident. One day wffiile the
army was marching, Michael being much incommoded
by the fun which affefted his eyes, threw a white hand¬
kerchief over his head to keep off the heat. This was
inftantly told the king, who took it as an affront of¬
fered to himfelf; for in Abyffinia it is unlawful to co¬
ver the head on any occafion whatever in prefence of
the emperor, or even within fight of the palace where
he lodges. loas w’as no fooner informed of the fuppo-
fed affront, than he fent to the Ras to know upon what
account he prefumsd to cover his head in his prefence j
but though the covering was inftandy tauen off, it wras
thought that no atonement could ever be made ior iuen
a grievous offence. Soon after this a quarrel happening
between Fafil and a perfon named Liifho, likew iie a man
of great confequence, complaint was made to the Ras,.
who, as civil judge, fummoned both parties before him.
Fafil abfolutely refufed to obey any fuch jurifdiftion ;
and the affair being laid before the other judges, it vTas >
given in favour' of Michael, and b afil declaied to be in
rebellion. This was followed by a proclamation de-Final quar-
priving him of his government of Damot, and every «Hetwixt
other public office he held.. Fafil, however, had nognH Fafit
mind to fubmit to this difgrace j and therefore, aiter
holding a long conference with the king, departed with
his army, encamping on the high road betwixt Damot A To c fire el¬
and Gondar, where he intercepted the provtfions com-
ing from the fouthward to the capita*, I his n.'as paiace win_
followed by an attempt to affaffinate the Ras. A ffiotdow.
was fired from one of the window's of the palace into
the houfe where he lat in judgment 5 the diftance be¬
ing fo fmall, that he could eafily be feen from the pa¬
lace while thus employed. The ball, however, miffed
Michael, but killed a dwarf who was Handing before
him fanning the flies from his face. • As it was evident
that this {hot-muft have been fired with the knowledge
of the king, it was rightly judged to be the commenc e-
Tiient of hoftilities. loas mffantly removed to a di¬
ftance, but fent Wooffieka with orders to the Fvas to »
return to Tigrewithout feeing his face 5 declaring, at
the fame time his own uncle Lubo governor of Begem-
der and Amhara. Michael could fcarcely be prevailed
upon to fee Woofheka, and told him that he fhould
certainly be put to death the next time he appeared in
his prefence. Next day loas fent a meffage to the .Ras
by four judges, commanding him to return to .Hg/re
Fafil de¬
feated by
Michael.
A B Y
Afcy&'nia. without the leaft delay, under pain of his higheft dif-
/ pieafure- Michael returned a formal anfwer, conclud¬
ing, that he expected the king himfelf to be ready to
march againft Falil to-morrow. To this an abfolute
refufal was given i on which Michael iflued a procla¬
mation, commanding all the Galla to leave the capital
next day under pain of death : in cafe of difobedience
they were declared outlaws, and liable to be killed by
the firll that met them if they were found 24 hours af¬
ter the proclamation in the capital, or to the fame pe¬
nalty if they were found in the kingdom after ten
days. An engagement took place a fhort time after,
in which Falil was totally defeated, and obliged to re¬
tire into Damot. In this engagement fome of the
king’s black horfe tvere taken. Thefe are all Hayes, and
fubject to no other commands but thofe of his majefty
himfelf. Their appearance clearly fhowed that they
muft have been fent by the king to fight againft the
Ras. All of them were therefore brought before
the latter, and interrogated by whofe orders they
had come to the battle. Two refufed to give any
anlwer, and had their throats cut in prefence of their
companions. A third plainly told him that they had
been fent by the king *, who had likewife ordered an
Armenian to fire out of-the palace window at Ras Mi¬
chael. On this the prifoners were difmiffed ; but af-
Icas aiTaffi- faflins inftantly difpatched to put an end to the king’s
life ; which they accomplifhed, and buried him in a
dhurch dedicated to St Raphael.
On the death of loas, Michael, now abfolute mafter
of Abyflinia, fet tip for emperor Hannes, brother to
the late king Bacuffa, an old man who had refided al-
moft all his lifetime on the mountain of Wechne, and
being entirely unacquainted with the affairs of the
world was on this account probably fuppofed by Mi¬
chael to be the more proper for his purpofes. Han¬
nes had been maimed by the lofs of his hand, on pur-
pofe to incapacitate him for the throne; but this
objeftion was laughed at by the Ras. He found him,
however, poffeffed of a quality much more inimical to
his own purpofes ; and that was, an abfolute averfion
at meddling with the affairs of government : fo that he
could not by any means be induced to take the field a-
gainft'Fafil. Michael therefore was obliged to fet out
by himfelf; but thinking it improper to leave a king
of any kind behind him in the capital, he had the old
man poifoned before his departure 5 putting his fbn
Tecla Haimanout in his place.
The-young emperor, according to Mr Bruce’s ac¬
count, was of a fair complexion, lefs tawny than a
Neapolitan or Portuguefe, owing to his having been
born in the mountain. He was endowed with many
princely accomplilhments 5 and fo much attached to
Michael Ras, that he called him Father from the time
of his acceftion, waiting upon him when indifpofed
with the affedlion of a fon. There being now no ob-
jetftion therefore, Michael marched againft Fafil with¬
out delay, and entirely defeated him on the 3d of De¬
cember 1769. On this occafion Wooftieka was taken
prifoner, and afterwards Head alive, notwithftanding
the interceflion of fome of Michael’s officers for him ,
his fkin being afterwards formed into a bottle. This
piece of cruelty was attributed to Ozoro Either } whom
Mr Bruce reprefents as the moil humane and merciful
of women ; though he is obliged to allow, that on the
pcefent -occafion, as well as on every other which re-
Hannes fet
up by Mi-
chael, and
foon after
poifoned.
IFteign of
Tecla Hai
tnanout.
Fafil de¬
feated.
94 ] A B Y
garded her former huiband, lire entirely forgot her Abyffinia,
charafrer. The night on which this miferable viftim
was deftroyed, ihe appeared, in the king’s tent dreffed
like a bride 5 and in a little time returned in triumph
to Gondar.
Soon after thefe tranfaftions, Mr Bruce entered A- Mr Bruce’s
byffmia. He arrived at Mafuah when there was only arrival and
a report of Hannes’s being ill, and Mr Bruce was fup-
pofed to be his phyfician, though in truth that emperor fm:a> ' "
was already dead. Here he -was ill-treated by the
naybe, with a defign to extort money, and afterwards pro¬
bably to put him to death, as was his cuftom with other
ftrangers. He efcaped the danger, however, by the
protection of Achmet, nephew and heir apparent to
the naybe } and by his own prudent and refolute beha¬
viour, threatening his adverfaries with the arrival of a
Britiih man of war in cafe of any injury •, fhowing the
Grand Signior’s protection •, making ufe of the name
of Ras Michael, now fo formidable, and to whom he
had obtained a recommendation, &c. After many vexa¬
tions and delays, he was at iaft allowed to depart; and
a guide, by name .Saloome, was fent along with him.
This man was brother-in-law to the naybe, and a pro-
feffed Chriftian 3 but a traitor in his heart, and who
wilhed to do every thing in his power to hurt our tra¬
veller. He was furnifhed with another guide, however,
by his friend Achmet, to inform him where to pitch
his tent, and other neceffary particulars.
On the 15th of November 1769 Mr Bruce left Ar-Sets out
keeko, and the eaftern coaft of Africa, and proceeded fr°m Ar-
fouthwards ^for Gondar the capital of Abyffinia. keeko.
ter an hour’s journey, he pitched his tent near a pit
full of rain water, wdiere he remained all day ; and in
the evening a mefl'enger arrived from the naybe, who
took away the guide Saloome. Next day the latter
returned in company with Achmet the naybe’s ne¬
phew, already mentioned. The latter caufed him de-
pofite in his hands Saloome’s full hire, as though he
had gone the -whole length he had promifed. Four
of the men were commanded to go back to Ar-
keeko, and others put in their place : after which
Achmet told Mr Bruce, that he was not to take the
road through Dobarwa, though near, becaufe it be¬
longed to the naybe ; but that Saloome knew another
by a place called Bixan, which belonged to himielf,
and where he could enfure him of a good reception.
In this journey he told him that he would be obliged
to crofs the mountain of Taranta, the higheft in Abyf-
linia 3 but the fatigue of this woulfi be more than re-
compenfed by the affurance of fafety and the curiofity
of the place. Taking leave of Achmet in a very
friendly manner, therefore, Mr Bruce with his com¬
pany finally fet out on their journey the evening of the
16th. For the ftiort fpace they had travelled, the Account of
ground was covered with grafs broader in the leaf thant,ae country
ours 3 but in a little time the foil became hard, dry, v,e
gravelly, and full of acacia or Egyptian thorn. Next pa|Tccq
day (the 17th) they changed their courfe from fouth to
weft 3 and foon arrived at a range of mountains Hand¬
ing fo clofe to oire another, that there was no pet ffage
between them excepting what was worn by torrents of
water 3 the bed of one of which confequently now be¬
came their road. In the evening they pitched their
tent at fome diftance from this torrent, which had
fcarcely any water in it when they left it 3 but all tire
afternoon there had been an appearance of rain, with
much
A B Y
[ 95 ]
Notes of
AbyiTmia. mucli thunder and lightning, at a didance. On a
fudden they heard a noife among the mountains louder
than thunder j and inftantly faw the torrent, fwelled
immenfely by the diiiant rains, now running like a
rapid river, and the foremoft part of it advancing in its
bed in a body of water about the height of a man.
Having run for fome time in this violent manner, the
current, no longer fupplied by the rains, began to di¬
minish, and by the next morning was quite gone.
Among thefe mountains the nights are cold even in
fummer. ,
On the 18th the journey was refumed m the bed
of the torrent, which now fcarcely had any water :
though the hones were rendered very llippery by the
quantity of rain which had fallen. Leaving this axi-
agreeable road, they came to a fine rivulet *, which
being the firft clear water they had feen from the time
Mr Bruce left Syria, was exceedingly agreeable. They
proceeded along the banks of this river for fome time ;
and foon after leaving it, they came to another of the
fame kind : but next day were obliged to relume their
courfe in the bed of a torrent. The mountains in this
part of the world are exceflively rugged and full of
precipices, entirely dcftitute of foil, and covered with
loofe hones of a black colour. On the fide of the tor¬
rent in which they marched, however, there grew very
large fycamore trees, fome of them little lefs they 7 ?
^ feet in diameter. Their branches afforded Ihelter to an
the African infinite number of birds 3 many of them witnout fong 3
birds dif- others having notes very different from the Euro-
ferent from pean ancl peculiar to the continent of Africa.
Europe. Moh of thofe which had very beautiful colours were
of the jay or magpie kind. T he trees were loaded with
figs 5 but they came to nothing, by reafon of the igno¬
rance of the favages, who knew not the procefs of ca-
prification. The ftreams of water themfelves, which
at this feafon were found fo delightful, run only alter
Offober : they appear on the other fide of the mountains
when the fummer rains in Abyfiinia are ceafing 3 at
other times, no water is to be met with, excepting what
is contained in flagnant pools.
Account of On the 20th of November they began to afcend the
the moan- high mountain of Taranta. Their road was now ex-
tain I aran- cefixvely rugged and uneven, interfered with mon-
ta' lirous gullies and holes made by the torrents, as well
as by huge fragments of rocks which had tumbled
down. It was with the utmoft difficulty that they
could carry the affronomical inftruments up the hill 3
in which work Mr Bruce himfelf, and one of his at¬
tendants named Yqjine, a Moor, bore a principal lhare.
The only misfortune they met with was, that their
affes being unloaded, and committed to the care of a
fingle perfon, refufed to afcend this barren mountain 3
and in fpite of all that their driver could do, let off at
a brifk trot for the fertile plains blow. Luckily,
however, they were afterwards recovered by four
Moors fent after them, and the journey refumed with¬
out any material interruption. I he beaffs were now
become much more traftable, having been leen and
purfued by the hyaenas with which that mountain
abounds.
Taranta is fo deftitute of earth, that there was no
poffibility of pitching a tent upon it 3 fo that our tra¬
vellers were obliged to take up their lodging in one of
the caves with which it abounds. The under part of
A B Y
the mountain produces in great plenty the tree called AbyEria^
kolquall, which was here obferved in greater perfec¬
tion than in any other place throughout the whole
journey. The middle part produced olives which car¬
ried no fruit 3 and the upper part was covered with
the oxycedras or Virginia cedar, called ar^e in the lan¬
guage of the country. On the top is a fmall village Of the vil-
named llalai, inhabited by poor ffiepherds, who keep kge Haki,
the flocks of the rich people of the town of Dixan t>e" ofthe"
low. They are of dark complexion, inclining to yel- mounlau;s..
low 3 their hair black, and curled artificially by means
of a flick, and -which our author fuppofes to be the
fame with the crifping-pin mentioned, lia. iii. 22. 1 he
men have a girdle of coarfe cotton cloth, fwathed fix-
times round their middle 3 and they carry along with
them two lances, and a (hield made of bulls hides. Be-
fides thefe weapons, they have in their girdles a crook¬
ed knife with a blade about 16 inches in length, and
three in breadth at the lower part. There is here great Beautiful
plenty of cattle of all kinds 3 the cows generally of a cattle, See.
milk white, with dewlaps hanging down to their knees 3
their horns wide like thofe of the Lincolnflrire cattle 3
and their hair like filk. The ftxeep are all black both
here and throughout the province of Tigre 3 having
hair upon them iriftead of wool, like the reit of the
ftieep within the tropics 3 but remarkable for its luffre
and foftnefs, without any briitly quality. On the top
of the mountain is a plain, which, at the time our au¬
thor was there, they had fown with wheat. The air
feemed exceflively cold, though the barometer was not
below 590 in the evening. On the weft lide the ce¬
dars, which on other parts are very beautiful, degene¬
rate into fmall ffirubs and bufhes.
The road down this mountain was for fome time
nothing inferior in ruggednefs to what they had met
with in afeending it 3 but as they approached Dixan.,
it became confiderably better. This is the firft town
on the Abyffinian fide of Taranta. It is feated ony0wn0r
the top of a hill of a form exadly conical, furrounded Dixan de-
by a deep valley like a ditch 3 and no accefs to it but fenbed.
by a path which winds round the hill. The inhabi¬
tants were formerly exterminated by Michael. Ras 3
and the fucceeding race, in Mr Bruce’s time, were of
a very indifferent character, being, as he fays, compof-
ed of the worft people from the territories of the Ba~
harnagaih and the province of Tigre, on both of
which it borders. Here he Was- in danger from the
treachery of Saloome, who wiflied to have decoyed him
into the power of fome affaflins. Finding that this
could not be done, he furrounded Mr Bruce and his re¬
tinue with a body of armed men .3 but they were dii-
perfed by the authority of Hagi Abdelcarder, the
friend of Achmet, who had received orders to provide
for the fafety of the travellers^. The only trade carri¬
ed on here is that of buying and felling ilaves 3 who
are ftolen from Abyffinia, chiefly by the priefts, and
fent into Arabia and India.
The next ftage was from Dixan to Adowa, capital Journerta
of the province of Tigre. Leaving Dixan on the 25th Adowa. rhe
of November, they pitched their tent the firft night un- f ot
dcr a large fpreading tree called daroo, which Mr Bruce ‘
fays was one of the fineft he faw in Abyfljnia, be¬
ing about 74 feet in diameter. They had been joined
by fome Moors driving 20 loaded affes and two bulls,-
which in that country are iikewife ufed as beafts cf
A B Y [ 96 ] A B Y
His trea¬
cherous
guide obli¬
ged to re¬
turn.
'The coun-
Abyffinia. burden. Here, our author fays, lie recovered a tran-
■— r -/ qU:]Juy 0f mind which he had not enjoyed fince his ar¬
rival at Mafuah 5 but they were now entirely without
the dominions of the naybe, and entered into thofe of
the emperor. Saloome attended them for feme way,
and feemed difpofed to proceed *, but one of the com¬
pany, who belonged to the Abyffinian monarch, having
made a mark in the ground with his knife, told him,
that if he proceeded one ftep beyond that, he Would
bind him hand and foot, and leave him to be devoured
by wild beads.
Being now in a great meafure delivered from their
try becomes fears and embarrafl'ments, the company proceeded on
Iery^ their journey with pleafure, through a much better
jjong_ c country than they had hitherto paffed. In fome places
it was covered with wild oats, wood, high bent grafs,
&c. but, in not a few places, rocky and uneven. Great
flocks of a bird as large as a turkey, called, in the Am-
haric language, erhoG??i, were feen in fome places. A
large animal of the goat kind, called agazan, v^as
found dead and newly killed by a lion. It was about
the llze of a large afs, and afforded a plentiful repaft.
Numbers of kolquall trees wrere alfo fecn 5 and the fides
of the river Habeih were adorned with a beautiful tree
of the fame name with the ffream. There were in
this place alfo many flowTers of various kinds, particu¬
larly jeffamine. The mountains of Adow-a, which they
came in fight of on the 5th of December, are totally
unlike any thing to be met with in Europe 5 their fides
being all perpendicular rocks, like fteeplOs or obelifks
of many different forms.
Adow a, though the capital of an extenfive province
or kingdom, does not contain above .300 houfes j but
occupies neverthelefs a large fpace, by reafon of the in-
clofures of a tree called waivzey, which furrotmds each
of the houfes. It Hands on the declivity of a hill, fitu-
ated on the w’eft fide of a fmall plain furrounded by
mountains. It is watered by three rivulets which ne¬
ver become dry even in the greateft heats* A manu-
fafture is carried on here of a kind of coarfe cotton
cloth, which paffes for money throughout all Abyffmia.
The houfes are built of rough Hone cemented with
mud ; lime being only ufed in the conftruftion of thofe
at Gondar, and even there it is very bad.
Our traveller wras very hofpitably entertained at A-
dowm by one Janni, with whom he refided during his
Hay there* Leaving it on the 17th of December, he
vifited the ruins of Axum, once the capital of the em¬
pire. Here are 40 obelilks, but without any hiero¬
glyphics. A large one ftill remains, but the two lar-
geft are fallen. There is alfo a curious obelifk, of which
he gives a figure, with other antiquities which our li¬
mits will not allow us to enlarge upon. The town has
at prefent about 600 houfes, and carries on manufac¬
tures of the coarfe cotton cloth already mentioned. It
is watered by a fmall ffream which flows all the year,
and it is received into a fine bafon 150 feet fquare,
■where it is colle&ed for the ufe of the neighbouring
gardens. Its latitude was found by Mr Bruce to be
140 6' 36" north.
On the 20th of January 1770, our traveller fet out
from Axum. The road was at firft fmooth and plea-
fant, but afterwards very difficult; being compofed
of ftones raifed one above another, the remains of a
magnificent caufeway, as he conjectures. As they paf-
Adowa de-
itribed.
Vifits the
ruins of
Axiun.
fed farther on, however, the air was everywhere per- Alsyflmift.
fumed by a vaft number of flowTers of different kinds,l--
particularly jeffamine. One fpecies of this, named
tigam, was found in fuch plenty, that almoff all the
adjacent hills wrere covered by it } the whole country
had the moft beautiful appearance} the weather was
exquifitely fine, and the temperature of the air agree¬
able. In this fine country, however, Mr Bruce had the
firft opportunity of beholding the horrible barbarity Monftrous
of the Abyffmians in cutting off pieces of flefti from of
the bodies of living animals, and devouring them raw7;tne Ab'i*'i“
but notwithftanding this extreme cruelty, they have
the utmoft horror and religious averfion at pork of
every kind ; infomuch that Mr Bruce durft not ven¬
ture to tafte the flefti of a wuld boar, juft after having
affifted in the deftruftion of five or fix.
During the remaining part of the journey from
Adowa to Sire, the Country continued equally beauti¬
ful, and the variety of flowers and trees greatly aug¬
mented j but as a report w7as propagated that Ras Mi¬
chael had been defeated by Fafil, they now met with
fome infults. Thefe, however, were but trifling 5 and
on the 22d in the evening they arrived fafely at Sire,
fituated in N. Lat. 140 4' 35'h
This town is ftill larger than Axum : but the houfes Sire de-
are built of no better materials than clay, and covered feribed.
with thatch ; the roofs being in the form of cones,
which indeed is the ftiape of all thofe in Abyffmia.
It ftands on the brink of a very fteep and narrow val¬
ley, through which the road is almoft impaffable. It
is famous for a manufacture of cotton cloth, which, as
we have already obferved, paffes for money throughout
the whole empire. At fome times, however, beads,
needles, antimony, andincenfe, will pafs in the fame w7ay.
The country in the neighbourhood is extremely fine 5
but the inhabitants fubjeCt, by reafon of the low fitua- *
tion, to putrid fevers. On leaving it on the 24th, our
travellers paffed through a vaft plain, where they could
difeern no hills as far as the eye could reach, except¬
ing fome few7 detached ones Handing on the plain, co¬
vered with high grafs, which the inhabitants were then
burning. The country to the northwmrd is flat and
open. In the wray to Gondar, however, lies that ridge
of mountains called Samen; of which one named La-
malmon is the moft remarkable, and by fome fuppofed
to be the higheft in Abyffmia. Betwixt Sire and thefe
mountains the river Tacazze runs, which, next to the
Nile, is the largeft in Abyffmia. Mr Bruce informs
us that it carries near one third of the water which Tacazze ri.
falls on the wdiolc empire ; and when palling it, he faw7 ver de-
the marks of its ftream, the preceding year, 18 feet bribed,
perpendicular above the bottom •, nor could it be af-
certained whether this wTas the higheft point to which
it had reached. It has its fource in the diftrid: of
Angot, rifing from three fources like the Nile, in a
flat country, about 200 miles to the S. E. ofTfondar.
It is extremely pleaiant •, being {haded with fine lofty
trees, the water extremely clear, and the banks adorn¬
ed' with the moft fragrant flowers. At the ford where
theycroffed, this river was fully 200 yards broad, and
about three feet deep ; running very fwiftly over a
bottom of pebbles. At the very edge of the water the
banks w7ere covered with tamarifks, behind which grew
tall and ftately trees, that never lofe their leaves. It
abounds with fifli, and is inhabited by crocodiles and ,
hippopotami j
A B Y
A'.yfiniia. hippopotami j the former of which frequently carry oif
people who attempt to crofs the river upon blown-up
Ikins. The neighbouring woods are full ol lions and
hyaenas. The Tacazze is marked by Mr Bruce in his
map as a branch of the Aftaboras, which falls into tne
Nile. The latitude of the ford was found to be 13°
42' 45".
This river was pafl'ed on the 26th of January 5 alter
which our travellers entered into the country of Sa¬
tire fovernor of which, Ayto Tesfos, had never
, ,i 1 , T !4  TV/Tin#>1 rrr\v Qrt V
[ 97 1
A B Y
Abyfliia’a'
Mountain¬
ous country
of Samen
dcfcribed.
Extreme
voracity of
the hysenas
Lamalmon
'mountain
defcribed.
men , me —   7 * -
acknowledged the authority of Ras Michael, nor any
of the emperors fet up by him fmee the death of loas.
The country therefore was holtile } but the uncertainty
of the event of the war, and the well-known feverity
of Michael’s difpofition, preferved our traveller and
Ins company from any infult, excepting a feeble and
unfuccefsful attempt to extort money. Here Mr Bruce
obferves that the people were more ilat-nofed than any
he had hitherto feen in AbyiTmia. The path among
the mountains was for the molt part exceedingly dan¬
gerous, having a precipice of vaft height clofe by it
which way foever you turn. The mountains appeared
of very extraordinary lhapes fome being like cones *,
others high and pointed like columns, p\ 1 anud->, or
obelilks. ° In one place a village was obierved in luch
a dangerous fituation, that fcarce the diftance of a yard
intervened between the houfes and a dreadful precipice.
Below it is a plain of about a mile fquare, covered with
citron and lemon trees. A river named Mai-Lumi
rifes above this village, and falls into the wood, where
it divides in two } one branch lurrounding the north
and the other the fouth part of the plains } then falling
down a rock on each fide, they unite 5 and having
run about a quarter of a mile farther, the 111 earn is
precipitated in a cataraft 150 feet high. The lions
and hyaenas -were very numerous among thefe moun¬
tains, and devoured one of the bell mules our travel¬
lers had. The hyaenas were fo bold, that they ftalked
about as familiarly as dogs, and wTere not intimidated
by the difeharge of fire arms. I heir voracity was
fuch, that they ate the bodies of thofe of their own fpe-
cies which our travellers had killed in their own defence.
On the 7th of February they began to afeend La¬
malmon by a winding path fcarcely two feet broad, on
the brink of a dreadful precipice, and frequently in¬
terfered by the beds of torrents, which produced vaft
irregular chafms in it. After an afeent of two hours,
attended with incredible toil, up this narrow path,
they came to a fmall plain named Kedus or St Michael,
from a church of that name fituated there. This plain
is fituated at the foot of a fteep cliff, terminating the
weftern fide of the mountain, which is as perpendicular
as a wall, with a few trees on the top. 1 wo ftreams
of water fall down this cliff into a wood at the bot¬
tom •, and as they continue all the year round, the
plain is thus preferved in continual verdure. the air
is extremely wholefome and pleafant. On afeendmg
to the very top of the mountain, where they arrived
on the oth of February, our travellers were furpriled
to find, that though from below it had the appearance
of being, fharp pointed, it was in reality, a large plain,
full of fprings, which are the fources of moft rivers m
this part of Abyflinia. Thefe fprings boil out ot t le
earth, fending forth fuch quantities of wnter as are lux-
ficient to-turn a mill. A perpetual verdure prevails )
Vot. I. Part I.
and it is entirely owing to indolence in the huiband- ^ _
man if he has not three harvefts annually. La- ~lJ
malmon Hands on the north-weft part of the mountains
of Samen 5 but though higher than the mountains of
Tigre, our author is of opinion that it is confiderably
inferior to thofe which are fttuated on the fouth-eail.
The plain on the top is altogether impregnable to an
army, both by reafon of its fituation and the plenty ot
provifions it affords for the maintenance oi its inhaoi-
tants ; even the ftreams on the top are full of fiftt.
Here the mercury in the barometer ftood at 20^ inches.
During the time our travellers remained at La-jolirney (o
malmon, a fervant of Ras Michael arrived to conduct'Gondar.
them fafely to the capital, bringing a certain, account
of the victory over Fafil: lo that now the. difficulties
and dangers of their journey were over. The country
appeared better cultivated as they approached the ca¬
pital ; and they faw feveral plantations of fugar canes
which there grow7 from the feed. In fome places,
however, particularly in Woggora,. great damage is
done by fwarms of ants, rats, and mice, which deftroy
the fruits of the earth. Mr Bruce had already expe- Mifchief
rienced the mifchief arifing from a fmall fpecies of done by
ant, whole bite was not only more painful than tnea
fling of a fcorpion, but w hich iffued out of the ground m
fuch numbers as to cut in pieces the carpets and every
thing made of foft materials to which they could have
clCG cis»
When Mr Bruce approached the capital, he was dref- Arrival at
fed like a Moor : and this drefs he was advifed to keep Gondar.
until he fhould receive fome protection from govern¬
ment his greatell, indeed his only, danger .arifing
from the priefts, who were alarmed at. hearing ot
the approach of a Frank to the capital. This was the
more neceffary, as the emperor and Michael Ras were
both out of town. For this reafon alfo he took up his
refidence in the Moorifti town at Gondar ; which is
very large, containing not fewTer than 3000 houfes.
The only inconvenience he underwent here W'as the not
being allowed to eat any flefli: for we have already ta¬
ken notice of a law7 made by one of the emperors, that
none of his fubjecls ftrould eat flefh but fuch as had
been killed by Chriftians. •, and a deviation from this
v7ould have been accounted equal to a renunciation ot
Chriftianity itfelf. Here he remained till the 1 5th of
February ; when Ayto Aylo waited upon him, and ad-
drefled him in the charafter of phyfician, which he
had affumed. By this nobleman he wras carried to the Eruae
palace of Kofcam, and introduced to the old queen, introduced
His advice was required for one of the royal family who to the.
was ill of the fmall-pox } but a faint had already under-
taken his cure. The event, however, proved unfortu¬
nate •, the patient died, and the faint loft his reputa¬
tion. Our limits will not allow7 us to give any parti¬
cular account of the fteps by which Mr Bruce arrived
at the high degree of reputation which he enjoyed m
Abylfinia. In general his fuccefs in the pra&ice ot
medicine, his {kill in horfemanlhip and the ufe of fire¬
arms, which by his own account muft be very extraor¬
dinary j his prudence in evading religious difputes.j as
well as his perfonal intrepidity and pretence of mind,
which never once failed him, even in the g^teftIs promo.
emergencies } all confpired to render liim agreea .' e an(j
people of every denomination. By the king he was held in .
promoted to the government of Res-el-Feel, wa^hisgreaelh-
/
His depar¬
ture from
the coun¬
try.
A B Y [ 9s
Abyflinia. ccnftant attendant on all occafions, and was with him
v ^ in Several military expeditions 5 but never met with any
opportunity of dirtinguilhing his perfonal valour, though
he had the command of a body of horfe at one of the
battles fought at a place named Serbruxos. Thus ho¬
noured and employed, he had an ample opportunity of
exploring the fources and catarafts of the Nile, as
well as the geography and natural products of the
whole country; obtaining alfo leave at laft to re¬
turn home. We cannot, however, praife the be¬
nevolence of his fpirit at his departure. It has al¬
ready been obferved, that he was in fome danger from
the prieils on his firft arrival, on account of their
fufpedKng him to be a Jefuit 5 for that is the mean¬
ing which they affix to the word Frank or European.
As he conftantly attended the eftabliffied worfliip of
the country, however, and carefully avoided all dilputes
on the fubjedt of religion, he became at laft not only
unfufpedled, but very intimate with many of the princi¬
pal ecclefiaftics. From one of thefe named Fenfa Chri-
Jios, he a Iked a benedidlion immediately before he de¬
parted j which piece of unexpected humility fo affected
the prieft, that it brought tears in his eyes. The bene-
diction was conveyed in the fimple form, “ God blefs
you.” A troop of inferior priefts who attended would
needs blefs him alfo ) and probably were pleafed at ha¬
ving it in their power to beftow a benediction publicly
] A B Y
off by lus enemies; on which Tecla Haimanout, ha- Abyflinia.
ving fully fettled the affairs of his empire, became pof- -"v-—-'
feffed of the beautiful Ozoro Either, and commenced
bis reign with great glory.
. With regard to the geographical defcription of an- Geography
cient Ethiopia, little can be faid 5 as not even the boun- of ancient
daries of the empire itfelf, much lefs thofe of the par- -Ethiopia,
ticular diffricts which compofed it, were known. The
ancient writers, however, agreed that it was very moun¬
tainous : but they mention no mountains of any confe-
quence excepting Garbata and Elephas, whofe fituation
is not well afcertained, though it is generally fuppofed
that they anfwer to the mountains of Tigre. The moft
noted cities were Axum, Napata, Premis, or Premnis,
Melis,- Mondus, Abalis, Mofylon, Caloe, Opone, &c.
The nations which inhabited ancient Ethiopia have Cuftoms 0 ‘
already been enumerated ; and it is not to be fuppofed the inhabi-
that all, or indeed any two of them, would agree in tants.
many refpedls. The ancient hiftorians, however, give
the following information. They had many laws which s;,
were very different from thofe of other nations j efpe-p/iOI>
cially their laws relating to the eleftion of kings. The
priefts chofe the moft reputable men of their body, and
drew a large circle around them, which they were not
to pafs. A prieft entered the circle, running and
jumping like an Egipan or a fatyr. Pie of thofe that
were enclofed in the circle who firft catched hold of
cn a man o.. men confequence : but to the bleffings of the prieft, was immediately declared king ; and all the
thele noor monks Mr P>rncp rpnliVrl in T v: 1  _ /n - . n 1 • ,
try
thefe poor monks Mr Bruce replied in Ejig/iJlj, “ Lord
fend you all a halter, as he did Abba Salama!”
This Abba Salama had been an ecclefiaftic of great
confequence ; but of a very diffolute life, and at laft
hanged for his crimes. The monks imagined he had
been recommending them to their patriarch Abba Sala¬
ma, and with great deveftion anfwered “ Amen.”
Event of The hiftory of the war after Mr Bruce’s arrival is
the war be- related at great length in his work. The king Tecla
fore he left Plaimanout ftill kept his ground, and was at laft ac-
fhe coun- knowledged by almoft the whole empire, though fuc-
cefs did not always attend his arms. An ufurper,
named Socinios, was reduced and made a fervant in
the king’s kitchen; but was afterwards hanged for
theft. Has Michael, notwithftanding all his /kill in
military affairs, was not able to get the better of
Fafil j and bis exceffive cruelty, avarice, and ambition,
difgufted every one. An attempt was even made to
affaflinate him 5 and his fpiritual friend (Michael the
archangel, according to his own report, or the devil,
according to that of the Abyffinians) at laft: forfook
him 5 fo that he was carried off prifoner by a party of
the rebels. After this misfortune he was much dejeft-
ed, imputing it bo the want of the fpiritual affiffance
juft mentioned, and which it feems had withdrawn it¬
felf fome time before. His wife Ozoro Efther, whom
Mr Bruce characterizes as the handfomeft woman he
ever faw, was in great favour with the king at the time
our traveller left Abyffinia. As the king himfelf was
a handfome young man, there is no improbability in
fuppoling with Mr Bruce, that “ they were not infenfi-
ble to each other’s merits}” and as fhe was fometimes
honoured with a private audience, where Michael himfelf
“ bore no part in the converfation,” we fhall conclude
our biftory of this lingular empire by a conjefture, that
foon after Mr Bruce’s departure, Michael either died
by courfe of nature, he being then very old, or was cut
people paid him homage, as a perfon intrufted with
the government of the nation by Divine Providence.
P be new-elefted king immediately began to live in the
manner which wTas preferibed to him by the la^vs. In
all things he exaftly followed the cuftoms of the coun¬
try ; he paid a moft rigid attention to the rules efta-
blifhed from the origin of the nation, in dilpenling re¬
wards and punilhments. The king could not order a
fubjedl to be put to death, though he had been capi¬
tally convifted in a court of juftice ; but he fent an
.officer to him, who {bowed him the lignal of death»
The criminal then ftiut himfelf up in his houfe, and
was bis own executioner. It was not permitted him
to fly to a neighbouring country, and fubftitute banilh-
ment lor death 5 a relaxation of the rigour of the law,
with which criminals were indulged in Greece.
We have the following extraordinary information
with regard to the death of many of their kings : The
priefts of Meroe, who had acquired great power there,
when they thought proper difpatched a courier to the
king to order him to die. The courier was commif-
fioned to tell him, that it was the will of the gods, and
that it would be the moft heinous of crimes to oppofe
an order which came from them. Their ffrft kings
obeyed thefe groundlefs defpotical fentences, though-
they were only conftrained to fuch obedience by their
own fuperftition. Ergamenes, who reigned in the
time of Ptolemy the fecond, and who was inftruCled in
the philofophy of the Greeks, was the firft who had
the courage to ftiake off this iniquitous and facerdotal:
yoke. He led an army againft Pderoe^ where, in more
ancient times, was the Ethiopian temple of gold 5
when he put all the priefts to the fword, and inftitu-
ted a nfcw worlhip;
The friends of the king had impofed on themfelves
a very lingular law, which was in force in the time of
Diodorus Siculus. When their fovereign. had loft the
ufe
* Lib. iii.
c. 24.
A B Y [ 99 1
Abyffioia. ufe of any part of his body, by malady, or by any other their nature,
v—-v—accident, they infli&ed the fame infirmity on thern-
felves} deeming it, for inilance, fliameful^to walk
llraight after a lame king. They thought it abfurd
not to fliare with him corporal inconveniences j iinco
we are bound by the ties of mere friendihxp to parti¬
cipate the misfortunes and profperity of our^ friends.
It was even cuftomary among them to die with their
kings, which they thought a glorious teftimony of their
conftant loyalty. Hence the fubjefts of an Ethiopian
king were very attentive to his and their common pre-
fervation j and therefore it\vas extremely difficult and
dangerous to form a confpiracy againft him.
The Ethiopians had very particular ceremonies m
their funerals. According to Ctefias, after having ialt-
ed the bodies, they put them into a hollow llatue of
gold which refembled the deceafed 5 and tnat llatue
was placed in a niche on a pillar which tney fet up. for
that purpofe. But it was only the remains of the rich-
cll Ethiopians that were thus honoured. The bodies
of the next clafs were contained in filver ftatues} the
poor were enlhrined in llatues of earthen ware.
Herodotus * informs us, that the neareft relations of
the dead kept the body a year in their houfes, and of¬
fered facrifices and firft fruits during that time to their
deceafed friend ; and at the end of the year, they fixed
the niche in a place fet apart for the purpofe near their
town.
The Ethiopians made ufe of bows and arrows, darts,
lances, and feveral other weapons, in their wars, which
they managed with great ftrength and dexterity. Cir-
cumcifion was a rite obferved amongft them, as well as
among the Egyptians, from very early antiquity 5
though which of thefe nations firft received it, cannot
certainly be known. The Ethiopian foldiers tied theii
arrows round their heads, the feathered part of which
touched their foreheads, temples, &c. and the other
projeaed out like fo many rays, which formed a kind
of crown. Thefe arrows were extremely ffiort, point¬
ed with ftiarp Hones inftead of iron, and dipped in the
v:rus of ferpents, or fome other lethiferous poifon, m-
fomuch that all the wounds given by them were attend¬
ed with immediate death. The bows from which they
{hot thefe arrows were four cubits long and required
fo much ftrength to manage them, that no other na¬
tion could make ufe of them. The Ethiopians retreat¬
ed fighting, in the fame manner as the Parthians; dif-
charging volleys of arrows with fuch dexterity and ad-
drefs, whilft they were retiring full fpeed, that they ter¬
ribly galled the enemy. Their lances or darts were
of an immenfe fize, which may be deemed a fartner
proof of their vaft bodily ftrength. . .
Thus far chiefly with regard to the Ethiopians who
lived in the capital, and who inhabited the iiiand of
Meroe and that part of Ethiopia which was adjacent
to Egypt. „ , . . • r c
There were many other Ethiopian nations, lome or
which cultivated the tracls on each fide of the Nile,
and the iflands in the middle of it *, others inhabited
the provinces bordering on Arabia ; and others lived
more towards the centre of Africa. All thefe people,
and among the reft thofe who were born on the banks
of the river, had flat nofes, black {kins, and woolly
D,td. Sic. hair. They had a very favage and. ferocious appear-
p. xoa ance j they were more brutal in their cuftoms than 1x1
A B Y
   They were of a dry aduft temperament; AHyflrmi3«.
their nails in length refembled claws : they were igno¬
rant of the arts which polifli the mirtd : their language
was hardly articulate *, their voices were ffirill and
piercing. As they did not endeavour to render life
more commodious and agreeable, their manners, and
cuftoms were very different from thofe of other nations.
When they went to battle, fome were armed with
bucklers of ox hides, with little javelins in their hands j
others carried crooked darts , otners uied the bow 5
and others fought with clubs. 1 hey took their wives
with them to war, whom they obliged to enter upon
military fervice at a certain age. The women wore
rings of copper at their lips.
Some of thefe people went without clothing. Some¬
times they threw about them what they happened to
find, to {belter themfelves from the burning rays of the
fun. With regard to their food, fome lived upon a
certain fruit, wfliich grew fpontaneoufly in marffiy
places ; fome ate the tendereft {hoots of trees, which
were defended by the large branches from the heat of
the fun ; and others fowed Indian corn and lotos.
Some of them lived only on the roots of reeds. Many
fpent a great part of their time in {hooting birds *, and
as they were excellent archers, their bows .{applied
them with plenty. But the greater part or this people
were fuftamed by the fleffi ol their bocks.
The people who inhabited the country above Me¬
roe made remarkable diftinctions among their gods.
Some, they faid, were of an eternal and incorruptible
nature, as the fun, the moon, and the univerfe.j others
having been born among men, had acquired divine ho¬
nours by their virtue, and by the good which they had
dene to mankind. They worffiipped Ifis, 1 an, and
particularly Jupiter and Hercules, from whom they
fuppofed they had received moft benefits. But fome
Ethiopians believed that there w-ere no gods ; and when
the fun rofe, they fled into their marffies, execrating
him as their cruelleft enemy.
Thefe Ethiopians differed likewife from other na¬
tions in the honours which they paid to their dead.
Some threw their bodies into the river, thinking that
the moft honourable fepulchre. Others kept them in
their houfes in niches : thinking that their children
would be ftimulated to virtuous deeds by the fight of
their anceftors; and that grown people, by the fame
obje£ls, would retain their parents in their memor)-.
Others put their dead bodies into coffins of earthen
ware, and buried them near their temples.. To fwear
with the hand laid upon a corpfe, was their moft fa-
cred and inviolable oath. _
The favage Ethiopians of fome diftricls gave their
crown to him who of all their nation was bell made.
Their reafon for that preference was, that the two firft:
gifts of heaven were monarchy and a fine peifon. In
other territories, they conferred the fovereignty on the
moft vigilant ffiepherd ; for he, they alleged, would be
the moft careful guardian of his fubjefts. Others chofe
the richeft man for their king ; for he, they thought,
would have it moft in his power to do good to his iub-
iefts. Others, again, chofe the ftrongeft 5 efteemmg
thofe moft worthy of the firft dignity who were ableft
to defend them in battle.
The Jefuit miffionaries were the firft who. gave any Account
information to the Europeans concerning this eoun^ of the w.f-
A B Y f i
Abyflinia. and indeed, excepting them and the late accounts by
' Mr Bruce, we have no other fource of information
concerning it. Louis XIV. of France appointed fix
Jefuits to this miflion, and furnifhed them with fuitable
prefents for the emperor and the principal nobility.
’I he admiflion of thefe miffionaries was facilitated by
a dangerous fcorbutic diforder, which had attacked Ya-
fous and his fon, and for which they wifhed to have the
advice of an European phyfician. Maillet, the French
conful at Cairo, wiihing the Jefuits to have the honour
of the miflion, difappointed the views of Friars Pafchal
and Anthony, two Francifcans, who were firil thought
of, and recommended Charles Poncet, a Frenchman,
who had been bred a chemift and apothecary, and Fa¬
ther Brevedent as his fervant, to Hagi Ali, a Maho¬
metan factor at Cairo, for the defired purpofe. The
Francifcans attempted the deftruttion of Poncet and
his attendants; but Poncet arrived fafe at Gondar on
the 21 it of July, 1699, and having perfeftly cured
his royal patient, fet out on the 2d of May, 1700, on
his return for Europe, and arrived in fafetyat Mafuah.
Brevedent died at Gondar foon after their arrival. An
embaffy on the part of the Abythnian monarch was de¬
feated by the interference of Maillet p but the Jefuits
concerted another miffion from France, and the perfon
appointed as ambalfador was M. de Roule, vice-conful
at Damietta. This miifion was very improperly con-
dudted ; the merchants at Cairo oppofed it; the Fran¬
cifcans obflrucfed it, and it terminated in the murder
©f the ambaffador in the province of Sennaar.
The rniiTtonaries confirm what is faid by the ancients,
that AbylFinia is a very mountainous country. The
provinces of Begemder, Gojam, Waleka, Shoa, &c.
according to them, are only one continued chain of
mountains. Many of them wTere faid to be of fuch
enormous height, that the Alps and Pyrenees are
but mole-hills in comparifon of them. Thole called
■dorni were faid to be of this kind 5 but Mr Bruce in¬
forms us, that thefe accounts are greatly exaggerated.
Amongft thofe mountains, and even frequently in the
plains, there are many fteep and craggy rocks to be
met with of various and whimfical lhapes •, feme of them
io fmooth, that men and oxen are railed to the top by
means of engines. The tops of thefe rocks are cover¬
ed with woods and meadows, full of fprings and flreams
01 water ; of which Mr Bruce has given us an account
in his defeription of Lamalmon. The moft remarka¬
ble of thefe, according to the authors we are now fpeak-
ing of, is that called jimba Gefhen, mentioned in the
courfe of this article as one of the mountains ufed for
a prifon to the princes of the blood. Its top is deferib-
ed as only half a league in breadth, though it is faid that
it would require near half a day to go round it.
Mr Bruce’s Modern Ethiopia, or Abyjfinia, as it is now called,
account of is divided, according to Mr Bruce, into two parts, na-
lion'Vi" med Tigre and Amhara ; though this rather denotes a
difference in the language than the territory of the
people. T he mofi eailerly province properly fo called
is Mafuah. It is of confiderable length, but no great
breadth ; running parallel to the Indian ocean and Red
lea, in a zone of about 40 miles bread, as far as the
ifiand Masuah. The territories of the Bahamagafli
include this province as well as the diftriffs of Azab
and Habab. In the former are mines of foffil fait,
vduqh fubftance in Abyffuua paffes current iuftead q£
co ] A B Y
money. For this purpofe the mineral is cut into fquare Abyffinu,
folid pieces about a foot in length. Here alfo is a kind —
of mint from which great profits are derived. The Habab
is likewife called the land'of the Agaaxi or Shepherds 5
who fpeak the language called Geesz, and have had the
ufe of letters from the molP early ages. This province
was formerly taken by the Turks, when the rebellious
Baharnagalh Ifaac called them to his afliftance againff
the emperor Menas. From that time the office fell in¬
to difrepute, and the Baharnagafh at prefent has much
lefs power than formerly. The province of Mafuah is
now governed by a Mahometan prince or officer called
a naybe.
Tigre is bounded on the eaft by the territories of
the Baharnagafh, of which the river Mareb is the boun¬
dary on the eaft, and the Tacazze on the weft. It is
about 200 miles long from north to fouth, and 120
broad from weft to eart. All the merchandife lent
acrofs the Red fea to Abyflinia, or from Abyflinia
acrofs the Red lea, muft pafs through this province,
xo that the governor has his choice of it as it goes
along. Thus the province itfelf is very wealthy ; and
as the Abyffinian fire-arms are brought from Arabia,
the governors of Tigre, by purchafing quantities of
them, may eafily render themfelves very powerful. No
arms of this kind can be fent to any perfon without his
permiftion ; nor can any one buy till the governor has
firft had an offer.
Sire was fome time ago united to Tigre, on account
of the mifeonduct of its governor •, but was disjoined
from it at the time Mr Bruce was in Abyffinia, with
the confent of Ras Michael, who beftow,pd the govern¬
ment of it upon his fon. It is about 25 miles long,-
and as much in breadth. Its weftern boundary is the
Tacazze.
Samen in a very mountainous province lying to the
weft ward of the river Tacazze, about 80 miles long,
and in fome places 30 broad, though in moft it is much
narrower. It is moftly inhabited by Jews.
Begemder lies to the north-eaft of Tigre. It is*
about 180 miles long and 60 broad 5 bounded by the
river Nile on the weft. It comprehends the moun¬
tainous country of Lafta ; and there are now feveral
fmall governments difmembered from it. The inha¬
bitants are fierce and barbarous, but reckoned che beft
foldiers in Abyffinia •, and it is-faid that this province
with Lafta can furniffi 45.OCO horfemen. It abounds
with iron mines, which in Abyflinia would be very va¬
luable if properly managed. It is alfo well ftored with*
beautiful cattle. Near the fouth end it is cut into vaft
gullies, feemingly by floods, of which we have no ac¬
count. This province is reckoned the great barrier
againft the incurfions of the Galla 5 and though they
have often endeavoured to make a fettlement in it, they
have never yet found it pradfticable. Several of their
tribes have been cut off in the attempt.
Next to Begemder is the province of Amhara, in
length about 120 miles, and fomewhat more than 40’
in breadth. It is very mountainous 5 and the men are
reckoned the handfomeft in all Abyffinia. In this pro¬
vince is the mountain or rock Geflien, formerly the re-
fidence of the royal family. This province is parallel
to Begemder on the fouth ; being feparated from it by
the river Baffiilo. On the weft it is bounded by the
Nil?, The river Gdhen is another boundary.
' Walaka
A B Y [ io
Abyffima. Walaka lies betiveen the rivers Geflren and Samba.
It is a low unwholefome province, having Upper Shu?.'
to the fouthward. It was in this province that the
only furviving prince of the family of Solomon was
preferved after the maffacre by Judith, formerly men¬
tioned *, and on this account great privileges were con¬
ferred upon the inhabitants, wdiich in fome degree
continue to this day. The governor is confidered as
an ally, rather than a fubjeft, of the empeior of Abyf-
finia •, and to preferve his independency, he has allow¬
ed the Galla to furround his province entirely, yield-
in cr up to them the territory of Walaka above mention¬
ed! Trufting to the valour of his own people, he is
under no apprehenfion of his barbarous neighbours
the Galla. This province is alfo remarkable for the
monaflery of Debra Libanos, where the famous faint
Tecla Haimanout, the founder of the power of the
clergy, was bred.
Gojam is remarkable for having in it fome of the
fources of the Nile. It is bounded on the north by
the high mountains of Amid Amid, on the fouth by
the river Nile, on the weft by another river named
Giiit, and on the eaft by the river Temci^on the
north-eaft it has the kingdom of Damot. It is about
40 miles long from north to fouth, and fomewhat
more than 20 in breadth from eaft to weft. It is
very populous, but the men are accounted tne worft
foldiers in Abyflinia. There is great plenty of very
beautiful cattle.
Beyond the mountains of Amid on the eaft lies
the country of the Agows j on the weft it has Bure,
Umbarma, and the country of the Gongas ■, on the
fouth, thofe of Damot and Gafat: and Dingleber on
the fouth.
Dembea occupies all the fpace along the lake of the
fame name from Dingleber below the mountains bound¬
ing Guefque and Kuara. Mr Bruce is of opinion, that
the lake has formerly overflowed the whole of it ”, and
the decreafe of this lake he brings as an inftance of tne
decreafe of large pools throughout the world.
To the fouth of Dembea is the country of Kuara,
bordering on that of the ahangalla, the Macrobii of the
ancients. The neighbouring countries, inhabited by
Pagan favages, produce gold, which is introduced in
plenty into this province. None is produced in the
province itfelf, nor indeed does Mr Bruce mention any
part of Abyflinia where gold is naturally found. In the
lower part of this country is a colony of Pagan blacks
named Ganjar ; derived, according to our author, from
the black flaves who came into the country with the
Arabs after the invafion of Mahomet. Thefe deferring
their mailers, formed the colony we fpeak of*, but it is
now more mcreafed by vagabonds from otner parts than
by the multiplication of the inhabitants themfelves.
The governor of this country is one of tne great oin-
cers of ftate : he has kettle-drums of filver, which he is
allowed to beat through the ftreets or Gondar g a pri¬
vilege allowed to none but himfelf. This privilege
was conferred upon tne firft governor by David II. who
conquered the country.
The frontier countries of Narea, Ras-el-Feel, 1 chei-
ga, &c. are wholly inhabited by Mahometans, and the
government of them is ufually given to ftrangers.
The country is very hot, unwholefome, and covered
with thick woods. The.people are fugitives from all
1 ] A B Y
nations, but e?:cellent horfemen *, making uie oi no Abyffuiia.
other weapon but the broad fword, with which, how- —
ever inadequate we might fuppofe the weapon to be,
they will attack the elephant or rhinoceros.
According to Mr Bruce the empire of Abyflinia is
bounded on the fouth by a vaft chain of mountains,
extending with very little interruption from 340 to
440 E. Long, and between 8° and 90 N. Lat. In
more profperous rimes it extended beyond fhefe
fouthward, particularly into the kingdom of Aael j
but the mountains juft mentioned are undoubtedly
to be reckoned its natural boundaries on this flue.
On the eaft and north-eaft it has the Red fea, and
on the fouth-eaft the kingdom of Adel. On the weft
and north its boundaries are lefs diftinctly marked j-
baving on both thefe quarters the barbarous kingdom
of Sennaar, whofe limits will no doubt frequently vary
according to the fortune of war betwixt the two prin¬
ces. From Arkeeko, fttuated near the foot of the Ba-
fakes mountains, in about 15° 3° Tat. it extends
to near 70 N. Lat. where the mountains of Caffa, tire
moft foutherly province of Abyflinia, terminate.. A-
long the coaft of the Red lea lie the territories inha¬
bited by the Hazorta Sliiho, the diftrici of Engana
Shiho, and the kingdom of Dancali, including the
territory of Azab and the fait pits already mentioned.
To the weftward of thefe are the province or kingdom
of Tigre, including the country of the Dobas, part of
the kingdom of Bali, and that of Dawaro. Still far¬
ther weft are thofe of Sire, Lafta, Amhara, the great-
eft part of Bali, and part of Fatigar, which laft reaches'
beyond the mountains. Proceeding ftill in the jame
direftion, we come to Tcherkin, ft chelga, Abargale,
Salao, Begemder, Shoa, and Ifat *, reckoning always
from north to fouth j Tcherkin, for inftance, being to
the northward of Tchelga, &c. Shoa extends a con-
fiderable way to the weftward; fo that, beftdes Ifat, if
has to the ibuth of it alfo the kingdoms of Hade and
Cambut j the latter extending beyond the fouthern
ridge of mountains. To the weftward are Ras-el-Feei,
Dembea, Gojam, and Damot ; and beyond thefe are
the kingdoms of Dembea, Bizamo, Gooderoo, and Gu-
raque *, thofe of Nare or Enarea and Cafta. occupying
the fouth-weft corner of the empire.
The climate of Abyflinia, though, like other parts- Climate,
of tire torrid zone, it was formerly thought to be- un¬
inhabitable, is not only tolerable, but in general tem¬
perate and healthy. In this refpeff, however, the
uneven furface of the country expofes different fltua-
tion to the effecls of heat and cold, of drynefs and
moifture,' and of a iree circulation of a ftagnation of
the atmofphere, in very various' degrees. On the
mountains, and in the higher parts of the country,
the Iky is clear and ferene, the air is cool and refrefh-
ing, and the people are healthy and fprightly
whilft thofe who live in fome of the vallies, in tne vi¬
cinity of marfhes, and in fandy deferts, experience the
pernicious influence of excefiive heat, and of a moiii,
ftagnant, and fuffocatmg air : fo that the climate de -
pends upon foil and fltuation as much almoft as upon
the latitude. Mr Bruce obferves, that on the highelt
mountain of the ridge called Lamalmon, the thermo¬
meter flood at 32° in the depth of winter, the wind;
being north-weft, clear and cold, but attended only
with -hoar Left. This, he adds,- vaniflied into dew<
A B Y [102
Abyffinia. after a quarter of an hour’s fun j nor did he ever fee
'any fign of congelation of water upon the top of
the higheft mountains. The barometer flood at 190
9' at noon of the fame day, and the thermometer was
at 78°. He obferved hail to lie for three hours in the
forenoon on the mountains of Amid Amid. The
range of the barometer and thermometer, according
to Mr Bruce’s regifter kept at Gondar from February
19. 1770, to May 31. 1771, will appear from the fol¬
lowing table. ,
Barom.
Thermom. Wind.
April 29.7
61 A. M.V
Mar. 29. 7
2! P. M. S
April 19. 7
12 Noon, j
Jul7 7- I
12 Noon. 3
22.11
20.11
21.6
69°
75°
9i°
54t*
S.
E.
W. N. W.
W.
The rainy feafon commences in April or the beginning
of May, when the fun becomes vertical, and ends in
September. The rains generally ceafe about the 8th
of September; a fickly feafon follows till they begin
again, about the 20th of Oftober j they then continue
conftant, but moderate, till the 8th of November.
All epidemic difeafes ceafe with the end of thefe rains.
In order to avoid the inconveniences that attend the
overflowing of their rivers during this feafon, as well
as on account of the greater falubrity of elevated fitua-
tions, the Abyflinians have built many of their towns
and villages on the mountains. Their houfes are ge¬
nerally very mean, confifting only of one ftory, and
conftrufted with ftraw and laths, earth and lime;
though there are fome of ftone and better materials.
It is a miftaken notion, however, that they live in tents,
and not in houfes. In a climate like that of Abyflinia,
fubjefl to fcorching weather for fix months, and to de¬
luges of rain, ftorms of wind, thunder and lightning,
and hurricanes, fuch as are unknown in Europe, for
the other fix, it is not probable that they fhould choofe
to live in tents, after having known how to build
fuch cities as Axum. In many of the towns and vil¬
lages, the houfes are feparated by hedges, which be¬
ing always green, and intermixed with flowers and fruit
trees at certain diftances, afford an agreeable profpefr,
and contribute alfo to their falubrity.
pkeafes. The inhabitants of Abyflinia are fubjeft to violent
fevers, which commonly prove fatal on the third day.
Thofe who furvive to the fifth day often recover, mere¬
ly by drinking cold water, and by repeatedly throwing
cold water upon them in their beds. The bark is
the moft effe&ual remedy j which in critical cafes, fays
Bruce, fhould be frequently repeated in fmall dofes, and
perfeft abftinence obferved, unlefs from copious draughts
of cold water. Another common difeafe in Abyflinia,
is the tertian fever, which is in no refpefl different
from our tertian, and is fuccefsfully treated in the fame
manner. All fevers terminate in intermittents, and if
they continue long, in dyfenteries, which are always
tedious, and very frequently mortal. Bark and ipe¬
cacuanha, in fmall quantities, water, and fruit not
over-ripe, have been found the moft effeftual remedies.
The dyfentery, commencing with a conftant diarrhoea,
is feldom cured, if it begins with the rainy feafon ;
2
] A B Y
otherwife, fmall dofes of ipecacuanha either remove it, Abyffima,
or change it into an intermittent fever, which yields to   
the oark. Another endemial difeafe is called hawzee'r^
the hogs or the fwirue, and is a fwelling of the glands
of the throat, and under the arms, which by ineffeftual
attempts for producing fuppuration, and opening the
tumours, becomes a running fore, and refembles the
evil. In connection with this diforder, we m;ry men¬
tion thofe fwellings, to which the whole body is
fa hi eft, but more particularly the arms, thighs, and
legs, fometimes accompanied with ulcers in the nofe
and mouth, which deface the fmoothnefs of the Ik in,
and which on this account are much dreaded by the
Abyflinians. The two laft difeafes fometimes yield
to mercurials j but the laft is fpeedily and completely
cured by antimonials. Another complaint affiifts
thofe wrho are in the habit of drinking ftagnant water.
It is called farenteit, or the worm of Pharaoh, and
appears in all parts of the body, but moft frequently
in the legs and arms. It is a worm with a fmall black
head and a hooked beak, of a whitifli colour, and a
white body of a filky texture, refembling a fmall ten¬
don. The natives feize it by the head and wind it
gently round a piece of filk, or a bird’s feather, and
thus by degrees they extraft it without any inconveni¬
ence or permanent fear. Mr Bruce fuffered much from
this complaint, and the breaking of the worm in the
operation of extiafting it. The moft terrible of all
the difeafes of this climate is the elephantiafis. The
cicuta, mercury, and tar-water, were unfuccefsfully
tried in this complaint : the greateft benefit was de¬
rived from whey made of cow’s milk. To the alter¬
nation of fcorching heat and chilling cold, thin cloth-
ing, the ufe of ftagnant putrid water for four months,
and other fuch caufes, thefe difeafes may be partly, if
not wholly', aferibed. The fmall-pox was introduced
into Abyflinia at the time of the fiege of Mecca, about
the year 356, and the Aby finnan army w^as the firft
viftim to it.
The great difference of climate, owing to the vaft Soil and
extent and variety of elevation in different parts of this vegetable
empire, is very perceptible in its foil and produftions.prc<iuc"
The mountains in many places are not only barren, but
altogether inacceflible, except by thofe wTho make it
their conftant praftice to climb amongft them : and
even by them they cannot be afeended without great
difficulty and danger. The fhapes of thefe mountains,
as we have already had occafion to obferve, are very
ftrange and fantaftical: exceedingly different from thofe
of Europe 5 fome refembling towers and fteeples, while
others are like a board or flate fet up on end ; the bafe
being fo narrow*, and the whole mountain fo high and
thin, that it feems wonderful how it can ftand. In the
valleys, howrever, and flat parts of the country, the foil
is exceffively fruitful, though in the w arm eft places
grain cannot be brought to perfeftion. Wine is alfo
made only in one or two places j but the greateft pro-
fufion of fruits of all kinds is to be met with every¬
where, as w*ell as many vegetables not to be found in
other countries. Thgre is a vaft variety of flowers,
which adorn the banks of the rivers in fuch a manner
as to make them refemble fine gardens. Among
thefe a fpecies of rofe is met with, which grows upon
trees, and is much fuperior in fragrance to thofe
which grow on bufhes. Sena, cardamom, ginger, and
cotton,
A B Y [ 103 ] A B Y
Abyflinia. cotton, are likewife produced here in great quantities.
^mong the variety of rare plants to be met with in A-
byflinia, Mr Bruce particularly defcribes the following.
1. The papyrus, the ancient material for paper; which
Plants de- our author fuppofes to have been a native of Ethiopia,
fcribed by and not of Egypt as has been fuppoied. 2. Baleffan,
Mr Bruce, balm, or balfam plant 5 a tree growing to the height
of 14 or 15 feet, and ufed for fuel along with other
trees in the country. It grows on the coaft of the
Red fea, among the myrrh trees behind Azab, all the
way to Rabelmandel. This is the tree producing the
balm of Gilead mentioned in Scripture. 3. The faffa,
myrrh, and opocalpafum trees. Thefe grow likewife
along the coaft of the Red fea. The falfa or opocal¬
pafum is ufed in manufactures ; and, according to our
author, refernbles gum adragant, probably tragacanth.
The tree which produces it grows to a great fize, and
has a beautiful flower, fcarce admitting of defcription
without a drawing. 4. The ergett, a fpecies of the
mimofa, is of two kinds ; one called ergetty1 ditnmo, or
the bloody ergett, from the pink colour of its filaments;
the other ergett el krone, or the horned ergett, with a
flower refembling the acacia vera or Egyptian thorn.
Thefe were both found on the banks of a river named
jdmo, near the great lake Dembea. 5. Enfete, an her¬
baceous plant, growing in Narea, in fwampy places 5
but it is fuppofed to grow equally iwell in any other
part of the empire where there is heat and moifture
fufficient. It forms a great part of the vegetable food
of the Abyffinians. It produces a kind of figs, but
thefe are not eatable. When ufed for food, it is to be
cut immediately above the fmall detached roots, or
perhaps a foot or two higher, according to the age of
the plant. The green is to be ftripped from the upper
part till it becomes white 5 and when foft, it affords an
excellent food when eaten with milk or butter. 6.
Kolquall, a kind of tree, only the lower part of which
is woody, the upper part being herbaceous and fuccu-
lent. The flowers are of a beautiful golden colour,
and the fruit turns to a deep crimfon } fo that the trees
make a very beautiful appearance. The whole plant
is full of a very acrid and cauftic milk. 7. Rack is a
large tree, growing not only in Abyfllnia but in many
places of Arabia Felix. Its wTood is fo hard and bit¬
ter, that no worm will touch it •, for which reafon it is
ufed by the Arabs for conftrudting their boats. It
grotvs, like the mangrove, among the falt-water of the
fea, or about fait fprings. 8. Gir-gir, or Geihe el-aube
a kind of grafs found about Ras-el-Feel, growing to
the height of about three feet four inches. 6. The
kantuffa, a very noxious fpecies of thorn, much more
troublefome than any with which we are acquainted,
and growing to the height of eight or more feet.
The flowers have a ftrong fmell like the flower mignio-
net. 10. The gaguedi, is a ftiort tree only about nine
feet high, a native of Lamalmon. The flowers, which
are yellow and very beautiful, turn towards the fun like
thofe of the helianthus. 11. The wanfey, a tree cotn-
mon throughout all Abyflinia^ flowers exaftly on the
firft day the rains ceafe. It grows to the height of
i 8 or 20 feet •, having a thick bark and clofe heavy
wood 5 the firft part of which is white, but the reft of
a dark colour. The flowers are of a beautiful white
colour •, but it does not appear to poffefs any other
remarkable property, though it is held in great efti-
mation by the Abyflinians, and is even worfhipped Afiyffinia,
by the Galla. 12. The farek, or Bauhima acumina- •i/—
ta, grows in the country immediately adjacent to the
fources of the Nile 5 being found by Mr Bruce fcarce
400 yards diftant from the fountain. 13. Kuara, is
a beautiful tree, grov/ing in the fouth and fouth-weft
parts of Abyffinia. It has a fruit like a bean, of a
red colour, which in the early ages was made ufe of as
a weight for gold and diamonds j and hence Mr Bruce
is of opinion that the name of the imaginary weight
carat is derived, x 4. The walkuffa, grows in the hotteft
parts of Ethiopia. It is a flowering tree, with beau¬
tiful white bloffoms, which do not appear till towards
the middle of January. The flow'ers have no fmell,
and are accounted pernicious to bees. The wood is
very heavy. 15. The wooginoos, or Brucea anti-
dyfenterica, is common throughout the whole empire,
but principally on the fides of the valleys. It is a fo-
vereign remedy againft the dyfentery, a very common
and fatal difeafe in hot countries. Mr Bruce had expe¬
rimental proof of its antidyfenteric virtues. 16. Cuffo,
or Bankfia anthelmintlca, is a very beautiful and ufefui
tree, being a ftrong anthelmintic, and ufed as fuch by
the Abyflinians. Every perfon there, whether male or
female is troubled with that kind of wrorm called afca-
rides; a great number of which are evacuated every
month, and the evacuation is promoted by an infufion
of this plant. While taking this medicine, the patients
fequeftrate themfelves from all their acquaintance, and
keep clofe at home. It is faid that the want of this me¬
dicine in other countries is the reafon why the Afeyffi-
nians do not go out of their own country ; or, if they
do, that they are fliort-lived. 17. Teff, is a kind of grain
fown generally throughout Abyfliniaand conftitu-
ting the bread commonly made ufe of by the inhabitants.
They have indeed plenty of wdieat, and are as fkilful in
forming it into bread as the Europeans ; but this is
only made ufe of by people of the firft rank : however, •
the teff is fometimes of fuch an excellent quality, that
the bread made from it is held in equal eftimation wTith
the fineft wheat. From the bread made of this, grain
a fourilh liquor called bowza is prepared, nvhich is.ufed
for common drink like our fmall beer. A liquor of
the fame kind, but of inferior quality, is made from
barley cakes. Some have been of opinion, that the
ufe of teft' occafions the wmrms above mentioned ; but
this is controverted by Mr Bruce. Nook, a plant not
to be diftinguilhed from our marigold, either in fliape,
fize, or foliage, is alfo fown very generally over the
country, and furniflies all Abyflinia with oil for the
kitchen and other ufes. ' ' '
Abyflinia abounds with a vaft variety of quadrupeds Quadra-
both wild and tame. Immenfe numbers of cattle every-
wrhere prefent themfelves, fome of them the moft
beautiful in the world. Some have monftrous horns,
faid to be capable of holding to quarts each } but this,
as our author informs us, is a difeafe which proves fa¬
tal to them. Buffaloes are here met with in great
numbers, and are very fierce and untra£lable j but
there are no fuch animals as carnivorous bulls, which
have been faid to exift in this and other internal parts
of Africa. Antelopes and other wild animals are met
writh in great numbers in the uncultivated parts 5 feed¬
ing chiefly on the leaves of trees, ft hey abound moft
of all, however, in thofe parts which have been once
cultivatedj -
A B Y [ 104 ] A B Y
Abyffinia. cultivated, but fince defolated by tbe calamities of war j
w—an^ where wild oats abound in fuch quantities as to
hide them from purfuit. Hyaenas, lions, foxes, jack¬
als, wild boars, &c. are alfo found, as well as the ele¬
phant, rhinoceros, camelopard, and others of the lar¬
ger and more uncommon kinds. Great havock is
made in the cultivated fields by multitudes of baboons,
apes, rats, and mice. There is plenty of hares j.but
thefe being reckoned unclean, as well as wild boars,
are not ufed as food. The rivers abound with croco¬
diles .and hippopotami, at leaft the Nile, and thofe
large ftreams which flow into it; but a great number
have water in them only during the rainy feafon, and
thefe have neither fiih nor any animal that feeds upon
. them.
Birds. The number of birds in this country is immenfe s;
nor are thofe of the carnivorous kind at all deficient.
Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and others
of that kind are met with, and come punctually every
year after the tropical rains have ceafed. They feed
at firfl upon the Ihell-filh which are met with in great
quantities on the edges of the deferts, where they had
lived in the fait fprings ; but, being forced from their
natural habitations when thefe fprings were fwelled by
.the rains, are afterwards left to perifh on dry land.
When thefe fail, their next refource is from the car-
cafes of the large animals, fuch as the elephant and
rhinoceros, which are killed in the flat country by the
hunters. Their next fupply is the multitude of rats
and field-mice which infelt the country after harvefl.
The vaft llaughter of cattle made by the Abyflinian
-armies, the multitude of perfons killed whofe bodies
.are allowed to rot on the field of battle, &c. furniih
them alfo with another refource. Thefe lupplies, how¬
ever, all fail at the beginning of the rainy feafon,
when the hunters and armies return home, and the vaft
quantity of water which continually overflows the
ground renders it impoflible for them to find any other
\ food.
There are other birds which feed upon infefts, and
multitudes which live on grain or feeds of various
kinds ; all of which are amply fupplied by theimmenfe
quantity of fruits and berries which grow in Abyflinia,
and are ripe at all feafons of the year. A very re¬
markable particular concerning this is, that the trees
which bear fruit all the year round do not carry it al¬
ways in the fame place. The weft fide is that which
bloffoms firft, and where of confequence the fruit firft
comes to perfetftion j the fouth fide fucceeds, and goes
through the fame proccfs; after which, the north blof¬
foms in like manner ; and laft of all is the eaft fide,
which produces flowers and fruit towards the begin¬
ning of the rainy feafon. All the trees of Abyflinia
are ever-green ; and their leaves are of a thick lea¬
thery confiftence, and highly vamifhed to enable them
to refill the violent rains which fall during a certain
feafon. The granivorous birds have likewife this ad¬
vantage, that the rains do not fall at the fame time all
over the country. It is interfered by a chain of
mountains that divide the feafons alfo } fo that they
have but a Ihort way to fly in order to become birds
of paifage, and fupply themfelves with Inch food as is
neceflary for them beyond the mountains. All the
pigeons, of which there are many fpecies, are birds
,of paifage, excepting one kind. The owl^ are ex-
3
tremely large and beautiful, but few in number. There Abyfilhia.
is a great variety of fwallows, feveral kinds of which v—
are unknown in Europe •, but, fays our author, “ thofe
that are common in Europe appear in paffage at the
very feaion 'when they take their flight from thence.
We faw the greateft part of them in the ifland of Ma*
fuah, where they lighted and tarried twu days, and
then proceeded with moon-light nights to the fouth-
weft.” The large birds which refide conftantly among
the mountains of Samen and Taranta have all their
feathers tubular, the hollorv part being filled with a
kind of yellow dull which ilfues out in great abun¬
dance on hunting them. This was particularly obfer-
ved by Mr Bruce in a fpecies of eagle which he calls
the golden eagle ; and the dull being view ed through a
microfcope with a very ftrong magnifying power, ap¬
peared like fine feathers. The crows are fpotted white
and black, almoft in equal proportions. The raven has
his feathers intermixed with brown, the tip of his
beak vdiite, and a figure like a cup or chalice of wdfite
feathers upon his head. Our author faw no fparrows,
magpies, nor bats} neither are there many water-fowl,
efpecially of the w'eb-footed kind ; but there are vaft
numbers of ftorks, which cover the plains in May, when
the rains become conftant. There are no geefe, ex¬
cepting one fpecies called the golden goofe or goofe of
the Nile, which is common all over Africa ; but there
are fnipes in all the marfties.
Our author defcribes very few fifties •, though he
fays that an account of thefe, and other marine pro-
dudlions of the Red fea, which he has painted and col-
lefted, would occupy many large volumes, and the en¬
graving coft a fum which he could not by any means
afford. Among others, he mentions the torpedo and
the binny, which latter is good food, and grows to a
large fize ; that from which he took the drawing was
about 32 pounds weight. Its whole body is covered
with beautiful fcales refembling filver fpangles.
Locufts and a fpecies of ants are extremely trouble-
fome and pernicious in Abyflinia, but the fly by the
natives called tfaltfalya is moft deftrucftive to cattle.
Mr Bruce gives a particular defcription of a kind of Few fer-
lizard, and of the ceraftes or horned ferpent; but de- pents in A-
nies that ferpents are numerous in Abyflinia, as almoft
all authors have fuppofed, and as we ihould be led na¬
turally to fufpetft. He vouches alfo for the power that
fome perfons have of enchanting ferpents and fcorpions,
which in fome is natural, in others communicated ar¬
tificially by certain medicines. He prevailed upon
thofe who knew the fecret to prepare him by thefe
means as they had done others $ but, notwithrtanding
this afliftance, he acknowledges, that when it came to
the trial his heart always failed him.
The crown is hereditary in the line of Solomon, but Method of
it depends on the minifter to choofe the particular per- *
fon who is to enjoy it j and as it is always his inclina-t0 tjie
tion to have the government in his own hands, he never crown,
fails to choofe an infant, who is feldom fuffered to live
after he comes to the years of maturity. Thus perpe-T})e caufe
tual wars and commotions take place, infomuch that of civil
the ravenous birds, as has been obferved, find one greatwars*
fupply of food in the daughters made by the Abyfiinians
of one another. All authors indeed agree that the de- Exceffve
vaftations committed by the armies of this country are deftmctiox
exceflive ; xnfomuch, that after a long encampment is by their
removed,amlu;s*
A B Y [i
Abyffinia. removed, nothing is to be feen all around the place
v —-v ' where it was but bare earth. When an army marches
through the country, fays Mr Bruce, “ an inconceiva¬
ble number of birds and beads of prey, efpecially the
former, follow it from the firlf day of its march to its
return •, increafmg always in proportion the more it ad¬
vances into the country. An army there leaves nothing
living behind, not even the veitige of a habitation j but
fire and the fword reduce every thing to a wildernefs and
folitude. The beads and birds unmolefted have the
country to themfelves, and increafe beyond all pofible
conception. The flovenly manner of this favage people,
who, after a battle, bury neither friends nor enemies *,
the quantity of beads of burthen that die perpetually
under the load of baggage, and variety of mifmanage-
xnent ; the quantity of offal, and half-eaten carcafes of
cows, goats, and fheep, which they confume in their
march for fudenance; all furnilh a dock of carrion fuf-
ficient to occadon contagious didempers, were there not
fuch a prodigious number of voracious attendants who
Immcnfe confume them almod before putrefaftion. There is no
number of giving the reader any idea of their number, unlefs by
birds which comparing them to the fand of the lea. W Idle the army
follow is jn motion, they are a black canopy which extends over
it for leagues. When encamped, the ground is dil-
coloured with them beyond the light of the eye } and
all the trees are loaded with them.”
Curious The prodigious number of criminals executed for
method of high treafon, whofe bodies are cut in pieces and thrown
keeping off about the dreets, invite the hysenas to the capital, in
the hvsenas ^ pame manner tliat the carrion of the camp invites
the birds of prey to follow it. The method of keeping
off thefe voracious animals is certainly very curious.
“ An officer (fays Mr Bruce) called SerwA Majfery,
tvith a long whip, begins cracking and making a noife
worfe than 20 French podilions at the door of the pa¬
lace before the dawn of day. I his chafes away the
hyaenas and other wild beads : this too is the dgnal for
the king’s ridng, who fits in judgment every morn¬
ing fading ; and after that, about 8 o’clock, he goes to
breakfad.”
From thefe and other circumdances we fhould be
auv,.—6 apt to imagine that the Abyffinians, indeed of be-
and crown- COming more civilized, were daily improving in bar-
barity. The king is anointed at his eleflion with plain
oil of olives 5 “ which (fays Mr Bruce) being poured
upon the crown of his head, he rubs into his long hair
indecently enough with both his hands, pretty much as
his foldiers do with theirs when they get accefs to
plenty of butter.” In former times, however, matters
ieem to have been conduced with more decency. So-
cinios, the greated monarch that ever fat on the Abyf-
finian throne, was crowned, after having gained a great
vidfory over the Galla, in a very different manner, and
with the ceremonies which we are told were in ufe
among the ancient kings of Tigre. At that time he
had with him an army of about 30,000 men •, and was
belides attended by all the great officers dreffed in the
gayed manner, as well as by the ladies of the fird qua¬
lity in the empire. I he king himfelf, drefled in crim-
fon damalk, with a great chain of gold about his neck,
his head bare, and mounted on a horfe richly capari-
foned, advanced at the head of his nobility, paffed the
outer court, and came to the paved way before the
church. Here he was met by a number of young girls,
Vol. I. Part I.
them.
from the
king’s pa¬
lace.
Method of
anointing
0 ff16
kinsr.
05 ] A B Y
daughters of the ambares or fupreme judges, together Abyffmm.^
with many noble virgins danding on the right and left " ^
of the court. Two ot the nobled of thefe held In their
hands a crimfon cord of dlk, fomewhat thicker than
common whip-cord, dretched acrofs from one company
to another, as if to ihut up the road by which the king
was approaching the church. When this cord was
prepared and drawn tight about bread-high by the
girls, the king entered •, advancing moderately quick,
and ffiowing his fkill in horfemandiip as he went along.
Being dopped by the tendon of the dring, the damfels
alked, Who he was ? To this he anfwered, “ I am your
king, the king of Ethiopia.” But they replied, “ You
dial! not pafs j you are not our king.” He then retired
fome paces, and again prefented himfelf. I he quedion
was again put, ii Who he was ?” To which he anfwered,
“ I am your king, the king of Ifrael.” But the fame
reply was dill given by the girls. The third time, on
being alked, a M ho he was ?” he aniwered, ” I am
your king, the king of Sion and drawing his fword,
he cut the cord afunder. I he damfels then cried out,
“ It is a truth, you are our king ; truly you are the
king of Sion.” bn this they began to ling Hallelujah,
and were joined by the whole army and the red of the
king’s attendants. Amidd thele acclamations the king
advanced to the foot of the dair of the church, dil-
mounted, and fat down upon a done ; which, in Mi
Bruce’s opinion, was plainly an altar of Anubis or the
Dog-dar. After the king, came a number of prieds
in proper order. The king was fird anointed, then
crowned, and accompanied h&lf up the deps by the fing-
ing prieds. Fie dopped at a hole made on purpofe in
one of the deps, where he was fumigated with myrrh,
aloes, and cailia : after which divine fervice uas cele¬
brated ; and he returned to the camp, where 14 days
were fpent in feading and rejoicing.
Ceremonies of this kind are now given over on ac¬
count of the expence. Our author was informed by
Tecla Haimanout, that when he was obliged to retiie
into ’figre from his enemies, Ras Michael had iome
thoughts of having him crowned in contempt of his
enemies j but by the mod moderate calculations that,
could be made, it would have cod 20,000 ounces of
gold, about 8o,oool. derling ; on which all thoughts
of it were laid adde.
The Abydinians compute time by the folar year. Mode of
Thirty days conditute their month, to which they add computing
five days and a quarter, and thus they complete thetnne‘
year, d he five days are added to the month Ox A.u-
gud, and to every fourth year they add a dxtii day.
They begin their year with the 29th or 30th of Au-
gud, i. e. the kalends of September ; the 29th of Au-
gud being the fird of their month Mafcaram. 1 ht
common epoch which the Abydinians ufe is from tne
creation of the world, and they reckon 5500 years from
the creation to the birth of Chrid, rejecting, the o«.!u
eight years of the Greeks, who make this period 5508
years. They have alfo many other epochs, .fuch as
from the council of Nice and Ephefus. In tneir ecc.t -
dadical computations they make ufe of the golden num¬
ber and epaeh The fird ufe of epafts amongd them
was not earlier, according to Scaliger, than the time of
Diocledan : but Mr Bruce obferves, that this is con¬
trary to the podtive evidence of Abydlnian hidory,
which fays exprefsly, that the epaft was invented by
Q Demetrius
A B Y [ i
Abyffima. Demetrius of Alexandria. This Demetrius was the
' V'"-' 12th patriarch of Alexandria, and elefted about the
190th year of Chrift, or in the reign of Severus, and
confequently long before the time of Dioclefian. The
Abyflinians have another mode of computing time, that
is peculiar to themfelves. They read the whole of the
evangelifts, in order, every year in their churches;
and when they fpeak of an event, they write or fay, it
happened in the days of Matthew ; that is, in the firft
quarter of the year, whilft they were reading the gofpel
ol St Mathew in their churches. They compute the
time of the day in a very arbitrary manner. The twi¬
light being very Ihort, is felefted for the beginning
of their day ; this they call Nagge, which comprehends
the duration of twilight. Mefet expreffes the moment
when the evening twilight begins. Mid-day is called
Kater, which fignifies culmination. All the other parts
of time they deicribe, in converfation, by pointing at
the place in the heavens where the fun was, when the
event, which they are defcribing, happened.
Manners of With regard to the manners of the Abyflinians,
the Abyffi- they are reprefented by Mr Bruce as highly barbarous,
mans. Their continual warfare inures them to blood from
their infancy ; fo that even children would not have
the leaft fcruple at killing one another or grown up
perfons if they were able. Many fhocking inflances
of hardnefs of heart are related by our author in Tecla
Haimanout himfelf, though otherwife an accompliflied
prince. Their cruelty difplays itfelf abundantly in the
punifliments inflifted upon criminals, one of which is
flaying alive, as has been already related of Woofheka.
Cutting in pieces with a fabre is another ; and this is
performed, not by executioners, whofe employment is
reckoned difgraceful as in this country, but by officers
and people of quality. So little is this thought of in¬
deed in Gondar, the capital of the empire, that Mr
Bruce happening to pafs by an officer employed in this
work, who had three men to difpatch, the officer called
to him to flop till he had killed them all, as he wanted
to fpeak to him upon a matter of confequence. Ston¬
ing to death is a capital puniffiment likewife common
in this country 5 and ufually infli&ed on Roman Ca¬
tholics if they happen to be found, or upon other he¬
retics in religion.
THeir hor- It is not to be fuppofed that people who regard the
ndrmvmer ^ves one anot^er fo little, will (how much com-
■jitecung. pafflon to brute creation. In this refpeft, how¬
ever, the Abyffinians are cruel and favage beyond all
people on the face of the earth. There are many
inftances of people eating raw fiffi or ilefh, and we call
them barbarous that do fo 5 but what name ffiall we
give to thofe who cut off pieces of flefli from animals
while ftill living, and eat it not only raw but ftill qui¬
vering with life ! Mr Bruce labours much to prove,
that the way of eating not raw, but living fleih, was
cuftomary among the nations of antiquity : but what¬
ever be in this, he is the only author who mentions it
direftly ; and it is on his Angle teffimony that the fa<ff
is eftablilhed. The Jefuits mention in their books,
that the Abyffinians eat raw flefli, but not a word of
eating it in this manner ; and indeed there are fome
circumftances which he himfelf relates feemingly very
difficult to be reconciled with known and indubitable
fa£!s. Pie informs us, for inftance, that when at no
great diftance from Axura, the capital of Tigre, he fell
06 ] A B Y
in with three foldiers “ driving a cow. They halted Abyflmia,.
at a brook, threw down the beaft, and one of them Aljy<finiai>-
cut a pretty large collop of flefli from its buttock 5 af- ——
ter which they drove the cbw gently on as before.”
In another place he tells us, that the flefli was taken
from the upper part of the buttock 5 that the Ikin waS
flapped over the wound, faftened with a Ikewer, and
a cataplafm of clay put over all. Now it is known to
anatomiffs, that no piece of flefli can be cut off with¬
out deftroying a mufcle ; and that the mufcles of the
buttocks are fubfervient to the motion of the legs. The
Abyffinians therefore muff have been expert anatomifts
to know how to cut off fuch mufcles as would allow
the creature ftill to go on 5 and if their repaft had been
two or three times repeated, it is plainly impoffible that
the cow could at any rate have ftirred a ftep. In his
defcription of their feafts there is more conftftency j
for there the animal is tied fo that it cannot move : af¬
ter ftripping off the Ikin, the flefli of the buttocks is
cut off in folid fquare pieces, without bones or much
effufion of blood ; and the prodigious noife the animal
makes is a fignal for the company to fit down to table.
Every man fits between two women, having a long
knife in his hand. With this he cuts the fleffi, while
the motion of its fibres is yet vifible, into pieces like
dice. Thefe are laid upon pieces of bread made of the
grain called teff, already mentioned, after being ftrong-
ly powdered with Cayenne pepper and foflil fait.
They are then rolled up like as many cartridges •, the
men open their mouths, Hooping and gaping like idiots,
while the women cram them fo full of thefe cartridges,
that they feem every moment in danger of being chok¬
ed } and in proportion to the quantity their mouths
can hold, and the noife they make in chewing,
they are held in eftimation by the company. All this
time the animal bleeds but little : but when the large
arteries are cut and it expires, the fleffi becomes
tough ; and the wretches who have the reft to eat,
gnaw it from the bones like dogs !
ABYSSINIAN, in Kcclejiajlical Hi/lory, is the
name of a fe£l, in the Chriftian church, eftabliffied in
the empire of Abyflinia. The Abyffinians are a branch
of the Copts or Jacobites; with whom they agree in
admitting but one nature in Jefus Chrift, and rejefting
the council of Chalcedon : whence they are alfo called
Eutychiansy or Monophyfites, and ftand oppofed to the
Melchites. They are only diftinguiffied from- the
Copts, and other fefts of Jacobites, by fome peculiar
national ufages.—The Abyffinian fe£l or church is go¬
verned by a biffiop or metropolitan ftyled Eihuna, fent
them by the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria refiding
at Cairo, who is the only perfon that ordains priefts.
The next dignity is that of Komos, or Hegumenos,
who is a kind of arch-prefbyter. They have canons
alfo, and monks : the former of whom marry ; the
latter, at their admiftion, vow celibacy, but with a
refervation : thefe, it is faid, make a promife aloud, be¬
fore their fuperior, to keep chaftity ; but add in a low
voice, as you keep it. The emperor has a kind of fu-
premacy in ecclefiaftical matters. He alone takes
cognizance of all ecclefiaftical caufes, except fome
fmaller ones referved to the judges } and confers all
benefices, except that of Abuna.
There are two claffes of monks among the Abyffinians;
thofe of Debra Libanos, and thole of St Euftathius.
The.
A B Y [ 107 ] A C A
AhyiTinian. The latter are grol'sly ignorant. Tlieir head is the fupe-
» "Y——' rior of the convent of Mahebar Selalle, in the north-weit
part of Abyffinia, near Kuara and the Shangalla,towards
Sennaar and the river Dender. The chief of the former
is the Itchegue who is ordained in the following man¬
ner. Two chief priefts hold a white cloth or veil,
over his head, a third repeats a prayer, and then they
all lay their hands on his head, and join together in
finging pfaltns. In turbulent times this Itchegue has
more extenfrve influence than even the Abuna.—The
monks do not live in convents, but in feparate houfes
round their church; and each cultivates for himfelf a
portion of the land which is affigned them as their
property.—The churches are built on eminences, in
the vicinity of running water, for the advantage of
purifications and ablutions, according to the Levitical
law, and are furrounded with rows of Virginia cedar.
They are circular buildings with conical fummits and
thatched roofs, and encompaffed on the outfide with
pillars of cedar, to which the roof projedfing eight
feet beyond the wall is fixed, and forms an agreeable
walk in the hot or rainy feafon. The internal parti¬
tion and arrangement of the church, is that prefcribed
by the Mofaic law •, and many of the ceremonies and
obfervances in their mode of worlhip, are obvioufly
derived from the ceremonial rites of the Jewiih re¬
ligion.
The Abyffinians have at difterent times exprefled an
inclination to be reconciled to the fee of Rome j but
rather out of intereft of date than any other motive.
The emperor David, or the queen regent on his be¬
half, wrote a letter on this head to Pope Clement
VII. full of fubmiffion, and demanding a patriarch
from Rome to be inftrufted by : wTich being complied
with, he publicly abjured the doftrine of Eutychius
and Diofcorus in 1626, and allowed the fupremacy of
the Pope. Under the emperor Sultan Seghed all was
undone again 5 the Romilh miffionaries fettled there
had their churches taken from them, and their new
converts banifhed or put to death. The congregation
lie propaganda have made feveral attempts to revive
the million, but to little purpofe.—The doctrines and
ritual of this feftary form a ftrange compound of Ju-
daifm, Chriftianity, and fuperftition. They praftife
circumcifion ; and are faid to extend the practice to
the females as well as males : They obferve both Sa¬
turday and Sunday as Sabbaths : they eat no meats
prohibited by the latv of Mofes : women are obliged to
the legal purifications : and brothers marry their bro¬
thers wives, &c. On the other hand, they celebrate
the epiphany with peculiar feliivity, in memory of
Chrift’s baptifm *, wdien they plunge and fport in ponds
and rivers ; which has occafioned fome to affirm that
they were baptized anew every year. Among the
faints days is one confecrated to Pilate and his wife \
becaufe Pilate waffied his hands before he pronounced
fentence on Chrift, and his wife defired him to have
nothing to do with the blood of that juft perfon. They
have four lents : the great one commences ten days
earlier than ours, and is obferved wfith much feverity,
many abftaining therein even from fiffi, becaufe St
Paul fays there is one kind of fleffi of men, and ano¬
ther of fifties. They allow of divorce, which is eafily
granted among them, and by the civil judge ; nor do
their civil lawrs prohibit polygamy itfelf. They have
at leaft as maiiy miracles and legends of faints as the ^
Romifli church j which proved no fmall embarrafiment ^ Jf
to the Jefuit miffionaries, to whom they produced fo.
many miracles, wrought by their faints, in proof of
their religion, and thofe fo well circumftantiated and
attefted, that the Jefuits rvere obliged to deny miracles
to be any evidence of a true religion j and in proof
hereof, to allege the fame arguments againft the Abyf¬
finians wffiich Proteftants in Europe allege againft Pa-
pifts. They pray for the dead, and invoke taints and
angels ; have fo great a veneration for the virgin, that
they charged the Jeiuits with not rendering her ho¬
nour enough. They venerate images in painting j
but abhor all thofe in relievo, except the crois. They
hold that the foul of man is not created ; becaufe, fay
they, God finithed all his wTorks on the fixth day.
They admit the apocryphal books, and the canons of
the apoftles as well as the apoftolical conftitutions, for
genuine. Their liturgy is given by Alvarez, and in
Englifh by Pagit; and their calendar by Ludolph.
AC A, Ace, orAcox, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Phoenicia, on the Mediterranean j afterwards
called Pto/emais ; now Acre. See Acre.
ACACALOTL, the Brafilian name of a bird called
by fome corvus aquaticus, or the water raven : proper¬
ly, the pelicanus carbo, or corvorant. See Ornitho¬
logy Index.
ACACIA, Egyptian Thorn, or Binding Bean-
tree, in Botany, a fpecies of mimofa, according to
Linnaeus; though other botanifts make it a diftinct ge¬
nus. See Mimosa, Botany Index.
The flow'ers of a fpecies of the acacia are ufed by
the Chinefe in making that yellow which we fee bears
waffiing in their filks and ftuflfs, and appears vfith fo
much elegance in their painting on paper. The me¬
thod is this :
They gather the flow'ers before they are fully open •,
thefe they put into a clean earthen veffel over a gentle
heat, and ftir them continually about as they do the
tea leaves,, till they become dryiffi and of a yellow' co¬
lour } then to half a pound of the fiow’ers they add
three fpoonfuls of fair w'ater, and after that a little
more, till there is juft enough to hold the flowers in¬
corporated together ; they boil this for fome time, and
the juice of the flow'ers mixing with the water, it be¬
comes thick and yellow ; they then take it from the
fire, and ftrain it through a piece of coarfe filk. To
the liquor they add half an ounce of common alum,
and an ounce of calcined oyfter ffiells reduced to a fine
powder. All is then w'ell mixed together ; and this is
the fine lading yellow they have fo long ufed.
The dyers of large pieces ufe the flowers and feeds
of the acacia for dying three different forts of yellow.
They roaft the flow'ers, as before obferved ; and then
mix the feeds w'ith them, wffiich muft be gathered
for this purpofe wffien full ripe: by different admixture
of thefe, they give the different (hades of colour, only 1
for the deepeft of all they add a fmall quantity of Bra¬
zil wood.
Mr Geoffrey attributes the origin of bezoar to the
feeds of this plant *, which being bruifed by certain
animals, and vellicating the ftomach by their great
fournefs and aftringency, caufe a condenfation o^ the
juices, till at length they become coated over with a
ftony matter, which we call Bezoar.
' o 2 M*
Acacia
Acacius.
A C A [
Talfe sic ac i a. See Rob ini A, Botany Index.
Three-thorned Acacia, ox Honey-locujl. See Gle-
^ ditsia, Botany Index.
A.cacia, in the materia me die a, the infpitTated juice
of the unripe fruit of the Mimosa Nilotica.
The juice is brought to us from Egypt, in roundifh
maffes, wrapt up in thin bladders. It is outwardly of
a deep brown colour, inclining to black } inwardly of
a reddifh or yellowilh brown j of a firm confidence,
but not very dry. It foon foftens in the mouth, and
difeovers a rough, not difagreeable tafte, which is fol¬
lowed by a fweetifh relifh. This infpiiTated juice en¬
tirely diffolves in watery liquors ; but is fcarce fenfi-
bly afled on by reftified fpirit.
Acacia is a mild aftringent medicine. The Egyp¬
tians give it in fpitting of blood, in the quantity of a
drachm, difiolved in any convenient liquor 5 and repeat
th?s dofe occafionally : they likewife employ it in col¬
ly ria tor ftrengthening the eyes, and in gargarifms for
quinfeys. Among us, it is little otherwife ufed than
as an ingredient in mithridate and theriaca, and is rare¬
ly met with in the fhops. What is ufually fold for
the Egyptian acacia, is the infpifiated juice of unripe
does ; this is harder, heavier, of a darker colour, and
fomewhat fharper tatle, than the true fort. See the
next article.
German Acacia, the juice of unripe fioes infpiffated
nearly to drynefs over a gentle fire, care being taken
to prevent its burning. It is moderately aftringent,
iimilar to the Egyptian acacia, for which it has been
commonly fubftituted in the (hops. It is given in
fluxes, and other diforders where ftyptic medicines are
indicated, from a fcruple to a drachm.
Acacia, among antiquaries, fomething refembling a
roll or bag, feen on medals, as in the hands of feveral
confuls and emperors. Some take it to reprefent a hand¬
kerchief rolled up, wherewith they made fignals at the
games 5 others a roll of petitions or memorials ; and
fome, a purple bag full of earth, to remind them of
their mortality.
AC AC IANS, in KccleJiaJHcal Hijlory, the name of
feveral feels of heretics; fome of which maintained,
that the Son was only a fimilar, not the fame, fubftance
with the lather; and others, that he was not only a
diftincl but a diftimilar fubftance. Two of thefe fe<fts
had their denominations from Acacius bifhop of CaTa-
rea, who lived in the fourth century, and changed his
opinions, fo as, at different times, to be head of both.
Another wras named from Acacius patriarch of Con-
ftantinople, who lived in the clofe of the fifth cen¬
tury!
ACACIUS, furnamed Lus cus, becaufehe.wasblind
of one eye, was biihop of Ccefarea in Paleitine, and fuc-
eeeded the famous Eufebius : he had a great fhare in
the banifhment of Pope Liberius, and bringing Felix to
the fee of Rome. He gave name to a feff, and died
about the year 365. He wrote the life of Eufebius,
which is loft, and feveral other works.
Acacius, Saint, bifhop of Amida in Mcfopotamia,
in 420, was diftinguilhed by his piety and charity. Pie
fold the plate belonging to his church, to redeem feven
thoufand Perfian Haves who were perifhing wuth hunger.
He gave each of them fome money and lent them home.
Veranius their king was fo affefted with this noble in-
ftance of benevolence, that he defired to fee the biihop 3
I08 ]
A C A
and this interview procured a peace between that prince Acad
and Theodofius I. II
There have been feveral other eminent perfons of the Academics-
fame name 3 particularly, a martyr under the emperor "
Decius: a patriarch of Antioch, wTho fucceeded Bafil
in 458, and died in 459 : a bifhop of Miletum in the
fifth century : a famous rhetorician in the reign of the
emperor Julian : and, a patriarch of Conftantinople in
the fifth century 3 who wTas ambitious to draw the whole
power and authority of Rome by degrees to Conftan¬
tinople, for which he wTas excommunicated by Pope
Felix II. He in his turn paffed fentence of excommuni¬
cation againft the pope. Still, howxver, he held his
patriarchate till his death in 488.
ACAD, or Achad, in Ancient Geography, the town in
which Nimrod reigned, called Archad by the Seventy;
fituated in Babylonia, to the eaftward of the Tigris.
ACADEMICIAN, or Academist, a member of
an academy. See Acabemy in the modern fenfe.
ACADEMICS, or Academists, a denomination
given to the cultivators of a fpecies of philofophy ori¬
ginally derived from Socrates, and afterwards iilu-
ftrated and enforced by Plato, who taught in a grove
near Athens, confecrated to the memory of Academus,
an Athenian hero 3 from which circumllance this phi¬
lofophy received the name of Academical. Before the
days of Plato, philofophy had in a great meafure fal¬
len into contempt. The contradictory fyftems and hy-
pothefes which had fucceflively been urged upon the
■world were become lo numerous, that, from a view
of this inconftancy and uncertainty of human opinions,
many were led to conclude, that truth lay beyond the
reach of our comprehenfion. Abfolute and univerfal
fcepticiim was the natural confequence of this conclu-
fion. In order to remedy this abufe of philofophy
and of the human faculties, Plato laid hold of the /
principles of the academical philofophy 3 and, in his
Phcedo, reafons in the following manner : “ If we are
“ unable to difeover truth (fays he), it muft be owing
“ to two circumfiances : either there is no truth in
“ the nature of things 3 or the mind, from a defecl
“ in its powers, is not able to apprehend it. Upon the
“ latter fuppofition, all the uncertainty and fluctuation
“ in the opinions and judgments of mankind admit of
“ an eafy folution : Let us therefore be model!, and
“ aferibe our errors to the real weaknefs of our own
“ minds, and not to the nature of things themfelves.
“ Truth is often difficult of accefs : in order to come
“ at it, we muft proceed with caution and diffidence,
“ carefully examining every ftep 3 and, after all our
“ labour, we will frequently find our greateft efforts
“ difap^ointed, and be obliged to confefs our ignor-
“ ance and weaknefs.”
Labour and caution in their refearches, in oppofi-
tion to raffi and hafty decifions, were the diftinguilhing
charafteriftics of the difciples of the ancient academy.
A philofopher, polTeffed of thefe principles, will be
flow in his progrefs 3 but will feldom fall into errors,
or have occafion to alter his opinion alter it is once
formed. Vanity and precipitance are the great fources
of fcepticifm : hurried on by thefe, inftead of attending
to the cool and deliberate principles recommended by
the academy, feveral of our modern philofophers have
plunged themfelves into an abfurd and ridiculous kind
of fcepticifm. They pretend to diferedit fubjecls that
A C A
Academy, are plain, Ample, and eafily compreliended : but give
w peremptory and deciAve judgments upon things that
evidently exceed the limits of our capacity. Of thefe,
Berkeley and Hume are the mod confiderable. Berke¬
ley denied the exiftence of every thing, excepting his
own ideas. Mr Hume has gone a ftep further, and
queftioned even the exiftence of ideas 5 but at the fame
time has not hefitated to give determined opinions with
regard to eternity, providence, and a future ftate, mi¬
raculous interpofitions of the Deity, &c. fubjedls far
above the reach of our faculties. In his effay on the
academical or fceptical philofophy, he has confounded
two very oppoftte fpecies of philofophy. After the
days of Plato, indeed, the principles of the firlt aca¬
demy were grofsly corrupted by Arceftlas, Carneades,
&c. This might lead Mr Hume into the notion that
the academical and fceptical philofophy were fynony-
mous terms. But no principles can be of a more
oppofite nature than thofe which were inculcated
by the old academy of Socrates and Plato, and the
fceptical notions which were propagated by Arce-
filas, Carneades, and the other difciples of the fucceed-
ing academies.
ACADEMY, in Antiquity, a garden, villa, or
grove, fituated within a mile of Athens, where Plato
and his followers held their philofophical conferences.
It took its name from one Academus, or Ecademus,
who was the original owner of it, and made it a kind
of gymnafium. He lived in the time of Thefeus \ and,
after his death, it retained his name, and was confe-
crated to his memory. Cimon embellifhed it with
fountains, trees, and walks ; but Sylla, during the liege
of Athens, employed thefe very trees in making bat¬
tering engines againft the city. Cicero too had his
villa, or place of retirement, near Puzzuoli, which he
alfo named an academy, where he compofed his Aca¬
demical ^uejlions, and his book De Natura Deorum.
Academy, among the moderns, is moft commonly
ufed to fignify a society of learned men, eftablilhed
for the improvement of any art or fcience, and gene¬
rally under the prote£tion of a prince. Ptolemy Soter,
for the encouragement and improvement of the liberal
arts in his dominions, founded an academy at Alexan¬
dria, and provided it with a collection of books which
■was the foundation of the Alexandrian library.
Theodoiius the younger eftablilhed an academy at
Conftantinople, and cupointed profeffors of every fci¬
ence, with the view of making it a rival inftitution to
that at Rome 5 which, with the other literary femina-
ries, had been deftroyed by the Goths about the end
of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth cen¬
turies.
The firft academy we read of wTas eftablilhed by
Charlemagne, at the infiigation of Alcuin. It was
eompofed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor
himfelf being a member. In their academical con¬
ferences, every perfon was to give an account of what
ancient authors he had read y and each even aflfumed
the name of fome ancient author who pleafed him moft,
or fome celebrated perfon of antiquity. Alcuin, from
whofe letters-we learn thofe particulars, took that of
Flaccus, the furname of Horace : a young lord, named
Augilbert, took that of Homer : Adelard, bilhop of
Corbie, was called Auguftine : Riculfe, bilhop of
Mentz, wasDametasj and the king himfelf, David.
A C A
This Ihows the miftake of fome modem writers, who
relate, that it was in conformity with the genius of the '
learned men of thole times, who were great admirers
of Romaa names, that Alcuin took the name of Flac¬
cus Albinus.
Moft nations have now their academies y but Italy
has the greateft number. Many flourilhing academies
exifted in France before the revolution. Moft of them
were eftablilhed by Louis XIV. We have but few in
Britain y and thofe of chiefeft note go by a different
name, viz. Society.
In giving an account of the principal academies, it
feems moft proper to arrange them according to their
fubjects.
I. Medical Academies, as that of the Natura; Cu-
riofi in Germany y that founded at Palermo in 1645 ;
another at Venice in 1701, which meets weekly in a
hall near the grand hofpital y another at Geneva in
1715, in the houfe of M. le Clerc. The colleges of
phyficians at London and Edinburgh, are alfo, by fome,
ranked in the number of academies.
The Academy of Natures Curiof, called alfo the.
■Leopoldine Academy, was founded in 1652 by Jo.,
Laur. Baufchius, a phyfician y w ho, in imitation of the
Englilh, publilhed an invitation to all phyficians to
communicate their extraordinary cafes y and, meeting
with fuccefs, was elected prefident. Their works were
at firft publilhed feparately y but in 1670 a new fcheme
was laid for publilhing a volume of obfervations every
year. The firft volume appeared in 1684, under the
title of Ephemei'ides, and the work has been continued
with fome interruptions and variations of the title, &c.
In 1687, the emperor Leopold took the fociety under
his protection, granting the members feveral privileges,
particularly that their prefidents ftiould be counts pa¬
latine of the holy Roman empire. This academy has
no fixed refidence, nor regular affemblies : inftead of
thefe, there is a kind of bureau, or office, firft eftablilh¬
ed at Brellau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg,
where letters, obfervations, &c. from correfpondents
or members are taken in. The academy confifts of a
prefident, two adjuncts or fecretaries, and colleagues or
members without reftriCtion. * The colleagues, at their
admilfion, oblige themfelves to turo things ; firft, to
chufe fome fubjeCt out of the animal, vegetable, or mine¬
ral kingdom, for difculfion, provided it had not been
treated of by any-colleague before 5 thefecond, to ap¬
ply themfelves to furnifti materials for the Annual
Ephemerides. Each member to bear a fymbol of the
academy y viz. a gold ring y whereon, inftead of a
ftone, is a book open, and, on the face thereof, an
eye y on the other fide the motto of the academy, Nun
quam otiofus.
II. Chirurgical Academies ; as that inftituted fome
years ago, by public authority, at Paris ; the mem¬
bers of which wTere not only to publilh their own and
correfpondents obfervations and improvements y but to
give an account of all that is publilhed on forgery, and
to compofe a complete hiftory of the art, by their ex
tracts from all the authors ancient and modern who
have wrote on it. A queftion in furgery wras annual¬
ly propofed by the academy, and a gold medal of 200
livres value wras given to the fuccefsful competitor.
Academy of Surgery at Vienna, was inftituted fome
years ago by the prefent emperor, under the direction
c£.
[ i°9 1
A C A [ 1
s-of the celebrated Brambilla. In this there were at
firft only two profeffors j and to their charge the in-
ftruclion of 130 young men was committed, 30 of
whom had formerly been furgeons in the army. " But
or late the number both of the teachers and pupils has
been confiderably increafed. Gabrieli has been ap¬
pointed to teach pathology and practice j, Boecking,
anatomy, phyfiology, and phyfics j Streit, medical and
pharmaceutical lurgery j Hunczowfky, furgical opera¬
tions, midwifery, and the chirurgia forenfis j and Plenk,
chemiftry and botany. To thefe alfo has been added,
Beindl as profector and extraordinary profeflbr of
furgery and anatomy. Befides this, the emperor, with
his ufual liberality, has provided a large and fplendid
edifice in Vienna, which affords habitation both for the
teachers, the ftudents, pregnant women, patients for
clinical lectures, and fervants. He has alfo purchafed
for the ufe of this academy a medical library, which is
open every day 5 a complete fet of chirurgical inftru-
ments; an apparatus for experiments in natural philo-
fophy ; a colleftion of natural hiftory 5 a number of
•anatomical and pathological preparations; a colleftion
of preparations in wax brought from Florence j and a
variety of other ufeful articles. Adjoining to the build¬
ing alfo there is a good botanical garden.
Among other parts of this inftitution, three prize
medals, each of the value of 40 florins, are to be an¬
nually bellowed on thofe ftudents who return the beft
anlwer to quefticms propofed the year before. Thefe
prizes are not entirely founded by the emperor, but are
in part owing to the liberality of Brendellius, the proto-
chirurgus at Vienna.
III. Ecclesiastical Academies ; as that at Bologna
in Italy, inftituted in 1687, employed in the examina¬
tion of the doftrine, difcipline, and hiftory, of each age
-of the church.
IV. Cosmographical Academies; as that at Venice,
•called the Argonauts. This was inftituted at the fe¬
licitation of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of
geographical knowledge. Its defign was to publifti
exasft maps, both celeftial and terreftrial, as well par¬
ticular as general, together with geographical, hiftori-
cal, and aftronomical deferiptions. Each member, in
order to defray the expence of fuch a publication, was
to fubferibe a proportional fum, for which they were
to receive one or more copies of each piece publiflied.
For this end three focieties are fettled j one under F.
Moro, provincial of the Minorites in Hungary j ano¬
ther under the Abbot Laurence au Ruy Payenne au
Marais ; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jefuit profef-
for of mathematics in the Roman college. The device
of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the mot¬
to Elus ultra; and at its expence all the globes, maps,
and geographical writings, of F, Coronelli have been
publiflied.
V. Academies of Sciences.—Thefe comprehend fuch
as are eredfted for improving natural and mathematical
knowledge. They are otherwife called Philofophical
and Phyjical academies.
The firft of thefe was inftituted at Naples, about the
year 1560, in the houfe of Baptifta Porta. It was call¬
ed the Academy Secretorum Naturce ; and Was fucceed-
ed by the Academy of Lyncei, founded at Rome by
Prince Frederic Cefi, towards the end of that century.
Several of the members of this academy rendered it fa-
2
o ] A c A
mous by their difeoveries j among thefe was the cele¬
brated Galileo. Several other academies were inftitut¬
ed about that time, which contributed greatly to the
advancement of the iciences j but none of them com¬
parable to that of the Lyncei.
Some years after the death of Torricelli, the Aca¬
demy del Cimento made its appearance, under the pro¬
tection of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de
Medicis. Redi was one of its chief members : and the
ftudies purfued by the reft may be collected from thofe
curious experiments publilhed in 1667, by their fecre-
tary Count Laurence Magulotti, under the title of
Sagg! di Naturah Efperien%e ; a copy of which was
prefented to the Royal Society, tranflated into Englifh
by Mr Waller, and publiftied at London in 4to.
The Academy degL Inquicti, afterwards incorporated
into that of Della Tracia in the fame city, followed
the example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent
difeourfes on phyfical and mathematical fubjeefts, by
Geminiano Montenari, one of the chief members, were
publiflied in 1667, under the title of Penferi Fificc-
Matematici.
The. Academy of RoJJano, in the kingdom of Naples,
was originally an academy of belles lettres, founded
in 1540, and transformed into an academy of fciences
in. 1695 at the folicitation of the learned Abbot Don
Giacinto Gimma; who being made prefident, under
the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a
new fet of regulations. He divided the academifts
into the following clalfes : Grammarians, Rhetoricians,
Poets, Hiftorians, Philofophers, Phyficians, Mathema¬
ticians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a clafs apart for
Cardinals and perfons of quality. To be admitted a
member, a man mull have fome degrees in the faculty.
The members are not allowed to take the title of Aca¬
demics in the beginning of their books, without a
written permiflion from their prefident, which is not
granted till the work has been examined by the cen-
fors of the academy j and the permiflion is the greateft
honour the academy can confer, as they thereby adopt
the work, and are anfwerable for it againft all criti-
cifms that may be made upon it. To this law the
prefident or promoter himfelf is fubjedl; and no aca-
demift is allowed to publifn any thing againft the wri¬
tings of another without leave from the fociety.
Several other academies of Sciences have been found¬
ed in Italy j but, for want of being fupported by
princes, did not continue long. The lofs of them,
however, was abundantly repaired by the inftitution of
others ftill fubfifting : fuch as, the Academy of Filarmo-
nici at Verona j of Ricovatri at Padua, where a learned
difeourfe on the origin of fprings was delivered by Sig.
Vallifnieri, firft profeflbr of phyfic in the univerfity of
that city, and which was afterwards printed. To the
Academy of the Muti de Reggio, at Modena, the fame
Sig. Vallifnieri prefented an excellent difeourfe on the
fcale of created beings, fince inferted in his hiftory of
the generation of man and animals, printed at Venice in
the year 1721.
F. Merfenne, is faid to have given the firft idea of a
philofophical academy in France, towards the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, by the conferences of natu-
ralifts and mathematicians occafionally held at his
lodgings 5 at which Gaflendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes,
Roberval, Pafcal, Blondel, and •thers afiifted. F. Mer¬
fenne
A C A [ii
Academies, fenne propofed to each certain problems to examine, or
certain experiments to be made. Thefe private affem-
blies were fucceeded by more public ones, formed by
Mr Motitmort, and Mr Thevenot the celebrated tra¬
veller* The French example animated feveral Eng-
lilhmen of diftinftion and learning to erect a kind of
philofophical academy at Oxford, towards the clofe of
Oliver Cromwell’s adminiftration ; which, after the
Reftoration, wTas erefted into a Royal Society. . See
Society. The Engliih example, in its turn, anima¬
ted the French. Louis XIV. in 1666, affiited by the
counfels of M. Colbert, founded an academy of fciences
at Paris, with a fufficient revenue to defray the charge
of experiments, and falaries to the members.
Royal Acadettiy of Sciences. After the peace of the
Pyrenees, Louis XIV. being defirous of eftablilhing
the arts, fciences, and literature, upon a folid founda¬
tion, direfted M. Colbert to form a fociety of men of
known abilities and experience in the different branch¬
es, who fhould meet together under the king’s protec¬
tion, and communicate their refpeftive difcoveries.
Accordingly M. Colbert, having conferred with thofe
who were at that time molt celebrated for their learn¬
ing, refolved to form a fociety of fuch perfons as were
converfant in natural philofophy and mathematics, to
join to them other perfons (killed in hiftory and other
branches of erudition, along wnth thofe wdio were en¬
tirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres,
grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometricians
and natural philofophers were ordered to meet on Tuef-
days and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king’s li¬
brary, where the books of mathematics and natural
philofophy were contained ; the learned in hillory to
affemble on Mondays and Thurfdays, in the hall where
the books of hiftory wfere contained ; and the clafs of
belles lettres to affemble on Wednefdays and Fridays.
All the different claffes were likewife ordered to meet
together upon the firft Thurfday of every month ; and,
by their refpeftive fecretaries, make a report of the
proceedings of the foregoing month.
In a fhort time, however, the claffes of hiftory,
belles lettres, &c. were united to the French Acade¬
my, which was originally inftituted for the improve¬
ment and refining the French language y fo that the
Royal Academy contained only two claffes, viz. that
of natural philofophy and mathematics.
In the 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the
26th of January, gave this academy a newr form, and
put it Upon a more refpeclable footing. It was now
to be compofed of four kinds of members, viz. hono¬
rary, pen/ianary, ajfociates, and eleves. I heie laft were
a kind of pupils, or fcholars, each of whom was attach¬
ed to one of the penfionaries. The firft clafs to con¬
tain ten perfons, and each of the reft twenty. The
honorary academifts to be all inhabitants of France y
the penfionaries all to refide at Paris y eight of the af-
fociates allowed to be foreigners y and' the eleves all to
live at Paris. The officers to be, a prefident named
by the king, out of the clafs of honorary academifts y
and a fecretary and treafurer to be perpetual. Of the
penfionaries, three to be geometricians, three aftrono-
mers, three mechanics, three anatomifts, three che-
mifts, three botanifts, and the remaining two to be fe¬
cretary and treafurer. Of the twelve affociates, two
to apply themfclves to geometry, two to botany, and
, ] a c A
two to chemiftry. The eleves to apply themfelves to Academies},
the fame kind of fcience with the penfionaries they 1
were attached to y and not to fpeak, except when call¬
ed by the prefident. No regular or religious to be
admitted, except into the clafs of honorary academifts 5
nor any perfon to be admitted either for affociate or
penfionary, unlefs knowm by feme conffderable printed
work, fome machine, or other difeovery. The affem-
blies were held on Wednefdays and Saturdays, unlefs
either of them happened to be a holiday, and then the
affembly was held on the preceding day. io encou¬
rage the members to purlue their labours, the king en¬
gaged not only to pay the ordinary penfions, but even
to give extraordinary gratifications according to the
merit of their refpedlive performances y furnilhing with¬
al the expence of the experiments and other inquiries
neceffary to be made. If any member gave in a bill
of charges of experiments he had made, or defired the
printing of any book, and brought in the charges of
graving, the money was immediately paid by the king,
upon the prefident’s allowing and figning the bill. So,
if an anatomift required live tortoifes, for inftance, for
making experiments about the heart, &c. as many as
he pleafed were brought him at the king’s charge.
Their motto was Invenit et perfecit. ■
In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then regent,
made an alteration in their conftitution y augmenting
the number of honoraries, and of affociates capable of
being foreigners, to 12 y admitting regulars among
fuch affociates y and fuppreffing the clafs of eleves, as
it appeared to be attended with fome inconveniences,
particularly that of making too great an inequality
among the academifts, and being productive of fome
mifunderftandings and animofities among the members.
At the fame time he created other two claffes y one
confifting of 12 adjuncts, who, as well as the affociates,
were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative
to fcience y and the other fix free affociates, who were
not attached to any particular fcience, nor obliged to'
purfue any particular work.
Since its re-eftablifhment in 1699, this academy has;
been very exaCt in publilhing, every year, a volume
containing either the works of its own members, or
fuch memoirs as have been compofed and read to the
academy during the courfe of that year. I o each vo¬
lume is prefixed the hiftory of the academy, or an ex-
trad of the memoirs, and, in general, of whatever has.
been read or faid in the academy ; at the end of the
hiftory, are the eulogiums on fuch academifts as have
died that year. M. Rouille de Meflay, counfellor to
the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of
2500, and the other of 2000 livres, rvhich were alter¬
nately diftributed by the parliament every year : the
fubjeft for the firft: muft relate to phyfical aftronomy,
and thofe for the latter to navigation and commerce.
Notwithftanding the advantages which the members -
of this academy enjoyed over others, in having their
expences defrayed, and even being paid for their time
and attendance, they had fallen under fome imputa¬
tions, particularly that of plagiarifm, or borrowfing
their neighbours inventions y but with what juftice we
do not fay. This academy was fuppreffed and abolifti-
ed by the convention in 1793 5 an<^ otber inftitutions
have been eftabliftied. See Institute.
The French had alfo confiderable academies in moft
oF
A C A
Academies, of their great cities; as, at Montpelier, a royal aca-
v—' demy of fciences on the like footing as that at Paris,
being as it -were a counter part thereof 5 at Thouloufe,
an academy under the denomination of Lanternifts }
others at Nifmes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bourdeaux,
&c.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded
in 1700, by Frederic II. king of Pruflia, on the model
of that of England \ excepting that, befides natural
knowledge, it likewife comprehends the belies lettres.
In 1710, it was ordained that the prefident fliall be one
of the counfellors of Hate, and nominated by the king.
The members were divided into four clafles •, the firif
for profecuting phylics, medicine, and chemillry •, the
fecond for mathematics, aftronomy, and mechanics *,
the third for the German language and the hiftory ol
the country •, the fourth for oriental learning, particu¬
larly as it may concern the propagation of the golpel
among infidels. Each clafs to eleft a diredlor for
themfelves, who fhall hold his poll lor life. The mem¬
bers of any of the clafles have free admiflxon into the
aflemblies of any of the reft.
The great promoter of this inftitution was the cele¬
brated Mr Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the
firft direflor. The firft volume of their tranfahlions
was publiftied in 171 o, under the title of Mifcellanea
Berolinenfa ; and though they received but few marks
of the royal favour for feme time, they continued to
- publilh new volumes in 1723, 1727, 1734, and 1740.
At laft, however, Frederic III. the late king of Pruf-
fta, gave new vigour to this academy, by inviting to
Berlin fuch foreigners as were moft diftinguilhed for
their merit in literature, and encouraged his fubjedls to
profecute the ftudy and cultivation of the feientes by
giving ample rewards •, and thinking that the academy,
which till that time had had fome minifter or opulent
nobleman for its prefident, would find an advantage in
having a man of letters at its head, he conferred that
honour on M. Maupertuis. At the fame time, he gave
a new regulation to the academy, and took upon him-
felf the title of its proteflor.
The academifts hold two public aflemblies annually 5
one in January, on the late king’s birth day •, and the
other in May, on the day of his acceflion to the throne.
At the latter of thefe is given, as a prize, a gold me¬
dal of 50 ducats value : the fubjeft for this prize isfuc-
ceflively natural philofophy, mathematics, metaphyfics,
and erudition.
The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterjburgh was
projected by Czar Peter the Great. That great mo¬
narch having, during his travels, obferved the advan¬
tage of public focieties for the encouragement and pro¬
motion of literature, formed the defign of founding an
academy of fciences at St Peterfburgh. By the advice
of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he confulted on this oc-
cafion, the fociety was regulated, and feveral learned
foreigners were invited to become members. Peter
himfelf drew the plan, and figned it on the 10th of
February 1724 ; but was prevented, by the fuddennefs
of his death, from carrying it into execution. His de-
ceafe, however, did not prevent its completion : for on
the 2 (ft of December 1725, Catherine I. eftabliihed
it according to Peter’s plan ; and on the 27th of the
fame month the fociety was firft aflembled. On the
iftof Auguft 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting
A C A
with her prefence, when Profefibr Bulfinger, a German Academies,
naturalift of great eminence, pronounced an oration "V~
upon the advances made by the loadftone and needle
for the difeovery. of the longitude.
The emprefs fettled a fund of 498 2I. per annum for
the fupport of the academy j and fifteen members, all
eminent for their learning and talents, were admitted
and penfioned, under the title of Profeflors in the va¬
rious branches of literature and fcience. The moft di¬
ftinguilhed of thefe profeflors were Nicholas and Da¬
niel Bernoulli, the two De Lilies, Bulfinger, and
Wolf.
During the fliort reign of Peter II. the falaries of
the members were difeontinued, and the academy was
utterly neglefled by the court } but it was again pa¬
tronized by the emprefs Anne, who even added a le-
minary for the education of youth, under, the fuperin-
tendance of the profeflbrs. Both inftitutions flouriflied
for fome time under the direction of Baron Korf; but
upon his death, towards the latter end of Anne’s reign,
an ignorant perfon being appointed prefident, many of
the moft able members quitted Ruflia. At the accef-
fion of Elizabeth, new life and vigour were again re-
ftored to the academy : the original plan was enlarged
and improved j fome of the moft learned foreigners
were again drawn to Peterlburgh ; and, what was con-
fidered as a good omen for the literature of Ruflia, trvo
natives, Lomonofof and Rumovfky, men of genius and
abilities, who had profecuted their ftudies in foreign
univerfities, were enrolled among its members. The
annual income was increaled to 10,659!. and fcon af¬
terwards the new inftitution took place.
The late emprefs Catherine II. with her ufual zeal
for promoting the diffufion of knowledge, took this
ufeful fociety under her more immediate protection.
She altered the court of directors greatly to the ad¬
vantage of the whole body ; corrected many of its
abufes, and infufed a new7 vigour and fpirit into their
refearches. By her majefty’s particular recommen¬
dation, the moft ingenious profeflbrs viftted the va¬
rious provinces of her vaft dominions •, and as the fund
of the academy wras not fufficient to fupply the whole,
expence of thefe feveral expeditions, the emprefs be¬
llowed a largefs of 2000I. which Ihe renewed as oc-
cafton required.
The purpofe and intent of thefe travels will appear
from the inftrudtions given by the academy to the fe¬
veral perfons who w7ere engaged in them. 1 hey were
ordered to purfue their inquiries upon the ^lifterent
forts of earths and waters } upon the bell methods of
cultivating the barren and defert fpots ; upon the local
diforders incident to men and animals, and the moft
efficacious means of relieving them $ upon the breeding
of cattle, and particularly of ftieep ; on the rearing
of bees and filk w7orms j on the different places and ob-
jefts for fifiling and hunting $ on minerals 5 on the arts
and trades •, and on forming a Rlora Ruffe a y or collec¬
tion of indigenous plants : they w*ere particularly in-
rtrufted to re&ify the longitude and latitude of the prin¬
cipal towns ; to make aftronomical, geographical, and
meteorological obfervations; to trace the ccurfe of the
rivers ; to take the moft: exaril charts 5 and to be very
diftinft and accurate in remarking and deferibing the
manners and cuftoms of the different people, their
dreffes, languages, antiquities, traditions, hiftory, reli¬
gion j
[ 112 1
A C A [ i
/- ademies. gion; and, In a word, to gain every information which
might tend to illuftrate the real Hate of the whole Ruf¬
fian empire.
In confequence of thefe expeditions, perhaps no
country can boaft, within the fpace of fo few years,
fuch a number of excellent publications on its internal
Rate, on its natural produdtions, on its topography,
geography, and hiftory j on the manners, cuftoms, and
languages of the different people, as have iffued from
the prefs of this academy.
The fir ft tranfa&ions of this fociety were ptblifhed
in 1728, and entitled Commentarii Academic? Scienti-
tiriim Imperialis Petropolitance ad ann. 1726, with a
dedication to Peter II. The publication was conti¬
nued under this form until the year 1747, when its
tranfaftions were called Novi Cotnmentarii Academice,
Sic. In 1777 the academy again changed the title in¬
to Acia Academic Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitance,
and likewife made fome alteration in the arrange¬
ment and plan of the work* The papers, which had
been hitherto publiflied in the Latin tongue, are now
written either in that language or French •, and a pre^
face is added, ftyled Partie Hijloriqiie, which contains
an account of its proceedings, meetings, admiftion
of new members, and other remarkable occurrences.
Of the Commentaries, 14 vdlumes were publiftied 1
the firft of the New Commentaries made its appear¬
ance in 1750, and the ttventieth in 1776. Under
the new title of AEla Academice, feveral volume^ have
been given to the public, and two are printed every
year. Thefe tranfaclions abound with ingenious and
elaborate difquifitions upon various parts of fcience
and natural hiftory, and which refleft the greateft ho¬
nour upon their authors j and it may not be an exag¬
geration to affert, that no fociety in Europe has more
diftinguiflied itfelf for the excellence of its publications,
and particularly in the more abftrufe parts of the pure
and mixed mathematics.
The academy is ftill compofed, as at firft, of fifteen
profeffors, befides the prefident and direftor. Each of
thefe profeffors has a houfe and an annual ftipend from
200I. to 6qo1. Befide the profeffors, tHere are four
adjuncts, who are penfioned, and who are prefent at
the fittings of the fociety, and fucceed to the firft va¬
cancies. The direction of the academy is at prefent
configned to the princefs Dalhkof.
The building and apparatus of this academy are ex¬
traordinary. There is a fine library, confiftirig of 36,000
curious books and manufcripts. There is an extenfive
mufeum, in which the various branches of natural hi¬
ftory, &.c. are diftributed in different apartments: it is
extremely rich in native productions, having been con-
fiderably augmented with a variety of fpecimens col¬
lected by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenftaedt, and other
learned profeffors, during their late expeditions through
the Ruffian empire. The fluffed animals and birds
occupy one apartment. The chamber of rarities, the
cabinet of coins, &c. contain innumerable articles of
the higheft curiofity and value. The fociety has this
Tinodeft motto, Paulatim.
Phe Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Injli-
tute of Bologna, was founded by Count Marfigli in 1712,
for the cultivating of phyfics, mathematics, medicine,
■chemiftry, and natural hiftory. Its hiftory is -written by
Yot. I. Part I.
13 ] A. c A
M. de Limiers, from memoirs furniftied by the founder Academie'
himfelf. —y—
The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or Royal Swe-
dtfh Academy, owes its inftitution to fix perfons of di-
ftinguifhed learning, amongft whom was the celebrated
Linnseus : they originally met on the 2d of June 1739,
formed a private fociety, in wdiich fome differtations
were read j and in the latter end of the fame year their
firft publication made its appearance. As the meet¬
ings continued and the members increafed, the fcciety
attrafted the notice of the king, and was, on the 31ft
of March 1741, incorporated under the name of the
Royal Swedilh Academy. Not receiving any penfion
from the crown, it is only under the protection of the
king, being directed, like our Royal Society, by its
own members. It has now a large fund, which has
chiefly arifen from legacies and other donations •, but
a profeffor of- experimental philofophy, and two fecre-
taries, are ftill the only perfons who receive any fala-
ries. Each of the members refident at Stockholm be¬
comes prefident by rotation, and continues in office
during three months. There are two fpecies of mem¬
bers, native and foreign : the election of the former is x
held in April, and of the latter in July : no money is
paid at the time of. admiflion. The differtations read
at each meeting are colle&ed and publiflied four times
in the year j they are written in the Swedifti language,
and printed in oftavo 5 and the annual publications
make a volume. The firft 40 volumes, which were
finiftied in 1779, are called the Old TranfaCfions ; for
in the following year the title was changed into that
of New TranfaCHons. The king is fometimes prefent
at the ordinary meetings, and particularly at the annual
affembly in April for the eleCHon of members. Any
perfon who fends a treatife which is thought worthy of
being printed, receives the TranfaCHons for that quarter
gratis, and a filver medal, which is not efteemed for
its value, being worth only three {hillings, but for its
rarity and the honour conveyed by it. All the papers
relating to agriculture are publiflied feparately under
the title of Oeconomica Acla. Annual premiums, in
money and gold medals, principally for the encourage¬
ment of agriculture and inland trade, are alfo diftribut¬
ed by the academy. The fund for thefe prizes is fup-
plied from private donations.
The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen owes
its inftitution to the zeal of fix literati, whom Chri-
ftian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of
medals. The Count of Holftein was the firft prefi¬
dent 5 and the fix perfons who firft formed the defign*
were John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, Chriftian
Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Pontopidart* and
Bernard Moelman. Thefe perfons occafionally meet¬
ing for that purpofe, extended their defigqs affociated
with them others who were eminent in feveral branches
of fcience •, and forming a kind of literary fociety, em¬
ployed themfelves in fearching into, and explaining
the hiftory and antiquities of their country. The
count of Holftein warmly patronized this fociety, and
recommended it fo ftrongly to Chriftian VI. that, in
1743, his Danifh majefty took it under his protection,
called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it
with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their
former purfuits, natural hiftory, phyfics, and mathe-
P maticS*
A C A [i
Academies, matics. In confequence of the royal favour, the mem-
bers engaged with frefh zeal in their purfuits \ and the
academy has publifhed 15 volumes in the Danifh
language, fome of which have been tranflated into
Latin.
The American Academy of Sciences, was eflablifhed
in 1780 by the council and houfe of reprefentatives
in the province of Maffachufet’s Bay, for promoting
the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of
the natural hiftory of the country j for determining
the ufes to which its various natural produftions might
be applied; for encouraging medicinal difeoveries,
mathematical difquifitions, philofophical inquiries and
experiments, aftronomical, meteorological, and geo¬
graphical obfervations, and improvements in agricul¬
ture, manufa&ures, and commerce; and, in fliort, for
cultivating every art and fcience which may tend to
advance the intereft, honour, dignity, and happinefs of
a free, independent, and virtuous people. The mem¬
bers of this academy are never to be more than 200,
nor lefs than 40.
Royal Irijh Academy arofe out of a fociety eftablifh-
ed at Dublin, about the year 1782, and confifting of
a number of gentlemen, moft of whom belonged to
the univerlity. They held weekly meetings, and al¬
ternately read effays on various fubjefils. The mem¬
bers of this fociety afterwards formed a more exten-
iive plan, and admitting only fuch names as might add
dignity to their new inftitution, became the founders
of the Royal Irijh Academy, which profeffes to unite
the advancement of fcience with the hiftory of man¬
kind and polite literature. The firft volume of their
tranfaftions for 1787 appeared in 1788, and feven
volumes have been fince publiftied. A fociety was
formed in Dublin, ftmilar to the Royal Society in
London, as early as the year 1683 ; but the diftrafted
tlate of the country was unpropitious to the cultivation
of philofophy and literature. The plan was refumed
about the beginning of the prefent century, and the
earl of Pembroke, then lord lieutenant, was prefi-
dent of a philofophical fociety eftablifhed in Dublin
college. In the year 1740, there was inftituted a
Phyfico-hiftorical Society; of which two volumes of
minutes are extant; but this fociety foon declined.
VI. Academies or Schools of Arts ; as that at Petevf-
burgh, which was eftablifhed by the emprefs Elizabeth,
at the fuggeftion of Count Shuvalof, and annexed to the
Academy of Sciences : the fund was 4000I. per annum,
and the foundation for 40 fcholars. The late em¬
prefs formed it into a feparate inftitution, enlarged
the annual revenue to 12,000!. and augmented the
number of fcholars to 300 } ftie alfo conftrufted, for
the ufe and accommodation of the members, a large
circular building, which fronts the Neva. The fcho¬
lars are admitted at the age of ftx, and continue until
they have attained that of 18 : they are clothed, fed,
and lodged, at the expence of the crown. They are
all inftru<5ied in reading and writing, arithmetic, the
French and German languages, and drawing. At the
age of 14 they are at liberty to choofe any of the fol¬
lowing arts, divided into four clafl'es : 1. Painting in
all its branches, of hiftory, portraits, battles, and land¬
scapes } archite&ure ; mofaicj enamelling, &c. 2. En¬
graving on copperplates, feal-cutting, &c. 3. Carving
in wood, ivory, and amber. 4. Watch-making, turn-
4 1 a c A
ing, inftrument-making, calling ftatues in bronze and Academies^
other metals, imitating gems and medals in pafte and
other compofttions, gilding, and varnifning. Prizes
are annually diftributed to thofe who excel in any par¬
ticular art ; and from thofe who have obtained four
prizes, twelve are fele&ed, who are fent abroad at the
charge of the emprefs. A certain fum is paid to de¬
fray their travelling expences ; and when they are fet¬
tled in any town, ihey receive an annual falary of 60I.
which is continued during four years. There is a fmall
aflbrtment of paintings for the ufe of the fcholars j
and thofe who have made great progrefs are permitted
to copy the piefures in the emprefs’s colledlion. For
the purpofe of defign, there are models in platter of
the beft antique ftatues in Italy, all done at Rome, of
the fame fize with the originals, which the artifts of
the academy were employed to call in bronze.
The Royal Academy of Arts in London, was in¬
ftituted for the encouragement of Defgning, Painting,
Sculpture, &c. &c. in the year 1768. This academy
is under the immediate patronage of the king, and un¬
der the diredlion of 40 artifts of the firft rank in their
feveral profeflions. It furnifhes, in winter, living mo¬
dels of different charadlers-to draw after ; and in fuln-
mer, models of the fame kind to paint after. Nine of
the ableft academicians are annually elecled out of the
40, whofe bufinefs is to attend by rotation, to fet the
figures, to examine the performance of the Undents,
and to give them neceffary inftrudlions. There are
like wife four profeffors, of Painting, of Architecture, of
Anatomy, and of Perfective, who annually read public
lectures on the fubjefts of their feveral departments ;
befide a prefident, a council, and other officers. The
admiflion to this academy is free to all ftudents pro¬
perly qualified to reap advantage from the ftudies cul¬
tivated in it 5 and there is an annual exhibition of paint¬
ings, fculptures, and defigns, open to all artifts of di-
ftinguilhed merit.
She Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris.
This took its rife from the difputes that happened be¬
tween the matter painters and fculptors in that capi¬
tal ; in confequence of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin,
Corneille, and others of the king’s painters, formed a
defign of inftituting a particular academy ; and, having
prefented a petition to the king, obtained an arret
dated January 20. 1648. In the beginning of 1655',
they obtained from Cardinal Mazarine a brevet, and
letters patent, which were regiftered in parliament y
in gratitude for which favour, they chofe the cardinal
for their protestor, and the chancellor for their vice-
protedlor. In 1663, by means of M. Colbert, they
obtained a penfion of 4000 livres. The academy con-
fifted of a proteeftor j a vice proteftor ; a director; a
chancellor ; four reftors; adjuncts to the rectors ; a
treafurer 5 four profeffors, one of which was profeffor of
anatomy, and another of geometry feveral adjuncts
and counfellors, a hiftoriographer, a fecretary, and two
ulhers.
The Academy of Painting held a public affembly
every day for twTo hours in the afternoon, to which the
painters reforted either to defign or to paint, and where
the fculptors modelled after a naked perfon. There were
12 profeffors, each of whom kept the fehool for a month:
and there were 12 adjuncts to fupply them in cafe of
need* The profelTor upon duty placed the naked man
as
A C A l ns ] A G A
Academies. as }ie tliougKt proper, and fet him in two different atti-
tudes every week. This was what they called Jetting the
model. In one week of the month he fet two models
together, which was called Jetting the group. The paint¬
ings, and models made after this model, were called aca-
demics, or academy Jgures. They had likewife a
'woman who flood for a model in the public fchool.
Every three months, three prizes for defign wrere diftri-
buted among the eleves or difciples 5 two others for
painting, and two for fculpture, every year.
There was alfo an Academy of Painting, Sculpture, &c.
at Rome, eftabliflied by Lew is XIV. wherein thofe who
had gained the annual prize at Paris wTere entitled to
be three years entertained at the king’s expence, for
their further improvement.
Mujical Academy, confifts of the managers and di¬
rectors of the opera.
The Academy oj Ancient Mujic was eftablilhed in
London in 1710, by feveral ^perlbns of diftin'Ction, and
other gentlemen, in conjunction wTith the moft eminent
mafters of the'time, with a view to the ftudy and prac¬
tice of vocal and inftrumental harmony. This inftitu-
tion, which had the advantage of a library, confifting
of the moft celebrated compofitions both foreign and
domeftic, in manufcript and in print, and which was
aided by the performances of the gentlemen of the
chapel royal, and the choir of St Paul’s, with the boys
belonging to each, continued to flourilh for many years.
In 1731, a charge of plagiarifm brought againft Bo-
noncini, a member of the academy, for claiming a
madrigal of Lotti of Venice as his owrn, threatened
the exiftence of the inftitution. Dr Greene, who had
introduced the madrigal into the academy, took part
■with Bononcini, and withdrew from the fociety, taking
with him the boys of St Paul’s. In 1734 Mr Gates,
another member of the fociety, and mafter of the
children of the royal chapel, retired in difguft ; and
it was thus deprived of the afliftance which the boys
afforded it in finging the foprano parts. From this
time the academy became a feminary for the inftruCHon
of youth in the principles of mufic, and the laws of
harmony. Dr Pepufch, who wras one of its founders,
was aftive in accomplilhing this meafure ; and by the
expedients of educating boys for their purpofe, and
admitting auditor members, the fubfiftence of the aca¬
demy was continued. The Royal Academy oj Mujic
wras formed by the principal nobility and gentry of
the kingdom for the performance of operas, compofed
by Mr Handel, and conduced by him at the theatre
in the Haymarket. The fubfcription amounted to
50,000!. and the king, befides fubfcribing 1000I. al¬
lowed the fociety to affume the title of Royal Academy.
It confifted of a governor, deputy governor, and
twenty diredlors. A conteft betw-een Handel and Se-
nefmo, one of the performers, in which the dire&ors
took the part of the latter, occafioned the diffolution of
the academy, after it had fubfifted wnth reputation for
more than nine years.
The Academy oj ArchiteBure, eftablilhed by M.
Colbert in 1671, confifted of a company of Ikilful
architefts, under the direction of the fuperintendant
of the buildings.
’The Academy oj Dancing, erefted by Lewis XIV.
with privileges above all the reft.
VII. Academies oj Law ; as that famous one at Academies-
Beryta, and that of the Sitientes at Bologna. v——y——'
VIII. Academies of History : as the Royal Academy
of Portuguefe Hiftory at Lijhon. This academy was
inftituted by King John V. in 1720. It confifts of a
director, four cenfors, a fecretary, and 50 members 5
to each of wdiom is afligned fome part of the ecclefiafti-
cal or civil hiftpry of the nation, which he is to treat
either in Latin or Portuguefe. In the church-hiftory
of each diocefe, the prelates, fynods, councils, churches,
monafteries, academies, perfons illuftrious for fanftity
or learning, places famous for miracles or relics, mult
be diftin&ly related in twelve chapters. The civil hi¬
ftory comprifes the tranfaclions of the kingdom from
the government of the Romans down to the prefent
time. The members who refide in the country are
obliged to make colledlions and extra&s out of all the
regifters, &c. where they live. Their meetings to be
once in 15 days.
A medal was ftruck by this academy in honour of
their prince : the front of wdiich was his effigy, with
the infcription Johannes V. Lufitanorum Rex ; and, on
the reverfe, the fame prince is reprefented Handing, and
railing Hiftory almoft proftrate before him, with the le¬
gend Hijloria Refurges. Underneath are the follow¬
ing words in abbreviature : REGia ACADemia HI-
SToriae LUSITanae, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decembris
MDCCXX.
Academy of Suabian Hi/lory at Tubingen was lately
eftablilhed by fome learned men, for publilhing the belt
hiftorical writings, the lives of the chief hiftorians, and
compiling new memoirs on the feveral points and pe¬
riods thereof.
IX. Academies of Antiquities ; as that at Corto¬
na in Italy, and at Upfal in Sweden. The firft is
defigned for the ftudy of Hetrurian antiquities; the
other for illuftrating the northern languages, and the
antiquities of Sweden, in which notable difcoveries
have been made by it. The head of the Hetrurian
academy is called Lucomon, by which the ancient go¬
vernors of the country were diftinguilhed. One of their
laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the
year ; another is to fix their feffions, and impofe a tax
of a differtation on each member in his turn.
The Academy of Medals and Injcriptions at Paris was
fet on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of
Lewis XIV. in 1663, for the ftudy and explanation
of ancient monuments, and perpetuating great and
memorable events, efpecially thofe of the French mo¬
narchy, by coins, relieyos, infcriptions, &c. The
number of members at firft was confined to four or
five, chofen out of thofe of the French academy;
who met in the library of Mr Colbert, from whom
they received his majefty’s orders. The days of their
meetings were not determined ; but generally they
met on Wednefdays, efpecially in the winter feafon ;
but, in 1691, the king having given the infpeftion of
this academy to M. de Pontchartrain comptroller ge¬
neral, &c. he fixed their meetings on Tuefdays and
Saturdays.
By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1701,
the academy was compofed of ten honorary members ;
ten ajfociates ; each of whom had two declarative voices;
ten penfonaries ; and ten eleves, or pupils. They then
P 2 met
A C A [i
Academies, met every Tuefday and Wednefday, m one of the halls
Y'"W of the Louvre j and had two public meetings yearly,
one the day after Martinmas, and the other the 16th
after Eafter. The clafs of eleves was fuppreiTed, and
united to the affbciates. The king nominated their
prefldent and vice-preftdent yearly; but their fecretary
and treafurer were perpetual. The reft were chofen by
the members themfelves, agreeably to the conftitutions
on that behalf given them.
One of the firft undertakings of this academy, was
to compofe, by means of medals, a connecled hiftory
of the principal events of Louis XIV’s reign : but in
this defign they met with great difficulties, and of con-
fequence it was interrupted for many years ; but at
lengfh it wras completed down to the advancement of
the duke of Anjou to the crown of Spain.,
In this celebrated work, the eftabliftiment of the
academy itfelf was not forgotten. The medal on this
lubjecft reprefents Mercury fitting, and writing with
an antique ftylus on a table of brafs; he leans with his
left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet
are feveral others placed upon a card : the legend,
Rerumgejlarumfides ; and on the exergue, Academia re¬
gia inferiptiomunet numifmatum^ irjlituta M.DC.LXIII.
fignifying that the Royal Academy of Medals and In-
feriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to future
ages a faithful teftimony of all great atftions. Befides
this work, we have feveral volumes of their memoirs)
and their hiftory, written and continued by their fe-
cretaries..
X. Academies of Bf.llss Lettres, are thofe where¬
in eloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated. Thefe
are very numerous in Italy, and were not uncommon
in France.
The Academy of Vmidi at Florence has contributed
greatly to the prografs of the fciences by the excel¬
lent Italian tranflations given, by fome of its members,
of the ancient Greek and Latin hiftorians. Their
chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the fame
time that they haye applied themfelves to the poliffiing
of their language, which produced the Academy deU
la Crufca.
The Academy of Humor ifs, Umorifi, had. its origin
at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marcini, a
Roman gentleman, at which feveral- perfons of rank
were guefts )• and, it being carnival time, to give the.
ladies fome diverfion, they took themfelves to the re¬
citing of verfes, fonnets, fpeeches, firft extempofe, and
afterwards premeditately j which gave them the deno¬
mination of Belli Humori. After fome experience, com¬
ing more and more into the tafte of thefe exercifes,.
they refolved to form an Academy of belles lettres.)
and changed the title of Belli Humori for that of Hu-
mor 'fi: choofing for their device a cloud, which, after
being formed of exhalations from the fait waters of.
the ocean, returns in a gentle fweet ffiower) with this,
motto from Lucretius, Redit agmine dulci.
In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was eftablilhed at'
Rome, for reviving the ftudy of poetry and of the
belles lettres. Befides moft of the politer wits of
both fexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many
princes, cardinals, and other ecclefiaftics ) and, to a-
void difputes about pre-eminence, all appear malked
after the manner of Arcadian ffiepherds. Within ten
years from Us foft eft;\biUhment, the nwabsr of Asa-
16 ] A C A
demfs amounted to fix hundred. They hold aflem-Academies*,
blies feven times a-year in a mead or grove, or in the ~y-«w
gardens of fome nobleman of diftinftion. Six of thefe
meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and
verfes of the Arcadi refiding at Rome ) who read their
own compofitions ) except ladies and cardihals, who
are allowed to employ others. The feventh meeting
is fet apart for the compofitions of foreign or abfent
members.
This academy is governed by a cuftos, who re¬
prefents the whole fociety, and is chofen every four
years, with a power of electing 12 others yearly for
his affiftanse. Under thefe are two fub-cuftodes, one
vicar or pro-cuftos, and four deputies or fuperintend-
ants, annually chofen. The laws of the fociety are
immutable, and bear a near refemblance to the an¬
cient model.
There are five modes of elefting members. The
firft is by acclamation. This is ufed when fovereign
princes, cardinals, and ambafladors of kings, defire to
be admitted ) and the votes are then given viva voce.
The fecond is called annumeration. This was intro¬
duced in favour of ladies and academical colonies,,
where the votes are taken privately. The third, re-
prefentation, wras eftablilhed in favour of colonies and
univerfities, where the young gentry are bred ) who
have each a privilege of recommending one or two
members privately to be balloted for. The fourth,
furrogation ; whereby new members are fubftituted in
the room of thofe dead or expelled. The laft def illa¬
tion ; whereby, when there is no vacancy of members,
perfons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi con¬
ferred upon them till fuch time as a vacancy fhall hap¬
pen. All the members of this body, at their admifi-
fion, alTurne new paftoral names, in imitation of the
fhepherds of Arcadia. The academy has feveral co¬
lonies of Arcadi in different cities of Italy, who are.
all regulated after the fame manner.
XL Academies of Languages ; called, by fome,
Grammatical Academies: as,
The Academy della Crufca at Florence, famous for its
vocabulary of the Italian tongue, wras formed in 1582,
but fcarce heard of before the year 1584, when it be¬
came noted for a difpute between TaiTo and feveral of
its members. Many authors confound this with the
Florentine academy. The difeourfes'which Torricelli,
the celebrated difciple of Galileo, delivered in the af-
femblies, concerning levity, the wind, the power of per-
cuffion, mathematics, and military architefture, are a
proof that thefe academifts applied themfelves to things
as well as ■words.
The Academy ofFruBiferi had its rife in 1617 at
an affembly of feveral princes and nobility of the coun¬
try, who met with a defign to refine and perfeft the
German tongue. It flouriffied long under the direc-.
tion of princes of the empire,.who were always chofen
prefidents. In 1668, the number of members arofe to
upwards of 900. It was prior in time to the French
academy, which only appeared in 1629, and was not
eftablifhed into an academy before the year 1635. Its
hiftory is written in the German tongue-by George
Neumarck.
The French Academy, which had its rife from a meet¬
ing of men of letters in the houfe of M. Conrart, in 1629.
In 1635, it was erefted iifto an academy, by Cardinal
Richlisu,
A C A [i
Academies. Rrchiieu, for refining and afcertaining the French lan-
guage and ftyle.—The number of its members was li¬
mited to 40 ; out of whom a direflor, chancellor, and
fecretary, were to be chofen : the two former held their
poftsfortwo months,the latterwas perpetual. The mem¬
bers of this academy enjoyed feveral privileges and im¬
munities, among which was that of not being obliged to
anfwer before any court but that of the king’s houfe-
hold. They met three times a-week in the Louvre ;
at breaking up, 40 filver medals were diftributed among
them, having on one fide the king of France’s head,
and on the reverfe, Prote&eur de /’ Academic, with lau¬
rel, and this motto, A/’ Immortalit'e. By this diftri-
bution, the attendance of the Academijls was fecured :
thofe who were prefent received the furplus otherwife
intended for the abfent. To ele£l or expel a member,
at leaft 18 were required j nor could any be chofen unlefs
he petitioned for it: by this expedient, the affront of
refufals from perfons defied was avoided. Religious
■were not admitted ; nor could any nobleman, or perfon
of diftinftion, be admitted on another footing than as a
man of letters. None were to be expelled, except for
bafe and difhonefi; praftices ; and there were but two
inftances of fuch expulfions, the firfl of M. Granier
for refufing to return a depofite, the other of the Abbe
Furetiere for plagiarifm. The defign of this acade¬
my was to give not only rules, but examples, of good
writing. They began with making fpeeches on fub-
je&s taken at pleafure, about 20 of which were print¬
ed. They met with great oppofition from the parlia¬
ment at their firft inftitution} it being two years be¬
fore the patents granted by the king could be regifter-
ed. They have been feverely fatirized, and their ftyle
has been ridiculed as enervating inftead of refining the
French language. . They are alfo charged with having
furfeited the world by flattery, and having exhaufted
all the topics of panegyric in praife of their founder j
it being a duty incumbent on every member, at his ad-
miflion, to make a fpeech in praife of the king, the
cardinal, the chancellor Seguier, and the perfon in
whofe place he is defied. The- moft remarkable
work of this academy is a diflionary of the French
tongue ; which, after 50 years fpent in fettling the
words and phrafes to be ufed. in writing, was at laft
publifhed in 1694.
The foundation of an Academy fimilar to the above
has been propofed at Peterfburg by the learned Prin-
cefs Dafhkof: it is to confift . of 60 members. The
plan was approved by the late emprefs, who gave a fund
for its fupport and eftablifhment.
The Royal Sfianijh Academy at Madrid held its firft
meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the
Duke d’ Efcalona. It confifted at firft of eight acade-
mifts, including the duke , to which number 14 others
were afterwards added, the founder being chofen pre-
fident or direflor. In 1714, the king granted them
his confirmation and protection. Their device is a cru¬
cible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Lim¬
pid, Fya, y da Efplendor ; “ It purifies, fixes, and gives
brightnefs.” The number of members is limited to
24 ; the Duke d’Efcalona to be direflor for life, but
his fucceffors chofen yearly, and the fecretary to be
perpetual. Their objeft, as marked out by the royal
declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national -
language ; they were to begin with chocfing carefully
17 ] A C A
fuch words and phrafes as have been ufed by the bell Academy
Spanilh writers j noting the low, barbarous, or obfolete Acaj|y.e
ones; and compofing a dictionary wherein thefe may .
be diftinguiftied from the former.
XII. Academies of Politics ; as that at Paris, which
confifted of fix perfons, who met at the Louvre, in the
chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs
were lodged. But this academy proved of little fer-
vice, as the kings of France were unwilling to truft
any but their minifters with the infpeftion of foreign
affairs.
For a further account of fimilar eftablilhments, fee
the article Society.
Academy is alfo a term for fchools and other femi-
naries of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins
and doctors inftrudled their youth in the Hebrew lan¬
guage, and explained to them the Talmud and the fe-
crets of the Cabbala: Thofe of Tiberias and Babylon
have been the moft noted.
The Romans had a kind of military academies, efta-
bliftied in all the cities of Italy, under the name of
Campi Martis. Here the youth were admitted to be
trained for war at the public expence. The Greeks,
befide academies of this kind, had military profeffors
called TaElici, who taught all the higher offices of
war, &c. Sec.
Academy is often ufed with us to denote a kind of
collegiate feminary, where youth are inftrudled in arts
and fciences. There is one at Portfmouth for teaching
navigation, drawing, &c. which was founded by George L
in 1722.5 another at Woolwich, for fortification, gun¬
nery, &c. $ eftablifhed by George II. in 1741.—Befides
thefe, there are numerous academies, efpecially in Lon¬
don^ for teaching mathematics, languages, writing, ac¬
counts, drawing, and other branches of learning.
The nonconformift minifters, &c. are bred up in.
private academies ; as not approving, the common uni-
verfity education. There are feveral academies of this
defeription in different parts of England.
Academy is-like wife a name given to a riding-
fchool, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the
great horfe, &c. and the ground allotted is ufilally call¬
ed the Manege.
Academy Figure, a drawing of a naked man or wo¬
man, taken from the life; which is ufuaily done on
paper with red or black chalk, and fometimes with paf-
tils or CRAYONS;
ACADIE, or Acady, in Geography, a name for¬
merly given to Nova Scotia, or New Scotland, in Ame¬
rica. See Nova Scotia.
ACiENA, in Antiquity, a Grecian meafure of
length, being a ten-feet rod, ufed in meafuring their
lands.
ActenA, in Botany: See Botany Index.
ACAJOU, or Cashew-nut tree. See Ana-
cardium, Botany
ACALANDRUS, a river falling into the bay of
Tarentum, not<far from the Metapontum (Pliny, Stra¬
bo) ; now called Fiume de Rofeto.
ACALEPTIC,, in, ancient profody, a complete
verfe.
ACALYPHA, the Twree-seeded. Mercury.
See Botany Index.
ACALZIKE, a town and fbrtrefs of Afiatic Tar¬
tary, fituated in N. Lat. 41. 30. E. Long. 44. 14.
ACAMANTIS.
A C A
Acsmantis AC AM ANTIS, the ancient name of the ifland of
Acapulco CyPrusJ ta{cen from one of its promontories fituated
to the weft, and called Accunas. Teos in Ionia was
alfo called thus from Acamas the founder.
ACAMAS, Ac A mantis, in Ancient Geography,
the weft promontory of the ifland of Cyprus, from
whence it took its ancient name ; now Cape Pfanio,
or Ep/amo, where formerly was a torvn of the fame
name, now a village called Crufocco*
Acamas, fon of Thefeus, followed the reft of the
Grecian princes to the fiege of Troy j and was depu¬
ted, with Diomedes, to the Trojans, in order to get
Helen reftored. Laodice, Priam’s daughter, fell in
love with him, ftble a night with him, and had a fon
by him called Munitus. He was one of the heroes
who concealed themfelves in the wooden horfe. One
of the tribes of Athens was called Acamantides from
him, by the appointment of the oracle ; and he found¬
ed a city in Phrygia Major, called Acamantium. Ho¬
mer mentions two other heroes of this name j one a
Thracian prince who came to fuccour Priam, another
a fon of Antenor.
ACANGIS, that is, Ravagers or Adventurers; a
name wdftch the Turks give their huiTars or light
troops, who are generally fent out in detachments to
procure intelligence, harafs the enemy, or ravage the
country.
ACANTHA, in Botany, the prickle of any plant;
in Ecology, a term for the fpine or prickly fins of
fillies.
ACANTHABOLUS, in Surgery, an inftrument
for pulling thorns, or the like, out of the fldn.
ACANTHINE, any thing refembling or belong¬
ing to the herb acanthus. Acanthine garments, among
the ancients, are faid to be made of the down of thif-
tles •, others think they were garments embroidered in
imitation of the acanthus.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS fishes, a term ufed
by Linnaeus and others for thofe fillies whofe back fins
are hard, oiTeous, and prickly.
ACANTHOS, Acanthus, a town of Egypt, near
Memphis, (Pliny) ; now Bifalta. Alfo a maritime
town of Macedonia, to the wTeft of Mount Athos 5 a
colony of Andrians (Thucydides, Ptolemy) ; now
Eri/Jb ; near which wras Ihown XerxeS’s ditch, of feven
ftadia, in order to feparate Mount Athos from the con¬
tinent, and convey his fliips, without doubling Athos,
into the Singitic bay. Acanthos is alfo a town of Epi¬
rus.
ACANTHUS, bear’s breech, in Botany. See
Botany Index.
Acanthus, in Archite&ure, an ornament reprefent-
ing the leaves of the acanthus, ufed in the capitals of
the Corinthian and Compofite orders.
ACAPALA, or Acapula, a town in the province
of Chiapa, in New Spain, which is fituated on Tabaf-
co river, about five leagues north-weft from Chiapa.
AC APAM, a town of Alia on the Euxine fea.
ACAPULCO, a confiderable town and port in
Mexico, on a bay of the South fea, diftant from the city
of Mexico fouth-eaft 210 miles. It has a fine harbour,
from whence a fhip annually fails to Manilla in the
Philippine iflands, near the coaft of China in Afia }
and another returns annually from thence with all the
i
18 ] A C A
treafures of the Eaft Indies, fuch as diamonds, rubies,
fapphires, and other precious Hones 5 the rich carpets
of Perfia ; the camphire of Borneo j the benjamin and
ivory of Pegu and Cambodia ; the filks, muflins, and
calicoes, of the Mogul’s country ; the gold dull, tea,
china ware, filk, and cabinets, of China and Japan 5
befides cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and pepper ;
infomuch that this fingle fhip contains more riches than
many whole fleets. The goods brought to Acapulco
are carried to the city of Mexico by mules and pack
horfes ; and from thence to Vera Cruz on the North
fea, in order to be {hipped for Europe. Acapulco it-
felf is a fmall place, confifting of about 200 or 300
thatched houfes. Ships arrive at the port by two in¬
lets, feparated from each other by a fmall ifland ; the
entrance into them in the day time is by means of a
fea breeze, as the failing out in the night time is ef¬
fected by a land breeze. A wretched fort, 42 pieces
of cannon, and a garrifon of 60 men, defend it. It is
equally extenfive, fafe, and commodious. The bafon
which conftitutes this harbour is furrounded by lofty
mountains, which are fo dry, that they are even defti-
tute of water. The air here is hot, heavy, and un-
wholefome ; to which none can habituate themfelves,
except certain negroes that are born under a fimilar
climate, or fome mulattoes. This feeble and miferable
colony is crowded with a vaft acceflion to its numbers
upon the arrival of the galleons ; traders flocking here
from all the provinces of Mexico, who come to ex¬
change European toys, their own cochineal, and about
ten millions of filver (437,500!. Sterling) for fpices,
muflins, printed linens, filk, perfumes, and the gold
wmrks of Afia. W. Long. 102. 20. N. Lat. 17. 22.
ACARAI, a town of Paraguay in South America,
built by the Jefuits in 1624. W. Long. 51.5. S.
Lat. 26.
ACARAUNA, a fmall American fifh, called by
•ur failors the old wife. See Labrus, Ichthyolo¬
gy Index.
ACARI, Port, in Geography, lies on the coaft of
Peru, in S. Lat. 15. 50. W. Long. 54. 40.
ACARNANIA, the firft country of Free Greece,
or Greece Proper, bounded on the w^eft by the Sinus
Ambracius, and feparated from Axtolia by the river
Achelous on the eaft, and by the Sinus Ambracius
from Epirus. The people were called Acarnanes, de¬
noting perfons unfhorn } other Etolians, to the eaft of
the Achelous, being called Curetes (Homer) from
being {horn. According to Lucian, they were noted
for effeminacy and incontinence ; hence the proverb
Porcellus Acarnanius. This country was famous for
an excellent breed of horfes 5 fo that Aux^vikcc; itwos,
is a proverbial faying for a thing excellent in its kind.
It is now called la Carnia and il Defpotato.
ACARON, or Accaron, a town of Paleftine, call¬
ed Ehron in Scripture. It was the boundary of the
Philiftines to the north ; flood at fome diftance from
the fea, near Bethftiemelh ; and was famous for the
idol of Baalzebub.
ACARUS, the Tick or Mite. See Entomology
Index.
ACASTUS, in Claffic Hijlory, the fon of Pelias
king of Theffaly, and one of the moft famous hunters
of his time, married Hippolita, who falling defperately
In
A C A [ i
Acatale&ic in love ivitK Peleus her fon-in-law, and he retufing to
li gratify her wifties, die accufed him to her hulband of
. A-cc^i^as- _ a rape ; on which he dew them both.
'r"' ACATALECTIC, a term in Ancient Poetry for
fuch verfes as have all their feet or fyllables, in con-
tradiftin&ion to thofe that have a fyliable too few. 1 he
fird verfe of the two following from Horace is acatalec-
tic or complete, the lad is cataleElic or deficient.
Sohitur acris hyems, grata vice veris et Favonii
T'-ahuntque Jiccas machines carinas 
ACATALEPSY, fignifies the impodibility of com¬
prehending fomething. The didinguidiing tenet of
the Pyrrhonids was their afferting an abfolute acata-
lepfy in regard to every thing.
ACATERY, or Accatry, anciently an officer of
the king’s houfehold, dedgned for a check betwixt the
clerks of the kitchen and the purveyors.
ACATHARSIA, in Medicine^ an impurity of the
blood or humours.
ACATHISTUS, the name of a folemn hymn or
vigil, anciently fung in the Greek church on the Sa¬
turday of the fifth week of Lent, in honour of the Vir¬
gin, for having thrice delivered Condantinople from
the invadons of the barbarous nations. It was deno¬
minated atcxStras, i. e. without fitting, becaufe, in the
celebration of the praifes of the virgin, the people dood
all night dnging.
ACATIUM, in Ancient Navigation, a kind of boat
or pinnace ufed for military purpoles. The acatium
was a fpecies of thofe veffels called naves aBuarice, i. e.
fuch as were wrought with oars. It was fometimes
made ufe of in battle. Strabo deferibes it as a privateer
or pirate floop, and Suidas, as a fidiing veffel.
ACAULIS, in Botany, a term applied to certain
plants, the dowers of which have no pedicle or dalk
to fupport them, but red immediately on the ground,
fuch as the carline thidle, &c.
ACCA, Saint, bifhop of Hagudaldt, or Hexham,
in Northumberland, fucceeded Wilfrid in that fee.in
709. He ornamented his cathedral in a mod magnifi¬
cent manner ; furnifhed it with plate and holy ved-
ments •, and ereffed a noble library, confiding chiedy
of eccledadical learning, and a large colle&ion of the
lives of the faints, which he was at great pains to pro¬
cure. He was accounted a very able divine, and was
famous for his fkill in church mude. He wrote feveral
books: particularly, PaJJiones SanBarum, The Sufferings
of the Saints : Pro illujlrandis feripturis, ad Bedam,
For explaining the feriptures, addreffed to Bede. He
died in 740, having enjoyed the fee of Hexham 31
years, under Egbert king of the Northumbrians. .
ACC ALIA, in Roman Antiquity, folemn fedivals
held in honour of Acca Laurentia, Romulus’s nurfe :
they were otherwife called Laurentalia.
ACCAPITARE, in Law, the aft of becoming
vaffat of a lord, dr of yielding him homage and obe¬
dience. Hence,
ACCAPITUM fignifies the money paid by a vaf-
fal upon his admidion to a feu.
Accafitum, in our Ancient Law, was ufed alfo to
exprefs the relief due to the chief lord. See Relief.
ACCEDAS ad curiam, in Englifh Law, a writ
lying where a man has received, or fears, falfe judg-
9 1 a c A
ment in an inferior court. It lies alfo for juftice de- Accelers,.
layed, and is a fpecies of the writ Recordare. llon*
ACCELERATION, in Mechanics, the increafe of' '
velocity in a moving body. Accelerated motion is that
which continually receives frelh acceffions of velocity.
Acceleration Hands dire£lly oppofed to retardation,
which denotes a diminution of velocity.
Acceleration is chiedy ufed, in Phyfics, in refpedl
of falling bodies, i. e. of heavy bodies tending towards
the centre of the earth by the force of gravity. That
natural bodies are accelerated in their defeent, is evi¬
dent from various confiderations, both a prion and po-
ferioru—Thus, we actually find, that the greater height
a body falls from, the greater impreffion it makes, and
the more vehemently does it ftrike the fubjeft, plane,
or other obdacle.
Various were the fyltems and opinions which philo-
fophers produced to account for this acceleration. But
the immediate caufe of acceleration is now fufficiently
obvious ; the principle of gravitation, which deter¬
mines the body to defeend, determining it to be acce¬
lerated by a neceffary confequence.
Suppofe a body let fall from on high : the primary
caufe of its beginning to defeend is doubtlefs the power
of gravity ; but when once the defeent is commenced,
that ftate becomes in fome meafure natural to the
body 5 fo that if left to itfelf, it would perfevere in it
for ever, even though the firft caufe ffiould ceafe : as
we fee in a Hone call with the hand, which continues
to move after it is left by the caufe that gave it mo¬
tion. But, befide the propenfity to defeend impreffed
by the firfl caufe, and which of itfelf were fufficient
to continue the fame degree of motion, once begun,
in infinitum ; there is a conflant acceffion of fubfequent
efforts of the fame principle, gravity, which continues,
to aft on the body already in motion, in the fame man¬
ner as if it were at reff. Here, then, being a double
caufe of motion ■, and both afting in the fame direc¬
tion, viz. direftly towards the centre of the earth y
the motion they jointly produce muff neceffarily be
greater than that of any one of them.—And the velo¬
city thus increafed having the fame caufe of increafe-
Hill perfiffing, the defeent muff neceffarily be conti¬
nually accelerated.
The motion of a body afeending, or impelled up^
wTards, is diminiffied or retarded from the fame prin¬
ciple of gravity afting in a contrary direction, in the
fame manner as a falling body is accelerated : See R e¬
tardation. A body thus projefted upwards, rifes
till it has loff all its motion : which it does in the fame
time that a body falling would have acquired a velo¬
city equal to that wherewith the body -was thrown up.
Hence the fame body thrown up, will rife to the fame
height from which falling it would have acquired the
velocity wherewith it was thrown up : and hence the
heights which bodies thrown up with different veloci¬
ties do afeend to, are to one another as the fquares of
thefe velocities.
Acceleration of Bodies on inclined Planes. The fame
general law obtains here as in bodies falling perpendi¬
cularly : the effeft of the plane is. to make tile motion
flower ; but the inclination being everywhere equal,
the retardation arifing therefrom will proceed equally
in all parts, at the beginning and the ending of the
motion. See Mechanics.
Acceleration
ACC f l:
Accelera- Acceleration of the Motion of Tendulums.—The
ticn. motion of pendulous bodies is accelerated in their de-
—1 pcept. a 2ep8 ratio than that of bodies falling
perpendicularly. See Mechanics and Pendulum.
Acceleration of the Motion of Projeffiles. See Pro¬
jectiles.
Acceleration is alfo applied in the ancient aftro-
nomv, in refpedt of the fixed liars. T his acceleration
was the difference between the revolution of theprimlim,
mobile and the folar revolution j which was computed
at 3 minutes and 56 feconds.
Acceleration of the Moon, a term ufed to exprefs
the increafe of the moon’s mean motion from the fun,
compared with the diurnal motion of the earth j fo that
it is now a little fwifter than it was formerly. Dr Hal¬
ley was the firlt who made this difcovery 5 and he was
led to it by comparing the ancient eclipfes obferved at
Babylon with thofe obferved by Albatennius in the
.ninth century, and fome of his own time. He was
not able to afcertain the quantity of this acceleration,
becaufe .the longitudes of Bagdad, Alexandria, and
Aleppo, where the obfervations were made, had not
been accurately determined. But fince his time, the
longitude of Alexandria has been afcertained by Cha-
zelles •, and Babylon, according to Ptolemy’s account,
lies 50' call from Alexandria. From thefe data, Mr
Dunthorn compared feveral ancient and modern eclip¬
fes, with the calculations of them, by his own tables,
and hereby verified Dr Halley’s opinion for he found
that the fame tables reprefent the moon’s place more
backward than her true place in ancient eclipfes, and
more forward than her true place in later eclipfes j and
thence juftly inferred, that her motion in ancient times
was flower, in later times quicker, than the tables
give it. But he did not content himfelf with merely
afcertaining the fad! ; he proceeded to determine the
quantity of the acceleratioh ; and by means of the molt
ancient eclipfe of which any authentic account remains,
obferved at Babylon in the year before Chrift 721, he
concluded, that the obferved beginning of this eclipfe
was not above an hour and three quarters before the
beginning by the tables j and therefore the moon’s true
place could precede her place by computation but little
more than 50' of a degree at that time. Admitting
the acceleration to be uniform, and the aggregate of
it as the fquare of the time, it will be at the rate of
about 10' in too years.
Dr Long attributes the acceleration above defcribed
to one or more of thefe caufes : either, 1. The annual
and diurnal motion of the earth continuing the fame,
the moon is really carried round the earth with a greater
velocity than heretofore : or, 2. The diurnal motion
of the earth, and the periodical revolution of the moon,
continuing the fame, the annual motion of the earth
round the fun is a little retarded ; which makes the
fun’s apparent motion in the ecliptic a little fiow'er
than formerly and, confequently, the moon in palling
t from any conjunction with the fun, fpends lefs time
before Ihe again overtakes the fun, and forms a fubfe-
quent conjunction : in both thefe cafes, the motion of
the moon from the fun is really accelerated, and the fy-
nodical month actually Ihortened. Or, 3. The annual
motion of the earth, and the periodical revolution of
the moon continuing the fame, the rotation of the
eqrth round its axis is a little retarded ; in this cafe,
3
0 ] ACC
days, hours, minutes, feconds, &c. by w’hich all pe- Acceterla
riods of time mull be meafured, are of a longer dura- t!°n
tion ; and confcquently the fynodical month will ap- ^CCenfi.
pear to be Ihortened, though it really contains the fame v——
quantity of abfolute time as it always did. If the quan¬
tity of matter in the body of the fun be lefiened by the
particles of light continually llreaming from it, the
motion of the earth round the fun may become flower :
if the earth increafes in bulk, the motion of the moon
round the earth may be quickened thereby. See
Astronomy.
Acceleration of a Planet. A planet is faid to
be accelerated in its motion when the real diurnal
motion exceeds the mean diurnal motion. On the
other hand, a planet is faid to be retarded in its motion
when the mean motion exceeds the real diurnal mo¬
tion. This inequality arifes from the change in the
diftance of the planet from the fun, which is continually
varying j the planet moving always quicker in its or¬
bit when nearer the fun, and flower when farther
off.
ACCELERATOR, in Anatomy, the name of two
mufcles of the penis, which ferve for ejefting the urine
or femen. See Anatomy, Pable of the Mufcles.
ACCENDENTES, a lower order of minifters in
the Romifli church, whofe office is to light and trim
the candles.
ACCENDONES, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of
gladiators, whofe office w7as to excite and animate the
combatants during the engagement. Ihe orthogra¬
phy of the word is contefted : the firft edition of I er-
tullian, by Rhenanus, has it accedones; an ancient
manufeript, accendones. Aquinas adheres to the for¬
mer, Pitifcus to the latter. The origin of the word,
fuppofing it accendones, is from accendo, I kindle ; flip-
pofing it accedones, from accedo, I accede, am added
to. The former places their diftinguiihing charafter
in enlivening the combat by their exhortations and
fuggeflions : the latter fuppofes them to be much the
fame with what among us are called feconds, among the
Italians patroni ; excepting that thefe latter only Hand
by to fee the law's of the fword duly obferved, without
intermeddling to give advice or inftruction.
ACCENSI, in the Roman armies, certain fupernu-
merary foldiers, defigned to fupply the places of thofe
who ffiould be killed or any wife difabled. They were
thus denominated, quia accenfebantur, or ad cenfum
adjiciebantur. Yegetius calls them fitpernumerarii legw-
num. Cato calls them ferentami, in regard they fur-
niffied thofe engaged in battle wdth weapons, drink,
&c. Though Nonnius fuggefts another reafon of that
appellation, viz. becaufe they fought with Hones, flings,
and "weapons quee feruntuf, fuch as are thrown, not
carried in the hand. They were fometimes alio called
veiites, and vclati, becaufe they fought clothed, but not
in armour 5 fometimes adfcriptitii, and adfcriptivi; fome¬
times nor am. The accevf, Livy older \ es, were piaced
at the rear of the army, becaufe no great matter was
expe&ed from them 5 they were taken out of the fifth
clafs of citizens. # . r
Accensi, in Antiquity, denotes an inferior order of
officers, appointed to attend the Roman magiftrat.es,
fomewhat in the manner of uftiers, ferjeants, or tip-
ftaves among us. They were thus called from accire, to
feud for j one part of their office being to call afifcmblies
ACC [ i
A^cenfi of the people, fummon parties to appear and anfwer
Accent ^e^ore t^e juc^ges> ^cc*
, ' ‘ . Accensi was alfo an appellation given to a kind of
adjutants, appointed by the tribune to aflift each cen¬
turion and decurion. In \vhich fenfe accenfus is fyno-
nymous with optio. In an ancient infcription, given by
Torre, we meet with Accensus Equitum Romano-
rum ; an office nowhere elfe heard of. That author
fufpefts it for a corruption ; and inftead thereof reads,
A CENSIBUS.
ACCENSION, the aftion of fetting a body on fire :
thus the accenfion of tinder is effected by flriking fire
with flint and fteel. #
ACCENT, in redding or /peaking, an inflection of
the voice, which gives to each fyllable of a word its
due pitch in refpeCt of height or lownefs. See Read¬
ing. The word is originally Latin, accentus ; a com¬
pound of ad, to ; and cam, to fing. Accentus, qua/ ad-
cantus, ox juxta cantum. In this fenfe, accent is fynony-
mous with the Greek rovajj the Latin tenor, ox tonor;
and the Hebrew em gu/us, tafte.—For the doCtrine of
Accents in Compo/tion fee Poetry, Part III.
Accent, among Grammarians, is a certain mark or
character placed over a fyllable to direCt the flxefs of
its pronunciation. We generally reckon three gram¬
matical accents in ordinary ufe, all borrowed from the
Greeks, viz. the acute accent, (' ), which ffiows when
the tone of the voice is to be raifed. The grave ac¬
cent ('), when the note or tone of the voice is to be
depreffed. The circum/ex accent, or (* ), is compofed
of both the acute and the grave, and points out a kind
of undulation of the voice. The Latins have made
the fame ufe of thefe three accents.
The Hebrews have a grammatical, a rhetorical, and
mufical accent: though the firft and laft feem, in effeCl,
•to be the fame ; both being comprifed under the ge¬
neral name of tonic accents, becaufe they give the pro¬
per tone to fyllablesj as the rhetorical accents are faid
to be euphonic, becaufe they tend to make" the pro-
nunciation more fweet and agreeable. There are
four euphonic accents, and 25 tonic ; of which fome
.are placed above, and others below the fyllables j the
Hebrew accents ferving not only to regulate the rifings
and fallings of the voice, but alfo to diftinguiffi the
feftions, periods, and members of periods, in a cufcourfe.j
.and to anfwer -the fame purpofes with the points in
other languages. Their accents are divided into em¬
perors, kings, dukes, each bearing a title anfwerable
to the importance of the diftinftion it makes. Their
• emperor rules over a whole phrafe, and terminates the
.fenfe completely ; anfwering to our point. Their king
anfwers. to our colon } and their duke to our comma.
The king, however, occafionaliy becomes a duke, and
. the duke ,a king, as the phrafes are more or lefs ffiort.
It muft be noted, by the way, that the management
.and combination of thefe accents differ in Hebrew
poetry from what they are in profe. The ufe of the to¬
nic or grammatical accents has been much controvert¬
ed 5 fome holding that they diffinguiffi the fenfe; while
. others maintain that they are only intended to regulate
the mufic, or finging \ alleging that the Jews fing, ra-
* Cooper ther than read, the Scriptures in their fynagogues *.
Bom. Mo- Be this,, however, as it will, it is certain the ancient
faic. Clav. Hebrews were not acquainted with thefe accents. The
p'3I' opinion/which prevails amongft the learned -is, that
Vox.. I. Part I.
21 ] ACC
they were invented about the fixth century, by the
Jewiffi doflors of the fchool of Tiberias, called the
Mqffbrets.
As to the Greek accents, now feen both in manu-
feripts and printed books, there has been no lefs dif-
pute about their antiquity and ufe than about thole of
the Hebrews. Ifaac Voffius endeavours to prove them
of modem invention; afferting, that antiently they had
nothing of this kind, bat only a few notes in their
poetry, which were invented by Ariftophanes the gram¬
marian, about the time of Ptolemy Philopater •, and
that thefe were of mufical, rather than grammatical ufe,
ferving as aids in the finging of their poems, and very
different from thofe introduced afterwards. He alfo
fhows from feveral ancient grammarians, that the man¬
ner of writing the (jreek accents in thefe days was quite
different from that which appears in our books. The
author of La Mcthode Greque, p. 546, obferves, that the
right pronunciation of the Greek language being natu¬
ral to the Greeks, it was needlefs for them to mark it by
accents in their writings : fo that, according to all ap¬
pearance, they only began to make ufe of them about
the time when the Romans, wiihing to learn the
Greek tongue, fent their children to ftudy at Athens,
thinking thereby to fix the pronunciation, and to
facilitate it to ftrangers; which happened, as the fame
author obferves, a little before Cicero’s time. Wetftein,
Greek profeffor at Bafil, in a learned differtation, en¬
deavours to prove the Greek accents of an older Hand¬
ing. He owns that they wrere not always formed in the
fame manner by the ancients ; but thinks that difference
owing to the different pronunciation which obtained in
the different parts of Greece. He bringsieveral reafons,
a priori, "for the ufe of accents, even in the earlieli
days: as that they then wrote all in capital letters equi-
diftant from each other, without any diftinclion either of
words or phrafes, wdiich without accents could fcarce be
intelligible ; and that accents were neceffary to diftin-
guilh ambiguous w’ords, and to point out their proper
meaning : wdiich he confirms from a difpute on a paf-
fage in Homer, mentioned by Ariftotle in his Poetics,
chap. v. Aqcordingly, he obferves, that the Syrians,
who have tonic, but no diftinftive accents, have yet-in¬
vented certain points, placed either below or above the
words, to (how their mood, tenfe, perfon, or fenfe.
Mr Browne of Trinity, CollegejDublin, has entered
more deeply into this inveftigation; and as he had an
opportunity of converfing with the crew of a Greek
ftiip from Patrafs, a town fituated not far diftant from
the ancient Corinth, which had been driven by ftrefs
of weather into the port of Dingle in Ireland, the re-
fult of his inquiries was, that the praftice of the mo¬
dern Greeks is different from any of the theories that
have been delivered in books. “ It is true, he obferves,
they have not two pronunciations for profe and for
verfe, and in both they read by accent, but they make
accent the caufe of quantity ; they make it govern and
controul quantity ; they make the fyllable long on
which the acute accent falls, and they allow the acute
accent to change the real quantity. They always read
poetry as well as profe by accent. Whether any in¬
ference can hence be drawm as to the pronunciation of
the ancients, I muff leave, after what I have premifed
above, to men of more learning, but I think it at leaff
fo probable as to make it worth while to mention the
inftances
Accent.
ACC r 122 ] ACC
Accent, mflances which occurred in proof of this affertion more
particularly. Of the two firft perfons whom I met,
one, the fteward of the fliip, an inhabitant of the ifland
of Cephalonia, had had a fchool education : he read
Euripides and tranflated fome eafier paffages without
much difficulty. By a flay in this country of near two
years he was able to fpeak Englifh very tolerably, as
could the captain and feveral of the crew} and almoft
all of them fpoke Italian fluently. The companion
however of the fteward could fpeak only modern Greek,
in which I could difcover that he was giving a defcrip-
ticn of the diftrefs in which the flrip had been, and
though not able to underhand the context I could plain¬
ly diftinguifli many words, fuch as oivdgrt—and a-
mongft the reft the found of AvUgaTrog pronounced fliort 5
this awoke my curioftty, which was ftill more heighten¬
ed when I obferved that he faid Avfarav long, with the
feme attention to the alteration of the accent with the
variety of cafe, which a boy would be taught to pay
at a fchool in England. Watching therefore more
clofely, and alking the other to read fome ancient
Greek, I found that they both uniformly pronounced
according to accent, without any attention to long or
ftiort fyllables where accent came in the way; and on
their departure, one of them having bade me good day,
by faying Y.ctMy^st, to which I anfwered KcsAk^s^, he
with ftrong marks of reprobation fet me right, and
repeated 5 and with like cenfure did the cap¬
tain upon another occafion obferve upon my faying So¬
crates inftead of Socrates.
“ I now had a ftrong wifti to know whether they
obferved the diftindlion in this refpecl ufually between
verfe and profe, but from the little fcholarftiip of the
two men with whom I had converfed, from the igno¬
rance of a third whom I afterwards met, (who however
read Lucian with eafe, though he did not feem ever
to have heard of the book), and on account of my im-
perfeft mode of converfing with them all, I had little
hopes of fatisfaclion on the point, nor was I clear that
they perfectly knew the difference between verfe and
profe. At length having met with the commander of
the Anip, and his clerk Athanaflus Kovouo?, and finding
that the latter had been a fchoolmafter in the Morea,
and had here learnt to fpeak Englifh fluently, I put
the queftion to them in the prefence of a very learned
college friend, and at another time, to avoid any error,
with the aid of a gentleman who is perfeftly mafter of
the Italian language. Both the Greeks repeatedly af-
- fared us that verfe as well as profe was read by accent,
and not by quantity, and exemplified it by reading fe¬
veral lines of Homer, with whofe name they feemed
perfectly well acquainted.
“ I Ihall give an inftance or two of their mode of
jeeading :
Bij o’ CCk'cCJ]/ TTCiCOi BlVX TroXvtyXtivZoiO S-«Ac4(TC*«f,
Tav o uTrctyuSoycvos <p>) Tfo^ag axi/g ’A^AAivf,
Eg d sgerflc? in-flnoig uyiigcyw, s? Ixaer^ta&iv.
They made the I in and i^rotg long.
But when they read
KXv6t ytv, AgfvgOTo%’, eg Xgvcrfiv uyty&'iGnxctf,
they made the fecond fyllable of the firft word KAi^
fhcrtj notwithftanding the acute accent; on my aiking
why, they defired me to look back on the circumflex Accent.
on the firft fyllable, and feid it thence neceffarily fol-   v 
lowed; for it is impoffible to pronounce the firft fyllable
with the great length which the circumflex denotes and
not to ftiorten the fecond. The teftimony of the fchool¬
mafter might be vitiated, but what could be ftronger,
than that of thefe ignorant mariners as to the vulgar
common praflice of modern Greece 5 and it is remark¬
able that this confirms the opinion of Bilhop Horiley,
that the tones of words in connexion are not always
the feme with the tones of folitary words, though in
thofe of more than one fyllable the accentual marks do
not change their pofition. I muft here add that thefe
men confirmed an obfervation which I have heard
made, that we are much miftaken in our idea of
the fuppofed lofty found of mXvfXoicrQoio Scthctrc-vig; that
the borderers on the coaft of the Archipelago take
their ideas from the gentle laving of the ftrore by a
fummer wave, and not from the roaring of a winter
ocean, and they accordingly pronounced it Folyphlifvea
thalqffes.
“ I own that the obfervations made by me on the pro¬
nunciation of thefe modem Greeks brought a perfectly
new train of ideas into my mind. I propofe them,
with humility, for the confideration of the learned; but
they have made a ftrong impreffion upon me, and ap¬
proached, when compared with other admitted fafls,
nearly to conviction. In ftiort, I am ftrongly inclined
to believe, that what the famous treatife fo often men¬
tioned on the profodies of the Greek and Latin lan¬
guages mentions as the peculiarity of the Englifti, that
we always prolong the found of the fyllable on which
the acute accent falls, is true, and has been true of
every nation upon earth. We know it is true of the
modern Italians—they read Latin in that refpedl juft
as we do, and fay, Arma virumque cano, and, In nova
fert animus, as much as we. And when we find the
modern Greeks following the feme pradlice, furely w e
have fome caufe to fuppofe that the ancients did the
feme. In the Englifti language, indeed, quantity is
not affefled, becaufe accent and quantity always agree.
Bifliop Horfley endeavoured to prove that they did fo
in Greek, but this is on the bold fuppofition that the
accent doth not fall wdiere the mark is placed. The
objeftion to this hypothefis, which feems to have been
admitted by all Writers, and confidered as decifive by
fome as to profe, by all as to verfe, is that fuch a mode
of pronunciation or reading muft deftroy metre, or
rhythmos. From this pofition, however univerfel, or
however it may have been taken for granted, I totally
diffent. That it will oppofe the metre or quantity 1
readily agree, but that it will deftroy the rhythmos,
by which, whatever learned deferiptions there may have
been of its meaning, I underftand nothing more than the
melody or fmooth flowing of the verfes, or their harmony
if you pleafe, if harmony be properly applied to fuc-
cefllve and not lynchronal founds. On the contrary,
nothing can be moiie difegreeable or unmelodious than
the reading verfe by quantity, or fcanning of it, as it is-
vulgarly called. Let us try the line fo often quoted-—
Arma virumque cano, Frojce qm primus ab oris,
inftead of
Arma virUnique cant. Frija qu: primus ah oris,
“ No
Accent.
ACC [i
man ever defined Rhythmos better than Plato,
ordinem quendam qui in motibus cermtur ; the motion
or meafure of the verfe may be exatt, and yet the or-
der, arrangement, and dilpofition of the letters and iyl-
lables, fuch as to be grating and unmelodious to the
ear. In like manner the feet of the verfe may be
exaft, but the ftrefs laid upon particular fyllables of it
which follows the quantity may totally deftioy the me¬
lody : in fnort, the radical error feems to be the con-
fufion of quantity with melody, and the luppofition that
whatever is at war with quantity and metre mini oe at
war with melody.
“ It will be alked then what is the ule oi metre or
meafure in verfe, if we are not to read by it; and here
is the grand difficulty, and I own with candour I cannot
anfwer it with perfeft fatisfaftion to my own mind: to
thofe indeed who fay we are to read by accent in profe,
it may be equally alked what is the ufe of long or Ihort
fyllables in profe, if we are not to attend to them when
accent comes in the way : but to thole v ho think
otherwife, I can only anfwer, that in the firlt place
accent doth not always interfere, and then quantity is
our guide, and accent often accords with quantity.
Secondly, Metre determines the number of feet or mea-
fures in each verfe, and thereby produces a general a-
nalogy and harmony through the whole \ and it is to
be obferved, that, as I apprehend, accent doth not
change the number of feet, though it doth the na¬
ture or fpecies of them. Thus when we read
Anna virumque ca.no, Trojce qni primus ab oris,
we do not make more feet than when we fcan the line,
nor employ more time than in pronouncing the next
line in which the accent happens to accord with the
quantity, viz.
Italiam fato profugus, Lavinaque vend.
23 ] ACC
afpirates added to each word to double the number.
The Chinefe only reckon four accents: for which the
miffionaries ufe the following marks, aa, d, a, d ; to _
which they have added a fifth, thus, ci. They make a
kind of modulation; wherein, prolonging the duration
of the found of the vowel, they vary the tone, railing
and finking it by a certain pitch of voice: fo that their
talking is a fort of mufic or fmging. Attempts have
been made to determine the quantity of toe rife or tail
in each accent by means of mulical notes} but this is
hard to effeft, as being difterent in different perfons.
Hence the great difficulty of the language to foreigners j
they are forced to ling moft fcrupulouily : ii they de¬
viate ever fo little from the accent, they fay quite a
different thing from what was intended. Thus, mean¬
ing to compliment the perfon you are talking to with
the title Sir, you call him a beaft with the fame word,
only a little varied in the tone. Magalhon makes the
language the ealier to learn on this account. T he Sia-
mefe are alfo obferved to ling rather than talk. _ Their
alphabet begins with fix characters, all only equivalent
to a K, but differently accented. For though in the
pronunciation the accents are naturally on the vowels,
yet they have fome to diverfify luch of their conlonants
as are in other refpecls the fame.
Accent, in Mujic, is a certain enforcement of par¬
ticular founds, whether by the voice or inftruments,
generally ufed at the beginning of bars.
ACCEPTANCE, in Law, a perfon’s agreeing to
offers made in bargaining, by which the bargain is con¬
cluded.
Acceptance, in the Church of Rome, is put for
receiving the pope’s conftitutions.
Acceptance, in Commerce, is the fubferibing, fign-
ing, and making one’s felf debtor for the firm contained
in a bill of exchange or other obligation
Accent
Acceffory.
A rrVPT A TlhiNk in Grammar, the fenfe or mean¬
Thirdly, The poet in meafuring his verfe certainly mull
be confined to fome certain number and order of long
and ftrort fyllables, in order to produce a concordance
through the whole, and even to regulate the pofition
of accent, which though not fubdued by quantity will
certainly have fome relation to it, euphonue gratia; but
furely the length or (hortnefs of a fyllable cannot de¬
termine where emphafis {hall be placed—that muff de¬
pend on the meaning and the thought; and it would
be moft abfurd for the poet to fay to the reader, you
fhall not reft upon this emphatic and fignificative word
becaufe its fyllables are Ihort, and wherever there is a
reft, there muft be length and intonation.” (Irijh. Tranf.
vol. vii.)
The ufe of accents, to prevent ambiguities, is moft
remarkably perceived in fome eaftern languages, par¬
ticularly the Siamefe and Chinefe. Among the peo¬
ple of China, every word, or (which is the fame thing)
fyllable, admits of five accents, as fpoken more acutely
or remifsly; and thus ftands for many different things.
The fame found ya, according to the accent affixed to
it, fignifies God, a wall, excellent, Jlupidity, and a goofe.
The Chinefe have but 330 fpoken words in their lan¬
guage ; but thefe being multiplied by the different ac¬
cents or tones, which affecl the vowels, furnifti a lan¬
guage tolerably copious. By means hereof, their 330
fimple founds come to denote 1650 things j but this
being hardly fufficient, they are increafed further by
ing in which any word is taken.
ACCEPTER, or Acceptor, the perfon who ac¬
cepts a bill of exchange, &c.
ACCEPTILATION, among Civilians, an acquit¬
tance or difeharge given by the creditor to the debtor
without the payment of any value.
ACCESSIBLE, fomething that may be approach¬
ed, or that accefs may be had to. Thus we fay, Such
a place is acceffible on ene fide, &c.
ACCESSION, in Law, is a method of acquiring
property, by which, in things that have a clofe connec¬
tion or dependence upon one another, the propeity of
the principal thing draws after it the property of tne
acceffory : Thus, the owner of a cow becomes hke-
wife the owner of the calf. It fometimes likewife fig¬
nifies confent or acquiefcence.
Accession, among Phyfcians, is ufed f°r _a Pa_
roxyfm of a difeafe } among politicians, it fignifies a
prince’s fucceeding to the government upon the death
of his predeceffor.
ACCESSORY, or Accessary, fomething that ac¬
cedes, or is added to another more confiderable thing*,
in which fenfe the word ftands oppoled to principal.
Accessory, or Acceffary, in Common J.aw, is chiefly
ufed for a perfon guilty of a felonious offence, not prin¬
cipally, but by participation : as by advice, command,
or concealment.
There are two kinds of acceffones :
Qj*
before the facT,
and
A C C [ i
Acceffory and after it. The firf is he who commands, or pro-
Accilioli CUreS anot^er t0 commit felony, and is not prefent him-
* felf j for if he be prelent, lie is a principal. The fe~
cond is he who receives, affilts, or comforts any man
that has done murder or felony, whereof he has know¬
ledge. A man may alfo be accefl'ory to an acceffbry,
by aiding, receiving, &c. an acceflbry in felony.
An acceffbry in felony fhall have judgment of life
and member, as well as the principal who did the fe¬
lony ; but not till the principal be firft attainted, and
convict, or outlawed thereon. Where the principal is
pardoned without attainder, the acceffory cannot be
arraigned ; it being a maxim in law-, XJbi non ejl prin¬
cipalis, non potejl ejfe accejjbrius : but if the principal be
pardoned, or have his clergy after attainder, the accef¬
fory ihall be arraigned j 4 and 5 W. et M. cap. 4.
And by flat. 1 Anne, cap. 9. it is enafted, that where
the principal is convicted of felony or Hands mute, or
challenges above 20 of the jury, it Ihall be lawful to
proceed againft the acceffory in the fame manner as if
the principal had been attainted $ and notwithftanding
Inch principal Ihall be admitted to his clergy, pardon¬
ed, or delivered before attainder. In fome cafes alfo,
if the principal cannot be taken, then the acceffory
may be profecuted for a mifdemeanour, and punifhed
by fine, imprifonment, &c. In the low^eft and highell
offences there are no aceeffories, but all are principals :
as in riots, routs, forcible entries, and other trefpaffes,
xvhich are the loweft offences. So alfo in the higheft
offence, which is, according to the Englilh law, high
treafon, there are no acceffories.
Aec.effories, in petty treafon, murder, and in felo¬
nies of feveral kinds, are not to have their clergy.
There can be no acceffory before the faff in manffaugh-
ter; becaufe that is hidden and unprepenfed.
sbccessoxr Nerves, in Anatomy, a pair of nerves,
which, arifing from the medulla in the vertebrae of the
neck, afcend, and enter the Ikull, and pafs out of it
again with the par vagum, wrapped up in the fame
common integument, and after quitting them, are di-
ffri bated into the mufeles of the neck and fhoulders.
See Anatomy.
Accessory, among Painters, an epithet given to
fuch parts of a hiftory-piece as ferve chiefly for orna¬
ment, and might have been wholly left out : fuch as
cafes, armour, &c.
ACCI, v\ Ancient Geography, a townof Tarraconenfis,
formerly called Acii; fuppofed to be Guadix, to the eaft
of the city of Granada in Spain, at the foot of a moun¬
tain, near the fource of the rivulet Guadalantin 5 now
greatly decayed. It is the Colonia Accitana Gemella,
and was of fome repute among the Roman colonies.
The people v.rere called Gemellenfes, becaufe the co¬
lony coniilted of colonifts from the third and fixth le¬
gions. f
ACCIAIOLI, Donato, a native of Florence, wras
born in 1428, and w7as famous for his learning and thg
honourable employments which he held. He wrote, a
Latin tranflation of fome of Plutarch’s Lives; Com¬
mentaries on Ariflotle’s Ethics and Politics ; and the
Lives of Hannibal, of Scipio, and of Charlemagne. He
was fent to France by the Florentines, to folicit aid
from Louis XL againft Pope Sixtus IV. but on his
journey died at Milan in 1478 ; his body was carried
to Florence, and buried in the church of the Carthu-
24 ] ACC
fians at the public expence. The fmall fortune he left Accident
his children is a proof of his probity and difmterefted- . II
nefs. His daughters, like thole of Ariftides, w'ere por- Acc:^enta‘;'
tioned by his fellow^-citizens, as an acknowdedgement
of his fervices. His funeral eulogium was fpoken by
Chriftopher Landini ; and an elegant epitaph, by PolR
tian, was infcribed on his tomb.
ACCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any cafual
event.
Accident, among Logicians, is ufed in a threefold
fenfe. 1. Whatever does not effentially belong to a
thing 5 as the clothes a man wheats, or the money in his
pocket. 2. Such properties in any fubjedt as are not
effential to it ; thus whitenefs in paper is an acci¬
dental quality. 3. In oppofxtion to lubftance, all qua¬
lities whatever are called accidents 3 as fweetnefs, foft-
nefs, &c.
Accident, in Grammar, implies a property attach¬
ed to a word, without entering into its effential defi¬
nition 3 for every word, notwithftanding its fignifica-
tion, will be either primitive, derivative, Ample, or5
compound, which are the accidents of words. A word;
is faid to be primitive, when it is taken from no other
word in the language in which it is ufed : thus heaven,
king, good, are primitive words. It is faid to be deri¬
vative, when it is taken from fome other word : thus
heavenly, kingdom, goodnefs, &c. are derivatives. A
Ample wTord is eafily diftinguilhed from a compound :
thus juft, juftice, are Ample wTords 3 unjuft, itjujhce,
are compound : res is a Ample word, as well as publi¬
co ; but refpublica is a compound. Befides thefe ac¬
cidents which are common to all forts of words, eachf
particular fpecies has its-accidents : thus the accidental
of the noun lubftantive are the gender, .declenfion, and *
number 3 and the adjeftive has another accident, name¬
ly, the compaxifon. See the articles Grammar and
Language.
Accident, m Heraldry, an additional point or mark
in a coat of arms, which may be either omitted or re--
tained without altering the effence of the armour 3 fuch:
as abatement, difference, and tinfture.
ACCIDENTAL, in a general fenfe, implies fome-
thing that happens by accident, or that is not effential
to its fubjeft.
Accidental, in Philofophy, is applied to that ef~
fe£l which flows from fome caufe intervening by acci¬
dent, without being fubjeft, or at leaf! without any
appearance of being fubjeft, to general laws or regular-
returns. In this fenfe, accident is oppofed to conjlant-
and principal. Thus the fun’s place is, with refpedl to-
the earth, the conftant and principal caufe of the heai'
in fummer, and the cold in winter 3 whereas winds,
fnows, and rains, are the accidental caufes which ofterr
alter and modify the action of the principal caufe.-
Accidentjl Colours, are thofe which depend upon,
the affeftions of the eye, in contradiftinftion to thofe
which belong to the light itfelf. The impreflions made
upon the eye by looking ftedfaftly on objects of a par¬
ticular colour are various, according to the Angle co¬
lour or combination of colours in the object 3 and they
continue for fome time after the eye is withdrawn, and
give a falfe colouring to other objects. M. Buffon
has endeavoured to trace the connexions wdiich thefe
accidental colours have with fuch as are natural,
itt a variety of inilance?. The fubjeX has alfo been,
confidered
ACC
jfccci'fimrt confidered by De la Hire and M. ^Epinus j and M.
II d’Arcy has contrived a machine for determining the
Accius' , duration of thofe impreflions on the eye ; and from the
v refult of feveral experiments, he inferred, that the ef-
fefl of the aftion of light on the eye, continued about
eight thirds of a minute.
Accidental Point, in PerfpeEiive, is that point in
the horizontal line where the projeftions of two lines
parallel to each other meet the perfpe&ive plane.
AGCIPENSER. , See Ichthyology Index.
ACCIPITER, among the Romans, fignified a hawk,
“which, from its being very carnivorous, they confider¬
ed as a bird of bad omen :
Odimus accipitrcm, quia feniper vivit in armis. Ovid.
Pliny, however, tells us, that in fome cafes, parti¬
cularly in marriage, it was efteemed a; bird of good
omen, becaufe it never eats- the hearts of other birds ;
intimating thereby, that no differences in a married
Rate ought to reach the heart; The accipiter was
worfiiipped as a divinity by the inhabitants of Tentyra,
an ifland in the Nile, being confidered- by them as the
image of the fun 5 and hence we find that luminary re-
prefented, in hieroglyphics, under the figure of a hawk.
ACCIPITRES, the name of Linnaeus’s firft order
of Birds. See Ornithology.
ACCISMUS denotes a feigned refufal of fome-
thing which a perfon earneftly defires. The wrord is
Latin ; or rather Greek, Ax.x.ic-po$ , fuppofed to be
formed from Acco, the name of a foolifh old woman
noted in antiquity for an affe&ation of this kind.
Accifmus is fometimes confidered as a virtue ; fome-
times as a vice, which Auguftus and Tiberius prac-
tifed with great fuccefs. Cromwell’s refufal of the
crown of England may be brought as an inftance of an
accifmus.
Accismus is more particularly ufed’ inRhetoric, as'
a fpecies of irony.
ACCITUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpa-
nia Baetica, now Finiana, as appears from an ancient
infoription y fituated on an eminence of the mountains
Alpuxaras, in the province of Granada in Spain.
ACCIUS, Lucius, a Latin tragic poet, the fon of
a freedman, and, according to St Jerome, born in the
eonfulfhip of Hoftilius Mancinus and- Attilius Serra-
nus, in the year of Rome 583 ; but there appears
fomewhat of confufion and perplexity in this chronolo¬
gy. He made himfelf- known before the death of Pa-
cuvius, by a dramatic piece which was exhibited the
fame year that Pacuvius brought one upon the ftage,
the latter being then eighty years of age, and Accius
only thirty. We do not know the name of this piece
of Accius’s, but the titles of feveral of his tragedies
are mentioned by various authors. He wrote on the
moll celebrated ftories which had been- reprefented on
the Athenian1 ftage ; a^ Andromache, Andromeda, A-
treus, Clytemneftra, Medea, Meleager, Phikxftetes^
the civil wars of Thebes, Tereus, the Troades, &c.
He did not always, however, take his fubje&s from
the Grecian ftory; for he compofed one dramatic piece
wholly Roman: it was entitled Brutus-, and related to
the expulfion of the Tarquins. It is affirmed by fome
that he wrote alfo comedies y which is not unlikely, if
he was the author of two pieces, the Wfedding and
tbe Merchant, which have been afcribed to him. He
ACC
did not confine himfelf to dramatic writing j for he left
other productions, particularly his annals, mentioned
by Macrobius, Prifcian, Feftus, and Nonnius Marcel-
lus. He has been cenfured for waiting in too harfh a
ftyle, but in all other refpects has been efteemed a very
great poet. He was fo much efteemed by the public,
that a comedian was punifhed for only mentioning his
name on the ftage. Cicero fpeaks w ith great derifion
of one Accius who had written a hiftory ; and, as our
author had wrote annals, fome infift that he is the per¬
fon cenfured : but as Cicero himfelf, Horace, Quinti¬
lian, Ovid, and Paterculus, have fpoken of our author
with fo much applaufe, wre cannot think it is the fame
perfon whom the Roman orator cenfiires with fo much
feverity.
There was alfo in this age a pretty good drator of
the fame name, againft wdiom Cicero defended Cluen-
tius. He was born in Pifaurum, and perhaps was a
relation of our poet.
ACCIUS, a poet of the 16th century, to whom is
attributed A Paraphrafe of dEfop's Fables^ on which
Julius Scaliger beftows great encomiums.
ACCLAMATION, a confufed noife or ftiout of
joy, by which the-public exprefs their applaufe, efteem,,
or approbation.
Acclamation* in a more proper fenfe, denotes a
certain form of words, uttered with extraordinary ve¬
hemence, and in a peculiar tone fomewhat refembling
a fong, frequent in the ancient affemblies. Acclama¬
tions were ufually accompanied with applaufes, with
which they are fometimes confounded : though they
ought to be diftinguiftied j as acclamation wras given by
the voice, applaufe by the hands : add, that acclamation
was alfo beftowed on perfons abfent, applaufe only on
thofe prefent. Acclamation was alfo given by women,^
whereas applaufe feems to have been confined to men.
Acclamations are of various kinds j ecclefiaftical, mi¬
litary, nuptial, fenatorial, fynodical, fcholaftic, thea¬
trical, &c. We meet with loud acclamations, mufical-
and rhythmical acclamations j acclamations of joy and
refpeft, and even of reproach and contumely. The
former, wherein wmrds of happy omen were-ufed, wrere
alfo cailed Laudationes, et bona vote, or good wdfhes 5
the latter, Execrationes et convicia. Suetonius furnifhes-
an inftance of this laft kind- in the Roman fenate, on
occafion of the decree for demolifhing the ftatues of
Domitian, when the fathers, as the hiftorian reprefents-
it, could not refrain from contumelious acclamations of
the deceafedl The like were ftiown after the death of
Commodus, wdiere the acclamations run in the follow¬
ing ftrain : Hojli patria honores detrahantur, parricide
honores deirahantur; hojiisjlatuas undique,parricid<ejia~
tuas undique, gladiator is Jiatups undique, &c.—The for¬
mula, in acclamations, was repeated fometimes a greater,
fometimes a lefler, number of times. Hence we find in
Roman writers, acclamatum eji quinquies, et vicies ; five,
times, and twenty times : fometimes alfo fexagies, and
even oEluagies fixty and eighty times.
Acclamations were not unknown on the theatres in
the earlieft ages of the Roman commonwealth 5 but
they were artlefs then, and little other than confufed
ftiouts. Afterwards they became a fort of regular con¬
certs. That mentioned by Phsedrus, lee tare incolumis
Roma falmprincipe, wdiich was made for Auguftus, and
proved the occafion of a pleafant miftake of a flute-
player
[ >25 ]
Accius, .
Acclama-
ACC r 126 1 ACC
player called Prince/>s, (hows that mufical acclamations
were in ufe in that emperor’s reign. Revertentem ex
Provincia modulatis carminibus profequebantur, fays Sue¬
tonius, who gives another inftance in the time of
Tiberius : a falfe report of Germanicus’s recovery be¬
ing fpread through Rome, the people ran in crowds to
the capitol with torches and viftims, finging, Salva
Roma, Saha Patria, Salvus ejl Germanicus.—Nero,
paffionately fond of mufic, took fpecial care to improve
and perfect the mulic of acclamations. Charmed with
the harmony with which the Alexandrians, who came
to the games celebrated at Naples, had fung his praifes,
he brought feveral over to inftruft a number of youth,
chofen from among the knights and people, in the dif¬
ferent kinds of acclamations praftifed at Alexandria.
Thefe continued in ufe as long as the reign of Theo-
doric. But the people did not always make a fingle
chorus; fometimes there were two, who anfwered each
other alternately: thus, when Nero played on the
theatre, Burrhus and Seneca, who were on either
hand, giving the fignal by clapping, 5000 foldiers
called Augujlals, began to chant his praife, which the
fpedlators were obliged to repeat. The whole was
conduced by a mufic-mafter called mefochorus or pau-
farius.—The honour of acclamations was chiefly ren¬
dered to emperors, their children, and favourites *, and
to the magiftrates who prefided at the games. Per-
fons of diftinguilhed merit alfo fometimes received
them, of which Quintilian gives us inftances in Cato
and Virgil. The moft ufual forms were, Feliciter, Lon-
giorem vitam, Annas felices. The aftors themfelves,
and they who gained the prizes in the games of the
circus, were not excluded the honour of acclamations.
To theatrical acclamations may be added thofe of
the foldiery and the people in time of triumph. The
vidtorious army accompanied their general to the capi¬
tol } and, among the verfes they fung in his praifes, fre¬
quently repeated lo Triumphe, which the people
anfwered in the fame ftrain. It was alfo in the way of
acclamation, that the foldiers gave their general the
title of bnperator, after fome notable vidlory : a title
which he only kept till the time of his triumph.
The acclamations of the fenate were fomewhat more
ferious than the popular ones ; but arofe from the fame
principle, vh. a deflre of pleafing the prince or his fa¬
vourites *, and aimed likewife at the fame end, either
to exprefs the general approbation and zeal of the
company, or to congratulate him on his vidlories, or to
make him new proteftations of fidelity. Thefe accla¬
mations were ufually given after a report made by fome
fenator, to which the reft all exprefled their confent by
crying Omnes, Omnes \ or elfe, iEopim est, Jus-
tum est. Sometimes they began with acclamations,
and fometimes ended with them without other debates.
It was after this manner that all the eledlions and pro¬
clamations of emperors, made by the fenate, were con-
xlufted •, fomething of which pradtice is ftill retained
at modern eledtions of kings and emperors, where Vival
Rex, and Long live the King, are cuftomary forms of ac¬
clamation.
The Greeks borrowed the cuftom of receiving their
emperors in the public places from the Romans. Luit-
prand relates, that at a proceflion where he wras pre¬
lent, they fung to the emperor Nicephorus, ircAA* stjjj j
Z
that is, Many years: which Coddin exprefies thus, by
t« Tpabteiy re iroXv^enov, or by to •, and the
wifti or falutation by ‘TroXv^ovKs-pct.. And at dinner,
the Greeks then prefent wilhed with a loud voice to
the emperor and Bardas, Ut Deus annas multiplicet; as
he tranflates the Greek. Plutarch mentions an accla¬
mation fo loud, upon occafion of Flaminius’s reftoring
liberty to Greece, that the very birds fell from heaven
with the ihout. The Turks pradlife fomething like
this on the fight of their emperors and grand viziers
to this day.
For the acclamations with which authors, poets, &c,
were received, who recited their works in public j it is
to be obferved, the affemblies for this purpofe were held
with great parade in the moft folemn places, as the ca¬
pitol, temples, the Athenaeum, and the houfes of great
men. Invitations were fent everywhere, in order to
get the greater appearance. The chief care was, that
the acclamations might be given with all the order and
pomp poflible. Men of fortune who pretended to wit,
kept able applauders in their fervice, and lent them to
their friends. Others endeavoured to gain them by
prefents and treats. Philoftratus mentions a young
man named Vavus, who lent money to the men of let¬
ters, and forgave the intereft to fuch as applauded his
exercifes. Thefe acclamations were condudled much
after the fame manner as thofe in the theatre, both as
to the mufic and the accompaniments: they wrere to
be fuited both to the fubjedt and to the perfon. There
were particular ones for the philofophers, for orators,
for hiftorians, and for poets. It would be difficult to
rehearfe all the forms of them ; one of the moft ufual
was Sophos, which was to b<j repeated three times. Mar¬
tial comprehends feveral other ufual forms i$ this verfe t
Graviter, Citb, Nequiter, Euge, Beate.
Neither the Greeks nor Romans were barren on this
head. The names of gods and heroes were given thofe
W'hom they wrould extol. It w7as not enough to do it
after each head of difcourfe, chiefly after the exordium;
but the acclamations wrere renewed at every fine paf-
fage, frequently at every period.
The acclamations with which the fpedlators honoured
the vidlories of the athletae, were a natural confequence
of the impetuous motions which attended the gymna-
ftic games. The cries and acclamations of the people,
fometimes expreffing their compaffion and joy, fome¬
times their horror and difguft, are ftrongly painted by
different poets and orators.
Acclamations made alfo a part of the ceremony of
marriage. They were ufed for the omen’s fake ; being
the Lceta Omina, fometimes fpoken of before marriage
in Roman wrriters.
Acclamations, at firft pradlifed in the theatre, and
paffing thence to the fenate, &c. were in procefs of time
received into the adts of councils, and the ordinary af¬
femblies of the church. The people expreffed their
approbation of the preacher varioufly ; the more ufual
forms were, Orthodox l Third Apqjlle,iS’c. Thefe accla¬
mations being fometimes carried to excefs, and often
mifplaced, wrere frequently prohibited by the ancient
dodlors, and at length abrogated ; though they ap¬
pear to have been in fome ufe about the time of St
Bernard.
Acclamation
ACC [ 12
Acclivity Acclamation Medals, among Antiquaries, fuch as
|| reprefent the people expreffing their joy in the pollute
Accolti. 0£ aCclamation.
ACCLIVITY, the rife or afcent of a hill, m oppo-
fition to the declivity or defcent of it. Some writers
in fortification ufe it for the talus of a rampart.
ACCOLA, among the Romans, figniiied a perion
who lived near fome place ; in which fenfe, it differed
from incola, the inhabitant of fuch a place. .
ACCOLADE, a ceremony anciently ufed m the
conferring of knighthood. ... , ,
Antiquaries are not agreed wherein the accolade
properly confided. The generality fuppofe it to be the
embrace, or kifs, which princes anciently gave the new
knight, as a token of their affeftion : whence the word
accolade; q. d. a clafping, or taking round the neck.
Others will rather have it to be a blow on the chine oi
the neck, given on the fame occafion. T. he Accolade
is of fome antiquity, in whichfoever of the two fenfes
it be taken. Greg, de Tours writes, that the kings oi
France, even of the lirft race, in conferring the gilt
fhoulder-belt, biffed the knights on the left cheek. 1 or
the accolee, or blow, John of Saliibury affures us, it
was in ufe among the ancient Normans : by this it
was that William the Conqueror conferred the honour
of knighthood on his fon Henry. At firfl it was given
with the naked fift 5 but was afterwards changed into
a blow with the flat of the fword on the ftioulder or
the knight. .
ACCOLF/E, fometimes fynonymous with Acco¬
lade, which fee.—It is alfo ufed in various fenfes in
heraldy; fometimes it is applied to two things joined 5
at other times, to animals with crowns or collars about
their necks, as the lion in the Ogilvy’s arms > and, Lil¬
ly, to kews, battons, maces, fwords, &c. placed faltier-
wife behind the fhield.
ACCOLTI, Benedict, the younger, grandion ot
Benedidl Accolti the elder, who flouriflied about the
year 1376, was born at Arezzo in iqiS- About the
year 1450, he was appointed fecretary to the republic
of Florence, when he was greatly diftinguiftied. He
wrote “ Four Books concerning the War which the
Chriftians carried on againft: the Infidels to recover
Judaea and the Holy Sepulchre.” This work was
printed at Venice in 1532, and it is the ground-plot
of Taflb’s Jerufalem Delivered. He wrote alfo an ac¬
count of the “ Excellent Perfonages of his 'lime,'’ in
the form of dialogue. He died in 1466.
Accolti, BencdiU, was nephew, or according to
fome, grandfon of Peter Accolti, and was born at
Florence in 1497. He was much diftinguiflied for his
knowledge of law, and a moll retentive memory ; and
was fuch°a mailer of the Latin language, that he ob¬
tained the flattering appellation of the Cicero of toe age.
He enjoyed very high ecclefiailical honours : Leo
bellowed on him the biihopric of Cadiz} Adrian the VI.
gave him that of Cremona, and the archbiihopric ol
Ravenna 5 and Clement VII. railed him to the rank
of cardinal. At the requeft of Clement, he wrote a
treatife in vindication of the pope’s right to the king¬
dom of Naples. Pie left feveral other works, and
particularly fome pieces of poetry. Pie aied at Florence
in 1549. ,
Accolti, Francis, brother of the former, was born
about the year 1418. He was profeflor of jurifpiu-
7 ] ACC
dence in feveral univerflties, and wasftyled the prince 7/^0comma- ■
lawyers. Plis underitanding was vigorous, his know- c a ^lon
ledge was extenfive, and his eloquence powerful j but Accompa-
he was fo fordidly parflmonious that he amaffed im- niment.
menfe treafures. He died about the year 147° S an^ v—^
left behind him feveral works on law, and iome trani-
lations of the works of Chryfoilom.
Accolti, Peter, the fon of Benedidl the younger,
was born at Arezzo about the year 1455* was a
profeiTor of law, and taught with great reputation. He
ivas fucceflively raifed to feveral bifhopiics, and at lull
to the rank of cardinal in 151J. Pie was created by
Pope Leo X. prince of the ftate of Nepi. Pie wrote
a comedy entitled “ Virginia,” and fome other poems
which were much applauded by his contemporaries.
Pie died at Rome in 1532.
ACCOMMODATION, the application of one
thing, by analogy, to another 5 or the making two o„
more things agree with one another.
To know a thing by accommodation, is to know it
by the idea of a flmilar thing refened thereto.
A prophecy of fenpture is laid to be fulfilled vari¬
ous ways j properly, as when a thing foretold comes
to pals 5 and improperly, or by way oi accommoda¬
tion, when an event happens to any place or people,
like to what fell out fome time before to another.—
Thus, the words of Ifaiah, fpoken to thofe oi his own
time, are faid to be fulfilled in thofe who lived in our
Saviour’s \ and are accommodated to them : “ Ye hy¬
pocrites, well did Efaias prophefy of you,” &c. which
fame words St Paul afterwards accommodates to the
Jews of his time.
The primitive church accommodated multitudes oi
Jewifh, and even heathen ceremonies and pra&ices, to
Chriftian purpofes j but the Jews had before done the
fame by the Gentiles : fome will even have circumci-
fion, the tabernacle, brazen ferpent, &c. to have been
originally of Egyptian ufe, and only accommodated by
Mofes to the purpofes of Judaifm*. Spencer maintains, * W/v
that moft of the rites of the old law were m imitation
of thofe of the Gentiles, and particularly of the Egyp- L ‘ ‘
tians j that God, in order to divert the.children of lf-
rael from the worfhip they paid to their falfe deities,
confecrated the greateft part of the ceremonies per¬
formed by thofe idolaters, and had formed out of them
a body of the ceremonial law ", that he had indeed made
fome alterations therein, as barriers againft idolatry j
and that he thus accommodated his w’orfhip to the genius
and occafions of his ancient people. To this conde-
feenflon of God, according to Spencer f, is owing the t ^ ^
origin of the tabernacle, and particularly that of the 4 ^
ark. Thefe opinions, however, have been controverted
by later writers.
ACCOMPANIMENT, fomething attending or
added as a circumftance to another, either by way of
ornament, or tor the fake of iymmetry.
Accompaniment, Accompagnamento, Accom-
PAGNATURA, in Mufc, denotes the mftruments which
accompany a voice, in order to fuftain it, as well as to
make the mufle more full. The accompaniment is uied
in recitative, as well as in fong ”, on the ftage, as well
as in the choir, &c. The ancients had likewife their
accompaniments in the theatre j they had even differ--
ent kinds of inftruments to accompany the chorus, fronn
thofe which accompanied the a&ors in the recitation..
ACC [i
Accompa- The accompaniment, among the moderns, is frequent-
mment a (Jifferent part or melody from the fong it accom-
Accords. Panies* ft *s difputed whether it was fo among the
ancients. It is generally alleged, that their accompa¬
niments went no farther than the playing in octave, or
in antiphony to the voice. The Abbe Fraguier, from
a palfage in Plato, .pretends to prove, that they had ac¬
tual fymphony, or mafic in parts ; but his arguments
feem far from being conclufive.
Accompaniment, in Painting, denotes fuch objefts
as are added, either by way of ornament or fitnefs to
the principal figures j as clogs, guns, game, &c. in a
hunting piece.
Accompaniment, in Heraldry, any thing added to
a ihield by way of ornament; as the belt, mantling,
fupporters, &c. It is alfo applied to feveral bearings
about a principal one j as a faltier, bend, fefs, chev¬
ron, 8tc.
ACCOMPLICE, one that has a hand in abufinefs^
-or is privy in the fame defign or crime with another.
See Accessory.
By the law of Scotland, the accomplice can only be
profecuted after the conviction of the principal offend¬
er, unlefs the acceffion of the accomplice is immediate,
in ipfo aBu, fo as in effect to render them co-principal.
By the general rule, the accomplice fuffers the fame pu-
nifhment with the principal offender ; yet if he be re¬
markably lefs guilty, juftice will not permit equaLpu-
nhhment.
The council of Sens, and feveral other fynodical fta-
-tutes, exprefsly prohibit the revealing of accomplices.
ACCOMPLISHMENT, the entire execution or
fulfilling of any thing.
Accomplishment is principally ufed in fpeaking
of events foretold by -the Jewilh prophets in the Old
Teftament, and fulfilled under the New. We fay a
literal accomplithment, a my flic al or fpiritual accom-
plifhment, a fingle accomplifhment, a double accom-
plifhment, a Jewifh accomplilhment, a Chriftian, a hea¬
then accomplifhment. The fame prophecy is fome-
times accomplilhed in all, or in feveral of thofe differ¬
ent ways. Thus, of fome of the prophecies of the
Old Teftament, the Jews find a literal accomplifhment
in their own hiftory, about the time when the prophe¬
cy was given : the Chriftians find another in Chrift,
or the earlieff days of the church 5 the heathens ano¬
ther, in fome of their emperors j the Mahometans ano¬
ther, in their legiflator, &c. There are two principal
ways of accomplifhing a prophecy, dire&ly, and by ac¬
commodation. See Accommodation, and Prophe¬
cy.
Accomplishment, is .alfo ufed for ..any mental or
perfonal endowment.
ACCORD, in Painting, is the harmony that reigns
among the lights and {hades of a pifture.
ACCORDS, Stephen Tabourot, seigneur dec,
-advocate in the parliament of Dijon.in France, and king’s
advocate in the bailiwick and chancery of that city, was
born in 1549. He was a man of genius and learn¬
ing ; but too much addifled to trifles, as appears from
his piece, entitled, “ Les Bigarrures,” printed at Paris
in 1582. This was not his firfl: produdlion, for he had
before printed fome fonnets. His work, entitled Les
‘Touches, was publiflied at Paris in 1585 ; which is
indeed a collection of witty poems, but worked up in
•i 3
8 ] A € C
a loofe manner, according to the licentious tafte of Accorfo.
that age. His Bigarrures are written in the fame—y—
ftrain. He was cenfured for this way of writing,
which obliged him to publifh an apology. The lord-
fhip of Accords is an imaginary fief or title from the
device of his anceftors, which was a drum, with the
.motto a tons accords, “ chiming with all.” Lie had
Tent a fonnet to a daughter of M. Begat, the great
and learned .prefident of Burgundy, “ who (fays he)
• did me .the honour to love .me : And inafmuch (con¬
tinues he), I had fubfcribed my fonnet with only my
■ device d tons accords, this lady firft nicknamed me, in
her anfwer, Seigneur des Accords; by which title her
father alfo called me feveral times. For this reafon I
.chofe this furname, not only in all my writings com-
pofed at that time, but even in thefe books.” He died
in 1595, in the 46th year of his age.
ACCORSO (in Latin Accurjius), Francis, the el¬
der, an eminent lawyer, was born at Bagnolo, near
Florence, in 1182. He began the ftudy of law at a
date period of life 5 but fuch were his afliduity and
proficiency, that he foon diftinguifhed himfelf. He
was appointed profeflor at Bologna, and became a very
eminent teacher. He undertook the .great -work of
uniting and arranging into one body the almoft end-
lefs comments and remarks upon the Code, the Infli-
tutes, and Digefts, which, he obferved, only tended to
involve the lubjecls in obfcurity and contradiction.
When he was employed in this work, it is faid, that
hearing of a fimilar one propofed and begun by Odo-
fred, another lawyer of Bologna, he feigned indifpo-
fition, interrupted his public leCtures, and fhut himfelf
up, till he had, with the utmoft expedition, accomplifh-
ed his defign. His work, entitled “ A Perpetual
Commentary,” was much efteemed. It was printed
with the “ Body of Law,” publiflied at Lyons in
.162 7- He died in 1260, and left very great riches.
His fon, the younger Francis Accorfo, fucceeded him
in his profeflbrfhip, and accompanied Edward I. to
England, on his return from the crufade i^ 1237.
{Gen. Biog.)
Accor so, Mariangelo, a learned and ingenious
critic, was a native of Aquila, in the kingdom of
Naples, and lived about the beginning of the fix-
teenth century. To a perfeCl knowledge of Greek
and Latin, he added an intimate acquaintance with
feveral modern languages. Claflical literature was
much improved and promoted by his labours. In
difcovering and collating ancient manufcripts he dif-
played uncommon afliduity and diligence. His work,
entitled “ Diatribesf printed at Rome, in folio, in
1524, is a Angular monument of erudition and cri¬
tical fkill. He bellowed, it is faid, .unufual pains
on Claudian, and made above feven hundred correc¬
tions in the works of that poet, from different manu¬
fcripts. Unfortunately the world has been deprived
of the advantage of thefe criticifms ; for they were
never publifhed. Thefe correftions were made while
he travelled on horfeback during a tour through Ger¬
many, a circumflance which is ftrongly charaCteriftic
of his induftry and afliduity. An edition of Amtnia-
nus Marcellinus, which he publiflied at Augfhurg in
1533, contains five books more than any former one.
Fie was the firfl editor of the “ Letters of Cafliodo-
rus,” with his “ Treatife on the Soul.” The affe&yd
ufe
ACC
[
12
ufe of antiquated terms introduced by fome. of the
Latin writers of that age, is humouroufly ridiculed
in a dialogue publilhed in 153 1 > entitled, “ Ofco, Vo
fco, Romanoque, FJoqwsntia, Interlocutorwus, Dia/ogus
Ludis Romanis aBus” He compofed a book on the
invention of printing. On the firft leaf of a grammar o
Donatus. printed on vellum, there is written with his
own hand : “ This Donatus, with another book en¬
titled “ ConfeJJionalia” were the firft books printed;
and John Fauitus, citizen of Mentz, inventor of the
art, had put them to the prefs in the year 1450.”
He had been accufed of plagiarifm in his notes on
Aufonius 5 and the folemn and determined manner in
which he repelled this charge of literary theft, prefents
us with a Angular inltance of his anxiety and care to
preferve his literary reputation unftaftred and pure.
It is in the following oath : “ In the name of gods
and men, of truth and fincerity, I Solemnly fwear, and,
if any declaration be more binding than an oath, I
in that form declare, and I defire that my declaration
may be received as ftridlly true, that I have never
read or feen any author, from which my own jucubra-
tions have received the fmalleft afhftance or improve-
ijient j nay, that I have even laboured, as rar as pof-
fible, whenever any writer has publifhed any obferva-
tions which I myfelf had before made, immediately
to blot them out of my own works. If in this decla¬
ration I am forfworn, may the pope punifh^ my per¬
jury *, and may an evil genius attend my writings, fo
that whatever in them is good, or at leaf! tolerable,
may appear to the unlkilful multitude exceedingly
bad, and even to the learned trivial and contemptible 5
and may the fmall reputation I now poffefs be given to
the winds, and regarded as the worthlefs boon of vul¬
gar levity.” {Gen. Biogd)
ACCOUNT, or Accompt, in.a general fenfe, a
computation or reckoning of any thing by numbers.——
Colleftively it is ufed to exprefs the oooks wdnch
merchants, traders, bankers, &c. ufe for recording
their tranfaftions in bufinefs. See Book-keeping.
Chamber of Accounts, in the French polity, a fove-
reign court of great antiquity, which took cognizance
of and regiftered the accounts of the king s revenue j
nearly the fame with the Englifh Court of Exchequer.
Account is taken fometimes, in a particular fenfe,
for the computation of time : thus we fay, the Julian
Account, the Gregorian Account, &c. in which fenfe
it is equivalent to Jlyie.
ACCOUNTANT, or Accountant, in the moft
general fenfe, is a perfon fkilled in accounts. In a more
reftridted fenfe, it is applied to a perfon, or officer ap¬
pointed to keep the accounts of a public company or
office: as the South Sea, the India Company, the
Bank, the Excife, &c.
ACCOUNTANTSHIP, the art of keeping and
balancing accounts. See Book-keeping.
ACCOUNTANT-genekal, a new officer in the
court of chancery, appointed by act of parliament to
receive all monies lodged in court inftead of the mailers,
and convey the fame to the bank of England for fecurity.
ACCOUTREMENT, an old term applied to the
furniture of a foldier, knight, or gentleman.
ACCRETION, in Phyfics, the increafe or growth
of an organical body, by the acceffion of new parts.
See Nutrition, Plants, and Vegetables.
Yol. I. Part I.
9 1 A C C
Accretion, among Civilians, the property acquired Accrocl.e
in a vague or unoccupied thing, by its adhering to or AccJrfe(ji
following another already occupied : thus, if a legacy   ,
be left to two perfons, one of whom dies before the
teilator, the legacy devolves to the furvivor by right ox
accretion.
ACCROCHE, in Heraldry, denotes a thing’s being-
hooked with another.
ACCUBATION, a pofture of the body, between
fitting and lying. The word comes from the Latin ac-
cubare, compounded of ad, to, and cubo, 1 lievdown.
Accubation, or Accubitus, was the table poilure of the
Greeks and Romans \ whence we find the words par¬
ticularly ufed for the lying, or rather (as we call it)
fitting down to meat. The Greeks introduced this
pofture. The Romans, during the frugal ages of the
republic, were ftrangers to it 5 but as luxury got foot¬
ing, this pofture came to be adopted, at leaft by the
men ; for as to women, it was reputed an indecency in
them to lie down among the men : though, afterwards,
this too was got over. Children did not lie down,
nor fervants, nor foldiers, nor perfons of meaner con¬
dition. I hey took their meals fitting, as a pofture lets
indulgent. The Roman manner of difpofing themfelves
at table was this : A low round table was placed in
the ccenaculum, or dining room, and, about this,
ufually three, fometimes only two, beds or couches *,
and according to their number, it was called bich-
niutn or triclinium. Thefe were covered with a fort of
bedclothes, richer or plainer according to the quality
of the perfon, and furniffied with quilts and pillows,
that the guefts might lie the more commodioufly. There
were ufually three perfons on each bed } to crowd
more, w-as efteemed fordid. In eating, they lay down
on their left Tides, with their heads refting on the pil¬
lows, or rather on their elbows. I he firft lay at the
head of the bed, with his feet extended behind the
back of the fecond ; the fecond lay with the back of
his head towards the navel of the firft, only feparated
by a pillow, his feet behind the back of the third 5 and
fo of the third or fourth. The middle place was efteem¬
ed the moft honourable. Before they came to table,
they changed their clothes, putting on what they called
ccenatorm vefis, the dining garment } and pulled oft
their ffioes, to prevent foiling the couch.
ACCUBITOR, an ancient officer of the emperors
of Conftantinople, whofe bufinefs was to lie near the
emperor. He wTas the head of the youth of the bed¬
chamber, and had the cubtculamus and procubitor under
him.
ACCUMULATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
heaping or amaffing things together. Among lawyers,
it is ufed in fpeaking of the concurrence of lereial titles
to the fame thing, or of feveral circumftances to the
fame proof. # . .
Accumulation of Degrees, in a univerfity, is tne
taking feveral of them together, or at fhorter inteir aL
than ufual or than is allowed by the rules of the uni¬
verfity.
ACCURSED, fomething that lies under a curie,
or fentence of excommunication.
In the Jewiih idiom, accurfed and crucified were fy-
nonymous. Among them, every one was accounted
accurfed who died on a tree. This ferves to explain
the difficult paffage in Rom. ix. 3. where the apoftle
r Paul
ACC [ i
Accufation Paul wiilies liimfelf accurfed after the manner of Chrifl,
A. ecu ['at i vc c‘ cruc^'ecij if happily he might by fuch a death fave
. ' I his countrymen. The propohtion here made ufe
of, is ufed in the fame fenfe, 2 Tim. i. 3. where it ob-
viouily fignifies after the manner of.
ACCUSATION, the charging any perfon with a
criminal adtion, either in one’s own name, or in that
of the public. The word is compounded of ad, to;
and caufari to plead.
Writers on politics treat of the benefit and the in-
con veniencies of public accufations. Various argu¬
ments are alleged, both for the encouragement and
difeouragement of accufations againft great men. No¬
thing, according to Machiavel, tends more to the pre-
fervation of a Hate, than frequent accufations of per-
fons trufted with the adminiftration of public affairs.
This, accordingly, was ftriclly obferved by the Ro¬
mans, in the inftances of Camillits, accufed of corrup¬
tion by Manlius Capitolinus, &c. Accufations, how¬
ever, in the judgment of the fame author, are not more
beneficial than calumnies are pernicious 5 which is alfo
confirmed by the practice of the Romans. Manlius not
being able to make good his charge againft Camillus,
was caft into prifon.
By the Roman law, there was no public accufer for
public crimes 5 every private perfon, whether interefted
in the crime or not, might accufe, and profecute the
accufed to punifhment, or abfolution. Cato, the moft
innocent perfon of his age, had been accufed 42 times,
and as often abfolved. But the accufation of private
crimes wms never received but from the mouths of
thofe who were immediately interefted in them : None
(e. gf) but the hufband could accufe his wife of adul¬
tery.
The ancient Roman lawyers diftinguilhed between
pofu/atio, delatio, and accifatio. For, firft, leave was
defired to bring a charge againft one, -which was called
pojluiare: then he againft whom the charge was laid
was brought before the judge 5 which was called de-
ferre,} or nominis dclatio: laftly, the charge was drawn
up and prefented; which was properly the accifatio.
T he accufation properly commenced, according to Poe-
dianus, when the reus or party charged, being inter¬
rogated, denied he was guilty of the crime, and fubferib-
ed his name to the delatio made by his opponent.
In the French law, none but the procureur general,
or his deputies, can form an accufation, except for high
treafon and coining, where accufation is open to every
body. In other crimes, private perfons can only abt
the part of denouncers, and demand reparation for the
offence, with damages.
In Britain, by Magna Charta, no man fhall be im-
prifoned or condemned on any accufation, without trial
by his peers, or the law; none fhall be vexed with any
accufation, but according to the law of the land ; and
no man may be molefted by petition to the king, &c.
imlefs it be by indiclment or prefentment of lawful men,
or by procefs at common law. Promoters of fuggef-
tions, are to find furety to purfue them} and if they do
not make them good, fhall pay damages to the party
accufed, and alfo a fine to the king. No perfon is
obliged to anfwer upon oath to a queftion whereby he
may accufe himfelf of any crime.
ACCUSATIVE, in Latin Grammar, is the fourth
3° 1 ACE
cafe of nouns, and fignifies the relation of the noun Acaifiortitn
on which the action implied in the verb terminates} 0
and hence, in fuch languages as have cafes, thefe nouns
have a particular termination, called accufative, as, . .
Augujlus vicit Antonium, Auguftus vanquifhed An- " V"""
tony. Here Antonium is the noun on which the ac¬
tion implied in the word vick terminates ; and, there¬
fore, muft have the accufative termination. Ovid, fpeak-
ing of the palace of the fun, fays, Materiem fvperahat
opus, 1 he work furpaffed the materials. Here mate-
riem has the accufative termination j becaufe it deter¬
mines the aftion of the verb fuperabat.—In the Englilh
language there are no cafes, except the genitive ; the
relation of the noun being ftiown by the affiftance of
prepofitions, as of, to, from, &c.
ACC U SI OR U M Co lon 1 a, in Ancient Geography,
an inland town in the Cavares, in Gallia Narbonenfis 3
now Grenoble, in Dauphine. See Grenoble.
ACE, among gameiters, a card or die marked only
with one point.
ACELDAMA, in Scripture Hi/lory, a place with¬
out the fouth wall of Jeruialem, beyond the brook of
Siloam, was called the Potters field, becaufe clay of
which pots were made was dug out of it. It was af¬
terwards bought with the money with which the high
priefts and rulers of the Jews purchafed the blood of
Jelus Chrift, and hence it was called Aceldama, the
field of blood.
ACELUM, or Acelium, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Venetian territory, now called Axolo, fi-
tuated to the weft of Trevigi, at the fource of the ri¬
vulet Mufone. E. Long. 13°. N. Lat. 450.
ACENTETUM, or Acanteta, in Natural Hi-
Jlory, a name given by the ancients to the pureft and
fineft kind of rock cryftal: They ufed the cryftal
in many ways 3 fometimes engraving cm it, and fome-
times forming it into vafes and cups, which were held
next in value to the vafa murrhina of thofe times.
The cryftal they obtained from the iiland of Cyprus
was much efteemed 3 but often faulty in particular
parts, having hairs, cracks, and foulneffes, which they
called falls, in the middle of the large pieces. Pliny
tells us, that when it was ufed for engraving on, the
artift could conceal all thefe blemiihes among the
ftrokes of his work 3 but when it was to be formed
into cups or precious vafes, they always chofe the
acentetum which had no flaws or blemifhes.
ACEPHALI, or Acephalitje, a term applied to
feveral lefts who rej lied to follow fame noted leader.
Thus the perfons who refufed to follow either John of
Antioch, or St Cyril, in a difpute that happened in the
council of Ephefus, were termed Acephnli, without a
head or leader. Such biihops, alfo, as were exempt
from the jurikliftion and difeipline of their patriarch,
were ftyled Acephali.
Acephali, the levellers in the reign of King Hen¬
ry I. who acknowledged no head or fuperior. They
were reckoned fo poor, that they had not a tenement
by which they might acknowledge a fuperior lord.
ACEPHALOUS, or Acephalus, in a general
fenfe 3 without a head.
The term is more particularly ufed in fpeaking of
certain nations, or people, reprefented by ancient na-
turalifts and cofmographers, as well as by fome modem
travellers,
ACE [ 131 ] ACE
Acephalous travellers, as formed without heads j their eyes, mouth,
II &c. being placed in other parts.
A-cem' i Such are the Blemmyes, a nation of Africa near the
v ~ head of the Niger, reprefented to be by Pliny and So-
linus j Blemmyes traduntur capita abejje, ore et oculis
peRore affix is. Ctefias and Solinus mention others in
India near the Ganges, fine cervice, oculos in humeris
habentes. Mela alfo fpeaks of people, qnibus capita et
vultus in peRore funt. And Suidas, Stephanus Byzan-
thius, Vopifcus, and others after them, relate the like.
Some modern travellers Hill pretend to find Acephalous
people in America.
Several opinions have been framed as to the origin
of the fable of the Acephali. The firft is that of Tho¬
mas Bartholin, who turns the whole into a metaphor 5
being convinced, that the name Acephali was anciently
given to fuch as had lefs brain, or conduced them-
felves lefs by the rules of prudence than others. Ole-
arius rather apprehends, that the ancient voyagers,
viewing certain barbarous people from the coafts, had
been impofed on by their uncouth drefs \ for that
the Samogitians, being fhort of ftature, and going in
the feverity of winter with their heads covered in
hoods, feem at a diftance as if they were headlefs. F.
Lafitau fays, that by Acephali are only meant people
whofe heads are funk below their Ihoulders. In ef-
fecl, Hulfius, in his epitome of Sir Walter Raleigh’s
voyage to Guiana, alfo fpeaks of a people which that
traveller found in the province of Irvipanama, between
the lakes of Panama and Caffipa, who had no head or
neck 5 and Hondius, in his map, marks the place with
* Drfcript. the figures of thefe monfters. Yet De Laet * rejefts
Amer. 1.17* the ftory ; being informed by others, that the inha-
c’ 2a’ bitants of the banks of the Caora, a river that flows
out of the lake of Caflipa, have their heads fo far funk
between their flioulders, that many believed they had
their eyes in their flioulders, and their mouths in their
breads.
But though the exiflence of a nation of Acephali be
ill warranted, naturalifts furnifli feveral inftances of in¬
dividuals bom without heads, by fome lufus or devia-
^ In F.ph. tion of nature. Wepfer gives f a catalogue of fuch
Gtr. dec. 1. acephalous births, from Schenckius, Licetus, Paraeus,
an. 3. obi. Wolfius, Mauriceau, &c.
I)c^'*2 1 Acephalus, an obfolete term for the taenia or
an. tape-worm, which was long fuppofed to be acephalous.
■Obfer. 143. The firfl: who gave it a head was Tulpius; and after
P- 258. him, Fehr : The former even makes it biceps, or two-
headed.
Acephalus, is alfo ufed to exprefs a verfe defec¬
tive in the beginning.
ACER, the Maple or Sycamore tree. See
Botany Index.
ACERB, a four rough aftringency of tafte, fuch as
that of unripe fruit.
ACERINA, in Ichthyology,-a. name given by Pliny
and other of the old naturalifls, to the fifli we at this
time call the ruffie. See Perca, Ichthyology Index.
ACER NO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
citerior principality of Naples, with a bifliop’s fee. It
is fituated 12 miles north-eaft of Saluno in E. Long,
ry. 46. N. Lat. 40. 45.
ACERRA, in Antiquity, an altar erefted, among
the Romans, near the bed of a perfon deceafed, on
which his friends daily offered incenfe till his burial.—
The real intention probably was to overcome any of- Acerra
fenfive fmell that might arife about the corpfe. The J!
Chinefe have ftill a cuftom like this : they erecf an al- U
tar to the deceafed in a room hung with mourning j
and place an image of the dead perfon on the altar, to
which every one that approaches it bows four times,
and offers oblations and perfumes.
The acerra allb fignified a little pot wherein were
put the incenfe and perfumes to be burnt on the altars
of the gods and before the dead. It appears to have
been the fame with what was otherwife called thuribu-
lum, and pyxis.
We find mention of acerree in the ancient church.
The Jews had alfo their acerra, in our verfion render¬
ed cenfers ; and the Romanifts ftill retain them under
the name of incenfe pots. In Roman writers, we fre¬
quently meet with plena acerra, a full acerra : to un-
de&ftand which, it is to be obferved, that people were
obliged to offer incenfe in proportion to their eftate and
condition ; the rich in larger quantities, the poor only
a few grains j the former poured out full acerra on the
altar, the latter took out two or three bits with their
fingers.
Acerra, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and in the Terra di Lavoro; feated on the ri¬
ver Agno, feven miles north-eaft of Naples. E. Long.
14. 30. N. Lat. 40. 55.
ACERRiE, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
town on the Clanius, in Campania, not far from
Naples, now Acerra.—The name alfo of another
town, now called la Girola, in the territory and to
the fouth-eaft of Lodi, where the rivulet Serio falls
into the Adda, to the weft of Cremona and north of
Placentia.
ACESINES, in Ancient Geography, a large and
rapid river of India which Alexander paffed in his ex¬
pedition into that country. The kingdom of Porus,
wdiich was conquered by Alexander, lay between
the Hydafpes and this river, which, uniting with the
former and other confiderable rivers, pours its waters
into the Indus. According to Major Rennell, the
modern Jenaub is the Acefines-tsf the ancients.
ACESIUS, a bifliop of Conftantinople in the reign
of Conftantine, wTas a rigid adherent to the Nova-
tian doctrines, according to which thofe wdiom perie-
cutions had lhaken from the faith, or wrho were guilty
of any mortal fin after baptifm, could not be admitted
to the communion of the church, even after exhibit¬
ing the moft convincing proofs of fincere repentance.
Conftantine, who was extremely difpleafed with the fe¬
verity of this rigid feft, in difcouraging and rejeftmg
repentance, is laid to have thus expreffed himfelf:
“ Then, Acefius, make a ladder for yourfelf, and go
up to heaven alone.” (Gen. Biogi)
ACESCENT, a word ufed to denote any thing
which is turning four, or which is flightly acid. It is
only applied properly to the former of thefe two mean¬
ings. The fecond may be expreffed by either of the
two words, acidulous, or fub-acid.
ACETABULUM, in Antiquity, a meafure ufed by
the ancients, equal to one-eighth of our pint. It feems
to have acquired its name from a veffel in which ace-
tum or vinegar was brought to their tables, and which
probably contained about this quantity.
Acetabulum, in Anatomy, a cavity in any bone
R 2 for
A C H [ j
Acetabu- for receiving the protuberant head of another, and
lu™ thereby forming that fpecies of articulation called En-
Aclians. arthrosis.
' V- ' _ Acetabulum, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of the peziza, or cup peziza, a genus belonging to
the cryptogamia fungi of Linnaeus. It has got' the
name of acetabulum, from the refemblance its leaves
bear to a cup. See Peziza, Botany bidex.
ACETARY. Grew, in his anatomy of plants, ap¬
plies this term to a pulpy fubftance, in certain fruits,
e. g. the pear, which is enclofed in a congeries of
fmall calculous bodies towards the bafe of the fruit,
and is always of an acid tafle.
ACETOSA, sorrel ; by Linnaeus joined to the
genus Rumex. See Botany Index.
ACETOSELLA, in Botany, a fpecies of Oxalis.
See Botany Index.
'ACETOUS, an epithet applied to fuch fubflances
as are four, or partake of the nature of vinegar.
^ ACETUM, vinegar, the vegetable acid of the
chemifts. See Acetous Acid, Chemistry Index.
ACM ABYTUS, \x\ Ancient Geography, a high moun¬
tain in Rhodes, on the top o$ which Hood a temple of
Jupiter.
ACHfEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
ifland of Rhodes, in the diftrift of Jalyfus, and the firft
and moll ancient of all, faid to be built by the Heli-
ades, or grandfons of the Sun.
Ac hie a, a hamlet of Afiatic Sarmatia, on theEuxine.
The inhabitants were called Achcei, a colony of the
Orchomenians.
ACHfEANS, the inhabitants of Achaia Propria,
a Peloponnefian Hate. This republic was not confi-
derable m early times, for the number of its troops,
nor for its wealth, nor for the extent of its territories 5
but it was famed for its probity, its juflice, and its
love of liberty. Its high reputation for thefe virtues
was very ancient. The Crotonians and Sybarites, to
re-eftablifn order in their towns, adopted the laws and
cuftoms of the Achaeans. After the famous battle of
Leuftra, a difference arofe betwixt the Lacedaemonians
and Thebans, who dield the virtue of this people in
Inch veneration, that they terminated the difpute by
their deciilon. The government of the Achaeans wras
democratical. They preferved their liberty till the
time of Philip and Alexander : But in the reign of
thefe princes, and afterwards, they were either fubjedf
to the Macedonians, who had made themfelves mailers
of Greece, or oppreffed by cruel tyrants. The Achaean
commonwealth confiffed of twelve inconfiderable towns
in Peloponnefus. Its firff annals are not marked by any
great ahtion, for they are not graced wnth one eminent
character. After the death of Alexander, this little
republic was a prey to all the evils which flowT from po¬
litical difcord. Zeal for the good of the community
was now extinguilhed. Each town was only attentive
to its private intereff. There wras no longer any liabi¬
lity in the Hate for it changed its mailers with every
revolution in Macedonia. Towards the 124th Olym¬
piad, about the time when Ptolemy Soter died, and
when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the republic of the A-
chaeans recovered its old inflitutions and unanimity.
The inhabitants of Patrae and of Dymce were the firfl
affertors of ancient liberty. The tyrants were banilh-
ea, and the towns again made one commonwealth.
32 1 A C H
A public counfel was then held, in which affairs of AeLei
importance w^ere difcuffed and determined. A regiffer II
was appointed to record the tranfa&ions of the conn- Achaia'
cil. This affembly had two prefidents, who were no-
minated alternately by the different towns. But in-
Head of two prefidents, they foon elefted but one. Many
neighbouring _ towns which admired the conflitution
of this republic, founded on equality, liberty, the love
of jufdce, and of the public good, wrere incorporated
With the Acnaeans, and admitted to the full enjoyment
01 their laws and privileges.—The arms which the
Achaeans chiefly ufed w^ere flings. They w^ere trained
to the art from their infancy, by flinging from a great
diflance, at a circular mark of a moderate circumference.
By long practice they took fo nice an aim, that they
were Hire, not only to hit their enemies on the head,
but on^ any part of the face they chofe. Their flings’
w^ere of a different kind from thole of the Balearians,
whom they far furpaffcd in dexterity.
ACHZEI, Achjeans, the inhabitants of Achaia
Propria. In Livy, the people of Greece } for the mofl
pait called Achivi, by the Roman poets. In Homer,
the general name for Grecians. See Achieans. ’
ACHZEORUM portus, (Pliny) j now Por/o Buon,
a harbour of the Cherfonefus Taurica, on the Euxine :
Another near Sigaeum, into w hich the Xanthus, after
being joined by the Simois, falls.
ACHyEMENES, according to Herodotus, was
grandfather of Cambyfes, and great-grandfather of
Cyrus the iirfl, king of Perfla. MoH of the commen¬
tators of Horace are of opinion, that the Achaemenes
whom that poet mentions, ode xii. of his 2d book, was
one of the Perfian monarchs ; but, if that wrere true,
he mufl have reigned before the Medes fubdued the
I ei flans} for we uo not hear of any king of that name
from the time that the Perfians founded that great mo¬
narchy, W’hich is looked upon as the fecond univerfal
one. However this be, the epithet Acheetnenians is
frequently given to the Perflatis, in the old Latin
poets. '
Achiemenes, fon of Darius I. king of Perfia, and
brother of Xerxes, had the government of Egypt be-
Howed on him, after Xerxes had forced the Egyptians
to return to their allegiance. He fome time after com¬
manded the Egyptian fleet in the celebrated expedition
which proved fo fatal to all Greece. The Egyptians
having again taken up arms after the death of Xerxes,
Achaemenes wras fent into Egypt to fupprefs the rebel¬
lion ; but was vanquished by Inarus, chief of the rebels,
fuccoured by the Athenians.
ACHdEUS, coufm-german to Seleucus Ceraunus
and Antiochus the Great, kings of Syria, became a
very powerful monarch, and enjoyed the dominions he
had ufurped for many years 5 but at laff he was punifli-
ed for his ufurpations in a dreadful manner, in the
140th year of Rome, as related by Polybius*. * Lh, viii
ACHAIA, a name taken for that part of Greece cap. 56.
which Ptolemy calls Hellas ; the younger Pliny, Grcc-
cia; now called Livadia: bounded on the north by
Theffaly, the river Sperchius, the Sinus Maliacus, and
Mount Oeta \ on the well by the river Achelous ; on
the eaff, turning a little to the north, it is wafhed by
the Archipelago, down to the promontory of Sunium ;
on the fouth; joined to Peloponnefus, or the Morea, by
the iflhmus of Corinth, five miles broad.
Achaia
A C H [ 133 I A C H
A'chaia Acbaia Propria, anciently a fmall diflrifl in the
II north of Peloponnefus, running weftward along the bay
A-cheen. ^ Qf corinth, and bounded on the well by the Ionian
—v fea, on the fouth by Elis and Arcadia, and on the call
by Sicyonia : inhabitants, the Achceans, properly fo
called ; its metropolis, Pa tree. It is now called Roma¬
nia Alta, in the Morea.
Achaia was alfo taken for all thofe countries that
joined in the Achaean league, reduced by the Romans
to a province. Likewife for Peloponnefus.
Achaue Prejbyteri, or the Prelbyters of Achaia,
were thofe who were prefent at the martyrdom of St
Andrew the apoltle, A. D. 59; and are laid to have
written an epiltle in relation to it. Bellarmin, and fe-
veral other eminent writers in the church of Rome, al¬
low it to be genuine ; while Du Pin, and fome others,
exprefsly reje£l it.
ACHAIUS, fon of Ethwin, was raifed to the
crown of Scotland, A. D. 788. The emperor Char¬
lemagne fent air embafly to this prince to requell an
alliance with him againll the Englilh, whofe pirates fo
infelted the fea?, that the merchants could not carry on
their trade. This alliance was cpncluded in France
upon conditions fo advantageous to the Scots, that
Achaius, to perpetuate the memory of it, added to the
arms of Scotland a double field fowed with lilies. He
died in 819.
ACHALALACTLI, in Ornithology, a fpecies of
king’s-filher. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
ACH AN, the fon of Carmi, of the tribe, of Judah,
at the taking of Jericho concealed two hundred Ihekels
of filver, a Babylonilh garment, and a wedge of gold,
contrary to the exprefs command of God. This fin
proved fatal to the Ifraelites, who were repulfed at the
fiege of Ai. In this dreadful exigence, Jolhua proltrat-
ed himfelf before the Lord, and begged that he would
have mercy upon his people. Achan was difeovered
by calling lots, and he and his children were Honed to
death. This expiation being made, Ai was taken by
llratagem. Jolh. vii. 8, 9.
ACHANE, an ancient Perfian corn meafure, con¬
taining 45 Attic medimni.
ACH ARACA, anciently a town of Lydia, fituated
between Tralles and Nyfa 5 in which were the temple
of Pluto, and the cave Charonium, where patients llept
in order to obtain a cure.
ACHAT, in Law, implies a purchafe or bargain.
And hence probably purveyors were called Achators,
from their making bargains.
ACHATES, the companion of yEneas, and his moll
faithful friend, celebrated in VirgiL
Achates, in Natural Hi/lory, the fame as Agate.
Achates, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily,
now the Drillo; which runs from north to fouth, almoll
parallel with, and at no great dillance from, the Gela;
and rifes in the north of the territory of Noto. It
gave name to the achates, or agate, faid to be firll
found there.
ACHAZIB, or Achzib, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Galilee, in the tribe of Alher, nine miles from
Ptolemais.—Alfo a town in the more fouthern parts of
the tribe of Judah.
ACHEEN, Ache', or Achen, a kingdom of Su¬
matra in the .Eall Indies, fituated on the north-weflern
part of the illand. •
The capital is fituated on a river which empties it- Aeheerv
felf near the north-well point, or Acheen head, about' v—
two miles from the mouth. It lies in a wide valley,
formed like an amphitheatre by two lofty ranges of hills.
The river is not large, and by emptying itfelf in feveral
channels is rendered very lhallow at the bar. In the
dry monfoon, it will not admit boats of any burthen,
much lefs large veffels, which lie without, in the road
formed by the illands off the point. Though no longer
the great mart of eallern commodities, it Hill carries
on a confiderable trade with the natives of that part of
the coall of Indollan called Pel ling a, who fupply it with
the cotton goods of their country, and receive in re-
turn, gold dull, fapan wood, betel-nut, patch-leaf, a
little pepper, fulphur, camphire, and benzoin. The
country Js fupplied with Bengal opium, and alfo with
iron, and many other articles of merchandife, by the
European traders.
Acheen is elteemed, comparatively, healthy, being
more free from woods and fwamps than moll other por¬
tions of the illand ; and the fevers and dyfenteries to
which thefe are fuppofed to give-occafion, are there
faid to be uncommon. The foil is light and fertile ;
and the produdls, befide thofe already enumerated as
articles of export trade, and a variety of fine fruits, are
chiefly rice and cotton. There is likewife fome raw
filk procured in the country, of very inferior quality,
Gold dull is collefled in the mountains near Acheen,
but the greatelt part is brought from the fouthern ports
of Nalaboo and Soofoo. The fulphur is gathered from
a volcano mountain in the neighbourhood, which fup-
plies their own confumption for the manufadlure of
gunpowder, and admits of a large exportation.
In their perfons, the Achenefe differ from the reft of
the Sumatrans, being taller, llouter, and darker com-
plexioned. They appear not t6 be a genuine people } but
are thought, with great appearance of reafon, to be a
mixture of Battas, Malays, and Moors, from the weft of
India. In their difpofitions they are more aflive and
indullrious than their neighbours : they poffefs more
penetration and fagacity; have more general know¬
ledge ; and, as merchants, they deal upon a more exten-
five and liberal footing. Their religion is Mahometan-
ifm; and having a great number of mofques and priefts,,
its forms and ceremonies are ftridtly obferved.
The appearance of the town and the nature of the
buildings, are much the fame as are found in the ge¬
nerality of Malay bazars, excepting that the fuperior
wealth of this place has occafioned a great number •
of public edifices, but without the fmalleft pretenfions
to magnificencel The king’s palace, if it deferves the
appellation^ is a very rude and uncouth piece of archi ¬
tecture, defigned to refill the force of an enemy, and
furrounded for that purpofe by ftrong walls, but with¬
out any regular plan, ci view to the modern fyllem of
military attack. The houfes in common are built of
bamboos and rough timber, and raifed fome feet from
the ground on account of the place being overflowed
in the rainy feafon.
A codfiderable fabric of a thick fpecies of cotton
cloth, and of Huff for the Ihort drawers worn both .by
Malays and Achenefe, is eftabliflied here, and fupplies -
an extenfive demand. They weave alfo very handfome -
filk pieces, of a particular form, for that part of the
drefs which is called by the Malays cayen ferrong.
The
A G H r 134 ] A C H
The Achenefe are expert and bold navigators,
and employ a variety of veffels, according to the
voyages they undertake, and the purpofes for which
they deiign them. The river is covered with a mul¬
titude of filhing fampans or canoes, which go to fea
with the morning breeze, and return in the afternoon,
with the fea wind, full laden.
Having no convenient coins, though moil fpecies of
money will be taken here at a valuation, they com¬
monly make their payments in gold dull, and for that
purpofe are all provided with fcales or fmall fteelyards.
They carry their gold about them, wrapped up in
pieces of bladder, and often purchafe to fo fmall an
amount, as to make ufe of grain or feeds for weights,
The monarchy is hereditary j and the king ufually
maintains a guard of 100 fepoys about his palace.
According to Mr Marfden, “ the grand council
of the nation confifts of the king or Julian, four
oolooballangs, and eight of a lower degree, who fit
on his right hand, and fixteen cajoorangs, who fit
on his left. At the king’s feet fits a woman, to
whom he makes known his pleafure : by her it is
communicated to an eunuch, who fits next to her j
and by him to an officer named cajoorang gondong,
who then proclaims it aloud to the affembly. There
are alfo prefent two other officers, one of whom
has the government of the ba%ar or market, and the
other the fuperintending and carrying into execution
the puniffiment of criminals. All matters relative to
commerce and the cuftoms of the port come under the
jurifdiclion of the Jhabandar, who performs the ce¬
remony of giving the chap or licenfe for trade •, which
is done by lifting a golden-halted creefe over the head
of the merchant who arrives, and without which he
dares not to land his goods. Prefents, the value of
which are become pretty regularly afcertained, are then
fent to the king and his officers. If the Arranger be in
the ftyle of an ambafiador, the royal elephants are fent
down to carry him and his letters to the monarch’s
prefence ; thefe being firft delivered into the hands of
an eunuch, who places them in a filver diffi, covered
with rich filk, on the back of the largeil elephant,
which is provided with a machine {bonder) for that
purpofe. Within about an hundred yards of an open
hall where the king fits, the cavalcade flops, and the
ambafiador difmounts, and makes his obeifance by bend¬
ing his body, and lifting his joined hands to his head.
When he enters the palace, if an European, he is
obliged to take off his ffioes; and having made a fe-
cond obeifance, is feated upon a carpet on the floor,
where betel is brought to him. The throne was-feme
years ago of ivory and tortoifeffiell 5 and when the place
was governed by queens, a curtain of gauze was hung
before it, which did not obftrufl the audience, but pre¬
vented any perfeft view. The ftranger, after fome ge¬
neral difeourfe, is then conduced to a feparate build¬
ing, wrhere he is entertained with the delicacies of the
country by the officers of ftate, and in the evening re¬
turns in the manner he came, furrounded by a prodi¬
gious number of lights. On high days {aree ryah) the
king goes in great ftate, mounted on an elephant richly
caparifoned, to the great mofque, preceded by his ooloo¬
ballangs, who are armed nearly in the European manner.”
The country under the immediate jurifdicffion of
Acheen, is divided into three diftrifts, named Buo-
pooloo duo, Duo-pooloo leemo, and Duo-pooloo an am. Each Acheen,
diftricl is governed by a pangleemo, and under him an Achelous.
imautn and four pangeeches to each mofque. •.
“ Acheen has ever been remarkable for the feveritv
with which crimes are puniffied by their laws : the
fame rigour ftill fubfifts, and there is no commutation
admitted, as is regularly eftabliffied in. the fouthern
countries. There is great reafon, however, to conclude,
that the poor alone experience the rod of juftice } the
nobles being fecure from retribution in the number of
their dependants. Petty theft is punilhed by fufpend-
ing the criminal from a tree, with a gun or heavy
weight tied to his feet 5 or by cutting off a finger, a
hand, or leg, according to the nature of the theft.
Many of thefe mutilated and wretched objedls are daily
to be feen in the ftreets. Robbery on, the highway and
houfe-breaking are punilhed by drowning, and after¬
wards expofing the body on a flake for a few days. If
the robbery is committed upon an imaum or prieft, the
facrilege is expiated by burning the criminal alive. A
man who is convifted of adultery is feldom attempted
to be fereened by his friends,- but is delivered up to the
friends and relations of the injured hufband. Thefe
take him to fome large plain, and forming themfelves
in a circle, place him in the middle. A large weapon
called a gadoobong, is then delivered to him by one of
his family } and if he can force his way through thofe
who furround him, and make his efcape, he is not li¬
able to further profecution •, but it commonly happens
that he is inftantly cut to pieces. In this cafe his rela¬
tions bury him as they would a dead buffalo, refilling '
to admit the corpfe into their houfe, or to perform any
funeral rites.” Thefe difeouragements to vice might
feem to befpeak a moral and virtuous people : yet all
travellers agree in reprefenting the Achenefe as one of
the moft diffioneft and flagitious nations of the Eaft.
Acheen was vifited by the Portuguefe in 1509, only
12 years after they had difeovered the paffage to the
Eaft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. They made
various attempts to eftabliffi themfelves in the country,
but were expelled with difgrace. See Sumatra.
ACHELOUS, in Fabulous Hi/iory, wreftled with
Hercules, for no lefs a prize than Deianira, daughter
of King CEneus: but as Achelous had the power of af-
fuming all lhapes, the conteft was long dubious: at laft,
as he took that of a bull, Hercules tore off one of his
horns; fo that he was forced to fubmit, and to redeem
it by giving the conqueror the horn of Amalthea, the
fame with the Cornucopiae or horn of plenty j which
Hercules having filled with a variety of fruits, confe-
crated to Jupiter. Some explain this fable, by faying,
That Achelous is a winding river of Greece, whole
ftream was fo rapid, that it roared like ahull, and over¬
flowed its banks ; but Hercules, by bringing it into
two channels, broke off one of the horns, and fo reftor-
ed plenty to the country. See the next article.
Acrxlous, a river of Acarnania ; which rifes in
Mount Pindus, and, dividing fEtolia from Acarnania,
falls from north to fouth into the Sinus Corinthiacus.
It was formerly called Fhoas from its impetuofity, and
king of rivers, (Homer). The epithet Acheloius is
ufed for Aqueus, (Virgil) 5 the ancients calling all wa¬
ter Achelous, efpecially in caths, vows, and facrifcqs,
according to Ephorus : Now called Afpro Fotqmo.
Rivers are by the ancient poets called Fauriforw r
either
A C H
[ 135 1
A C H
AcKeri
H.
Achiar.
either from the bellowing of their waters, or
their ploughing the earth in their courfe : Hercules,
reftraining by dikes and mounds the inundations c-i the
* Acbelous, is faid to have broken off one of his horns,
&nd to have brought back plenty to tiie country. See
the preceding article. .
ACHERI, Luke a learned Benedictine of the
congregation of St Tvlaur, was born at St Quint in, in
Picardy, in 1609 and made himfelf famous py print¬
ing feveral works, which till then were only in nnmu-
fcript : particularly, the enidle attributed to St Bar¬
nabas 5 the works of Lanfranc, archbishop of Canter¬
bury 5 a coileftion of fcarce and curious pieces, under
the title of Sfnci/egwm, i. e. Gleanings, in thirteen vo¬
lumes, quarto. I he prefaces and notes, which i.e an¬
nexed to many of thefe pieces, Ihow him to have been
a man of genius and abilities. He had alio fome share in
the pieces inlerted in the firft volumes of 1 he axis of
the Saints of the order of St Benedict; the title where¬
of acquaints us that they were collected and publiihed
by him and Father Mabillon. After a very retired life,
till the age of 73> at Paris the 29th of iVp.tl
1685, in the abbey of St Germain in the Fields, where
he had been librarian.
ACHERNER, or Acharner, a ftar of the firlt
magnitude in the fouthern extremity of the conftella-
tion Eridanus, but invifible in our latitude.
ACHERON, in Mythology, a river of Epirus. The
poets feigned it to have been the ion of Ceres, whom
die hid in hell for fear of the Titans, and turned into
a river, over which fouls departed were ferried in their
way to Elyfium. .
Acheron, in Ancient Geography, a nver of Tnei-
protia, in Epirus ; which, after forming the lake Ache-
rufia, at no great diftance from the promontory of Chi-
merium, falls into the fea to the weft of the Sinus Am-
bracius, in a courfe. from north to fouth.
Acheron, or Acheros, a river of the Bruttii in
Italy, running from eaft to weft; where Alexander
king of Epirus was flain by the Lucani, being deceived
by the oracle of Dodona, which bade him beware of
Acheron.
ACHARSET, an ancient meafure of corn, conjec¬
tured to be the fame with cur quarter, or eight bufnels.
ACHERUS1A palus, a lake between Cumae and
the promontory IVIifenum, now ?/ Go-go delta (<oh,ucia.
(Cluverius). Some confound it with the Lac us Lucri-
nus, and others with the Lacus Averni. But Strabo and
Pliny diftinguiih them. The former takes it to' be an
effunon, exundation, or waihes of the lea, and there¬
fore called by Lycophron, x,v<rr,.—Alfo a lake
of Epirus, through which the Acheron runs,—There
is alfo an Acherufia, a peninfula of Bithynia on the
Euxine, near Heracles and a cave there of the fame
name, through which Hercules is fabled to have ae-
feended to hell to drag forth Cerberus.
ACHIAR, is a Malayan word, which fignifies. all
forts of fruits and roots pickled with vinegar and ipice.
The Dutch import from Batavia all forts of achiar, but
particularly that of Bamboo, a kind of cane, extreme¬
ly thick, which grows in the Eaft Indies. It is pre-
ferved there, whilft it is ftill green, with very ftrong
vinegar and Ipice \ and is called bamboo achiar. The
name changes according to the fruit with which the
achiar is made.
ACHICOLUM, is ufed to exprefs Mt fornix, tho-
lus, or fudatorium ef the ancient baths; which was a
hot room where they uled to Iweat. It is alio called
architholus.
ACHILLJEA, Yarrow, Milfoil, Nosebleed,
or Sneezewort. See Botany Index.
ACHILLEID, Achilleis, a celebrated poem of
Statius, in which that author propofed to deliver the
whole life and exploits of Achilles*, but being prevent¬
ed by death, he has only treated of the infancy and
education of his hero. See Statius.
ACHILLES, one of the greateft heroes of ancient
Greece, was the Ion of Peleus and Thetis. He was
a native of Phthia, in Theffaly. His mother, it is laid,
in order to confume every mortal part of his body, ufed
to lay him every night under live coals, anointing him
with ambrofta, which preferred every part from burn¬
ing but one of his lips, owing to his having licked it.
She dipped him alfo in the waters of the river Styx ;
by which his whole body became invulnerable, except
that part of his heel by which ihe held him. But this
opinion is not univerfal, nor is it a part of his cha-
racler as drawn by Homer *, for in the Iliad (E, xxi.
161.) he is a finally wounded in the right arm, by the
lance of Afteropeus, in the battle near the river Sca-
mander. Thetis afterwards intruded him to the care of
the centaur Chiron, who, to give him the ftrength ne-
ceffary for martial toil, fed him with honey and the
marrow of lions and wild boars. To prevent his going
to the liege of Troy, fhe difguifed him in female appa¬
rel, and hid him among the maidens at the court of
King Lycomedes : but Ulyffes difeovering him, per-
fuaded him to follow the Greeks. Achilles diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by a number of heroic a&ions at the liege.
Being difgufted, however, with Agamemnon for the
lofs of Brifeis, he retired from the camp. But return¬
ing to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, he flew
Hedlor, faftened his corpfe to his chariot, and dragged
it round the walls of Troy. At la ft Paris, the brother*
of Hetftor, wounded him in the heel with an arrow,
while he was in the temple treating about his marriage
with Philoxena, daughter of King Priam. Of this
wound he died, and w^as interred on the promontory of-
Sigaeum *, and after Troy was taken, the Greeks facri-
ficed Philoxena on his tomb, in obedience to his defire,
that he might enjoy her company in the Elyfian fields.
It is faid, that Alexander, feeing this tomb, honoured
it by placing a crown upon it ; at the fame time cry¬
ing out, that “ Achilles was happy in having, during
his’life, fuch a friend as Patroclus j and, after his death,
a poet like Homer.'” Achilles is fuppofed to have
died 1183 years before the Chriftian era.
Achilles Tatius. See Tatius.
’Tendo Achillis, in Anatomy, is a ftrong tendinous
cord formed by the tendons of feveral mufcles, and in-
ferted into the os calcis. It has its name from the ia-
tal wound Achilles is faid to have received in that pait
from Paris the fon of Priam.
ACHILLINI, Alexander, born at Bologna, and
doftor of philofophy in that univerfity. He flouriftied
in the 15th and 16th centuries,. and by way of emi¬
nence was ftyled the Great Philolopher. He was a
ftedfaft follower and accurate interpreter of Averroes
upon Ariftotle, but moft admired for his acutenefs^ and
ftrength of arguing in private and public deputations'
Acliicoiurs:
li . .
AehiilmL
A C H [ 136 ] AC H
Ax 'iVrllru He made a furprifing quick progrefs in his ftudies, and
Achmet: WaS Very early Promoted to a profeirorfhip in the uni-
‘‘n! \ verfity ; in which he acquitted himfelf with fo much
applauie that his name became famous throughout all
Italy. He continued at Bologna till the year 15065
when the univerfity of Padua made choice of him to
fucceed Antonio Francatiano in the firft chair of phi-
lofophy, and his fame brought vaft numbers of Undents
to his lectures at Padua : but the w^ar, wherein the re¬
public of Venice was engaged again!! the league of
Cambray, putting a flop to the leftures of that univer¬
sity, he withdrew to his native country, where he was
received with the fame marks of honour and diftinelion
as before, and again appointed profeffbr of philofophy
in Bologna. He Spent the remainder of his life in this
city, where he died, and was interred with great pomp
in the church of St Martin the Great, which belongs
to the Carmelite friars. Jovius, who knew Achillini,
and heard his lectures, fays, that he was a man ohfuch
exceeding Simplicity, and fo unacquainted with addrefs
and flattery, that he was a laughing flock to the pert
.and faucy young fcholars, although efleemed on ac¬
count of his learning. He wrote Several pieces on phi-
Jofophical Subjects, which he publiihed, and dedicated
to John Bentivogli.
Achillini, Claudius, grandfon of the former, read
leftures at Bologna, Ferrara, and Parma 5 where he
was reputed a great philofopher, a learned divine, an
excellent lawyer, an eloquent orator, a good mathe¬
matician, and an elegant poet. He accompanied Car¬
dinal Ludovino, who went as legate into Piedmont 5
but being afterward negledled by this cardinal, when he
became pope under the name of Gregory XV. he left
Rome in difgufl,. and retired to Parma 5 where the
duke appointed him profeffor of law, with a good Sa¬
lary. A canzone which he addreffed to Louis XIII.
-on the birth of the Dauphin, is faid to have been re-
x/arded by Cardinal Richlieu, with a gold chain of
the value of 1000 crowns. He publiihed a volume of
Latin letters, and another of Italian poems, which
gained him great reputation. He died in 1640, aged 66.
ACHIOTTE, or Achiotl, a foreign drug, ufed
In dying, and in the preparation of chocolate. It is
the fame with the fubflance more ufually known by the
name of Arnotto. See Bixa, Botany Index.
ACHIROPGETOS, a name given by ancient writ-
.ers to certain miraculous pidlures of Chrifl and the
Virgin, fuppofed to have been made without hands 
The mofl celebrated of thefe is the pidlure of Chrifl,
preferved in the church of St John Lateran at Rome 5
faid to have been begun by St-Luke, but finifhed by
the miniflry of angels.
ACHMET, fon of Seerim, an Arabian author,
has left a book concerning the interpretation of dreams
according to the dodlrine of the Indians, Perfians, and
Egyptians, winch was tranflated into Gireek and La¬
tin. The original is now loft. He lived about the
4th century.
Ac hmet I. emperor of the Turks, the third fon and
fucceffor of Mahomet III. afcended the throne before
be reached the age of fifteen. During the period of
his reign, the Turkifh empire enjoyed at one time great
profperity, and at another wras depreffed by ad verfity.
The Afiatic rebels, wTho took refuge in Perfia, involv¬
ed the two empires in a wrar, during which the Turks
2
loft Bagdad, to recover which every effort proved un- AcLmrt.
fuccefsiul. In his reign Tranfylvania arid - Hungary
were the Scenes of war between the Turks and Germans.
In addition to the calamities and diftreffes of war abroad,
and internal tumults and broils, a pretender to his
throne difturbed his repofe, and made attempts on his
life. He was much devoted to amufements 5 and fpent
his time chiefly in the haram and in the fports of the
field. His feraglio confifled of 5000 women; and
his hunting eftablifhment was compofed of 40,000 fal¬
coners, and an equal number of huntfmen, in different
parts of his dominions. He expended great fums of
money in building, and particularly on a magnificent
mofque which he erected in the Hippodrome. Ach-
met wras lefs cruel than fome of his predeceffors ; but
he was haughty and ambitious. He died in 1617 at
the age of 29. His three fons fucceffwely afcended the
throne after him. {Gen. Biog.)
Achmet II. emperor of the Turks, fon of Sultan
Ibrahim, fucceeded his brother Solyman in 1691. The
adminiftration of affairs during his reign was feeble and
unfettled. The Ottoman territory w7as overrun by
the imperialifts 5 the Venetians feized the Morea, took
the ifle of Chios, and feveral places in Dalmatia 5 and
the Arabs attacked and plundered a caravan of pilgrims,
and even laid fiegeto Mecca. Though he never difeover-
ed the vigour and fagacity that are effentially requifite
in the character of a fovereign, in private life he was
mild, devout, and inoffenfive. He was fond of poetry
and mufic 5 and to thofe about his perfon, he was chear-
ful and amiable. He died in 1695 at the age of 50.
Achmet III. emperor of the Turks, fon of Maho¬
met IV. fucceeded his brother Muftapha II. who was
depofed in 1703. After he had fettled the difeontents
of the empire, his great objedl rvas to amafs wealth.
With this view he debafed the coin, and impofed new
taxes. He received Charles XII. of Sweden, wftro
took refuge in his dominions, after the battle of Pui-
towa in 1709, with great hofpitality 5 and, influenced
by the fultana mother, he declared war againft the Czar
Peter, Charles’s formidable rival. Achmet recovered
the Morea from the Venetians 5 but his expedition in¬
to Hungary was lefs fortunate, for his army was de¬
feated by Prince Eugene at the battle of Peterwara-
din in 1716. As the public meafures of Achmet were
influenced by minifters and favourites, the empire du¬
ring his reign was frequently diftrafted by political
ftruggles and revolutions. The difeontent and fedi-
tion of . his foldiers at laft drove him from the throne.
He was depofed in 1730, and fucceeded by his ne¬
phew Mahomet V. He was confined in the fame
apartment which had been occupied by his fucceffor
previous to his elevation to the throne, and died of an
apoplexy in 1736, at the age of 74. The intentions
of this prince, it is faid, were upright 5 but his talents
were moderate, never difeovering that vigour of mind
and fleadinefs of action which are fo neceffary in the
character of a fovereign. Exceflive confidence in
his vizier diminifhed the fplendour of his reign, and
probably tended to fhorten the period of it. {Gen.
Blog.)
Achmet Geduc, a famous general under Ma¬
homet II. and Bajazet II. in the 15th century. When
Mahomet II. died, Bajazet and Zezan both claimed
the throne : Achmet fided with the former, and by his
bravery
A C H [ 137 3 A C H
AcVmet- bravery and conduft fixed the crown on his head. Bat
fchct, Bajazet took away his life*, (hining virtue being always
Achm.m.^ an unparclonable crime in the eyes of a tyrant.
ACHMETSCHET, a town of the peninfula of
the Crimea, the refidence of the fultan Galga, who is
elded fon of the khan of Tartary. E. Long. 52. 20.
N. Lat. 45. 35.
ACHMIM, a large town of Upper Egypt, fituated
on the eadern bank of the Nile. ‘ One admires there
(fays Abulfeda, as quoted by M. Savary) a temple
which is comparable to the mod celebrated monuments
of antiquity. It is condrucled with dones of a furprif-
ing fize, on which are fculptured innumerable figures.’
Though this town be fallen from its ancient fplendour,
it is dill one of the mod beautiful of Upper Egypt.
According to M. Savary, an Arab prince commands
there, and the police is well attended to. The dreets
are wide and clean, and commerce and agriculture flou-
rilh. It has a manufa&ory of cotton duffs, and pot¬
tery, which are conveyed over all Egypt. It is the
fame that Herodotus calls Chcmmis, and Strabo Pano-
polis, or the city of Pan, who was worfhipped there.
Herodotus fays, that Perfeus was a native of this city,
and that his defcendants had edabliihed fedivals there
in his honour. It has loff its ancient edifices, and much
of its extent *, the ruins of the temple, defcribed by
Abulfeda, being without its limits to the north. No¬
thing remains of it but fome dones, of fuch magnitude
that the Turks have not been able to move them. They
are covered with hieroglyphics. On one of them are
traced four concentric circles, in a fquare. The inner-
mod of thefe contains a fun. The two fucceeding ones,
divided into I2‘parts, contain, one, 12 birds, the other,
12 animals, almod effaced, which appear to be the figns
of the zodiac. The fourth has no divifions, and pre-
fcnts 12 human figures : which Mr Savary imagines to
reprefent the 12 gods, the 12 months of the year, and
the 12 figns of the zodiac. The Egyptians, fays He¬
rodotus, wTere the fird who divided the year into 12
months, and employed the names of the T 2 gods. The
four feafons occupy the angles of the fquare, on the
fide of which may be didinguidied a globe with wings.
M. Savary thinks it probable that this done belonged
to a temple dedicated to the fun, that the whole of
thefe hieroglyphics mark his paffage into the figns of
rhe zodiac, and his courfe, whofe revolution forms the
year. The columns of this temple have been partly
broken to make lime and milldones. Some of them
have been tranfported into one of the mofques of Ach-
mim, where they are placed without tade j others are
heaped up in the fquares of the town.
M. Savary tells us of a ferpent which is worlhipped
here, and is the wonder of the country. “ Upwards
of a century ago (fays he), a religious Turk called
Scheilk Haridi died here. He paffed for a faint among
the Mahometans $ who raifed a monument to him, co¬
vered with a cupola, at the foot of the mountain. The
people flocked from all parts to offer up their prayers
to him. One of their prieds, profiting by their credu¬
lity, perfuaded them that God had made the foul of
Sheilk Haridi pafs into the body of a ferpent. Many
of thefe are found in the Thebais, which are harm-
lefs ; and he had taught one to obey his voice. He
* appeared with his ferpent, dazzled the vulgar by his
furprifing tricks, *nd pretended to cure all diforders.
Vol. 1. Part I.
Some lucky inflances of fuccefs, due to nature alone, Aohmim
and fometimes to the imagination of the patients, gave AcjJoma
him great celebrity. He foon confined his ferpent t-c>
Haridi to the tomb, producing him only to oblige  
princes and perfons capable of giving him a handlbme
recompenfe. The fucceffors of this pried, brought up
in the fame principles, found no difficulty in giving
fanftion to fo advantageous an error. They added to
the general perfuafion of his virtue that of his immor¬
tality. They had the boldnefs even to make a public
proof of it. The ferpent was cut in pieces in prefence
of the Emir, and placed for two hours under a vafe.
At the indant of lifting up the vafe, the prieds, no
doubt, had the addrefs to fubditute one exaftly refem-
bling it. A miracle was proclaimed, and the immor¬
tal Haridi acquired a frefh degree of confideration.
This knavery procures them great advantages. The
people flock from all quarters to pray at this tomb ;
and if the ferpent crawls out from under the done, and
approaches the fuppliant, it is a fign that his malady
will be cured. It may be imagined, that he does not
appear till an offering has been made proportioned to
the quality and riches of the different perfons. In ex¬
traordinary cafes, where the fick perfon cannot be cu¬
red without the prefence of the ferpent, a pure virgin
mud come to folicit him. To avoid inconveniences
on this head, they take care to choofe a very young
girl indeed. She is decked out in her bed clothes,
and crowned with flowers. She puts herfelf in a pray¬
ing attitude ; and as the prieds are inclined, the fer¬
pent comes out, makes' circles round the young fup¬
pliant, and goes and repofes on her. The virgin, ac¬
companied by a vad multitude, carries him in triumph
amidd the general acclamation. No human reafoning
would perfuade thefe ignorant and credulous Egyp¬
tians that they are the dupes of a few impodors ; they
believe in the ferpent Haridi as firmly as in the pro¬
phet.”
ACHONRY, a fmall town of Ireland, in the pro¬
vince of Connaught and county of Sligo, feated on the
river Shannon.
ACHOR, a valley of Jericho, lying along the river
Jordan, not far from Gilgal 5 fo called from Achan,
the troubler of Ifrael, being there doned to death.
Achor, in Medicine, a fpecies of Herpes.
Achor, in Mythology, the god of flies j to whom,
according to Pliny, the inhabitants of Cyrene facrifi-
ced, in order to obtain deliverance from the infefts and
the diforders occafioned by them.
ACHRADINA, in Ancient Geography, one of the
four cities or divifions of Syracufe, and the dronged,
larged, and mod beautiful part of it 5 feparated by a
very drong wall from the outer town, Tycha and Nea-
polis. It was adorned with a very large forum, with
beautiful porticoes, a mod elegant prytaneum, a fpa-
cjous fenate-houfe, and a fuperb temple of Jupiter O-
lympius.
ACHRAS, or Sapota Plum. See Botany In¬
dex.
ACHROMATIC, an epithet exprefling want of
colour. The word is Greek, being compounded of «
privative, and colour. This term was fird in¬
troduced into adronomy by De la Lande.
Achromatic ’Telefcopes, are telefcopes contrived to
remedy the aberrations in colours. They were invent-
S ed
A G I [ i
Achtslmg ed by Mr John Dollond, optician, and have been fince
Acidalus ^mProvcc^ by his ion and others, bee Aberration.
u——A more particular account of the invention and con-
flruciion of thefe inftruments will be found under Op¬
tics.
ACH i IDLING, a meafure for liquids ufed in Ger-
many. '1 hiity-two achtelings make a heemer; four
fciltims or fciltins make an achteling.
ACHYR, a firong town and callle of the Ukrain,
fubjeft to the Ruffians fince 1667. It Hands on the
river Uorfklo, near the frontiers of Ruffia, 127 miles
weft of Kiow. E. Long. 36. o. N. Lat. 49. 32.
ACHYRAN I HES, in Botany. See Eotany/w-
dex.
ACICAN THERA, in Botany, the trivial name of
a fpecies of Rhexia.
ACICULiE, the fmall pikes or prickles of the
hedgehog, echinus marinus, &c.
ACIPALIUS, Valens, would, in all probability,
have been one of the greatelt critics in thofe latter
ages, had he lived longer to perfeft thofe talents which
nature had given him. He was born at Witftock, in
ijrandenburg 5 and having vifited feveral academies in
Germany, Italy, and other countries, where he was
greatly efteemed, he afterwards took up his refidence
at Breflaw, the metropolis of Silefia. Here he remain¬
ed a confiderable timev in expe&ation of fome employ¬
ment 5 but nothing offering, he turned Roman Catho¬
lic, and was chofen reftor of a fchool at Nieffa. It is
related, that about four months after, as he was fol¬
lowing a proceffion of the hoft, he was feized with a
hidden phrenfy ; and being carried home, expired in a
very ffiort time. But Thuanus tells us, that his ex-
ceffive application to ftudy was the occafion of his un¬
timely death ; and that his fitting up in the night com-
poffiig his Conjectures on Plautus, brought upon him a
diftemper which carried him off in three days, on the
35th of May 1595, being juft turned of 28/He wrote
a Commentary on Quintus Curtius ; alfo, Notes on Ta¬
citus, on the twelve Panegyrics; befides fpeeches, let¬
ters, and poems. His poetical pieces are inferted in
the Delicice of the German poets, and confift of epic
Verfes, odes, and epigrams. A little work printed in.
1595, under the title of Mulieres non ejje homines,
“ That women were not of the human fpecies,” was
falfely afcribed to him. But the faft was, that Aci-
dalius happening to meet with the manufcript, and
thinking it very whimfical, tranfcribed it, and gave it
to the bookfeller, who printed it. The performance
was highly cenfured, fo that the bookfeller being feiz¬
ed, he dilcovered the perfon who gave him the manu¬
fcript, and a terrible outcry was made againft Acida-
lius. A ftory goes, that being one day to dine at a
friend’s houfe, there happened to be feveral ladies at
table ; who fuppofmg him to be the author, were mov¬
ed with fo much indignation, that they threatened to
throw their plates at his head. Acidalius, however,
ingenioufly diverted their wrath. In his opinion, he
laid the author was a judicious perfon, the ladies being
certainly, more of the fpecies of angels than of men.~
Mr Baillet has given him a place among his Knfans
Be leh res ; and fays, that he wrote a comment upon
Plautus when he was but 17 or 18 years old, and that
he compofed feveral Latin poems at the fame age.
4CIX>ALUS, a fountain in Orchomenus, a city of
38 ] A C I
Boeotia, in which the Graces, who are facred to Ve¬
nus, bathed, inence the epithet dlcidaha, given to
Venus. (Virgil.)
ACIDI1 Y, that quality which renders bodies acid.
ACIDO TON, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of Adelia.
ACIDS, in Chemijlry, a clafs of fubftances which
are diftinguilhed by the following properties :
. When applied to the tongue, they excite that fen-
fation which is called four or acid.
2. I hey change the blue colours of vegetables to a
red. The vegetable blues employed for this purpofe
are generally tin&ure of litmus and fyrup of violets or
of radiihes, which have obtained the name of reagents
or tefs,. If thefe colours have been previcufty con¬
verted to a green by alkalies, the acids reftore them
again.
3. They unite with water in almoft any proportion.
4. They combine with all the alkalies, and moft of
the metallic oxides and earths, and form with them,
thofe compounds which are called falls.
It muft be remarked, however, that every acid does
not poffefs all thefe properties 'y but all of them poffefs
a fufficient number of them to diftinguiffi them from
other fubftances. And this is the only purpofe which
artificial definition is meant to anfwer.
The acids are by far the moft important clafs of bo¬
dies in chemiftry. It was by their means indeed, by
ftudying their properties, and by employing them as
inftruments in the examination of other bodies, that
men of fcience laid the foundation of chemiftry, and
brought it to that ftate in which we find it at prefent.
The nature and compofition of acids, therefore, be¬
came a very important point of difcuffion, end occu¬
pied the attention of the moft eminent cultivators of
the fcience.
Paracelfus believed that there was only one acid
principle in nature which communicated tafte and fo-
lubility to the bodies in which it was combined.
Beecher embraced the fame opinion ; and added to it,
that this acid principle was a compound of earth and
water,, which he ccnfidered as two elements. Stahl
adopted the theory of Beecher, and endeavoured to
prove that his acid principle is fulphuric acid 5 of
which, according to him, all the other acids are mere
compounds. But his proofs were only conje&ures or
vague experiments, from which nothing could be de¬
duced. Neverthelefs, his opinion, like every other
which he advanced in chemiftry, continued to have
fupporters for a long time, and was even countenanced
by Macquer. At laft its defects began to be perceiv¬
ed Bergman and Scheele declared openly againft: it y
and their difeoveries, together with thofe of Lavoifier,.
demonftrated the falfehood of both parts of the theory,,
by fhewing that fulphuric acid does not exift in the
other acids, and that it is not compofed of water and
earth, but of fulphur and oxygen.
I he opinion, however, that acidity is owing to fome
principle common to all the falts, was not abandoned.
Walierius, Meyer, and Sage, had advanced different
theories in fucceffion about the nature of this prin¬
ciple 5 but as they were founded rather on conjefture
and analogy than diredt proof, they obtained but few
advocates. At laft Mr Lavoifier,. by a number of in¬
genious and accurate experiments, proved that feveral
cqmbuftibla
Acidity
II
Acids.
A C I [ M9 ] A C I
Acids, combuftible fubftances, when united with oxygen, form
^ acids •, that a great number of acids contain oxygen ;
and that when this principle is feparated from them,
they lofe their acid properties. He concluded, there¬
fore, that the acidifying principle is oxygen, and that
acids are nothing elfe but combuftible i'ubftances com¬
bined with oxygen, and differing from one another ac¬
cording to the nature of the combuftible bafe.
This conclufion, as far as regards the greater num¬
ber of acids, is certainly true. All the fimple com-
buftibles, except hydrogen, are convertible into acids j
and thefe acids are compofed of oxygen and the com¬
buftible body combined : this is the cafe alfo with four
of the metals. It muft not, however, be admitted
without fome limitation.
1. When it is faid that oxygen is the acidifying
principle, it is not meant furely to affirm that oxygen
poffeffes the properties of an acid, which would be con¬
trary to truth •, all that can be meant is, that it enters
as a component part into acids, or that acids contain it
as an effential ingredient.
2. But, even in this fenfe, the affertion cannot be
admitted : for it is not true that oxygen is an effential
ingredient in all acids, or that no body poffeffes the pro¬
perty of an acid unlefs it contains oxygen. Sulphura¬
ted hydrogen, for inftance, poffeffes all the charadlers
of an acid, yet it contains no oxygen.
3. When it is faid that oxygen is the acidifying
principle, it cannot be meant furely to affirm that the
combination of oxygen with bodies produces in all ca¬
fes an acid, or that whenever a body is combined with
oxygen, the produft is an acid ; for the contrary is
known to every chemift. Hydrogen, for inftance,
when combined with oxygen, forms not an acid, but
water, and the greater number of metallic bodies form
only oxides.
All that can be meant, then, when it is faid that
oxygen is the acidifying principle, is merely that it
exifts as a component part in the greater number of
acids j and that many acids are formed by combuftion,
or by fome equivalent procefs. The truth is, that the
clafs of acids is altogether arbitrary ; formed when the
greater number of the bodies arranged under it were
unknown, and before any precife notion of what ought
to conftitute the chara&eriftic marks of an acid had
been thought of. New bodies, when they were difco-
vered, if they poffeffed any properties analogous to the
known acids, were referred without fcruple to the fame
clafs, how much foever they differed from them in other
particulars. Hence we find, under the head of acids,
bodies which have fcarcely a fingle property in com¬
mon except that of combining with alkalies and earths.
What fubftance, for inftance, can be more diffimilar
than fulphuric, pruffic and uric acids ? Hence the dif¬
ficulty of affigning tlie general charadters of the clafs
of acids, and the difputes which have arifen about the
propriety of claffing certain bodies among acids. If
we lay it down as an axiom that oxygen is the acidi¬
fying principle, we muft either include among acids a
great number of bodies which have not the fmalleft re-
femblance to thofe fubftances which are at prefent
reckoned acids, or exclude from the clafs feveral bo¬
dies which have the properties of acids in perfedlion.
The clafs of acids being perfedlly arbitrary, there can¬
not be luch a thing as an acidifying principle in the Acidulous
moft extenfive fenfe of the word. II.
The acids at prefent known amount to about 30} , J*c^‘ ,
and all of them, eight excepted, have been difeovered
within thefe laft 40 years. They may be arranged un¬
der two general heads : 1. Acids compofed of two in¬
gredients. 2. Acids compofed of more than two com¬
ponent parts, (ThomfoTi's Chemi/lry.) See Chemis¬
try.
ACIDULOUS, denotes a thing that is {lightly
acid; it is fynonymous with the word fub-acid.
ACIDULiE. Mineral waters that are brilk and
fparkling without the adtion of heat are thus named ;
but if they are hot alfo they are called Thermae.
ACIDULATED, a name given to medicines that
have an acid in their compofition.
ACIDUM aereum, the fame with fixed air; or
in modern chemiftry, carbonic acid.
Aciovm pingue, an imaginary acid, which fome Ger¬
man chemifts fuppofed to be contained in fire, and by
combining with alkalies, lime, &c. to give them their
cauftic properties ; an effedl which is found certainly
to depend on the lofs of their carbonic acid.
AG1LA, \n Ancient Geography, a ftaple or mart town
in Arabia Felix, on the Arabian gulf, from which,
according to Pliny, the Scenitse Sabah fet fail for In¬
dia. Now Ziden.
AC1LISENE, in Ancient Geography, a diftridt of
the leffer Armenia towards the head of the Euphrates,
having that river on the weft, and on the fouth a river
to which Xenophon and Pliny feem to have given the
fame name.
ACILIUS GLABRIO, Mar<?us, conful in the
year of Rome 562, and 2 11 years before the Chriftian
era, diftinguifhed himfelf by his bravery and condudl
in gaining a complete vidtory over Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria, at the ftraits of Thermopylae in
Theffaly, and on feveral other occafions. He built
the temple of Piety at Rome, in confequence of a
vowr wffiich he made before this battle. He is men¬
tioned by Pliny, Valerius Maximus, and others.
AClNASIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Afia,
at the fouthern extremity of Colchis, which difeharges
itfelf into the Euxine fea* between the Bathys and
the Ifis. It is mentioned by Arrian in his Periplus.
ACINIPPO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bae-
tica : its ruins, called Ronda la Viega, are to be feed
near Arunda, in the kingdom of Granada.
ACINODENDRUM, in Botany, the trivial name
of a fpecies of Melastoma.
ACINOS, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpecies of
Thymus. See Botany Index.
ACINUS, or Acini, the fmall protuberances of
mulberries, ftrawberries, &c. and by Tome applied to
grapes. Generally it is ufed for thofe fmall grains
growing in branches, after the manner of grapes, as
ligufirutn, &c.
ACIS, in Mythology, the fon of Fai*us and the
nymph Simaethis, was a beautiful fhepherd of Sicily,
wTho being beloved by Galatea, Polyphemus the giant
was fo enraged, that he daffied out his brains againft
a rock 5 after which Galatea turned him into a river,
which wTas called by his name.
The Sicilian authors fay, that Acis was a king of
S -2 this
AGO [ i
Acknow- tliis part of the ifland, who was llain by Polyphemus,
lodgment one 0f ^ glants 0f ^Etna, in a fit of jealoufy.
Acoernetse. . Ac 1 s> a river of Sicily, celebrated by the poets, run-
< -V—fvom a very colci fpring, in the woody and fhady
foot of Mount j^itna, for the fpace of a mile eaftward
into the fea, along green and pleafant banks, with the
fpeed of an arrow, from which it takes its name. Its
waters are now impregnated with fulphureous vapours,
though formerly they were celebrated for their fweet-
nefs and falubrity, and were held facred by the Sici¬
lian Ihepherds :
Qinqiie per IE true os Acis petit cequora fines,
Et dulcigratam Nereida perluit undo. Sil. Ital.
It is now called II Fiume Fredda, Aci, laci, or Chi¬
an, according to the different Sicilian dialects : An-
tonine calls it Actus. It is alfo the name of a hamlet
at the mouth of the Acis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT, in a general fenfe, is a
perfon’s owning or confefling a thing 5 but, more parti¬
cularly, is the exprefiion of gratitude for a favour.
AcKNoiriEDGMENT-Money, a certain fum paid by te¬
nants, in feveral parts of England, on the death of their
landlords, as an acknowledgment of their new lords.
ACLIDES, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of miffile
weapon, with a thong affixed to it, by which it -was
drawn back. Moll authors defcribe it as a fort of dart
or javelin ; but Scaliger makes it roundiffi or globular,
and full of fpikes, with a (lender wooden ftem to poife
it by. Each warrior was furnifhed with tivo.
AGLOW A, in Botany, a barbarous name of a fpe-
cies of Co lute A. It is ufed by the natives of Guinea,
to cure the itch : They rub it on the body as we do
unguents. See Colutea, Botany Index.
ACME, the top or height of any thing. It is ufu-
ally applied to the maturity of an animal juft before it
begins to decline ; and phyficians have ufed it to ex-
prcfs the utmoft violence or crifis of a difeafe.
ACMELLA, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Spilanthus. See Botany Index.
ACMOD/E, in Ancient Geography, feven ifiands in
the Britiffi fea, fuppofed by fome to be the Scilly Blands,
but by others thofe of Shetland near the Orkneys, on
the northern coaft of Scotland.
ACMONIA, and Agmonia, in Peutinger's map,
a town of Phrygia Major, now in ruins. The inhabi¬
tants are called Acmonenfes by Cicero, and the city
Civitas Acmonenfis. Alfo a city of Dacia (Ptolemy),
on the Danube, near the ruins of Traian’s bridge, built
by Severus, and called Severicum ; diftant 12 German
miles from Temefwar, to the fouth-eaft.
ACNIDA, Virginian hemp. See Botany
ACNUA, in Roman Antiquity, fignified a certain
meafire of land, about an Englilh rood, or fourth part
of an acre.
AGO, in Geography, a town of Peru in South A-
merica. It is alfo the name of a river in Africa, which
rifes in the- Abyfl'mian mountains, runs in a fouth-eaft
courfe, and difeharges itfelf into the Indian ocean.
ACGEMETyE, or Acoemeti, in Church Hi/lory,
or, Men who lived without deep 5 a fet of monks who
chanted the divine fervice night and day in their places
of worffiip. They divided themfelves into three bo¬
dies, who alternately fucceeded one another, fo that
the fervice in their churches -was never interrupted.
40 ] AGO
This pra&ice they founded upon the precept, Pray with¬
out ceafing. They flouriffied in the eaft about the mid¬
dle of the 5th century. There are a kind of acoemeti
(fill fubfifting in the Romiffi church, vi%. the religious
of the holy facrament, who keep up a perpetual ado¬
ration, fome one or other of them praying before the
holy facrament day and night.
ACOLA, in Ancient Geography, a town in Media,
on the borders of the Hyrcanian fea.
ACOLUTHI, or Acoluthists, in Antiquity, was
an appellation given to thofe perfons who were fteady
and immoveable in their refolutions 5 and hence the
Stoics, becaufe they would not forfake their principles,
nor alter their refolutions, acquired the title of aco/u-
thi. I he word is Greek, and compounded of « priva¬
tive, and x-otevic.*;, way ) as never turning from the ori¬
ginal courfe.
Acoluthi, among the ancient Chriftians, implied
a peculiar order of the inferior clergy in the Latin
church, for they were unknown to the Greeks for above
400 years. They were next to the fub-deacon ; and
we learn from the fourth council of Carthage, that the
archdeacon, at their ordination, put into their hands a
candleftick wdth a taper, giving them thereby to under-
ftand that they were appointed to light the candles of
the church ; as alfo an empty pitcher, to imply that
they were to furnifh wine for the eucharift. Seme
think they had another office, that of attending the
biftiop wherever he went. The word is Greek, and
compounded of a privative, and kuXvu, to hinder or
difturb.
ACOLYTHIA, in the Greek church, denotes the
office or order of divine fervice ; or the prayers, cere¬
monies, hymns, &c. whereof the Greek fervice is com-
pofed.
ACOMA, a town of New Mexico, feated on a
hill, with a ftrong caftle. To reach the town, you
walk up 50 fteps cut out of the rock. It is the capL
tal of that province, and was taken by the Spaniards
in 1599. W. Long. 104. 15. Lat. 35. o.
ACOMAC, the name of a county in Virginia. It
is on the eaftern fide of Chefapcak bay, on a (lip of
land, by the Virginians called the caficrn fihore. It
contains 13,9^9 inhabitants.
ACOMINATUS, Nicetas, wTas fecretary to A-
lexius Comnenus and to Ifaacus Angelus fucceffively :
he wrote a hiftory from the death of Alexius Comnenus
in 1118, where Zonaras ended his, to the year 1203,
which has gone through many editions, and has been
much apnlauded by the beft critics.
ACONCROBA, in Botany, the indigenous name
of a plant which grows wild in Guinea, and is in great-
efteem among the natives for its virtues in the fmall-
pox. They give an infufion of it in wine. The leaves
of this plant are opaque,, and as ftiff as thofe of the
philyrea : they grow in pairs, and Hand on ffiort foot>
(talks j they are fmall at each end, and broad in the
middle9 and the largeft of them are about three in¬
ches in length, and an inch and a quarter in breadth in
the middle. Like thofe of our bay, they are of a dulky
colour on the upper fide, and of a pale green under¬
neath.
ACONITE. See Aconitum, Botany Index.
Winter Aconite. See Helleborus, BotanYjWuy.
ACONITI, in Antiquity, an appellation given to
fomc
Acola
H . .
Aconitk
Acofta.
A C O [ *4
Aconitam fame of the Athlete, bat differently interpreted.
11 Mercurialis underftands it of thofe who only anointed
their bodies with oil, but did not fmear themfelves over
' with dull, as was the ufual practice.
ACONITUM, Aconite,Wolfsbane, or Monks¬
hood. See Botany Index.
ACONTIAS, in Zoology, an obfolete name of the
anguis jaculus, or dart-fnake, belonging to the order
of amphibia ferpentes. See Anguis. _ _ '
ACONTIUM, ctx.oy'ltov, in Grecian Antiquity, a kind
of dart or javelin, refembling the Roman piium. ^
ACONTIUS, a young man of the bland Cea, who
having gone to Delos, to fee the facred rites which
were performed there by a crowd of virgins in the
temple of Diana, fell defperately in love with Cydippe j
but not daring to aik her in marriage, on account of
the meannefs of his birth, inlidioufly threw down at he^
feet an apple, on which were infcribed thefe words, Me
(ibi nupturam, (fehx eat omen,) Aconti, Juro, quam
colirnus, numina magna Deae. Or according to others,
Juro tibi facrae per myjlica facra Dianae, Me tibi ven-
turam comitem, fponfamque futuram. 1 he virgin hav¬
ing tdken, up the apple, inadvertently read the words,
and thus apparently bound herfelf by a promile for
by law, every thing uttered in that temple was held to
be ratified. When her father, a little after, ignorant
of what had happened, betrothed her to another man,
{he was fuddenly feized with a fever. Whereupow
Acontius fent her a letter, (expreffed by Ovid, Ep. 20.)
to perfuade her that her fever was caufed by Diana for
not having fulfilled the promife which (lie had made to
him in the temple of that goddefs. Cydippe therefore
refolved to comply with the wilhes of Acontius, even
againft the inclination of her father. Her anfwer is
the fubjeft of Ovid’s 2 ill epiftle. (Adam's Claf. Biog.)
Acontius, ‘James, a philofopher, civilian, and
divine, born at Trent in the 16th century. _ He em¬
braced the reformed religion and coming into Eng¬
land in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, he was favour¬
ably received and much honoured by _ that princefs,
which he acknowledges in a book dedicated to her.
This work is his celebrated Collection of the Strata¬
gems of Satan, which has been fo oiten tranflated, and
paffed through fo many editions.
ACORN, the fruit of the oak tree. See Quercus,
Botany Index.
Acorn, in Sea Language, a little ornamental piece
of wood, fafhioned like a cone, and fixed on the upper-
moft point of the fpindle, above the vane, on the maft-
head. It is ufed to keep the vane from being blown off
from the fpindle in a whirlwind, or when the (hip leans
much to one fide under fail.
ACORUS,Calamus Aromaticus, Sweet Flag,
or Sweet Rush. See Botany Index.
Acorus, in the Materia Medic a, a name fometimes
given to the great galangal. See Kempferia.
Acorus, in Natural Hijfory, blue coral. The true
fort is very fcarce ; fome, however, is fifoed on the
coafts of Africa, particularly from Rio del Re to the
river of the Camarones. This coral is part of the mer-
chandife which the Dutch tracie for witn the Cama¬
rones : that of the kingdom of Benin is alfo very much
efteemed. It grows in form of a tree on a rocky bot¬
tom.
ACOSTA, Uriel, a Portugueze, born at Oporto
! ] AGO
towards the clofe of the t6th century. He was edu¬
cated in the Romiih religion, which his father alio
profeffed, though defcended from one of thofe Jewilh fa¬
milies who had been in a manner forced to receive bap-
tifoi. Uriel had a liberal education. He was infirucf-
ed in feveral fciences ; and at laft he ftudied law. He
had by nature a good temper and mild difpofition ; and
religion had made fo deep an imprefiion on his mind,
that he ardently defired to conform to all the precepts
of the church, to avoid eternal death, which he dread¬
ed. He applied with great affiduity to reading the
Scriptures and other religious books, carefully conlult-
ing alfo the creed of the confeffors ; but the more he
ftudied, the more difficulties occurred, which perplexed
him at length to fuch a degree, that, being unable to
folve them, he fell into the moft terrible agonies m
mind. He thought it impoffible to fulfil his duty with
regard to the conditions required for abfolution j fo
that he defpaired of falvation, if he could find no other
means of attaining it; and it proved difficult to aban¬
don a religion in which he had been bred up from his m--
fancy, and which had been deeply rooted in his mmd.
However he began to inquire, whether feveral parti¬
culars mentioned about the other life were agreeable'
to reafon; and, upon inquiry and deliberation, he
imagined that reafon fuggefted many arguments agaimt
them. Acofta was about two and twenty, when he
was thus perplexed with doubts 5 and the retult of ns
reflections was, that he could not be faved by the reli¬
gion which he had imbibed in his infancy. Neverthe-
lefs he profecuted his ftudies in the law ; and at the
age of five and twenty, was made treafurer in a colle¬
giate church. Being naturally of a religious dilpoh-
tion, and now' made uneafy by the popifti doClrmes, he
began to ftudy Mofes and the prophets ; where he
thought he found more fatisfaCtion than in the goipel,
and at length became convinced that Judaifm was the
true religion : and, as he could not profefs it m Portu¬
gal he refolved to leave the country. He accordingly
refumed his place, and embarked for Amfterdam with'
his mother and brothers; whom he had ventured to in--
ftruft in the principles of the Jewifti religion, even
when in Portugal. Soon after their arrival in Amfter¬
dam, they became members of the fynagogue $ v.-ere
circumcifed according to cuftom *, and he changed his
name of Gabriel for that of Uriel. A little time was
fufficient to ffiew him, that the Jews did neither in
their rites nor morals conform to the law ol Moles, 01
which he could not but declare his difapprobation :
but the chiefs of the fynagogue gave him to underhand,
that he muff exatfly obferve their tenets and cuitoms •,
and that he would be-excommunicated, if he deviated
in the leaft from them. This threat, however, had no
effedt ; for he thought it would be a moft mean beha¬
viour in him, who had left the fweets of his native
country purely for liberty of confctence, to iubmit to a
fet of Rabbis without any proper junfdiction *, and that
it wmuld ftiew both want of courage and piety, it he
ffiould ftifle his fentiments on this occafion. He there¬
fore perfifted in his invedtives, andtin confequence was
excommunicated : the effedt of which was fuch, that
his own brothers durft not fpeak to hinqnor uilide him
when they met him in the ftreets. Finding himfeit
thus fituated, he wrote a book m his juitihcation ,
wherein he endeavours to ftiew, that the rites and tra-
Acofta-
AGO [ r
^couftrs c^t'l0us l^ie P^ari^es are contrary to tlie writings of
cks.. Mofes, and foon after adopted the opinion of the Sad-
ducees : for he had worked himfelf up to a belief, that
the rewards and puniihments of the old law' relate only
to this life j and this, becaufe Mofes nowhere men¬
tions tlie joys of heaven, or the torments of hell. His
adverfaries were overjoyed at his embracing this tenet;
forefeeing, that it would tend greatly to juftify, in the
fight of Chriftians, the proceedings of the fynagogues
againft him. Before his book was printed, there ap¬
peared a piece upon the immortality of the foul, writ¬
ten by a phyfician, who omitted nothing he could fug¬
ged: to make Acofta pafs for an Atheift. The very
children were encouraged to infult him kt the ftreets
and to batter his houfe with Hones j all which howrever
did not prevent him from writing a treatife againft the
phyfician, wherein he endeavoured to confute the doc-
tiine of the foul’s immortality. The jews now made
application to the magiftrates of Amfterdam ; and in¬
formed againft him, as one who wanted to undermine
tae foundation of both jewifti and Chriftian religions.
He vras thrown into prifon, but bailed out within a
week or ten days after ; however all the copies of his
works wmre feized, and he himfelf fined in 300 florins.
Neverthelefs, he proceeded ftill farther in his fcepti-
cifm. He now began to examine, whether the laws of
Tvloies came from God j and he fuppofed he had at
length found reafons to convince him, that it wras only
a political invention. Yet, inftead of drawing this in¬
ference from thence, “ 1 ought not to return to the
Jewiih communion,” he thus argued with himfelf,
Why ftiould I continue all my life cut off from the
communion, expofed to fo many inconveniences, efpe-
cially as. I am in a country where I am a ftranger, and
unacquainted with the language ? Had I not better
play the ape amongft apes ?” He accordingly return¬
ed to the Jewifti church, after he had been excommu¬
nicated 15 years 5 and, after having made a recanta¬
tion ©f what he had -written, fubferibed every thing as
they dire&ed. A few days after, he was accufed by
■a nephew, who lived in his houfe, that he did not, as
to his eating and many other points, conform to the
‘aws of the fynagogue. This accufation was attended
■with very bad contequences ; for a relation of Acofta,
W'ho had got him reconciled to the fynagogue, thought
lie was in honour bound to perfecute him with the ut-
tn.oft violence. The Rabbis and the reft of the Jews
were animated with the fame fpirit; efpecially, when
• they found that Acofta had diffuaded two Chriftians,
1-2 ] AGO
who had come from London to Amfterdam, from turn- Acofts
*ng Jews. He was fummoned before the grand ccun- It
cil of the fynagogue ; when it was declared to him, AcouftlcS;
that he muft again be excommunicated, if he did not
give fuch fatisfaction as fhould be required. He found
the terms fo hard, that be could not comply. The
Jews thereupon again expelled him from their commu¬
nion ; and he afterwards fuffered various hardftiips and
great perfecutions, even from his own relations. After
remaining feven years in a moft wretched fituation, ke
at length declared he was willing to fubmit to the fen-,
tence of the fynagogue, having been told that he might
fafily accommodate matters 5 for, that the judges, be¬
ing fatisfied with his fubmiflion, would foften the fe-
verity of the dilcipline. Acofta, however, was caught
in a fnare } for they made him undergo the moft ri¬
gorous penance. Thefe particulars, relating to the
life of Acofta, are taken from his work, entitled.
“ Exemplar human ce Vita:” publiftied and refuted by
Limborch. It is fuppofed that he compofed it a few
days before his death, after having determined to lay
violent hands on himfelf. He executed this horrid re-
folution, a little after he had failed in his attempt to
kill his principal enemy; for the piftol, with which he
intended to have ftiot him as he paffed his houfe, hav¬
ing miffed fire, he immediately ftmt the deor, and (hot
himfelf with another piftol. This happened at Am¬
fterdam, but in what year is not exaftly known.
ACOSTAN, a mountainous ifland in the north feas
between Afia and America, obferved by Captain Cogk.
ACOUSMATICI, fometimes alfo called AcoiJIiciy
in Grecian Antiquity, fuch of the difciples of Pythago¬
ras as had not completed their five vears probation.
ACOUSTIC, in general, denotes any thing that
relates to the ear, the fenfe of hearing, or the dodtrine
of founds.
Acoustic Buhl, in Anatomy, the fame with meatus
auditor ms, or the external pafiage of the ear. See Ana¬
tomy.
Acoustic Injirument, or auricular tube. See Acou¬
stics.
Acoustic VeJJels, in the ancient theatres, were a
kind of veffels, made of brafs, draped in the bell fafliiorij
which being of all tones within the pitch of the voice
or even of inftruments, rendered the founds more au¬
dible, fo that the adtors could be heard through all parts
of theatres which were even 400 feet in diameter.
Acoustic Difciples, among the ancient Pythagoreans,
thofe more commonly called Acousmatjci.
A C O U
Preliminary JN Phyjics, is that fcience which inftrudls us in the
tionsa" ^ nature of found. It is divided by fome Writers in-
«  , to Diacoujlics, which explains the properties of thofe
founds that come diredlly from the fonorous body to
the ear ; and Catacoujlics, which treats of refiedled
founds : but fuch diftindtions do not appear to be of
any real utility.
Sound is a term of which it would be prepofterous
to ofter any definition, as it may alrnoft be faid to ex-
prefs a fimple idea : But when we confider it as a sen¬
sation, and ftill more when wTe confider it as a pEk-
3
STIC S,
ception, it may not be improper to give a defcrip-prej:rnjnarTf
tipn of it; becaufe this muft involve certain relations ObfervaC
of external things, and certain trains of events in the tions.
material world, which make it a proper object of phi- v“
lofophical difeuflion. Sound is that primary informa¬
tion which we get of external things by means of the
fenfe of hearing. This, however, does not explain it :
for were we in like manner to deferibe our fenfe of
hearing, we fliould find ourfelves obliged to fay, that it
is the faculty by which we perceive found. Languages
are not the invention of philofophers 3, and we muft not
expedt
A C O U
PrsKnvnaryexpecl precinon, even in tlie fimpleft cafes. Our me-
Obierva- t}10(is Gf expreffing tlie information given us by our
tions. different fenfes are not fimilar, as a pliilofopber, cau-
^ v tioufly contriving language, would make them. We
have no word to exprefs the primary or generic obje£t
of our fenfe of feeing } for we believe, that even the
vulgar confider light as the medium, but not the object.
This is certainly the cafe (how juftly we do not fay)
with the philofopher. On the other hand, the words
fmell, found, and perhaps tafte, are conceived by moil
perfons as exprefhng the immediate objects ot the fenfes
of fmelling, hearing, and tailing. Smell and found are
haftily conceived as feparate exiftences, and as mediums
of information and of intercourfe with the odoriferous
and founding bodies ; and it is only the very cautious
philofopher who diltinguilhes between the fmell which
he feels and the perfume which fills the room. Thofe
of the ancients, therefore, who taught that founds were
beings wafted through the air, and felt by our ears,
ihould not, even at this day, be confidered as awkward
obfervers of nature. It has required the long, patient,
and fagacious confideration of the molt penetrating ge-
niufes, from Zeno the Stoic to Sir Ifaac Newton, to
difeover that what we call found, the immediate exter¬
nal object of the fenfe of hearing, is nothing but a par¬
ticular agitation of the parts of furrounding bodies, a£t-
'ing by mechanical impulfe on our organs j and that it
is not any feparate being, nor even a fpecific quality
inherent in any particular thing, by wdiich it can af-
fe6t the organ, as we fuppofe with refpeft to a perfume,
but merely a mode of exiltence competent to every
atom of matter. And thus the defeription which we
propofed to give of found mult be a defeription of that
Hate of external contiguous matter which is the caufe
of found. It is not therefore prefatory to any theory
or fet of doctrines on this fubjedt 5 but, on the contra¬
ry, is the fum or refult of them all.
’ To difeover this Hate of external body by which,
without any farther intermedium of fubltance or of ope¬
ration, it affedts our fenfitive faculties, mult be confi¬
dered as a great llep in feiene'e. It wall Ihow us at
lealt one way by which mind and body may be con-
nedted. It is fuppofed that wTe have attained this know¬
ledge wuth refpedt to found. Our fuccefs, therefore, is
a very pleafing gratification to the philofophic mind.
It is Hill more important in another view : it has en¬
couraged us to make fimilar attempts in other cafes,
and has fupplied us with a fad! to which an ingenious
mind can eafily fancy fomething analogous in many ab-
flrufe operations of nature, and thus it enables us- to
give fome fort of explanation of them. Accordingly
this ufe has been moft liberally made of the mechanical
theory of found ; and there is now fcarcely any pheno¬
menon, either of matter or mind, that has not been
explained in a manner fomewdrat fimilar. But we are
forry to fay that thefe explanations have done no credit
to philofophy. They are, for the moft part, ftrongly
marked with that precipitate and felf-conceited impa¬
tience wftiich has always charadlerized the inveftigations
condudled folely by ingenious fancy. The ccnfe-
quences of this procedure have been no lefs fatal to
the progrefs of true knowdedge in modem times than
in the fchools of ancient Greece j and the ethereal
philofophers cf this age, like the followers of Ariftotle
of old, have filled ponderous volumes with nonfenfe
s t 1 c s. 143
and error. It is ftrange, however, that this ihould be Pu-liminary
the effedt of a great and a fuccefsful ftep in philofophy : h^a_
But the fault is in the philofophers, not in the fcience.. _ j
Nothing can be mere certain than the account which
Newton has given of the propagation of a certain clafs
of undulations in an elaftic fluid. But this procedure
of nature cannot be feen with diftindfnefs and precifion
by any but well-informed mathematicians. They alone
can reft with unftiaken confidence on the conclufions
legitimately deduced from the Newtonian theorems }
and even they can infure fucceis only by treading with
the moft fcrupulous caution the fteps of this patient
philofopher. But few have done this \ and wTe may
venture to fay, that not one in ten cf thofe ivlio em¬
ploy the Newtonian dodtrines of elaftic undulations ror
the explanation of other phenomena have taken the
trouble, or indeed were able, to go through the fteps
of the fundamental propofition (Prin. II. 50, &c.) But
the general refults are lo plain, and admit of fuch nn-
preflive illuftration, that they draw the affent of the
moft carelefs reader ; and all imagine that they under-
ftand the explanation, and perceive the whole proce¬
dure of nature. Emboldened therefore by this fuc¬
cefsful ftep in philofophy, they, without heiitation,
fancy fimilar intermediums in other cafes \ and as air
has been found to be a vehicle for found, they have
fuppofed that fomething which they call ether, fome-
how refembling air, is the vehicle of viiion. Others
have proceeded farther, and have held that ether, or
another fomething like air, is the vehicle of fenfaticn
in general, from the organ to the brain : nay, we have
got a great volume called A Theory of Man, where
all our fenfations, emotions, affedhons, thoughts, and
purpofes or volitions, are faid to be fo many vibrations
of another fomething equally unfeen, gratuitous, and
incompetent •, and, to crown all, this exalted dodlrine,
w7hen logically profecuted, muft terminate in the dif-
covery of thofe vibrations which pervade all others,
and which conftitute wdiat we have been accuftomed to
venerate by the name Deity. Such muf be the ter¬
mination of this philofophy j and a truly philofophical
differtation on the attributes of the Divine Being can
be nothing elfe than an accurate defeription or thefe vi¬
brations !
This is not a needlefs and declamatory rbapfody. If
the explanation of found can be legitimately transferred
to thofe other claftes of phenomena, thefe are certain
refults 5 and if fo, all the difeoveries made by New ton
are but the glimmerings cf the morning, when compar--
ed with this meridian fplendour. But if, on the other
hand, found logic forbids us to make this transference
of explanation, we muft continue to believe, fora little
while longer, that mind is fomething different from vi¬
brating matter, and that no kind of olcillations will con¬
ftitute infinite wifdom.
It is of immenfe importance therefore to underftand
thoroughly this doctrine of found, that we may fee
clearly and precifely in what it corrfiftsj w'hat are the
phenomena of found that are fully explained, what are
the data and the affumptions on which the explanations
proceed, and what is the precife mechanical fafi in
which it terminates. For this, or a fa£t perfe&ly fimi¬
lar, muft terminate every explanation which we derive
from this by analogy, however perfett the analogy may¬
be. This previous knowledge muft be completely pol-
iefi&eL
Firft no¬
tions of
found.
144 A C O U
preliminary lifted by every perlon wlro pretends to explain other
r\u r  X 1 . r
phenomena in a nmilar manner. Then, and not till
then, he is able to fay what clarTes of phenomena will
admit of the explanation : and, when all this is done,
his explanation is Hill an hyfxothejis, till he is able to
prove, from other indifputable fources, the exiftence
and agency of the fame thing analogous to the elaftic
fluid, from which all is borrowed.
At prefent therefore we lhall content ourfelves with
giving a dhort hirtory of the fpeculations of philofophers
on the nature of found, tracing out the fteps by which
we have arrived at the knowledge which we have of it.
We apprehend this to be of great importance \ be-
caufe it fhows us what kind of evidence we have for its
truth, and the paths which we mult fhun if we wiflr to
proceed farther : and we trull that the progrefs which
we have made will appear to be fo real, and the ob-
je£l to be attained fo alluring to a truly philofophical
mind, that men of genius will be incited to exert their
utmoft efforts to pafs the prefent boundaries ol our real
progrefs.
In the infancy of philofophy, found was held to be
a feparate exiftence, fomething which would be, al¬
though no hearing animal exifted. This was conceiv¬
ed as wafted through the air to our organ of hearing,
which it was fuppofed to affecl in a manner refembling
that in which our noftrils are affedled when they give
us the fenfation of fmell. It was one of the Platonic
species, fitted for exciting the intelledlual fpecies,
which is the immediate object of the foul’s contempla¬
tion.
Yet, even in thofe early years of fcience, there were
fome, and, in particular, the celebrated founder of the
Stoic fchool, who held that found, that is, the caufe of
found, was only the particular motion of external grofs
matter, propagated to the ear, and there producing that
agitation of the organ by which the foul is immediate¬
ly affefted with the fenfation of found. Zeno, as quo¬
ted by Diogenes Laertius*, fays, “ Hearing is produ¬
ced by the air which intervenes between the thing
founding and the ear. The air is agitated in a fpheri-
cal form, and moves off in waves, and falls on the ear,
in the fame manner as the water in a ciftern undulates
in circles when a ftone has been thrown into it.” The
ancients were not remarkable for precifion, either of
conception or argument in their difcuflions, and they
were contented with a general and vague view of
things. Some followed the Platonic notions, and many
the opinion of Zerio, but without any farther attempts
to give a diftinH conception of the explanation, or to
compare it with experiment.
But in later times, during the ardent refearches in
the laft century into the phenomena of nature, this be-
Air the ve- came an interefting fubjeft of inquiry. The invention
hide of 0f the air-pump gave the firft opportunity of deciding
found prov-, eXperiment whether the elaftic undulations of air
ed by t ic ^ ^ ^ caufes 0f found: and the trial fully eftabliftied
this point; for a bell rung in vacuo gave no found, and
one rung in condenfed air gave a very loud one. It
was therefore received as a do&rine in general phyiics
that air was the vehicle of found.
The celebrated Galileo, the parent of mathematical
the nvwe°f philofophy, difcovered the nature of that connexion be-
0f muf1Cal tween the lengths of muftcal chords and the notes which
chords. they produced, which had been obferved by Pythago-
B. vii.
h 158-
Zeno’s
opinion.
air-pump.
Galileo’s
S T I C S.
ras, or learned by him in his travels in the eaft, and Prelimina'ty
which he made the foundation of a refined and beauti- <->t).lerva'
ful fcience, the theory of roulic. Galileo ftiowed, that ■ tl0nS‘ r
the real connedlion fubfifted between the tones and the
vibrations of thefe cords, and that their different degrees
of acutenefs correfponded to the different frequency of
their vibrations. The very elementary and familiar de-
monftration which he gave of this connection did not
fatisfy the curious mathematicians of that inquiiitive
age ; and the mechanical theory of mufical cords was
profecuted to a great degree of refinement. In the
courfe of this inveftigation, it appeared that the chord
vibrated in a manner precifely fimilar to a pendulum vi¬
brating^ in a cycloid. It muft therefore agitate the air
contiguous to it in the fame manner j and thus there is
a particular kind of agitation which the air can receive
and maintain, which is very interefting.
Sir Ifaac Newton took up this queftion as worthy of Newton’s
his notice \ and endeavoured to afcertain with mathe- theory of
matical precifion the mechanifm of this particular c]afs undulations
of undulations, and gave us the fundamental theorems
concerning the undulations of elaftic fluids, which make
the 47, &c. propofitions of Book II. of his Principles
of Natural Philofophy. They have been (perhaps haf-
tily) confidered as giving the fundamental doClrines
concerning the propagation of found. A variety ofcorrefponds
fads are narrated in the article Pneumatics, to fhowuith the
that fuch undulations aElually obtain in the air of ourP^no™ena
atmofphere, and are accompanied by a fet of pheno¬
mena of found which precifely correfpond to all the
mechanical circumftances of thefe undulations.
In the mean time, the anatomifts and phyfiologifts Refearches
were bufily employed in examining the ftru£lure ofour °Ianato-
organs of hearing. Impreffed with the validity of this mi^s‘
dodlrine of aerial undulations being the caufes of found,
their refearches were always direfted with a view to dif-
cover thofe circuit)fiances in the ftrudlure of the ear
which rendered it an organ fufceptible of agitations
from this caufe ; and they difcovered many which ap¬
peared as contrivances for making it a drum, on which
the aerial undulations from without muft make very
forcible impulfes, fo as to produce very fonorcus undu¬
lations in the air contained in it. Thefe therefore they
confidered as the immediate obje&s of fenfation, or the
immediate caufes of found.
But fome anatomifts faw that this would not be a full
account of the matter : for after a drum is agitated, it
has done all that it can do } it has produced a noife.
But a farther procefs goes on in our ear : There is
behind the membrane, which is the head of this drum,
a curious mechanifim, which communicates the agitations
of the membrane (the only thing afted on by the un¬
dulating air) to another chamber of moft Angular con-
ftruflion, where the auditory nerve is greatly expanded.
They conceive, therefore, that the organ called the Structure
drum does not acl as a drum, but in fome other way. In- of the ear,
deed it feems bad logic to fuppofe that it a£ls as a drum
merely by producing a noife. This is in no refpeft dif¬
ferent from the noife, produced out of the ear 5 and if it
is to be heard as a noife, we muft have another ear by
which it may be heard, and this ear muft be another
fuch drum •, and this muft have another, and fo on for
ever. It is like the inaccurate notion that vifion is the
contemplation of the pidure on the retina. Thefe ana¬
tomifts attended therefore to the ftru&ure. Here they
obferved
ACOUSTICS.
*4j
If^elurtinary
Obferva-
tions.
Of the hu¬
man.
Of other
animals.
Water dif-
covered in
the inter¬
nal ear.
obferved 1 prddtgtous unfolding of tbe auditory nerve
of the ear, which is curioufly diftrilsuted through every
part of this cavity, lining its fides, hung acrofs it like a
curtain, and fending off fibres in every direction} lo as
to leave hardly a point of it unoccupied. They thought
the machinery contained in the drum peculiarly fitted
for producing undulations of the air contained in this
labyrinth, and that by thefe agitations of the air the
contiguous fibres of the auditory nerve are impelled,
and that thus we get the fenfation of found.
The cavity intervening between the external ear and
this inner chamber appeared to thefe anatomifts to have
no other ufe than to allow a very free motion to the
fiapes or little piiton that is employed to agitate the air
'in the labyrinth. This pifton condenfes on a very fmall
furface the impulfe which it receives from a much lar¬
ger furface, ftrained by the malleus on the entry of the
tympanum, on purpofe to receive the gentle agitations
of the external air in the outer canal. This membra¬
nous furface could not be agitated, unleis completely
detached from every thing round ittherefore all ani¬
mals which have this mechanifm have it in a cavity
containing only air. But they held, that nature had
even taken precautions to prevent this cavity from act¬
ing as a drum, by making it of fuch an irregular ram¬
bling form •, for it is by no means a cavity of a fymme-
trical (hape, like a veffel, but rather refembles the ramb¬
ling holes and blebs which are often feen in a piece of
bread, fcattered through the fubftance of the cranium,
and communicating with each other by fmall pafiages.
The whole of thefe cavernulae are lined with a foftilh
membrane, which ftill farther unfits this cavity for pro¬
ducing found. This reafoning is Ipecious, but not \e.y
concluiive. We might even aifert, that this anfractuous
form, with narrow paffages, is well fitted lor producing
noife. If we place the ear clofe to the fmall hole in
the fide of a military drum, we (hall hear the imalleft
tap of the drumftick like a violent blow. The lining
of the cavernulae is nervous, and may therefore be
ftrongly affedled in the numerous narrow paffages be¬
tween the cellSi _ . r n
While thefe fpeculations were going on with refpecl
to the ear of the breathing animals, obfervations were
cccafionally made on other animals, Inch as reptiles,
ferpents, and filhes, which give undoubted indications
of hearing j and many very familiar fadls were obierved
or recolledled, where founds are communicated through
or by means of folid bodies, or by water : therefore,
without inquiring how or by what kind of mechanifm
it is brought about, it bfecame a very general belief
among phyfiologifts, that all filhes, and perhaps all ani¬
mals hear, and that water in particular is a vehicle of
found. Many experiments are mentioned by Kircher
end others on the communication of found through
folid bodies, fuch as mails, yards, and other long
beams of dry fir, with fimilar refults. Dr Monro has
publifiled a particular account of very curious expe¬
riments on the propagation of found through water in
his Differtation on the Phyfiology of Fillies ; fo that it
now appears that air is by no means the only vehicle
of found.
In 1760 Cotunni publifiied his important difeovery,
that the labyrinth or inmoft cavity of the ear in ani¬
mals is completely filled with water. This, after fome
conteft, has been completely demonllrated (fee in
Vol. L Part I.
particular Meckel Junior de Labyrinihi Anns
* .  T j n r.   k,* arlminpd Obieiva-
[777), and it feems now to be admitted
lions.
tis, Argentor.
by all.
This being the cafe, our notions of the immediate
caufe of found mull undergo a great revolution, and a
new refearch mull be made into the way in which
the nerve is affected : for it is not enough that we
fubftitute the undulations of water for thofe of air in
the labyrinth. The well informed mechanician will fee Increafes
at once, that the vivacity of the agitations of the nerve ^ forcectf
will be greatly increafed by this lubftitution ; for if wa- t;-ons>
ter be perfectly elaitic through the whole extent of the .
undulatory agitation which it receives, its effect will be
greater in proportion to its fpecific gravity : and this is
confirmed by an experiment very ealily made. Immerfe
a table-bell in water contained in a large thin glafs vef¬
fel. Strike it with a hammer. The found will be
heard as if the bell had been immediately itruck on the
fides of the veffel. The filling of the labyrinth of the
ear with water is therefore an additional mark of the
wifdom of the Great Artift. But this is not enough for
informing us concerning the ultimate mechanical event
in the procefs of hearing. The manner in which the
nerve is expofed to theie undulations mull be totan.y
different from what was formerly imagined. The fila¬
ments and membranes, which have been deferibed by
former anatomifts, muft have been found by them in a
ft ate quite unlike to their fituation and condition in the
living animal. Accordingly the moft eminent anato¬
mifts of Europe feem at prefent in great uncertainty as
to the ftate of the nerve, and are keenly occupied in
obfervations to this purpofe. The deferiptions given by
Monro, Scarpa, Camper, Comparetti, and others, are
full of moft curious dilcovenes, which make almoft a to¬
tal change in our notions of this fubjecl, and will, ne
hope, be produdlive of moft valuable information.
Scarpa has difeovered that the folid cavity called the Scarpa’s
labyrinth contains a threefold expanfion of the_ auditory
nerve. One part of it, the cochlea, contains it in a fi-flonof the
brillous ftate, ramified in a moft fymmetrical manner nerve in the
through the whole of the zona mollis of the lamina fpi- labyrinth.
ralis, where it anaftomofes with another production of
it diffufed over the general lining of that cavity. An¬
other department of the nerve, alio in a fibrous ftate, is
fpread over the external furface of a membranaceous
bag, which nearly fills that part of the veftibule into
which the femicircular canals open, and alfo that orifice
which receives the impreffions of the ftapes. I his bag
fends off tubular membranaceous du6ts, which, in like
manner, nearly fill theie femicircular canals. A third
department of the nerve is fpread over the external fur¬
face of another membranaceous bag, which lies between
the one juft now mentioned and the cochlea, but ha¬
ving no communication with either, almoft completely
filling the remainder of the veftibule. I bus the veftibule
and canals feem only a cafe for protecting tnis femitive
membranaceous veffel, which is almoft, but not altoge¬
ther, in contaft with the offeous cafe, being feparated
by a delicate and almoft fluid cellular fubftance.. The
fibrillous expanfion of the nerve is not indifcrimmately
diffufed over the furface of thefe facculi, but evidently
direfted to certain foci, where the fibres are conftipated.
And this is the laft appearance of the fibrous ftate of
the nerve •, .for when the infide of thefe facculi is inipect-
ed, no fibres appear, but a pulp (judged to be nervous
x fr°m
Obferva-
tions.
Comparet
ti’s, of a
146 A C O U
»n*rT from its fimliarity to otliei' pulpy produdigns of the
brain) adhering to the membranaceous coat, and not fe-
parable from it by gently warning it. It is more abun¬
dant, that is, of greater thicknels, oppolite to the ex¬
ternal fibrous foci. No organical ftruchire could be
difcovered in this pulp, but it probably is organized j
for, befides this adhering pulp, the water in the facculi
was obferved to be clammy or mucous 5 fo that in all
probability the vafcular or fibrous ftate of the nerve is
fucceeded by an uninterrupted produ&ion (perhaps
columnar like bafalt, though not cohering) ; and this at
laft ends in Ample diffemination, fymmetrical however,
where w-ater and nerve are alternate in every direction.
To thefe obfervations of Scarpa, Comparetti adds
the curious circumftances of another and regular tym-
in The fora- Panum ^ tke foramen rotundum, the cylindric cavity
men rotun- °f which is enclofed at both ends by a fine membrane,
dmn. The membrane which feparates it from the cochlea ap¬
pears to be in a Hate of variable tenfion, being drawn
up to an umbo by a cartilaginous fpeck in its middle,
which he thinks adheres to the lamina fpiralis, and thus
ferves to ftrain the drumhead, as the malieus ftrains the
great membrane known to all.
Thefe are moll important obfervations, and muft
greatly excite the curiofity of a truly philofophical
mind, and deferve the moft careful inquiry into their
juftnefs. If thefe are accurate defcriptions of the or¬
gan, they feem to conduft us farther into the fecrets of
nature than any thing yet known.
We think that they promife to give us the greateft
Hep yet made in phyfiology, viz. to fiiow us the laft
mechanical fa£t which occurs in the long train inter-
pofed between the external body and the incitement of
Deicrip- our fenfitive fyftem. But there is, as yet, great and
tions ofna- eilential differences in the defcriptions given by thofe
tiiraLiL ciif- celebrated naturalifts. It cannot be otherwife. The
containing labyrinth can be laid open to our view in
no other way than by deftroying it ; and its moft deli¬
cate contents are the firft fufferers in the fearch. They
are found in very different fituations and conditions by
different anatomifts, according to their addrefs or their
good fortune. Add to this, that the natural varieties
are very confiderable. Faithful defcriptions muff there¬
fore give very different notions of the ultimate aclion
and readiion between the unorganized matter in the la¬
byrinth and the ultimate expanfion of the auditory
nerve.
The progrefs which has been made in many parts
of natural fcience has been great and wonderful 3 and
perhaps we are not too fanguine, when we exprefs
our hopes that the obfervations and experiments of
anatomifts and mechanicians will foon furnifh us wuth
fiich a colledlion of fadls refpedting the ftrudlure and
the contents of the organ of hearing, as might enable
us to give a jufter theory of found than is yet to
be found in the writings of philofophers; There feems
to be no abatement of ardour in the refearches of
of the phyfiologiffs 3 and they will not remain long-
ignorant of the truth or miftake in the accounts given
by Scarpa and Comparetti. A colledtion of accurate
obfervations on the ffrudlure of the ear would give us
principles on which to proceed in explaining the
various methods of producing external founds. The
nature of continued founds might then he treated of,
and would appear, we believe, very different from
ferent.
t’onS.
SI ICS. Chap. I.
what it is commonly fuppofed. Under this head Preliminary
animal voices might be particularly confidered, and 0Uerva-
the elements of human fpeech properly afeertained.
When the production of continued founds is once
ffiown to be a thing regulated by principle, it may be
fyftematically treated, and this principle may be Con¬
fidered as combined with every mechanical ftate of
body that may be pointed out. This will fuggeft
to us methods of producing found which have not
yet been thought of, and may therefore give us
founds with which we are unacquainted. Such an
acquifition is not to be defpifed nor rejeCled. The
bountiful Author of bur being and of all our fa¬
culties has made it an objeft of moft enchanting re-
lilh to the human mind. The Greeks, the moft culti¬
vated people who have ever figured on the ftage of life,
enjoyed the pleafures of mufic with rapture. Even the
poor negro, after toiling a whole day beneath a tropi¬
cal fun, will go ten miles in the dark to dance all
night to the Ample mufic of the balafoe, and return
without fleep to his next day’s toil. The penetrating-
eye of the anatomift has difcovered in the human la¬
rynx an apparatus evidently contrived for tempering
the great movements of the glottis, fo as to enable us
to produce the intended note with the utmoft precifion.
There is no doubt therefore that the confummate Ar-
tift has not thought it unworthy of his attention. We
ought therefore to receive with thankfulnefs this pte-
fent from our Maker—this laborum dulce lenimen ; and
it is furely worthy the attention of the philofopher to add
to this innocent elegance of life.
Chap I. Different Theories of Sound.
Most founds, we all know, are conveyed to us on of the ve-
the bofom of the air. In whatever manner they either hides of
float upon it, or are propelled forward in it, certain itf°uncb
is, that, without the vehicle of this or feme other fluid,
we fhould have no founds at all. Let the air be ex-
haufted from a receiver, and a bell fhall emit no found
when rung in the void 3 for, as the air continues to grow
lefs denfe, the found dies away in proportion, fo that
at laft its ftrongeft vibrations are almoft totally filent.
Thus air is a vehicle for found. However, we muft Air not tha
not, with feme philofophers, affert, that it is the only only one.
vehicle ; that, if there were no air, we fliould have no
founds whatfoever : for it is found by experiment,’ that
founds are conveyed through water with the fame faci¬
lity with which they move through air. A bell rung
in water returns a tone as difthuft as if rung in air.
This was obferved by Derham, who alfo remarked that
the tone came a quarter deeper. It appears from the
experiments of naturalifts, that fifties have a ftrong per¬
ception of founds, even at the bottom of deep rivers.
From hence, it would feem not to be very material in
the propagation of founds, whether the fluid which
conveys them be elaftic or otherwife. Water, which,
of all fubftances that we know, has the leaft elafticity,
yet ferves to carry them forward 3 and if we make al¬
lowance for the difference of its denfity, perhaps the
founds move in it with a proportional rapidity to what
they are found to do in the elaftic fluid of air. But
though air and wrater are both vehicles of found, yet
neither of them according to feme philofophcrs feems
to
Chap.
Diftt
The
Sound
X, A C O U
Diffibrent to be To by itfelf, but only as it contains an ®xceeduig«
'h.vorbi of ly fubtle fluid capable of penetrating the moll iolid bo-
Sound. Hence, by the medium of that fluid, founds can
'’"v be propagated through wood, or metals, even more
readily than through the open air. By the fame means,
deaf people may be made fenflble of founds if they hold
a piece of metal in the moutb, one end of which is ap¬
plied to the founding body. And as it is certain, that
air cannot penetrate metals, the medium of found, fay
they, mufhbe of a more fubtle nature j and thus the
electrical fluid will naturally occur as the proper one.
But why then is found no longer heard in an exhaufted
receiver, if the air is not the fluid by which it is con¬
veyed, feeing the elettrical matter cannot be excluded ?
The reply to this is obvious : The electrical fluid is fo
exceedingly fubtle, and pervades folid bodies with fo
much eafe, that any motion of a folid body in a quan¬
tity of eleftric matter by itfelf, can never excite a de¬
gree of agitation in it fufficient for producing a found *,
but if the electric fluid is entangled among the parti¬
cles of air, water, wood, metal, &c. whatever ahects
their particles will alfo affect this fluid, and pioduce
an audible noife. In the experiment of the air pump,
it is alleged there may be an ambiguity, as the gra¬
dual exhaufting of the air creates an increafing differ¬
ence of preffure on the outfide, and may occafion^ in
the glafs a difficulty of vibrating, fo as to render it lefs
fit to communicate to the air without the vibrations
that ftrike it from within. From this caufe the dimi¬
nution of found in an exhaufted receiver may be fup-
pofed to proceed, as wTell as from the diminution of the
air. But if any internal agitation of its parts fhould
happen to the ele&rical fluid, exceeding loud noifes
might be propagated through it, as has been the cafe
when large meteors have kindled at a great diftance
from the°earth. It is alfo difficult, they fuppofe, to ac¬
count for the amazing velocity of found, upon the fup-
pofition that it is propagated by means of air alone ;
for nothing is more certain, than that the ftrongeft and
moft violent gale is, in its courfe, inert and fluggifli,
compared with the motion of found.
One thing however is certain, that whether the fluid
which conveys the note be elaftic, or nonelaftic, what¬
ever found we hear is produced by a ftroke, which the
founding body makes againft the fluid, whether ah. or
water. The fluid being ftruck upon, carries the im-
preflion forward to the ear, and there produces its fen-
Whatfoundation. Philofophers are fo far agreed, that they all
is, and how allow that found is nothing more tnan the impremon
propagated. macje py an elaftic body upon the air or w^ater, and
this impreftion carried along by either fluid to the or¬
gan of hearing. But the manner in which this con¬
veyance is made, is ftill difputed : Whether the found
is diffufed into the air, in circle beyond circle, like
the waves of water when wTe difturb the fmoothnefs of
its furface by dropping in a ftone } or whethei il tra¬
vels along, like rays diffufed from a centre, fomewhat
in the fwift manner that eleftricity runs along a rod
of iron j thefe are the queftions which have divided the
learned.
Newton was of the firft opinion. He has explained
the progreflion of found by an undulatory, or rather a
vermicular, motion in the parts of the air. If we have
an exaft idea of the crawling of fome infefis, we fliall
have a tolerable notion of the progrefuon of found upon
Newton’s
theory,
S T I C S.  !47
this hypothefis. The for inflan.ee, in its motion,
firft carries its contraftions from the hinder pan., m or- goun^<
der to throw its fore part to the proper diftance, then
it carries its contra&ions from the fore part to the hin¬
der to bring that forward. Something fimilar to this
is the motion of the air when ftruck upon by a found¬
ing body. To be a little more prqcife, fuppofe ABC,
Pfatc I. fig. x. the firing of a harpfichord ferewed to
a proper pitch, and drawn out of the right line by tnc
finger at B. We fhall have occafion elfewhere to ob-
ferve, that fiich a firing would, if let go, vibrate to T*
and from E to D, and back again •, that it would con¬
tinue thus to vibrate like a pendulum, lor ever, it.not
externally refifted, and like a pendulum,, all its InUe
vibrations would be perforfhed in equal times, the lafl
and the firft being equally long in performing ; alio
that, like a pendulum, its greateft fwiftnefs would, al¬
ways be when it arrived at E, the middle part of its
motion. Now then, if this firing be fuppofed to fly
from the finger at B, it is obvious, that whatever be
its owm motion, fuch alfo will be the motion of. the
parts'of air that fly before it. Its motion, as is obvious,
is firft uniformly accelerated forward from B to E,
then retarded as it goes from E to D, accelerated back
again as it returns from D to E, and retarded from Ji.
to B. Thil motion being therefore fucceffively pro¬
duced through a range of elaftic air, it muft happen,
that the parts of one range of air will be fent forward
with accelerated motion, and. then with a retarded mo¬
tion. This accelerated motion reaching the remotefl
end of the firft range will be communicated to a fecov.d
range, while the neareft parts of the firft range being
retardeddn their motion, and falling back with the re-
ceflion of the firing, retire firft with an acceleratea,
then with a retarded motion, and the remoteft paits
will foon follow. In the mean time, while the parts
of the firft range are thus falling back, the parts or tbe
fecond range are goh^g forward with an accelerated
motion. Thus there will be an alternate condenfation
and relaxation of the air, during the time of one vibra¬
tion ; and as the air going forw ard ftrikes any oppofmg
body with greater force than uponvretiring, fo each oi
thefe accelerated progreffions have been called by New¬
ton a pulfe of found. _
Thus will the air be driven forward m the direction
of the firing. But now we muft obferve, that theie
pulfes will move every wray 3 for all motion imp re Red
upon fluids in any 'direction whatfoever, operates ad
around in a fphere : fo that founds will be driven in a 1
direftions, backwards, forwards, upwards, downwards,
and on every fide. They will go on fuc.ceediqg eacn
other, one on the outfide of the other, like circles ni
difturbed water 3 or rather, they will lie one without
the other, in concentric fliells, fhell above fuel., as v.e
fee in the coats of an onion. . . *
All who have remarked the tone 01 a bed, vhreits
founds are decaying awray, muft have an idea o. l e
pulfes of found, which according to Newton, are mrm>
ed by the air’s alternate progreftion and receflion. And
it muft be obferved, that as each of thefe pulfes is
formed by a ftngle vibration of the firing they muft
be equal to each other 3 for the vibrations of the firing
are knowm to be fo. ^ .
Again, As to the velocity with which founds travel,
this Newton determines, by the moft difficult calcula-
T 3 tlon
148 A C O U
r different tion that can be imagined, to be in proportion to the
1 ^Sound °f ot' ^le Parts "dr, and the diftance of
.. y ■ ■ tdefe parts from each other. From hence he goes on
to prove, that each little part moves backward and for¬
ward like a pendulum 5 and from thence he proceeds
to demonftrate, that if the atmofphere were of the fame
denfity everywhere as at the furface of the earth, in
inch a cafe, a pendulum, that reached from its higheft
furface down to the furface of the earth, would by its
vibrations difcover to us the proportion of the velocity
with which founds travel. The velocity with which
each pulfe would move, he fhows, would be as much
greater than the velocity of fuch a pendulum fwinging
with one complete vibration, as the circumference of
a circle is greater than the diameter. From hence he
calculates, that the motion of found will be 979 feet
in one fecond. But this not being confonant to ex¬
perience, he takes in another confideration, which de-
ffroys entirely the rigour of his former demonlfration,
namely, vapours in the air 5 and then finds the motion
of found to bell 42 feet in one fecond, or near 13
miles in a minute; a proportion which experience had
eftablilhed nearly before.
Preceding Thus much will ferve to give an obfcure idea of a
theory op- theory which has met with numerous oppofers. Even
pofed. John Bernouilli, Newton’s greateft difciple, modeftly
owns that he did not pretend to underftand this part
of the Pnncipia. He attempted therefore to give a
more perfpicuous demonftration of his own, that might
confirm and illuftratb the Newtonian theory. The
fubjefl feemed to rejeft elucidation j his theory is ob-
vioully wrong, as D’Alembert has proved in his Theo¬
ry of Fluids.
The objec- Various have been the objections that have been
dons. made to the Newtonian fyftem of founds. It is urged,
that this theory can only agree with the motion of
lound in an elaftic fluid, whereas founds are known to
move forward through water that is not elaflic. To
explain their progrefs therefore through water, a fe¬
cond theory muft be formed : fo that two theories mult
be made to explain a fimilar effeft j which is contrary
to the fimplicity of true philofophy, for it is contrary
to the fimplicity of nature. It is further urged, that
this flow vermicular motion but ill reprefents the velo¬
city with which founds travel, as we know by experi¬
ence that it is almofl: 13 miles in a minute. In fhort,
it is urged, that fuch undulations as have been defcrib-
ed, when coming from feveral fonorous bodies at once,
would crofs, obftruft, and confound each other j fo
that, if they were conveyed To the ear by this means
we fliould hear nothing but a medley of difcord and
broken articulations. But this is equally with the reft
contradictory to experience, fince we hear the fulleft
concert, ' only without confufion, but with the high¬
eft pleafure. Thefc objections, whether well found¬
ed or not, have given rife to another theory : which
we fnall likewife lay before the reader •, though it too
appears liable to objections, which fliall be afterwards
mentioned.
Another Every found may be confidered. as driven off from
theory. the founding body in ftraight lines, and impreffed upon
the air in one direction only : but whatever impreflion
is made upon a fluid in one direction, is diffufed upon
its furface into all directions : fo that the found firft
driveii, direCtly forward foon fills up a wide fphere, and
S T I C S. Chap. I.
is heard on every fide. Thus, as it is impreffed, it in- Different
ftantaneoully travels forward with a very fwift motion,Tlieories
refembling the velocity with which we know eleChicity 5,ouncI-
flies from one end of a line to another.
Now, as to the pulfes, or clofe {hakes as the mufi-
cians exprefs it, which a founding body is known to
make, each pulfe (fay the fupporters of this theory)
is itfelf a diftinCt and perfeCt found, and the interval
between every two pulfes is profoundly filent. Con¬
tinuity of found from the fame body is only a decep¬
tion of the hearing ; for as each diftinCt found fucceeds
at very fmall intervals, the organ has no time to tranf-
mit its images with equal fwiftnefs to the mind, and
the interval is thus loft to fenfe : juft as in feeing a
flaming torch, whirled rapidly round, it appears as a
ring of fire. In this manner a beaten drum, at fome
fmall diftance, prefents us with the idea of continuing
found. When children run with their flicks along a
rail, a continuing found is thus reprefented, though it
need fcarce be obferved that the ftroke againft each
rail is perfectly diftinCt and infulated.
According to this theory, therefore, the pulfes are
nothing more than diftinCI founds repeated by the fame
body, the firft ftroke or vibration being ever the loud-
eft, and travelling farther than thofe that follow } while
each fucceeding vibration gives a new found, but with
diminiftied force, till at laft the pulfes decay away to¬
tally, as the force decays that gives them exiftence.
All bodies whatfoever that are ftruck return more or
lefs a found : but fome, wanting elafticity, give back
no repetition of the found \ the noife is at once produ¬
ced and dies : while other bodies, however, there are,
which being more elaftic and capable of vibration, give
back a found, and repeat the fame feveral times fuc-
ceflively. Thefe laft are faid to have a tone ; the others
are not allowed to have any.
This tone of the elaftic firing, or bell, is notwith-
Handing nothing more than a fimilar found of what
the former bodies produced, but with the difference of
being many times repeated, while their note is but
fingle. So that, if we would give the former bodies a
tone, it will be neceffary to make them repeat their
found, by repeating our blows fwiftly upon them. This
will effedually give them a tone 5 and even an unmufi-
cal inftrument has often had a fine effect by its tone in
our concerts..
Let us now go on then to fuppofe, that by fwift
and equably continued ftrokes we give any nonelaftic
body its tone : it is very obvious, that no alterations
will be made in this tone by the quicknefs of the ftrokes,
though repeated ever fo faft. Thefe will only render
the tone more equal and continuous, but make no al¬
teration in the tone it gives. On the contrary, if we
make an alteration in the force of each blow7, a differ¬
ent tone will then undoubtedly be excited. The dif¬
ference will be fmall, it muft be confeffed ) for the tones
of thefe inflexible bodies are capable but of fmall va¬
riation ; however, there will certainly be a difference.
The table on which we write, for inftance, will return
a different found when ftruck with a club, from what
it did when ftruck only with a fwitch. Thus nonelaftic
bodies return a difference of tone, not in proportion
to the fwiftnefs with which their found is repeated, but
in proportion to the greatnefs of the blow which pro¬
duced it ? for in two equal nonelaftic bodies, that body
produced
Chap. I.
A C O U
Different produced the deepeft tone which was ftruck by the
"" greateft blow.
We now then come to a critical queftion, What
is it that produces the difference of tone in two elaftic
founding bells or firings * or, what makes one deep and
the other fhrill ? This queftion has always been hitherto
anfwered by faying, that the depth or height of the
note proceeded from the flownefs or fwiftnefs of the
times of the vibrations. The floweft vibrations, it has
been faid, are qualified for producing the deepeft tones,
while the fwifteft vibrations produce the higheft tones.
In this cafe, an effedft has been given for a caufe. It is
in fa£t the force with which the founding firing ftrikes
the air when ftruck upon, that makes the true diftinc-
tion in the tones of founds. It is this force, with greater
or lefs impreflions, refembling the greater or lefs force
of the blows upon a nonelaftic body, which produces
correfpondent affections of found. The greateft forces
produce the deepeft founds j the high notes are the ef-
feCt of fmall efforts. In the fame manner a bell, wide
at the mouth, gives a grave found; but if it be very
maffy withal, that will render it ftlll graver j but if
maffy, wide, and long or high, that will make the tone
deepeft of all.
Thus, then, will elaftic bodies give the deepeft found,
in proportion to the force with which they ftrike the
air : but if we fhould attempt to increafe their force by
giving them a ftronger blow, this will be in vain $ they
will ftill return the fame tone j for fuch is their forma¬
tion, that they are fonorous only becaufe they are elaf¬
tic, and the force of this elafticity is not increafed by
our ftrength, as the greatnefs of a pendulum’s vibra¬
tion will not be increafed by falling from a greater
height.
Now as to the frequency with which elaftic firings vi¬
brate the deepeft tones, it has been found, that the long-
eft firings have the wideft vibrations, and confequently
go backward and forward floweft $ while, on the con¬
trary, the fhorteft firings vibrate, the quickeft, or come
and go in the fhorteft intervals. From hence thofe
who have treated of founds, have afferted, as was faid
before, that the tone of the firing depended upon the
length or the fhortnefs of the vibrations. This, however,
is not the cafe. One and the fame firing, when.ftruck,
muft always, like the fame pendulum,, return precifely
finiilar vibrations : but it is well known, that one and
the fame firing, when ftruck upon, does not always re¬
turn precifely the fame tone : fo that in this cafe the
vibrations follow one rule, and the tone another. The
vibrations muft be invariably the fame in the fame firing,
which does not return the fame tone invariably, as is
well known to muficians in general. In the violin, for
inflance, they can eafily alter the tone of the firing an
oClave or eight notes higher, by a fofter method of draw¬
ing the bow } and fome are known, thus to bring out
the moil charming airs imaginable. Thefe peculiar
tones are by the Englifh fiddlers called flute-notes* The
only reafon, it has been alleged, that can be afligned
for the fame firing thus returning different, tones, mnft
certainly be the different force of its ftrokes upon the
air. In one cafe, it. has double the tone of the other ;
S T I C S.
H9
becaufe upon the foft touches of the bow, only half its Different
elafticity is put into vibration. Theories of
This being underftood (continue the authors of gound‘ .
this theory), we fhall be able clearly to account for
many things relating to founds that have hitherto
been inexplicable. Thus, for inftance, if it be afk-
ed, When two firings are ftretched together of equal
lengths, tenfions, and thicknefs, how does it happen,
that one of them being ftruck, and made to vibrate
throughout, the other fhall vibrate throughout alfo y
the anfwer is obvious: The force that the firing ftruck
receives is communicated to the air, and the air com¬
municates the fame to the fimilar firing ; which there¬
fore receives all the force of the former j and the force
being equal, the vibrations muft be fo too. Again:
Put the queftion, If one firing be but half the length
of the other, and be ftruck, how will the vibrations
be ? The anfwer is, The longeft firing will receive all
the force of the firing half as long as itfelf, and there¬
fore it will vibrate in proportion, that is, through half
its length. In the fame manner, if the longelt firing
were three times as long as the other, it would only
vibrate in a third of its length 5 or if four times, in a
fourth of its length. In fhort, whatever force the
fmaller firing impreffes upon the air, the air wall im-
prefs a fimilar force upon the longer firing, and par¬
tially excite its vibrations.
From hence alfo we may account for the caufe of thofe Eolian'
charming melancholy gradations of found in the Eolian Lyre-
lyre, Plate I. fig. 2.; an inftrument (fays Sir John Haw¬
kins) lately obtruded upon the public a^ a new invention,
though defcribed above a century ago by Kircher *. * Vide
This inftrument is eafily made, , being nothing more Kircher s
than a long narrow box of thin deal, about 50 inches -
long, 5 inches - broad, and inches deep, with a cir- 11 ’1X"
cle in the middle of the upper fide or belly about i-J
inch diameter pierced with fmall holes. On this fide are
feven, ten, or (according to Kircher) fifteen or more
firings of very fine gut, ftretched over bridges at -each
end, like the bridge of a fiddle, and fcrewed up or re¬
laxed with fcrew-pins (b). The firings are all tuned
to one and the fame note $ and the inftrument is pla¬
ced in fome current of air, where the wind can brufh
over its firings with freedom. A window with the
fafh juft railed to give the air admiflion, will anfwer
this purpofe exactly. Now w-hen the entering air
blows upon thefe firings with different degrees of force,
there will be excited different tones of found \ fome-
times the blaft brings out all the tones in full concert, j
fometimes it finks them to the fofteft murmurs j it
feels for every tone, and by its gradations, of ftrength
folicits thofe gradations of found wdiich art has taken
different methods to produce.
It remains, in the laft place, to confider (by this
theory) the loudnefs and lownefs, or, as the muficians
fpeak, the ftrength and foftnefs of found. In vibrat¬
ing elaftic firings, the loudnefs of the tone is in pro¬
portion to the deepnefs of the note ; that is, in two
firings, all things in other circumftances alike, the
deepeft tone wall be loudeft. In mufical inftruments
upon a different principle, as in the violin, it is other-
(b) The figure reprefents the inftrument with ten chords; of which fome direct only eight to be tuned uni- •
fons, and the two outenaoft o&aves below them. Hut this fee ms to be. not material.
rjo
Different
Theories of
Sounds.
ACOUSTICS.
The nature
-of mufical
founds il-
luftrated
according
-to the fame
-theory.
wife j tlie tones are made in fuch inftruments, by a
number of fmall vibrations crowded into one ftroke.
The rofined bow, for instance, being drawn along a
firing, its roughneffes catch the firing at very fmall
intervals, and excite its vibrations. In this inilrument,
therefore, to excite loud tones, the bow mull be drawn
quick, and this null produce the greateft number of
vibrations. But it mull be obferved, that the more
quick the bow paffes over the firing, the lefs apt will
the roughnefs of its furface be to touch the llring at
every inflant; to remedy this, therefore, the bow mull
be preffed the harder as it is drawn quicker, and thus
its fullefl found will be brought from the inflrument.
If the fwiftnefs of the vibrations in an inflrument thus
rubbed upon, exceed the force of the deeper found in
another, then the fwift vibrations will be heard at a
greater diflance, and as much farther off as the fwift¬
nefs in them exceeds the force in the other.
By the fame theory (it is alleged) may all tire phe¬
nomena of mufical founds be eafily explained. The
fables of the ancients pretend, that mufic was firfl
found out by the beating of different hammers upon
the fmith’s anvil. Without purfuing the fable, let us
endeavour to explain the nature of mufical founds by
a fimilar method. Let us fuppofe an anvil, or feveral
fimilar anvils, to be flruck upon by feveral hammers of
different weights or forces. The hammer, which is
double that of another, upon flriking the anvil will
produce a found double that of the other : this double
found muficians have agreed to call an Odlave. The
ear can judge of the difference or refemblance of thefe
founds with great eafe, the numbers being as one and
two, and therefore very readily compared. Suppofe
that a hammer, three times lefs than the firll, flrikes
the anvil, the found produced by this will be three
times lefs than the firft: fo that the ear, in judging
the fimilitude of thefe founds, will find fomewhat more
difficulty ; becaufe it is not fo eafy to tell how often
one is contained in three, as it is to tell how often it
is contained in two. Again, Suppofe that a hammer
four times lefs than the firft ftrikes the anvil, the ear
will find greater difficulty ftill in judging precifely the
difference of the founds ; for the difference of the num¬
bers four and one cannot fo foon be determined with
precifion as three and one. If the hammer be five
times lefs, the difficulty of judging will be Hill greater.
If the hammer be fix times lefs, the difficulty ftill in-
-creafes, and fo alfo of the feventh, fo that the ear can¬
not always readily and at once determine the precife
gradation. Now, of all comparifons, thofe which the
mind makes mofl eafily, and with lealt labour, are the
molt pleafing. There is a certain regularity in the
human foul, by which it finds happinefs in exa6t and
linking, and eafily made companions. As the ear is
but an inflrument of the mind, it is therefore mofl
pleafed with the combination of any two founds, the
differences of which it can mofl readily diflinguifh. It
is more pleafed with the concord of two founds which are
to each other as one and two, than of two founds which
are as one and three, or one and four, or one and five,
or one and fix or feven. Upon this pleafure, which
Chap. L
, the mind takes in companion, all harmony depends. OfMtHcal
The variety of founds is infinite : but becaule the ear Sounds,
cannot compare two founds fo as readily to diilinguifh v’—’v--'
their difcriminations when they exceed the proportion
of one and feven, muficians have been content to con¬
fine all harmony within that compafs, and allowed but
feven notes in mufical compofition.
Let us now then fuppofe a flringed inflrument fitted
up in the order mentioned above. For infiance : Let
the firfl firing be twice as long as the fecond; let the
third firing be three times fliorter than the firfl 5 let the '
fourth be four times, the fifth firing five times, and
the fixth fix times as ffiort as the firfl. Such an in¬
flrument would probably give us a reprefentation of
the lyre as it came firfl from the hand of the inven¬
tor. This inflrument will give us all the feven notes
following each other, in the order in which any two
of them will accord together moll pleafingly ; but yet
it will be a very inconvenient and a very dilagreeable
inflrument : inconvenient, for in a compafs of feven
firings only, the firfl mull be feven times as long as
the lafl 5 and difagreeable, becaufe this firfl firing will
be feven times as loud alfo ; fo that when the tones are
to be played in a different order, loud and foft founds
would be intermixed with mofl difgufling alternations.
In order to improve the firfl inflrument, therefore,
fucceeding muficians very judicioufly threw in all the
other firings between the two firfl, or, in other words,
^between the two o&aves, giving to each, however, the
fame proportion to what it would have had in the firll
natural inflrument. This made the inflrument more
portable, and the founds more even and pleafing. They
therefore difpofed the founds between the oftave in their
natural order, and gave each its own proportional di-
menfions. Of thefe founds, where the proportion be¬
tween any two of them is moll obvious, the concord
between them will be mofl pleafing. Thus odlaves,
which are as two to one, have a mofl harmonious effedl j
the fourth and fifth alfo found fweetly together, and
they will be found, upon calculation, to bear the fame
proportion to each other that odlaves do. “ Let it
not be fuppofed (fays M. Sauveur), that the mufical
fcale is merely an arbitrary combination of founds ;
it is made up from the confonance and differences of
the parts which compofe it. Thofe who have often
heard a fourth and fifth accord together, will be na¬
turally led to difcover their difference at once ; and
the mind unites itfelf to their beauties.” Let us then
ceafe to affign the coincidences of vibrations as the
caufe of harmony, flnce thefe coincidences in two
firings vibrating at different intervals, mull at befl be
but fortuitous ; whereas concord is always pleafing.'
The true caufe why concord is pleafing, mull arife
from our power, in fuch a cafe, of meafuring more
eafily the differences of the tones. In proportion as
the note can be meafured with its fundamental tone by
large and obvious diftinftions, then the concord is
moll pleafing ; on the contrary, when the ear meafures
the difcriminations of two tones by very fmall parts, or
cannot meafure them at all, it ksfes the beauty of their
refemblance : the whole is difcord and pain (c).
But
(c) It is certain, that in proportion to the fimplicity of relations in found, the ear is pleafed writh its combi-
Eations j but this is not to be admitted as the caufe why mulicians have confined all harmony to an odlave.
2 Difcriminated
Chap. T. • A C . ° ^
Of Mulical But there is another property in the vibration of a
Sounds, mufical firing not yet taken notice of, and which is al-
leged to confirm the foregoing theory. If we ftnke
the firing of a harpfichord, or any other elaftic iound-
incT’ chord whatever, it returns a continuing found.
This till of late was confidered as one fimple unixorm
tone but all muficians now confels, that inftead of
one tone it aftually returns four tones, and that con-
ftantly. The notes are, befide the fundamental tone,
an o(Slave above, a twelfth above, and a feventeenth.
One of the bafs notes of a harpfichord has been dif¬
fered in this manner by Rameau, and the actual exift-
ence of thefe tones proved beyond a poffibility of being
controverted. In fa£f, the experiment is eafily tried ;
for if we fmartly ftrike one of the lower keys of a
harpfichord, and then take the finger brifkly away, a
tolerable ear will be able to difiinguifb, that, after the
fundamental tone has ccafed, three other fliriller tones
will be difiinclly heard } firft the octave above, then
the twelfth, and laftly the feventeenth : the o6fave
above is in general almoft mixed with the fundamen¬
tal tone, fo as not to be eafily perceived, except by an
ear long habituated to the minute diferiminations of
founds. So that we may obferve, that the imalleft
tone is heard laft, and the deepeft and largeft one firft:
the two others in order.
In the whole theory of founds, nothing has given
greater room for fpeculation, conjeclure, and difap-
pointment, than this amazing property in elaftic firings.
The whole firing is univerfaily acknowledged to be in
vibration in all its parts, yet this {ingle vibration re¬
turns no lefs than four different founds. They who
account for the tones of firings by the number of their
vibrations, are here at the greateft lofs. Daniel Ber-
nouilli fuppofes, that a vibrating firing divides itfelf
into a number of curves, each of which has a peculiar
vibration ; and though they all fwing together in the
common vibration, yet each vibrates within itfelf. I xiis
opinion, which was fupported, as moft geometrical
fpeculations are, with the parade of demonftration,
was only born foon after to die. Others have aferibed
this to an elaftic difference in the parts of the air, euch
of which, at different intervals, thus received different
impreffions from the firing, in proportion to their ela-
fticity. This is abfurd. If we allow the difference of
tone to proceed from the force, and not the irequency,
of the vibrations, this difficulty will admit of an eaiy
folution. Thefe founds, tbougb they feem to exift to¬
gether in the firing, actually follow each other in fuc-
eeffion : while the vibration has greateft force, the fun¬
damental tone is brought forward : the xorce oi the vi¬
bration decaying, the oftave is produced, but almort
only inftantaneoufly j to this fucceeds, with diminifhed
force, the twelfth ; and, laftly, the feventeenth is heard
to vibrate with great diftin&neis, while the three otner
tones are always filent. Thefe founds, thus^ excited,
are all of them the harmonic tones, whofe differences
from the fundamental tone are, as was laid, ftrong and
S T I C S. ip
diftin&. On the other hand, the difeordant tones can- Of Mufical
not be heard. Their differences being but very final], Soi^(^
they are overpowered, and in a manner drowned in the
tones of fuperior difference : yet not always neither ;
for Daniel Bernouilli has been able, from the fame
firoke, to make the fame firing bring out its harmo¬
nic and its difeordant tones alfo (d). So that from
hence we may juftly infer, that every note whatfoever
is only a fucceffion of tones j and that thofe are mofi
diftinftly heard, whofe differences are moft eafily per¬
ceivable. ,.
To this theory, however, though it has a plauffble Ofijedtions
appearance, there are ftrong and indeed infuperable
objections. The very fundamental principle of it is theory,
falfe. No body whatever, whether elaftic or nonela-
ftic, yields a graver found by being ftruck with a lar¬
ger infirument, unlcfs either the founding body, or that
part of it wdiich emits the found, is enlarged. In this
cafe, the largeft bodies always return the graveft
founds. ...
In fpeaking of elaftic and nonelaftic bodies in a mu¬
fical fenfe, we are not to pufh tlie diftin<ftion fo far as
when we fpeak of them philofophically. A body is
mufically elaftic, all of whofe parts are thrown into vi¬
brations lb as to emit a found when only part of their
furface is ftruck. Of this kind are bells, munc...'
firings, and all bodies whatever that are confiderablj
hollow. Mufical nonelaftics are fuch bodies as emit a
found only from that particular place which is ftruck :
thus, a table, a plate of iron nailed on wood, a bell
funk in the’ earth, are all of tnem none!allies in a mu¬
fical fenfe, though not philofophically fo. When a
folid body, fuch as a log of wood, is ftruck with a
fwitch, only that part of it emits a found which comes
in contact with the fwitch \ the note is acute and loud,
but would be no lefs fo though the adjacent parts cl
the log were removed. If, inftead of the fwiten, a
heavier or larger inftrUment is made uie gj, a larger
portion of its farface then returns a found, and the note
is confequently more grave 5 but it would not be fo,
if the large inftrument was ftruck with a fharp edge,
or a furface only equal to that of the itnall one.
In founds of this kind, where there is only a fmgle
thwack, without any repetition, the immediate caufe
of the gravity or acutenefs feems to be the quantity ox
air difplaced by the founding body 5 a large quantity
of air difplaced, produces a grave found, and. a fmaller
quantity a more acute one, the force wherewith the air
is difplaced fignifying very little. What we here ad¬
vance is confirmed by fome experiments made, by D*
Prieftley, concerning the mufecai tone of eleflrical dif-
charges. The paffage being curious, and not very
long, we {hall here tranferibe it..
“ As the courfe of my experiments has requned a
great variety of eleftrical explofions, I could not help
obferving a great variety in the mufical tone made bj
the reports. This excited my curiofity to attempt to
reduce this variation to fome meafur-s. Accordingly,
by-
Difcriminated founds, whofe vibrations either never coincide, or at leait very rarely,.do nM
but violently grate the ear. Harmony and difeord, therefore, are neither d.fcnmm«ted by the judgment
hearers, nor the inftitution of muficians, but by their own effential anu nnmuta e iia aii e.
(d) Vid. Memoires de 1’Academic de Berlin, 1753’ P' I53*
Jj'2 A C O U S
Or Mufical by tbe 'help of a couple of fpinets, and two perfons w ho
^ Sounds.^ gOOC} ears for j endeavoured to afcertain the
^ ^ tone of feme eleftrical difcharges 5 and obferved, that
every difcharge made feveral ftrings, particularly thofe
that were chords to one another, to vibrate *, but one
note was alwrays predominant, and founded after the
reft. As every explofion was repeated feveral times,
and three of us feparately took the fame note, there
remained no doubt but that the tone w^e fixed upon
was at leaft very near the true one. The refult wras as
follows :
“ A jar containing half a fquare foot of coated glafs
•founded F {harp, concert pitch. Another jar of a dif¬
ferent form, but equal furface, founded the fame.
“ A j ar of three fquare feet founded C below F
{harp. A battery confifting of fixty-four jars, each con¬
taining half a fquare foot, founded F below the C-.
“ The fame battery in conjumftion with another of
thirty-one jars, founded C {harp. Sc that a greater
quantity of coated glafs always gave a deeper note.
“ Differences in the degree of a charge in the fame
jar made little or no difference in the tone of the ex¬
plofion 3 if any, a higher charge gave rather a deeper
note.”
Thefe experiments ftiowr us how much the gravity or
acutenefs of founds depend on the quantity of air put
in agitation by the founding body. We knowrthat the
noife of rhe electric explofion, arifes from the return of
the air into the vacuum produced by the eleftric flalh.
The larger the vacuum, the deeper was the note : for
the fame reafon, the difcharge of a mulket produces a
more acute note than that of a cannon 5 and thunder is
deeper than either.
Eefides this, however, other circumftances concur
to produce different degrees of gravity or acutenefs in
founds. The found of a table ftruck upon wuth a piece
of wood, wall not be the fame with that produced from
a plate of iron ftruck by the fame piece of -wood, even
if the blows ftiould be exaflly equal, and the iron per¬
fectly kept from vibrating. Here the founds are gene¬
rally faid to differ in their degrees of acutenefs, accord¬
ing to the fpecific gravities or denfities of the fubftan-
ees which emit them. Thus gold, which is the moft
denfe of all metals, returns a much graver found than
fftver 3 and metalline wires, which are more denfe than
therms, return a proportionably graver found. But
neither does this appear to be a general rule in which
we can put confidence. Bell metal is denfer than cop¬
per, but it by no means appears to yield a graver found 3
on the contrary, it feems very probable, that copper
will give a graver found than bell metal, if both are
. ftruck upon in their nonelaftic ftate 3 and w7e can by
no means think that a bell of pure tin, the leaft denfe
of all the metals, will give a more acute found than
one of bell metal, which is greatly more denfe. In
feme bodies hardnefs feems to have a confiderable effeCl.
Glafs, which is confiderably harder than any metal,
gives a morC acute found 3 bell metal is harder than
gold, lead, or tin, and therefore founds much more
acutely 3 though how far this holds writh regard to
other fubftances, there is not a fufficient number of
experiments for us to judge.
In bodies mufically elaftic, the whole fubftance vi¬
brates with the flighteft ftroke, and therefore they al¬
ways give the fame note whether they are ftruck with
3
Tick Chap. I,
a large or with a fmall inftfument 3 fo that ftriking a Of Mufical
part of the furface of any body mufically elaftic is equi- Sountls- ,
valent, in it, to ftriking the whole furface of a non-’ W-J
elaftic one. If the whole furface of a table was ftruck
with another table, the note produced wrould be neither
more nor lefs acute whatever force was employed 3 be-
caufe the whole furface wrould then yield a found, and
no force could increafe the furface : the found would
indeed be louder in proportion to the force employed,
but the gravity would remain the fame. In like man¬
ner, when a bell, or mufical firing, is ftruck, the whole
fubftance vibrates, ’and a greater ftroke cannot increafe
the fubftance. Hence wTe fee the fallacy of what is
faid concerning the Pythagorean anvils. An anvil is
a body mufically elaftic, and no difference in the tone
can be perceived whether it is ftruck with a large or
with a fmall hammer 3 becaufe either of them are fuffi¬
cient to make the whole fubftance vibrate, provided
nothing but the anvil is ftruck upon : fmiths, however,
do not ftrike their anvils, but red hot iron laid upon
their anvils 3 and thus the vibrations of the anvil are
flopped, fo that it becomes a nonelaftic body, and the
differences of tone in the ftrokes of different hammers
proceed only from the furface of the large hammers co¬
vering the whole furface of the iron, or at leaft a greater
part of it than the fmall ones. If the fmall hammer is
fufficient to cover the whole furface of the iron as w7ell
as the large one, the note produced will be the fame,
whether the large or the fmall hammer is ufed.
Laftly, The argument for the preceding theory,
grounded on the production of what are called flute-
notes on the violin, is built on a falfe foundation 5 for
the bow7 being lightly drawn on an open firing, pro¬
duces no fute-notes, but only the harmonies of the note
to which the firing is tuned. The flute-notes are pro¬
duced by a particular motion of the bow, quick and
near the bridge, and by fingering very gently. By
this management, the fame founds are produced, though
at certain intervals only, as if the vibrations wrere trank
ferred to the fpace between the end of the finger-board
and the finger, inftead of that between the finger and
the bridge. Why this fmall part of the firing fttould
vibrate in fuch a cafe, and not that which is under the
immediate adlion of the bow, we mull own ourfelves
ignorant : nor dare we affirm that the vibrations really
are transferred in this manner, only the fame founds
are produced as if they were.
Though thefe obj eft ions feem fufficiently to over¬
turn the foregoing theory, with regard to acute founds
being the effects of weak ftrokes, and grave ones of
ftronger impulfes, we cannot admit that longer or
fhorter vibrations are the occafion of gravity or acute¬
nefs in found. A mufical found, however lengthened,
either by firing or bell, is only a repetition of a fingle
one, whofe duration by itfelf is but for a moment, and
is therefore termed inappretiable, like the fmack of a
whip, or the explofion of an eleftrical battery. The
continuation of the found is nothing more than a repe¬
tition of this inftantaneous inappretiable noife after the
manner of an echo, and it is only this echo that makes
the found agreeable. For this reafon, mufic is much
more agreeable when played in a large hall where the
found is reverberated, than in a fmall room where there
is no fuch reverberation. For the fame reafon, the
found of a ftring is more agreeable when put on a hol¬
low *
Cliap. II.
A C O U
Propaga. low vxolm tKan wlien failened to a plain board,_ &c.—
tion of ln the found of a bell we cannot avoid obferving this
Sounfl- echo very diftinftly. The found appears to be made
v " up of diftindf pulfes, or repetitions of the fame note
produced by the ftroke of the hammer. It can by no
means be allowed, that the note would be more acute
though thefe pulfes were to fucceed one another more
rapidly ) the found would indeed become more fimple,
but would Hill preferve the fame tone.—In mufical
firings the reverberations are vaitly more quick than
in bells ; and therefore their found is more uniform or
fimple, and confequently more agreeable than that, of
* See bells. In mufical glaffes*, the vibrations mull be in-
wnica. ‘ conceivably quicker than in any bell or llringed mltru-
ment: and hence they are of all others the moll fimple
and the moll agreeable, though neither the moll acute
nor the loudell.—As far as we can judge, quicknefs
of vibration contributes to the uniformity, or limplici-
ty, but not to the acutenefs, nor to the loudneis, of
a mulical note.
It may here be objected? that each of the different
pulfes, of which we obferve the found of a bell to be
compofed, is of a very perceptible length, and far from
being inllantaneous 5 fo that it is not fair to infer that
the found of a bell is only a repetition of a lingle in¬
llantaneous llroke, feeing it is evidently the repetition
of a lengthened note.—To this it may be replied, that
the iuappretiable found which is produced by linking
a bell in a non-elaltic Hate, is the very fame which, be¬
ing firll propagated round the bell, forms one of thefe
Ihort pulfes that is afterwards re-echoed as. long as the
vibrations of the metal continue, and it is impolfible
that the quicknefs of repetition of any found can ei¬
ther increafe or diminilh its gravity.
Chap. II. Of the Propagation of Sound. Ne%vtcn s
Doctrine explained and vindicated.
Propaga- The writers on found have been betrayed into thefe
tion of difficulties and obfeurities, by rejecting the 47 th pro-
Sound. pofition, B. II. of Newton, as inconclufive reafoning
tion of
Sound.
S T I C S. *53
by experiment; and it is found that they defense Piopaga-
1070 Paris feet, or 1142 London feet in a iecona,
whether the found be loud or low, grave or acute.
“ 5. Prob. To determine the latitude of a pulfe.
Divide the fpace which the pulfe. deferibes in a given
time (4) by the number of vibrations performed in the
fame time by the founding body, (Cor. I. Prop. 24.
Smith's Harmonics f the quotient is the latitude.
“ M. Sauveur, by fome experiments on organ pipes,
found that a body, which gives the graveft harmonic
found, vibrates 12 times and a half in a fecond, .and
that the Ihrilleft founding body vibrates 51.100 times
in a fecond. At a medium, let us take the body which
gives what Sauveur calls his fxedfound: it perfoim»
100 vibrations in a fecond, and in the lame time the
pulfes deferibe 1070 Parifian feet 5 therefore the fpace
deferibed by the pulfes whilft the body vibrates once,
that is, the latitude, or interval of the pulfe, will be
10.7 feet.
“ 6. Prob. To find the proportion which the great-
eft fpace, through which the particles of the air vi
brate, bears to the radius of a circle, whofe perimeter
is equal to the latitude of the pulfe.
“ During the firll half of the progrefs of the elaftic
fibre, or founding body, it is continually getting near¬
er to the next particle ; and during the latter hair of
its progrefs, that particle is getting farther from the
fibre, and thefe portions of time are equal fHclJham^ .
therefore we may conclude, that at the end of the pro¬
grefs of the fibre, the firfl: particle of air will be nearly
as far diftant from the fibre .as when it began to move}
and in the fame manner we may inter, that all the par¬
ticles vibrate through fpaces nearly equal to that run
over by the fibre.
“ Now M. Sauveur {Acad. Scienc. ann. 1700, p.
141.) has found by experiment, that the middle point
of a chord which produces his fixed found, and whole
diameter is fth of a line, runs over in its fmallelt fen-
lible vibrations -rV^ a liue> an<l gi'^ateil vibra¬
tions 72 times that fpace } that is 72 X t j a dne) or
Of this propofition, however, the late ingenious Dr
Matthew Young bilhop of Clonfert, formerly of Tri¬
nity college, Dublin, has given a clear, explanatory,
and able defence. He candidly owns that the demon-
ftration is obfeurely Hated, and takes the liberty of
varying, in fome degree, from the method purlued by
Newton.
“ 1. The parts of all founding bodies (he obferves),
vibrate according to the law of a cycloidal pendulum :
for they may be conlidered as compofed of an indefi¬
nite number of elaftic fibres; but thefe fibres vibrate
according to that law. Vide Helfham, p. 270.
“ 2. Sounding bodies propagate their motions on all
Tides in directum, by fucceffive condenfations and rare¬
factions, and fucceflive goings forward and returnings
backward of the particles. Vide Prop. 43. B. II. New¬
ton. Princip.
“ 3. The pulfes are thofe parts of the air which vi¬
brate backwards and forwards \ and which, by going
forward, ftrike fpuH'ant') againft obftacles. 1 he lati¬
tude of a pulfe is the rectilineal fpace through which
the motion of the air is propagated during one vibra¬
tion of the founding body.
“4.. All pulfes move equally fall. This is proved
Vol. I. Part I.
4 lines, that is |d of an inch.
“ The latitude of the pulfes of this fixed found is
10.7 feet (5) j and fince the circumference of a circle
is to its radius as 710 is to 113, the greateft fpace de-
feribed by the particles will be to the radius of a cir¬
cle, whole periphery is equal to the latitude or the
pulfe as jd of an inch is to 1.7029 feet, or 20.4348
inches, that is, as 1 to 61.3044.
“ If the length of the firing be increafed or dimi-
niihed in any proportion, cater is paribus, the greateft
fpace deferibed by its middle point will vary in the
lame proportion. For the inflefting force is to the
tending force as the diftance of the firing from the
middle point ©f vibration to haif the length ot tne
firing (Tee Helfham and Martin); and therefore the
inflecting and tending forces being given, the firing
will vibrate through fpaces proportioned to its length •,
but the latitude of the pulfe is inverfely as the number
of vibrations performed by the firing in a given time
(5), that is, direflly as the time of one vibration, or
dire&ly as the length of the firing {Prop. 24. Cor. 7.
Smith's Harmonics); therefore the greateft .fpace
through which the middle point of the firing vibrates
will vary in the direft ratio of the latitude of the pulfe,
or of the radius of a circle wEofe circumierence is equal
U to
I54
ACOUSTICS.
Propaga- to the latitude, that is, it V,ill be to that radius as I to
Chap II.
sZt.
IS to
I
“ 7. If the particles of the aerial pulfes, during any
part of their vibration, be fucceffively agitated, accord¬
ing to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the compara-
tive elaftic forces arifing from their mutual aftion, by
which they will afterwards be agitated, will be fuch as
will caufe the particles to continue that motion, ac¬
cording to the fame law, to the end of their vibration.
“ Let AB, BC, CD, &c. fig. 3. denote the equal
diftances of the fucceffive pulfes; ABC the direction
of the motion of the pulfes propagated from A to¬
wards B ; E, F, G, three phyfical points of the
quiefcent medium, fituated in the right line AC at
equal diftances from each other Ee, Ff, Gy, the very
fmail equal fpaces through which thefe particles vi¬
brate 5 E, <p, y, any intermediate places of thefe points.
Draw the right line PS, fig. 4. equal to Ee, bifetft it
in O, and from the centre O with the radius OP de-
fcribe the circle SI PA Let the whole time of the
vibration of a particle and its parts be denoted by
the circumference of this circle and its proportional
parts. And fince the particles are fuppofed to be at
firft agitated according to the law of a cycloidal pen¬
dulum, if at any time PH or PHS^, the perpendi¬
cular HL or /j/, be let fall on PS, and if Ee be taken
equal to PL or P/, the particle E {hall be found in e.
Thus will the particle E perform its vibrations accord¬
ing to the law of a cycloidal pendulum. Pro/). 52. B. I.
Principia.
“ Let us fuppofe now, that the particles have been
fucceftively agitated, according to this law, for a cer¬
tain time, by any caufe whatfoever, and let us examine
what will be the comparative elaftic forces arifing from
their mutual action, by which they will afterwards con¬
tinue to be agitated.
“ In the circumference PHSv6 take the equal arches
HI, IK in the fame ratio to the whole circumference
which the equal right lines EE, EG, have to BC the
whole interval of the pulfes j and let fall the per¬
pendiculars HL, IM, KN. Since the points E, F, G
are fucceffively agitated in the fame manner, and per¬
form their entire vibrations of progrefs and regrefs
while the pulfe is propagated from B to C, if PH be
the time from the beginning of the motion of E, PI
will be the time from the beginning of the motion of
E, and PK the time from the beginning of the motion
of G ; and therefore Ee, Fp, Gy will be refpedfively
equal to PL, PM, PN in the progrefs of the particles.
Whence e£> or EFft-F^—Ee is equal to EF—LM. But
i/> is the expanfion of PIF in the place £<p, and therefore
this expanfion is to its mean expanfion as EF—LM to
EF. But LM is to IH as IM is to OP ; and IH is
to EF as the circumference PHS/?» is to BC ; that is,
as OP is to V, if V be the radius of a circle whofe
circumference is BC \ therefore, ex cequo, LM is to
EF as IM is to V \ and therefore the expanfion of EF
in the place is to its mean expanfion as V—IM is to
V j and the elaftic force exifting between the phyfical
points E and F is to the mean elaftic force as
V-TKT t0 V" (Cotes ^neum- Lett. 9.) By the fame
argument, the elaftic force exifting between the phy¬
fical points F and G is to the mean elaftic force as
and the difference between thefe
V—KN V
forces is to the mean elaftic force as
IM KN . 1
is to —
Propaga.
tion of
Sound.
that
V1—V.IM—V.KN-f 1M.KN
IM KN .1
 ^  IS to — j or as IM—KN is to V; if on¬
ly (upon account of the very narrow limits of the vi¬
bration) vre fuppofe IM and KN to be indefinitely lefs
than V. Wherefore fincfc V is given, the difference
of the forces is as IM—KN, or as HL—IM (becaufe
KH is bifecled in I) ; that is, (becaufe HL—IM is
to IH as OM is to OI or OP, and 1FI and OP are
given quantities) as OM j that is, if Ff be bife&ed in
'as
“ In the fame manner it may be Ihown, that if PHS6
be the time from the beginning of the motion of E,
PHSz will be the time from the beginning of the mo¬
tion of F, and PHS£ the time from the beginning of
the motion of G ; and that the expanfion of EF in
the place 1$ is to its mean expanfion as EF-{-F<p—Eg,
or as EF-p/m is to EF, or as V + A' is to V in its re¬
grefs : and its elaftic force to the mean elaftic force as
^7——r-. is to -77 ; and that the difference of the elaftic
\ hi V
forces exifting between E and F, and between F and
G is to the mean elaftic force as kn — jm is to V j that
is, direftly as ftp.
“ But this difference of the elaftic forces, exifting
between E and F, and between F and G, is the compa¬
rative elaftic force by which the phyfical point p is agi¬
tated : and therefore the comparative accelerating
force, by which every phyfical point in the medium will
continue to be agitated both in progrefs and regrefs,
will be diredlly as its diftance from the middle point of
its vibration; and confequently will be fuch as will
caufe the particles to continue their motion undifturb-
ed, according to the law7 of a cycloidal pendulum.
Prop. 38. 1. I. Newton. Princl/na.
“ Newton rejedfts the quantity +V X IM -j- KN-f*
IM X KN, on fuppofition that IM and KN are inde¬
finitely lefs than V. Now, although this may be a
reafonable hypothefis, yet, that this quantity may be
fafely reje&ed, will, I think, appear in a more fatisfac-
tory manner from the following confiderations derived
from experiment : PS, in its greateft poffible ftate, is
to V as 1 is to 61.3044 (6) j and therefore IM, or
KN, in its greateft poffible ftate, (that is, when the vi¬
brations of the body are as great as poftible, and the
particle in the middle point of its vibration) is to V as
1 is to 122.6. Hence = 15030.76,—VxlM-f-KN
= 245.2 and IM X KN = I 5 therefore V2 is to V1—
VxIM-f-KNff-IM x KN as 15.03076 is to 14786.565
that is, as 61 is to 60 nearly.
“ Hence it appears, that the greateft poffible error
in the accelerating force, in the middle point, is the
7-rft Pait °f the whole. In other points it is much
lefs j and in the extreme points the error entirely va-
nilhes.
“ We ftiould alfo obferve, that the ordinary founds
vre hear are not produced by the greateft poffible vi¬
brations of wffiich the founding body is capable j and
that in general IM and KN are nearly evanefcent with
refpedl
V ✓
Chap. II.
A C O U
33
Sound.
Propaga- refpecl; to V. And very probably the difagreeable fen-
tior/af fations we feel in very loud founds, arile not only bom
IM or KN bearing a fenfible proportion to V, by which
' means the cycloidal law of the pulfes may be in fome
meafure dilturbed, but alfo from the very law ol the
motion of the founding body itielf being dilturbed.
For the proof of this law’s being obferved by an elaftic
fibre is founded on the hypotheiis that the (pace, thro
which it vibrates, is indefinitely little with reipeft to
the length of the firing. See Smith's Harmonics, p. 237.
Helfham, p. 270.
“ 8. If a particle of the medium be agitated accord-
in o- to the law of a cycloidal pendulum, the compara¬
tive elaftic force, acting on the adjacent particle, from
the initant in which it begins to move, will be fuch as
will caufe it to continue its motion according to the
fame law.
“ For let us fuppofe, that three particles of the me¬
dium had continued to move for times denoted by the
arches PK, PI, PH, the comparative elaftic force,
adding on the fecond during the time of its. motion,
would have been denoted by HL—IM, that is, would
have been direftly as MO (7)^ And if this time be
diminiflied till I becomes coincident wnth P, that is, if
you take the particles in that ftate when the fecond is
juft beginning to move, and before the third particle
has yet been let m motion then the point IVt will fall
on P, and MO become PO ; that is, the comparative
elaftic force of the fecond particle, at the inftant in
which it begins to move, will be to the force writh
which it is agitated in any other moment of time, be¬
fore the fubfequent particle has yet been fet in mo¬
tion, diredtly as its diftance from the middle point.of
vibration. Now this comparative elaftic force, with
which the fecond particle is agitated, in the very mo¬
ment in which it begins to mbve, arifes from the pre¬
ceding particle’s approaching it according tg^the law
of a pendulum ; and therefore, if the preceding par¬
ticle approaches it in this manner, the force by which
it will be agitated, in the very moment it begins to
move, will be exactly fuch as fhould take place in or¬
der to move it according to the law of a pendulum.
It therefore fets out according to that law, and con-
lequently the fubfequent elaftic forces, generated in
every fucceflive moment, will alfo continue to be of
the juft magnitude which fhould take place, in order
to produce fuch a motion.
“ 9. The pulfes of the air are propagated from
founding bodies, according to the law of a cycloidal
pendulum. The point E, fig. 3. of any elaftic. fibre
producing a found, may be confidered as a particle of
air vibrating according to the law of a pendulum (1).
This point E will therefore move according to this law
for a certain time, denoted by the arch IH, fig. 4,
before the fecond particle begins to move ; for found
is propagated in time through the lucceflive particles
of air (4). Now from that inftant, the comparative
elaftic force which agitates F, is,.(8) direftly as its
diftance from the middle point of vibration, f there¬
fore fets out with a motion according to the law of a
pendulum : and therefore the comparative elaftic force
by which it will be agitated until G begins to move,
will continue that law (8.) Confequently 1 will
approach G in the fame manner as E approached b,
and. the comparative elaftic force of G, from the in-
S T I C S. • . , , I5
ft ant in which it begins to move, will be direftly as p_r.°P;ig
its diftance from the middle point of vibration j ami fo Soun(1_
on in fucceflion. Therefore all the particles ot air m
the pulfes fucceflively fet out from their propel places
according to the law of a pendulum, and therefore (7)
will finifti their entire vibrations according to the fame
law. . .
“ Cor. I. The number of pulfes propagated is the
fame with the number of vibrations of the. tremulous
body, nor is it multiplied in their progrefsbecaufe
the little phyfical line sy, fig. 3, as. foon as. it returns
to its proper place, will there quiefee •, for its velocity
which is denoted by the fine IM, then vaniihes, and
its denfity becomes the lame with that of the ambient
medium. This line, therefore, will no longer, move,
unlefs it be again driven forwards by the impulfe of the
founding body, or of the pulfes propagated from it.
“ Cor. 2. In the extreme points of the little fpace
through which the particle vibrates, the expanfion of
the air is in its natural ftate ; for the expanfionof the
phyfical line is to its natural expanfion as \ -filM is
to V } but IM is then equal to nothing. In the middle
point of the progrefs the condenfation is greateft : lor
IM is then greateft, and confequently the expanfion
V IM leaft. In the middle of the regrefs, the rare-
faftion is greateft for im, and confequently V + //«, is
then greateft.
“ 10. To find the velocity of the pulfes, the deniity
and elaftic force of the medium being given.
“ This is the 49th Prop. B. II. Newton, in which he
{hows, that whilft a pendulum, whofe length is equal
to the height of the homogeneous atmofphere, vibrates
once forwards and backwards, the pulfes wrill deferibe
a fpace equal to the periphery of a circle deferibed with
that altitude as its radius.
“ Cor. 1. He thence {hows, that the velocity of the
pulfes is equal to that which a heavy body would ac¬
quire in falling down half the altitude of that homoge¬
neous atmofphere •, and therefore, that all pulfes move
equally fall, whatever be the magnitude of PS, or the
time of its being deferibed 5 that is, whether the tone
be loud or low, grave or acute. See Hales de Sorns,
^ Cor. 2. And alfo, that the velocity of the pulfes
is in a ratio compounded of the direft iubduplicate ra¬
tio of the elaftic force of the medium, and the inverfe
fubduplicate of its denfity. Hence founds move fome-
what fafter in fummer than in winter. See Hales de
Sonis, p. 141.
<< ii. The ftrength of a tone is as the moment ox
the particles of air. The moment of thefe particles
(the medium being given) is as their velocity ; and the
velocity of thefe particles is as the velocity of the firing
which fets them in motion (9). The velocities of two
different firings are equal when the {paces which they
deferibe in their vibrations are to each other as the
times of thefe vibrations : therefore, two different tones
are of equal ftrength, when the {paces, through which
the firings producing them vibrate, are directly as the
times of their vibration.
“12. Let the ftrength of the tones of the two
firings AB, CL), which differ in tenlion only (fig- S’
6.) be equal. Quere the ratio of the infle&ing forces
F and f? From the hypothefis of the equality of the
ftrength of the tones, it follows (11), that the fpace
& u -
G E
156 . A C O U
Velocity of GE mull be to the fpace HF as to F-J {Smith's
Sound. Harm. Prop. 24. Cor. 4.) Now the forces inflefiing
AB, CD, through the equal fpaces GE, HP, are to
each other as the tending forces, that is, as F to
{Malcorn’s Preatife on Mi/Jic, p. 52.) But the force
inflefting CD through HP is to the force inflecting it
through HF as HP or GE to HF (Jb. p. 47.), that is
by the hyp. as f± to F|. Therefore, ex cequo, the forces
inflecting AB and CD, when the tones are equally
ftrong, are to each other as F xfh tojf x F4, or as F4
to f^. That is, the forces neceffary to produce tones
of equal ftrength in various firings which differ only in
tenfion, are to each other in the fubduplicate ratio of
the tending forces, that is, inverfely as the time of one
vibration, or diredtly as the number of vibrations per¬
formed in a given time. Thus, if CD be the acute
octave to AB, its tending force will be quadruple that
of AB, {AlaIcon's Preatife on Mujic, p. 53.) : and
therefore to produce tones of equal ftrength in thefe
firings, the force impelling CD mult be double that
impelling AB } and fo in other cafes. .
“ Suppofe, now, that the firings AB, CD (fig. 6.
7.) differ in length only. The force inflecting AB
through GE is to the tending force, which is given, as
GE to AG ; and this tending force is to the force
infleCting CD through the fpace HP equal to GE, as
HD to HP. Therefore, ex cequo, the forces infleCting
AB and CD through the equal fpaces GE and HP,
are to each other as FID to AG, or as CD to AB.
But the force infleCting CD through TIP is to the force
infleCting it through HF, as HP or GE to HF, that
is, becaufe thefe fpaces are as the times (11), as AB
to CD. Therefore, ex cequo, the forces infleCting AB
and CD, when the tones are equally ftrong, are to each
other in a ratio of equality. Hence we (hould fuppofe,
that in this cafe, an equal number of equal impulfes
would generate equally powerful tones in thefe firings.
But we are to obferve, that the longer the firing, the
greater, cccteris paribus, is the fpace through which a
given force infleCls it (Malcom) ; and therefore what¬
ever diminution is produced in the fpaces through which
the firings move in their fucceflive vibrations, arifing
either from the want of perfeCl elaflicity in the firings,
or from the refiftance of the air, this diminution will
bear a greater proportion to the lei's fpace, through
which the ihorter firing vibrates. And this is confirm¬
ed by experience } for we find that the duration of the
tone and motion of the wrhole firing exceeds that of any
of its fubordinate parts. Therefore, after a given in¬
terval of time, a greater quantity of motion will remain
in the longer firing ; and confequently, after the fuc¬
ceflive equal impulfes have been made, a greater de¬
gree of motion wull flill fubfifl in it. That is, a given
number of equal impulfes being made on various firings
differing in length only, a flronger found will be pro¬
duced in that which is the longer.”
S T I C S. Chap. IV.
a gun is difcharged at a diflance, we fee the fire long Reverbe-
before w^e hear the found. If then we know the dif- rated
tance of the place, and know the time of the interval, 5ouncls'%
between our firft feeing the fire and then hearing the Its rorrrefs
report, this will fliew us exaClly the time the found has calculated,
been travelling to us. For inflance, if the gun is dif-
charg«d a mile off, the moment the flafh is feen, you
take a watch and count the feconds till you hear the
found ; the number of feconds is the time the found
has been travelling a mile. Again, By the above
axiom, wre are enabled to find the diflance between ob-
jedls that wmuld be otherwife immeafurable. For ex-Diflances
ample, fuppofe you fee the flafh of a gun in the night calculated ^
at fea, and tell feven feconds before you hear the re-!'Pi^ians °*
port, it follow's therefore that the diflance is feven times
1142 feet, that is, 24 yards more than a mile and a
half. In like manner, if you obferve the number of
feccnds between the lightning and the report of the
thunder, you know the diflance of the cloud from
whence it proceeds.
But according to another philofopher, Dr Thomas
Young, the velocity of found is not quite fo great. “ It
has been demonfirated, he obferves, by M. De la Grange
and others, that any impreffion whatever communicated
to one particle of an elaflic fluid, will be tranfmitted
through that fluid with an uniform velocity, depend¬
ing on the conflitution of the fluid, without reference
to any fuppofed laws of the continuation of that impref¬
fion. Their theorem for afcertaining this velocity is
the fame as Newton has deduced from the hypothefis
of a particular law of continuation : but it mull be
confeffed, that the refult differs fomeuhat too widely
from experiment, to give us full confidence in the per-
fedlion of the theory. Corrc£led by the experiments-
of various obfervers, the velocity of any impreffion
tranfmitted by the common air, may, at an average,
be reckoned 1130 feet in a fecond.” {Phil. Pranf. vol.
xc. p. 116.)
Derham has proved by experiment, that all founds ^11 founds
whatever travel at the fame rate. The found of a gun travel at
and the linking of a hammer, are equally fwift in theirthe fame
motions ; the fofteft whifper flies as fwiftiy, as far asrale'
it goes, as the loudefl thunder.
To thefe axioms we may add the following :
Smooth and clear founds proceed from bodies that
are homogeneous, and of an uniform figure ; and harfh
or obtufe founds, from fuch as are of a mixed matter
and irregular figure.
The velocity of founds is to that of a brifk wind as
fifty to one.
The flrength of founds is greatefl in cold and denfe
air, and leaf! in that which is warm and rarefied.
Every point againll which the pulfes of found ftrike,
becomes a centre from which a new feries of pulfes are
propagated in every direclion.
Sound defcribes equal fpaces in equal times.
Chap. III. Of the Velocity^ &c. of Sound. Axioms.
Chap. IV. Of Reverberated Sounds.
Velocity of By the experiments of fome philofophers it has been
lound. proved, that found travels at about the rate of 1142
feet in a feccnd, or near 13 miles in a minute ; nor do
any obflacles hinder its progrefs, a contrary wind only
a fmall matter diminifhing its velocity. The method
of calculating its progrefs is eafily made known. When
Sound, like light, after it has been reflefled from
feveral places, may be colle&ed in one point, as into a
focus} and it will be there more audible than in any
other part, even than at the place from whence it pro¬
ceeded. On this principle it is that a whifpering gal¬
lery is conftru6ted.
The
Chap. IV; A c °i u
Reverbe- The form of a whifpenng gallery muft be that ot a
rated concave hemlfphere (e), as ABC fig. 8. and if alovV
Sounds. £ounc| or whifper be uttered at A, the vibrations ex-
^7^7 nanding themfelves every way will impinge on the
Gallery!1 g points DDD, &c. and from thence be refiefted to
EEE, and from thence to the points F ana C, tul at
laft they all meet in C, where, as we have faid, t. e
found will be the moil diftinftly Heard.
Speaking The augmentation of found by means of fpeakmg-
Trum?et’ trumpets, is ufually illuftrated in the following manner:
Let ABC fig. 9* be the tube, BD the axis, and the
tnouth-piece for conveying the voice to the tube.
Then it is evident when a per ion ipeaks at IS m me
trumpet, the whole force of his voice is fpent upon the
air contained in the tube, which will joe agitated
through its whole length, and, by various reflections
from the fide of the tube to the axis, the air along the
middle part of the tube will be greatly condenfed, and
its momentum proportionably increafed, fo that when it
comes to agitate the air at the orifice ot the tube ixC,
its force will be as much greater than what it would
have been without the tube, as the furface of a ipnere,
whofe radius is equal to the length of the tube, is greater
than the furface of the fegment of fuch a fphere whole
bafe is the orifice of the tube. Eor a penon {peaking
at B, without the tube, will have the force of his voice
fpent in exciting concentric fuperficies of air all round
the point B ; and when thofe faperficies or pulies ot
air are diffufed as far as D every way, it is plain the
force of the voice will there be diffufed through the
■whole iuperficies of a fphere whofe radius is LI) } but
in the trumpet it will be fo confined, that at its exit it
will be diffufed through fo much of that fpherical fur¬
face of air as correfponds to the orifice of the tube..
But fince the force is given, its intenfity will be always
inverfely as the number of particles it has to move ; and
therefore in the tube it will be to that without, as the
fuperficies of fuch a fphere to the area of the large end-
of the tube nearly.
“ But it is obvious, Dr Ivl. Young obferves, tnat the
confinement of the voice can have little effect in in-
crcafing the ftrength of the found, as this flrength de¬
pends on the velocity with which the particles move.
Were this reafoning conclufive, the voice fhould iffue
through the fmalleft poffible orifice ; cylindrical tubes
would be preferable to any that increafed In diameter j
and the lefs the diameter, the greater would be the
effea of the inftrument 5 becaufe the plate or mafs of
air to be moved, would, in that cafe, be lefs, and
fequently the effeff of the voice the greatei } all which
is contradifted by experience. .
“ The caufe of the increafe of found in theie tubes
muft therefore be derived from fome other principles:
and among thefe we {hall probably find, that what the
ingenious lurcher has fuggefted m his Phonurgia is toe
moft deferving of our attention. He tells us, that the
augmentation of the found depends on its reflection
from the tremulous fides of the tube } .which rei 1 ecbons,
confpiring in propagating the pulfes in the fame direc¬
tion, muft increafe its intenfity.” Newton alio .eems
TIGS. r57
to have confidered this as the principal caufe, in the Reverbe-
fcholium of Prop. 50. B. II. Princip. when he fays,
“ we hence fee why founds are fo much increafed in   ^^
ftentorophonic tubes, for every reciprocal motion is, in
each return, increafed by the generating caufe.
“ Farther, When we fpeak in the open air, the effect
on the tympanum of a diftant auditor is produced mere¬
ly by a {ingle pulie. But when we uie a tube, all the
pulfes propagated from the mouth, except thoie in the
direction of the axis, ftrixe againft the fides of the tube,
and every point of impuiie becoming a new centre, from
whence the pulfes are propagated in all direftions, a
pulfe wall arrive at the ear from each of thofe points y
thus, by the ufe of a tube, a greater number of pulfes
are propagated to tue ear, and confequemly the found
increafed. The confinement too of the voice may have
a little effect, though not fuch as is afcribed to it by
fome ; for the condenfed pulfes produced by the naked
voice, freely expand every way } but in tubes, tne la¬
teral expansion being dimmiftied, tne direct expanfion
will be increafed, and confequently the velocity of the
particles, and the intenfity of the found. 1 he fubftance
alfo of the tube has its effect 5 for it is found by expe¬
riment, that the more elaftic the fubftance of the tube,
and confequently the more fiiiceptible it is of theie
tremulous motions, the {Longer is the found.
« Xf the tube be laid on any nonelaftic fubftance, it
deadens the found, becaufa it prevents the vibratory
motion of the parts. The found is increafed in fpeaking-
trumpets, if the tube be fufpended in the air ; becauie
the agitations are then carried on without interruption.
Thefe tubes ftiould increafe in diameter from the mouth¬
piece becaufe the parts vibrating in diredlions perpen¬
dicular to the furface wall confpire in impelling for¬
ward the particles of air, and confequently by increar¬
ing their velocity, will increafe the intenfity of the
found : and the furface alfo increafing, the number of
points of impuiie and of new propagation will increafe
proportionally. The feveral caules thereioie, of the
increafe of found in thefe tubes, Dr Young concludes'
to be, 1. The diminution of the lateral, and confe¬
quently the increafe of the direft, expanfion and velo¬
city of the included air. 2. I he increafe of the num¬
ber of pulfes, by increafing the points of new propa¬
gation. q. The reflections of the pulfes from the tre¬
mulous fides of the tube, which impel the particles of
air forward, and thus increafe their velocity.” {Enquiry
into the principal Fheno?nena of Sound, p. 5 6).
An echo is a reflexion of found {Liking againft Come Echoes
objedft, as an image is refteefted in a glais ; out it has
been difputed what are the proper qualities in a body
for thus reflecting founds.. It is in general known, that
caverns, grottoes, mountains, and ruined buildings, re¬
turn this reflection of found. We have heard of a very
extraordinary echo, at a ruined fortrefs near Louvain,
in Flanders. If a perfon fung, he only heard his own
voice, without any repetition : on the contraiy, thofe
who flood at fome diftance, heard the echo but not
the voice 5 but then they heard it with furprifing va¬
riations, fometimes louder, fometimes fofter, now more
(k) A cyliudrie or elliptic arch will anfvver {till better than one that is circular,.
>5S
Reverbe¬
rated
Sounds.
A C O U
near, then more dirt ant. There is an account in the
memoirs of the French Academy, of a rtmilar echo near
Rouen.
It has been already obferved that every point againft
which the pulfes of found ftrike becomes the centre of
a new feries of pulfes, and found defcribes equal di-
rtances in equal times $ therefore, when any found is
propagated from a centre, and its pulfes ftrike againft
a variety of obftacles, if the fum of the right lines drawn
from that point to each of the obftacles, and from each
obftacle to a fecond point, be equal, then will the lat¬
ter be a point in which an echo will be heard. “ Thus
let A fig. 10. be the point from which the found is pro¬
pagated in all direftions, and let the pulfes ftrike againft
the obftacles C, D, E, F, G, H, I, &c. each of thefe
points becomes a new centre of pulfes by the firft prin¬
ciple, and therefore from each of them one ferjes of
pulfes will pals through the point B. Now if the
feveral fums of the right lines AC-f-CB, ADDB,
AE-F£B;AG-J-GB, AH + HB, AI + IB, &c. be
all equal to each other, it is obvious that the pulfes
propagated from A to thefe points, and again from
thefe points to B, will all arrive at B at the fame in-
ftant, according to the fecond principle ; and there¬
fore, if the hearer be in that point, his ear will at the
fame inftant be ftruck by all thefe pulfes. Now it ap¬
pears from experiment (fee Mujjehenbroeh, vol. ii.
p. 210.), that the ear of anexercifed mufician can only
diftinguifh fuch founds as follow one another at the
rate of 9 or to in a fecond, or any flower rate : and
therefore, for a diftinft perception of the direff and
reflected found, there ftiould intervene the interval of
th of a fecond 5 but in this time found defcribes
1141
or 127 feet nearly. And therefore, unlefs the
fum of the lines drawn from each of the obftacles to
the points A and B exceeds the interval AB by 127
feet, no echo will be heard at B. Since the feveral
fums of the lines drawn from the obftacles to the points
A and B are of the fame magnitude, it appears that
the curve parting through all the points C, D, E, F,
G, H, I, &c. will be an ellipfe, (Prop. 14. b. ii.
Ham. Con?) Hence all the points of the obftacles
which produce an echo, muft lie in the furface of the
oblong fpheroid, generated by the revolution of this
ellipfe round its major axis.
“ As there may be feveral fpheroids of different
magnitudes, fo there may be feveral different echoes of
the fame original found. And as there may happen to
be a greater number of reflecting points in the furface
of an exterior fpheroid than in that of an interior, a
fecond or a third echo may be much more powerful
than the firft, provided that the fuperior number of re¬
flecting points, that is, the fuperior number of reflected
pulfes propagated to the ear, be more than fufficient to
compenfate for the decay of found which arifes from its
being propagated through a greater fpace. This is
finely illuftrated in the celebrated echoes at the lake of
Killarney in Kerry, where the firft return of the found
is much inferior in ftrength to thofe which immediately
fucceed it.
“ From what has been laid down it appears, that for
the moft powerful echo, the founding body ftibuld be
in one focus of the ellipfe which is the feCtion of the
S T I C S.
echoing fpheroid,’ and the hearer in the other,
ever, an echo may be heard in other fituations, though
not fo favourably 5 as fuch a number of reflected pulies
may arrive at the fame time at the ear as may be fuffi¬
cient to excite a diftinft perception. Thus a perfon
often hears the echo of his ow n voice \ but for this pur¬
ports he Ihould Hand at leaft 63 or 64 feet from the re¬
flecting obftacle, according to what has been faid be¬
fore. At the common rate of fpeaking, wre pronounce
not above three fyllables and a half, that is, feven half
fyllables in a fecond j therefore, that the echo may re¬
turn juft as foon as three fyllables are expreffed, twdce
the diftance of the fpeaker from the reflecting object
muft be equal to 1000 feet 5 for as found defcribes
1142 feet in a fecond, %hs of that fpace, that is, 1000
feet nearly, will be defcribed while fix half or three
whole fyllables are pronounced ; that is, the fpeaker
muft ftand near 500 feet from the obftacle. And in
general, the diftance of the fpeaker from the echoing
furface, for any number of fyllables, muft be equal to
the feventh part of the product of 1142 feet multiplied
by that number.
“ In churches we never hear a diftinct echq of the
voice, but a confufed found when the fpeaker utters
his words too rapidly ; becaufe the greateft difference
of dirtance between the direct and reflefted courfes of
fuch a number of pulfes as would produce a diftinct
found, is never in any church equal to 127 feet, the
limit of echoes.
But though the firft reflected pulfes may produce
no echo, both on account of their being too few in
number, and too rapid in their return to the ear; yet
it is evident, that the reflecting furface may be fo
formed, as that the pulfes wffiich come to the ear after
two reflections or more, may, after having delcribed
127 feet or more, arrive at the ear in fufficient num¬
bers, and alio fo nearly at the fame inftant, as to pro¬
duce an echo, though the diftance of the reflecting fur¬
face from the ear be lefs than the limit of echoes. This
is confirmed by a Angular echo in a grotto on the banks
of the little brook called the Dinan, about two miles
from Caftlecomber, in, the county of Kilkenny. As
you enter the cave, and continue fpeaking loud, no re¬
turn of the voice is perceived \ but on your arriving at
a certain point, wffiich is not above 14 or 15 feet from
the reflefting furface, a very diftinff echo is heard.
Nowt this echo cannot arife from the firft courfe of pul¬
fes that are reflected to the ear, becaufe the breadth of
the cave is fo fmall, that they wmuld return too quick¬
ly to produce a diftinf! fenfation from that of the ori¬
ginal found : it therefore is produced by thofe pulfes,
which, after having been reflected feveral times from
one fide of the grott© to the other, and having run
over a greater fpace than 127 feet, arrive at the ear
in confiderable numbers, and not more diftant from
each other, in point of time, than the ninth part of a
fecond.”
To what has been faid of reflected founds, we (hall
add an extradl on the fame fubject from the ingenious
paper wffiich wTe have already quoted.
“ M, De la Grange has alfo demonftrated, that all
impreffions are reflected by an obftacle terminating an
elaftic fluid, with the fame velocity wrtth which they
arrived at that obftacle. When the wralls of a paffage,
» or
Cl tap. IV,
How- Reverbe¬
rated
Sounds.
Chap. IV.
Amufing or of an unfurnillied room, are fmooth and perfectly pa-
Expen- rallel, any explofion, or a damping with the foot, com-
ments, See. munjcates an imprefrlon to tlle a[r) which is retieded
from one wall to the other, and from the fecond again
towards the ear, nearly in the fame direction with the
primitive impulfe : this takes place as frequently in a
fecond, as double the breadth of the paffage is contain¬
ed in 1130 feet j and the ear receives a perception of
a mufical found, thus determined in its pitch by the
breadth of the paffage. On making the experiment,
the refult will be found accurately to agree with this
explanation. If the found is predetermined, and the fre¬
quency of vibrations fuch as that each pulfe, when doubly
reflected, may coincide with the fubfequent impulfe pro¬
ceeding directly from the founding body, the intenfity of
the found will be much increafed by the refledtion 5 and
alfo, in a lefs degree, if the refle61ed pulfe coincides
with the next but one, the next but two, or more, of
the dire£t pulies. The appropriate notes of a room may
readily be difeovered by finging the fcale in it; and
they will be found to depend on the proportion of its
length or breadth to 1130 feet. The found of the flop¬
ped diapafon pipes of an organ is produced in a man¬
ner fomewhat fimilar to the note from an explofion in
in a paffage j and that of its reed pipes to the refonancc
of the voice in a room : the length of the pipe in one
cafe determining the found, in the other, increafing its
ftrength. The frequency of the vibrations does not at
all immediately depend on the diameter of the pipe. It
muft be confeffed, that much remains to be done in
explaining the precife manner in which the vibration of
the air in an organ pipe is generated. M. Daniel Ber-
nouilli has folved feveral difficult problems relating to
the fubjedt; yet fome of his affumptions are not only
gratuitous, but contrary to matter of fa6t.” (P^/7, Tranf.
vol. xc. p. 118.)
We fliall now clofe this article with deferibing a
few inventions founded on fome of the preceding prin¬
ciples, which may perhaps amufe and not be alto¬
gether uninftrudtive to a number of our readers.
Amujing Experiments and Contrivances.
verfing I* Place a concave mirror of about two feet diame-
Statue. ter> as AB, fig. 11. in a perpendicular dire&ion. The
focus of this mirror may be at 15 or 18 inches diftance
from its furface. At the diftance of about five or fix
feet let there be a partition, in which there is an open¬
ing EF, equal to the fize of the mirror j againft this
opening muft be placed a pi&ure, painted in water
colours, on a thin cloth, that the found may eafily pafs
through it (g).
Behind the partition, at the diftance of two or three
feet, place another mirror GH, of the fame fize as the
former, and let it be diametrically oppofite to it (h).
At the point C let there be placed the figure of a
man feated on a pedeftal, and let his ear be placed ex-
159
a&ly in the focus of the firft mirror: his lower jaw muft Amufmg
be made to open by a wire, and fhut by a fpring 5 and ExPer‘"
there may be another wire to move the eyes : thefe ?*ents’ TXi
wires muft p&fs through the figure, go under the floor,
arid come up behind the partition.
Let a perfon,_ properly inftrufted, be placed behind
the partition near the mirror. You then propofe to
any one to fpeak foftly to the ftatue, by putting his
mouth to the ear of it, affuring him that it wrill anfwer
inftantly. You then give the fignal to the perfon be¬
hind the partition, who, by placing his ear to the fo¬
cus I, of the mirror GH, will hear diftin&ly what the
other faid j and, moving the jawr and eyes of the ftatue
by the wares, will return an anfwer diredlly, which
will in like manner be diftinclly heard by the firft
fpeaker.
This experiment appears to be taken from the Cen¬
tury of Inventions of the Marquis of Worcefter 5 whofe
defigns, at the time they were publiftied, were treated
with ridicule and negleft as being imprafticable, but
are now known to be generally, if not univerfally, prac¬
ticable. The wmrds of the Marquis are thefe : “ How
to make a brazen or ftone head in the midft of a great
field or garden, fo artificial and natural, that though a
man fpeak ever fo foftly, and even whifper into the ear
thereof, it will prefently open its mouth, and refolve
the queftion in French, Latin, Welfti, Irifti, or Eng-
lifti, in g6od terms, uttering it out of its mouth, and
then (hut it until the next queftion be alked.”—The
two following, of a fimilar nature, appear to have been
inventions of Kircher, by means of which (as he in¬
forms us *) he ufed to “ utter feigned and ludicrous * I'honur-
confultations, with a view to fhow the fallacy and im- £‘a Nova,
pofture of ancient oracles.” v*' c‘I'
II. Let there be two heads of plafter of Paris, pla-The Com-
ced on pedeftals, on the oppofite fides of a room. There municative
muft be a tin tube of an inch diameter, that muft pafsBuft8,
from the ear of one head, through the pedeftal, under
the floor, and go up to the mouth of the other. Ob-
ferve, that the end of the tube which is next the ear of
the one head, fhould be confiderably larger than that
end which comes to the mouth of the other. Let the
whole be fo difpofed that there may not be the leaft
fufpicion of a communication.
Now, when a perfon fpeaks, quite low, into the ear
of one buft, the found is reverberated through the
length of the tube, and will be diftindftly heard by any
one who fhall place his ear to the mouth of the other.
It is not neceffary that the tube fhould come to the lips
of the buft.—If there be two tubes, one going to the
ear, and the other to the mouth of each head, two
perfons may converfe together, by applying their mouth
and ear reciprocally to the mouth and ear of the bufts y
and at the fame time other perfons that ftand in the
middle of the chamber, between the heads, will not hear
any part of their converfation.
III. Place a buft on a pedeftal in the corner of aThe Oracu-
room, iar head*
ACOUSTICS.
(g) The more effectually to conceal the caufe of this illufion, the mirror AB may be fixed in the wainfeot,
and a gauze or any other thin covering thrown over it, as that will not in the leaft prevent the found from be-
ing reflected. An experiment of this kind may be performed in a field or garden, between twro hedges, in one
ofwhich the mirror AB may be placed, and in the other an opening artfully contrived.
(h) Both the mirrors here ufed may be of tin or gilt pafteboard, this experiment not requiring fuch as are
very accurate.
i6o A C O U
Amufing room, raid let tlieie be two tubes, as in the foregoing
ments^&c amu^ement> one inuft go from the mouth and
, J the other from the ear of the bull, through the pe-
deftal and the floor, to an under apartment. There
may be likewife wires that go from the under jaw
and the eyes of the bull, by which they may be eaflly
moved.
A perfon being placed in the under room, and at a
fignal given applying his ear to one of the tubes, will
hear any queltion that is alked, and immediately re¬
ply ; moving at the fame time, by means of the wares,
the mouth axrd the eyes of the bull, as if the reply
came from it.
A Solar So- IV. In a large cafe, fuch as is ufed for dials and
naU. fpring clocks, the front of which, or at leal! the lower
part of it, mufl: be of glafs, covered on the infide with
gauze, let there be placed a barrel-organ, which, when
wound up, is prevented from playing, by a catch that
takes a toothed wheel at the end of the barrel. To
one end of this catch there mull be joined a wire, at
the end of which there is a flat circle of cork, of the
fame dimenfion with the inlide of a glafs tube, in which
it is to rife and fall. This tube mull communicate
with a refervoir that goes acrofs the front part of the
bottom of the cafe, which is to be filled with fpirits,
fuch as is ufed in thermometers, but not coloured, that
it may be the better concealed by the gauze.
This cafe being placed in the fun, the fpirits will be
rarefied by the heat; and riling in the tube, will lift up
the catch or trigger, and fet the organ in play : which
it will continue to do as long as it is kept in the fun;
for the fpirits cannot run out of the tube, that part of
the catch to which the circle is fixed being prevented
from riling beyond a certain point by a check placed
over it.
When the machine is placed againlt the fide of a
room on which the fun fliines llrong, it may conftantly
remain in the fame place, if you enclofe it in a fecond
cafe, made of thick wood, and placed at a little diftance
from the other. When you want it to perform, it will
be only neceflary to throw open the door of the outer
cafe, and expole it to the fun.
But if the machine be moveable, it will perform in
allfeafons by being placed before the fire 5 and in the win¬
ter it will more readily Hop when removed into the cold.
A machine of this fort is laid to have been invented
by Cornelius Dreble, in the lafl: century. What the
conftruftion of that was, wre know not} it might very
likely be more complex, but could fcarcely anlwer the
intention more readily.
Automa- V. Under the keys of a common harpfichord let
tons Harp- there be fixed a barrel, fomething like that in a cham-
lichord. I;er organ, with flops or pins correiponding to the tunes
' you would have it play. Thefe flops mull be moveable,
fo that the tunes may be varied at pleafure. From each
of the keys let there go a wire perpendicular down :
S T I C S. Chap. IV.
the ends of thefe wires mufl be turned up for about Amufing
one-fourth of an inch. Behind there wires let there ExPei'i-
be an iron bar, to prevent them from going too far 1.nents’ &'c’
back. Now, as the barrel turns round, its pins take ' "v-
the ends of the wires, which pull down the keys, and
play the harpfichord. The barrel and wires are to be
all enclofed in a cafe.
In the chimney of the fame room where the harpfi¬
chord Hands, or at leaft in one adjacent, there muft be
a fmoke jack, from whence comes down a wire, or
cord, that, pafling behind the wrainfcot adjoining the
chimney, goes under the floor, and up one of the legs
of the harpfichord, into the cafe, and round a fmall
wheel fixed on the axis of that firft mentioned. There
fliould be pulleys at different diftances, behind the wain-
fcot and under the floor, to facilitate the motion of the
cord.
This machinery may be applied to any other keyed
inftrument as well as to chimes, and to many other pur-
pofes wTere a regular continued motion is required.
An inttrument of this fort may be confidered as a
perpetual motion, according to the vulgar acceptation
of the term j for it will never ceafe going till the fire
be extinguifined, or fome parts of the machinery be
worn out.
VI. At the top of a fummer-houfe, or other building, A Ventofal
let there be fixed a vane AB, fig. 12. on which is the Symphony’,
pinion C, that takes the toothed wheel D, fixed on the
axis EF, which at its other end carries the wheel G,
that takes the pinion H. All thefe wheels and pinions
are to be between the roof and the ceiling of the build¬
ing. The pinion H is fixed to the perpendicular axis
IK, which goes down very near the wall of the room,
and may be covered after the fame manner as are bell-
wares. At the lower end of the axis IK there is a fmall
pinion L, that takes the wheel M, fixed cn th6 axis of
the great wheel NO. In this wheel there muft be placed
a number of flops, correiponding to the tunes it is to
play. Thefe flops are to be moveable, that the tunes
may be altered at pleafure. Againft this wheel there
mufl hang 12 fmall bells, anfwering to the notes of the
gamut. Therefore, as the wheel turns round, the flops
ftriking againft the bells play the feveral tunes. There
fliould be a fly to the great wheel, to regulate its mo¬
tion when the wind is ftreng. The wheel NO, and the
bells, are to be enclofed in a cafe.
There may be feveral lets of bells, one of which may
anfwer to the tenor, another to the treble, and a
third to the bafs } ©r they may play different tunes, ac¬
cording to the fize oi the wheel. As the bells are
fmall, if they are of filver, their tone will be the more
pleafing.
Inftead of bells, glaffes may be here ufed, fo difpoff
ed as to move freely at the ftroke of the flops. This
machinery may likewife be applied to a barrel-organ 3
and to many other ufes.
A c Q__
ACQS, in Geography, a town at the foot of the Py»
renean mountains, in the department of Arriege and
late province of Foix in France. It takes its name
from the hot waters in thefe parts. E. Long. 1. 40.
N. Lat. 43. o.
A C
ACQUAPENBENTE, a pretty large town of I- Acquapen-
taly, in the territory of the church, and patrimony of flente.
St Peter, with a biihop’s lee. It is feated on a moun- —v'—
tain, near the river Paglia, ten miles W. of Orvietto,
and v N. by W. of Rotne. It takes its name from a
fall
ABACtr s.
T . /
(J
Plalr I.
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rjy. 2.
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A C R [ i
Acquatla Tall of water near it, and is now almoft defolate. E.
il Long. 11. 53. N. Lat. 42. 43.
, . cragas. - ACQUARIA, a fmall town of Italy, in Frigana, a
diftri£t of Modena, which is remarkable for its medi¬
cinal waters. It is 12 miles fouth of the city of Mo¬
dena. E. Long. 11. 17. N. Lat. 44. 24.
ACQUEST, or Acquist, in Law, fignifies goods
got by purchafe or donation. See Conquest.
ACQUI, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mont-
ferrat, with a .bifhop’s fee and commodious baths. It
was taken by the Spaniards in 1745, and retaken by the
Piedmontefe in 1746 ; but after this it was taken again
and difmantl'ed by the French, who afterwards for-
fook it. It is feated on the river Bormia, 25 miles
N. W. of Genoa, and 30 S. of Cafal. E. Long. 8. 30.
N. Lat. 44. 40.
ACQUISITION, in general, denotes the obtaining
or procuring fomething. Among lawyers, it is ufed for
the right or title to an eftate got by purchafe or dona¬
tion.
ACQUITTAL, a difcharge, deliverance, or fet-
ting of a perfon free fro’m the guilt or fufpicion of an
offence.
ACQUITTANCE, a releafe or difcharge in writ¬
ing for a fum of money, witneffing that the party has
paid the faid fum.—No man is obliged to pay a fum of
money if the demandant refufes to give an acquittance,
which is a full difcharge, and bars all aftions, &c. An
acquittance given by a fervant for a fum of money re¬
ceived for the ufe of his matter, thall be a good dif¬
charge for that fum, provided the fervant ufed to re¬
ceive his matter’s rents, debts, &c.
ACRA, a town of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea,
where the Englith, Dutch, and Danes, have ttrong f©rts,
and each fort has its particular village. W. Long,
o. 2. N. Lat. 5. o.
Acra, in Ancient Geography, one of the hills of Je-
rufalem, on which flood the lowrer town, which was the
old Jerufalem 5 to which was afterwards added Zion,
or the city of David. Probably called Acra, from
the fortrefs which Antiochus built there in order to
annoy the temple, and which Simon Maccabaeus took
and razed to the ground.
„ Acra Japygia, in Ancient Geography, called Salentia
by Ptolemy ; now Capo di San Maria di Leuca: A
promontory in the kingdom of Naples, to the fouth-eaft
of Otranto, where formerly wras a town, now lying in
ruins, on the Ionian Tea, over againft the Montes Acro-
ceraunii of Epirus.
ACR/E, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily, whofe
inhabitants were called Acrenfes. It flood to the fouth
of Syracufe, at the diftance of 24 miles, near the place
now called the monaftery of Santa Maria d"1 Arcia, on
an eminence, as appears from Silius Italicus. The Sy-
racufans were the founders of it, according to Thucy¬
dides, 70 years after the building of Syracufe, or 665
before Chritt, Hence the epithet Aerceus.
ACRAGAS, or Agragas, in Ancient Geography,
fo called by the Greeks, and fometimes by the Romans,
but more generally Agrigentmn by the latter 5 a town
of Sicily. In Greek, medals the inhabitants are called
AKPIFANTINOI, and Agrigentini by Cicero. The
town flood upon a mountain, at the confluence of the
Acragas and Hypfa, near the port called EftTro^ov by
Ptolemy, but Exivwey, or the Dock, by Strabo ; and in
Vol. I. Part I.
il ] A C R
the time of the latter, fcarce a trace of all that fide Acra
remained. In the year before Chrift 584, the people II
of Gela built Acragas, 108 years after building their Acre'
own city. It took its name from the river running by '
it j and being but two miles from the fea, enjoyed the
conveniences of a fea port. It was a place of great
ftrength, Handing on the top of a very fteep rock, and
waftied on the fouth fide by the river Acragas, now call¬
ed Fiume diGergenti, and on the fouth-weft by the Hyp-
fa, with a citadel to the fouth-eaft, externally furrounded
by a deep gulf, which made it inacceflible but on the
fide next the towrn. It was famous for the tyrant Phalaris
and his brazen bull. The Agrigentines were a people
luxurious in their tables, and magnificent in their dwell¬
ings 5 of whom Empedocles, in Diogenes Laertius,
fays, that they lived to-day as if they were to die to¬
morrow, and built as if they were to live forever. The
country round the city was laid out in vine and olive
yards, in the produce of which they carried on a great
and profitable commerce with Carthage. E. Long.
13. 30. N. Lat. 37. 20.
ACRAMAR, or Van, in Geography, a town and lake
of the greater Armenia in Afia. The town, which is
large, populous, and commercial, is the capital of the
government of Van, is fituated at the foot of the moun¬
tains of Diarbekir, and is faid to have been built by Se-
miramis. The lake abounds with fifh. There are two
iflands in it which are inhabited by religious Arme¬
nians. E. Long. 44. 14. N. Lat. 36. 30.
ACRASIA, among Phyjicians, implies the predo¬
minancy of one quality above another, either with re¬
gard to artificial mixtures, or the humours of the hu¬
man body. The word is Greek, and compounded of
« privative, and to mix ; q. d. not mixed in a
juft proportion.
ACRASUS, in Ancient Geography, a towm of Afia
Minor in Lydia. Some imperial Greek medals of this
city ftill exift, which were ftruck under the praetors, in
honour of Severus, and feveral other emperors.
ACRATH, in Ancient Geography, a place in Mau¬
ritania Tingitana, now fuppofed to be VeU% de Como¬
ro : A fortified towm in the kingdom of Fez, with a
citadel and commodious harbour on the Mediterranean,
fcarce a mile diftant from Penon de Velez, a Spanilh
fort. W. Long. 5. N. Lat. 34. 45.
ACRE, or Acra, in Geography, a fea-port town
in Syria. It wras formerly called Ptolemais, from one
of the Ptolemys ; and Acra on account of its fortifica¬
tions ; wdience the knights of St John of Jerufalem
called it St John d’Acre. This city was fucceflively un¬
der the dominion of the Romans and the Moors $ and
was famous in the time of the crufades, and underwent
feveral fieges both by the Chriftians and Saracens. It
is fituated at the north angle of a bay, which extends
in a fenffcircle of three leagues, as far as the point of
Carmel.
During the crufades, the poffeflion of this town was
long difputed by the Chriftians and Saracens. In 1192
it wras taken from the latter by Richard I. of England
and Philip of France, after a fiege of twro years, and
the (laughter of 100,000 Chriftians, befide a greater
number who periftied by fhipwreck or difeafe, vrho
gave it to the knights of St John of Jerufalem. They
kept poffeflion of it 100 years, when it was retaken by
the Saracens, and .almoft entirely deftroyed. This
X event
«
A C R [ 162 ] A C R
Acre, event is rendered memorable by an aft of lingular re-
V"w folution with which it was accompanied. A number
of beautiful young nuns, terrified at the profpeft of
being expofed to the brutal lull of the infidels, deter¬
mined to avoid the violation of their chaftity, by ren¬
dering themfelves objefts of averfion. With this view
they cut off their nofes and mangled their faces. The
Saracens, inflamed with refentment at a fpeftacle whicli
prevented the gratification of their appetites, imme¬
diately put them all to the fword. After the expulfion
of the crufaders, it remained almoft deferted till about
the year 1750, when it was fortified by Daher, an
Arabian fcheik who maintained his independence
again!! the Ottoman power, till the year 1775, when
he %vas bafely affaffmated by the emiffaries of that go-
\^ernment at the age of 86 years. He was adored by
his people whom his prudence and valour had through
life protefted againfl the tyranny and oppreflion of the
pacha. More lately the works erefted by Djezzar,
within the lali ten years, have rendered it one of the
principal towns upon the coaft. The mofque of this
pacha is boafted as a mafterpiece of eaftern tafte. The
bazar, or covered market, is not inferior even to thofe
of Aleppo } and its public fountain furpafles in elegance
thofe of Damafcus, though the water is of a very indif¬
ferent quality. The pacha has derived the more ho¬
nour from thefe works, as he was himfelf both the en¬
gineer and architeft : he formed the plans, drew the
defigns, and fuperintended the execution.
The port of Acre is one of the befl fituated on the
coaft, as it is fheltered from the north and north-weft
winds by the town itfelf; but it is greatly choked up
fince the time of Fakr-el-din. Djezzar contented him¬
felf vTith making a landing place for boats. The for¬
tifications, though more frequently repaired than any
other in all Syria, are of no importance : there are
only a few’ wretched low towers near the port, on which
cannon are mounted ; and thefe rufty iron pieces are
fo bad, that feme of them burft every time they are
fired. Its defence on the land fide is merely a garden
wall without any ditch.
In the year 1799 Acre was again the feene of war,
when it was bravely defended by our gallant country¬
man Sir Sidney Smith, again!! the military fidll and
extraordinary exertions of Bonaparte, and fome of his
able!! generals. The pacha Djezzar was preparing to
e vacuate the place, and make good his retreat with
his -women and treafure, when Sir Sidney with his
fquadron anchored in the road of Caiffa. The fortifi¬
cations were repaired under the direftion of a fkilful
engineer, which, with the afliftance of the Englifti ma¬
rines, encouraged and animated the pacha to hold out.
After the French had renewed and varied the attack,
and being as often repulfed with great flaughter, Bo¬
naparte, defpairing of fuccefs, raifed the liege on the
20th of May, the 61 ft day after breaking ground.
Corn and cotton form the bafis of the commerce of
Acre, which is becoming more flourifhing every day.
Of late, the pacha, by an abufe common throughout
all the Turkifti empire, has monopolized all the trade
in his own hands; no cotton can be fold but to him,
and from him every purchafe muff be made. In vain
have the European merchants claimed the privileges
granted them by the fultan } Djezzar replied, that he
was the fultan in his country, and continued his mo¬
nopoly. The merchants were generally French, and Acre,
they had fix houfes at Acre, with a conful: an Impe-
rial agent too was lately fettled there ; alfo a refident
for Ruflia.
That part of the bay of Acre in which (hips anchor
with the greateft lecurity lies to the north of Mount
Carmel, below the village of Haifa (commonly called
Caiffa'). The bottom is good holding ground, and
does not chafe the cables 5 but the harbour is open to
the north-weft wind, which blows violently along all
this coal!. Mount Carmel, which commands it to the
1'outh, is a flattened cone, and very rocky ; it is about
2000 feet high. We ftill find among the brambles
wild vines and olive trees, which prove that indufiry
has formerly been employed even in this ungrateful
foil: on the fummit is a chapel dedicated to the pro¬
phet Elias, which affords an extenfive profpeft over the
fea and land. It is 20 miles S. of l yre, and 37 N. of
Jerufalem. E. Long. 39. 25. Lat. 32. 40.
Acre, in the Mogul’s dominions, the fame with
lack, and fignifies the fum of 100,000 rupees; the ru¬
pee is of the value of the French crown of three livres,
or 30 fols of Holland ; too lacks of rupees make a
couron in Indoftan, or 10,000,000 rupees: the pound
Sterling is about eight rupees 5 according to which
proportion, a lack of rupees amounts to 12,500 pounds
Sterling.
Acre, the univerfal meafure of land in Britain..
The word (formed from the Saxon acher, or the Ger»-
man aher, a field), did not originally fignify a deter-r
ruinate quantity of land, but any open ground, efpe-
cially a wide champaign ; and in this antique fenle it
feems to be preferved in the names of places, as Caftle-
acre, Weft-acre, &c. An acre in England contains
four fquare roods, a rood 40 perches or poles of 164-
feet each by ftatute. Yet this meafure does not pre¬
vail in all parts of England, as the length of the pole
varies in different counties, and is called cuftomary mea¬
fure, the difference running from the feet to 28.-
The acre is alfo divided into 10 fquare chains, of 22-
yards each, that is, 4840 fquare yards. An acre in
Scotland contains four fquare roods ; one fquare rood
is 40 fquare falls ; one fquare fall, 36 fquare ells } one
fquare ell, nine fquare feet and 7 3 fquare inches ; one
fquare foot, T44fqaare inches. The Scots acre is alfo-
divided into I o fquare chains; the meafuring chaim
fhould be 24 ells in length, divided into too links,*
each link 8 rVcrs inches *, and fo one fquare chain will:
contain 10,000 fquare links. The Englifh ftatute acre
is about three roods and fix falls ftandard meafure of
Scotland.
The French acre, arpent, contains r-J Englifti acre,,
or 54,450 fquare Englifti feet, whereof the Etiglifb
acre contains only 43,560.—The Stralburg acre is
about half an Englifti acre.—The Welfii acre contains
commonly two Englifti ones.—The Irifh acre is equal
to one acre two roods and 19 perches tVt Englifti.
AcRR-Fight, an old fort of duel fought by Engliftt
and Scottiih combatants, between the frontiers of their
kingdoms, with fword and lance : it was alfo called-
carnp-Jight, and the combatants champions, from the
open field being,the ftage of trial.
AcRE-*Tax, a tax laid on land at fo much per acre..
In fome places this is alfo called acre-Jhot. Impofitions
on lands in the great level are to be vaifed by a pro¬
portionable
A C R [ 163 ] A C R
portionable acre-tax, 20 Car. II. cap. 8.—Ag acre- Ethiopia, Arabia, &c. frequently ufe loeuils as food. Acridopba-
tax of 2s. 6d. per acre, for draining Hadenham-level, The reader will not be difpleafed if we lay before him
jo T oon rR thp rfifnlt nf T")r T-Tafl'flniiift’a irmtiirioc ! cjc f/i
13 Geo. I. cap. 18.
ACRIBEIA, a term purely Greek, literally denot¬
ing an exquifite or delicate accuracy; fometimes ufed
in our language, for want of a wrord of equal fignifica-
■tion.
the refult of Dr Haflelquift’s inquiries as to this parti- '
eular, wrho travelled in Syria and Egypt fo late as the
year 1752. This ingenious gentleman, who travelled
with a view to improve natural hiftory, informs us,
that he a iked Franks, and many other people who had
ACRID, a name for any thing that is of a (harp or lived long in thefe countries, whether they had ever
# Lit., iii.
and xxxix.
Alfo Straio,
hb, xvi.
pungent tafte. See Materia Medica,
ACRIDOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, an E«
thiopian people, represented as inhabiting near the de-
ferts, and to have fed on locuftss This latter circum-
ftance their name imports •, the word being compound¬
ed of the Greek locufl, and <Q*y<a to eat. We
have the following account of them by Diodorus Si¬
culus *. Their ftature was lowrer than that of other
heard that the inhabitants of Arabia, Ethiopia, &c.
ufed locufts as food.? They anfwered, that they had.
He likewife a Iked the fame queition of Armenians,
Copts, and Syrians, who lived in Arabia, and had
travelled iri Syria and near the Rea fea } fome of whom
faid they heard of fuch a praftice, and others that the/
had often feen the people eat thefe infe&s. He at laft
obtained complete fatisfadion on this head from ;
men} they wTere meagre, and extremely black. In the learned fcheik at Cairo, who had lived lix years in
’fpring, high weft winds drove from the defert to their Mecca. This gentleman told him, in prefence of M. la-
quarter locufts of an extraordinary fize, and remarkable Grand the principal French interpreter at Cairo, and
for the fqualid colour of their wings. So great was others, that a famine frequently rages at Mecca when
the number of thefe infers, that they w^ere the only there is a fcarcity of corn in Egypt, which obliges the
fuftenance of the barbarians, who took them in the fol- inhabitants to live upon coarfer food than ordinary :
lowing manner: At the diftance of fome ftadia from That wdien corn is fcarce, the Arabians grind the lo-
their habitations there wras a wide and deep valley, cults in hand millsj or ftone mortars, and bake them
They filled this valley with wood and wrild herbs, with
which their country abounded. When the cloud of
locufts appeared, w'hich were driven on by the wind,
they fet fire to the fuel which they had collected. The
fmoke which arofe from this immenfe fire was fo thick,
that the locufts, in crofiing the valley, were ftifled by
it, and fell in heaps on the ground. The paffage of
the locufts being thus intercepted for many days, they
made a large provifion of thofe infers. As their coun¬
try produced great quantities of fait, they falted them,
to render them more palatable, and to make them keep
till the next feafon. This peculiar fupply was their
foie food : they had neither herds nor flocks. They
were unacquainted with filhing •, for they lived at a di¬
ftance from the fea. They wrere very a&ive, afid ran
into cakes, and ufe thefe cakes in plate of bread : That
he has frequently feen locufts ufed by the Arabians,
even when there whs no fcarcity of corn; but then
they boil them, ftew them with butter, and make them
into a kind of fricaflee j which he fays is not difagree-
ably tafted, for he had fometimes tafted thefe locuft
fricaflees out of curiofity.
A later traveller, Dr Sparrinan, informs^ us *,
“ That locufts fometimes afford a high treat to the
more unpoliftied and remote hordes of the Hottentots j
when, as fometimes happens, after an interval of 8, 10,
1 £, or 20 years, they make their appearance in incre¬
dible numbers. At thefe times they come from the
north, migrating to the fouthward, and do not fuffer
themfelves to be impeded by any obftaclfeS, but fly bold-
* Foyagi U
the Cape,
vol. i. p. 35.
with great fwiftnefs. But their life was not of long ly on, and are drowned in the fea whenever they come
j . •.  1 1 _ ^ 1* 1  _i_r_ Jr rr'i,„  .a • r_n_ i • 1
duration j it exceeded not forty years. The clofe of
their life was extremely miferable ; for in their old
age, -winged lice of different, but all of ugly forms,
bred in their bodies. This malady, which began In
the breaft and belly, foon fpread through the whole
frame. The patient at firft felt an itching} and the
agreeable fenfation produced by his fcratching of him-
felf, preceded a moft deplorable calamity. For when
thofe lice, which had bred in his body, forced their
way out, they caufed effufions of corrupt blood, with
^•excruciating pains in the fkim The unhappy man,
with lamentable cries, was induftrious himfelf to make
to it. The females of this race of infe&s, which are
moft apt to migrate, and are chiefly eatten, are faid not
to be able to fly; partly by reafon of the ihortnefs of
their wings, and partly on account of their being hea¬
vy and diftended with eggs } and fliortly after they have
laid thefe in the fand, they are faid to die. It is parti¬
cularly of thefe that the Hottentots make a brown cof¬
fee-coloured foup, which at the fame time, acquires
from the eggs a fat and greafy appearance. The Hot¬
tentots are highly rejoiced at the arrival of thefe lo¬
cufts, though they ate hire to deftroy every bit of ver¬
dure on the ground : but the Hottentots make them-
paffages for them with his nails. In fhort, thefe lice felves ample amends for this lofs, by falling foul bn the
iffued forth fucceflively from the wounds made by the
hands of the patient, as from a veffel full of holes, and
in fuch numbers that it was impoflible to exterminate
them.—Whether this extraordinary and dreadful dif-
temper wras occafioned by the food of the inhabitants
of this country, or by a peftilential quality of their
climate, it is difficult to determine. Indeed, as to the
credibility of the whole account, we muft leave the
•reader to judge.
But though the circumftances of thefe people fhould
be deemed fabulous, yet may the acridophagia be true.
animals themfelves, eating them in fuch quantities as i:
the fpace of a few days to get vifibly fatter and in bet¬
ter condition than before.”
The Abbe Poiret, alfo, in his Memoir on the Infefts
of Barbary and Numidia, informs us, “ That the Moors
make locufts a part of their food } that they go to hunt
them j fry them in oil and butter } and fell them pub¬
licly at Tunis, at Bonne,” &c. '
From thefe accounts, we may fee the folly of that
difpute among divines about the nature of St John’s
food in the wildernefs : feme maintaining the original
It is well known, that to this day the inhabitants of word to fignify the fruits of certain trees j others, a kind
X 2 df
A G R [ i
Acrii of birds, &c.: but thofe who adhered to the literal
Acrobates mean^nS t^ie text were at ^ea^ t1ne mo^; orthodox,
. " ^ ' although their arguments were perhaps not fo flrong
as they might have been, had they had an opportunity
’of quoting fuch authors as the above.
ACRII Montes, in Ancient Geography, mountains
in the bland of Sicily which are alfo called Hercei.
ACRILLiE, a city of Sicily between Acrse and
Agrigentum, not far from Syracufe, fuppofed to be
the fame with Acila which is mentioned by Plu¬
tarch.
ACRISIUS, m Fabulous Hi/lory, king of Argos, be¬
ing told by the oracle that he Ihould be killed by his
grand-child, fhut up his only daughter Danae in a bra¬
zen tower: but Jupiter coming down in a golden
fhower, begot Perfeus upon her. After Perfeus had
Ilain the Gorgons, he carried Medufa’s head to Argos}
which Acrilius feeing, was turned into a flatue.
ACRISTIA, in Geography, a town of Sicily, 23
miles weft north-weft of Magara, It is built on the
ruins of the ancient town of Schritea.
ACR1TAS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Meflenia, running into the fea, and forming the begin¬
ning of the bay of Meffene. Now called Capo di Gallo,
between Methone to the weft, and Corone to the eaft,
where the Sinus Coronaeus begins.
ACROAMATIC, or Acroatic, in general, de¬
notes a thing fublime, profound, 01 abftrufe.
ACR O AM ATI CI, a denomination given to the dif-
ciples or followers of Ariftotle, &c. who were admit¬
ted into the fecrets of the inner or acroamatic philofo-
phy.
ACROATHOUM, or Acrothoum, in Ancient
Geography, a town fituated on the top of Mount Athos,
where the inhabitants, according to Mela, were longer
lived by half than in any other country; called by
the modern Greeks, Aytov a§os j by the Italians La
Cima di Monte Santo.
ACROATIC is a name given to Ariftotle^’s lec¬
tures to his difciples, which were of two kinds, exoteric
and acroatic. The acroatic were thofe to which only his
own difciples and intimate friends- were admitted j
whereas the exoteric were public and open to all.
But there are other differences. The acroatic were
fet apart for the higher and more abftrufe fubjedls ;
the exoteric were employed in rhetorical and civil fpe-
culations. Again, The acroatics were more fubtle
and exaft, evidence and demonftration being here
aimed at; the exoterics chiefly aimed at the probable
and plaufible. The former were the fubjeft of the
mornings exercifes in the Lyceum, the latter of the
evenings. Befides, the exoterics were publifhed:
whereas the acroatics were kept fecret j being either
entirely concealed, or, if they were publifhed, it was
in fuch obfcure terms, that few but his own difciples
could be the wifer for them. Hence, when Alexan¬
der complained, of his preceptor for publilhing his acro¬
atics, and thus revealing what fhould have been re-
ferved to his difciples, Ariftotle anfwered, that they
were made public and not public ; for that none who
had not heard them explained by the author viva voce,
could underftand them.
ACROBATES, in Antiquity, were rope-dancers
who performed various feats by vaulting or tumbling
on a rope; , Hiding down on a rope from a lofty ftatioa
64 ] ACR
with arms and legs extended, in imitation of dying; Acrobatics
and running, dancing, and leaping, on a rope ftretched Acr(J|1:n3
horizontally. ^ 1 *.
ACROBATICA, or Acrobaticum, from
high, and (Zotlua, or I go; an ancient engine
whereby people were raifed aloft, that they might fee
more conveniently about them. The acrobatica among
the Greeks, amounted to the fame with what they call
fcanforium among the Latins. Authors are divided as
to the ufe of this engine. Turnebus and Barbarus
take it to have been of the military kind, raifed by be-
fiegers, high enough to overlook the walls, and difcover
the ftate of things on the other fide. Baldus rather
fuppofes it a kind of moveable fcaffold, or cradle, con¬
trived for railing painters, plafterers, and other work¬
men, to the tops of houfes, trees^ &c. Some fufpecf
that it might have been ufed for both purpofes; w'hich
is the opinioil of Vitruvius and Aquinas.
ACROCERAUNIA, or Montes Ceraunii, in
Ancient Geography, mountains running out into the fea
(fo called from their being often thunderftruck), fepa-
rating the Ionian fea from the Adriatic ; where Illyria
ends and Epirus begins : now called Monti della Chi¬
mera.
ACROCHERISMUS, among the Greeks, a fort
of gymnaftic exercife, in which the two combatants
contended wdth their hands and fingers only, without
clofmg or engaging the other parts of the body.
ACROCORINTHUS, in Ancient Geography, a high
and fteep hill, hanging over the city of Corinth, which
was taken within the w’alls, as an acropolis, or citadel.
On its top flood a temple of Venus ; and lowrer dow n
iffued the fountain Pyrene.
ACROMION, in Anatomy, the upper part of the
fcapula or fhoulder blade. See Anatomy.
ACROMONOGR AMMATICUM, in Poetry, a
kind of poem, wherein every fubfequent verfe begins
with the letter wherewith the immediately preceding
one terminated.
ACRON, a celebrated phyfician of Agrigehtnm, in
Sicily, who lived about the middle of the fifth century
before Chrift. He firft thought of lighting large fires,
and purifying the air with perfumes, to put a Hop to
the peftilence that ravaged Athens, and which was at¬
tended with fuccefs. He wrote tw-o treatifes, accord¬
ing to Suidas, in the Doric dialed! ; the one on phyfic,
and the other on abftinence or diet.
Acron, in Geography, a territory on the Gold coaft
of Guinea, in Africa, bordering on the Fantynean
country. The Dutch have a fort here called Fort Pa¬
tience ; and under it is a village, inhabited only by
fifhermen. The other inhabitants are addidled to huf-
bandry, and fell their corn to other countries. There
is plenty of game, which is very commodious for the
Dutch fadtory. The people are very ignorant, and go
naked like the reft of the negroes. This is called Litr
tie Acron ; for Great Acron is farther inland, and is
a kind of a republic.
ACRONICAL, Achronycal, or Achronical,
in Ajlronomy, is a term applied to the rifing of a ftar,
when the fun is fet in the evening ; but has been pro.
mifcuoully ufed to exprefs a ftar’s rifing at funfet, or
fetting at funrife.
ACR ONI US lacus (Mela) ; a fmall lake formed
by the Rhine, foon after its rife out of the Alps, and
after.
A G R [ i(
Acropolis aft=r pafling A2 grater lake at Conllance, called Ve-
!! net us, and now the Bodengee, or lake of C enhance.
Acroftoli- ACROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, the citadel,
um' , and one of the divifions of Athens-, called Po/is, became
m"_v” confthuting the hr ft and original city ; and the Ipper
Polis, to diilinguifh it from the lower, which was ai-
terwards built round it in a large open plain, the Acro¬
polis Handing on a rock or eminence m the heart ot
this plain; and hence its name : To the north it had a
wall, built by the Pelafgi, and therefore called Felajgic;
and to the fouth a wall, by Cimon the fon ot Mil-
tiades, out of the Perfian fpoils, many ages alter the
building of the north wall. It had nine gates, and
was therefore called Enneapylon ; yet but one principal
gate or entrance, the afeent to which was by a tiigln or
Heps of white marble, built in a magnificent manner
by Pericles, (Plutarch).
ACROPOLITA, George, one of the writers in
the Byzantine hiflory, wras born at Conftantinople, in
the year 1220, and educated at the court of the em¬
peror John Ducas at Nice. He was employed in the
mod important affairs of the. empire •, being fent am-
baffador to Lariffa, to effabliffi a peace with Michael
of Epirus; and was conHituted judge to try Micnael
Comnenus, who was fufpeaed of engaging in a con-
fpiracy. Theodorus La-fcaris, the fon of John, whom
he had taught logic, appointed him governor of all the
weffern provinces in his empire. In 1255, he was taken
prifoner in a war with Michael Angelus ", but gaining
his liberty in 1260, by means of the emperor Palseo-
logus, he -was fent by him ambaffador to Conffantine
/ prince of Bulgaria : and was employed in ieveral other
negotiations. He wrote, A Continuation of the Greek
Hiffory, from the taking of ConHantinople by the La¬
tins till it was recovered by Michael Palaeologus in
1261, which makes part of the Byzantine hiffory; A
Treatife concerning Faith, \irtue, and the Soul; An
Expofition of the Sermons of St Gregory Nazianzen,
and other pieces. Gregory Cyprian, patriaren of Con¬
Hantinople, in his encomium upon him, prefixed to
Acropolita’s hiffory, is perhaps fomewhat extravagant
in his praife, wdien he fays he was equal to Ariftotle
in philofophy,- and to Plato in the knowledge of divine
things and Attic eloquence.
ACROSPIRE, a vulgar term for what botanifts
call the plumes.
ACRQSPIRED, in Malt-making, is the grain’s
{hooting both at the root and blade end.
' ACROSTIC, in Poetry, a kind of poetical compo-
fition, difpofed in fuch a manner, that the initial let¬
ters of the veries form the name of fame perfon, king¬
dom, place, motto, &c. The word is compounded
of the Greek extremity, and verfe. The
acroftic is confidered by the critics as a ipecies of faifc
wit, and is therefore very little regarded by the mo¬
derns.
ACROSTICHUM, Rustyback, Wall-rue, or
Fork-fern. See Botany Index.
ACROSTOLIUM, in Ancient Naval Architecture,
the extreme part of the ornament ufed on the prow s
of ffiips, wdiich wTas fometimes in the lhape of . a
buckler, helmet, animal, &c. but more frequently cir¬
cular, or fpirai. It wTas ufual to tear them from the
prows of vanquiihed veffels, and fix them to the con-
>5 ] a c T
querors, as a fignal of viflory. They were frequently Aaoteim-.
reprefented on the reverfe of ancient medals. ,,
ACROTELEUTIC, among Ecclefiajlic Writers, an Aa>
appellation given to any thing added to the end oi a —-y—
pfalm ; as the Gloria Patri, or Doxoiogy.
ACROTERI, in Geography, a final! town in the
iiland of Santorin. N. Lat. 36. 25. E. Long. 26. 1.
ACROTERI A, in ArchiteBure, fmall pedeftals,
ufually w’ithout bafes, anciently piaced at the middle
or two extremes of pediments or frontiipieces, fervmg
to fupportthe ftatues, &c. It alfo fignifies the figures
piaced as ornaments on the tops of churches, and th-
{harp pinnacles that Hand in ranges about flat ouij.Uiiigs
with rails and balufters.
Among ancient phyficians, it fignified the larger ex¬
tremities of the body, as the head, hands, and fetJ’-
It has alfo been ufed for the tips of the fingers, and
fometimes for the eminences or proceffes of bones.
ACROTHYMION, from extreme, and 6vpo?,
thyme. A fort of wart deferibed by Celfus as hard and
rough, with a narrow balls and broad top ; the top is
of the colour of thyme, it eafily fplits and bleeds. This
tumour is alfo called thymus.
ACT, in general, denotes the exertion of power;
and differs from power, as the effeafrom the caufe.
Act, in Logic, is particularly underftood of an ope¬
ration of the human mind. Thus to difeern and exa¬
mine, are aRs of the underffanding ; to judge anu ai-
firm, are aas of the will. Fhere are voluntaiy and
{pontaneous aas ; the former are produced. by tue
operation of the foul, the latter without its piivity ox
participation. _ . .
Act, in the Univerjities, fignifies a tuefis maintained,
in public by a candidate for a degree ; or to fliow the
capacity and proficiency of a ftudent. I lie candidate s
for a degree of bachelor and mailer or arts are to hold
philofophical aas ; and thofe for bachelor of divinits,
theological ads, &c. At Oxford, the time when ma-
fters or doaors complete their degrees, is alfo called the
aB; which is held with great folemnity. At Cam¬
bridge, they call it the commencement.
Act of Faith, Auto da Fe, in the Romijh Church,
is a folemn day held by the inquifition, for the punifli-
ment of heretics, and the abfolution ol the innocent
accufed *. They ufually contrive the Auto to fall on * See Ay
fome great, feftival, that the execution may pafs wdth/^"-
the more awe and regard ; at leaft it is always on a
Sunday.
The Auto da Fe may be called the laft aa of the
inquifitorial tragedy ; it is kind of gaol-delivery, ap¬
pointed as oft as a competent number of prifoners in
the inquifition are conviaed of herefy, either by their
own voluntary or extorted confefiion, or on the evi¬
dence of certain witneffeSi The proceis is thus: In the
morning they are brought into a great hall, w here
they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear
in the proceflion. The proceflion is led up by Domi¬
nican friars; after which come the penitents, fome with
fan-benitoes, and fome without, according to the na¬
ture of their crimes ; being all in black coats without
fleeves, and barefooted, with a wax candle in their
hands. Thefe are followed by the penitents who have
narrowly efcaped being burnt, who over their black
coats have flames painted with their points turned down-
war ds*..
A C T [ i
wards, Fuego revoho. Next come* tire negative and
relapfed, who are to be burnt, having flames on their
habits pointing upwards. After thefe come fuch as pro-
fefs doctrines contrary to the faith of Rome, who, be-
fldes flames pointing upwards, have their picture paint¬
ed on their breafts, with dogs, ferpents, and devils, all
•open mouthed, about it. Each prifoner is attended
with a familiar of the inquifltion ; and thofe to be burnt
have alfo a Jefuit on each hand, who are continually-
preaching to them to abjure. After the prifoners comes
a troop of familiars on horfeback ; and after them the
inquifitors, and other officers ©f the court, on mules j
laft of all, the inquifitor-general on a white horfe, led
by two men with black hats and green hat-bands. A
fcaffold is erefted in the 'Terriere de Paco, big enough
for two or three thoufand people ; at one end of which
are the prifoners, at the other the inquifitors. After
a fermon made up of encomiums of the inquifition, and
inve&ives againft heretics, a prieft afcends a deflt near
the middle of the fcaffold, and having taken the abjura¬
tion of the penitents, recites the final fentence of thofe
who are to be put to death j and delivers them to the
fecular arm, earneftly befeeching at the fame time the
fecular power not to touch their blood, or put their
lives in danger. The prifoners being thus in the hands
of the civil magiftrate, are prefently loaded with chains,
and carried firft to the fecular gaol, and from thence in
an hour or two brought before the civil judge j who,
after aficing in what religion they intend to die, pro¬
nounces fentence, on fuch as declare they die in the
communion of the church of Rome, that they (hall be
firft ftrangled, and then burnt to alhes $ on fuch as die
in any other faith, that they be burnt alive. Both are
immediately carried to the Ribera, the place of execu¬
tion ; where there are as many (lakes fet up as there are
prifoners to be burnt, with a quantity of dry furze
about them. The (lakes of the profelfed, that is, fuch
as perfift in their herefy, are about four yards high,
having a' fmall board towards the top for the prifoner
to be feated on. The negative and relapfed being fixlt
ilrangled and burnt, the profefied mount their (lakes
by a ladder; and the Jefuits, after feveral repeated ex¬
hortations to be reconciled to the church, part with
them, telling them they leave them to the devil, who
is Handing at their elbow to receive their fouls, and
carry them with him into the flames of hell. On this
a great (hout is raifed ; and the cry is, Let the dogs
beards be made; which is done by thrufting flaming
furzes faftened to long poles againft their faces, till
their faces are burnt to a coal, which is accompanied
with the loudeft acclamations of joy. At laft, fire is fet
to the furze at the bottom of the (lake, over which the
profefled are chained fo high, that the top of the flame
leldom reaches higher than the feat they fit on 5 fo that
they rather feem roafted than burnt. There cannot
be a more lamentable fpeftacle j the fufferers conti¬
nually cry out, while they are able, Mifericordia per
amor de Dios, “ Pity for the love of God !” yet it is
beheld by alLfexes and ages with trarrfports of joy and
fatisfa£tion.
Act, in Dramatic Poetry, fignifies a certain divifion
or part of a play, defigned to give fome refpite both
to the aflors and fpeclators. The Romans were the
firft who divided their theatrical pieces into a6ls ; for
no fyich divifions appear in the works of the firft dxa-
3
66 ] ACT
matic poets. Their pieces indeed confided of fevera! AdU.
parts or divifions, which they called protajis, epitajis, V-4-0
catajlajis, and catajirophe ; but thefe divifions were not
marked by any real interruptions in the theatre. Nor
does Ariftotle mention any thing of a£ls in his Art of
Poetry. But, in the time of Horace, all regular and
finfthed pieces were divided into five a£ls.
Neve minor, neu Jit quinto produ&ior actu
Fabula, quce pofci vult, et fpeBata reponi.
If you wrould have your play deferve fuccefs,
Give it five a£ls complete, nor more nor lefs.
Francis.
The firft a£l, according to fome critics, befides in¬
troducing upon the ftage the principal characters of the
play, ought to propofe the argument or fubjehl of the
piece j the fecond, to exhibit this to the audience, by
carrying the fable into execution \ the third, to raife ob-
llacles and difficulties } the fourth, to remove thefe, or
raife new ones in the, attempt; and the fifth, to con¬
clude the piece, by introducing fome accident that may
unravel the whole affair. This divifion, however, is
not effentially neceffaryj but may be'varied according
to the humour of the author, or the nature of the fub-
je£l. See Poetry.
Act of Grace. See Grace.
Act, among Lawyers, is an inftrument in writing
for declaring or juftifying the truth of any thing. In
which fenfe, records, decrees, fentences, reports, certi¬
ficates, &c. are called aBs.
Acts alfo denote the deliberations and refolutions
of an affembly, fenate, or convention 5 as a£ls of parlia¬
ment, See. Likewife matters of fadl tranfmitted to
pofterity in certain authentic books and memoirs.
Acta Confiflorii, the edicts or declarations of the
council of (late of the emperors. Thefe edidls were
generally expreffed in fuch terms as thefe : “ the au-
guft emperors, Diociejian and Maximin, in council de¬
clared, That the children of decurions (hould not be
expofed to wild beads in the amphitheatre.”
The fenate and foldiers often fwore, either through
abjecl flattery or by compulfion, upon the ediBs of the
emperor, as we do upon the Bible. And the name of
Apidius Meruia was erafed by Nero out of the regiller
of fenators, becaufe he refufed to fwear upon the edicts
of the emperor Auguftus.
Acs a Diurna, was a fort of Roman gazette, com
taining an authorized narrative of the tranfaflions wor¬
thy of notice which happened at Rome. Petronius has
given us a fpecimen of the aBa diurna in his account
of Trimalchis j and as it may not perhaps be unenter¬
taining to fee how exadlly a Roman newfpajvr runs in
the ftyle of an Englifli one, the following is an article
or t-wo out of it :
“ On the 26th of July, 30 boys and 40 girls were
born at Trimalchi’s eftate at Cuma.
“ At the fame time a (lave was put to death for ut¬
tering difrefpeflful words againft his lord.
“ The fame day a fire broke out in Pompey’s gar¬
dens, which began in the night, in the fteward’s apart¬
ment.”
Acta Populi, among the Romans, were journals or
regifters of the daily occurrences ; as affemblies, trials,
executions, buildings, births, marriages, deaths, &c.
of
. ' A C T
of illuftrious perfons, and the like,
wife called AEla Tub lie a and ABa Diurna, or fimply
ABa. The A£la differed from Annals, in that only
the greater and more important matters were in the
latter, and thofe of lefs note were in the former. Their
origin is attributed to Julius Ctefar, who firft ordered
the keeping and making public the afts of the people.
Some trace them higher, to Servius Tullius ; who, to
difcover the number of perfons born, dead, and alive,
ordered that the next of kxn, ixpon a birth, fhould put
a certain piece of money into the treafury of Juno Lu-
cma ^ upon a death, into that of \ enus Libiuna . the
like was alfo to be done upon affuming the toga virilis,
&c. Under Marcus Antoninus, this was carried fur¬
ther : perfons were obliged to notify the births of their
children, with their names and fumames, the day, con-
ful, and whether legitimate or fpurious, to the prefers
of the Alrarium Saturni, to be entered in the public
acts } though before this time the births of perfons of
quality appear thus to have been regiftered.
Acta Senatus, among the Romans, were minutes
of what palled and was debated in the fenate houfe.
Thefe wTere alfo called Commentarn, and by a Greek
name v7rofmpx\a. They had their origin in the con-
fulfhip of Julius Ceefar, who ordered them both to be
kept and publilhed. The keeping them was continued
under Auguttus, but the publication was abrogated.
Afterwards all writings, relating to the decrees or fen-
tences of the judges, or wdiat palled and wTas done be¬
fore them, or by their authority, in any caufe, were
alfo called by the name ABa : In which fenfe we read
of civil a£ls, criminal afts, intervenient afts ; aBa ci¬
vilian criminalia, tntervenienUa, &c.
Public Acts. The knov.dedge of public afts forms
part of a peculiar fcience, called the Diplomatic,
of great importance to an hiftorian, datefman, chro-
nologer, and even critic. The prefervation of them
was the firft occafion of erefting libraries. The ftyle
ofi afts is generally barbarous Latin. Authors are di¬
vided as to the rules of judging of their g'enuinenefs,
and even whether there be any certain rules at all. F.
Germon will have the greater part of the afts of lormer
ages to be fpurious. Fontanini aflerts, that the num¬
ber of forged afts now extant is very frnall. It is cer¬
tain there 'were fevere punilhments inflifted on the for¬
gers and falfifiers of afts.—-The chief of the Englilh
afts, or public records, are pubiilhed by Rymer, under
the title of Fcedera, and continued by Saunderfon ; an
extraft whereof has been given in French by Rapin, and
tranllated into Englifh under the title of ABa Regia*
Great commendations have been given this wTork : alfo
fome exceptions made to it 5 as that there are many fpu-
rious afts, as well as errors, in it j fome have even char¬
ged it with falfifications.—The public afts of France
fell into the hands of the Englilh after the battle of
Poiftiers, and are commonly faid to have been carried
by them out of the country. But the tradition is not
fupported by any fufficient teftimony.
Acts of the ApofUeSy one of the facred books of the
New Teftament, containing the hiftory of the infant
church, during the fpace of 29 or 30 years iron the
afcenlion of our Lord to the year of Chrift 63.—It was
written by St Luke •, and addrefied to Fheophilus, the
perfon to whom the evangclift had before dedicated uis
Gofpel. We here find the accomplilhmexit of fdveral of
Afts.
[ 167 ] A c T.
Thefe were other- the promifes made by our Saviour j his afcenfion j the
defcent of the Holy Ghoft ; the firft preaching of the — v —
apoftles, and the miracles whereby their doftrines were
confirmed j an admirable pifture of the manners of the
primitive Chriftians ; and, in fhort, every thing that
palled in the church till the difperfion of the apoftles,
who feparated themfelves in order to propagate the
gofpel throughout the wmrld. From the period of that
reparation, St Luke quits the hiftory of the other apo¬
ftles, who were then at too great a diftance from him,
and confines himfelf more particularly to that of St
Paul, who had chofen him for the companion of his
labours. Fie follows that apoftle in all his millions,
and even to Rome itfelf; for it appears that the Afts
were publilhed in the fecond year of St Paul’s refidence
in that city, or the 36th year of the Chriftian era, and
in the 9th or 10th year of Nero’s reign. The ftyle ot
thife wTork, which was originally compofed in Greek, is
much purer than that of the other canonical writers)
and it is obfervable, that St Luke, who was much better
acquainted with the Greek than with the Hebrew lan¬
guage, always, in his quotations from the Old F efta-
ment, makes ufe of the Septuagint verfion. T he coun¬
cil of Laodicea places the Afts of the Apoftles among
the canonical books, and all the churches have acknow¬
ledged it as fuch vuthout any controverfy.
There were feveral Spurious Acts of the Apo¬
stles ; particularly, I. ABs, fuppofed to be written
by Abdias'*, the pretended bilhop of Babylon, who * See ^3-
gave out that he was ordained bilhop by the apoftles dias.
themfelves when they were upon their journey into
Perfia. 2. The ABs of St Peter: this book came o-
riginally from the fchool of the Ebionites. 3. Poe
ABs of St Paul; which is entirely loft. Eufebius, who
had feen it, pronounces it of no authority. 4. Phe
ABs of St John the Evangel if ; a book made ufe of by
the Encratites, Manichaeans, and Prifcillianifts. 5. Phe
ABs of St Andrew ; received by the Manichaeans, En¬
cratites, and Apotaftics. 6. Phe ABs of St Thomas
the Apofle; received particularly by the Manichaeans.
7. Phe ABs of St Philip. This book the Gnoftics
made ufe of. 8. Phe ABs of St Matthias. Some
have imagined that the Jew's for a long time had con¬
cealed the original afts of the life and death of St Mat¬
thias written in Hebrew j and that a monk ot the ab¬
bey of St Matthias at Treves, having got them out of
their hands, procured them to be tranllated into Latin,
and publilhed them ; but the critics wdll not allow' them
to be authentic.
Acts of Pilate; a relation fent by Pilate to the em¬
peror Tiberius, concerning Jeius Chrift, his death, re-
furreftion, afcenfion, and the crimes of which he was
convifted before him f. It wras a cuftom among the f Eufebii
Romans, that the proconfuls and governors of provin- Hijl. Ecelej.
ces Ihould draw' up afts, or memoirs, of what happened
in the courfe of their government, and fend them to the
emperor and fenate. The genuine aBs of Pilate w’ere
fent by him to Tiberius, who reported them to the fe¬
nate y but they were rejefted by that affembly, becaufe
not immediately addreffed to them : as is teftified by
Tertullia-n, in his Apol. cap. 5. and 20, 21. The
heretics forged afts in imitation of them : in the reign
of the emperor Maximin, the Gentiles, to throw an,
odium on the Chriftian name, fpread about fpurious
Afts of Pilate ; which the emperor, by a folemn edict,
ordeied
A(5l
I
Actio,
ACT [ ,68
ordered to be fent into all the provinces of the empire,
and enjoined the fchoolmafters to teach and explain
v_ them to their fcholars, and make them learn them by
heart. Tnefe adds, both the genuine and the fpurious,
are loft. There is indeed extant, in the Pfeudo-Hege-
lippus, a letter from Pilate to the emperor Claudius,
t #7/?. concerning Jefus ChriftJ ; but it difcovers itfelf at
Literar. firft fight not to be authentic.
*><xc. Apojlol. fjj parliament is a pofitive law, confifting of
two parts, the words of the aft, and its true fenfe and
meaning; which being joined, make the law. The
words of afts of parliament ftiould be taken in a lawful
fenfe. Cafes of the fame nature are within the inten¬
tion, though without the letter, of the act; and fome
afts extend by equity to things not mentioned therein.
See Parliament.
ACTrE, were meadows of remarkable verdure and
luxuriancy near the fea-ftiore, where the Romans ufed
to indulge themfelves to a great degree in foftnefs and
delicacy of living. The word is ufed in this fenfe by
Cicero and Virgil ; but Voffius thinks it can only be
ufed in fpeaking of Sicily, as thefe two authors did.
ACT7EA, Herb-chri stopher, or Bane-ber¬
ries : See Botany Index.
ACTAiON, in Fabulous Hi/lory, the fon of Ariftreus
and Autonoe; a great hunter. He was transformed by
Diana into flag, becaufe he looked on her while bath¬
ing ; and was devoured by his own dogs. The eft’efts
of impertinent curiofity and expenfive pleafares feem
to be the moral of the fable.
ACTANIA, an ifland, according to Pliny, in the
North fea. It lies to the weft of Holftein and Dit-
merfch, not far from the mouth of the Eyder and Elbe,
and is now called Heyligland.
ACTE. See Sambucus.
AC I IAN Games, in Fortran Antiquity, were fo-
lemn games inftituted by Auguftus, in memory of his
victory over Mark Antony at Aftium, held every fifth
year, and celebrated in honour of Apollo, fince called
Aclius. Hence AElian Years, an era commencing from
the battle of Aftium, called the Era of Augujlus.
Virgil infinuates them to have been inftituted by
iEneas; from that paffage, iEn. III. v. 280.
Aciiaque Iliads celebramus littora ludis.
2En. III. 280.
But this he only does by way of compliment to Au¬
guftus : attributing that to the hero from whom he
defcended, which was done by the emperor himfelf; as
is obferved by Servius.
ACTINIA, in Zoology, a genus belonging to the
order of Vermes mollufca, called Animal Flowers, and
Sea Anemonies. See Vermes.
ACTINOLITE, in Mineralogy. See Mineralogy
Index.
ACTIO, im Roman Antiquities, an aftion at law in
a court of juftice. The formalities ufed by the Romans,
in judicial aftions, were thefe: If the difference failed to
be made up by friends, the injured perfon proceeded
in jus reum vocare, to fummon the offending party to
the court, who was obliged to go, or give bond for his
appearance.
The offending party might be fummoned into corrt
viva voce, by the plaintiff himfelf meeting the defend¬
ant, declaring his intention to him, and commanding
] ACT
him to go before the magiftrate and make his defence.
If he would not go willingly, he might drag and force
him along, unlefs he gave fecurity for his'appearance
on fome appointed day. If he failed to appear on the
day agreed on, then the plaintiff, whenfoever he met
him, might take him along with him by force, calling
any by-ftanders to bear witnefs, by a (king them vifne
antejiam ? the by-ftanders upon this turned their ear to¬
ward him in token of their confent: To this Horace
alludes in his fatire againft the impertinent, Lib. I.
Sat. 9. See this further explained under the article
Antestari.
Both parties being met before the pra;tor, or other
fupreme magiftrate pre'fiding in the court, the plaintiff
propoied the aftion to the defendant, in which he de-
figned to profecute him. This they termed edere ac¬
tionem and was commonly performed by writing it in
a tablet, and offering it to the defendant, that he might
fee whether he had better ftand the fait or com-.
pound.
In the next place came the pojlulatio ad ion is, or the
plaintiff’s petition to the praetor, for leave to profecute
the defendant in fuch an aftion. The petition was
granted by writing at the bottom of it aSiionem do, or
refufed by writing in the fame manner aciionem non
do.
The petition being granted, the plaintiff vadabatur
reum, i. e. obliged him to give fureties for his appear¬
ance on fuch a day in the court; and this was all that
was done in public, before the day fixed upon for the
trial.
In the mean time, the difference was often made up,
either tranfadione, by letting the caufe fall as dubious;
or padhone, by compofition for damages amongft
friends.
On the day appointed for hearing, the prsetor or¬
dered the feveral bills to be read, and the parties fam^
moned by an accenfus, or beadle. See Accensi.
Upon the nonappearance of either party, the de¬
faulter loft his caufe : if they both appeared, they
were faid fe JietiJfe ; and then the plaintiff proceeded
litem Jive aclioncm intend ere, i. e. to prefer his ftiit,
which was done in a fet form of words, varying accord¬
ing to the difference of the aftions. After this the
plaintiff defired judgment of the praetor, that is, to be
allowed a judex or arbiter, elfe the recuperatores or cen-
tumvin. Thefe he requefted for the hearing and decid¬
ing the bufinefs; but none of them could be defired
but by the confent of both parties.
The praetor having aftigned them their judges, de¬
fined and determined the number of witneffes to be ad¬
mitted, to hinder the protrafting of the fuit 5 and
then the parties proceeded to give their caution, that
the judgment, whatever it -was, fhould ftand and be
performed on both fides. The judges took a folemn
oath to be impartial ; and the parties took the jura-
rnentum caluinnice. Then the trial began with the af-
fiftance of witneffes, writings, &c. which -was called
difceptatio caufce.
ACTION, in a general fenfe, implies nearly the
fame thing with Act.—-Grammarians, however, ob-
ferve fome diftinftion between aBion and ad ; the for¬
mer being generally reftrifted to the common or ordi¬
nary tranfaftions, whereas the latter is ufed to exprefs
theft which are remarkable. Thus, we fay it is-a good
acti ft
Afuo,
Aftion.
ACT [ 169 ] ACT
Action. aBlon to comfort the unhappy ; it is a generous acl to
”“*~v' 1 —' deprive ourielves of what is neceffary for their fake.
The wife man propofes to himfelf an honeft end in all
his aftions •, a prince ought to mark every day of his
life with fome aft of greatnels. The Abbe Girard
makes a further diftinftion between the words affiion
and aSi. The former, according to him, has more re¬
lation to the power that afts than the latter j where¬
as the latter has more relation to the effect produced
than the former : and hence the one is properly the at¬
tribute of the other. Thus we may properly fay, “ Be
fare to preferve a prefence of mind in all your aftions}
and take care that they be all afts of equity.”
Action, in Mechanics, implies either the effort
which a body or power makes againll another body or
power, or the effeft itfelf of that effort.
As it is neceffary, in works of this kind, to have a
particular regard to the common language of mecha¬
nics and philofophers, we have given this double defi¬
nition : but the proper fignification of the term is the
motion which a body really produces, or tends to pro¬
duce, in another; that is, fuch is the motion it would
have produced, had nothing hindered its efteft.
All power is nothing more than a body aftually in
motion, or which tends to move itfelf; that is, a body
which would move itfelf if nothing oppofed it. The
aftion therefore of a body is rendered evident to us by
its motion only •, and confequently we muff not fix any
other idea to the word aftion, than that of actual mo¬
tion, or a fimple tendency to motion. 1 he famous
queftion relating to vis viva, and vis mortua, owes, in
all probability, its exiftence to an inadequate idea of
the word aftion ; for had Leibnitz and his followers
obferved, that the only precife and diftinft idea we can
give to the word force or aftion, reduces it to its ef¬
feft, that is, to the motion it aftually produces or tends
to produce, they would never have made that curious
diftinftion.
Quantity of Action, a name given by M. de Mau-
pertuis, in the Memoirs of the Parifian Academy of
Sciences for 1 744, and thofe of Berlin for 1746, to the
product of the mafs of a body by the fpace which it
runs through, and by its celerity. He lays it down as
a general law, “ that, in the changes made in the ftate
4< of a body, the quantity of aftion neceffary to pro-
“ duce fuch change, is the leall poilible.” This prin-
c iple he applies to the inveftigation of the laws of re¬
fraction, of equilibrium, &c. and even to the ways of
acting employed by the Supreme Being. In this man¬
ner M. de Maupertuis attempts to conneft the meta-
phyfics of final caufes with the fundamental truths of
mechanics, to fhow the dependence ot the collifion of
both elaftic and hard bodies upon one and the fame law,
which before had always been referred to feparate laws 5
and to reduce the laws of motion, and thofe of equili¬
brium, to one and the fame principle.
Action, in Ethics, denotes the external figns or
expreflions of the fentiments of a moral agent. See
Active. Power, infra.
Action, in Poetry, the fame with fubjeft or fable.
Critics generally diftinguiih two kinds, the principal
and the incidental. The principal aftion is what is ge¬
nerally called the fable ; and the incidental an epifode.
See Poetry.
Action, in Oratory, is the outward deportment of
Vol. I. Part I.
the orator, or the accommodation of his countenance, Acbonary
voice, and geffure, to the fubjeft of which he is treat- il. ^
ing. See Oratory. . ^ ^ ' A
Action, in a theatrical fenfe. See Declama¬
tion.
Action for the Pulpit. See Declamation.
Action, in Painting and Sculpture, is the attitude
or pofition of the feveral parts of the face, body, and
limbs, of fuch figures as are reprefented, and whereby
they feem to be really aftuated by paffions. Thus we
fay, the aftion of fuch a figure finely exfreffes the pat-
lions with which it is agitated : we alfo ufe the fame
expreffion wuth regard to animals.
Action, in Phyfiology, is applied to the functions
of the body, whether vital, animal, or natural.
The vital funftions, or aftions, are thofe which are
abfolutely neceffary to life, and without which there is
no life 5 as the aftion of the heart, lungs, and arteries.
On the aftion and reaftion of the folids and fluids on
each other, depend the vital funftions. The pulfe and
refpiration are the external figns of life. Vital difeafes
are all thofe which hinder the influx of the venous blood
into the cavities of the heart, and the expulfion of the
arterial blood from the fame.—The natural funftions *
are thofe which are inftrumental in repairing the feve¬
ral Ioffes which the body fuftains } for life is deftruftive
of itfelf, its very offices occafioning a perpetual wafte.
The manducation of food, the deglutition and digeftion
thereof, alfo the feparation and diflribution of the chyle
and excrementitious parts, &.c. are under the head of
natural funftions, as by thefe our aliment is converted
into our nature. They are neceffary to the continuance
of our bodies.—The animal funftions are thofe which
w?e perform at will, as mufcular motion, and all the
voluntary aftions of the body : they are thofe which
conllitute the fenfes of touch, tafle, fmell, fight, hear¬
ing, perception, reafoning, imagination, memory, judg¬
ment, affeftions of the mind. Without any, or all’ of
them, a man may live, but not fo comfortably as with
them.
Action, in Commerce, is a term ufed abroad for a
certain part or {hare of a public company’s capital
flock. Thus, if a company has 400,000 liyres capital
flock, this may be divided into 400 aftions, each con-
fifling of 1000 livres. Hence a man is faid to have two,
four, &c. aftions, according as he has the property of
two, four, &c. 1000 livres capital flock. The tranf-
ferring of aftions abroad is performed much in the fame
manner as flocks are with us. See Stocks.
Action, in Law, is a demand made before a judge
for obtaining what wre are legally entitled to demand,
and is more commonly known by the name of law-fuit
orprocefs. See Suit.
ACTIONARY, or Actionist, a proprietor of
flock in a trading company.
ACTIONS, among Merchants, fometimes fignify
moveable effefts ; and wTe fay the merchant’s creditors
have feized on all his aftions, when we mean that they
have taken poffeffion of all his aftive debts.
ACTIVE, denotes fomething that communicates
aftion or motion to another ; in which acceptation it
Hands oppofed to paffive.
Active, in Grammar, is applied to fuch wmrds as
exprefs aftion \ and is therefore oppofed to paffive. The
aftive performs the aftion, as the paffive receives k.
Y Thus,
Ai5ion.
* Dr Reid
on the Ac¬
tive Powers
cf Man,
p. 12.
ACT [ ,
Activity Thus we fay, a verb aBive, a conjugation active. See.
or an aBive participle.
Active Verbs, are fuch as do not only fignify doing,
or a&ing, but have alfo nouns following them, to be
the fubjecl of the action or imprelfion : Thus, To love,
to teach, are verbs a&ivc ; becaufe we can fay, To love
a thing, to teach a man. Neuter verbs alfo denote an
action, but are diftinguifhed ftom aefive verbs, in that
they cannot have a noun following them : fuch are,
To Jleep, to go, &c. Some grammarians, however, make
three kinds of active verbs : the tranfitive, where the
action paffes into a fubject different from the agent \
reJleEled, where the adlion returns upon the agent; and
reciprocal, where the action turns mutually upon the
two agents who produced it.
Active Power, in Metaphyfics, the power of exe¬
cuting any work or labour ; in contradiftinftion to fpe-
culative powers *, or the porvers of feeing, hearing,
remembering, judging, reafoning, &c.
The exertion of active power we call action; and
as every action produces fome change, fo every change
muft be caufed by fome effect, or by the ceflation of
fome exertion of power. That which produces a
change by the exertion of its power, wre call the caufe^
of that change ; and the change produced, the effeEl
of that caufe. See Metaphysics.
Active Principles, in Chemiflry, fuch as are fup-
pofed to aft without any affiftance from others; as
mercury, fulphur, &c.
ACTIVITY, in general, denotes the power of
acting, or the aftive faculty. See Active.
Sphere of Activity, the whole fpace in which the
virtue, powrer, or influence, of any objeft is exerted.
ACTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated
on the coaft of Acarnania, in itfelf inconfiderable, but
famous for a temple of Apollo, a fafe harbour, and an
adjoining promontory of the fame name, in the mouth
of the Sinus Ambracius, over againft Nicopolis, on
the other fide of the bay : it afterwards became more
famous on account of Auguftus’s viftory over Antony
and Cleopatra ; and for quinquennial games inftituted
there, called Acha ox.Ludi Acliaci. Hence the epi¬
thet Ailius, given to Apollo (Virgil). Aciiaca acra, a
computation of time from the battle of Aflium. The
promontory is now called Capo diFigalo. The medals
of Aflium vTere filver, gold and bronze ; and the or¬
dinary type is a flying pegafus.
ACTIUS, in Mythology, a furname of Apollo, from
Aflium, where he was worfhipped.
AC TON, a town near London, where is a well that
affords a purging water, which is noted for the pun¬
gency of its fait. 1'his water is whitifh j ta the tafte
it is fweetifh, with a mixture of the fame bitter which
is in the Epfom water. The fait of this water is not
quite fo foft as that of Epfom ; and is more calcareous
than it, having more of the fait of lime: for a quantity of
the Afton water being boiled high, and mixed with a
folution of fublimate in pure water, threw down a yel¬
low fediment. The fait of the Aflon water is more
nitrous than that of Epfom.; it flrikes a deep red, or
purple, with the tinflure of logwood in brandy, as is
ufual with nitrous falts j it does not precipitate filver
cut of the fpirit of nitre, as common fait does ; lilb,
©f this water yields‘48 grains of falt»
70 ] ACT
AC 1 OR, in general, fignifies a perfon who a£ts or
performs fomething.
Actor, among Civilians, the proftor or advocate
in civil courts or caufes ; as, Actor ecclefice has been
fometimes ufed for the advocate of the church j actor
dominions for the lord’s attorney ; actor villa-, the
fleward or head bailiff of a village.
Actor, in the Drama, is a perfon who reprefents
fome part or charafter in the theatre. The drama
confiited originally of nothing more than a fimple cho¬
rus, who fung hymns in honour of Eacchus 5 fo that
the primitive adlors were only fingers and muficians.
i hefpis was the firft that, in order to eafe this un¬
formed chorus, introduced a declaimer, who repeated
fome heroic or comic adventure. JEfchylus, finding
a fingle perfon tirefome, attempted to introduce a fe-
cond, and changed the ancient recitals into dialogues.
He alio dreffed his aftors in a more majeltic manner,
and introduced the cothurnus or bufkin. Sophocles
added a third, in order to reprefent the various inci¬
dents in a more natural manner : and here the Greeks
flopped, at leaf! we do not find in any of their tra¬
gedies above three perfons in the fame feene. Perhaps
they looked upon it as a rule of the dramatic poem
never to admit more than three fpeakers at a time on
the flage; a rule which Horace has expreffed in the
following verfe :
Nec qnarta loqui perfona laboret.
This however, did not prevent their increafing the-
number of attors in comedy. Before the opening of a
play, they named their aftors in full theatre, together
with the parts they were to perform. The ancient ac¬
tors were mafked, and obliged to raife their voice ex¬
tremely, in order to make themfelves heard by the innu¬
merable crowd of people who filled the amphitheatres :
they were accompanied with a player on the flute,
who played a prelude, gave them the tone, and played
while they declaimed. Horace fpeaks of a kind of fe-
condary aftors in his time, whofe bufinefs was to imi¬
tate the firft ; and leffen themfelves, to become better*
foils to their principals.
The moderns have introduced an infinite number of
aflors upon the ftage. This heightens the trouble and
diftrefs that fhould reign there, and makes a diverfity,.
in which the ipeffator is fure. to be interefted.
Aftors were highly honoured at Athens. At Rome
they were defpifed, and not only denied all rank among
the citizens, but even when any citizen appeared upon
the ftage, he was expelled his tribe and deprived of the
right of iuffrage by cenfors. Cicero, indeed, efteems^
the talents of Rofcius : but he values his virtues ftill
more ; virtues which diftinguifhed him fo rernarkably
above all others of his profeffion, that they feemed to
have excluded him from the theatre. The French have,.
in this refpedt, adopted the ideas of the Romans j and
the Englifh thofe of the Greeks.
Actor, the name of feveral perfons in fabulous Hi-
fory. One ABor among the Aurunci is deferibed by
Virgil as a hero of the firft rank. /Pn. xii.
ACTORUM tabu las, in Antiquity, were tables,
inftituted by Servius Tullius, in which the births of
children were regiftered. They were kept in the trea-
fury of Saturn.
Atlor,
Aftorum.
ACTRESS,
■A A refs
Jl
Attuarms.
ACT [17
ACTRESS, In a general fenfe, a female who afts
or performs fomething.
Actress, in the Drama^ a female performer. o-
xnen aftors were unknown to the ancients, among
whom men always performed the female character 5
and hence one reafon for the ufc of matks among
tfcem. . , j 1
Aftreffes are faid not to have been introduced on tne
Englifh ftage till after the reftoration of King-Charles
II. who has been charged with contributing to the
corrupting of our manners by importing this ufage
from abroad. But this can be but partly true : the
queen of James I. afted a part in a paftoiaij and Prynn,
in his Hiftriomaftix, fpeaks of women adors in his
time as proftitutes j which was one occalion of ^the
fevere profecution brought againfl him for that boon.
There are fome very agreeable and beautiful talents,
of which the pofleffion commands a certain fort of ad
miration ; but of which the exercife for the fake of
gain is confidered, whether from reafon or prejudice,
as a fort of public proftitution. The pecuniary recom-
penfe, therefore, of thofe who exercife them in tnis
manner, mull be fufficient, not only, to pay for the
time, labour, and expence of acquiring the talents,
but for the difcredit which attends the employment of
them as the means of fubfiftence. I he exorbitant re¬
wards of players, opera-fingers, opera-dancers, &c. are
founded upon theie two principles } the rarity and
beauty of the talents, and the difcredit of employing
them in this manner. It feems abfurd at firil light
that we fhould defpife their per fans* and. yet reward
their talents wnth the moft profufe liberality. W bile
wre do the one, however, we mull of neceility do the
other. Should the public opinion or prejudice ever al¬
ter with regard to fuch occupations, their pecuniary re-
compenfe would quickly diminilh.. More people would
apply to them, and the competition would quickly re¬
duce the price of their labour. Such talents, though
far from being common, are by no means fo rare as
is imagined. Many people poflefs them in great per¬
fection, who difdain to make this uie of them 5 and
many more are capable of acquiring them, if any thing
could be made honourably by them.
ACTUAL, fomething that is real and effective, or
"that exilts truly and ablolutely. Thus philolophers
ufe the terms aBual heat, aSiual cold, &c. in oppoli-
tion to virtual or potential. Hence, among phylicians,
a red hot iron, or fire, is called an aCtual cautery j
in diltinCtion from cauteries, or cauftics, that have
the power of producing the fame effeCt upon the ani¬
mal folids as aCtual fire, and are called potential caute¬
ries. Boiling water is a&ually hot *, brandy, prod.u-
• cing heat in the body, is potentially hot, though of it-
felf cold. . r
Actual Sin, that which is committed by the perlon
himfelf} in oppofition to ongnuil fin, or that which he
contracted from being a child of Adam.
ACTUARUE NAVES, a kind of long and light
{hips among the Romans, thus denominated, becaufe
they were chiefly defigned for fwiftnefs and expedition.
They correfpond to what the French call brigantines.
ACTUARIUS, a celebrated Greek phyfician of
the 13th century, and the firft Greek author who has
treated of mild purgatives, fuch as caffia, manna, fena,
&c. He is the firft alfo who mentions diftilled waters*
i ] a C U
His works were printed in one volume folio, by Henry
Stephens, in 1567.
Actuarius, or Actaiuus, a notary or officer ap¬
pointed to write the aCts or proceedings of a court, or
the like. In the Eaftern empire, the aCtuarii w-ere pro¬
perly officers who kept the military accounts, received
the corn from the fufeeptores or ftorckeepers, and deli¬
vered it to the foldiers.
ACTUATE, to bring into aa, or put a thing in
aaion. Thus an agent is faid, by the fchoolmen, to
aBuate a power, when it produces an ad in a fubjea.
Thus the mind may be faid to aBuate the body; and
thus a medicine is faid by fome ancient phylicians to.
be aauated or brought into aaion, when by means ot
the vital heat it is made to produce its effeCt.
ACTUS, in Ancient ArchiteBure, a meafure in
length equal to 120 Roman feet. In Ancient Agri¬
culture, the word fignified the length of one furrow, or
the diftance a plough goes before it turns.
Actus Minimus was a quantity of land 120 feet in
length, and four in breadth.
Actus Major, or ABus Quadratus, a piece of ground
in a fquare form, wbofe fide was equal to 120 feet,
equal to half the jugerum.
Actus Intervicinalis, a fpace of ground four feet in
breadth, left between the lands as a path or way.
ACUANITES, in Ecclefiajlical Hiflory, the fame
with thofe called more frequently Manichees. They
took the name from Acua, a dilciple of 1 homas one
of the twelve apoftles.
ACULEATE, or Aculf.ati, a-term applied to
any plant or animal armed with prickles.
ACULEI, the prickles of animals or of plants.
ACULER, in the Manege, is ufed for the motion
Of a horfe, when, in working upon volts, he does not
go far enough forward at every time or motion, fothat
his fhoulders embrace or take in too little ground, and
his croupe comes too near the centre of the volt,
Horfes are naturally inclined to this fault in making
demi-volts.
AC U MIN A, in Antiquity, a kind of military omen,
moft generally fuppofed to have been taken from the
points or edges of darts, fwords, or other weapons.
ACUNA, Christopher de, a Spaniffi Jefuit, born
at Burgos. He was admitted into the fociety in 1612*
being then but 15 years of age. After haying devo¬
ted lome years to ftudy, he went to America, where
he affifted in making converts in Chili and Peru. In
1640 he returned to Spain, and gave the king an ac¬
count how far he had fucceeded in the commiffion he
had received to make difeoveries on the river of the
Amazons ; and the year following he publifhed a de-
feription of this river at Madrid. Acuna was lent to
Rome, as procurator of his province. He returned to
Spain with the title of Qualificator of the Inquifition ,
but foon after embarked again for the Vv eft Indies,
and was at Lima in 1675, when Father Southwell
publiffied at Rome the Bibliotheque of the Jefuit wri¬
ters. Acuna’s work is entitled, Neuvo defeubrimento
del qran no de las Amasnonasi. e. u A new dilcove-
ry of the great river of the Amazons.” He was 10
months together upon this river, having had inll ruc¬
tions to inquire into every thing with the greatell ex-
a&nefs, that his majefty might thereby be enabled to
render the navigation more eafy and commodious. He
Y 2 went
Actuate.
Acuna.
A C U [ i
Ac;^nc- went aboard a flixp at Quito with Peter Texiera, who
jj"' bad already been To far up the river, and was there-
Ad. bare thought a proper perfon to accompany him in this
^ v'—expedition. They embarked in February 1639, but
did not arrive at Para till the December following.
It is thought that the revolutions of Portugal, by
i'. nich the Spaniards loft all Brazil, and the colony of
Para at the mouth of the river of the Amazons, were
the caufe that the relation of this Jeluit wras fuppref-
led ; for, as it could not be of any advantage to the
Spaniards, they were afraid it might prove of great
fervice to the Portuguefe. The copies of this work
became extremely fcarce, fo that the publilhers of the
a reach tranllation at Paris afferteu, that there was not
one copy of the original extant, excepting one in the
pofteftion or the tranllator, and perhaps that in the Va¬
tican library. M. de Gomberville was the author of
this trandation : it wTas published after his death, with
a long diflertation. An account of the original may
be leen in the Paris Journal.'in that of Leiphc, and in
Cheverau’s Hiftory of the World.
ACUI UNC 1 URE, the name of a furgical opera¬
tion among the Chinefe and [apanefe, which is per¬
formed by pricking the part affeded with a filver needle.
I hey employ tnis operation in headachs, lethargies,
convulftons, colics, &c.
AC US, in Ichthyology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of fyngnathus. See Syngnatkus.
ACiJSIO colon 3 a, now An cone, according to
Holftenius, between Orange and Valence, near Moun-
telimart, on the banks of the Rhone.
AC [IT E, an epithet applied to fuch things as ter¬
minate in a ftiarp point or edge. And in this fenfe it
ftands oppofed to obtufe.
i ^cutr Angle, in Geometry, is that which is lefs
tnan a right angle, or which does not fubtend 90 de-
grees.
AcuTE-angled Triangle, is a triangle whofe three
angles are all acute.
AcvTE-angled Cone, is, acording to the ancients, a
right cone, whole axis makes an acute angle with its
fide. 6
Acute, in Mujjc, is applied to a found or tone that
is fharp or high in companion of fome other tone.
In this fenfe, acute ftands oppofed to grave.
Acute Accent. See Accent.
Acute Difeafes, fuch as come fuddenly to a crins.
Ims term is uled tor all diieafes which do not fall un¬
der the head of chronic difeafes.
ACUTIATOR, in writers of the barbarous ages,
denotes a perfon that whets or grinds cutting initru-
ments called alfo in ancient gloffaries acutor,
Jamiarius, cooarius, &c. In the ancient armies there
were acutiatores, a kind of fmiths, retained for whet¬
ting or keeping the arms ftiarp.
AD, a Latin prepofition, originally fignifying to,
and frequently ufed in compofition both with and ivith-
out the d, to exprefs the relation of one thing to ano¬
ther.
Ad Beflias, in Antiquity, is the puni foment of cri¬
minals condemned to be thrown to wild beafts.
Ad Hominem, in Logic, a kind of argument drawn
from the principles or prejudices of thofe with whom
we argue.
yin Ludos, in Antiquity, a ientence upon criminals
“2 1 ada
among the Romans, svherey they were condemned to Adage
entertain the people by fighting either with wild beafts II '
01 with one another^ and thus executing juftice upon
themfelves. ^ L *~~“
An Met alia, in Antiquity, the punifoment of fuch
criminals as were condemned to the mines, among the
Romans ; and therefore called Meiallici.
An Valorem, a term chiefiy uled in fpeaking of the
duties or cuftoms paid for certain goods: The duties
on feme articles are paid by the number, weight, mea-
fure, tale, &c. j and others are paid ad valorem, that
is according to their value.
ADAGE, a proverb, or fhort fentence, containing
fome wife obfervation or popular faying. Eraimus has
made a very large and valuable colle&ion of the Greek
and Roman adages •, and Mr R-ay has done the fame
with regard to the Englifti. We have alfo Kelly’s
Collection of Scots Proverbs.
ADAGIO, in Mujic. Adverbially, it'fignifies foft-
ly, leifu’-ely; and is ufed to denote the lloweft of all
times. Lied fubftantively, it fignifies a flow' move¬
ment. Sometimes this word is repeated, as adagio,
adagio, to denote a ftill greater retardation in the time
of the mufic.
A DAL IDES, in the Spanifh polk y, are officers
of juftice, for matters touching the military femes.
In the laws of King Alphonfus, the adalides are fpc-
ken of as officers appointed to guide and direct the
marching of the forces in time of war. Lopez repre¬
sents them as a fort of judges, who take cognizance of
the differences riling upon excurfions, the diftribution
of plunder, &c.
ADAM, the firft of the human race, was formed
by the Almighty on the fixth day of the creation. TIis
body was made of the dull of the earth : after which,
God animated or gave it life, and Adam then became
a rational creature. His heavenly Parent did not leave
his offspring in a deftitute Rate to ftuft for hlmfelf; but
planted a garden, in which he caufed to grow not only
every tree that was proper for producing food, but
likevvife foch as were agreeable to the eye, or merely
ornamental. In this garden were affembled all the
brute creation j and, by their Maker, caufed to pafs
before Adam, who gave all of them names, which were
judged proper by the Deity himlelf.—In this review
Adam found none for a companion to himfelf. This
folitary ftate was feen by the Deity to be attended with
fome degree of unhappinefs; and therefore he threw
Adam into a deep fleep,^in which condition lie took a
rib from his fide, and healing up the wound formed a
woman of the rib he had taken cut. On Adam’s
av/aking, the woman was brought to him ; and he im¬
mediately knew her to be one of his o wn fpecies, call¬
ed her his bone and his flelh, giving her the name of
vromcn bee aide foe was taken out of man.
The firft pair being thus created, God gave them
authority over the inferior creation, comnianding them
to fubdue the earth, alfo to increafe and multiply and
fill it. They were informed of the proper food for the
beafts and for them 5 the grafs, or green herbs, being
appointed for beafts; and fruits, or feeds, for man.
Their proper employment alfo was affigned them}
namely, to drefs the garden, and to keep it.
Though Adam was thus highly favoured and inftruft-
ed by his Maker, there was, a {ingle tree, which grew
ADA F 173
in the middle of the garden, of the fruit of which they
were not allowed to eat; being told, that they Ihouid
furely die in the day they ate of it- I his tree .-.as
name the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil.
] ADA
,f producing his like, without the concur- Adam.
This prohibition, however, they foon broke through.
The woman having entered into converfation with ihe
Serpent, was by him perfuaded, that by eating of the
tree the fhould become as w ile as God himfeit j and ac¬
cordingly, being invited by the beauty of the nmt, and
its delirable property of imparting wifdom, (he plucked
and eat •, giving her huiband of it at the fame tune,
who did likewife eat,
Before this tranfgreflion of the divine command,
Adam and his wife had no occahon for clothes, neither
had they any fenfe of ftiame ; but immediately on eat¬
ing the forbidden fruit, they were alhamed of being
naked, and made aprons of fig leaves for themfeives.
On hearing the voice of God in the garden, they were
terrified, and hid themfeives : but being queftioned by
the Deity, they confeffed what they had done, and re¬
ceived fentence accordingly 5 tne man being condemn¬
ed to labour •, the woman to fubjeclion to her hulband,
and to pain in child-bearing. They were now' driven
out of the garden, and their accefs to it prevented by
a terrible apparition. I hey had clothes given them by
the Deity made of the fkins of beafts. in tiiis Hate
Adam had feveral children •, the names of only three
of whom we are acquainted with, viz. Cain, Abel, and
Seth. He died at the age of 930 years.
Thefe are all the particulars concermng Adam’s
life, that we have on divine authority : but a vail
multitude of others are added by the Jews, Mahome¬
tans, and Fapifts j all of which mud be at bed conjec¬
tural ; mod of them, indeed, appear downright falie-
hoods or abfurdities. I he cunofity of our readers, it is
prefumed, will be fufuciently gratified bj the tew w nich
are here lubjoined.
According to the Talmudids, when Adam was cre¬
ated, his body was of immenfe magnitude. When he
finned, his dature -was reduced to a hundred ells, ac¬
cording to feme } to nine hundred cubits, according
to others *, who think this was done at the requed of
the angels, who w'ere afraid of fo gigantic a cieature.
In the^ifiand of Ceylon is a mountain, called the Peak
or mountain of Adam, from its being, according to
the tradition of the country, the reudence of our fird
parents. Here the print of his footdeps, above two
palms in length, are dill pointed out.
Many reveries have been formed concerning the per-
fonal beauty of Adam. That he wasahandfome weil-
fnaped man is probable 5 but feme writers, not content
with this, affirm, that God, intending to create man,
clothed Himfelf with a perfeaiy beautiful human body,
making this his model in the formation of the body of
Adam. _
Nor has the imagination been lefs indulged on-
£££ftu*ig the formation oi the human fpecies male and
female. It would be endlefs to recount all the fancies
that have been wrote on this fubjeft 5 but as Madame
Bourignon has made a confiderable figure in the reli¬
gious, or rather fiperfitious, world, we cannot help in-
ferting fome of her opinions concerning the fird man,
which are peculiarly marvellous. Accoraing to^ the
revelations of this lady, Adam before his fall^ pofieffed
hi .himfelf the principles of both fexes, and the virtue
or power or | 0 .
rent adutance of woman. The divifion mto^two iexes, ^ lv;face
(he imagined*, was a coafequence of man’s fin j aild t0 a book#
now, (he obferves, mankind are become lo many wa«-cl,t;tjed
Jiers in nature, being much lefs perfecl in this rei'peft L, nouveau
than plants or trees, which are capable of producing cut a L,
their like alone, and without pain or miiery. She even
imagined, that, being in an ecdacy, die law the
of Adam before he fell, with the manner now , oymiim-
felf, he was capable of procreating other men. “ God,”
fays (he, “ reprefented to my iriind tne beauty ox tire
firit world, and the manner how he had drawn it from
the chaos : every thing was bright, tranfparent, and
darted forth life and ineffable glory. The body of
Adam was purer and more tranfparent than cryftal, and
vaftly fleet j through this body were feen veffels and
rivulets of light, which penetrated from the inward
to the outwapd parts, through all his pores.^ In feme
veffels ran fluids of all kinds and colours, yaffly bright,
and quite diaphanous. 7 he moll ravhhing harmony
arofe from every motion 5 and nothing refilled, or could
annoy him. His llature was taller than tne prefent
race of men \ his hair was Ihort, curled, and of a colour
inclining to black ; his upper lip covered with Ihort
hair: and inftead of the beftial parts which modeily
will not allow us to name, he was falliioned as our bo¬
dies will be in the life eternal, which I know not whe¬
ther I dare reveal. In that region his nofe was form¬
ed after the manner of a face, which diffufed the molt
delicious fragrancy and perfumes } whence alio men
were to Hue, all whole principles were inherent in
him : there being in his belly a veffel, where little
eggs were formed •, and a fecond veffel filled with a
fluid, which impregnated thofe eggs : and when man
heated himfelf in the love of God, the defire he had
that other creatures fhculd exill btfides himfelf, t<>
praile and love God, cauled the fluid above mentioned
(by means of the fire of the love of God), to drop on
one or more of thefe eggs, with inexpreffible delight
which being thus impregnated, ifiued, ibme time after, f ; e. the
out of man, by this canalf, in the fliape of an egg, nafal cana!.
whence a perfect man was hatched by infenfible de-
grees. Woman was formed by taking out of Adam’s fcribed.
lides the veffels that contained the eggs •, .which the
flill poffeffes, as is difeovered by anatomifts.”
Many others have believed, that Adam at his fir ft
creation was both male and female : others, that he had
two bodies joining together at the fhoulders, and their
faces looking oppofite ways like thofe of Janus.
Hence, fey thefe, when God created Eve, he had no
more to do than to feparate the two bodies from one
another J. Of ail others, however, the opinion of f See An-
Paracelfus feems the moll ridiculous j|. Nrgabatprnnos dr gyr.c:. ^
parentes ante lapfunt habuiffe partes generationi hominis jy‘ jAf1
necefarias ; credebat pofea acceffiffe, ut jlrumam gut tun. Vofliutn de
Extravagant things are aflerted concerning Adam’s PhiLpplia
knowledge. It is very probable that he was inftrufled c. ix. p. 7:
by the Deity how to accomplilh the work appointed
him, vi%. to drefs the garden, and keep it from being
deftroyed by the brute creatures 5 and it is alfo proba¬
ble that he had likewife every piece of knowledge com¬
municated to him that was either neceffary or pleafing:
but that he was acquainted with geometry, mathema¬
tics, rhetoric, poetry, painting, fculpture, &c. is too
ridiculous to be credited by any fober perfon. Some
rabbles.
, A D A [ I
, _ r^ies, indeed, have contented themfelves with equal-
ling Adam’s knowledge to that of Mofes and Solomon ;
while others, again, have maintained that he excelled
the angels thcmfelves. Several Chriftians feem to be
little behind thefe Jews in the degree of knowledge
they afcribe to Adam 5 nothing being hid from him,
according to them, except contingent events relating
to futurity. One writer indeed (Pinedo) excepts po¬
litics 5 but a Carthulian friar, having exhaulled in fa¬
vour of Ariftotle, every image and comparifon he
could think of, at laft afferted that Ariftotle’s know¬
ledge was as extenfive as that of Adnm.—\n confe-
quence of this furprifmg knowledge with which Adam
was endued, he is fuppofed to have been a confiderable
author. The Jew's pretend that he wnote a book on
tiie creation, and another on the Deity, Some rab-
bies afcribe the 9zd pfalm to Adam j and in fome ma-
nufcripts the Chaldee title of this pfalm exprefsly de¬
clares that this is the fong of praife wdiich the firft man
repeated for the Sabbath day.
Various conje&ures have been formed concerning the
p^ace where man wras firft created, and where the gar-
den of Eden wras fituated ; but none of thefe have any
fiolid foundation. 'Ihe Jew's tell us, that Eden wms fe-
parated fiom the reft of the wrorld by the ocean j and
that Adam,, being banifhed therefrom, walked acrofs
the fea, which he found every way fordable, by reafon
-* This is enormous ftature *. The Arabians imagined pa-
juft the radife to have been in the air ; and that‘our firft pa-
juctare of rents were thrown dowm from it on their tranfgreflion,
oipolvphe rS Vulcan is raid to have been thrown down headlong
mus of the from heaven by Jupiter.
p°ets: , Strange ftories are told concerning Adam’s diildren.
.■r^neid. iii. 7 hat he had none in the ftate of innocence, is certain
^rom Scripture 5 but that his marriage wdth Eve wus
‘ 70•;,' not confummated till after the fall, cannot be proved
from thence. Some imagine, that, for many years af¬
ter the fall, Adam denied himfelf the connubial joys
by way of penance, j others, that he cohabited with
another woman, whofe name was Lillith. The
Mahometans tell us, that our firft parents having been
tnrown headlong from the celeftial paradife, Adam
fell.upon the ifle of Serendib, or Ceylon, in the Eaft
Indies; and Eve on lodda, a port of the Red fea, not
far from Mecca. After a feparafion of upwards of
200 years, they met in Ceylon, where they multiplied :
according to fome Eve had twenty, according to others
only eight, deliveries 5 bringing forth at each time
twins, a male and a female, who aftenvards married.
The rabbins imagine that Eve brought forth Cain
and Abel at a. birth ; that Adam wept for Abel an
hundred, years;in the valley of tears near Hebron, du¬
ring which time he did not cohabit wdth his wife; and
that this reparation would probably have continued
longer, had it not been forbid by the angel Gabriel.
The inhabitants of Ceylon affirm, that the fait lake on
the. mountain of Colombo confifts wholly of the tears
which Eve for one hundred years together (bed becaufe
of Abel’s death.
Some of the Arabians tell us, that Adam was bu-
near Mecca on Mount Abukobeis; others, that
Noah, having laid his body in the ark, caufed it to
be carried after the deluge to Jerufalem by Melchife-
deck the Ion of Shem: of this opinion are the eaftem
< Chriftians; but the Perftans aflirmthat he was interred
74 1 ADA
in the iile of Serendib, where his corpfe wras guarded by Adam,
lions at the time the giants warred upon one another. ^ \——
St Jerome imagined that Adam was buried at Hebron;
others, on M^ount Calvary. Some are of opinion that
he died on the very fpot where Jerufalem was after¬
wards built; and was buried on the place where Chrilt
fuffered, that fo his bones might be fprinkled with the
-Saviour’s blood.
Adam, Melchior, lived in the 17th century. He
was born in the territory of Grotkaw in Silefia, and
educated in the college of Brieg, where the dukes of
that name, to the utmoft of their pow'er, encouraged
learning and the reformed religion as profefled by Cal¬
vin. Here he became a firm Proteftant; and was
enabled to purfue his ftudies by the liberality of a per-
fon of quality, who had left feveral exhibitions for
young Undents. He W'as appointed reftor of a col¬
lege at Heidelberg, where he publifhed his firft volume
of illuftrious men in the year 1615. 7'his volume,
which confifted of philofophers, poets, writers on po¬
lite literature, and hiftonans, &c. was followed by
tnree others : that which treated of divines was printed
in 1619 ; that of the lawyers came next ; and, finally,
that of the phyficians : the tw'o laft were publiftied in
1620. All the learned men, whofe lives are contain¬
ed in thefe four volumes, lived in the 16th, or begin¬
ning of the 17th century, and are either Germans or
^®.mtngs ; but he publiflied in 1618 the lives of twenty
divines, of other countries in a feparate volume. All
his divines are Proteftants. The Lutherans were not
pie a fed with him, for they thought him partial; and
will not allow7 his wTork to be a proper ftandard of the
■karning of Germany. He was the author of feveral
other works befides his lives. His induftry as a bio¬
grapher is. commended by Bayle, who acknowledges
his obligations to his labours. He died in 1622.
^ Adam, Robert, an eminent arebiteft, w'as born at
Edinburgh in the year 1728. He was the fecond fon
of W illiam Adam, Efq. of IVlaryburgh, in the county
of Fife, who has alfo left fome refpe&able fpecimens
of his genius and abilities as an arghiteft in Hope-
toun houfe, and the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh,
which were erefted from defigns executed by him. And
it. was perhaps owing to the fortunate circumftance of
his father’s example that young Adam firft directed
his. attention to thofe ftudies, in the profecution of
which, he aftenvards rofe to fuch diftinguiffied cele¬
brity. He teceived bis education at the univerfity of
Edinburgh, wffiere he had an opportunity of improving
and.enlarging his mind, by the converfation and ac¬
quaintance of fome of the firft literary charadters of the
age ■who were then riling into reputation, or have
lince eftablifhed their fame as hiftorians and philofo¬
phers. Among thefe were Mr Hume, Hr Robertfon,
Dr Smith, and Dr Fergufon, wffio were the friends
and companions of the father, and who continued
through life their friendlhip and attachment to the fon.
In the year 1754 Mr Adam travelled to the conti¬
nent, with a view to extend his knowledge and im¬
prove his tafte in architedfure, and refided in Italy for
three years. Here he furveyed and ftudied thofe noble
fpecimens of ancient grandeur which the magnificent
public edifices of the Romans, even in ruins, ftill ex-
hibit. But he faw with regret, that the public build¬
ings, conftructed with more durable materials and
greater
ADA [ 175 ] A D ^ r r , ft-
p-reater ftrength and folidity, had alone been able to Adam, who has done full juftice to theft fupetb veiu-
refill, during the lapfe of ages, the injuries of time,
and the more deftru&ive hand of the northern barba.
rians, whofe progrefs was marked with ruin and dtio-
lation. Not a veftige of any of the private buildings
of the wealthy citizens, which have been described and
celebrated by their writers for their magnificence, now
remains } and even the fituation of fome of the fplend./!
villas of the luxurious Romans is fcarcely known. In
tracing the progrefs of architecture and the otner fine
arts among the Romans, Mr Adam oblerveu that they
hgd vifibly declined previous to the time of Diociefian;
but he was alfo convinced that the liberal patronage
and munificence of that emperor had revived during
his reign a better tafte for architecture, and had form¬
ed artifts who were capable of imitating the more ele¬
gant itile of a purer age. He had feen this remark¬
ably exemplified in the public baths at Rome, which
were ereCted by him, the molt entire and the noblelt
of the ancient buildings. Admiring the extent and
fertility of genius of the artifts, from whofe defigns
fuch magnificent ftruCtures had been executed, he was
anxious to fee and ftudy any remains that yet exifted
of thofe mafters whofe works are ftriking monuments
of an elegant and improved tafte, but whofe names,
amid the wrecks of time, have funk into oblivion. It
was with this viewr that he undertook a voyage to Spa-
latro, in Dalmatia, to vifit and examine the private pa¬
lace of Dioclefian, in which that emperor refided for
nine years previous to his death, and to which he re¬
tired in the year 305, when he refigned the government
of the empire. Mr Adam failed from Venice in July
1754, accompanied by M. CleriiTeau, a French artift and
antiquarian, and two experienced draughtfmen. On
their arrival at Spalatro, they found that though the pa¬
lace had buffered much from the injuries of time, yet it
had fuftained not lefs from the dilapidations of the inha¬
bitants to procure materials for building, and even the
foundations of the ancient ftrufture were covered with
modern houfes. With high expectations of fuccefs,
they commenced their labours, but were boon inter¬
rupted by the jealous vigilance of the government.
Sufpecting that their object was to view and make plans
of the fortifications, an immediate and peremptory or¬
der was iffued by the governor, commanding them ta
defift. This order, however, was foon counteracted
through the mediation of General Grteme, the com¬
mander in chief of the Venetian forces •, and they were
permitted to proceed in their undertaking. They re¬
fumed their labours wfith double ardour, and in five.
W'eeks finilhed plans and views of the fragments which
remain, from which they were enabled to execute per-
fect defigns of the entire building.
Mr Adam now returned to England, and foon rofe
to very confiderable profefiional eminence. In 1762
he was appointed architect to the king, and the year
following he prefented to the pnolic the fruit of his
voyage to Spalatro, in a ipendid work dedicated to his
majefty, which contains engravings and defcriptions of
the ruins of the palace. A later traveller, the Abbe
Fortis, fpeaking of the ruins of this palace, fays, “ I
will not pretend to mention the great Roman remains,
for which this noble city is chiefiy known and cele¬
brated. The lovers of architecture and antiquity are
lufficiently acquainted with them by the work of Mr
ges by his elegant drawings and engravings. In gene¬
ral, however, the coarfenefs of the work, and the bad
talte of the age are equal to the magnificence ci the
buildings. For all this, I do not mean to detraCt from
the merit of the auguft remains of Dioclefian’s palace.
I count them among the molt refpeCtable monuments
of antiquity now extant.” And the hiltorian of the
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in confequence
of this obfervation, after having expreffed a high com¬
mendation of the w'ork, has thrown out a fufpicion O',
the accuracy of the reprelentations and defcriptions.-
“ Forthe account ofDioclefian’s palace,fays Mr Gibbon,
we are indebted to an ingenious artifi: of our own time
and country, whom a very liberal curiofity had carried
into the heart of Dalmatia. But there is room to fui-
pect that the elegance of his defigns and engravings
has fomewhat fiattered the obje&s which it was their
purpofe to reprefent. We are informed by a more re¬
cent and very judicious traveller, that the awful ruins
of Spalatro are not lefs expreflive of the decline of the
arts, than of the greatnefs of the Roman empire in the
time of Dioclefian.” Mr Gibbon’s criticifm is fcarcely
fupported by the obfervation of the Abbe Fortis ; and
what the latter has advanced on this fubjeft is not per¬
fectly confiftent with itfelf : for while he cenfures the
coarfenefs of the work and the bad tafte of the age, ne
beftows fomething like indireCt pvaife, when he adds
that, he means not to detraCl from the merit of the
auguft remains of this edifice, and regards it as one of
the molt refpeCtable monuments of antiquity now ex¬
tant. The apparent coarfenefs of the work is probably
owing to the effeCts of the weather, which have .de-
ftroyed the fmooth polifti of the chiflel which it origi¬
nally received } and Mr Adam allows, that, previous
to this period of the Roman empire, the arts had vifi¬
bly declined, but at the fame time contends, that the
buildings ereCted in the reign of Dioclefian, exhibit
convincing proofs of the ftile and manner of a purer
age. But of this, the admirer of this elegant art may
judge for himfejf, by confulting the engravings and
defcriptions, the accuracy and faithfulnefs of which
there feems to be no reafon to doubt.
In the year 1768 Mr Adam obtained a feat in par*
liament. He was chofen to reprefent the county of
Kinrofs 5 and about the fame time he refigned his of¬
fice of architect to the king. But he continued his
profeftional career with increafing reputation y and a-
bout the year 1773, in conjunction with his brother
James, who alfo rofe to coitfiderable eminence as an ar¬
chitect, he publifhed another fplendid work, confifting
of plans and elevations of public and private buildings
which were ereCted from their defigns. Among thefe
are Lord Mansfield’s houfe at Caenwood, Luton houfe
in Bedfordlhire belonging to Lord Bute, the new Gate*
way of the Admiralty Office, the Regifter Office at
Edinburgh &c. which are univerfally admired as pre¬
cious monuments of elegant defign and correct tafte.
The Adelphi buildings at London, which are alfo ftrik¬
ing examples of the inventive genius of the Meffrs A-
dam, proved an unfuccefsful fpeculation. The wealth
and power of a nati®n were perhaps only equal to fo
extenfive an undertaking : it was too great to be at¬
tempted by private citizens.
The buildings which have been more lately ereCted
from
ADA [ !
from tire defigns of Mr Adam, afford additional proofs
" of the unlimited extent of his invention, and the amaz¬
ing fertility of his genius. Thofe parts of the new
Univerfity of Edinburgh which have been completed,
and the Infirmary at Glafgow, need only be mentioned
in proof of our remark. The latter edifice we have
often beheld and contemplated with thofe feelings of
admiration, elevated to a kind of rapturous enthufiafm,
which the rare union of perfeit iymmetry and elegant
diipofition of parts combined with inexpreffible beauty
and lightnefs into one whole feldom fails to infpire.
We have alfo feen and admired elegant defigns execu¬
ted by Mr Adam, which were intended for the South
Bridge and South Bridge Street of Edinburgh, and if
they had been adopted, would have added much to the
■ decoration of that quarter of the town ; but being con-
fidered unluitable to the tafte or economy of the times
they were rejected.
Strange incongruities appear in buildings which have
been eredted from defigns by Mr Adam. But of thefe
it muft be obferved, that they have been altered and
mutilated in the execution, according to the capricious
fancy and vulgar tafte of the owners j and it is well
known that a flight deviation changes the charadfer
and mars the effedl of the general defign. A lady of
rank was furnifhed by Mr Adam with a defign of a
houfe, which, after being executed, he was aftoniftied
to find out of all proportion. On inquiring the cauie,
lie was informed that the pediment which he had de-
figned would not admit a piece of rude fculpture which
reprefented the arms of the family, and by the date
•which it bore inconteftably proved its antiquity. It
was therefore abfolutely neceffary to enlarge the di-
menfions of the pediment, to receive this ancient badge
of family honour, and facrifice the beauty and propor¬
tion of the whole building. We have feen a large
public edifice which was alfo defigned by Mr Adam ;
but when it was erected, the length was curtailed of
the fpace of two windows, while the other parts re¬
mained according to the original plan. It now pre¬
sents a heavy unfightly pile, inrtead of that elegance
of proportion and correftnefs of ftyle which the faith¬
ful execution of Mr Adam’s defign would have proba¬
bly exhibited.
To the laft period of his life, Mr Adam difplayed
an increafing vigour of genius and refinement of tafte ;
for, in the fpace of one year preceding his death, he
defigned eight great public works, befides twenty-five
private buildings, fo various in their'ilyle, and beautiful
in their compofition, that they have been allowed, by the
beft judges, fufficient of themfelves to eftablifh his
fame unrivalled as an artift. The prefent improved
tafte, which now pretty generally prevails in our pub¬
lic and private edifices, undoubtedly owes much to the
elegant and corrett ftyle introduced by Mr Adam.
His fertile genius was not confined merely to the ex¬
ternal decoration of buildings ; it difplayed itfelf with
equal effedft in the internal arrangement and difpofition
of the apartments, and in the varied, elegant, and
beautiful ornaments' of chimney pieces and ceilings.
But not only did he introduce a total change in the
architecture of the country, the manufactures alfo
which are in any way connected with decoration, ex¬
perienced a confiderable degree of improvement by the
76 ] ADA
excrete of his inventive powers. His talents extend¬
ed beyond the line of his own profeffion ; he difplayed
in his numerous drawings in landicape, a luxuriance of
compofition, and an effect of light and fhadow which
have rarely been equalled.
He died on the 3d of March 1792, by the burffing
of a blood-veffel, in the 64th year of his age, and was
buried in Weftminfter Abbey. His funeral was at¬
tended by a felect number of friends, fome of them of
diftinguifhed rank, who efteemed him while living,
and who wiftied to exprefs this laft mark of regard!
1 he many elegant buildings, public and private, ere di¬
ed in various parts of the kingdom, from the defigns
of Mr Adam, will remain lafting monuments of h"s
tafie and genius j and the natural fuavity of his man¬
ners, joined to the excellence-of his moral character,
fecured to him the affectionate regard of his friends*
and the efteem of all who enjoyed his acquaintance.
James Adam, whom we have already mentioned
as affociated with his brother in many of his labours,
died on the 20th October 1794.
Adam's Apple, a name given to a fpecies of Citruf.
See Botany Index.
. Adam's Bridge, or Rama's Bridge, in Geography, a
ridge of fands and rocks, extending acrofs the north
end of Manara gulf, from the ifiand of that name, on
the north-weft coaft of Ceylon, to Ramencote or Ra-
mankoil ifiand, off Raman point.
Adam's Needle. See Yucca, Botany Index.
Adam's Peak, a high mountain of the Eaft Indies,
in the ifiand of Ceylon, on the top of which it is be¬
lieved the firft man was created. It is in the form of
a fugar loaf, and terminates in a circular plain about
200 paces in diameter. The fummit is covered with
trees, and has a deep lake which fupplies the princi¬
pal rivers of the ifiand. The mountain is feen at the
diftance of twenty leagues from fea. It is fituated in
N. Lat. 5. 55. E. Long. 80. 39. See Adam.
Adam, orADOM, a town in the Peraea or on the
other fide the Jordan, over againft Jericho, where the
Jordan began to be dried up on the paffage of the
Ifraelites, (Jofhua).
ADAMA, or Admah, one of the towns that were
involved in the deftrudlion of Sodom } (Mofes).
ADAMANT, a name fometimes given to the dia¬
mond. (See Diamond). It is likewife applied to the
fcorise of gold, the magnet, &c.
.ADA MARA, in Geography, a diftricl of Abyf-
finia, near the province of W aldubba, containing fe-
veral confiderable villages, that are inhabited by Ma¬
hometans ; who by their number and ftrength contri¬
bute to the fafety of the monks in that part of the
country. It is fo called from Adama, which in the
Amharic dialedl fignifies pleafant, the name of an ad¬
jacent mountain. The river Anzo runs in a contigu¬
ous valley. (Brace's Travels, vol. iii. p. ijg.)
ADAMIC earth, a name given to common red
clay, alluding to that fpecies of earth of which the firft;
man is iuppofed to have been made.
ADAMI fomum, in Anatomy, a protuberance In
the fore-part of the throat, formed by the os hyoides.
It is thought to be fo called upon a ftrange conceit,
that a piece of the forbidden apple, which Adam ate,
ftuck by the way, and occafioned it.
ADAMITES,
ADA [ i
Adamites ADAMITES, or Adamians, in Ecclejtajiical Ht-
|| Jtory, the name of a feci of ancient heretics, Juppofed
Adamfon. |^ave ^een a branch of the Bafilkiians and Carpocra-
tians.
Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adamites
from their pretending to be re-eftablhhed in the Hate
of innocence, and to be fuch as Adam was at the mo- ■
ment of his creation, whence they ought to imitate him
in his nakednefs. They rejefled marriage ; maintain¬
ing, that the conjugal union would never have taken
place upon earth had fin been unknown.
This obfcure and ridiculous feci did not at firft laft
long •, but it was revived, with additional abfurdities,
in the twelfth century, by one Tandamus, lince known
by the name of Eanchelin, who propagated his errors
at Antwerp, in the reign of the emperor Henry V.
He maintained, that there ought to be no diftindlion
between priells and laymen, and that fornication and
adultery were meritorious aftions. Tanchelin had a
great number of followers, and was conllantly attend¬
ed by 3000 of thefe profligates in arms. His fed did
not, however, continue long after his death j but ano¬
ther appeared under the name of Turlupins^ in Savoy
and Dauphiny, where they committed the moil brutal
a£lions in open day.
About the beginning of the fifteenth century, one
Picard, a native of Flanders, fpread thefe errors in
Germany and Bohemia, particularly in the army of
the famous Zifca, notwithftanding the fevere difeipline
he maintained. Picard pretended that he was fent into
the world as a new Adam, to re-eftabliih the law of
nature j and which, according to him, confiiled in ex-
pofing every part of the body, and having all the wo¬
men in common. This feft found alfo fome partizans
in Poland, Holland, and England : they afiembled in
the night; and it is afierted, that one of the funda¬
mental maxims of their lociety was contained in the
following verfe:
Jura, perjure, fecretum prodere noli.
ADAMS, in Geography, a townfliip of Berkshire
county, in the Hate of Maffachufets in North America.
It is 140 miles north-weft of Bofton, and contains
2040 inhabitants. In the northern part of this diftricl,
a ftream called Hudfon’s brook, has worn a channel
through a ftratum of white marble, and over the chan¬
nel the rocks form a fine natural bridge which is 12 or
15 feet long, 10 feet broad, and more than 60 feet
above the water.
ADAMSHIDE, a diftri£l of the circle of Raften-
burg, belonging to the king of Pruflia, which, with
Dombrofken, was bought, in 1737, for 42,000 dollars.
ADAMSON, Patrick, a Scottifti prelate, arch-
biftiop of St Andrew’s, was born in the year 1543 in
the town of Perth, where he received the rudiments of
his education ; and afterwards ftudied philofophy, and
took his degree of mailer of arts at the univerfity of
St Andrew’s. In the year 1566, he fet out for Paris,
as tutor to a young gentleman. In the month of
June of the fame year, Mary queen of Scots being de¬
livered of a fon, afterwards James VI. of Scotland and
I. of England, Mr Adamfon wrote a Latin poem on
the occafion. In this poem he gave the prince the
titles of king of France and England, and this proof
of his loyalty involved him in difficulties j for the
Vol. I. Part I.
J '] ADA
French court was offended, and ordered hitai to be ar- A.ia.r.>,-rn
relied } and he was confined for fix months. Fie was
releafed only through the interceffion of Queen Mary,
and fome of the principal nobility, who interefted them-
felves in his behalf. As foon as he recovered his li¬
berty, he retired with his pupil to Bourges. He was
in this city during the mallacre at Paris j and the. fame
perfecuting fpirit prevailing among the Catholics at
Bourges as at the metropolis, he lived concealed <<:
feven months in a public houle, the mailer of whicn,
upwards of 70 years of age, was thrown from the top
thereof, and had his brains dallied out, for his charity
to heretics. Whilft Mr Adamfon lay thus in his. le-
pulchre, as he called it, he wrote his Latin poetical
verfion of the book of Job, and his tragedy oi Herod
in the fame language. In the year 1573? returned
to Scotland ; and, having entered into holy orders, be¬
came minifter of Paifley. In the year I575> ^ie 'vas
appointed one of the commiffioners, by the general af-
fembly, to fettle the jurifdnflion and policy of tre
church •, and the following year he was named, with
Mr David Lindfay, to report their proceedings to the
earl of Morton, then regent. About this time the
earl appointed him one of his chaplains } and, on the
death of Bilhop Douglas, promoted him to the archie-
pifcopal fee of St Andrew’s, a dignity which biougln
upon him great trouble and uneafinefs : for now the
clamour of the Prelbyterian party rofe very high againft
him, and many inconfiftent abfurd ftories were, propa¬
gated concerning him. Soon after his promotion, he
publilhed his catechifm in Latin verfe, a work highly
approved even by his enemies j but, neverthelefs, they
Hill continued to perfecute him with great violence.
In 1578, he fubmitted himfelf to the general aiTembly,
which procured him peace but for a very little time ;
for the year following, frefh accufations were brought
againft him. In the year 1582, being attacked with
a grievous difeafe, in which the phyficians could give
him no relief, he happened to take a fimple medicine
from an old woman, which did him fervice. The wo¬
man whofe name was Aliion Pearfon, was thereupon
charged with witchcraft, and committed to prifon, but
efcaped out of her confinement 5 however, about foui
years afterwards, fhe was again found and burnt joi □
witch. In 1583, King James came to St Andrews ;
and the archbiffiop, being much recovered, preached
before him, and difputed with Mr Andrew Melvn,. in
prefence of his majefty, with great reputation; woich
drew upon him frefh calumny and perfecution. Ihe
king, however, was fo well pleafed with him, that he
fent him ambaffador to Queen Elizabeth, at whoie
court he refided for fome years. His conduff, during
his embaffy, has been varioufly reported by different
authors. Two things he principally laboured,, viz. the
recommending the king his mafter to tne nobility and
gentry of England, and the procuring fome mpport for
the epifcopal party in Scotland. Flis eloquent preach¬
ing drew after him fuch crowds of people, and railed
in their minds fuch a high idea of the young king his
mafter, that Queen Elizabeth forbade him to enter the
pulpit during his flay in her dominions. 111.1584, he
was recalled, and fat in the parliament held in Auguff
at Edinburgh. The Prefbyterian party was Hill very
violent againft the archbiffiop. A provincial fynod
was held at St Andrew’s in April 1586: the arch-
Z biftiop
ADA [ ,
Adamfon biiliop was here accufed and excommunicated : he ap-
Adanfon ^ the k’ng and tllC ltates’ but thIs availed him
little ; for the mob being excited againlt him, he durlt
fcarce appear in public. At the next general aflembly,
a ^paper being produced, containing the archbidiop’s
fubmilhon, he was ablolved from the excommunication.
In 1588, frefh accufations were brought againlt liim.
1 he year following, he publifhed the -Lamentations of
the prophet Jeremiah in Latin verfe ; which he dedi¬
cated to the king, complaining of his hard ufage. In
the latter end of the fame year, he publilhed a tranfia-
tion of the Apocalypfe, in Latin verfe ; and a copy
of Latin, yerfcs, addreffed alfo to his majelty, de¬
ploring his diltrefs. The king, however, was not
moved by his application ; for the revenue of his fee
was granted to the duke of Lennox; fo that the pre¬
late and his family were literally reduced to the want
ot bread. During the remaining part of his unfortu¬
nate hie he was fupported by charitable contribution,
and he died in 1591. The chara&er of this prelate
has been.varioully reprefented, according to the fenti-
ments. of religion and politics which prevailed. But
there is little doubt that he encouraged and fupported,
under the authority of the king, opprellive and injuri¬
ous meafures.. Bigotted and timid, he wanted'that
firmnefs. and intrepidity, which promife fteadinefs and
uniformity.of conduct in the confpicuous characters of
turbulent times. His learning was unqueftioned ; and
lie acquired great reputation as a popular preacher. In
ids adverfity he fubmitted with pious refignation to his
hard fate. The panegyric of the editor of his works,
Mr Wilfon, is extravagant and abfurd. He fays, that
^ he was a miracle of nature, and rather feemed to be
the immediate produflion of God Almighty, than born
of a woman.”
ADAMUS, the philofopher’s done is fo called by
alchemids ^ they lay it is an animal, and that it has
carried its invifible Eve in its body, fmce the moment
they were united by the Creator.
ADANA, in Geography, a town of Ada Minot,
in Natolia, and in the province of Caramania. It is d-
tuated on the river Choquen 5 on the banks of which
Hands a fmall but drong cadle built on a rock. It has
a great number of beautiful fountains brought from the
river by means- of water-works'. Over the river there
is a dately bridge Vf fifteen arches, which leads to the
water-works. i he climate is pleafant and healthy,
and the winter mild and ferene : but the dimmer is fo
hot as to oblige the principal inhabitants- to retire into
the neighbouring mountains, where they fpend dx
months, among lhady trees and grottoes, in a mod deli¬
cious manner. L he adjacent country is rich and fer¬
tile, and produces melons, cucumbers, pomegranates
pulfe, and herbs of all forts, all the year round ; be-
ddes corn, wine, and fruits in their proper feafon. It
Is 30. miles, north-cad of Tarfus, on the road to Alep¬
po. E. Long. 36. 12. N. Lat. 38. 10.
ADANSON, .Mi.chael, a celebrated naturalid,
vras born at Aix in Provence in the year 1727. He>
was fent to Paris in early life, and devoted his dudies
with great adiduity to medicine, botany, and adro-
nomy, and was a pupil of the celebrated Reaumur.
He. wTent to Senegal in the year 1738, wrhere he re¬
mained fix years examining the natural produff ions of
that country. He prefented the fruits of his difeove-
78 ] ADA
ries in geography and natural hidory to the Royal AdanW
Academy j and in confequence of thefe communica- II
tions he was appointed one of their correfponding Adder-
members. In the year 1759, on the death of Reau-
- mur he was defied a member in his place ; and about
the fame time he was admitted an honorary member of
. the Royal Society of London. Having fpent fix years
in Senegal, he returned to Paris, where he publifhed a
work entitled, Hijioire Naturelle <lu Senegal, in qto -
and in 1763 his Families des Plantes, 2 vols 8vo. In
the year 1775 ^ie prefented to the academy the plan of
a natural hidory, which he did not live" to ' execute.
He died foon after j but the time of his death is not
exaffly known.
ADANSONIA, Ethiopian Sour-gourd, Mon¬
kies bread, or African Calabash tree. See
Botany Index.
ADAR, the name of a Hebrew month, anfwering
to the end of February and beginning, of March, the
i2th of their facred, and 6th of their civil year. On
the 7th day of it, the Jews keep a fad for the death of
Mofes; on the 13th, they have the fead of Edher :
and on the 14th, they celebrate the fead of Purim, for
their deliverance from Hamah’s confpiracy. As the
lunar year, which the Jews followed in their calcula¬
tions, is diorter than the folar by about 11 days, which
at the end of three years make a month, they then in¬
tercalate a 13tn month, which they call Veadar, or the
fecond Adar.
ADARCE, a kind of concreted falts found on reeds
and other vegetables, and applied by the ancients as a
remedy in feveral cutaneous difeafes.
AD ARGON, in Jewifh Antiquity, a gold coin men¬
tioned in Scripture, worth about 15s. derling. *
ADARME, in Commerce, a fmall weight in Spain,
which is alfo ufed at Buenos Ayres, and in all Spanifh
America. It is the 16th part of an ounce, which at
Pans is called the demi-gros. But the Spanifh ounce
is feven per cent, lighter than that of Paris, Stephens ■
renders it in Englifh by a drachm.
ADATAIS, Adatsi, or Adaty3, m Commerce,.
a muffin or cotton cloth, very fine and clear, of which-
the piece is ten French ells long, and three quarters ■
broad. It comes from the Ead Indies; and the fined
is made in Bengal.
ADCORDABILIS denarii-, in old law books,.
fignify money paid by the vaffal to his lord, upon the
felling or exchanging of a feud.
ADCRESCEN1 ES, among the Romans, denoted
a kind of foldiery, entered in the army, but not yet put
on duty j from thefe the danding forces were recruited.
SeeAccENsi.
ADDA, in Geography, a river of Switzerland and
Italy, which rifes in Mount Branlio, in the country of
the .Grifbns, and, pading through the Valteline, trar-
verfes the lake Como and the Milanefe, and falls into;
the Po, near Cremona.
addephagia, in Medicine, a term ufed by fome
phydeians, for gluttony, or a voracious appetite.
ADDER, in Zoology, a name for the Viper. See
Coluber.
Adder Bolts, or Adder jlies. See Libellula.
Sea Adder, the Englidi name of a fpecies of Syn-
Gnat hus.
Water a name given to the Coluber Natrix.
Addess
ADD [17
jdDDZR-Jhmg, is ufed in refpeft of cattle, when flung
by any kind of venomous reptiles, as adders, fcor-
pions, &c. nr bit by a hedgehog or fhrew.—lor the
cuA, of fuch bites, fome ufe an ointment made of dra¬
gon’s blood, with a little barley meal, and the whites
of eggs.
AnDF.s.-Wort, or Snakeweed. See Polygonum.
ADDEXTRATORES, in the court of Rome, th?
pope’s mitre-bearers, fo called, according to Ducange,
becaufe they walk at the pope’s right hand when he
rides to vifit the churches.
ADDICE, or Adze, a kind of crooked axe ufed by
fliipwrights, carpenters, coopers, &c.
ADDICTI, in Antiquity, a kind of Haves, among
the Romans, adjudged to ferve fome creditor whom
they could not otherwife fatisfy, and whofe (laves they
became till they fcould pay or work out the debt.
ADDIC TION, among the Romans, was the ma¬
king over goods to another, either by fale, or by legal
fentence \ the goods fo delivered were called bona ad-
dicia. Debtors w^ere fometimes delivered over in the
fame manner ; and thence called fervi addiBi.
ADDICTIO in diem, among the Romans, the ad¬
judging a thing to a perfon for a certain price, unlefs
by fuch a day the owner, or fome other, give more
for it.
ADDISON, Lancelot, fon of Lancelot Addifon
a clergyman, was born in the parifh of Crofby-Ravem-
worth in Weftmorland, in the year 1632. He was
educated at Queen’s College, Oxford 5 and at the re¬
iteration of King Charles II. accepted of the chaplain-
Ihip of the garrifon of Dunkirk ; but that fortrefs
being delivered up to the French in 1662, he return¬
ed to England, and wras foon after made chaplain to
the garrifon of Tangier j where he continued feven
years, and was greatly efteemed. In 1670, he re¬
turned to England, and was made chaplain in ordinary
to the king ; but his chaplainfhip of Tangier being
taken from him on account of his abfence, he found
himfelf llraitened in his circumftances, when he (ea-
fonably obtained the reftory of Milfton in W i It (hire,
■worth about 12ol. pet' annum. He afterwards became
a prebendary of Sarum; took his degree of dodtor of
divinity at Oxford; and in 1683 was made dean of
Litchfield, and the next year archdeacon of Coventry.
His life was exemplary; his converfation pleafmg, and
greatly inftrudlive ; and his behaviour as. a gentleman,
a clergyman, and a neighbour, did honour to the place
of his refidence. He wrote, 1. A Short Narrative of
the Revolutions of the Kingdoms of Fez and Morocco:
2. The prefent hillory of the Jews: 3. A Difcourfe
on Catechifmg: 4. A Modeft Plea for the Clergy :
5. An Introduction to the Sacrament: 6. The firft
State of Mahometifm : and feveral other pieces. This
■worthy divine died on the 20th ol April I7°3? and
left three fons : Jofeph, the fubjeft of the next article ;
Gulilon, who died while governor of Fort St George ;
Lancelot, mafter of arts, and fellow of Magdalen col¬
lege in Oxford ; and one daughter, firft married to Dr
Sarte prebendary of Weflminfter, and afterwards to
Daniel Combes, Efq.
Addison, ^ofeph, the fon of the preceding Dean
Addifon was born at Million, near Ambrefbury, in
Wiltfhire, on the 11th of May 1672 ; and not being
jfiiought likely to-live, was baptized the fame day. He
9 ] ADD
received the firft rudiments of his education at the Addifon.
place of his nativity, under the reverend Mr Nailh ; v——"v-*—
but was foon removed to Salilbury, under the care of
Mr Taylor; and from thence to the Charter-houfe,
where his acquaintance with Sir Richard Steele com¬
menced. About the age of fifteen, he was entered at
Queen’s college, Oxford, where he applied very clofe-
ly to the lludy of claflical learning, in which lie made
a furpriling proficiency.
In the year 1687, Dr Lancafter, dean of Magda¬
len college, having, by chance, feen a Latin poem of
Mr Addifon’s, was fo pleafed with it, that he immedi¬
ately got him eleCled into that houle, where he took
up his degrees of bachelor and mailer of arts. His La¬
tin pieces in the courfe of a few years, were exceedingly
admired in both univerfities ; nor were they lefs elleem-
ed abroad, particularly by the celebrated Boileau, who
is reported to have faid, that he would not have written
againft Perrault, had he before feen fuch excellent pieces
by a modern hand. He publiflied nothing in Englifh
before the twenty-fecond year of his age ; when there
appeared a Ihort copy of verfes written by him, and ad-
drtlTed to Mr'Dryden, which procured him great re- ^
putation from the bed judges. 1'bis was foon follow¬
ed by a tranflation of the Fourth Georgic of Virgil,
(omitting the dory of Ariilaeus), much commended by
Mr Dryden. He wrote alfo the Effay on the Geor¬
gies, prefixed to Mr Dryden’s tranflation. There are
feveral other pieces written by him about this time ;
amongd the red, one dated the 3d of April 1694,
addreffed to H. S. that is, Dr Sacheverel, who be¬
came afterwards fo famous, and with whom Mr Addi¬
fon lived once in the greated fnendlhip ; but their in¬
timacy was fome time after broken off by their difagree-
ment in political principles. In the year 1695) he wrote
a poem to King William on one of his campaigns, ad¬
dreffed to Sir John Somers lord keeper of the great
feal. This gentleman received it with great pleafure,
took the author into the number of his friends, and
bellowed on him many marks of his favour.
Mr Addifon had been clpfely preffed, while at the
univerfity, to enter into holy orders ; and had once re-
fplved upon it: but his great modedy, his natural dif¬
fidence, ?nd an uncommonly delicate lenfe of the im¬
portance of the facred funftion, made him afterwards
alter his refolution; and having expreffed an inclina¬
tion to travel, he was encouraged thereto by his patron
above mentioned, who by his intered procured him
from the crown a penfion of 30°hPer annum to fupport
him in his travels. He accordingly made a tour to
Italy in the year 1699 ; and, in 1701, he wrote a po¬
etical epidle from Italy to the earl of Halifax, which
has been univerfally edeemed as a mod excellent per¬
formance. It was tranflated into Italian verfe by the
abbot Antonio Maria Salvinj, Greek profeffor at Flo¬
rence. In the year iqo^, he publiflied an account of
his travels, dedicated to Lord Somers ; which, though
at firft but indifferently received, yet in a little time
met with its deferved applaufe.
In the year 1702, he was about to return to Eng¬
land, when he received advice of his being appointed
to attend Prince Eugene, who then commanded for the
emperor in Italy ; but the death of King William hap¬
pening foon after, put an end to this affair as well as his
penfion ; and he remained for a confiderable time un-
Z 3
employed.
ADD [ 18
Addifon. employed. But an unexpefted incident at once raifed
— him, and gave him an opportunity of exerting his fine
talents to advantage: for in the year r 704, the lord
treafurer Godolphin happened to complain to Lord Ha¬
lifax, that the duke of Marlborough’s victory at Blen¬
heim had not been celebrated in verfe in the manner it
defcrved ; and intimated, that he would take it kindly,
if his lordfhip, who was the known patron of the poets,
would name a gentleman capable of doing juftice to fo
elevated a fubje£t. Lord Halifax replied, fomewhat
haftily, that he did know fuch a perfon, but would
not mention him j adding, that long had he feen, with
indignation, men of no merit maintained in luxury at
the public expence, whilft thofe of real worth and mo-
defty were fuffered to languifti in obfcurity. The
treafurer anfwered very coolly, that he was forry there
Ihould be occafion for fuch an obfervation, but that he
would do his endeavour to wipe off fuch reproaches for
the future } and he engaged his honour, that whoever
his lordlhip named, as a perfon capable of celebrating
this viftory, ftiould meet with a fuitable recompenfe.
Lord Halifax thereupon named Mr Addifon •, infilling,
however, that the treafurer himfelf Ihould fend to him 5
which he promifed. Accordingly he prevailed on Mr
Boyle (afterwards Lord Carlton) then chancellor of
the exchequer, to make the propofal to Mr Addifon;
which he did in fo polite a manner, that our author
readily undertook the talk. The lord-treafurer had a
fight of the piece, when it was carried no farther than
the celebrated fimile of the angel; and was fo pleafed
with it, that he immediately appointed Mr Addifon a
commiffxoner of appeals, vacant by the promotion of
Mr Locke, chofen one of the lords commiffioners for
trade. The Campaign is addreffed to the duke of
Marlborough j it gives a fhort view of the military
tranfaclions in 1704, and contains a noble defcription
of the twTo great aclions at Schellemberg and Blenheim.
In 1705, he attended Lord Halifax to Hanover ) and
the enfuing year was appointed under fecretary to Sir
Charles Hedges fecretary of Hate; in which office he
acquitted himfelf fo well, that the earl of Sunderland,
vrho fucceeded Sir Charles in December, continued
Mr Addifon in his employment.
A talte for operas beginning at this time to prevail
in England, and many perfons having folicited Mr Ad¬
difon to write one, he complied with their requeft, and
compofed his Rofamond. This, however, whether
from the defefl of the mufic, or from the prejudices
in favour of the Italian talle, did not fucceed upon the
ft age 5 but the poetry of it has been, and always will be,
juftly admired. About this time, Sir Richard Steele
compofed his comedy of the Tender Hufband, to which
Mr Addifon wrote a prologue. Sir Richard furprifed
him with a dedication of this play, and acquainted the
public, that he was indebted to him for fome of the
molt excellent ftrokes in the performance. The mar¬
quis of Wharton, being appointed lord lieutenant of
Ireland in 1709, took Mr Addifon wfith him as his
fecretary. Her majefty alfo made him keeper of the
records of Ireland, and, as a farther mark of her fa¬
vour, confiderably augmented the falary annexed to
that place. Whilft he was in this kingdom, the Tat-
ler was firft publiffied ) and he difcovered his friend
Sir Richard Steele to be the author, by an obfervation
on Virgil, which lie had communicated to him. He
o ] ADD
afterwards affifted confiderably in carrying on this pa- Addifon.
per, wdiich the author acknowdedges. The Tatler be-
ing laid dowm, the Speftator was fet on foot, and Mr
Addifon furniffied great part of the moft admired pa¬
pers. The Spectator made its firft appearance in March
1711, and was brought to a conclufion in September
1712.
His celebrated Cato appeared in 1713. He formed
the defign of a tragedy upon this fubjedt when he wTas
very young, and wrote it when on his travels : he re¬
touched it in England, without any intention of bring¬
ing it on the ftage ) but his friends being perfuaded it
would ferve the caufe of libprty, he w?as prevailed on
by their felicitations, and it was accordingly exhibited
on the theatre, with a prologue by Mr Pope, and an
epilogue by Dr Garth. It was received with the moft
uncommon applaufe, having run thirty-five nights with¬
out interruption. The Whigs applauded every line
in winch liberty was mentioned, as a fatire on the To¬
ries ) and the Tories echoed every clap, to fliow that
the fatire was unfelt. When it wTas printed, notice
was given that the queen would be pleafed if it was
dedicated to her j “ but as he had defigned that com¬
pliment elfewhere, he found himfelf obliged,” fays
Tickell, “ by his duty on the one hand, and his ho¬
nour on the other, to fend it into the wTorld without
any dedication.” It w’as no lefs efteemed abroad, hav¬
ing been tranflated into French, Italian, and German )
and it w^as adted at Leghorn, and feveral other places,
w’ith vaft applaufe. The Jefuits of St Omers made a
Latin verfion of it, and the Undents a died it with great
magnificence.
About this time, another paper called the Guardian
was publiffied by Steele, to which Addifon was a prin¬
cipal contributor. It was a continuation of the Spec¬
tator, and was diftinguilhed by the fame elegance and
the fame variety ) but, in confequence of Steele’s pro-
penfity to politics, xvas abruptly difeontinued in order
to write the Engliffiman.
The papers of Addifon are marked in the Spedlator
by one of the letters in the name of Clio, and in the
Guardian by a Hand. Many of thefe papers were
written with powers truly comic, with nice diferimi-
nation of charadlers, and accurate obfervation of na¬
tural or accidental deviations from propriety : but it
w^as not fuppofed that he had tried a comedy on the
.ftage, till Steele, after his death, declared him the au¬
thor of “ The Drummer.” This, however, he did
not know to be true by any cogent teftimony : for
when Addifon put the play into his hands, he only
told him it was the w ork of a gentleman in the. com¬
pany j and when it wras received, as is confeffed, with
cold difapprobation, he was probably lefs willing to
claim it. Tickell omitted it in his colle&ion ; blit the
teftimony of Steele, and the total filence of any other
claimant, has deternained the public to affign it to Ad¬
difon, and it is now printed with his other poetry.
Steele carried “ The Drummer” to the playhoufe, and
afterwards to the prefs, and fold the copy for 50 gui¬
neas. To Steele’s opinion may be added the proof
fupplied by the play itfelf, of which the chara&ers are
fuch as Addifon would have delineated, and the ten¬
dency fuch as Addifon would have promoted.
It is faid that Mr Addifon intended to have com¬
pofed an Engliffi dictionary upon the plan of the Italian
(Della
ADD [ 18
A-Mifon. (Della Crufca) •, but, upon the death of the queen,
> i '"-y— i in > Vjemg appointed fecretary to the lords juftices, he
not leilure to carry on fuch a work. When the earl of
Sunderland was appointed lord lieutenant oi^ Ireland,
Mr Addifon was again made fecretary for tne affairs
of that kingdom j and, upon the earl’s oeing removed
from the lieutenancy, he was chofen one of the lords
of trade.
Not long afterwards an attempt was made to revive
the Spectator, at a time indeed by no means favour¬
able to literature, when the luccefhon of a new family
to the throne filled the nation with anxiety, difcord,
and confufion j and either the turbulence of tne times
or the fatiety of the readers put a Hop to the publica¬
tion, after an experiment of 80 numbers, which were
afterwards collected into an eighth volume, perhaps
more valuable than any of thofe that went before it :
Addifon produced more than a fourth part.
In 1715, he began the Freeholder, a political pa¬
per, which was much admired, and proved of great
ufe at that juncture. He publiihed alfo, about this
time, verfes to Sir Godfrey Kneller upon the king’s
pifture, and fome to the princefs of Wales with the
tragedy of Cato.
Before the arrival of King George he was made fe¬
cretary to the regency, and was required by his office
to fend notice to” Hanover that the queen was dead,
and that the throne was vacant. 1 o do this would
not have been difficult to any man but Addifon, who
was fo overwhelmed with the greatnefs of the event,
and fo diftra&ed by choice of expreffion, that the lords,
who could not wait for the niceties of criticifm, called
Mr Southwell, a clerk in the houfe, and ordered him
to defpatch the melfage. Southwell readily told what
was neceffary, in the common Ityle of bufmefs, and
valued himfelf upon having done what was too hard for
Addifon.
In 1716, he married the countefs dowager of War¬
wick, whom he had folicited by a very long and anxi¬
ous courtihip. He is faid to have firft known her by
becoming tutor to her fon. The marriage, if uncon-
tradicled report can be credited, made no addition to
his happinefs •, it neither found them nor made them
equal. She always remembered her own rank, and
thought herfelf entitled to treat with very little cere¬
mony the tutor of her fon. It is certain that Addifon
has left behind him no encouragement for ambitious
love. The year after, 1717, he rofe to his higheft
elevation, being made fecretary of date } but is repre-
fented as having proved unequal to the duties of his
place. In the houfe of commons he could not fpeak,
and therefore was ufelefs to the defence of the govern¬
ment. In the office he could not iffue an order with¬
out lofing his time in queft of fine expreffions. At
lad, finding by experience his own inability for public
bufinefs, he was forced to folicit his difmiffion, with a
penfion of 1500I. a-year. Such was the account of
thofe who were inclined to detrafl Irom his aoilities j
but by others his relinqiuihment was attributed to de¬
clining health, and the neceffity of recefs and quiet.
In his retirement, he applied himielf to a religious
* Evidences work *, which he had begun long before ^ part of
tf the Chri- which, fcarce finidied, has been printed in his works.
fian Reli- j.je intended alfo to have given an Englifh paraphrafe
*ian' of fome of David’s pfalms. But his ailments increafed,
! ] ADD
and cut diort his defigns. He had for fome time been Addifon.
opprefled by an adhmatic diforder, which was now ag¬
gravated by a dropfy, and he prepared to die conform¬
ably to his precepts and profeffions. He fent, as Pope
relates, a meffage by the earl of Warwick to Mr Gay,
defiring to fee him : Gay, who had not vifited him for
fome time before, obeyed the fummons, and found
himfelf received with great kindnefs. The purpefe for
which the interview had been folicited was then difco-
vered : Addifon told him, that he had injured him $
but that, if he recovered, he would recompenie him.
What the injury was he did not explain, nor did Gay
ever know : but fuppofed that fome preferment defin¬
ed for him had by Addifon’s intervention been with¬
held.—Another deathbed interview, of a more folemn
nature, is recorded: Lord Warwick was a young man of
very irregular life, and perhaps of loofe opinions. Ad¬
difon, for whom he did not want refpebt, had very di¬
ligently endeavoured to reclaim him1, but his argu¬
ments and expoftulations had no effect : One experi¬
ment, however, remained to be tried. W hen he found
his life near its end, he dire&ed the young lord to be
called : and when he defired, with great tendernefs, to
hear his laft injunctions, told him, “ I have fent for
you that you may fee howT a Chriflian can die.'’ What
effeCt this awful ’feene had on the earl’s behaviour is
not known : he died himfelf in a fhort time. Having
given directions to Mr Iickell tor the publication o*.
liis works, and dedicated them on his deathbed to his
friend Mr Graggs, he died June 17. 1719, at Holland-
houfe, leaving only one child, a daughter, by his mar-
riage.
Addifon’s courfc of life before his marriage has been
detailed by Pope. He had in the houfe with him
Budgell, and perhaps Philips. His chief companions
were ’ Steele, Budgell, Philips, Carey, Davenant, and
Colonel Brett. With one or other of thefe he always
breakfafted. He ftudied all morning ; then dined at
a tavern, and went afterwards to Button’s. From the
coffeehoufe he went again to the tavern, where he often
fat late, and drank too much wine.
Dr johnfon, in delineating the charafter of Addi¬
fon, obferves with Tickell, that he employed wit on
the fide of virtue and religion. He not only made the
proper ufe of wit himfelf, but taught it to others j
and from his time it has been generally fubfervient to
the caufe of reafon and truth. He has diffipated the
prejudice that had long connected gaiety with vice,
and eafinefs of manners with laxity of principles. Fie
has reftored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence
not to be afhamed. This is an elevation of literary
charaCler, “ above all Greek, above all Roman fame.1'
No greater felicity can genius attain than that of ha¬
ving purified intellectual pleafure, feparated mirth from
indecency, and wit from licentioufnefs; of having
taught a fucceffion of writers to bring elegance and
gaiety to the aid of goodnels } and, to ufe expreffions
yet more awful, of having “ turned many to righte-
oufnefs.” As a deferiber of life and manners, he
muff be allowed to Hand perhaps the firlt of the firlt
rank. His humour, which, as Steele obferves, is pe¬
culiar to himfelf, is fo happily diffufed as to give the
grace of novelty to domeftic feenes and daily occur¬
rences. He never “ outfteps the modefty of nature,”
nor raifes merriment or wonder by. the violation or
truth.
rA D D [ i
Adtlifon. truth. His figures neither divert by difiortion, nor
 ' amaze by aggravation. He copies life with fo much
fidelity, that he can hardly be faid to invent 5 yet his
exhibitions have an air fo much original, that it is dif¬
ficult to fuppofe them not merely the producf of ima¬
gination. As a teacher of wifdom he may be confi¬
dently followed. His religion has nothing in it enthu-
fiaftic or fuperftitious *, he appears neither weakly cre¬
dulous nor wantonly fceptical j his morality is neither
dangeroufly lax nor imprafticably rigid. All the en¬
chantment of fancy and all the cogency of argument
are employed to recommend to the reader his real in-
tereft, the care of pleafing the Author of his being.
Truth is fhown fometimes as the phantom of a vifion,
fometimes appears half-veiled in an allegory ; fometimes
attracts regard in the robes of fancy, and fometimes
fleps forth in the confidence of reafon. She wears a
thoufand dreffes, and in all is pleafing.
The Do&or, however, has related the following
anecdote, which every admirer of Addifon, every man
of feeling, mull be relu&ant to believe. “ Steele (fays
the Doftor), whofe imprudence of generofity, or va¬
nity of profufion, kept him always incurably neceffi-
tous, upon fome preffing exigence, in an evil hour,
borrowed a hundred pounds of his friend, probably
without much purpofe of repayment j but Addifon,
who feems to have had other notions of a hundred
- pounds, grew impatient of delay, and reclaimed his
loan by an execution. ^Steele felt, with great fenfibi-
lity, the obduracy of his creditor *, but with emotions
of lorrow rather than of anger.” It is much to be
wiflied, fays Dr Kippis, that Dr johnfon had produ¬
ced his authority for this narration. It is very pofiible,
that it may be only a ftory the Doftor had fomewhere
heard in converfation, and which is entirely ground-
lefs : “ and this I am the rather inclined to believe,
as I have been affured, by one of the moll refpe&able
charaflers in the kingdom, that the fa6t hath no foun¬
dation in truth.” Mr Potter, in a late publication,
hath informed us, that he is told by the bell authority,
that the ftory is an abfolute falfehood.
Mr Tyers, in “ A jfiiltorical Eflay on Mr Addi-
fon,” printed, but not publhhed, has mentioned fome
fa£ts concerning him, with which we were not before
acquainted. Thefe are, That he was laid out for dead
as foon as he was born : that, when he addreffed his
verfes on the Englifh poets to Henry Sacheverell, he
courted that gentleman’s lifter: that, whenever Ja¬
cob Tonfon came to him for the Spe&ator, Bayle’s
French Hiftorical and Critical Dictionary lay always
open before him: that, upon his -return to England,
after his travels, he difeharged fome old debts he had
contracted at Oxford, with the generofity of good
intereft : that he was put into plentiful circumftances
by the death of a brother in the Eaft Indies; that,
having received encouragement from a married lady,
of whom he had been formerly enamoured, he had the
integrity' to refill the temptation : that he refufed a
gratification of a three hundred pounds bank-note,
and afterwards of a diamond-ring of the fame value,
from a Major Dunbar, whom he had endeavoured to
ferve in Ireland by his intereft with Lord Sunderland :
and that his daughter by Lady Warwick died a few
years ago unmarried, refiding at Bilton near Rugby, and
82 ]
ADD
poifefling an income of more than twelve hundred a- Addilbn,
year< .Addition.^
The following letter, which probably relates to the 1
cafe of Major Dunbar, reflects great honour on Mr
Addifon’s integrity. “ June 26. 1715. Sir, I find
there is a very ftrong oppofition formed againft you }
but I fhall wait on my lord lieutenant this morning,
and lay your cafe before him as advantageoufly as I
can, if he is not engaged in other company. I am
afraid what you fay of his grace does not portend you
any good. And now, Sir, believe me, when I affure
you I never did, nor ever will, on any pretence what-
foever, take more than the ftated and cuftomary fees
of my office. I might keep the contrary praCtice
concealed from the world, were I capable of it, but I
could not from myfelf; and I hope 1 fhall always fear
the reproaches of my own heart more than thofe of all
mankind. In the mean time, if I can ferve a gentle¬
man of merit, aftd fuch a character as you bear in the
world, the fatisfaCtion I meet with on fuch an occa-
fion is always a fufficient, and the only reward to, Sir,
your moft obedient, humble fervant, J. Addison.”-—
The anecdote which follows was told by the late Dr
Birch. Addifon and Mr Temple Stanyan were very
intimate. In the familiar converfations which paffed
between them, they were accuftomed freely to difpute
each other’s opinions. Upon fome occafion, Mr Addi¬
fon lent Stanyan five hundred pounds. After this, Mr
Stanyan behaved with a timid referve, deference, and
refpeft $ not converfing with the fame freedom as for¬
merly, or canvaffing his friend’s fentiments. This gave
great uneafinefs to Mr Addifon. One day they hap¬
pened to fall upon a fubjedt, on which Mr Stanyan had
always been ufed ftrenuoufly to oppofe his opinion.
But, even upon this occafion, he gave way to what his
friend advanced, without interpofing his own view of
the matter. This hurt Mr Addifon fo much, that he
faid to Mr Stanyan, “ Either contradict me, or pay me
the money.”
In Tickell’s edition of Mr Addifon’s works there
are feveral pieces hitherto unmentioned, viz. The Dif-
fertation on Medals j which, though not publilhed till
after his death, yet he had collected the materials, and
began to put them in order, at Vienna, in 1702. A
pamphlet, entitled, The prefent State of the War,
and the Neceflity of an Augmentation, confidered.
The late Trial and ConviCHon of Count Tariff. The
Whig Examiner came out on the 14th of September
17j there were five of thefe papers attributed to
Mr Addifon, and they are the fevereft pieces he ever
wrote. He is faid alio to have been the author of a
performance entitled DJfertatio de wfignioribus Rorna-
norum Poetis, and of a Difcourfe on Ancient and Mo¬
dern Learning.
ADDITAMENT, fomething added to another.
Thus phyficians call the ingredients added to a medi¬
cine already compounded, additaments.
ADDITION, is the joining together or uniting
two or more things, or augmenting a thing by the ac-
ceffion of others thereto.
Addition, in Arithmetic, Algebra, &c. See thefe
articles.
Addition, in Mujic, a dot marked on the right fide
of a note, fignifying that it is to be founded or lengfh-
.ened
A D E
[ »83 ]
A D E
Adel.
Addition ened half as much more as it would have been without
fuch mark.
Addition, in Law, is that name or title which is
given to a man over and above his proper name and
furname, to fhow of what eftate, degree, or myftery he
is ; and of what town, village, or country.
Additions of EJlate, or Qjiality, are, Yeoman,
Gentleman, Efquire, and fuch like.
Additions of Degree, are thofe we call names of
dignity 5 as Knight, Lord, Earl, Marquis, and Duke;
Additions of Myfiery, are fuch as Scrivener, Paint¬
er, Mafon, and the like.
Additions of Place, are, of Thorp, of Dale, of
"Woodltock.—Where a man hath houfehold in two
places, he flrall be faid to dwell in both 5 fo that his
addition in either may fuffice. Knave was anciently a
regular addition. By flat. 1. Hen V. cap. 5. it was
ordained, that in fuch fuits or actions where procefs of
outlawry lies, fuch addition Ibould be made to the
name of the defendant, to fhow his eftate, myftery,
and place where he dwells 5 and that the writs not hav¬
ing fuch additions fhould abate if the defendant take
exception thereto 5 but not by the office of the court.
The reafon of this ordinance was, that one man might
not be troubled by the outlawry of another ; but by
reafon of the certain addition, every perfon might bear
his own burden.
Additions, in Dijlilling, a name given to fuch
things as are added to the w^affi, or liquor, while in a
ftate of fermentation, in order to improve the vinofity
of the fpirit, procure a larger quantity of it, or give it
a particular flavour. All things, of whatever kind,
thus added in the time of fermentation, are called by
thofe of the bufmefs who fpeak moft intelligently addi¬
tions ; but many confound them with things of a very
different nature, under the name of ferments., See
Distilling.
Additions, in Heraldry, fome things added to a
coat of arms, as marks of honour; and therefore di-
reffly oppofite to abatements. Among additions we
reckon Bordure, Quarter, Canton, Gyrqn, Pile,
Sec. See thefe articles.
ADDRESS, in a general fenfe, is ufed for fkill and
good management, and of late has been adopted from
the French. It is ufed alfo in commerce, as fynony-
mous with direction to a perfon or place. The word
is formed of the French verb, addrejfer. To direci any
thing to a perfon.
ADDUCENT muscles, or Abductors, in
tomy, thofe mufcles which pull one part of the body to¬
wards another. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
ADEJB, in Commerce, the name of a large Egyp¬
tian weight, ufed principally for rice, and confifting of
21 o okes, each of three rotolos, a weight of about twT>
drams lefs than an Englifh pound. But this is no cer¬
tain weight; for at Rofetto the adeb is only 1 go okes.
ADEL, a kingdom on the eaftern coaft of Africa,
which reaches as far as the ftraits of Babelmandef,
which unite the Red fea to the fea of Arabia. This
country produces corn, and feeds a great number of
cattle. The inhabitants carry on a trade in gold, fi¬
ver, ivory, oil, frankincenfe, a fort of pepper, and other
merchandifes of Arabia and the Indies. The king was
formerly a vaffal to the grand negus of Abyffinia : but
being Mahometans, and the Abyffmians a fort ofChri-
ftiafis, they could not agree 5 and in 1535 came 1° an
open rupture, when the Adelians threw off the yoke,
feeking protection from the Grand Signior. The prin¬
cipal places are, Adela, feated in the centre of the
country, and the town wffiere the king refldes : Zeila,
near the Arabian fea, is a rich towrn, and has a good-
trade : Barbora, near the fea-coaft, is an ancient tra¬
ding town. It rains very feldom in this country.
ADELIA, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ADELME, or Aldhelm, fon to Kenred, nephew
to Ina king of the Weft Saxons, after having been
educated abroad, was abbot of Malmibury 30 years.
He was the firft Engliffiman who wrote in Latin, the
firft who brought poetry into England, and the firft:
bilhop of Sherburn. He lived in great efteem till his
death, which happened in 709,. He was canonized,
and many miracles v/ere aferibed to him. He is men¬
tioned with great honour by Camden and Bayle, and
his life was written by William of Malmfbury.
ADELPHIANI, in Church Hi/lory, a fed of an¬
cient heretics, who fafted always on Sundays.
ADELSCALC, in Ancient Cufloms, denotes a fer-
vant of the king. The word is alio written adelfcalche,
and adelfcalcus. It is compounded of the German anel,
or edel, “ noble,” and fealc, “ fervant.” Among the
Bavarians, adelfcalcs appear to have been the lame with
royal thanes among the Saxons, and thofe called mini-
Jiri regis in ancient charters.
ADEMPTION, in the Civil Law, implies the re¬
vocation of a grant, donation, or the like.
ADEN, formerly a rich and confiderable town of
Arabia the Happy. It is feated by the fea fide, a little
eaftward of the ftraits of Babelmandel. N. Eat. 12. 40-
E. Long. 46. 13.
ADENANTHERA, bastard flower-fence, in
Botany. See Botany Index.
ADENBURG, or Aldenburg, a town of Weft-
phalia, and in the duchy of Burg, fubjeCl to the Elec¬
tor Palatine- It is 12 miles N. E. of Cologne, and
17 W, of Bonn. E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat. 5.1.2.
ADENIA, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ADENOGRAPHY, that part of anatomy which
treats of the glandular parts. See Anatomy.
ADENOID ES, glandulous, or of a glandular form j
an epithet applied to the prostate.
ADENOLOGY, the fame with Adenography.
AD ENOS, a kind of cotton; othervvife called ?na-
rlne cotton. It comes from Aleppo by the way of Mar-
fellles, where it pays 20 per cent. duty.
AD EON A, in Mythology, the name of a goddefs
invoked by the Romans when they fet out upon a jour-
ney.
ADEPHAGIA, in Mythology, the geddefs of glut¬
tony, to whom the Sicilians paid religious worftup.
AD EPS, in Anatomy, the fat found in the abdomen.
It alfo fignifies animal fat of any kind.
ADEPTS, a term among Alchemfls for thofe who
pretended to have found the panacea and philofopherS
if one. “ Such is the nature, fays Paracelfus, of this
higher philofophy, that, one mortal can no more com¬
municate it to another, than the paper on which letters
are traced can of itfelf declare their meaning. It ori¬
ginates not from man, but from heaven.”
ADERBIJAN. See Adirbeitsan.
ADERNO, a finall place in the Yal di Demona in
the
A deli a
Aderno.
/
A D H [ i
Acies the kingdom of Sicily. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 38. 5.
AiLa Anciently Adranum, at the foot of Mount Gibel.
' loa‘ _. The ruined walls of this ancient city hill exhibit an air
of its former grandeur.
ADES, or Hades, denotes the invilible hate. In
the heathen mythology, it comprehends all thole re¬
gions that lie beyond the river Styx, viz. Erebus, Tar¬
tarus, and Elyfium. See Hell.
ADESSENARIANS, Adessenarii, in Church
Hiftory, a feet of Chriftians who hold the real prefence
of Chrift’s body in the eucharift, though not by way
of tranfubflantiation. They differ confiderably as to this
prefence j fome holding that the body of Chrift is in
the bread 5 others, that it is about the bread 3 and o-
thers that it is under the bread.
ADFILIATION, a Gothic cuftom, whereby the
^children of a former marriage are put upon the fame
footing with thofe of the fecond. This is alfo called
unio prolium, and ftill retained in fome parts of Ger¬
many, though Heineccius obferves that this is not adop¬
tion.
AD FINES, (Antonine), a town of Swifferland fup-
pofed to be the modern PJin, in the north of the dif-
trift of Turgow, on the rivulet Thur, not far from
the borders of Suabia, about half-way between Con-
ffance and Frauenfield. So called, becaufe when Ce-
cinna, general of the emperor Vitellius, with the auxi¬
liary Rhetians, defeated the Plelvetii, the former ex¬
tended their borders thus far, their territory ending
here 3 and, in the time of the Romans, it was the lail:
town in this quarter, and of fome repute.
ADHA, a feftival which the Mahometans celebrate
on the 10th day of the month Dbou/hegiat, which is
the 12th and laff of their year. This month being par¬
ticularly deftined for the ceremonies which the pilgrims
obferve at Mecca, it takes its name from thence, for
the word fignifies the month of Pilgrimage. On that
day they facrifice with great folemnity, at Mecca, and
nowhere elfe, a fheep, which is called by the fame
name as the feftival itfelf. Fhe Turks commonly call
this feftival the Great Bair am, to diftinguifti it from
the leffer, which ends their fall, and which the Chrifti¬
ans of the Levant call the Eajfler of the Turks. The
Mahometans celebrate this feftival, out of the city of
Mecca, in a neighbouring valley 3 and fometimes they
facrifice there a camel. See Bair am.
ADHA FODA, in Botany. See Justicia, Botany
Index.
Action or ADHERENCE, in Scots Law ; an ac¬
tion competent to a hulband or wife, to compel either
party to adhere, in cafe of defertion.
ADHtLSION, in a general fenfe, implies the flick¬
ing or adhering of bodies together.
Adhesion, in Philofophy. See Cohesion.
Adhesion, in Anatomy, a term for one part flicking
to another, which in a natural ftate are feparate. For
the moft part, if any of thofe parts in the thorax or
belly lie in contaft, and inflame, they grow together.
The lungs very frequently adhere to the pleura.
ADHIL, in Afronomy, a ftar of the fixth magni-
ude, upon the garment of Andromeda, under the laft
ftar in her foot.
ADHOA, in Ancient Cuftoms, denotes what we
•Otherwife call relief In which fenfe we fometimes alfo
84 ] ADI
find the woid written adoha, adhoanientum, and cdho~ AJianturn
gamehtum. |j
ADIANTUM, maiden-hair 3 in Botany. See Adlt‘
Botany Index. ^ —y—
A.DIAPHORISTS, in Church Hifory, a name im¬
porting lukewarmnefs, given, in the 16th century, to
the moderate Lutherans, who embraced the opinions of
Melamfthon, whofe difpofition was much more pacific
than that of Luther.
ADJAZZO, Adrazzo, or Ajaccio, in Geogra¬
phy, a handfome town and caltle of Corfica in the Me¬
diterranean, with a bifhop’s fee, and a good harbour.
It is populous, and fertile in wine. It is 27 miles
fouth-weft of Corte. E. Long. 41. 74. N. Lat. 38. 5.
ADJECTIVE, in Grammar, a kind of noun joined
with a fubftantive, either expreffed or implied, to de¬
note its qualities or accidents. See Grammar.
ADIGE, a river in Italy, which taking its rife fouth
of the lake Glace among the Alps, runs fouth by Trent,
then eaft by Verona in the territory of Venice, and
falls into the gulf of Venice, north of the mouth of
the Po.
ADJOURNMENT, the putting off a court, or
other meeting, till another day. There is a difference
between the adjournment and the prorogation of the
parliament 5 the former not only being for a fhorter
time, but alfo done by the houfe itfelf 3 whereas the
latter is an aft of royal authority.
ADIPOCIRE, derived from adeps, fat, and cera,
wax, denotes a fubftance which has been lately exami¬
ned by chemifts. It is formed by a certain change
which the foft parts of animal bodies undergo, when
kept for fome time in running water, or when a great
number of dead bodies are heaped together in the fame
place. Great quantities of this fubftance were found
on removing the animal matters from the burial ground
of the Innocens at Paris in the year 1787. In this
burial-ground, 1200 or 1500 bodies were thrown to¬
gether into the fame pit, and being decompofed, were
converted into this fubftance. It has fome of the pro¬
perties of wax or fpermaceti. See Chemistry Index.
ADIPOSE, a term ufed by anatomifts for any cell,
membrane, &c. that is remarkable for its fatnefs.
ADIRBEITSAN, in Geography, a province of
Perfia, in Afia, and part of the ancient Media. It is
bounded on the north by the province of Schirvan, on
the fouth by Irac-Agemi and Curdiftan, en the eaft
by Ghilan and the Cafpian fea, and on the weft by Tur-
comania. E. Long. 420. to 48°. N. Lat. 36°. to 390.
ADIT, in a general fenfe, the paffage to, or entrance
of, any thing.
Adit of a Mine, the hole, or aperture, whereby it
is entered and dug, and by which the water and ores
are carried away. The term amounts to the fame with
cuniculus or drift, and is diftinguiftied from air-fhaft.
The adit is ufually made on the fide of a hill, towards
the bottom thereof, about four, five, or fix feet high,
and eight wide, in form of an arch 3 fometimes cut in
the rock, and fometimes fupported with timber, fo con-
dufted as that the foie or bottom of the adit may an-
fwer to the bottom of the fliaft, only fomewhat lower,
that the water may have a fufficient current to pafs
away without the ufe of the pump. Damps and the
impurity of the air are the great impediments again!!
driving
2
A D J [ 185 ] AD M
AJit driving adits above 20 or 30 fathoms, by reafon of the
. II neceflity, in this cafe, of letting down air-fhafts from
A , the day to meet the adit, which are often very expen-
live, both on account of the great depth of mines, and
the hardnefs of the mineral llrata to be cut through.
The bell remedy againft this is that pradliled in the
coal mines near Liege, where they work their adits
without air-lhafts : the manner of which is defcribed by
Sir James Moray. {Phil. Tranf. vol. i. p. 79.)
Ann of a Mine is fometimes ufed for the air-lhaft
itfelf, being a hole driven perpendicularly from the fur-
face of the earth into fome part of a mine, to give en¬
trance to the air. To draw off the Handing water in
winter, in deep mines, they drive up an adit, or air-
lhaft, upon which the air difengages itfelf from the
water, when it begins to run with fuch violence as pro¬
duces a noife equal to the burfting of a cannon, dallies
every thing in the way againft the lides of the mine,
and loofens the very rocks at a diftance. {Ibidl)
ADJUDICATION, implies the adl of adjudging,
or determining, a caufe in favour of fome perfon.
Adjudication, in Scots Law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor attaches the heritable eftate
of his debtor, or his debtor’s heir, in order to appro¬
priate it to himfelf, either in payment or fecurity of his
debt j or that aftion by which the holder of an herit¬
able right, labouring under any defedt in point of form,
may fupply that defedl.
ADJUNCT, among Philofophers, lignifies fome-
thing added to another, without being any neceffary
part of it. Thus water abforbed by cloth or a fponge,
is an adjundl, but no neceffary part of either of thefe
fubftances.
Adjunct, in Metaphyjics, fome quality belonging
to either the body or mind, whether natural or acquir¬
ed. Thus thinking is an adjundl of the mind, and
growth an adjundl of the body.
Adjunct, in Mujic, a word which is employed to
denominate the connexion or relation between the prin¬
cipal mode and the modes of its two-fifths, which, from
the intervals that conftitute the relation between them
and it, are called its adjunBs.
Adjunct is alfo ufed to fignify a colleague, or fome
perfon affociated with another as an afliftant.
Adjunct Gods, or Adjuncts of the Gods, among
the Romans, were a kind of inferior deities, added as
affiftants to the principal ones, to eafe them in their func¬
tions. Thus, to Mars was adjoined Bellona and Ne-
mefis } to Neptune, Salacia j to Vulcan, the Cabiri ;
to the Good Genius, the Lares 5 to the Evil, the Le-
mures, &c.
Adjuncts, in Rhetoric and Grammar, fignify cer¬
tain words or things added to others, to amplify or
augment the force of the difcourfe.
Adjuncts, or Adjoints, in the Royal Academy
of Sciences at Paris, denoted a clafs of members, at¬
tached to the purfuit of particular fciences. Idle clafs
of AdjunBs was created in 1716, in lieu of the E/eves :
they were twelve in number j twTo for geometry, two
for mechanics, two for aftronomy, two for anatomy,
two for chemiftry, and two for botany. The Eleves
not taken into this eftablifliment were admitted on the
footing of fupernumerary AdjunBs.
ADJUTANT, in the Military Art, is an officer
whole bufinefs it is to affift the major. Each battalion
Vol. I. Part I.
of foot, and regiment of horfe has an adjutant, who re- Adjutant
ceives the orders every night from the brigade-major j ^, It
which, after carrying them to the colonel, he delivers furemen^.
out to the ferjeants. When detachments are to be v—y—
made, he gives the number to be furnilhed by each
company or troop, and affigns the hour and place of
rendezvous. He alfo places the guards j receives and
diftributes the ammunition to the companies, &tc. and,
by the major’s orders, regulates the prices of bread,
beer, and other provifions. The word is fometimes
ufed by the French for an aid-du-camp.
AojuTANTS-general, among the Jefuits, a felecl
number of fathers, who refided with the general of the
order, each of whom had a province or country affign-
ed him, as England, Holland, &c. and their bufinefs
was to inform the father-general of ftate occurrences
in fuch countries. To this end they had their corref-
pondents delegated, emiflaries, vifitors, regents, pro¬
vincials, &.c.
ADJUTORIUM, a term ufed by phyficians for any
medicine in a prefcription but the capital one.
ADLE-eggs, fuch as have not received an impreg¬
nation from the femen of the cock.
ADLEGATION, in the public law of the German
empire, a right claimed by the ftates of the empire of
adjoining plenipotentiaries, in public treaties and nego¬
tiations, to thofe of the emperor, for the tranfahling of
matters which relate to the empire in general. In
which fenfe adlegation differs from legation, which is
the right of fending ambaffadors on a perfon’s own ac¬
count.—Several princes and ftates of the empire enjoy
the right of legation, wrho have not that of adlegation,
and vice verfa. The biihops, for inftance, have the
right of adlegation in the treaties which concern the
common intereft, but no right of legation foi their own
private affairs. The like had the duke of Mantua.—-
The emperor allows the princes of Germany the privi¬
lege of legation, but difputes that 'of adlegation. They
challenge it as belonging to them jure regni, which
they enjoy in common with the emperor himfelf.
ADLOCUTION, Adlocutio, in Antiquity, is
chiefly underftood of fpeeches made by Roman gene¬
rals to their armies, to encourage them before a battle.
We frequently find thefe adlocutions expreffed on me¬
dals by the abbreviature Adlocut. Com.—The ge¬
neral is fometimes reprefented as feated on a tribunal,
often on a bank or mound of turf, with the cohorts
ranged orderly round him, in manipuli and turmce.
The ufual formula in adlocutions was, Fortis ejfet ac
fidus.
ADMANUENSES, in ancient law books, denote
perfons who fwore by laying their hands on the book.
—In which fenfe, ad?nanuenfes amount to the fame
with laymen j and Hand oppofed to clerks, who were
forbid to fwear on the book, their word being reputed
as their oath ; wrhence they w7ere alfo denominated
jule digni.
ADMEASUREMENT, Admensurat 10, mLaw,
a vrrit w'hich lies for the bringing thofe to reafon, or
mediocrity, wffio ufurp more of any thing than their
ftiare. This w7rit lies in two cafes j termed,
Admeasurement of Dower, Admenfuratio dotis,
where the wfldow of the deceafed holds more from the
heir, or his guardian, on account of her dower, than of
right belongs to her. And,
A a
Ad ME AS V REMEN T,
/
Admea¬
surement
!J
Admini-
ftrator.
A n M [ ,g(5
Admeasurement of Pq/lure, Aclmenfuralio paflura;
this lies between thole who have common of paftures
appendant to their freehold, or common by vicinage,
in cafe any of them furcharge the common with more
cattle than they ought.
ADMINICLE, a term ufed chiefly in old law¬
books, to imply an aid, help, adiflance, or fupport.
I he word is Latin, adtniniculum; and derived from
adminicular, to prop or fupport.
Adminicle, in Scots Law, lignifies any writing or
deed, referred to by a party, in an a&ion of law,°for
proving his allegations.
A.DMINICULATOR, an ancient officer of the
church, whofe bulinefs it was to attend to and defend
the caufe of the widows, orphans, and others deftitute
of help.
ADMINISTRATION, in general, the govern¬
ment, direction, or management of affairs, and parti¬
cularly the exercife of diftributive juftiee. Among ec-
clefiaftics, it is often ufed to exprefs the giving or dif-
penfmg the facraments, &c.
Administration, is alfo the name given by the
Spaniards in Peru to the flaple magazine, or warehoufe,
eftablifhed at Callao, a fmall town on the South fea,
which is the port of Lima, the capital of that part of
South America, and particularly of Peru. The foreign
ihips which have leave to trade along that coaft are
obliged to unload here, paying 13 per cent, of the price
they fell for, if the cargo be entire, and even 16 per
cent, it otherwife ; befides which, they pay 3 per 1000,
duty, for confullhip and fome other fmall royal rights
and claims.
ADMINISTRAT OR, in Law, he to whom the
ordinary commits the adminiffration of the goods of a
perfon deceafed, in default of an executor.—An aftion
lies for or againlt an adminiftrator, as for or againft
an executor 5 and he ffiall be accountable to the value
01 the goods of the deceafed, and no farther :—unlefs
there be wTafte, or other abufe chargeable on him. If
the adminiftrator die, his executors are not adminiftra-
tors} but the court is to grant a new adminiftration.
—If a ftranger, who is neither adminiftrator nor exe¬
cutor, take the goods of the deceafed and adminifter,
he ihall be charged and lued as an executor, not as an
adminiftrator. The origin of adminiftrators is derived
from the civil law.    
isowing to a ftatute made in the 3 ill year of Ed-
veard III. ft ill then, no office of this kind was known
beftde that of executor : in cafe of a want of which,
the ordinary had the difpofal of goods of perfons in-
teftate, &c.
Administrator, in Scots Law, a perfon legally
empowered to acl for another whom the law prelumes
incapable of afting for himfelf. Thus tutors or cura¬
tors are fometimes ftyled admini/lrators in law to pu¬
pils, minors, or fatuous perfons. But more generally
the term is ufed to imply that power which is confer¬
red by the law upon a father over the perfons and
property of his children during their minority. See
Law.
Administrator is fometimes ufed for the preli-
dent of a province : for a perfon appointed to receive,
manage, and diftribute, the revenues of an hofpital or
religious houfe 5 for a prince wffio enjoys the revenues
of a fecularized bifhopric j and for the regent of a king-
] ADM
dom during the minority of a prince, or a vacancy of AJnftra-
the throne. bills,
ADMIRABILIS sal, the fame with Glauber’s A'ImiraL
fait.
ADMIRAL, a great officer or magiftrate, who has
the government of a navy, and the hearing of all mari¬
time caufes.
Authors are divided with regard to the origin and
denomination of this important officer, whom we find
eftablifhed in moft kingdoms that border on the fea.
But the moft probable opinion is that of Sir Henry
Spelman, who thinks, that both the name and dignity
were derived from the Saracens, and, by reafon of the
holy wars, brought amongft us 5 for admiral, in the
Arabian language, fignifies a prince, or chief ruler,
and was the ordinary title of the governors of cities,
provinces, &c. and therefore they called the com¬
mander of the navy by that name, as a name of dignity
and honour. And indeed there are no inftances of
admirals in this part of Europe before the year 1284,
when Philip of France, who had attended St Lewis in
the wars againft the Saracens, created an admiral. Du
Cange affures Us, that the Sicilians were the firft, ami',
the Gencefe the next, who gave the denomination of
admiral to the commanders of their naval armaments y
and that they took it from the Saracen or Arabic
emir, a general name for every commanding officer. As
for the exaft time when the word was introduced among
us, it is uncertain *, fome think it was in the reign of
Edward I. Sir Henry Spelman is of opinion that it
was firft ufed in the reign of Henry III. becaufe nei¬
ther the laws of Qkron, made in 1266, nor Bracfon,,
wffio wrote about that time, make any mention of it 5
and that the term' admiral was not ufed in a charter in
the eighth of Henry III. where he granted this of¬
fice to Richard de Lacy, by thefe words Maritimam
Anglia-; but in the 56th year of the fame reign, not
only the hiftoiians, but the charters themfelves, very
frequently tiled the word admiral.
^Anciently there were generally three or four admi¬
rals appointed in the Englilh feas, all of them holding
the office durante benepiaceto ; and each of them havhm
particular limits under their charge and government;
as admirals of the fleet of ihips, from the mouth of the
Thame*, northward, fouthward, orweftward. Befides-
Their eftabliihment in England , thefe, there were admirals of the Cinque Ports, as in the'
   r XT J • C r.' 1 1 TTY s  1 - _ 5
reign of Edward III. when one William Latimer was
ftyled admiral is quwque port until y and we fometimes '
find that one perfon has been admiral of the fleets to
the foutlrward, northward, and weftward : but the title
or admiralis Anglia was not frequent till the reign of
Henry IV. when the king’s brother had that title given
him, which in all commiffions afterwards was granted,
to the fucceeding admirals.. It may be obferved, that
there was a title above that of admiral of England,
which was, locum tenens regis fuper mare, the king’s
lieutenant general of the fea 5 this title we find men¬
tioned in the reign of Richard II. Before the ufe of
the word admiral was known, the title of cujlos maris
was made ufe of.
Lord High Admiral of England, in fome ancient re¬
cords called capitanus tnaritimarum, an officer of great
antiquity and truft, as appears by the laws of Oleron,
fo denominated from the place at which they were made
by Richard I. The firft title of admiral of England, ex-
prefsly
ADM [ i
prefsly conferred upon a fubjecl, was given by patent of
Richard II. to Richard Fitz-Allen, jun. earl of Arun¬
del and Surrey; for thofe who before enjoyed this of¬
fice were fimply termed admirals, though their ju-
rifdiflion feems as extenfive, efpecially in the reign of
Edward III. when the court of admiralty was firft
ere&ed.
This great officer has the management of all mari¬
time affairs, and the government of the royal -navy,
with power of decifion in all maritime cafes both civil
and criminal: he judges of all things done upon or be¬
yond the fea, in any part of the world} upon the fea
coafts, in all ports and havens, and upon all rivers be¬
low the firlt bridge frotti the fea. By him, vice-admi¬
rals, rear admirals, and all fea captains, are commif-
fioned ; all deputies for particular coafts, and coroners
to view dead bodies found on the fea coafts, or at fea:
he alfo appoints the judges for his court of admiralty,
and may imprifon, releafe, &c. All ports and havens
are infra corpus comitatus, and the admiral hath noju-
rifdicftion of any thing done in them. Between high
and low water mark, the common law and the high
admiral have jurifdiftion by turns, one upon the water,
and the other upon the land.
The lord admiral has power, not only over the fea-
men ferving in his (hips of war, but over all other fea-
men, to arreft them for the fervice of the ftate j and,
if any of them run.away, without leave of the admiral,
he hath power to make a record thereof, and certify
the fame to the (heriffs, mayors, bailiffs, &c. who ftiall
caufe them to be apprehended and imprifoned.
To the lord high admiral belong all penalties and
amercements of all tranfgreffions at fea, on the fea ftiore,
in ports and havens, and all rivers below the firft bridge
from the fea j the goods of pirates and felons condemn¬
ed or enflaved, fea wrecks, goods floating on the fea,
or call on the ftiore (not granted to lords of manors
adjoining to the fea), and a fliare of lawful prizes j alfo
all great fifties, commonly called royalfjhes, except
whales and fturgeons: to which add, a falary of 7000I.
a-year.
In ftiort, this is fo great an office, in point of truft,
honour, and profit, that it has been ufually given to
princes of the blood, or the moft eminent perfons among
the nobility. We have had no high admiral for fome
years ; the office being put in commiffion, or under the
adminiftration of the lords commiffioners of the admi¬
ralty, who by ftatute have the fame power and autho¬
rity as the lord high admiral.
Lord High sit Mir al of Scotland, one of the great
officers of the crown, and fupreme judge in all mari¬
time cafes within that part of Britain. See Law.
Admiral alfo implies the commander in chief of
any Angle fleet or fquadroh j or, in general, any flag-
officer whatever. The commander of a fleet carries
his flag at the main-top-maft head. Thus wre fay, ad¬
miral of the red, ot the white, of the blue.
Vice sjDMiRAt, is the commander of the fecond fqua-
dron, and carries his flag at the fore-top-maft head.
Rear Admiral, is the commander of the third fqua-
dron, and carries his flag at the mizen-top-maft head.
Vice Admiral, is alfo an officer appointed by the
lords commiffioners of the admiralty. There are feve-
ral of thefe officers eftabliftied in different parts of
87 ] ADM
Great Britain, with judges and marfhals under them, Admiral,
for executing jurildidtion within their refpeclive limits. Admiralty..
Their decrees, however, are not final, an appeal lying
to the court of admiralty in London.
Admiral is alfo an appellation given to the moft
confiderable ffiip of a fleet of merchantmen, or, of the
veffels employed in the cod fiffiery of Newfoundland.
This laft has the privilege of choofing what place he
pleafes on the ftiore to dry his fifti $ gives proper orders,
and appoints the fiftiing places to thofe who come after
him } and as long as the fiffiing feafon continues, he
carries a flag on his main-maft.
Admiral, in Conchology, the Engliffi name of a
fpecies of the voluta, a fliell fifti belonging to the order
of vermes teftacea. See Conchology Index.
ADMIRALTY properly fignifies the office of lord
high admiral, wffiether difeharged by one fingle per-
fon, or by joint commiffioners called lords of the admi¬
ralty*
Court of Admiralty, is a fovereign court, held by
the lord high admiral, or lords of the admiralty, wffiere
cognizance is taken in all maritime affairs, whether ci¬
vil or criminal.'-—All crimes committed on the high
feas, or on great rivers below the firft bridge next the
fea, are cognizable in this court only, and before w hich
they muft be tried by judge and jury. But in civil
cafes the mode is different, the decilions being all made
according to the civil law. From the fentences of the
admiralty judge an appeal always lay, in ordinary
courfe, to the king in chancery, as may be colle&ed
from ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19. which diretts the
appeal from the archbifhop’s courts to be determined
by perfons named in the king’s commiffion, “ like as in
cafe of appeal from the admiral court.” But this is
alfo exprefsly declared by ftatute 8 Eliz. c. 5. which
enadts, that upon an appeal made to the chancery, the
fentence definitive of the delegates appointed by com-
mifllon ftiall be final.
Appeals from the vice-admiralty courts in Ameri ¬
ca, and our other plantations and fettlements, may be
brought before the courts of admiralty in England, as
being a branch of the admiral’s jurifdidHon, though
they may alfo be brought before the king in council.
But in cafe of prize veffels, taken in time of wrar, in
any part of the world, and condemned in any courts
of ijmiralty or vice-admiralty as lawful prize, the ap¬
peal lies to certain commi/Jioners of appeals confifting
chiefly of the privy council, and not to judges dele¬
gates. And this by virtue of divers treaties with fo¬
reign nations, by which particular courts are eftablilhed
in all the maritime countries of Europe for the decifion
of this queftion, Whether lawful prize or not ? for this
being a queftion between fubjedls of different ftate.s,
it belongs entirely to the law of nations, and not to
the municipal law7s of either country, to determine it.
Court of Admiralty, in Scotland. See Law.
Admiralty Bay, in Geography, a fpacious bay wuth
good anchorage on the weft coaft Af Cook’s ftraits, in
the fouthern illand of New Zealand. S. Lat. 40. 37.
E. Long.. 174. 54.
There is a bay of the fame name on the north-wreft
coaft of America, in N. Lat. 59. 31. W. Long. 140. 18.
Admiralty Inlet, the entrance to the fuppofed ftraits
of Juan de Fuca, on the weft coaft of New Georgia,
A a-v2 in
ADO
Admiralty in N. Lat. 48. 30. W. Long. 124. 15. It was
fl lited by Captain Vancouver in 1792, who found the
cence" on tne ih°res rich and fertile, well watered, and
. ’ _. clothed with luxuriant vegetation.
Admiralty IJlands lie in about 2° l8' S. Lat. and
146° 44' E. Long. There are between 20 and 30
ifiands faid to be fcattered about here, one of which
alone would make a large kingdom. Captain Carteret,
who firi't difcovered them, was prevented from touch¬
ing at them, although their appearance was very in¬
viting, on account of the condition of his fhip, and of
his being entirely unprovided with the articles of bar¬
ter which fuit an Indian trade. He defcribes them as
clothed with a beautiful verdure of woods, lofty and
luxuriant, interfperfed with fpots that have been clear-
1 ed for plantations, groves of cocoa nut trees, and
houfes of the natives, who feem to be very numerous.
The largeic of thefe illands is 18 leagues long in the
direction of eall and weft. The difcoverer thinks it
highly probable that thefe iflands produce feveral va¬
luable articles of trade, particularly fpices, as they lie
in the fame climate and latitude as the Moluccas.
ADMIRATION, in Ethics, is that paffion of the
mind which is excitgd by the contemplation of fuperior
and rare excellence, as fuperior or uncommon wifdom,
ingenuity, or benevolence.
ADMONITION, in Eccleftajiical Affairs, a part
of difcipline much ufed in the ancient church. It was
the firft a£t, or ftep, towards the puniftiment or expul-
lion of delinquents. In cafe of private offences, it was
performed, according to the evangelical rule, private¬
ly : in cafe of public offence, openly, before the church.
If either of thofe fufticed for the recovery of the fallen
perfon, all further proceedings In the way of cenfure
ceafed : if they did not, recourfe was had to excom-
jnunication.
Admonitio Eujlium, a military punilhment among
the Romans, not unlike our whipping, but it was per¬
formed with vine branches.
ADMORTIZATION, in the Feudal Cufloms, the
redudlion of the property of lands or tenements to mort¬
main. See Mortmain.
ADNATA, in Anatomy, one of the coats of the
eye, which is alfo called conjuncHva and albuginea.
Adnata is alfo ufed for any hair, wool, or the like,
which grows upon animals or vegetables.
Adnata, or Adnafcentia, among Gardeners, de¬
note thofe offsets, which by a new germination under
the earth, proceed from the lily, narciffus, hyacinth,
and other flowers, and afterwards become true roots.
ADNOUN, is ufed by fome grammarians to exprefs
what we more ufually call an adjeclive.—The word
is formed by way of analogy to adverb •, in regard ad-
je&ives have much the fame office and relation to nouns
that adverbs have to verbs. Biffiop Wilkins ufes the
word adname in another fenfe, viz. for what we other-
wife call a prepofition.
ADOLESCENCE, the ftate of growing youth j
or that period of a perfbn’s age, commencing from his
infancy, and terminating at his full ftature or manhood.
The word is formed of the Latin adolefcere, “ to
grow.”—The ftate of adolefcence lafts fo long as the
fibres continue to grow, either in magnitude or firm-
nefs. The fibres being arrived at the degree of firm-
siefs and tenfioiuufficient to fuftain the parts, no longer
ADO
yield or give tvay to the efforts of the nutritious mat- Adollam
ter to extend them j fo that their farther accretion is ^(j|nja
flopped, from the very law of their nutrition. Ado- , " ’ .
lefcence is commonly computed to be between 15 and
25, or even 30 years of age ; though in different con-
ftitutions its terms are very different.—The Romans
ufually reckoned it from 12 to 25 in boys ; and to 21
in girls, &c. And yet, among their writers, juvenis
and adolefcens are frequently ufed indifferently for any
perfon under 45 years.
ADOLLAM, or Odollam, in Ancient Geography, a
town in the tribe of Judah, to the eaft of Eleutheropo-
lis. David is faid to have hid himfelf in a cave near
this town (Bible).
ADOM, in Geography, a ftate or principality of the
Gold coaft, in Africa. It is a populous, rich, and
fertile country, abounding with corn and fruits.
ADON, a populous village in the province of Stuhl-
Weiffemberg, belonging to Hungary. It lies in a
fruitful country, towards the river Danube. E. Long.
19. 20. N. Lat. 47. 30.
ADONAI, one of the names of the Supreme Being
in the Scriptures. The proper meaning of the word
is my lords, in the plural number 5 as Adoni is my lord,
in the Angular. The Jews, who either out of refpe£l:,
or fuperftition, do not pronounce the name of Jehovah,
read Adonai in the room of it, as often as they meet
with Jehovah in the Hebrew text. But the ancient
Jew's were not fo fcrupulous 5 nor is there any law
which forbids them to pronounce the name of God.
(Calmet.)
ADONIA, in Antiquity, folemn feafts in honour of
Venus, and in memory of her beloved Adonis. The
Adonia were obferved with great folemnity by moft
nations ; Greeks, Phoenicians, Lycians, Syrians, E~
gyptians, &c. From Syria, they are fuppofed to have
paffed into India. The prophet Ezekiel * is underftood * ch ^
to fpeak of them. They were ftill obferved at Alex-Xiv,
andria in the time of St Cyril 5 and at Antioch in that
of Julian the Apoftate, who happened to enter that city
during the folemnity, which was taken for an ill omen.
The Adonia lafted two days : on the firft of which cer¬
tain images of Venus and Adonis were carried, with all
the pomp and ceremonies praclifed at funerals: the
women wept, tore their hair, beat their breafts, &c.
imitating the cries and lamentations of Venus for the
death of her paramour. This lamentation they called
A6wiKx,<rpos. The Syrians were not contented with weep¬
ing, but fubjedled themfelves to fevere difcipline, ffiaved
their heads, &c. Among the Egyptians, the queen her-
felf ufed to carry the image of Adonis in proceffion..
St Cyril mentions an extraordinary ceremony pradlifed
by the Alexandrians : A letter was written to the
women of Byblus, to inform them that Adonis was
found again : this letter was thrown into the fea, which
(it was pretended) did not fail pun&ually to convey it
to Byblus in feven days 5 upon the receipt of which,
the Byblian women ceafed their mourning, fung his
praifes, and made rejoicings as if he were raifed to life
again : Or rather, according to Meurfius, the two of¬
fices of mourning and rejoicing made two diftincl feafts,
which were held at different times of the year, the one
fix months after the other, Adonis being fuppofed to
pafs half the year with Proferpine, and half with Venus.
 The Egyptian Adonia are laid to have been held in
memory
[ 188 ]
ADO [ i
Adonides tneitiory oi the death of Ofiris j by others, of his hck-
II nefs and recovery. Bifhop Patrick dates their origin
Adoptiani. £rom daughter of the fir if born under Mofes.
' ADONIDES, in Botany, a name given to bota-
nifts who defcribed or made catalogues of plants culti¬
vated in any narticular place.
ADONIS^ fon of Cynaras king of Cyprus, the dar¬
ling of the goddefs Venus : being killed by a wild
boar, in the Idalian woods, he was turned into a
flower of a blood colour, fuppoied to be the anemone.
Venus was inconfolable ; and no grief was ever more
celebrated than this, moft nations having perpetuated
* See Ado- the memory of it by a train of nnniverfary ceremonies *.
rua. Among Shakefpeare’s poems, is a long one on the fub-
jeft of Venus’s affection for Adonis.
The text of the vulgate in Ezekiel viii. 14. fays,
that this prophet faw women fitting in the temple, and^
weeping for Adonis : but, according to the reading of
the Hebrew text, they are fard to weep for 1 hammuz,
or the hidden one. Among the Egyptians, Adonis
was adored under the name of Ofiris the hufband of
Ifis. But he was fometimes called by the name of
Ammuz, or Thammuz, the concealed, to denote pro¬
bably his death or burial. The Hebrews, in derifion,
call him fometimes the dead, Pfal. cvi. 2.8. and Lev.
xix. 28. becaufe they wept for him, and reprefented
him as one dead in his coffin } and at other times, they
call him the image of jealoufy, Ezek. viii. 3. 5. be¬
caufe he was the objeft of the god Mars’s jealoufy.
The Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians, called him
Adonisand F. Calmet is of opinion, tnat the Ammo¬
nites and' Moabites gave him the name of Baal-peor.
See Baal-peor..
Adonis, Adonius, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Phoenicia, riling in Mount Lebanon, and falling into
the fea, after a north-weft courfe, at Byblus ; famous in
fable, as a beautiful fhepherd youth (Virgil) j fon of
Cynaras, king of the Cyprians, loved by Venus, llain
by a boar, and turned into a river, d heocritus laments
him dead m an idyllion, or rather ode, as did the
women yearly, when, in flood time, the river rolled
down a red earth, which tinged its waters, deemed to
be his wound bleeding afrefh. In the Phoenician lan¬
guage Adan fignifies a willow, and Adon lord, with
the fame radical letters. Hence Acianji?, Salig-
nus, and or Kt^i; for Adonidis
horti, are gardens beautifully arranged, but more adapt¬
ed for pleafure than profit.
Adonis, Bird's eye, or Pheafant's eye, in Botany.
See Botany Index.
ADONISTS, a fedft or party among divines and
critics, who maintain, that the Hebrew^ points ordina¬
rily annexed to the confonants of the word Jehovah,
are not the natural points belonging to that word,
.nor exprefs the true pronunciation of it; but are the
vowel points, belonging to the words yidonai and E/o-
him, applied to the confonants of the ineffable name Je¬
hovah, to warn the readers, that inftead of the v/ora je-
hovah, which the Jews were forbidden to pronounce, and
the true pronunciation of whiclr had been long uuk.iC wn
to them, they are always to read Adonai. They are op-
pofed to yehovi/Is: of whom the principal are Hrufius,
Capellus, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland, who has pub-
lifhed a colleftion of their writings on this fubjeft.
ADOPTIANI, in Church Ufiory, a fed of ancient
89 ] ADO
heretics, follotvers of Felix of Urgel, and Elipand of Adoption.
Toledo, wffio, towards the end of the eighth century,' 'J _v
advanced the notion, that Jefus Chrift, in his hu¬
man nature, is the Son of God, not by nature, but by
adoption.
ADOPTION, an aft by which any one takes ano¬
ther into his family, owns him for his fon, and appoints
him for his heir.
The cuftom of adoption W'as very common among
the ancient Greeks and Romans ; yet it was not prac-
tifed, but for certain caufes expreffed in the laws, and
with certain formalities ufual in fuch cafes. It w’as a
fort of imitation of nature, intended for the comfort
of thofe wTho had no children : wherefore he that was
to adopt was to have no children of his own, and to be
paft the age of getting any; nor were eunuchs allow¬
ed to adopt, as being under an aftual impotency of
begetting children; neither was it lawful for a young
man to adopt an elder, becaufe that it would have been
contrary to the order of nature : nay, it was even re¬
quired that the perfon who adopted Ihould be eighteen
years older than his adopted fon, that there might at
leaft appear a probability of his being the natural fa¬
ther.
Among the Greeks it was called yiar*!?, filiation. It
was allowed to fuch as had no iffue of their orvn j ex¬
cepting thofe who wTere not iavTuv, their own ma-
fers, e. g. flaves, women, madmen, infants, or perfons
under trventy years of age j who being incapable of
making wills, or managing their own eftates, were not
allowed to adopt heirs to them. Foreigners being in¬
capable of inheriting at Athens, if any fuch were
adopted, it was neceffary firft to make them free of
the city. The ceremony of adoption being over, the
adopted had his name enrolled in the tribe and ward
of his new father j for which entry a peculiar time was
allotted, viz. the feftival $u£yr>Xix. To prevent rafti
and inconfiderate adoptions, the Lacedemonians had a
law, that adoptions fliould be tranfafted, or at leaft
confirmed, in the prefence of their kings. The chil¬
dren adopted w^ere inverted with all the privileges, and
obliged to perform all the duties, of natural children }
and being thus provided for in another family, ceafed
to have any claim of inheritance, or kindred, in the
family which they had left, unlefs they firft renounced
their adoption } which, by the law's of Solon, they
wTere not allowed to do, unlefs they had firft begotten
children, to bear the name of the perfon who had
adopted them : thus providing again!! the ruin of fa¬
milies, which would otherwife have been extinguiftied
by the defertion of thole wrho had been adopted to
preferve them. If the children adopted happened to
die without children, the inheritance could not be ali¬
enated from the family into which they had been
adopted, but returned to the relations of tne adopter.
It ftiould feem, that by the Athenian law, a perfon,
after having adopted another, was not allowed to mar¬
ry without permiflion from the magiftrate : in efteft,
there are inftances of perfons, who being ill ufed by
their adoptive children, petitioned for fuch leave-.
However this be, it is certain fome men married after
they had adopted fons : in which cafe, if they begat
legitimate children, their eftates were equally ftiared
between the begotten and adopted.
The Romans had two forms of adoption 5 one be-
ADO [ ^
j uophon. fore the praetor ^ the other at an affembly of the people,
in tile tunes of the comnionivcalth, and afterwards by
a refeript of^tne emperor. In the former, the natural
father addrefied himfelf to the praetor, declaring that
he emancipated his Ion, religned all his authority over
him, and confented he fhould be tranilated into the fa¬
mily of the adopter. The latter was pra£tifed, where
the party to be adopted was already free ; and this was
called adrogation. The perfon adopted changed all his
names; aflutning the prename, name, and lurname, of
the perfons who adopted him.
Befides the formalities preferibed by the Roman
law, various other methods have taken place • which
have given denominations to different fpecies of adop¬
tion, among the Gothic nations, in different ages. As,
Adoption by arms, was when a prince made a pre¬
lent of arms to a perfon, in confideration of his merit
and valour. Thus it was that the king of the Heruli
was adopted by Theodoric ; Athalaric by the emperor
Juftinian 5 and Cofroes, nephew of the king of Perlia,
by the emperor Juftin.—The obligation here laid on
the adoptive fon was, to protect and defend the father
from injuries, affronts, &c. And hence, according to
Selden, the ceremony of dubbing knights took its ori¬
gin as well as name.
Adoption by baptifm, is that fpirifual affinity which
is contrafted by god-fathers and god-children in the
ceremony of baptifm. This kind of adoption was in¬
troduced into the Greek church, and catne afterwards
into ufe among the ancient J ranks, as appears by the
Capitulars of Charlemagne.
In reality, the god-father was fo far confidered as
adoptive father, that his god-children were fuppofed
to be entitled to a fhare in the inheritance of his
eftate.
Adoption by hair, was performed by cutting off the
hair of a perfon, and giving it to the adoptive father.
It was thus that Pope John VIII. adopted Bofon king*
Avfos j which, perhaps, is the Only inllance in hi-
ffory, of adoption, in the order of the ecclefiafticsy a
law that proleffes to imitate nature, not daring to give
children to thole in whom it would be thought a crime
* to beget any.
_ Adoption by matrimony, is the taking the children
ot a wife or hufband, by a former marriage, into the
condition of proper or natural children ; and admitting
them to inherit on the. fame fpoting with thofe of the
prelent marriage. rI his is a practice peculiar to the
'Germans : among whom, it is more particularly known
by the name of eitihindfehaft; among their writers in
Latin, by that of utuo prolium, or union of i/fues. But
1 he more accurate writers obferve, that this' is no adop¬
tion. See Adf>liation.
Adoption by tejlament, that performed by appoint¬
ing a perfon heir by will, on condition of his affuming
the name, arms, &c. of the adopter. Of which kind
we meet with itveral inftances in the Roman hiftory.
Among the Turks, the ceremony of adoption is per¬
formed by obliging the perfon adopted to pafs-through
the Hurt of the adopter. Hence, among that people
to adopt, is expreffed by the phrafe, to 'draw another
through my fjirt. It is faid, that fomething like this
has alfo been obferved among the Hebrews; where the
prophet Elijah adopted Elifnafor his fon and fucceffor,
and communicated to him the gift of prophecy, by let-
90] ADO
ting faff his cloak or mantle on him. But adoption, Adepti6a
properly fo called, does not appear to have been prac- II .
tifed among the ancient Jews : Mofes fays nothing of Adb'r;itIon'
it in his laws ; and Jacob’s adoption of his two grand-
fans, .Ephraim and Manaffeh, is not fo properly an
adoption, as a kind of fubftitution, whereby thofe tw'o
fons of Jofeph rvere allotted an equal portion in Ifrael
with his own fons.
Adoption is alfo ufed, in Theology, for a federal ac>
of God’s free grace ; whereby thofe who are regene¬
rated by faith, are admitted into his houfehold, and
entitled to a lhare in the inheritance of the kingdom
of heaven.
Adoption is fometnnes alfo ufed, in fpeaking of the
ancient, clergy, who had a curtom of taking a maid or
widow into their houfes, under the denomination of an
adoptive or fpiritualJiJler or niece.
Adoption is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the admiffion
of perfons into certain hofpitals, particularly that of
Lyons, the adminiftrators -whereof have all the powder
and rights of parents over the children admitted.
Adoption is alio uled for the reception of a new
academy into the body of an old one.—Thus
The French academy of Marfeilles was adopted by
that of Paris : on which account, we find a volume of
fpeeches extant, made by leveral members of the aca¬
demy of Marfeilles, deputed to return thanks to that of
Paris for the honour.
In a fimilar fenfe, adoption is alfo applied by the
Greeks, to the admitting a monk, or brother, into a
monaftic community ; fometimes called fpiritual adob-
lion.
-flDOP IIV E, denotes a perfon or thing adopted
by another.
Adoptive children, among the Romans, were on the
fame footing with natural ones ; and accordingly wTere
either to be inftituted heirs, or exprefsly difmherited,
otherwife the teflament was null. The emperor Adrian
preferred adoptive children to natural ones ; becaufe we
choofe the former, but are obliged to take the latter
at random.
M. Menage has publifhed a book of eloges, or verfes
adareffed to him; which he calls Tiber Adoptivus, an
adoptive book ; and adds it to his other works.—Hein-
fius, and Furftemburg of Munfter, have likewife pu-
bliihed adoptive books.
In ecclefiaflical writers we find adoptive women, or
lifters, (adoptive frmina- or forores), ufed for thofe
handmaids of the ancient clergy, otherwife called fub-
introduBtP.
Adoptive arms, are thofe which a perfon enjoys by
the gift or conceffion of another, and to which he was
not otherwife entitled. They ftand contradiftinguifhed
from arms of alliance. ^
We fometimes meet with adoptive heir, by way of
oppofition to natural heir; and adoptive gods, by way
of contradiffinffion to domellie ones. The Romans,
notwithftanding the number of their domeftic, had
their adoptive gods, taken chiefly from the Egyptians:
fuch were Bis, Ofiris, Anubis, Apis, Harpocrates, and
Canopus.
ADORATION, the a<ft of rendering divine ho¬
nours; or of addreffmg a being, as fuppofing it a
god. The word is compounded of ad, “ to and os,
oris, “ mouthand literally figuides to apply the hand
to
ADO [ J9
Adoration, to the mouth j Manum ad os admoxere, q. d. “ to ktfs
the hand j” this being, in the eaftern countries, one ot
the great marks of refpeft and fubmiflion.—The Ro¬
mans praflifed adoration at facrifices, and other fo-
lemnities j in pading by temples, altars, groves, &c.
at the light of ilatues, images, or the like, whether
of done or wood, wherein any thing of divinity was
fuppofed to refide. Ufually there were images of the
gods placed at the gates of cities, for thofe who went
in or out, to pay their refpefts to.—The ceremony of
adoration among the ancient Romans was thus : I he
devotee having his head covered, applied his right hand
to his lips, the fore finger reding on his thumb, which
was ere61, and thus bowing his head, turned himfelt
round from left to right. The kifs thus given was
called ofcuium labratum ; for ordinarily they were afraid
to touch the images of their gods themfelves with their
profane lips. Sometimes, however, they would k;fs
their feet, or even knees, it being held an incivility to
touch their mouths •, fo that the affair paffed at fome
didance. Saturn, however, and Hercules, were adored
with the head bare; whence the worfhip of the lad
was called injlitutum peregrinum, and ritus Greecam-
cus, as departing from the cudomary Roman method,
which was to facrifice and adore with the face veiled,
and the clothes drawn up to the ears, to prevent any
interruption in the ceremony by the fight of unlucky
objefts.—The Jewilh manner of adoration was by pro-
dration, bowing, and kneeling.—The Chridians adopt¬
ed the Grecian rather than the Roman method, and a-
dored always uncovered. The ordinary podure of the
ancient Chridians was kneeling, but on Sundays dand-
ing: and they had a peculiar regard to the ead, to which
point they ordinarily dire61ed their prayers.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for the ail of
praying, or preferring our requeds or thankfgivings to
Almighty God.
Adoration is alfo ufed for certain extraordinary
civil honours or refpefls which refemble thofe paid' to
the deity, yet are given to men.
The Perfian manner of adoration, introduced by
Cyrus, was by bending the knee, and tailing on the
face at the prince’s feet, driking the earth with the
forehead, and killing the ground. This ceremony,
which the Greeks called Conon reluied to
perform to Artaxerxes, and Callidhenes to Alexander
the Great, as reputing it impious and unlawful.
The adoration performed to the Roman and Grecian
emperors confided in bowing or kneeling at the prince’s
feet, laying held of his purple robe, and prefently with¬
drawing the hand and clapping it to the lips. Some
attribute the origin of this pradlice to Condantius. It
was only perfons of fome rank or dignity that were en¬
titled to the honour,. Bare kneeling before the empe¬
ror to deliver a petition, was alfo called adoration.
The practice of adoration may be laid to be dillfub-
fiding in England, in the ceremony of killing the king’s
or queen’s hand, and in ferving them at table, both be¬
ing performed kneeling.
Adoration is more particularly ufed for killing one’s
hand in prefence of another, as a token of reverence.
The Jews adored by killing their hands and bowing
down their heads •, whence, in their language, kijjing
is properly ufed for adoration.
Adoration is alfo ufed among Roman writers for
i ] ADO
a high fpccies of applaule given to perfons who had Adorat’or.,
fpeken or performed well in public. (See Acclama- Adotca.
tjon.) We meet with adoration paid to orators, ac¬
tors, mudeians, &c. The method of expreliing it was,
by riling, putting both hands to their mouth, and then
returning them towards the perfon intended to be ho¬
noured.
Adoration is alfo ufed, in the court of Rome, for
the ceremony of killing the pope’s feet.—The intro-
duftion of adoration among the Romans is aferibed to
the low flattery of Vitellius, who, upon the return oRC.
Csefar from Syria, would not approach him otherwife
than with his head covered, turning himfelf round, and
then falling on his face. Heliogabalus rellored the
praftice, and Alexander Severus again prohibited it..
Dioclelian redemanded it; and it was, in forae mea-
fure, continued under the fucceeding princes, even af¬
ter the eltablilhment of Chriitianity, as Conilantine,
Conflantius, &c. It is particularly laid of Dioclefian,
that he had gems faftened to his Ihoes, that divine ho¬
nours might be more willingly paid him, by killing his
feet. The like ufage was afterwards adopted by the
popes, and is oblerved to this day. Thefe prelates,
finding a vehement difpofition in the people to fall
down before them and kifs their feet, procured cruci¬
fixes to be faftened on their dippers 5 by which ftrata-
gem, the adoration intended for the pope’s perfon is
luppofed to be transferred to Chrift. Divers a6ts of this
adoration we find offered even by princes to the pope.
Adoration is alfo ufed for a method of eledting a-
pope. The eledlion of popes is performed two ways ;
by adoration and by feruiiny. In election by adora¬
tion, the cardinals ruih haftily, as if agitated by forne.
fpirit, to the adoration of fome one among them, to
proclaim him pope. When the eledlion is carried by
ferutiny,. they do not adore the new pope till he is
placed on the altar.
Barbarous sIdgration is a term ufed, in the laws of
King Canute, for that perfortned after the manner of
the Heathens who adored idols. '1 he Romilh church
is charged with the adoration of faints, martyrs, images,
crucifixes, relics, the virgin, and the hoft ; all which
by Proteftants are generally aggravated into idolatry,
on a fuppofition, that the honour thus paid to them
is abfoiute and fupreme, called by way of diftinftioiv
Latria, which is due only to God. Roman Catho¬
lics, on the contrary, explain them, as only a relative
or fubordinate worlhip, called Duiia and Hyperdulia,
which terminates ultimately in God alone. But may
not the fame be faid of the idol worfhip of the hea¬
thens ? The Phoenicians adored the winds, on account
of the terrible effe6Is produced by them ; the fame was
adopted by moft of the other nations, Periians, Greeks,
Romans, &c. The Perfians chiefly paid their adora¬
tions to the fun and fire 5 fome fay alfo to rivers-, the
wind, &c. The motive of adoring the. fun was the
benefits they received from that glorious luminary,
which of all creatures has doubtlels the beft preten-
fions to fuch homage.
ADOREA, in Roman Antiquity, a word ufed in
different fenfes ; fometimes for all manner of grain,,
fometimes for a kind of cakes made of fine flour, and
offered in facrifice 5 and finally for a dole or dhtribu-
tion of corn, as a reward for fome fervice 5 whence by
metonymy it is put for praife or rewards in general.
ADOSC UIATION,,
#
ADR [192] ADR
Ailofcula- ADOSCULATION, a term ufed by Dr Grew, to
tl®n imply a kind of impregnation, without intromiflion j
Adranum an^ manner be fuppofes the impregnation of
plants is elfefted by the falling of the farina foecundans
on the piftil.
ADOSSEE', in Heraldry, tignifies two figures or
bearings being placed back to back.
ADOUR, the name of a river of France, which
rifes in the mountains of Bigorre, in the department of
the Upper Pyrenees, and running north by Tarbes
through Gafcony, afterwards turns eaft, and pafling by
Dax, falls into the bay of Bifcay, below Bayonne.
ADOWA, the capital of Tigre in Abyflinia, is fi-
tuated on the declivity of a hill, on the weft fide of a
fmali plain, which is furrounded on every fide by moun¬
tains. The name, fignifying, pafs, or pajfage, is cha-
rafteriftic of its fituation ; for the only road from the
Red fea to Gondar paffes by Adowa. The town con-
fifts of 300 houfes, is the refidence of the governor,
and has a manufaftory of coarfe cotton cloth which
circulates in Abyflmia as the medium of exchange in
place of money. N. Lat. 14. 7. E. Long. 38. 50.
ADOXA, Tuberous Moschatel, Hollow-
root, or Inglorious, in Botany. See Botany
Index.
AD pondus omnium, among Phyficians, an ab¬
breviation in their prefcriptions, fignifying that the laft
mentioned ingredient is to weigh as much as all the
reft together.
Sin Quod Damnum, in the Engli/h Law, a writ di-
refled to the fheriff, commanding him to inquire into
the damage which may arife from granting certain pri¬
vileges to a place, as a fair, a market, or the like.
ADRA, in Geography, a fea-port town of the pro¬
vince of Granada, in Spain, 47 miles fouth-eaft of
Granada. N. Lat. 36. 42. E. Long. 2. 37.
ADRACHNE, in Botany, a fpecies of the ftrawr-
berry tree. See Arbutus, Botany/Wbv.
ADRAMMELECH, one of the gods of the inha¬
bitants of Sepharvaim, who wrere fettled in the country
of Samaria, in the room of thofe Ifraelites who w7ere
carried beyond the Euphrates. The Sepharvaites made
their children pafs through, the fire, in honour of this
idol and another called Anamelcch. It is fuppofed,
that Adrammelech meant the fun, and Anamelech the
mdon : the firft fignifies the magnificent king; the fe-
cond the gentle king.
ADRAMYTTIUM, in Ancient Geography, now
Andramiti, a town of Myfia Major, at the foot of
Mount Ida, an Athenian colony, with a harbour and
dock near the Caicus. Adramyttenus the epithet j as,
Adramyttenus Sinus, a part of the Egean fea, on the
coaft of Myfia ; Adramyttenus Conventus, feffions or af-
fizes, the eighth in order of the nine Conventus Juri-
dici of the province of Afia.
ADR AN A, a river of Germany (Polybius) ; now
the Eder, rifing on the borders of the county of Naf-
fau, to the north-eaft of, and not far from Dillen-
burg, running through the landgraviate of He fie, the
county of Waldeck, by Fritzlar, and then again
through the landgraviate, and, together wdth the Ful¬
da, falling into the Wefer, to the fauth of, and not
far from Caffel.
ADRANUM, or Hadranum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, now Aderno, which fee.
2
ADRASTEA, in Mythology, was the daughter of Adrafte*
Jupiter and Neceflity, and, according to Plutarch, the H.
only fury who executed the vengeance of the gods., ~ c
The name is derived from King Adraftus, who firft
erefted a temple to that deity.
Adrastea Certamina, in Antiquity, a kind of Py¬
thian games, inftituted by Adraftus king of Argos, in
the year of the wmrld 2700, in honour of Apollo, at
Sicyon. Thefe are to be diftinguiftied from the Py¬
thian games celebrated at Delphi.
ADR AST US, in Ancient Hijlory, king of Argos,
fon of Talaus and Lyfianifla, daughter of Polybius
king of Sicyon, acquired great honour in the famous
tvar of Thebes, in fupport of Polynices his fon-in-lawy-
who had been excluded the fovereignty of Thebes by
Eteocles his brother, notwithstanding their reciprocal
agreement. Adraftus, followed by Polynices, and
Tydeus his other fon-in-law, by Capaneus and Hip-
pomedon his lifter’s fons, by Amphiaraus his brother-
in lawq and by Parthenopseus, marched againft the city
of Thebes 5 and this is the expedition of the Seven
Worthies, which the poets have fo often fung. They
all loft their lives in this war except Adraftus, wdio
was faved by his horfe called Arion. This war was
revived ten years after by the fons of thofe deceafed
warriors, which was called the war of the Epigones,
and ended with the taking of Thebes. None of
them loft their lives except zEgialeus fon of Adraftus j
which afflicted him fo much that he died of grief in
Megara, as he was leading back his victorious army.
ADRAZZO, or Ajaccio. The fame with Ad-
jazz o, which fee.
ADRIA, or Hadria, in Ancient Geography, the
name of two towns in Italy. One in the country of
the Veneti, on the river Tartarus, between the Padus
and the Athefis, called Atria by Pliny and Ptolemy,
but Adrias by Strabo. Another on the river Voma-
nus, in the territory of the Piceni (to which Anto-
nine’s Itinerary from Rome is dire£ted), the country of
the anceftors of the emperor Adrian. From which of
thefe the Adriatic fea is denominated, is matter of
doubt. A third opinion is, that it is fo called from
Adrias the fon of Joan, of Italian origin j (Euftathius
in Dionyfium).
ADRIAN, or Hadrian, Publius ALlius, the
Roman emperor. He w7as born at Rome the 24th of
January, in the 76th year of Chrift, A. U. C. 829.
His father left him an orphan, at ten years of age,
under the guardianlhip of Trajan, and Coelius Tatianus
a Roman .knight. He began to ferve very early in
the armies, having been tribune of a legion before the
death of Domitian. He w;as the perfon chofen by the
army of Low’er Moefia, to carry the new7s of Nerva’s
death to Trajan, fucceffbr to the empire. Trajan,
howrever, conceived fome prejudices againft him, and
Adrian perceiving that he w7as no favourite with the
emperor, endeavoured to ingratiate himfelf with the
emprefs Plotina, by which means he fucceeded in ob¬
taining for his wife, Sabina, the emperor’s grand-niece
and next heirefs. This was probably the firft ftep to
his future advancement, and facilitated his afcent to
the throne. As quafflor he accompanied Trajan in
moft of his expeditions, and particularly diftinguiftied
himfelf in the fecond war again!! the Dacians. After¬
wards he was fuccefflvely tribune of the people, praetor,
governor
ADR [i
Adrian- governor of Pannonia, and conful. After the fiege
——y——' 0f Atra in Arabia was raifed, Trajan, who had al¬
ready given him the government of Syria, left him
the command of the army : and at length, when he
found death approaching, it is faid he adopted him.
Adrian, who was then in Antiochia, as foon as he re¬
ceived the news thereof, and of Trajan's death, declared
himfelf emperor, on the i ith of Augud, A. D. 117.
No fooner had he arrived at the imperial dignity,
than he made peace with the Perfians, to whom he
yielded up great part of the conquefts of his predecef-
fors ; and from generofity, or policy, he remitted the
debts of the Roman people, which, according to the
calculation of thole who have reduced them to modern
money, amounted to 22,500,000 golden crowns 5 and
he burnt all the bonds and obligations relating to thefe
debts, that the people might be under no apprehenfion
of being called to an account for them afterwards.
There are medals in commemoration of this faft, in
which he is reprefented holding a flambeau in his
hand, to fet fire to all thofe bonds which he had made
void. He went to vifit all the provinces ; and did not
return to Rome till the year 118, when the fenate de¬
creed him a triumph and honoured him with the title
of Father of his country ; but he refufed both, and de-
fired that Trajan’s image might triumph. No prince
travelled more than Adrian 5 there being hardly one
province in the empire which he did not vifit. In
120 he went into Gaul; from thence he went over to
Britain, in order to fubdue the Caledonians, who were
making continual inroads into the provinces. Upon his
arrival they retired towards the north : he advanced,
however, as far as York, where he was diverted from
his intended conqueft by the defeription fome old
foldiers he found there, who had ferved under A-
.jrricola, gave him of the country. In hopes, there-
rore, of keeping them quiet by enlarging their
bounds, he delivered up to the Caledonians all the
lands lying between the two friths and the Tyne j
and, at the fame time, to fecure the Roman pro-
"vince from their future incurflons, built the famous
wrall which fliill bears his name (a). Having thus fet¬
tled matters in Britain, he returned to Rome, where
he wTas honoured wdth the title of Rertorer of Britain,
as appears by fome medals. He foon after went into
Spain, to Mauritania, and at length into the Ealt,
where he quieted the commotions raifed by the Par-
thians. After having vifited all the provinces of Afia,
he returned to Athens in 125, where he palled the
Von. I. Part L
93 ] ADR
winter, and was initiated in the myfteries of Eteufinian
Ceres. Pie went from thence to Sicily, chiefly to viewT '
Mount Attna, contemplate its phenomena, and enjoy
the beautiful and extenfive profpe£l afforded from its
top. He returned to Rome the beginning oi the year
129 ; and, according to fome, he went again, the fame
year, to Africa j and, after his return from thence, to
the call. He w^as in Egypt in the year 132, revifited
Syria the year following, returned to Athens in 134,
and to Rome in 135. The perfecution again!! the
Chriftians was very violent under his reign 5 but it was
at length fufpended, in confequence of the remonftrances
of Quadratus biffiop of Athens, and Ariftides, two Chri-
llian philofophers, who prefented the emperor with fome
books in favour of the Chriftian religion. He con¬
quered the Jews; and, by wray of infulf, eredled a
temple to Jupiter on Calvary, and placed a ftatue of
Adonis in the manger of Bethlehem \ he caufed alfo
the images of fwine to be engraven on the gates of Je-
rufalem. At laft he w^as feized with a dropfy, which
vexed him to fuch a degree, that he became almoi!
raving mad. A great number of phyficians were fent
for, and to the multitude of them he aferibed his death.
He died at Baiae in the 63d year of his age, having
reigned 21 years. The Latin verfes he addreffed to
his foul, which he compofed a fhort time before his
death, in a firain of tender levity, have been much
criticifed and have been the fubjeft of numerous tranf-
lations and imitations.
Animula vagula, blandulaf
Hofpes, comefque corporis,
nunc ahibis in loca
Pallidu/a, rigida, nuduia,
Nee, Ut foies, dabis jocos ?
Ah ! fleeting fpirit! w-and’ring fire,
That long haft warm’d my tender breaft,
Muft thou no more this frame infpire ?
No more a pleafmg cheerful gueft ?
Whither, ah wdiither art thou flying ?
To what dark undifeover’d fhore ?
Thou feem’ft all trembling, fliiv’ring, dying,
And wit and humour are no more !
Pope.
Some fragments of his Latin poetry are ftill extant,,
and there are Greek verfes of his in the Anthology.
He alfo wuote the hiftory of his own life 5 to which,
however, he did not choofe to put his name 5 but that
E b of
Adrian,
(a) This wrork, though called by the Roman hiftorians murus, which fignifies a wall of ftone, was only com*
pofed of earth covered with green turf. It was carried on from the Solway frith, a little wreft of the village
-of Burgh on the Sands, in as direft a line as poflible, to the river Tyne on the eaft, at the place where the
town of Newcaftle nowr ftands ; fo that it muft have been above 60 Englifh, and near 70 Roman miles in
length. It confifted of four parts : 1. The principal agger, mound of earth, or rampart, on the brink of the
ditch. 2. The ditch on the north fide of the rampart. 3. Another rampart on the fouth fide of the principal
one, about five paces diftant from it. 4. A large rampart on the north fide of the ditch.—This laft was probably
the military wTay to the line of forts on this work: it was fo to thofe formerly built by Agricola; and if it
did not ferve the fame purpofe in this, there muft have been no military way attending it.—ILe fouth rampart
might ferve for an inner defence in cafe the enemy fhould beat them from any part of the principal rampart,
or it might be defigned to proteff the foldiers from any hidden attack of the provincial Britons.—For many
ages, this work hath been in fo ruinous a condition, that it is impoffible to difeover its original dimenfions with
certainty. From their appearance, it feems probable that the principal rampart wTas at leaf! 10 or 12 feet
high.
ADR [ i
Ad/;m. 0f palegon, one of his freed-men, a very learned per-
fon, was prefixed to it*. He had great wit and a
tia!,, L^entive memory, and he diftinguiihed himfelf in the
driam " various branches of literature and fcience. In his na¬
tural difpofition he was fufpicious, envious, cruel, and
lafcivious. In his charafter there was a flrange com-
pofition of virtues and vices. He rvas afl'able, courteous,
and liberal; but he was capricious and unfteady in his
attachments, and violent in his refentment. Thus he
was dillrufted by his friends, and dreaded by his ene¬
mies. Antoninus his fucceiTor obtained his apothe-
ofis ; and prevented the refciffion of his adds, which the
fenate once intended.
Adrian I. Pope, afcended the papal throne, A. D.
772. He was the fon of Theodore, a Roman noble¬
man, and poffeffed confiderable talents for bufinefs.
He maintained a Heady attachment to Charlemagne,
which provoked Defiderius, king of the Lombards, to
invade the Hate of Ravenna, and to threaten Rome it-
felf. Charlemagne rewarded his attachment, by march¬
ing with a great army to his aid ; and having gained
many confiderable advantages over Defiderius, he vi-
fited the pope at Rome, and exprefied his piety, by the
humiliating ceremony of killing each of the Heps, as he
afcended to the church of St Peter. The affairs of
the church now claimed Adrian’s particular attention :
for Irene, who, in 7II0, affumed the regency at Conllan-
tinople, during the minority of her fon Conftantine, wilh-
ing to reftore the worlhip of images, applied to Adrian
for his concurrence. The pontiff readily acquiefced in
her propofal for calling a council, and commiffioned
two legates to attend it. The firft council, however,
was difperfed by an infurreftion of the citizens, but at
the next meeting in the city of Nice, in 787, which
was protefted by a military force, a decree was paffed
for refloring the worlhip of images. Adrian approved
the decree, but in the weftern church it was deemed
heretical and dangerous. Charlemagne condemned
the innovation, and the French and Englilh clergy con¬
curred in oppoling it. A treatife, containing 120
heads of refutation, was circulated, as the work of
Charlemagne, under the title of “ The Caroline Books,”
in oppofition to the decree of the council. This work
was prefented to the pope by the king’s ambaffador,
and the pope wrote a letter to Charlemagne by way of
reply. The king, and alfo the Gallican and Englilh
churches, retained their fentiments ; and, in 794, a
council was held at Frankfort on the Maine, conliliing
of about 300 weftern bifhops, by which every kind of
Image-worlhip was condemned. Adrian did not live
to fee a termination of this contefi: 5 for after a pontifi¬
cate of nearly twenty-four years, he died in 795. A-
drian feeras to have dire£ied his chief attention to the
embellilhment of the churches, and the improvement
of the city of Rome j and he was probably furnilhed
by Charlemagne, out of the plunder of his conquefts,
with ample means for this purpofe.
Adrian II. Pot<e, fucceeded’ Nicholas I. A. D.
94 ] ADR
867. Having twice refufed the dignity, he accepted
it in the 76th year of his age, at the united requeft: of
the clergy, nobility, and people. The conteft for power
between the Greek and Latin churches had been very
violent fome years before his acceffion to the papal
chair.
Adrian, during this conteft with the eaftern patriarch,
was extending his authority over the kings and princes
of the weft. He employed his whole intereft to induce
Charles the Bald, who had taken poffelhon of the king¬
dom of Lorraine, and who had been crowned at Rheims
by the archbilhop Hincmar, to relinquilh it in favour
of the emperor 5 and he even fent legates to the king,
after having attempted to engage Hincmar, the clergy,
and the nobility to defert him, ordering him to furren-
der to the emperor’s right. The king was invincible j
and the pope was obliged to give up the conteft. He
alfo farther interfered in the concerns of princes, by
taking Charles’s rebellious fon Carloman, and the
younger Hincmar, bilhop of Laon, under the protec¬
tion of the Roman fee. He proceeded in this bufinefs
fo far, that he was under a neceffity of fubmitting
without gaining his point. Death terminated his am¬
bitious proje&s and his life of inquietude, A. D. 872,
after a pontificate of five years.
Adrian IV. Pope, the only Englilhman who ever
had the honour of fitting in the papal chair. His
name was Nicholas Brekefpere 5 and he was born at
Langley, near St Alban’s, in Hertfordfliire. His
father having left his family, and taken the habit of
the monaftery of St Alban’s, Nicholas was obliged to
fubmit to the loweft: offices in that houfe for daily fup-
port. After fome time, he defired to take the habit in
that monaftery, but was rejefted by the Abbot Richard.
Upon this he refolved to try his fortune in another coun¬
try, and accordingly went to Paris ; where, though in
very poor circumftances, he applied himfelf to his
ftudies with great affiduity, and made a wonderful pro¬
ficiency. But having itill a ftrong inclination to a re¬
ligious life, he left Paris, and removed to Provence;
where he became a regular clerk in the monaftery of
St Rufus. He was not immediately allowed to take
the habit; but paffed fome time, by way of trial, in re¬
commending bimfelf to the monks by a lirict attention
to all their commands. This behaviour, together with
the beauty of his perfon, and prudent converfation,
rendered him .fo acceptable to thofe religious, that af¬
ter fome time they entreated him to take the habit of
the canonical order. Here he diftinguifhed himfelf for
much by his learning and ftridt obfervance of the mo-
naftic difeipline, that upon the death of the abbot, he
was chofen fuperior of that houfe ; and we are told
that he rebuilt the convent. Pope Eugenius III.
being apprifed of the great merit of Nicholas, and
thinking he might be ferviceable to the church in a
higher ftation, created him cardinal-bifhop of Alba
in 1146. In 1148, his holinefs fent him legate to
Denmark and Norway; where, by his fervent preach¬
ing
Adrian.
high, and the fouth one not much lefs ; but the north one wTas confiderably lower. From the dimenfions of
the ditch taken as it paffes through a lime-ftone quarry near Harlow hill, it appears to have been 9 feet deep,
and n wide at the top, but fomewhat narrower at the bottom. The north rampart was about 20 feet diftaut
from the ditch.
ADR [i
Adrian, ing and diligent inftru&ions, lie converted thofe bar-
mmm-y- parous nations to the Chriftian faith, and erected Up-
1'al into an archiepifcopal fee. When he returned to
Rome, he was received by the pope and cardinals with
great marks of honour } and Pope Anaftaiius, who
lucceeded Eugenius, happening to die at tnis time,
Nicholas was unanimoufly chofen to the holy fee, in
November 1154, and he took the name of Adrian.
When the news of his promotion reached England,
King Henry II. fent Robert abbot of St Alban’s, and
three bilhops, to Rome, to congtatulate him on his
election •, upon which occation Adrian granted very
connderable privileges to the monaftery ol St Alban’s,
particularly an exemption from all epilcopal jurifdic-
tion, excepting to the fee of Rome. Adrian, in the
beginning of his pontificate, boldly withftood the at¬
tempts of the Roman people to recover their ancient
liberty under the conluls, and obliged thofe magiftrates
to abdicate their authority, and leave the government
of the city to the pope. In 1155, he drove the he¬
retic Arnaud of Breffe, and his followers, out of
Rome. The fame year he excommunicated William
king of Sicily, who ravaged the territories of the
church, and abfolved that prince’s fubjecls from their
allegiance. About the fame time, Frederick king of
■the Romans, having entered Italy with a powerful
army, Adrian met him near Sutrium, and concluded
a peace with him. At this interview, Frederic con-
fented to hold the pope’s ftirrup whilft he mounted on
liorfeback. After which, his holinefs conducted that
prince to Rome, and in St Peter’s church placed the
imperial crown on his head, to the great mortification
of the Roman people, who affembled in a tumultuous
manner, and killed feveral of the Imperialifts. The
next year a reconciliation was brought about between
the pope and the Sicilian king, that prince taking an
oath to do nothing farther to the prejudice of the
church, and Adrian granting him the title of King of
the two Sicilies. He built and fortified feveral cattles,
and left the papal dominions in a more flourifhing con¬
dition than he found them. But notwithftanding all
his fuccefs, he was extremely fenfible of the difquietudes
attending fo high a Ration ; and declared to his coun¬
tryman John of Saliihury, that all the former hardfhips
of his life were mere amufement to the misfortunes of
the popedom ; that he looked upon St Peter’s chair to
be the moil uneafy feat in the world •, and that his
Baronies crown feemed to be clapped burning on his head *. He
Anal. tom. died September 1. 115:9, in the fourth year and tenth
jrii.an.1154. month of his pontificate ; and was buried in St Peter’s
church, near the tomb of his predeceffor Eugenius.
There are extant feveral letters, and fome homilies,
written by Pope Adrian.
Adrian V. Pope, a Genoefe, whofe name was Ot-
toboni Fiefci, fucceeded Innocent V. A. D.. 1276. He
was by his uncle Innocent IV. created cardinal deacon
of St Adrian, and in 1254 fent by him to England,
to fettle the difputes between Henry HI. and his ba¬
rons. He was employed again for the fame purpofe,
by Clement III. when he iffued a fentence of excom¬
munication againft the king’s enemies. V hen he was
congratulated on his acceflion to the papal chair, he
laid, “ I wilh you had found me a healthy cardinal,
rather than a dying pope.” After his election he
went to Viterbo to meet the emperor Rodolphus, for
95 ] ADR
the purpofe of oppofing the ufurpation of Charles, king
of the Two Sicilies } but died foon after his arrival, ^
having enjoyed his dignity only thirty-eight days. He
zealoully encouraged the crufade to the Holy Land,
and upon his election fent a large fum to Conlf antinople
towards building galleys.
Adrian, cardinal prieft, of the title of St Chry-
fogonus, was a native of Cornetto in Fufcany. In¬
nocent VIII. fent him nuncio into Scotland and into
France } and after he had been clerk and treafurer Oj.
the apoltolic chamber, Pope Alexander VI. whole fe-
cretary he had been, honoured him with the cardinal s
hat. His life was a continued fcene of odd alterations.
He narrowly efcaped death the day Alexander VI.
poifoned himfelf by miftake. Afterward he drew upon
himfelf the hatred of Julius II. fo that he was obliged
to go and hide himfelf in the mountains of Trent.
Having been recalled by Leo X. he was fo ungrate¬
ful, that he engaged in a confpiracy againft him. I he
pope pardoned his fault} but the cardinal, not caring
to truft to this, made his efcape, and it could never
be known exaffly what was become of him. He was
one of the firft who effe&ually reformed the Latin
ftyle. He ftudied Cicero with great fuccefs, and
made many excellent obfervations on the propriety of
the Latin tongue. The treatife he compofed De Ser-
tnone Latino, is a proof of this. He had begun a La¬
tin tranflation of the Old Teftament. He wrote De
Vera Philofophia: This treatife was printed at Cologn
1548.
Adrian VI. Pope, was born at Utrecht in 1459.
Flis father was not able to maintain him at Ichool, but
he got a place at Louvain, in a college in which a cer¬
tain number of fcholars were maintained gratis. It is
reported that he ufed to read in the night time by the
light of the lamps in the churches or ftreets. He made
a confiderable progrefs in all the fciences ; led an ex¬
emplary life •, and there never was a man lefs intriguing
and forward than he was. He took his degree of doc¬
tor of divinity at Louvain 5 was foon after made canon
of St Peter’s, and profeffor of divinity at Utrecht, and
then dean of St Peter’s and vice-chancellor of the uni-
verfity. He was obliged to leave an academical life,
to be tutor to the archduke Charles. This young
prince made no great progrefs under him : however,
never was a tutor more confiderably rewarded ; for it
was by Charles V.’s credit he was raifed to the papal
throne. Leo X. had given him the cardinal’s hat in
1517. After this pope’s death, feveral cabals in the
conclave ended in the eleftion of Adrian, with which
the people of Rome were very much difpleafed. Pie
would not change his name, and in every thing he
fliowed a great diflike for all oftentation and fenfu&l
pleafures, though fuch an averfion had been long ago
out of date. He was very partial to Charles V. and
did not enjoy much tranquillity under the triple crown.
Pie lamented much the wicked morals of the clergy*
and wiftred to eftablhh a reformation of manners among
them. He died September t4. 1523.
ADRIANI, Joanni Battista, was born of a pa¬
trician family at Florence in 15x1. He wrote a Hifto-
ry of his own Times in Italian 5 which is a continua¬
tion of Guicciardini, beginning at the year 1536 j
to which Thuanus acknowledges himfelf greatly in¬
debted : befides which, he compofed fix funeral oca-
B b 2 tions,
Adrian,
Adrian!.
ADR [ t
Adriamfts tions, on the emperor Charles V. and other noble
Adrianum Perfona&es > and is thought to have been the author of
v a long letter on ancient painters and fculptors, prefix¬
ed to the third volume of Vafari. He died at Florence
in 1579.
A DR ! ANTS I S, in Ecclejiaftical Ilijlory, a fe<51 of
heretics divided into two branches, the firil were dif-
ciples oi Simon Magus, and flourilhed about the year
34. Theodoret is the only perfon who has preferved
their name and memory ; but he gives us no account of
their origin. Probably this feci, and the fix others
which fprung from the Simonians, took their name from
the particular difciples of Simon. The fecond were
the followers of Adrian Hamllead the anabaptill 5 and
held fome particular errors concerning Chriil.
ADRIANOPLE, a city of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Romania, and the fee of an archbifhop
under the patriarch of Conftantinople. It is about fe-
ven or eight miles in circumference, including the old
city and lome gardens. The houfes are low, moflly
built of mud and clay, and fome of brick : and the
flreets are exceedingly dirty. The walls and towers are
in a great meafure fallen to decay. However, there is
a beautiful bazar, or market, half a mile long, called
Ali Balia. It is a vaft arched building, with fix gates,
and 365 well furnifhed fliops, kept by Turks, Arme¬
nians, and Jews, who pay five crowns a-month for
each Ihop. The number of inhabitants of all nations-
and religions may be about 100,0004 but it is dear
living here, becaufe the provifions are brought from
ciiftant places. The air is wholefome, and the coun¬
try very pleafant in the fummer time, on account of
the river and ftreams that run near and about the city j
the chief of which is the Mariza. Thefe promote
and preferve the verdure of the gardens, meadows, and
fields, for a confiderable part of the year. In the win¬
ter there is plenty of game. Near the principal ba¬
zar there is another, about a mile in length, covered
with boards, with holes on each fide to let in the light.
It is full of good {hops, which contain all kinds of
commodities. Sultan Selim’s mofque {lands on the
fide of a hill, in the midll of the city ; and hence this
magnificent ftrudlure may be feen on all Tides. Every
thing made of gold and filver, jewels, pillols, fcimi-
lars, &c. are fold in another part of the city, called,
by travellers the bv&ejlein, though it differs little from
a. bazar. This contains about 200 {hops, and is co¬
vered like the former : but the covering is fupported
by two rows of large pillars. The grand vizier’s pa¬
lace is nothing more than a convenient houfe, after the
Turkiih manner of building. The emperor’s feraglio
is a regular ilruflure, in a plain near the river Tungia.
It is t wo miles in compafs, and has feven gates, befides
fcbofe of the gardens, which are feveral miles in circum-
iierence. The city is governed by a mullah cadi, who
has an abfolute authority both in civil and criminal mat¬
ters. In the time of the plague, or war, the grand fig-
nior fbmethnes refides here. The Turks took this city
feoni the Greeks in 1362, and made it the capital of
empire, till Mahomet II. took Conftantinople in 1453.
E. Long. 26. 27. N. Lat. 41.41.
ADRIANUM (or Adriaticum) mare, in An¬
cient. Geography, now the gulf of Venice, a large bay
in the Mediterranean, between Dalmatia, Sclavonia,
Greece, and Italy. It is called by the Greeks
Advent.
96 ] ADR
; and Adria by the Romans, (as Arbiter Adrice Adrogat;on
Not us, Hor.) Cicero calls it Hadrianum Mare ; Virgil
has Hadriaticas Undos. It is commonly called Mare
Adriaticum, without an afpiration ; but whether it
ought to have one, is a difpute : if the appellation is
from Hadria, the town of the Piceni, it muff be writ¬
ten Hadriaticum, becaule the emperor’s name, who
thence derives his origin, is on coins and ftones Hadri-
anus ; but if from the town in the territory of Venice,
as the more ancient, and of which that of the Piceni
is a colony, this will juftify the common appellation
Adriaticum.
ADROGATION, in Roman Antiquities, a fpecieS'
of adoption, whereby a perfon who was capable off
choofing for himfelf was admitted by another into the
relation of a fon. The word is compounded of ad^
“ to,” and rogare, “ to alk on account of a queftion
put in the ceremony of it, Whether the adopter would
take fuch a perfon for his fon ? and another to the-
adoptive, Whether he confented to become fuch a per-
fon’s fon ?
A DSIDELLA, in Antiquity, the table at which the
flamens fat during the facrifices.
ADSTRICTION, among Rhyjicians, a term ufed
to denote the rigidity of any part.
ADUACA, or Atuaca, anciently a large and"
famous city of the Tungri now a fmall and incon-
fiderable village, called Tongeren, in the biftropric
of Liege, to the north-weft of the city of Liege, in
the territory of Hafpengow, on the rivulet Jecker,
that foon after falls into the Maefe. E. Long. 5. 52.
N. Lat. 50. 54.
ADVANCE, in the mercantile ftyle, denotes money'
paid before goods are delivered, work done, or bufinefs
performed.
ADVANCED, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-'
thing polled or fituated before another. Thus,
Advanced Ditch, in Fortification, is that-which fur-
rounds the glacis or efplanade of a place.
Advanced Guard,- or Vanguard, in the art of war, >
the firft line or divifion of an army, ranged or march¬
ing in order of battle 7 or, it is that part which is next
the enemy, and marches firft towards them.
Advanced Guard, is more particularly ufed for a
fmall party of horfe ftationed before the main guard.
ADVANCER, among fportfmen, one of the ilarts
or branches of a buck’s attire, between the back antler
and the palm.
ADUAR, in the Arabian and Mooriih cuftoms, a
kind of ambulatory village, confifting of tents, which-
theie people remove from one place to another, as fuits-
their conveniency.
ADVENT, in the calendar, properly fignifies the
approach of the feaft of the nativity. It includes four
Sundays, which begins on St Andrew’s day, or on the
Sunday before or after it. During advent, and to the
end of the oflaves of epiphany, the folemnizing of
marriage is forbidden without a fpecial licenfe. It is
appointed to employ the thoughts of Chriftians on the
firil advent or coming of Chriil in the fielh, and his
fecond advent or coming to judge the world. The pri¬
mitive Chriftians pra&ifed great aufterity during this-
feafon.
Ad ventrem iNSFiciENDUM, vdLovo, a writ by which
a woman is to be fearched whether (he be with child
by
A D V [ 197
Adventure, by a former hufband, on ber withholding of lands
A D U
from the next, failing iilue of her own body.
ADVENTURE, in a general fenfe, feme extraor¬
dinary or accidental event. It alfo denotes a hazardous
or difficult undertaking.
Bill of Adventure, among Merchants, a writing
figned by a merchant, teilifying the goods mentioned
in it to be fhipped on board a certain vekel belonging
to another perfon, who is to run all hazards j tne mer¬
chant only obliging himfeif to account to him for the-
produce.
Ad venture Bay, in Van Diemen’s land. “ There is a
beautiful fandy beach, about two miles long, at the
bottom of Adventure Bay, formed to all appearance
by the particles which the fea wafnes from a fine white
fand-llone. This beach is very well adapted for haul¬
ing a feme. Behind it is a plain, with a brackilh
lake, out of which we caught, by angling, fome bream
and trout. The parts adjoining the bay are moflly
hilly, and are an entire foreft of tall trees, rendered
almoil impafifable by brakes of fern, fhrubs. &c. I he
foil on the' flat land, and on the lower part of the'
hills, is fandy or confifts of a yellowifh earth, and
in fome parts of a reddifh clay 5 but further up. the
hills, it is of a gray tough call. This country, upon
the whole, bears many marks of being very dry, and
the heat appears to be great. No mineral bodies, nor
Hones of any other kind than the white fand-ftone,
were obferved by usj nor could we find any vegetables
that afforded fubfiftence for man. The foreff trees
are all of one kind, and generally quite ftraight: they
bear duffers of fmall white flowers. The principal
plants obferved, are wood-forrel, milkwort, cudweed>
bell-flower, gladiolus, famphire, and feveral kinds of
fern j the only quadruped, a fpecies of opoffumj about
twice the fize of a large rat. The kangooroo, found
further northward in New Holland, may alfo be fup-
pofed to inhabit here, as fome of the inhabitants had
pieces of the fkin of that animal.
“ The principal forts of birds in the rvoods are brown
hawks or eagles, crows, large pigeons, yellowifh par-
roquets, and a fpecies which they called mbtati/la cya-
nea, from the beautiful azure colour of its head and
neck. On the fliore wTere feveral gulls, black oyfter-
catchers, or fea pies; and plovers of a ftone colour.
“ The inhabitants feemed mild and cheerful, with
little of that wild appearance that favages in general
have. They are almoft totally devoid of perfonal ac¬
tivity or genius, and are nearly upon a par with the
wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. They difplay,
however, fome contrivance in their method of cutting
their arms and bodies in lines of different directions,
raifed above the fur face of the fkin. Their indiffer¬
ence for prefents, their general inattention, and w;ant
of curiofity, wrere very remarkable,, and teftified no
acutenefs of underftanding. Their complexion is a
dull black, which they fometimes heighten .by fmut-
ting their bodies, as was fuppofed, from their leaving,
a mark behind on any clean iubffance. I heir hair is
perfectly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red
ochre, like that of the Hottentots. I heir nofes are
broad and full, and the lower part of the face projects
confiderably. Their eyes are of a moderate fize, and
though they are not very quick or piercing, they give
the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleafing caff,
Their teeth are not very white, nor well fet, and their Adventurer
mouths are too wude : they wear their beards long, and
clotted with paint. They are, upon the whole, well
proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant.
Their favourite attitude is to Hand with one fide for¬
ward, and one hand grafping, acrofs the back, the
oppofite arm, which on this ocafion, hangs dowm by
the fide that projects.” Cookers Voyages.
ADVENTURER, in a general fenfe, denotes one
who hazards fomething.
Adventurers, is particularly ufed for an ancient-
company of merchants and traders, erefted for the dif-
covery of lands, territories, trades, &c. unknown. Tne
fociety of adventurers had its rife in Burgundy, and
its firil eftablifhment from John duke of Brabant in
1248, being knowm by the name of The brotherhood
of St Thomas a Bechet. It was afterwards tranflated
into England, and fucoefiively confirmed by Edward
HI. and IV. Richard III. Henry IV. V. VI. and
VII. who gave it the appellation of Merchant Adven¬
turers.
ADVERB, in Grammar, a particle joined to a verb,
adjeflive, or participle, to explain their manner of a£t-
ing or fullering ; or to mark fome circumftance or
quality fignified by them. The word is formed from
the prepofition ad, “ to,” and verbum, u a verb ;” and
fignifies literally a word joined to a verb, to fliow how,
when, or where, one is, does, or fuffers ; as, the boy
paints neatly, writes illi the houfe Hands there, &c.
See Grammar.
ADVERSARIA, among the ancients, a bock of
accounts, not unlike our journals, or day books. It is
more particularly ufed for a kind of common-place
book. See Common-place book.
ADVERSATIVE, in Grammar, a word exprefling
fome difference between what goes before and what
follows it. Thus, in the phrafe, he is an honejl man,
but a great enthufaf, the word but is an adverfative
conjunction,
ADVERSATOR, in Antiquity, a fervant who at¬
tended the rich in returning from {upper, to give them-
notice of any obftacles in the way, at which they
might be apt to Humble.
ADVERTISEMENT, in a general fenfe, denotes
any information given to perfons interefted in an affair y
and is more particularly ufed for a brief account of an
affair inferted in the public papers, for the information
of all concerned.
ADULA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain in Rhoc-
tia, or the country of the Griions, part of the Alps,
in which are the fountains of the Rhine ; now <S/ Go-
thards.
ADULE, or Adulis, \\\ Ancient Geography,p.lovtn
of Egypt built by fugitive Haves, diftant from its port
on the Red fea 20 ftadia. Pliny calls the inhabitants
Aduliter. The epithet is either Aduhtanus; as. Mo-
numentum Adulitanum, on the pompous infeription of
the ftatue of Ptolemy Euergetes, publilhed by Leo
Alatius at Rome in 1631, and to be found in Spon
and Thevenot: or, Adulicus y as, Adulicus Sinus, a part
of the Red fea.
ADULT, an appellation given to any thing that
is arrived at maturity: Thus we fay, an adult perfon,,
an adult plant, &c. Among civilians, it denotes a
youth between 14 and 25 years of age.
AD U L1 ER Fix y
A D U [ i
Adulterer ^ ADULTERER, a man who commits adultery.
See Adultery.
» tenne. ADULTERESS, a woman guilty of Adultery.
An adulterefs, by our law, undergoes no temporal pu-
nilhment whatever, except the lofs of her dower ; and
Ihe does not lofe even that, if her huihand is weak
enough to be reconciled to her, and cohabit with her
after the offence committed. 13 Ed. I. cap. 34.
But it is to be obferved, that adultereffes are fuch
either by the canon or civil law. According to the
former, a -woman is an adulterefs who, either being
herfelf married, converfes carnally with another man ;
or being fmgle herfelf, converfes with a man that is
married. According to the latter, fire is not an adul¬
terefs, if flie be not herfelf in the married Hate, though
fhe converfes with a man that is. The crime, in this
cafe, was more properly c^WtA Jiuprum than adulterium.
Hence, among the Romans the word adultera, “ a-
dulterefs,” differed from pellex> which denoted a fmgle
woman who cohabited -with a married man : and pef-
lex differed from concubina, which iignified her who had
only intercourfe with an unmarried man. The former
was reputed infamous, and the latter innocent.
ADULTERATION, the a£t of debafing, by an
improper mixture, fomething that was pure "and" ge¬
nuine.
The word is Latin, formed of the verb adulterare,
“ to corrupt,” by mingling fomething foreign to any
fubftance. We have laws againft the adulteration of
coffee, tea, tobacco, fnuff, wine, beer, bread, wax,
hairpowder, &c.
Ami iteration of coin, properly imports the making
or calling of a wrong metal, or with too bafe or too
much alloy.
Adulterations of coins are effe<5fed divers ways : as,
by forging another llamp or infcription ; by mixing
impure metals with the gold or filver : moil properly,
by making ufe of a wrong metal, or an undue alloy,
or too great an admixture of the bafer metals with
gold or filver. Counterfeiting the ftamp, or clipping
and leffening the weight, do not fo properly come
under the denomination of adulterating.—Evelyn gives
rules and methods, both of adulterating and detecting
adulterated metals, &c.—Adulterating is fomewhat lefs
extenfive than debajing, which includes diminifhing,
clipping, &c.
1 o adulterate or debale the current coin, is a capi¬
tal crime in all nations The ancients punifhed it with
great fev.erity: among the Egyptians both hands w'ere
cut off: and by the civil law, the offender was thrown
to wild beafls. The emperor Tacitus enafted, That
counterfeiting the coin fhould be capital ; and under
Conftantine it was made treafon, as it is alfo among
us. The adulterating of gems is a curious art, and
the methods of dete&ing it no lefs ufeful. Nichols
Lapid. p. 18.
ADULTERINE, in the Civil Law, is particularly
applied to a child iffued from an adulterous amour or
commerce. Adulterine children are more odious than
the illegitimate offspring of fingle perfons.—The Ro¬
man law even refufes them the title of natural children j
ps if nature difowned them.—Adulterine children are
not eafily difpenfed writh for admillion to orders. Thofe
are not deemed adulterine, who are begotten of a wo¬
man openly married, through ignorance of a former
1
] A D U
lv: ie being alive.—By a decree of the parliament of Alalterv.
Paii>, adulterine cnildren are declared not legitimated ■' — y—
by the fubfequent marriage of the parties, even though
a papal difpenfation be had for fuch marriage, wherein
is a claufe of legitimation.
Adulterine Marriages, in St Auguftine’s fenfe, de¬
note fecond marriages, contracted after a divorce.
ADULTERY, an unlawful commerce between one
married perfon and another, or between a married and
unmarried perfon.
Punifhments have been annexed to adultery in moft
ages and nations, though of different degrees of feve-
rity. In many it has been capital; in others venial,
and attended only with flight pecuniary mulfts. Some
of the penalties are ferious, and even cruel; others of
a jocofe and humorous kind. Even contrary things
have been enafted as punifhments for adultery. By fome
laws, the criminals are forbidden marrying too-ether,
in cafe they became Angle; by others, they are forbid¬
den to marry any befides each other } by fome, they are
incapacitated from ever committing the like crime
again 5 by others, they are glutted with it till it be¬
comes downright naufeous.
Among the rich Greeks, adulterers were aTlowed to
redeem themfelves by a pecuniary fine •, the woman’s
father, in fuch cafes, returned the dower he had receiv¬
ed from her hufband, which fome think was refunded
by the adulterer. Another punifhment among thofe
people wras, putting.out the eyes of adulterers.
1 he Athenians had an extraordinary way of punifh-
ing adulterers, called TsxcoiiiXftct; praclifed
at lead on the poorer fort who were not able to pay
the fines. This was an awkward fort of empalement,
performed by thrufting one of the largeft radifhes up
the anus of the adulterer, or, in defedl thereof, a fifh
with a large head, called mugil, “ mullet.” Alcmus is
faid to have died this wray, though it is doubted whe¬
ther the punifhment was reputed mortal. Juvenal and
Catullus fpeak of this cuftom as received alfo among
the Romans, though not authorized by an exprefs law,
as it was among the Greeks.
There are various conjeftures concerning the ancient
punifhment of adultery among the Romans. Some
will have it to have been made capital by a law of Ro¬
mulus, and again by the twelve tables. Others, that
it was firft made capital by Auguflus j and others, not
before the emperor Conftantine. The truth is, the pu¬
nifhment in the early days wTas very various, much be¬
ing left to the difcretion of the hufband and parents of
the adulterous wife, w-ho exercifed it differently, rather
with the filence and countenance of the magiftrate than
any formal authority from him. Thus we are told, the
wife’s father was allowed to kill both parties, when
caught in the fadl, provided he did it immediately, kill¬
ed both together, and as it were with one blow. The
fame power ordinarily was not indulged the hufband,
except the crime were committed with fome mean or
infamous perfon ; though, in other cafes, if his rage
carried him to put them to death, he was not punifhed
as a murderer. On many occafions, however, revenge
was not carried fo far ; but mutilating, caftrating, cut¬
ting off the ears, nofes, &c. ferved the turn. The pu¬
nifhment allotted by the lex Julia, was not, as many
have imagined, death ; but rather banifhment, or de¬
portation, being interdidted fire and water : though
Octavius
A D U
[ 199 1
A D U
Adultery. O&avius appears, in feveral inftances, to have gone
1 beyond his own law, and to have put adulterers to
death. Under Macrinus, many were burnt at a flake.
Conftantine firil by law made the crime capital. Un¬
der Conftantius and Conftans, adulterers were burnt, or
fewed in facks and thrown into the fea. Under Leo
and Marcian, the penalty was abated to perpetual ba-
nifhment, or cutting off the nofe. Under Juftinian, a
farther mitigation was granted, at leaf! in favour of the
wife, who was only to be fcourged, lofe her dower, and
be fhut up in a monaftery : after two years, the huf-
band was at liberty to take her back again ; if he re-
fufed, fhe was fhaven, and made a nun for life : But it
ftill remained death in the hufband. The reafon al¬
leged for this difference is, that the woman is the rveak-
er veffel. Matthseus declaims againft the emprefs
Theodora, who is fuppofed to have been the caufe of
this law, as well as of others procured in favour of that
fex from the emperor.
Under Theodolius, women convi&ed of this crime
were punilhed after a very lingular manner, viz. by a
public conftupration 5 being locked up in a narrow
cell, and forced to admit to their embraces all the men
that wTould offer themfelves. To this end, the gal¬
lants were to drefs themfelves on purpofe, having feve¬
ral little bells faftened to their clothes, the tinkling of
which gave notice to thofe without of every motion.
This cuftom was again abolifhed by the fame prince.
By the fewifh law, adultery was punilhed by death
in both parties, where they were both married, or on¬
ly the woman. The JewTs had a particular method of
trying, or rather purging, an adulterefs, or a w^oman,
liifpedted of the crime, by making her drink the bit¬
ter waters ofjealoufy; which, if Ihe were guilty, made
her fwell.
Among the Mingrelians, according to Chardin,
adultery is punifhed with the forfeiture of a hog, which
is ufually eaten in good friendlhip between the gallant,
the adulterefs, and the cuckold. In fome parts of tile
Indies, it is faid any man’s wife is permitted to pro-
llitute herfelf to him who will give an elephant for the
ufe of her *, and it is reputed no fmall glory to her to
have been rated fo high. Adultery is faid to be fo
frequent at Ceylon, that not a woman but praftifes it,
notwithftanding its being punilhable with death. A-
mong the Japanefe, and divers other nations, adultery
is only penal in the woman. Among the Abyffinians,
the crime of the huff and is faid to be only punilhed on
the innocent wife. In the Marian iflands, on the con¬
trary, the woman is not puniffable for adultery; but
if the man go affray he pays feverely : the wife and
her relations wafte his lands, turn him out of his houfe,
&c. Among the Chinefe, there is reafon to conclude
that adultery is not capital ; for it is faid that fond pa¬
rents will make a contract with their daughters future
huffands to allow them the indulgence of a gallant.
In Spain, they punifned adultery in men by cutting
off that part which had been the inftrument of the
crime. In Poland, before Chriftianity was eftabliflied,
they punilhed adultery and fornication in a very parti¬
cular manner : the criminal they carried to the mar¬
ket-place, and there faffened him by the tefticles with
a nail; laying a razor within his reach, and leaving
him under a neceffity, either of doing juftice upon
himfwlf, or of perilhing in that condition.
The Saxons formerly burnt the adulterefs, and over Adultery
her afnes erefted a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was
hanged. In this kingdom, likewife, adultery, by the
ancient laws, was feverely puniffed. King Edmund
the Saxon ordered adultery to be punilhed in the fame
manner as homicide •, and Canute the Dane ordered
that a man who committed adultery Ihould be banilh-
ed, and that the woman Ihould have her nofe and eara
cut off. In the time of Henry I. it was punilhed with
the lofs of eyes and genitals.
In Britain, adultery is reckoned a fpiritual offence,
that is, cognizable by the fpiritual courts, where it is
punilhed by fine and penance. The common law takes
no farther notice of it, than to allow the party griev¬
ed an aftion and damages. This praflice is often cen-
fured by foreigners, as making too light of a crime,
the bad confequences of which, public as well as pri¬
vate, are fo great. It has been anfwered, that per¬
haps this penalty, by civil aflion, is more wifely cal¬
culated to prevent the frequency of the offence, which
ought to be the end of all laws, than a feverer punilh-
ment. He that by a judgment of law is, according
to circumftances, ftripped of great part of his fortune,
thrown into prifon till he can pay it, or forced to ffy
his country, will, no doubt, in molt cafes, own that he
pays dearly for his amufement.
As to the moral turpitude of this offence, fome have
vainly endeavoured to deny or explain it away by va¬
rious arguments, and even by an appeal to Scripture..
On the part of the man wffo folicits the chaftity of a
married woman, it certainly includes the crime of se¬
duction, and is attended with mifeliief flill more
complicated and extenfive : It creates a new fufferer,
the injured huffand, upon whofe fimplicity and affec¬
tion is inilicted a wound the moft painful and incura¬
ble that human nature knows. The infidelity of the
woman is aggravated by cruelty to her children, who
are generally involved in their parents ffame, and al¬
ways made unhappy by their quarrel.
It has been argued, that thefe confequences ought,
lefs to be attributed'to the crime than to the difcovery.
• But, in the firft place, the crime couid not be difco-
vered unlefs it were committed, and the commiffion is
never fecure from difcovery. 2r//j', If adulterous con¬
nections were allowable whenever the parties could
hope to efcape detection, which is the conclufion to
which this argument leads, the huffand would be left
no other fecurity for his wife’s chartity, than in her
want of opportunity or temptation •, which would pro¬
bably deter moft men from marrying 5 or render mar¬
riage a ftate of continual jealoufy and alarm to the huf¬
band, which would end in the flavery and confinement
of the wife.
The marriage vow is “ witneffed before God,” and
accompanied with circumftances of folemnity and reli¬
gion which approach to the nature of an oath. The
married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little ffiort
of perjury, and the feduCHon of a married woman is
little lefs than fubornation of perjury :—and this guilt
is independent of the difcovery.
But the ufual apology for adultery is the prior tranf-
greftion of the other party \ and fo far, indeed, as the
bad effecls of adultery are anticipated by the conduCt
of the huffand or wife who offends firft, the guilt of
the fecond offender is extenuated. But this can never-
amount
A D U [ 200 ] A D U
A'tlultery
* St Join
tGofpely
.chap. viii.
f'dlcy s
Moral and
Political
Philofophy.
p. 25S. 3d
edit. 410.
, amount to a jufiification ; unlefs it could be fhown that
- the obligation of the marriage vow depends upon the
condition of reciprocal fidelity ; a conftrudlion which
appears founded neither in expediency, nor in the terms
of the vow, nor in the defign of the legiflature which
prefcribed the marriage rite. The way of confidering
the offence upon the footing of provocation and retalia¬
tion, is a childilh trifling with words.
“ Thou fhalt not commit adultery,” was an inter-
diiff delivered by God himfelf; yet Scripture has been
adduced as giving countenance to the crime. As Chrift
told the woman taken in adultery, “ Neither do I con¬
demn thee” we muff believe, it is faid, that he deemed
her conduct either not criminal, or at leaf! not a crime
of the heinous nature we reprefent it to be. But from
a more attentive examination of the cafe, it will be
evident that nothing can be concluded from it favour¬
able to fuch an opinion. The tranfadlion is thus re-
t lated * : ‘ Early in the morning Jefus came again in-
‘ to the temple, and all the people came unto him j
‘ and he fat down and taught them. And the Scribes
‘ and Phajrifees brought unto him a woman taken in
‘ adultery j and when they had fet her in the midtt,
‘ they fay unto him, Maffer, this woman was taken
‘ in adultery, in the very act. .Now Mofes in the law
‘ commanded us that fuch fliould be ftoned, but what
‘ fayeft thou i This they faid, tempting him, that they
might have to accufe him. But Jefus ftooped down,
‘ and with his finger wrote on the ground, as though
‘ he heard them not. So when they continued afking
‘ him, he lifted up himfelf, and faid unto them, He
‘ that is -without fin amongll you, let him firft caff a
‘ ftone at her } and again he ftooped down and wrote
‘ on the ground : and they which heard it, being con-
‘ vidled by their owrn confcience, went out one by one,
* beginning at the eldeft, even unto the laft 5 and Je-
‘ fus was left alone* and the woman Handing in the
‘ midft. When Jefus had lifted up himfelf, and faw
‘ none but the w'oman, he faid unto her, Woman,
‘ where are thofe thine accufers ? Hath no man con-
‘ demned thee ? She faid, No man, Lord : and Jefus
‘ faid unto her, Neither do I condemn thee ; go and fin
‘ no more.’
‘ This they faid tempting him, that they might
1 have to accufe him that is, to drawT him into an ex-
ercife of judicial authority, that they might have to ac¬
cufe him before the Roman governor of ufurping or in¬
termeddling with the civil government.
“ This was their defign; and Chriff’s behaviour
throughout the whole affair proceeded from a know¬
ledge of this defign, and a determination to defeat it.
He gives them at firft a cold and fullen reception, well
fuited to the infidious intention with which they came :
‘ he ftooped down, and with his finger wrote on the
‘ ground as though he heard them not.’ When they
* continued alking him,’ wdien they teafed him to fpeak,
he difmiffed them with a rebuke, which the imperti¬
nent malice of their errand, as well as the fecret cha¬
racter of many of them, deferved : ‘ he that is with-
‘ out fin (that is, this fin) among you, let him firft
* call a ftone at her.’ This had its efieft. Stung
with the reproof, and difappointed of their aim, they
ftole away one by one, and left Jefus and the wmman
alone. And their follows the converfation, which is
the part of the narrative moft material to our prefent
fubjeT. ‘ Jefus faith unto her, Woman, where are Adulterr,
‘ thofe thine accufers ? Hath no man condemned thee ?--/—W
‘ She faid, No man, Lord. And Jefus faid unto her,
‘ Neither do I condemn thee; go and fin no more.’
Nowr, when Chrift afked the woman, ‘ Hath no man
‘ condemned thee ?’ he certainly fpoke, and was under-
ftood by the wroman to fpeak, of a legal and judicial
condemnation 5 otherwife her anfwer, ‘ No man, Lord,’
was not true. In every other fenfe of condemnation,
as blame, cenfure, reproof, private judgment, and the
like, many had condemned her j all thofe, indeed, who
brought her to Jefus. If then a judicial fentence was
what Chrift meant by condemning in the queftion, the
common ufe of language requires us to fuppofe that
he meant the fame in his reply, ‘ Neither do I con-
‘ demn thee :’ i. e. I pretend to no judicial charadler
■or authority over thee ; it is no office or bufinefs of
mine to pronounce or execute the fentence of the lawn
When Chrift adds, ‘ Go and fin no more,’ he in effedt
tells her that ffie had finned already } but as to the
degree or quality of the fin, or Chrift’s opinion con¬
cerning it, nothing is declared, or can be inferred, ei¬
ther way.”
It has been controverted, whether adultery may be
lawfully committed in w?ar, with the enemies wives ?
The anfwer is in the negative, and the authorized prac¬
tice of civilized nations is agreeable to this. It has
alfo been a famous queftion, whether it be lawful for
a woman to commit adultery with the confent of her
huffiand, and for the procuring feme great good to
him ? St Auftin apparently allowrs of it; as leaft, does
not condemn it *. * Le Serin.
It has likewife been a difpute, w hether it be lawful D°m- in
for one of the parties married to commit adultery, with Mont. \ib. u
the confent of the other, for the fake of having child-
ren ? Of which wre have inftances in Abraham, wdio, civ. Dei,
on this account, converfed with Hagar } and likew'ife lib. xvi.
among the Greeks and Romans. Pollman, a German caP- 25"
profeffor, has a diflertation on the hufband’s right to
alienate his wife’s body to another’s ufe.
It is much difputed, whether adultery diflblves the
bond of matrimony, and be a fufficient caufe of di¬
vorce, fo that the parties -may marry again. This was
allowed in the ancient church, and is ftill continued in
the Greek, as wTell as the Lutheran and Calvinift
churches. Romanifts, however, difa!lowr of it, and the
council of Trent even anathematized thofe who main¬
tain it; though the canon of anathematization was
mitigated in deference to the republic of Venice, in
fome of whofe dominions, as Zant, Cephalonia, &c«
the contrary ufage obtains. The ecclefiaftical courts
in England" fo far agree with the Papifts, that they
only grant a divorce a menfa et thoro, in cafe of adul¬
tery ; fo that a complete divorce, to enable the parties
to marry again, cannot be had without an aft of par¬
liament.
Adultery is alfo ufed in ancient cuftoms, for the
puniffiment or fine impofed for that offence, or the
privilege of profecuting for it. In which fenfe, adul-
terium amounts to the fame with what the Saxons call
legeriv'ta.
Adultery is fometimes ufed, in a more extenfive
fenfe, for any fpecies of impurity or crime againft
the virtue of chaftity ; and in this fenfe divines under-
iland the feventh commandment.
3
Adulters'
A D V [ 20
kauttery, Adultery is alfo ufed, efpecially in Scripture, for
Advocate, idolatry, or departing from the true God to the wor-
ihip of a falfe one.
Adultery is alfo ufed, in Ecclejlajhcal Writers, for
a perfon’s invading or intruding into a bifhopric du¬
ring the former bilhop’s life. The reafon of the ap-
.pellation is, that a bifhop is fuppofed to contract a
kind of fpiritual marriage with his church. The trani-
lation of a bifhop from one fee to another was alfo re¬
puted a fpecies of adultery} on the iuppoiition or its
.being a kind of fecond marriage, which, in thofe days,,
■was efteemed a degree of adultery. T his concluhon
was founded on that text of St Paul, Let c hijhop be
■the hujbami of one wife, by a forced conftruction of
church for wife, and of biiliop for hufband. (Du Cange).
Adultery is alfo ufed by ancient Naturalfis, for
the abl of ingrafting one plant upon another. In
which fenfe, Pliny fpeaks of the adulteries of trees,
arborum adulteria, which he reprefents as contrary to
nature, and a piece of luxury, or needlefs refinement.
ADVOCATE, among the Romans, a perfon Ikill-
ed in their law, who undertook the -defence of caufes
at the bar. The Roman advocates anfwered to one
part of the office of a barrifter in England, viz. the
pleading part 5 for they never gave counfel, that being
the bufinefs of the jurifconfulti.
The Romans, in the firft ages of their Hate, held
;the profeffion of an advocate in great honour j and
the .feats of their bar were crowded with fenators and
■confuls 5 they, whofe voices commanded the people,
-thinking it an honour to be employed in defending
-them. They were Ityled co?nites, homrati, clarijjimi,
and even patroni; as if their clients were not lefs o-
bliged to them than freed men to their mailers. The
• bar was not at that tiipe venal. Thofe who afpired
-to honours and offices took this way of gaining an in-
-tereft in the people, and always pleaded gratis. But
no fooner were luxury and corruption introduced into
.the commonwealth, than the bar became a ffiarer in
them. Then it was that the fenators let out their
voices for pay, and zeal and eloquence were fold to
the highelt bidder. To put a Hop to this abufe, the
tribune Cimius procured a law to be palled, called from
-him Lex Cincia, whereby the advocates wrere forbid
to take any money of their clients. It had before this
been prohibited the advocates to take any prefents or
gratuities for their pleading. The emperor Auguftus
wadded a penalty to it: notwithllanding which, the ad¬
vocates played their part fo well, that the emperor
-Claudius thought it an extraordinary circumftance,
-when he obliged them not to take above eight great
-fellerces, which are equivalent to about 64I. Iterling,
for pleading each caufe.
Advocate is Hill ufed in countries and courtsrvhere
the civil law obtains, for thofe who plead and defend
the-caufes of clients trulled to them.
Advocate of a city, in the German polity, a ma-
giilrate appointed in the emperor’s name to adminiller
juftice.
Advocate is more particularly ufed in Church Hi-
fory, for a perfon appointed to defend the rights and
.revenues of a church or religious houfe. T he wrord
.Tidvocatus, or advowee, is Hill retained for what we ufu-
ally call the patron, or he who has the advow’fon, or
.right of prefentation in his own name.
Vol. I. Part I.
1 ] - A D V
Confforial Advocates ; officers of the confiilory at Advocate.
Rome, who plead in all oppofitions to the difpofal of
benefices in that court : they are ten in number.
Eleilive Advocates, thofe choien by the abbot,
biffiop, or chapter; a particular licenfe being had
from the king or prince for that purpofe. The elec¬
tions were originally made in the prefence of the count
of the province.
Feudal Advocates. Thefe were of the mhitary
kind, who, to make them more zealous for the intereffc
of the church, had lands granted them in fee, which
they held of the church, and did homage, and took an
oath of fidelity to the bifhop or abbot. 1 hele were to
lead the vaffals of the church to war, not only in pri¬
vate quarrels of the church itfelf, but in military expe¬
ditions for the king’s fervice, in which they were the
handard-bearers of their churches.
Fifcal Advocate, fifei advocatns, in Roman Antiqui¬
ty, an -officer of ftate under the Roman emperors, who
pleaded in all caufes wherein the fifeus, or private trea-
fury, was concerned.
Juridical Advocates, in the middle age, were thofe
who from attending caules in the court of tne comes,
or count of the province, became judges themfelves,
and held courts of their vaflals thrice a-year, under the
name of the tna placita generaha. In confideration
of this further fervice, they had a particular allowance
of one third part of all fines, or muldls, impofed on de¬
faulters, &c. befidesa proportion of diet for themfelves
and fervants.
Matricular Advocates, were the advocates of the
mother or cathedral churches.
Military Advocates, thofe appointed for the de¬
fence of the church, rather by arms and authority than
by pleading and eloquence. Thefe were introduced
in the times of confufion, when every perfon was obli¬
ged to maintain his owm property by force ; bilhop's
and abbots .not being permitted to bear arms, and the
fcholaftic or gowmed advocates being equally unac¬
quainted with them, recourfe was had to knights, no¬
blemen, foldiers, or even to princes.
Nominative Advocates, thofe appointed by a king
or pope. Sometimes the churches petitioned kings,
&.c. to appoint them an advocate : at other times this
w-as done of their own accord. By fome regulations,
no perfon w^as capable of being eledled advocate, un-
lefs he had an eftate in land in the fame county.
Regular Advocates, thofe duly formed and quali¬
fied for their profeffion, by a proper courfe of liudy,
the requifite oath, fubfeription, licenfe, &c.
Subordinate Advocates, thofe appointed by other
.fuperior ones, acting under them, and accountable to
them. There were various reafons for the creation of
thefe fubordinate advocates; as, the fuperior quality
of the principal advocate, his being detained in war,
or being involved in other affairs ; but chiefly the too
great diltance of fome of the church lands, and their
lying in the dominions of foreign princes.
Supreme or Sovereign Advocates, were thofe who
had the authority in chief; but afted by deputies or
fubordinate advocates. T’hefe were called alfo princi¬
pal, greater, and fometimes general advocates. Such
in many cafes wrere kings, &c. wrhen either they had
been chofen advocates,. or became fuch by being
-founders or endowers of churches. Princes had alio
C c another
A D V f 202 ] A D V
Advocate, another title to advocatefliip, fome of them pretending
Advoca- t0 a(/vocati nati of the churches within their dona¬
tion. ,
, mons.
dorocArES, in the Engliih courts, are more gene¬
rally called counfel. See Counsel.
Faculty of y^Drocates, in Scotland, a refpeftable
body of lawyers, who plead in all caufes before the
courts of feffion, jufticiary, and -exchequer. They
are alfo entitled to plead in the houfe of peers, and o-
ther fupreme courts in England.
In the year 1660, the faculty founded a library
upon a very extenlive plan, fuggefted by that learned
and eminent lawyer Sir George M‘Kenzie of Rofe-
haugh, advocate to King Charles II. and King James
VII. who enriched it with many valuable books. It
has been daily increaling lince that time, and now con¬
tains not only the beft colleftion of law books in Eu¬
rope, but a very large and feleff collection of books in
all fubje&s. Betides, this library contains a great
number of original manufcripts, and a vaft variety of
Jewith, Grecian, Roman, Scots, and Englitli coins and
medals.
A candidate for the office of an advocate undergoes
three feveral trials : The tirft is in Latin, upon the ci¬
vil law and Greek and Roman antiquities 5 the fecond,
in Englilh, upon the municipal lawr of Scotland 5 and,
in the third, he is obliged to defend a Latin thefis,
which is impugned by three members of the faculty.
Immediately before putting on the gown, the candidate
makes a ffiort Latin fpeech to the lords, and then takes
the oaths to the government and de fideli.
The faculty at prefent conlifts of above 200 mem¬
bers. As an advocate or lawyer is elfeerned the gen-
teelelf profeffion in Scotland, many gentlemen of for¬
tune take the degree of advocate, without having any
intention of praftifing at the bar. This circumftance
greatly increafes their number, gives dignity to the pro¬
feffion and enriches their library and public fund. It
is from this refpe&able body that all vacancies on the
bench are generally fupplied.
Lord Advocate, or King's Advocate, one of the
eight great officers of ftate in Scotland, who as fuch
fit in parliament without ele&ion. He is the princi¬
pal crown lawyer in Scotland. His bulinefs is to a6I
as a public profecutor, and to plead in all caufes that
concern the crown 5 but' particularly in fuch as are of
a criminal nature. The office of king’s advocate is
not very ancient : It feems to have been eftabliffied
about the beginning of the 16th century. Originally
he had no power to profecute crimes without the con¬
currence of a private party $ but, in the year 1597,
he w-as empowered to profecute crimes at his own in-
ilance. He has the privilege of pleading in court with
his hat on. This privilege was lirft granted to Sir
Thomas Hope $ umo having three fons lords of fef¬
fion, it w7as thought indecent that the father Ihould
plead uncovered before the fons, who as judges fat co¬
vered.
Bill of ADVOCATION, in Scots Laver, a writ¬
ing. drawn up in the form of a petition ; whereby a
party, in an aftion before an inferior couvt, applies to
the fupreme court, or court of feffion, for calling the
aftion from the inferior court before itfelf.
Letters of AvrocAnoN, in Scots Law, the decree or
warrant of tire court of feffion upon cognizance of the
fadls let forth in the bill, drawm up in the form of a Advowee,
fummons, and palling under the fignet, difeharging the v~—'
inferior judge and all others from further procedure in
the caufe, and advocating it to itfelf.
ADVOWEE, in Ancient Cufoms and I.axv Boohs,
denotes the advocate of a church, religious houfe, or
the like. There were advowees of cathedrals, abbeys,
monafteries, &c. Thus, Charlemagne had the title
of advowee of St Peter’s } King Hugh, of St Riquier j
and Bolandus mentions fome letters of Pope Nicholas,
..by which be conftituted King Edwrard the Confeffor,
and his fucceffors, advowees of the monaftery at Weft-
minfter, and of all the churches in England. Thefe
advowees w7ere the guardians, protestors, and admini-
ftrators of the temporal concerns of the churches, &c.
and under their authority were paffed all contradls
winch related to them. It appears alfo, from the moil
ancient charters, that the donations made to churches
wrere conferred on the perfons of the advowees. They
always pleaded the caufes of the churches in court,
and diftributed juftice for them, in the places under
their jurifdiSlion. They alfo commanded the forces
furnilhed by their monafteries, &c. for the war $ and
even were their champions, and fometimes maintained
duels for them.
This office is faid to have been firft introduced in the
fourth century, in the time of Stillico ; though the
BenecliSlines do not fix its origin before the eighth
century. By degrees, men of the firft rank were
brought into it, as it was found neceflary either to de¬
fend with arms or to protect with power and authori¬
ty, In fome monafteries they were only called con-
fervators; but thefe, without the name, had all the
funSlions of advowees. There wrere alfo fometimes
feveral fub-advou7ees, or fub-advocates, in each mona¬
ftery, who officiated inftead of the advowees them-
felves 5 which, however, proved the ruin of monafte¬
ries 5 thofe inferior officers running into great abufes.
Hence alfo, hufbands, tutors, and every perfon in
general, who took upon him the defence of another,
were denominated advowees, or advocates. Hence fe¬
veral cities had their advowees 5 w hich were eftablifhed
long after the ecclefiaftical ones, and dcubtlefs from
their example. Thus we read in hiftory of the ad¬
vowees of Augfburg, of Arras, &c.
The vidames affirmed the quality of advowees ; and
hence it is, that feveral hiftorians of the eighth cen¬
tury confound the two fundlions together. Hence
alfo it is, that feveral fecular lords in Germany bear
mitres for their crefts, as having anciently been ad¬
vowees of the great churches.
Spelman diftinguifhes tw;o kinds of ecclefiaftical ad- '
vowees.—The one, of caufes or procefl’es, advocati
caufarum ; the other, of territory or lands, advocatifoli.
The former w’ere nominated by the king, and were
ufually lawyers, wffio undertook to plead the caufes of
the monafteries. The other, which ftill fubfift, and
are fometimes called by their primitive name, advowees,
though more ufually patrons, wrere hereditary j as be¬
ing the founders and endowers of churches, &c. or
their heirs.
Women were fometimes advowees, advocatijfee. And,
in effecl, the canon law mentions fome who had this
title, and wrho had the fame right of prefentation, &c.
in their churches which the advow-ees themfelves had.
In
A D U
[ 2°3 ]
MAC
Ackowfonjn a flat. 25 Edw. III. we meet with advowee para-
Aduft. mount for the higheft patron •, that is, the king.
'■“'-’V''’'-' ADVOWSON, or Advowzen, in Common Law,
flgnifies a right to prefent to a vacant benefice. Ad-
vowfon is fo called, becaufe the right of prefenting to
the church was firft gained by fuch as were founders,
benefactors, or maintainers of the church.
Though the nomination of fit perfons to oiticiate in
every diocefe was originally in the bifhop, yet they
were content to let the founders of churches have the
. nomination of the perfons to the churches fo founded,
referving to themfelves a right to judge of the fitnefs
of the perfons nominated.
Advowfons formerly were molt of them appendant
to manors, and the patrons were parochial harons :
the lordihip of the manor and patronage of the church
were feldom in different hands, until advowfons were
given to religious houfes. But of late times the lord¬
ihip of the manor and advowfon of the church have
been divided.
Advowfons are prefentative, collative, or donative:
prefentative, where the patron prefents or offers his
clerk to the bifliop of the diocefe, to be inftituted in
his church; collative, where the benefice is given by
the bifhop, as original patron thereof, or by means of
a right he has acquired by lapfe; donative, as where
the king or other patron does, by a Angle donation in
writing, put the clerk into poffeffion, without prefenta-
tion, inftitution, or indudlion.
Sometimes, anciently, the patron had the foie nomi¬
nation of the prelate, abbot, or prior ; either by inve-
fliture (i. e. delivery of a paftoral ftaff), or by diredl
prefentation to the diocefan 5 and if a free eleftion was
left to the religious, yet a conge d'elire, or licenfe of
election, was firft to be obtained of the patron, and the
. perfon elected was confirmed by him. If the foun¬
der’s family became extindl, the patronage of the con¬
vent went to the lord of the manor. Unlefs the feve-
ral colleges in the univerfities be reftrained in the num¬
ber of advowfons they may receive, it is argued they
will in time acquire fuch a ftock as to fruftrate the de-
fign of their foundation (which is the education of
youth), by creating too quick a fucceflion of fellows ;
fo that there will not be in the colleges a fufficient
number of perfons of competent age, knowledge, and
experience, to inftrucl and form the minds of the youth.
In fome colleges the number of advowfons is faid to be
already two -thirds, or more, of the number of fellows.
It is objected, on the other fide, that the fucceflion of
fellows may be too flow as w-ell as too quick ; where¬
by perfons well qualified may be detained fo long in
colleges as not to have ftrength or aftivity enough left
for the difcharge of parochial functions.
Colleges holding more advowfons in number than a
moiety of the fellows, are not capable of purchafing
more. Grants of advowfons by Papifts are void.
9 Geo. II. c. 36. §5.11 Geo. II. c. 17. § 5.
Advowfons are temporal inheritances and lay fees ;
they may be granted by deed or will, and are aflets in
the hands of heirs or executors. Prefentations to ad¬
vowfons for money, or other reward, are void. 31 Eliz.
cap. 6.
In Scotland, this right is called patronage. See Pa¬
tronage.
ADUST, Adustus, among Lhyjicians, &c. is ap¬
plied to fuch humours as by long heat become of a hot
and fiery nature. Such is choler fuppofed to be. Me¬
lancholy is ufually confidered as black and aduft bile.
Blood is faid to be aduft, when, by reafon of iome ex¬
traordinary heat, its more fubtle parts are all evaporat¬
ed, leaving the groffer, with all the impurities therein,
half torrified.
ADY, in Natural HiJIory, a name given to the palm
tree of the iiland of St Thomas. It is a tall tree with
a thick, bare, upright ftem, growing Angle on its root,
of a thin light timber, and full of juice. The head of
this tree fhoots into a vaft number of branches, which
being cut off, or an incifion being made therein, afford
a great quantity of fweet juice, which fermenting fup-
plies the place of wine among the Indians. The fruit
of this tree is called by the Portuguefe caryoces and
carioj/e; and by the black natives, abanga. This
fruit is of the fize and ftiape of a lemon ; and contains
a kernel, which is good to eat. The fruit itfelf is ate
roafted, and the raw kernels are often mixed with man-
dioc meal. Thefe kernels are fuppofed very cordial.
An oil is alfo prepared from this fruit, which anfwers
the purpofe of oil or butter. This oil is alfo ufed for
anointing ftiff and contrafted parts of the body.
ADYNAMIA, in Medicine, of « privative, and
$vvct/*i5 ftrength, want of power, debility, or weaknefs,
from ficknels.
ADYNAMIiE, the fecond clafs of Dr Cullen’s
nofological arrangement, which includes thofe difeafes
in which the involuntary motions, whether vital or na¬
tural, are diminiihed.
ADYNAMON, among Ancient Pkyjicians, a kind
of weak factitious wine, prepared from mult boiled
down with water ; to be given to patients to whom
genuine wine might be hurtful.
ADYTUM, in Pagan Antiquity, the moft retired
and facred place of temples, into which none but the
priefts wTere allowed to enter. The Sanffum Sanc¬
torum of the temple of Solomon was of the nature of
the pagan adytum, none but the high prieft being ad¬
mitted into it, and he but once a-year.
ADZE, or Addice, a cutting tool of the axe kind}
having its blade made thin and arching, and its edge
at right angles to the handle } chiefly ufed for taking
off thin chips of timber or boards, and for paring away
certain irregularities which the axe cannot come at.
The adze is ufed by carpenters, but more by coopers,
as being convenient for cutting the hollow fides of
boards, &c. It is ground from a bafe on its inlide to
its outer edge} fo that, when it is blunt, they cannot con¬
veniently grind it without taking its helve out of the eye.
AE, or iE, a diphthong compounded of A and E.
Authors are by no means agreed as to the ule of the
ae in Englifh words. Some, out of regard to etymo¬
logy, infift on its being retained in all words, particu¬
larly technical ones, bprrowed from the Greek and
Latin } while others, from a confideration that it is no
proper diphthong in our language, its found being no
other than that of the Ample, contend that it ought
to be entirely difufed •, and, in fad, the Ample e has of
late been adopted inftead of the Roman te, as in the
word equator, &c.
iEACEA, in Grecian Antiquity, folemn feftivals and
games celebrated at iEgina, in honour of yEacus.
yEACUS, the fon of Jupiter by yEgiria. When
C c 2 the
A<ly
Aacus.
ifr D I [ 204
JEljudae the Ille of vagina was depopulated by a plague, his fa-
ther, in compaffion to his grief, changed all the ants
‘ . upon it into men and women, who were called Myrmi-
dones, from ,u,v(>uz%, an ant. The foundation of the
fable is laid to be, that when the country had been de¬
populated by pirates, who forced the few that remained
to take fhelter in caves, ./Eacus encouraged them to
come out, and by commerce and induftry recover what
they had loll. His character for jullice was fuch, that,
in a time of univerfal drought, he was nominated by
the Delphic oracle to intercede for Greece, and his
prayer was anfwered. See the article H£gina. The
Pagans alfo imagined that TEacus, on account of his
impartial juftice, was chofen by Pluto one of the three
judges of the dead j and that it was his province to
judge the Europeans.
a name anciently given to the Weft era
iflands of Scotland.
yEBURA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
in Eitremadura, on the river Guadiana, to the weft of
Merida5 now called 'Talavera. W. Long. 7. 15.
N. Lat. 38. 40.
iECHMALOTARCHA, in 'JevciJh Antiquity, a
title given to the principal leader or governor of the
Hebrew captives, refiding in Chaldea, Affyria, and the
neighbouring countries. This magiftrate was called
by the Jews, rofch-galath, i. e. the chief of the captivi¬
ty : but the above term, of like import in the Greek,
is that ufed by Origen and others who wrote in the-
Greek tongue.
The Jewilh writers a {lure us, that the cechmahtarchxe
were only to be chofen out of the tribe of Judah. The
eaftern Jews had their princes of the captivity, as-the
■weftern Jews their patriarchs. The Jews are ftill faid
to have an ccchmalotarcha at Babylon, but without the
authority of the ancient ones. {Bafnage Hi/}. Jews,
and Prideau'ds Connexion.')
iECIDIUM, in Botany. See Botany Index.
.ECULANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Hirpini in Italy, at the foot of the Apennines, to
the eaft of Abellinum, contracted Ahclanum, fituated
between Beneventum and Tarentum. The inhabitants
are called JEculani by Pliny ; and JEclancnfes, in an
ancient infcription (Gruter). The town is now called
Fricento, (Cluverius), 43 miles eaft of Naples. E.
Long. 15. 38. N. Lat. 41. 15.
EDES, in Roman Antiquity, befides its more ordi¬
nary fignification of a houfe, likewife fignified an infe¬
rior kind of temple, confecrated to fome deity.
EDICULA, a term, ufed to denote the inner, part
of the temple, where the altar and ftatue of the deity
Hood.
EDILATE, the office of aedile, fometimes called
JKdility. See the next article.
EDILE {yedilis), in Roman Antiquity, a magiftrate
whoie chief bnfitnefs was to fuperintend buildings of
all kinds, but more eipecially public ones, as temples,,
aquedudls, bridges, &c. To the asdiles likewife be¬
longed the care of the highways, public places, weights
and meafures, &c. They alfo fixed the prices of pro-
viuons, took cognizance of debauches, punifhed lewd
women, and fuch perfons as frequented gaming houfes.
The cuftody of the plebifcita, or orders of the people,
was likewife committed to them. They had the in-
fpeftion of comedies and other pieces of wit: and were
] iE G A
obliged to exhibit magnificent games to the people, at JEdile
their own expence, whereby many of them were ruin- II
ed. To them alfo belonged the cuftody of the ple-7^ jSr°pi-
bifcita, and the cenfure and examination of books.. J‘._
They had the porver, on certain occafions, of iiTuing
edifts ; and, by degrees, they procured to themfelves
a confiderable jurildiftion, the cognizance of various
caufes, &c. This office ruined numbers by its expen-
fivenefs ; fo that, in Auguftus’s time, even many fena-
tors declined it on that account.
All thefe funftions which rendered the mdiles fo con¬
fiderable belonged at firft to the Eediles of the people,
cediles pleben, or minores : thefe ware only two in num¬
ber, and were firft created in the fame year as the tri¬
bunes : for the tribunes, finding themfelves opprefied'
with the multiplicity of affairs, demanded of the fe-
nate to have officers, to whom they might intr.uft
matters of lefs importance ; and accordingly two sediles-
were created ; and hence it was that the sediles were
elefted every year at the fame affembly as the tribunes,
But thefe plebeian tediles having refufed, on a fignal
occafion, to treat the people with ffiows, as pleading-
themfelves unable to fupport the expence thereof, the-
patricians made an offer to do it, provided they wmuld
admit them to. the honours of the ccdilate. On this'
occafion there were two new sediles created, of the
number of the patricians, in the year of Rome 388 y
they were called cediies curules, or majores ;■ as having
a right to fit on a curule chair, enriched with ivory,.
■when they gave audience} whereas the plebeian aediles
only fat on benches.—Befides that the curule aediles'
{hared all the ordinary funftions with the plebeian, their
chief employ was, to procure the celebration of the
grand Roman games, and to exhibit comedies, {hows
of gladiators, &c. to the people j and they were alfo
appointed judges in all cafes relating to the felling or
exchanging aftates-.
To eafe thefe four firft aediies, Caefar created a new-
kind, called cediles cereales, as being deputed chiefly tcr
take care of the corn, which was called donum Cereris ;<■
for the Heathens honoured Ceres as the goddefs wrho
prefided over command attributed to her the invention-
of agriculture. Thefe aediles cereales w-ere alfo taken-
out of the order of patricians. In the municipal ci¬
ties there were aediles, and with the fame authority as*
at Rome.
We alfo read of an ccdilis alimentarius, expreffed in¬
abbreviature by ALdil. alim. whofe bufinefs feems to
have been to provide diet for thofe who were maintain¬
ed at the public charge, though others affign him a-
different office.—In an ancient infcription we alfo meet
with cedile of the camp, cedilis cajlrorum.
EDILITIUM edictum, among the Romans, was
that whereby a remedy was given to a buyer in cafe a
vicious or unfound beaft, or ilave, was fold to him. It-
was called cedilitium, becaufe the preventing of frauds
infales and contrails belonged, efpecially to the curule.
aediies.
EDITUUS, in Roman Antiquity, an officer belong¬
ing to-the temple, who had the charge of the offerings,-
treafure, and facred utenfils. The female deities had
a female ofticer of this kind called JEditua.
EGAGROP1LA, a ball compofed of hair, gene¬
rated in the ftomach of the chamois goat, which is f>
milar to thofe found in cows, hogs, §cc. There is
another
E G I [ 205 ] ^ G I
.iEgje anotlier Tpecies of ball found in fome animals, particu-
II larly horfes, which is a calculous concretion.
JEgiiQps. yEG^, or ./Eg;ea, in Ancient Geography, the name
 'of JEdeJJa, fo called from the following adventure :
Caranus, the firft king of Macedonia, being ordered by
the oracle to feek out a fettlement in Macedonia, under
the cohdu6t of a flock of goats, furprifed the town of
j/EdeiTa, during a thick, fog and rainy -weather, in-fol¬
lowing the goats that fled from the rain 5 which goats
ever after, in all his military expeditions, he caufed-
to precede his ftandard j and in memory of this he:
called Aidella JEgea, and his people JEgeadce. And
hence probably, in the prophet Daniel, the he-goat is-
the fymbol of the king of Macedon.
AEGEAN £ea, in Ancient Geography, now the-
Archipeiago, a part of the Mediterranean, feparating
Europe from Alia 5 walhing, on the one hand, Greece
and Macedonia; on the other, Caria and Ionia. The
origin of the name is greatly difputed. Feftus ad¬
vances three opinions : one, that it is fo called from the-
many illands therein, at a diftance appearing like fo
many goats : another, beeaufe /Egea queen of the
Amazons peri died in it : a third opinion is, becaufe-
iEgeus, the father of Thefeus, threw himfelf headlong
into it.
/EGEUS, in Fabulous Hijlory, was king of Athens,
and the father of Thefeus. The Athenians having
bafely killed the fon of Minos king of Crete, for carry¬
ing away the prize from them, Minos made war upon
the Athenians 5 and being victorious, impofed this fe-
vere condition on ALgeus, that he fliould annually fend
into Crete feven of the noblelt of the Athenian youths,
chofen by lot, to be devoured by the Minotaur. On
the fourth year of this tribute, the choice fell on The-
leus ; or, as others fay, he himfelf entreated to be fent.
The king, at his fon’s departure, gave orders,, that as
the fliip failed with black fails, it fliould return with the'-
fame in cafe he periflied ; but, if he became victorious,
he ihould change them into white. When Thefeus re¬
turned to Crete, after killing the Minotaur, and for¬
got to change the fails in token of his victory, ac¬
cording to the agreement with his- father •, the latter,
who watched the return of the veflel, fuppofing by
the black fails that his fon was dead, caft himfelf head¬
long into the fea, which afterwards obtained the name
of the JEgean fea. The Athenians decreed Algeus
divine honours 5 and facrificed to him as a marine deity,.,
the adopted fon of Neptune.-
aEGIAS, among Fhyficians, a-white fpeck on the
pupil of the eye, which oecafions a dimnefs of light.
AlGIDA, (Pliny) ; now Capo d’ljlria the princi¬
pal town on the north of the territory of Iftria, fltnated
in a little illand', joined to the land by a bridge. In an
infcription, (Gruter), it is called JFgidis Infulu. E.-
Long. 14'. 20. N. Lat.45. 5c. It wTas afterwards called
Jufinopolis, after the emperor Juftinus*
ALGILOPS, the name of a tumour in the great
angle of the eye ; either with, or without, an inflam¬
mation. The word is compounded of goat, and
*>•4', eye; as goats are fippofed extremely liable to this
diflemper.
Authors frequently ufe the words cegilops, anchilops,
And fif ula lachrymalis, promifcuoufly ; but the more
accurate, after Atgineta, make a difference.—The tu¬
mour. before it becomes ulcerous, is properlly called
anchilops; and, after it is got into the lachiymal pal- JEgimuros
fanes, and has rendered the os lachrvmale carious, fifu- '•!
la lacbrymalis. \
If the segilops be accompanied with an inflamma¬
tion, it is fuppofed to take its rife from the abundance
of blood which a plethoric habit difchargeson the cor¬
ner of the eye. If it be without an inflammation, it
is fuppofed to proceed fromavifcous pituitous humour,
thrown-upon this part.
The method of cure is the fame as that of the oph¬
thalmia. But before it has reached the lachrymal pal-
fages, it is managed like other ulcers. If the aegilops
be neglefted, it burfls, and degenerates into a lillula,.
which eats into the bone,-
Ate 1 lops, in Botany. See Botany Index.
AlGIMURUS, in Ancient Geography, an illand in-
the bay of Carthage, about 30 miles diilant from that
city, (Livy); now the : This ifland being after¬
wards funk in the Tea, two of its rocks remained above
water, which were called yfrayand mentioned by Vir¬
gil, becaufe the Romans and Carthaginians entered in¬
to an agreement or league to limit their refpeflive
boundaries by thefe rocks.
AiGINA, in Fabulous Hijlory, the daughter of
TEfopus, king of Boeotia, was beloved by Jupiter, who
debauched her in the limilitude of a lambent flame,
and then carried her from Epidaurus to a defert ifland
called Oenope, which afterwards obtained her own
name.
Algina, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the Sa¬
ronic bay, or bay of Engia, 20 miles diftant from the
Pirseus, formerly vying with Athens for naval power,
and at the fea-fight of Salamis difputing the palm o£-
vi&ory with the Athenians. It was the country and
kingdom of Aiacus, who called it ALgina from his mo¬
ther’s name, it being before called Oenopia, (Ovid.)
The inhabitants were called JEgineta, and JEginenfes.
The Greeks had a common temple dedicated to Jupi¬
ter in Atgina. The Atginetae applied to commerce ;
and were the firlt who coined money, called Kcf-curux,
Aiyivxwv hence ALgineticum as, formerly in great re¬
pute. The inhabitants were called Myrmidones, or a
nation of ants, from their great application to agricul¬
ture. See Aiacus.
This ifland was furrounded' by Attica, the territory
of Megara, and the Peloponnefus, each diftant about
100 ftadia, or 12 miles and a half. In circumference
it was reckoned 180 ftadia, or 22 miles and a half. It
was wafhed on the call and fouth by the Myrtoan and-
Gretan feas.
It is now called Eyina, or Egina, the g foft and the 2-
fhort. The temple above mentioned is fituated upon
the fummit of a mountain called Panhellenius, at fome
diftance from the ftiore. The Atginetans athrmed it
was ereiffed by Aiacus ; in whofe time Greece being
terribly oppreffed by drought, the Delphic oracle was
confulted ; and the refponfe was, That Jupiter muft be
rendered propitious by Atacus. The cities entreated
him to be their mediator : He facrificed and prayed to
Jupiter Panhellenius, and procured rain.
The temple was of the Doric order, and had fix co¬
lumns in front. Twenty-one of the exterior columns
are yet Handing, with two in the front of the pronaos
and . of the poflicum, and five of the number which,
formed the ranges of the cell. The entablature, except
G I [ 206
/Egina. the architrave, is fallen. The Hone is of a light bfown-
v ' iih colour, much eaten in many places, and indicating
a very great age. Some of the columns have been in¬
jured by boring to their centres for the metal. In fe-
veral, the jundfion of the parts is fo exaft, that each
feems' to confift of one piece. This ruin Mr Chandler
confiders as fcarcely to be paralleled in its claim to a
remote antiquity. The fituation on a lonely mountain,
at a dillance from the fea, has preferved it from total
demolition, amid all the changes and accidents of nu¬
merous centuries.
Near the ihore is a barrow, raifed, it is related, for
Phocus, upon the following occafion. Telamon and
Peleus, fons of .TLacus, challenged their half brother
Phocus to contend in the Pentathlum. In throwing
the Hone, which ferved as a quoit, Peleus hit Phocus,
who was killed $ when both of them ded. Afterwards
I elamon feat a herald to aflert his innocence. Abacus
would not fuffer him to land, or to apologize, except
from the veffel 5 or, if he chofe rather, from a heap caft
up in the water. Telamon, entering the private port
by night, raifed a barrow, as a token, it is likely, of a
pious regard for the deceafed. He was afterwards
condemned, as not free from guilt; and failed away
again to Salamis. The barrow in the fecond century,
when feen by Paufanias, was furrounded with a fence,
and had on it a rough Hone. The terror of fome
dreadful judgment to be inflibled from heaven had pre¬
ferved it entire and unaltered to his time ; and in a
country depopulated and negledled, it may Hill endure
for many ages.
The foil of this ifland is, as deferibed by Strabo,
very ftony, efpecially the bottoms, but in fome places
not unfertile in grain. Befides corn, it produces olives,
grapes, and almonds ; and abounds in pigeons and
partridges. It has been related, that the iEgine-
tans annually wage war with the feathered race, care¬
fully colle&ing or breaking their eggs, to prevent their
multiplying, and in confequence a yearly famine. They
have no hares, foxes, or wolves. The rivers in fummer
are all dry. The waiwode or governor farms the re¬
venue of the Grand Signior for 12 purfes, or 6000 pi-
aitres. About half this fum is repaid yearly by the
caratch-money, or poll tax.
Angina, the capital of the above ifland. Itsfitehas
been long forfaken. Inftead of the temples mention¬
ed by Paufanias, there are 13 lonely churches, all
very mean j and two Doric columns fupporting their
architrave. Thefe Hand by the fea-fide toward the
low cape *, and, it has been fuppofed, are a remnant
of a temple of Venus, which was fituated by the port
principally frequented. The theatre, which is record¬
ed as worth feeing, refembled that of the Epidaurians
both in fize and workmanfhip. It was not far from the
private port j the ftadium, which, like that at Priene,
was conflruAed with only one fide, being joined to it
behind, and each ftrufture mutually fuftaining and
propping the other. The walls belonging to the ports
and arfenal were of excellent mafonry, and may be tra¬
ced to a conhderable extent, above, or nearly even with,
the water. At the entrance of the mole, on the left,
is a fmall chapel of St Nicholas 5 and oppofite, a fquare
tower with fteps before it, detached, from which a bridge
was laid acrofs, to be removed on any alarm. This
] iE G 1
ilrufture, which is mean, was erected b) the Venetians, JEgineta
while at war with the Turks in 1693. " ||
AlGINEI A, Paulus, a celebrated furgeonofthe Agis.
ifland of ALgina, from whence he derived his name.
According to Mr Le Clerc’s calculation, he lived in
the fourth century j but Abulpharagius the Arabian,
who is allowed to give the beft account of thofe times,
places him with more probability in the feventh. His
knowledge in furgery was very great, and his works are
defervedly famous. Fabricius ab Aquapendente has
thought fit to tranferibe him in a great variety of places.
Indeed the dodtrine of Paulus Aigineta, together with
that of Celfus and Alhucafis, make up the whole text
of this author. He is the firit writer who takes notice
of the cathartic quality of rhubarb ; and, according to
Dr Milward, is the firfl in all antiquity who deferves
the title of man-midwife.
AiGINHARD, the celebrated fecretary and fup¬
pofed fon-in-law of Charlemagne. He is faid to have
been carried through the fnow on the fhoulders of the
affe&ionate and ingenious Imma, to prevent his being
tracked from her apartments by the emperor her fa¬
ther : a ftory which the elegant pen of Addilbn has
copied and embellifhed from an old German chronicle,
and inferted in the 3d volume of the Spe&ator.—This
happy lover (fuppofing the ftory to be true), feems to
have poiTeffed a heart not unworthy of fo enchanting a
mi.ftrefs, and to have returned her aftedtion with the
moft faithful attachment; for there is a letter of Algin-
hard’s ftill extant, lamenting the death of his wife,
which is written in the tendered; ftrain of connubial af-
fiidtion 5—it does not, however, exprefs that this lady
was the affedlionate princefs; and indeed fome late critics
have proved that Imma was not the daughter of Char¬
lemagne.—But to return to our hiilorian : He wras a
native of Germany, and educated by the munificence
of his imperial mafter, of which he has left the mod;
grateful teftimony in his preface to the life of that
monarch. Aiginhard, after the lofs -of his lamented
wife, is fuppofed to have paffed the remainder of his
days in religious retirement, and to have died foon af¬
ter the year 840. His life of Charlemagne, his annals
from 741 to 889, and his letters, are all inferted in
the 2d volume of Duchefne’s Scriptorcs Francorum.
There is an improved edition of this valuable hifto-
rian, with the annotations of Hermann Schmincke,
in 410, 1711.
AiGIPAN, in Heathen Mythology, a denomination
given to the god Pan, becaufe he was reprefented with
the horns, legs, feet, &c. of a goat.
AiGIPHILA, Goat-friend, mBotany. See Bo¬
tany Index.
AEGIS, in the Ancient Mythology, a name given to
the fhield or buckler of Jupiter and Pallas.
The goat Amalthea, which had fuckled Jove, being
dead, that god is faid to have covered his buckler with
the Ikin ; whence the appellation cegis, from «<|>
flje-goat. Jupiter, afterwards reftored the animal to
life, covered it with a new Ikin, and placed it among
the ftars. He made a prefent of his buckler to Mi¬
nerva: whence that goddefs’s buckler is alfo called
cegis.
Minerva, having killed the Gorgon Medufa, nailed
her head in the middle of the eegis, which henceforth
had
IE G O [ 207 ] M G 0
JEgifthus had the faculty of converting into ilone all thofe v;ho
II . looked upon it j as Medufa herfelf had done during
^gopodi- her 1jfe> 6
Others fuppofe the aegis not to have been a buckler,
but a cuirafs, or breaftplate : and it is certain the ae¬
gis of Pallas, defcribed by Virgil, y£n. lib. viii. ver.
435, mull have been a cuirafs; fince that poet fays ex~
prefsly, that Medufa’s head was on the bread; of the
goddefs. Eut the aegis of Jupiter, mentioned a little
higher, ver. 354, feems to have been a buckler : the
words
Cum fcepe nigrantem
iEgida concuteret dexlra,
are defcriptive of a buckler j but not at all of a cuirafs
or breaftpiate.
Servius makes the fame diflinftion on the two paf-
fages ot Virgil; for_on verfe 354, he takes the aegis
for the buckler of Jupiter, made, as above mentioned,
of the Ikin of the goat Amalthea ; and on verfe 435,
he defcribes the aegis as the armour which covers the
bread, and which in fpeaking of men is called cui¬
rafs, and cegis in fpeaking of the gods. Many authors
have overlooked thcfe didinctions for want of going to
the fources.
iEGISTHUS, in Ancient IJ/fory, was the fon of
Thyedes by his own daughter Pilopeia, who, to con¬
ceal her fliame, expofed him in the woods ; fome fay
he wras taken up by a diepherd, and fuckled by a goat,
whence he was called JEgifihus. He feduced Clytem-
nedra the wife of Agamemnon and lived with her dur¬
ing the liege of Troy. Afterwards with her adidance
he dew her hulband, and reigned feven years in My¬
cenae. He was, together with Clytemnedra, dain by
Oredes. Pompey ufed to call Julius Ciefar JEgifhus,
on account of his having feduced his wife Mutia, whom
he afterwards put away, though he had three children
by her.
^EGITHALLUS, in Ancient Geography, a pro-
montory and citadel of Sicily, between Drepanum and
the Emporium Atgidanum, afterwards called Acel-
lus; corruptly w ritten JEgitharfos, in Ptolemy ; d-
tuated near Mount Eryx, and now called Capo di
Santo Tcodoro.
-fEGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Achaia
Propria, five miles from the place where Helice dood,
and famous for the council of the Acheans, which ufu-
aily met there on account either of the dignity or com¬
modious lituation of the place. It was alfo famous for
the worlhip of Ofzctyvgies Ztv$, Conventional Jupiter,
and of Panachcean Ceres. The territory of vEgium was
watered by two rivers, viz. the Phoenix and Megani-
tes. The epithet is JEgienJis. There is a coin in the
cabinet of the king of Prudia, with the infeription. AIFI,
and the figure of a tortoife, which is the fymbol of Pe-
loponnelus, and leaves no doubt as to the place where
it was druck.
AiGOEOLIUM, in Antiquity, the facrifice of a
goat offered to Cybele. The segobolium wras an ex¬
piatory facrifice, wdiich bore a near refemblance to the
taurobolium and criobolium, and feems to have been
lometimes joined with them.
A1GOPODHJM, small wild Angelica Gout-
wort, Goatsfoot, in Botany. See Eotany In¬
dex.
yEGOFRICON, in Botanv. See Botany Index.
iEGOSPOTAMOS, in Ancient Geography, a river
in the Thracian Cherfonefus, falling with a fouth-ead
courfe into the Hellefpont, to the north of Sedos ; alfo
a town, dation, or road for Ibips at its mouth. Here
the Athenians, under Conon, through the fault of his
colleague Ifocrates, received a fignal overthrow from
the Lacedemonians under Lyfander, wdiich was followed
by the taking of Athens, and put an end to the Pelo-
ponnefian war. The Athenian fleet having followed
the Lacedemonians, anchored in the road, over againd
the enemy, who lay before Lampfacus. The Hellef¬
pont is not above two thoufand paces broad in that place.
The two armies feeing themfelves fo near each other,
expected only to red that day, and were in hopes of
coming to a battle on the next.
But Lyfander had another defign in his view. He
commanded the feanten and pilots to go on board their
galleys, as if they were in reality to fight the next
morning at break of day, to hold themfelves in readi-
nefs, and to wait his orders with profound filence. He
commanded the land army in like manner to draw up
in order of battle upon the coad, and to wrait the day
without noife. On the morrow, as foon as the fun was
rilen, the Athenians began to row towards them with
their wrhole fleet in one line, and to bid them defiance.
Lyfander, though his flips were ranged in order of
battle, with their heads towards the enemy, lay dill
without making any movement. In the evening, when
the Athenians withdrew, he did not differ his foldiers
to go adiore, till two or three galleyrs, which he had
fent out to obferve them, were returned with advice
that they had feen the enemy land. The next day
paffed in the fame manner, as did the third and
fourth. Such a conduct, which argued referve and
apprehenfion, extremely augmented the fecurity and*
boldnefs of the Athenians, and infpired' them with an
extreme contempt for an army, which fear, in their
fenfe, prevented from fhowing themfelves, and attempt¬
ing any thing.
Whild this paffed, Alcibiades, who was near the
fleet, took horfe, and came to the Athenian generals :
to whom he reprefented, that they kept upon a very
difadvantageous coad, where there were neither ports
nor cities in the neighbourhood ; that they were ob¬
liged to bring their provifions from Sedos with great
danger and difficulty ; and that they were very much
in the wrong to fufier the foldiers and mariners of
the fleet, as foon as they were afhore, to draggll
and difperfe themfelves at their own pleafure, whild
they were faced in view by the enemy’s fleet, ac-
cudomed to execute the orders of their general with
the readied obedience, and upon the flighted fignal.
He offered alfo to attack the enemy by land with a
drong body of Thracian troops, and to force them to
a battle. The generals, efpecially Tydeus and Menan¬
der, jealous of their command, did not content them¬
felves with refufing his offers, from the opinion, that if
the event proved unfortunate, the whole blame would
fall on them, and if favourable, that Alcibiades alone
would have the honour of it; but rejected alfo with in-
fult his wife and falutary counfel, as if a man in difgrace
lod his fenfe and abilities with the favour of the com¬
monwealth. Alcibiades withdrew.
I he fifth day the Athenians prefented themfelves
agalnr
vEgopri-
con,
yEgofoota-
nios.
JE G Y [ 208 ] M L I
iEgorpota- again, and offered battle; retiring in tlie evening ac-
Hj03 cording to cuffom with more intuiting airs than the
iT>yptilla. days before. Lyfandcr, as ufual, detached fome gal-
leys to obferve them, with orders to return with the
utmoft diligence when they faw the Athenians land¬
ed, and to put up a brazen buckler at each lhip?s head
as foon as they reached the middle of the channel.
He in the mean time ran through the whole line in
'his galley, exhorting the pilots and officers to hold
the feamen and foldiers in readinefs to row and fight
on the firft fignal.
As foon sS the bucklers were put up in the fliips
heads, and the admiral galley had given the fignal by
the found of trumpet, the whole fleet fet forward in
good order. The land army at the fame time made
,all poflible hafte to the top of the promontory to fee
;the battle. 'The ftrait that feparates the two conti¬
nents in this place is about fifteen lladia,. or three quar¬
ters of a league in breadth ; which fpace was prefentiy
^cleared through the aftivity and diligence of the row¬
ers. Conon the Athenian general was the firit who
perceived from fliore, that fleet advance in good order
to attack him; upon which he immediately cried out
for the troops to embark. In the height of forrow
and trouble, fome he called to by their names, fome
he conjured, and others he forced to go onboard their
galleys; but all his endeavours and emotions were
ineffedlual, the fiddlers being difperfed on all fides.
For they were no fponer come on fliore, than fome
ran to the fiutlers, fiome to walk in the country, fome
to fleep in their tents, and others had begun to drefs
their flippers. This proceeded from the want of vi¬
gilance and experience in their generals, who, not fuf-
pefting the leafl: danger, indulged themfelves in their
taking repofe, and gave their foldiers the fame liberty.
The enemy had already fallen on with loud cries and
a great noife of their oars, When Conon, difengaging
himfelf with nine galleys, of which number was the fa-
cred (hip called the Para/ian, flood away for Cyprus,
wdiere he took refuge with Evagoras. The Pelopon-
nefians, falling upon the reft of the fleet, took imme¬
diately the galleys which were empty, and difabled
and deftroyed fuch as began to fill with men. The
foldiers, who ran without order or arms to their relief,
were either killed in the endeavour to get on board, or
flying on fliore were cut to pieces by the enemy, who
landed in purfuit of them. Lyfander took 3000 pri-
fioners, -with all the generals, and the whole fleet. Af¬
ter having plundered the camp, and faflened the ene¬
my’s galleys to the fterns of his own, die returned to
Lampfacus amidft the found of flutes and fongs of
triumph. It was his glory to have achieved one of the
greateft military exploits recorded in hiftory ivith little
or no lofs, and to have terminated a war in the fmall
fpace of an hour, which had already lafted 27 years,
and which, perhaps, without him, had been of much
longer continuance.
7EGYPT. See Egypt.
/EGYPTIACUM, in Pharmacy, the name of fe-
veral detergent ointments j as black, red, white, Ample,
and compound.
/EGYPTILLA, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a
flone deferibed by the ancients, and faid, by fome au-
-thors, to have the remarkable quality of giving water
the colour and tafte of wine. This feems a very ima-
3
ginary virtue, as are indeed too many of thofe in for- /Egypte
mer ages attributed to ftones. The deferiptions left us .H
of this remarkable foflil tell us, that it was variegated
with, or cbmpofed of, veins of black and white, or
black and bluifli, with fometimes a plate or vein of
whitiffi red. The authors of thefe accounts feem to
have underftood by this name the feveral ftones of the
onyx, fardonyx, and cameo kind j all which we have
at prefent common among us, but none of which pof-
fiefs any finch ftrange properties.
/EGYPTUS, in Fabulous Hi/lory, was the fon of
Belus, and-brother of Danaus. See Belides.
/EINAUT/E, in Antiquity, nuvavTat, always ma¬
riners, a denomination given to the fenators of Mile¬
tus, becaufe they held their deliberations on board a
;fliip, and never returned to land till matters had been
agreed on.
/ELFRIC, an eminent ecclefiaftic of the 10th cen¬
tury, was the fon of an earl of Kent, and a monk of
‘the Benedidline order in the monaftery of Abingdon.
In 963, he was fettled in the cathedral ofWinchef-
ter, under Athelwold the biihop, and undertook the
inftruflion of the youth of the diocefe, for which pur-
pofe he compiled a Latin Saxon vocabulary, and fome
Latin colloquies. He alfo tranflated from the Latin
into Saxon many of the hiftorical books of the Old
Tertament. While he refided at Winchefter he drew
up Canons, which are a kind of charge to be delivered
by the bilhops to their clergy. He was afterwards
abbot of .St Alban’s, bifliop of Wilton, and, finally,
in 994, tranflated to the fee of Canterbury. Here he
had a hard ftruggle for fome years in bravely defend¬
ing his diocefe againft the ineuxfions of the Danes.
He died in 1005, and was buried at Abingdon, but
his remains were removed to Canterbury in tire reign
of Canute. /Elfric is held up as one of the moft di-
-ftinguiffied prelates of the Saxon church. His learn¬
ing, for the times, was confiderable, his morals wrere
pure, and his religious fentiments wTere untainted with
many of the corruptions of the age in which he lived.
Befide the works already mentioned, he tranflated two
volumes of Homilies from the Latin Fathers.
Alt eric, furnamed Bata, pupil of the former, was
promoted to the archbilhopric of York in 1023, and
died in 1051.
/Elfric, an abbot of Malmeibury in 974, was
created biffiop of Crediton in 977, and died in 981.
/ELIA Capitolina, a name given to the city built
by the emperor Adrian, A. D. 134, near the fpot
where the ancient Jerufalem ftood, which he found in
.ruins when he vifited the eaftern parts of the Roman
empire. A Roman colony was fettled here, and a
temple, in place of that of Jerufalem, wras dedicated
to Jupiter Capitolinus. Hence the name is derived,
to which he prefixed that of his own family.
/ELIAN, Claudius, bom at Praenefte in Italy.
He taught rhetoric at Rome, according to Perizonius,
under the emperor Alexander Severus. He was fur-
named MeX/yXwcfraj, Honey-mouth, on account of the
fweetnefs of his ftyle in his difeourfes and writings. To
this excellence the poet alludes :
0 jucunda. Covine, folitudo,
Carrucd magis, ejfedoque gratuin,
Facundi miki munus JFliani. Martial.
He
JElii
« .
J£nana.
N A [ 209 ] N G
He was likewife honoured with the title of So/>hi/?, an
appellation in his days given only to men of learning
, and wifdom. He loved retirement, and devoted him-
felf to ftudy. He greatly admired and ftudied Plato,
Ariftotle, Ifocrates, Plutarch, Homer, Anacreon,
Archilochus, &c. and, though a Roman, gives the pre¬
ference to the writers of the Greek nation. His two
moft celebrated works are, his Various Hiftory, and
Hiftory of Animals. He compofed likewife a book
on Providence, mentioned by Euftathius ; and another
on Divine Appearances, or The Declarations of Pro¬
vidence. There have been feveral editions of his Va¬
rious Hillory.
JELll pons, in Ancient Geography, one of the for-
trefles near the wall or rampart, or, in the words of
the Notitia, through the line of the hither wall ; built,
as is thought, by Adrian, now named Portland, in
Northumberland, between Newcaftle and Morpeth,
(Camden.)
AiLIUS pons, now il Ponte St Angelo, a Hone
bridge at Romte, over the Tiber, which leads to the
Burgo and Vatican from the city, along Adrian’s mole,
built by the emperor Adrian.
ALLFRED. See Alfred.
yELURUS, in Egyptian Mythology, the deity or
god of cats; reprefented fometimes like a cat, and
fometimes like a man with a cat’s head. The Egyp¬
tians had fo fuperftitious a regard for this animal, that
the killing it, whether by accident or defign, was pu-
nifhed with death : and Diodorus relates, that, in the
time of extreme famine, they chofe rather to eat one
another than touch thefe facred animals.
AEM, Am, or Ame, a liquid meafure ufed in moft
parts of G ermany; but different in different towns :
the aem commonly contains 20 vertils, or 80 maffes;
that of Heidelberg is equal to 48 maffes ; and that of
Wirtemberg to 160 maffes. See Aam.
ALMILIUS Paul us, the fon of iEmilius Paulus
who was killed at the battle of Cannae. He was twice
conful. In his firft confulate he triumphed over the Li¬
gurians } and in the fecond fubdued Perfeus king of
Macedonia, and reduced that country to a Roman pro¬
vince, on which he obtained the furname of Macedoni-
cus. He returned to Rome loaded with glory, and
triumphed for three days. He died 168 years before
Chrift.
Aim 1 lius, Paulus, a celebrated hiftorian, born at
Verona, who obtained fuch reputation in Italy, that he
was invited into France by the cardinal of Bourbon, in
the reign of Louis XII. in order to write the hiftory
of the kings of France in Latin, and was prefented to a
canonry in the cathedral of Paris. He was near 30 years'
in writing that hiftory, which has been greatly admir¬
ed ; and died at Paris on the 5th of May 1529.
ASMOBOLIUM, in Antiquity, the blood of a bull
or ram offered in the facrinces, called tauroholia and
cnobolia; in which fenfe the word occurs in ancient
infcriptions.
AIN ARIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
bay of Cumae, or over-againft Cumae in Italy, (Pliny).
It is alfo called Inarinie (Virgil)*, and now Ifchia:
fcarce three miles diftant from the coaft, and the pro¬
montory Mifenus to the weft ; 20 miles in compafs j
called Pithecufa by the Greeks. It is one of the Oeno-
trides, and fenced round by very high rocks, fo as to
Vol. L Part I.
be inacceflible but on one fide ■, it was formerly famous iEneas
for its earthen ware. See Ischia. II.
AiNEAS, in Fabulous Hi/iory, a famous Trojan, ^n6'nd' ^
prince, the fon of Anchifes and Venus. . At the de- r~V
ftru£Hon of Troy, he bore his aged father on his back,
and faved him from the Greeks ; but being too felici¬
tous about his fon and houfehold gods, loft his wife
Creufa in the efcape. Landing in Africa, he was
kindly received by Queen Dido: but quitting her
coaft, he arrived in Italy, where he married Lavinia
the daughter of King Latinus, and defeated Turnus,
to wdrom fire had been contrafted. After the death
of his father-in-law, he was made king of the Latins,
over wThom he reigned three years : but joining with
the Aborigines, he tvas flain in a battle againft the
Tufcans. Virgil has rendered the name of this prince
immortal, by making him the hero of his poem. See
-Aneid.
Aneas Sylvius, Pcj/f’. See Pius II.
ANEATORES, in Antiquity, the muficians in an
army, including thofe who played trumpets, horns, &c.
The word is formed from ceneus, on account of the bra¬
zen inftruments ufed by them.
ANEID, the name of Virgil’s celebrated epic Blair's Let*
poem. The fubjeift of the Aneid, which is the efta-|!("'«-
blifhment of Aneas in Italy, is extremely happy. No¬
thing could be more interefting to the Romans than to
look back to their origin from lb famous a hero. While
the object was fplendid itfelf, the traditionary hiftory
of his country opened interefting fields to the poet
and he could glance at all the future great exploits of
the Romans, in its ancient and fabulous ftate.
As to the unity of aftion, it is perfe&ly well pre-
ferved in the Aneid. The fettlement of Aneas, by
the order of the gods, is conftantly kept in view.
The epifodes are linked properly with the main fub-
je£L The nodus, or intrigue of the poem, is happily
managed. The wrath of Juno, who oppofes Aneas,
gives rife to all his difficulties, and connefts the hu¬
man with the celeftial operations throughout the whole
poem.
One great imperfeiftion of the Aneid, however, is,
that there are almoft no marked characters in it.
Achates, Cloanthes, Gyas, and other Trojan heroes
who accompanied Aneas into Italy, are infipid figures.
Even Aneas himfelf is without intereft. The charac¬
ter of Dido is the beft fupported in the whole Aneid.
The principal excellency of Virgil is tendernefs. His
foul was full of fenfibility. He muft have felt him¬
felf all the affedling circumftances in the feenes he de-
feribes j and he knew how to touch the heart by a fingle
ftroke. In an epic poem this merit is the next to fub-
limity. The fecond book of the Aneid is one of the
greateft mafterpieces that ever wras executed. The
death of old Priam, and the family-pieces of Aneas,
Anchifes, and Creufa, are as tender as can be conceived.
In the fourth book, the unhappy paffion and death of
Dido are admirable. The epifodes of Pallas and Evan-
der, of Nifus and Euryalus, of Laufus and Mezentius,
are all fiaperatively fine.
In his battles, Virgil is far inferior to Homer. But
in the important epifode, the defeent into hell, he has
outdone Homer by many degrees. There is nothing in
antiquity to equal the fixth book of the Aneid.
ANGINA, one of the iflands of the Archipelago.
D d It
JE N I [ 2
^Enigma. It lies in the bay of Engia, and the town of that name
V —1’ contains about 800 houfes and a caftle *, and near it are
the ruins of a magnificent ftru&ure, which was proba¬
bly a temple.
JENIG'MA, denotes any dark faying, wherein fome
well-known thing is concealed under oblcure language.
-The word is Greek, Aiviy/xx, formed of uiv-P.na-Cxi, ob~
/cure innuere, to hint a thing darkly, and of xivo;, an
obfcure fpeech or difcourfe. The popular name is rid¬
dle ; from the Belgic raeden, or the Saxon araethany
to interpret. F. Bouhours, in the memoirs of Tre-
voux, defines an aenigma, a difcourfe or painting, in¬
cluding fome hidden meaning, which is propofed to be
gueffed.
Painted JEnigmas, are reprefentations of the works
of nature or art, concealed under human figures, drawn
from hiftory or fable.
vl Verba/ JEnigma, is a wdtty, artful, and abftrufe
defcription of any thing.—In a general fenfe, every
dark laying, every difficult queftion, every parable,
may pafs for an anigma. Hence obfcure laws are
called JEnigmata Juris. The alchemifts are great
dealers in the aenigmatic language, their proceiTes for
the philofophers Hone being generally wrapped up in
riddles : e. g. Fac ex mare et J'ajnina circa/am,, hide
quadrangulum, bine triangu/umjfac circulum, et habebis
kipidem philofophorum—F. Meneftrier has attempted
to reduce the compofition and refolution of senigmas to
a kind of art, with fixed rules and principles, which he
calls the philofophy of enigmatic images.
/be SubjeEt of an /Enigma, or the thing to be
concealed and made a myftery of, he juftly obferves,
ought not to be fuch in itfelf; but, on the contrary,
common, obvious, and eafy to be conceived. It is to
be taken, either from nature, as the heavens or liars 5
or from art, as painting, the compafs, a mirror, or the
like.
The form of /Enigmas confills in the -words, which,
whether they be in prole or verfe, contain either fome
defcription, a queftion, or a profopopoeia. The lalt
kind are the moll pleafing, inafmueh as they give life
and action to things which otherwife have them not.
To make an senigma, therefore, t-ivo tilings are to be
pitched on, wTich bear fome refemblance to each other,
as the fun and a monarch ; or a Ihip and n houfe j
and on this refemblance is to be raifed a fuperftrufture
of contrarieties to amufe and perplex. It is ealier
to find great fubje£ts for senigmas in figures than in
words, inafmuch as painting attracts the eyes and ex¬
cites the attention to difeover the fenfe. The fubjedts
of senigmas in painting, are to be taken either from
hiltory or fable : the compolition here is a kind of me-
tamorphons, wherein, e. g. human figures are changed
into trees, and rivers into metals. It is effential to
{enigmas, that the hiltory or fable, under which they
are prefented, be known to every body j othenvIle.it
will be twro {enigmas inltead of one the firlt of the
hiltory or fable, the fecond of the fenfe in which it is
to be taken. Another effential rule of the cenigma is,
that it only admits of one fenfe. Every cenigma which
is lufeeptive of different interpretations, all equally na¬
tural, is fo far imperfect. What gives a kind of erudi¬
tion to an senigma, is the invention of figures in fitua-
tions, geltures, colours, &.€. authorized by paffages of
10 ] iE N I
the poets, the cuftoms of artifts in flatues, baffo reKe- Enigma.
vos, inferiptions, and medals—In foreign colleges,   y—-
/be Explication op /Enigmas makes a con fide ruble
exercife ; and that one of the molt difficult and amu-
ling, where wit and penetration have the largelt field.
—By explaining an {enigma, is meant the finding a
motto correiponding to the action and perfons repre-
fented in a pifture, taken either from hiltory or my¬
thology. The great art of this exercife confilts in the
choice of a motto, which either by itfelf, or the cir-
cumltances of time, place, perfon who fpeaks, or thofe
before whom he is fpeaking, may.di.vert the fpectators,
and furnilh occafion for Itrokes of w it; alto in Ihowing
to advantage the conformities between the figure and
thing figured, giving ingenious turns to the reafons-
employed to fupport what is advanced, and in artfully
introducing pieces of poetry to illuftrate the iubject and
awaken the attention of the audience.
As to the folution of senigmas, it may be obiervedj
that thofe expreffed by figures are more difficult to ex¬
plain than thofe confuting of words, by reafon images
may fignify more things than words can ; fo that to
fix them to a particular fenfe, we mult apply every Situ¬
ation, fymbol, &c. and without omitting a circum-
fta.nce.—-As there are few perfons in hiltory, or my¬
thology, but have fome particular charaTer of vice or-
virtue, we are, before all things, to attend to this cha-
rac/cr, in order to divine what, the figure of a perfoir
reprefented in a painting fignifies, and to find what
agreement this may have with the lubject whereof we
would explain it. Thus, if Proteus be reprefented in
a picture, it may be taken to denote inconjiancy, and
applied either to a phyfical or moral fubject, whole
character is to be changeable, e. g. an almanack, which
exprelles the weather, die feafons, heat, cold, Itorms,
and the like. The colours of figures may alfo help to
unriddle what they mean : white, for inltance, is a
mark of innocence, red of modelty, green of hope,
hlacb of forrowq &c. When figures are accompanied
wfith fymbo/s, they are lefs precarious j thefe being, as
it were, the foul of a-nigmas, and the key that opens
the myltery of them. Of all the kinds of fymbols-
which may be met with in thofe w ho have treated pro-
fcflcdly on the fubjedt, the only true {enigmatical are
thofe of Pythagoras, which, under dark proverbs, hold
forth leffons of morality j as when he lays, Stater-em ne
tinnf has, to fignify, Do no injullice.
But it mult be added, that wre meet with fome {enig¬
mas in hiltory, complicated to a degree which much-
tranfeends all rules, and has given great perplexity to
the interpreters of them. Such is that celebrated an¬
cient one, /Elia Lelia Crifpis, about which .many of the
learned have puzzled their heads. There are two ex¬
emplars of it : one found 140 years ago, on a marble
near Bologna : the other in an ancient MS. written
in Gothic letters, at Milan. It is controverted be¬
tween the two cities, which is to be reputed the more
authentic.
The Bononian /Enigma,
D. M.
/Elia Ltslia Crifpis,
Nec vir, nec mulier,
Nec androgyna ;
Nec puella, nec juvenis,
Ncv
/Enigma,
iEuona.
jE N O [21
Nec a tins ;
Nec cajla, nec meretnx\
Nec pudica ;
Sed omnia :
Sabiata
Neque fame, neque ferro,
Neque veneno ;
Sed omnibus :
Nec calo, nec terris,
Nec aquis,
Sed ubique jacet.
Lucius Agatko Prifcius,
Nec mar it us, nec a mat or,
Nec neceffarius ;
Neque mosrens, neque gaudens,
Neque fens ;
Hanc,
Nec modem, nec pyramident,
Nec fepulcbrum,
Sed omnia,
Scit et nefeit, cut pofuemt.
That is to fay, do the gods manes, JE/ia LAia Crifpis^
neither man, nor woman, nor hermaphrodite; neither
girl, nor young woman, nor old; neither chafe, nor a
whore; but all thefe: killed neither by hunger, nor
feel, nor poifon ; but by all thefe : refs neither in hea¬
ven, nor on earth, nor in the waters ; bpt everywhere.
Lucius Agatho Prifcius, neither her hujband, nor lover,
nor friend; neither forrowful, nor joyful, nor weeping,
certain, or uncertain, to whom he rears this monument,
neither ereRs her a temple, nor a pyramid, nor a tomb,
but all thefe. In the MS. at Milan, initead of D. M.
we find A. M. P. P. D. and at the end the following
•addition:
Hoc ef fepnlchrum intus cadaver non habeas.
Hoc ef cadaver fepulehruin extra non habeas,
Sed cadaver idem ef et fepulchrum.
We find near 50 feveral folutions of this senigma
advanced by learned men. Marius Michaej. Ange¬
lo maintains ALha L&lia Crifpis to fignify rain-wa¬
ter falling into the fea. Ri. Vitus firft explained it of
Niobe turned to a ftone, afterwards of the rational
foul, and afterwards of the Platonic idea ; Jo. Turrius,
of the materia prima ; Fr. Schottus, of an eunuch \
Nic. Bernard us, of the philofophers flone, in which he
is followed by Borrichius ; Zach. Pontinus, of three
human bodies in the fame filuation, and buried by
three different men at the fame time } Nefmondius, of
a law-fuit; Jo. Gaf. Gerartius, of love 5 Zu. Boxhor-
nius, of a fhadow j P. Terronus, of mufic ; Fort Li-
cetus, of generation, friendffup, and privation INI. Ov.
Montalbanus, of hemp ; Car. Cief. Malvafia, of an
abortive girl promiied in marriage ) Pet. Mengulus, of
the rule of chaftity, preferibed by the founder of the
military religion of St Mary ; M. de Ciconia, of Pope
Joan 5 Heumannus, of Lot’s wife ; and laftly, J. C. S.
an anonymous writer in the Leipfic Actsj ox the Chri-
ftian church.
iENIGMATOGRAPHY, or TF.iugmathology,
the art of revolving or making amigmas.
TEN ON A, in Ancient Geography, a city of Libur-
nia, called by Pliny Civitas Prqfni, the reaion of
which is unknown j alfo Enona, and is now called
1 ] MOL
Nona ; on the Adriatic, by which it is for the greater' /Em*.*
part furrounded j over againft the ifland Gifia, from p (
which it is diftant four miles to the weft. E. Long, "
l6°. N. Lat. 28°.
iENUS, in Ancient Geography, now the Inn, a river
of Germany, which, rifing in the country of the Gri-
fons, out of the Alps, in the diftridl called Gottes-
haus-punt, runs through the Grifons, the county of Ty¬
rol, the duchy of Bavaria, and through Paffau into the
Danube.
Ain u s, JEnos, or JEnum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Thrace, fituated on the eaftmoft mouth of the
Flebrus, which has two mouths j and faid to be built
by the Cumeans. It was a free town, in which flood
the tomb of Polydorus, (Pliny) ", JEnius is the epithet.
Here the brother of Cato Uticenfrs died, and w as ho¬
noured with a monument of marble in the forum of the
AEnii, (Plutarch) j called Ahnei, (Stephanus). Livy
fays that the town was otherwife called Abfynthus.
Now Eno.
AENITHOLOGIUS, in Poetry, a verfe of two
dadlyls and three trochaci j as Prcelia dira placent truci
juventec.
iEOLIAE insult, now Ifoli Lipari, in Ancient
Geography, feven iftands, fituated between Sicily and
Italy, fo called from iEolus, who reigned there about
the time of the Trojan war. The Greeks call them
Hcphafiades ; and the Romans Vide anise, from their
fiery eruptions. They are alfo called Liparaorum In-
fulce, from their principal ifland Lipara. Dionyfius Pe-
riegetes calls them nAvion, becauie circumnavigable.
AEOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething be¬
longing to Aiolis.
AEOLIC, or AEolian, in Grammar, denotes one
of the five dialefts of the Greek tongue. It was firll
ufed in Bceotia ; whence it paffed into AEolia, and wras
that which Sappho and Alcxeus wrote in. The AEolic
dialeA generally throws out the afpirate or ftiarp fpirit,
and agrees in fo many things with the Doric dialed,
that the two are ufually confounded together.
The JEolic digamma is a name given to the letter h,
which the AEolians ufed to prefix to words beginning
with vowels, as Fane?, for ene? ■, alfo to infert between
vowels, as eFi?, for cig.
JEolic Verfe, in Profody, a verfe confifting of an
iambus, or fpondee ; then of two anapefts, feparated
by a long fyllable \ and, laftly, of another fyllable.
Such as, 0 felliferi conditor orbis. This is otherwife
called eulogic verfe ; and, from the chief poets who tiled
it, Archilochian and Pindaric.
AEOLIPILE, in Hydraulics, is a hollow ball of
metal, generally ufed in courfes of experimental philo-
fophy, in order to demonftrate the poflibility of con¬
verting w7ater into an elaftic fleam or vapour by heat.
The inftrument, therefore, confills of a flender neck,
or pipe, having a narrow7 orifice inferted into the ball
by means off a fhouldered ferew. This pipe being taken
out, the ball is filled almoft full of water, and the pipe
being again ferewed in, the ball is placed on a pan of
kindled charcoal, where it is w7ell heated, and there
iflue3 from the orifice a vapour, with prodigious vio¬
lence and great noife, which continues till all the in¬
cluded water is difeharged. The ftronger the fire, is,
the more elaftic and violent wall be the fleam ; but care
muft be taken that the fmall orifice of the pipe be not,
D da by
JE O N [ 2
Mohs By any accident, flopped up; becaufe the inftrument
JEon. m that cafe infallibly burfl in pieces, with fuch
—V   violence as might greatly endanger the lives of the per-
fons near it. Another way of introducing the water
is to heat the ball red-hot when empty, which will drive
out almofl all the air ; and then by fuddenly immer-
ging it in water, the prellure of the atmofphere will force
in the fluid, till it is nearly full. Des Cartes and o-
thers have uied this inftrument to account for the na¬
tural caufe and generation of the wind : and hence it
was called JEolipila: q. d. pila JEoli, the ball of /Eolus
or of the god of the winds.
OLIb, or AfoLia, in Ancient Geography^ a coun¬
try of the Hither Alia, fettled by colonies of Aeolian
Greeks. Taken at large, it comprehends all Troas,
and the coaft of the Hellefpont to the Propontis, be¬
caufe in thofe parts there were feveral Aiolian colo¬
nies : more ftrhftly, it is fituated between Troas to the
north? and Ionia to the fouth. The people are called
JEo/es or Eolii.
^OLIUM mare, in Ancient Geography, a part
oi the Egean fea, walking iEolis; called alfo Myfium,
from Myfla. Now called Go/fo di Smyrna.
AEOLUS, in Heathen Mythology, the god of the
winds, was laid to be the fon of Jupiter by Acafta, or
Sigefla, the daughter of Hippotus : or, according to
otiiers, the fon of Hippotus by Meneclea, daughter of
Hyllus king of Lipara. He dwelt in the ifland
btrongyle, now called Strombolo, one of the feven
illands cal tea JEohan from their being under the do¬
minion of aEolus. Others fay, that his refidence w^as
at Khegium,^ in Italy ; and others again place him in
the ifland Lipara.. He is reprefented as having au-
t lonty over the winds, which he held enchained in a
valt cavern, to prevent their continuing the devafta-
lions they had been guilty of before they were put un-
der his direftion. Mythologifts explain the original of
thefe fables, by Hying, that he was a wife and good
prince ; and, being {killed in aftronomy, was able*, by
the flux and reflux of the tides, and the nature of the
volcano in the ifland Strongyle, to foretel ftorms and
tempefts.
Harp of jEolvs, or the aEolian lyre. See Acou¬
stics.
AlON, a Greek word, properly fignifying the age
or duration of any thing. b
./Eon, among the followers of Plato, was ufed +0
iigmfy any virtue, attribute, or perfeftion : hence they
reprelented the deity as an affemblage of all poffibie
seems ; and called him pleroma, a Greek term fignify-
mgfulnefs. The Valentinians, who, in the firfl ages
oi the church, blended the conceits of the Tewilh ca-
bahfls, the Platonifts, and the Chaldean philofophers
with the fimplidty of the Chrittian doHrine, invented
a kind of Theogony, or Genealogy of Gods (not un¬
like that of Heiiod), whom they called by feveral glo¬
rious names, and all by the general appellation of
Aaons : among which they reckoned Z^, Life ; Aoyos,
IVord; Moycyor^, Only-begotten; Fulnefs; and
many otner divine powers and emanations, amounting
m number to thirty : which they fancied to be fuccef-
nvely derived from one another ; and all from one felf-
origxnated deity, named Bythus, i. e. profound or un¬
fathomable; whom they called likewife, She mod hiyh
nd ineffable Father. See VAlentinians*
R A
. among ancient writers on medicine, is ufed -dSora
for geftation ; which fort of exercife was often preferib- «
ed by the phyficians of thofe days. Other exercifes ^Ta'
confifted principally in the motion of the body : but    
m the ccora the limbs were at reft, while the body was
carried about and moved from place to place, in fuch
a manner as the phyfician preferibed. It had there¬
fore the advantages of exercife, without the fatigue of
I his exercile was promoted feveral ways: fome-
times the patient was laid in a fort of hammock, fup-
ported by ropes, and moved backward and forward ;
fometimes his bed run nimbly on its feet. And befide
thefe, the feveral ways of travelling were accounted
Ipecies of the ceora, whether in the litter, in a boat or
flnp, or on even ground in a chariot.—Afclepiades was
the firft wflio brought geftation into pradfice, which
was ufed as a means to recover ftrength after a fever
&c.
_A7.QUANA juga, in Ancient Geography, moun¬
tains of Picenum, in the kingdom of Naples, now
called Montagna di Sorrento, denominated from the
town AEqua, which being deftroyed, was replaced by
Vicus, now Vico di Sorrento : called alfo JEauana, fSil.
Italicus.^) v
AiQUIMELIUM, in Antiquity, a place in Rome,
where flood the houfe of Spurius Melius, who, by lar-
geffes corrupting the people, affe&ed the fupreme
power : refufmg to appear before the diaator Cincin-
natus, he wras llain by Servilius Ahala, mafter of the
hoiie ; his houfe was razed to the ground ; and the
fpot on which it flood was called Area Equimelii
(Livy.)
A, in Chronology, a fixed point of time from
whence any number of years is begun to be counted.
It is fometimes alio written in ancient authors Era,
The origin of the term is contefted, though it is ge¬
nerally allowed to have had its rife in Spain. Sepul¬
veda fuppofes it formed from A. ER. A. the notrn or
abbreviatures of the words, annus erat Augufi, occa-
lioned by the Spaniards beginning their computation
from the time their country came under the dominion
°f Auguftus, or that of receiving the Roman calendar.
This opinion, however ingenious, is rejedted by Sca-
%er, not only on account that in the ancient abbre¬
viatures A never Hood for annus, unlefs when preceded
by J- ’ for vixit; and that it feems improbable they
fhouid put ER for erat, and the letter A, without any
difefimination, both for annus and Augufus. Voflius
ne. erthelefs favours the conjedlure, and Judges it at
leaft as probable, as either that of Ifidore, who de¬
rives am from as, the “ tribute-money,” wherewith
Auguftus taxed the world: or that of Scaliger himfelf,
who deduces it likewife from as, though in a different
manner. JEs, he obferves, was ufed among the an¬
cients for an article or item in an account; and hence
it came alfo to Hand for a fum or number itfelf. From
the plural ara, came by corruption ara, aram, in the
Angular : much as Ofia, Ofiam, the name of a place,
from Of ia, the mouths of the Tyber.
T he difference between the terms ara and epoch is,
that the aeras are certain points fixed by fome people,
or nation; and the epochs are points fixed by chrono-
logifts and hiftorians. The idea of an aera comprehends
alfo a certain fucceflion of years proceeding from a fixed
point of time, and the epoch is that point itfelf. Thus-
the
Aeria.
A E R [ ;
JErarlum tlie Chriftian sera began at the epoch of the birth of
Jefus Chrift. See Chronology, where the different
; Eras, &c. are enumerated and explained.
iERARIUM, the treafury or place where the .pub¬
lic money was depofited amongft the Romans.
Mrarwm Sanciius contained the monies arifingfrom
the twentieth part of all legacies: this was kept for
the extreme neceffities of the ftate.
JErarwm Privatum was the emperor’s privy purfe,
or the place where the money ariling from his private
patrimony was depoflted.
JErarium Vicejimanim, the place where the money
arifing from the taxes levied from foreign countries was
laid up, fo called becaufe it moil commonly conffffed
of a twentieth part of the produce.
JErarwm Hithy#, or Junonis Lucina, was where the
monies were depolited which parents paid for the birth
of each child.
There are feveral other treafuries mentioned in hi-
flory, as the ararium Juventutis, Veneris, &c. The
temple of Saturn was the public treafury of Rome,
either becaufe Saturn firff taught the Italians to coin
money, or, which is moff likely, becaufe this temple
was the ftrongeft and moft fecure, and therefore the
fitted:, place for that purpofe.
JErarium differs from Jifcus, as the firft contained
the public money, the fecond that of the prince. The
two are, however, fometlmes indifcriminately ufed for
each other.
iERARIUS, a name given by the Romans to a de¬
graded citizen, who had been ilruck off the lift of his
century. Such perfons were fo called becaufe they
were liable to all the taxes (<£/'«), without enjoying
any of its privileges.
The ararii were incapable of making a will, of in¬
heriting, of voting in affemblies, of enjoying any poft
of honour or profit; in effeft, were only fubjefl to the
burdens, without the benefits of fociety ; yet they re¬
tained their freedom, and were not reduced to the con¬
dition of flaves. To be made an cerarius was a pu-
niihment infiifled for fome offence, and reputed one
degree more fevere than to be expelled a tribe, tribu
moveri.
./Erarius was alfo an officer inftituted by Alexan¬
der Severus, for the diftribution of the money given in
iargeffes to the foldiery or people. >
JErarius was alio ufed for a perfon employed in
coining or working brafs.
Thefe are fometimes called <erarii fufores: at other
times, ararius is diftinguiihed from fufor ; the former
anfwering to what we now call copperimiths, the latter
to founders.
^Erarius was likewife applied to a foldier who re¬
ceives pay.
AERIA, or Eeria, in Ancient Geography, the an¬
cient name of Egypt. The fcholiaft on Apollonius
Rhodius, fays, that not only Theffaly, but Egypt, was
called by the Greeks, which Eufebius alfo con¬
firms : and hence Apolliuarius, in his tranilation of the
114th Pfalm, ufes it for Egypt. Hefychius applies
this name to Ethiopia.
13 ] A E R
AERIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fomething Aerial
partaking of the nature of air j thus aerial fubftances, U
aerial particles, &c. a"
Aerial Perfpe&ive. See Perspective and Paint-. - -
ING.
AERIANS, in Church Hi/iory, a branch of Arians,
who, to the doctrines of that fe<ft, added fome pecu¬
liar dogmas of their own $ as, that there is no differ¬
ence between bifhops and priefts 5 a doflrine maintain¬
ed by many modern divines, particularly of the pref-
byterian and reformed churches. The fe<ft received its
denomination from Aerius an Armenian prieft of the
fourth century. He founded his doflrine chiefly upon
fome paffages in St Paul; and, among others, upon
that in 1 Tim. iv. 14. where the apoftle exhorts hint
not to negleft the gift he had received by the laying on
of the hands of the Prejbyte?y. Here, obferves Aerius,
is no mention of bifhops : on the contrary, Timothy
evidently received his ordination from the prefbyters or
priefts.—Epiphanius zealoufly maintains the fuperiority
of bifhops againft the Aerians. The word prejhytery,
ufed by the apoftle, he obferves, includes both bifhops
and priefts ; the whole fenate or affembly of the eccle-
fiaftics of the place.
Flos fERIS, among Alchemifls, fmall fcales pro¬
cured from copper melted by a ftrong heat; it is fome¬
times ufed for aerugo or verdigris.
AEROGRAPHY, from air, and y^tpia, Ide-
fcribe ; a defcription of the air, or atmofphere, its li¬
mits, dimenfions, properties, &c. This amounts to
much the fame with aerology, unlefs we fuppofe the
latter to enter into the rational, and the former to con¬
fine itfelf to a defcription of the more obvious affedlions
thereof. See Meteorology.
AERGMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed
by means of air, wind, &c. See Divination.
AEROMETRY, the fcience of meafuring the air.
It comprehends not only the doftrine of the air itfelf,
confidered as a fluid body 5 but alfo its preffure, elafti-
city, rarefaction, and condenfation. But the term is
at prefent not much in ufe, this branch of natural phi-
lofophy being more frequently called Pneumatics. See-
Pneumatics.
AERONAUT, a perfon who navigates or floats in
the air by means of an air balloon. See Aerosta¬
tion.
AERONAUTIC A, from and yxvrt>co<;, derived
from vxvijjhip; the art of failing in a veffel or machine
through the atmofphere, fuftained as a ftup in the fea.
See Aerostation.
AEROPHALACEA, a term ufed by naturalifts
for caverns or refervoirs of air, fuppofed to exift in
,the bowels of the earth. Kircher fpeaks much of aero-
phylacea, or huge caverns replete with air, difpofed
under ground ; from whence, through numerous oc¬
cult paflages, that element is conveyed either to fub-
terraneous receptacles of Water, which, according to
him, are hereby raifed into fprings or rivers, or into
the funds of fubterraneous fire, which are hereby fed
and kept alive for the reftoration of metals,, minerals,
and the like.
AEROSTATION
I 214 ]
A EROS T A T I O N
I'N its primitive fenfe, denotes the fcience of weights
fufpended in the air j but in its modern accepta¬
tion, it ngnifies aerial navigation, or the art of navi¬
gating through the atmofphere. Hence alfo the ma¬
chines which are employed for this purpofe are called
aerojiats, or aerq/latic machines 3 and from their globu¬
lar lhapc, air balloons.
The romances of almoft every nation have recorded
inftances of perfons being carried through the air,
both by the agency of fpirits and by mechanical inven-
Fnar Ba- tions 3 but till the time of Friar Bacon, who died in
publifhed 1292’ noRational principle appears ever to have been
the true thought of by which this might be accompli died. He
principles had written upon the fubjedt, and not only allures us
of aeroita- of the prafticability of the art, but that he knew how to
conftruft a machine in which a man might tranfport
himfelf through the air like a bird 3 and he affirms
that the experiment had been fuccefsfully made by ano¬
ther perfon. The machine confifted of two large thin
Ihelis, or hollow globes of copper which were exhauft-
ed of air 3 and thus being lighter than air, would fop-
port a chair on which a perfon might fit.
Many had been of opinion, that, by means of arti¬
ficial wings, fixed to the arms or legs, a man might
fly as well as a bird : but thefe opinions were tho¬
roughly refuted by Borelli in his treatife De Motu Ani-
Impoflibili- malium, where, from a comparifon between the power
■ty of flying of the mufcles w hich move the wings of a bird, and
*1' ™ec“a* thofe which move the arms of a man, he demonftrates
nieans. t^iat t^ie latter are utterly infufficient to flrike the air
with foch force as to raife him from the ground. It
cannot be denied, however, that wings of this kind,
if properly conftrufled, and dexteroufly managed,
might be fofficient to break the fall of a human body
from a high place, fo that feme adventurers in this way
might poifibly come off with fafety 3 though by far the
greatefl number of thofe who have raffily adopted foch
fchemes, have either loft their lives or limbs in the
attempt.
Scheme of In the year 1672, Biffiop Wilkins publiffied a trea-
Buhop Wil-tife, entitled, The Difcovery of the New World 3 in
Albrnn-s d mentions, though in a very indiftincl and
Saxonia confafed manner^ -the- true principle on which the air
is navigable 3 quoting, from Albertus de Saxonia and
Francis Mendoza, “ that the air is in fome part of it
navigable : and upon this ftatic principle, any brafs or
iron veffel (fuppofe a kettle), whofe fobftance is much
heavier than that of water, yet being filled with the
lighter air, it will fwim upon it and not fink. So fop-
pofe a cup or wooden veffiel upon the outward borders
of this elementary air, the capacity of it being filled
w ith fire, or rather ethereal air, it muft neceflarily, upon
the lame ground, remain fwimming there, and of itfelf
can no more fall than an empty ftiip can fink.” This
idea, however, he did not by any means purfoe, but
iefted his hopes entirely upon mechanical motions, to
be accomplifhed by the mere ftrength of a man, or by
fprings, &c. and which have been demenftrated inca¬
pable of anfwering any ufeful purpofe.
The only perfon who brought his fcheme of flying
to any kind of rational principle was the Jefoit Francis Lam’s
Lana, cotemporary with Bilhop Wilkins. His method fcheme*
was fimilar to Friar Bacon’s. He was acquainted with
the real weight of the atmofphere, ^nd, juftly com
eluded, that if a globular veflel were exhaufted of air,
it would weigh lefs than before 3 and confidering that
the folid contents of veffels increafe in much greater
proportion than their forfaces 3 he fuppofed that a me¬
talline veffel might be made fo large, that, when emptied
of its air, it wmuld be able not only to raife itfelf in
the atmofphere, but to carry up paffengers along with
it 3 and he made a number of calculations neceffary for
putting the projeft in execution. But though the
theory was here unexceptionable, the means propofed
were certainly infofficient to accomplifh the end : far a
yeffel of copper, made fo thin as was neceffary to make
it float in the atmofphere, would be utterly unable to
refift the external preffure 3 which being demonftrated
by thofe fidlled in mechanics, no attempt w'as made on
that principle.
In the year 1709, however, as we are informed by Strancc
a letter publiffied in France in 1784, a Portuguefe pro-propofal of
je&or, Friar Gufman, applied to the king for encou-Friar Gnf-
ragement to his invention of a flying machine. The man’
principle on which this‘was conftrufted, if indeed it
had any principle, feems to have been that of the pa¬
per kite. The machine u-as conftructed in form of a
bird, and contained feveral tubes through which the
wind was to pafs, in order to fill a kind of fails, which
were to elevate it 3 and when the wind w’as deficient,
the fame effeft was to be performed by means of belt
lows concealed within the body of the machine. The
afeent was alfo to be promoted by the eleftric attrac¬
tion of pieces of amber placed in the top, and by two
fpheres enclofing magnets in the fame fituation.
Thefe childifti inventions fhow the low ftate of fcience
at that time in Portugal, efpecially as the king, in or¬
der to encourage him to farther exertions in fuch an
ufeful invention, granted him the firft vacant place in
his college of Barcelos or Santarem, with the firft pro-
fefforffiip in the univerfity of Coimbra, and an annual
penfion of 600,000 reis during his life. Cf this De
Gufman, it is alfo related, that, in the year 17^6, he
made a wicker bafket of about feven or eight feet dia¬
meter, and covered with paper, which raifed itfelf about
200 feet in the air, and the effect was generally attri¬
buted to witchcraft.
In the year 1766, Mr Henry Cavendiih afeertained Poflibilit*
the weight and other properties of inflammable air, de-bodies
termining it to be at leaf! feven times lighter than r‘bng in
common air. Soon after which it occurred to Lrt
Black, that perhaps a thin bag filled with inflammable 1,) Dr Black
air might be buoyed up by the common atmofphere, and Mr Ca-
and he thought of having the allantois of a calf prepar-vallo.
ed for this purpofe ; but his other avocations prevent¬
ed him from profecuting the experiment. The fame
thought occurred fome years afterwards to Mr Cavalloj
and he has' the honour of being the firft who made ex-
' periments
Hiftory. A E R O S T
periments on the fubjeft. He firft tried bladders j but
the thinneft of thefe, however well icraped and prepar¬
ed, were found too heavy. He then tried Chinefe
paper; but that proved fo permeable, that the vapour
palled through it like water through a fievc. His ex¬
periments, therefore, made in the year 1782, proceed¬
ed no farther than blowing up foap bubbles with in¬
flammable air, which afcended rapidly to the ceiling,
and broke againft it.
4erofta- But while the difcovery of the art of aeroftatkm
ticn difco- feemed thus on the point of being made in Britain, it
Monf 1>'V was1 all at once announced in France, and that from a
Monto-ol- quarter whence nothing ol the kind was to have been
fier. ° expected. Two brothers, Stephen and John Mont¬
golfier, natives of Annonay, and mailers of a confider-
abie paper manufailory there, had turned their thoughts
towards this project as early as the middle of the year
1782. The idea was firft fuggefted by the natural
afcent of the fmoke and clouds in the atmofphere 5 and
their defign was to form an artificial cloud, by encloling
the fmoke in a bag, and making it carry up the cover¬
ing along with it. Towards the middle of November
Account of that year, the experiment xvas made at Avignon with
ku experi- a fine filk bag of a parallelepiped fnape. By applying
oaeuu burning paper to the lower aperture, the air wras rare¬
fied, and the bag afcended in the atmofphere, and ftruck
rapidly againil the ceiling. On repeating the experi¬
ment in the open air, it -rofe to the height of about’ 70
feet/
An experiment on a more enlarged fcale -was now
projefled j and a new machine, containing about 650
cubic feet, was made, which broke the cords that con¬
fined it, and rofe to the height of about 600 feet. An¬
other of 35 feet in diameter role about 1000 feet
high, and fell to the ground three quarters of a mile
from the place where it afcended. A public exhibition
was next made on the yth of June 1783, at Annonay,.'
where a vaft number of fpeflators afi'embled. An im-
menfe bag of linen, lined with paper, and containing
upwards of 23,000 cubic feet, was found to have a
power of lifting about 500 pounds, including its owm
weight. The operation was begun by burning chop¬
ped ilraw and wool under the aperture of the machine,
which immediately began to fwell: and after being fet
at liberty afcended into the atmofphere. In ten minutes
it had afcended 6000 feet 5 and when its force was ex-
haufted it fell to the ground at the didance of 7668
feet from the place from whence it fet out.
Soon after this one cf the brothers arrived at Paris,
where he was invited by the Academy of Sciences to
repeat his experiments at their expence. In confe-
quence of this invitation, he conftrucled, in a garden
in the fauxbourg of St Germain, a large balloon of an
elliptical form. In a preliminary experiment, this ma¬
chine lifted up from the ground eight perfons who held
it, and would have carried them all off if more’ had not
quickly come to their afTiftance. Next day the experi¬
ment was repeated in prefence of the members of the
academy •, the machine was filled by the combufiion of
50 pounds of draw made up in fmall bundles, upon
which about 12 pounds of chopped wool were thrown
at intervals. The ufual fuccefs attended this exhi¬
bit-on : the machine foon fwelled; endeavoured to
afeend ; and immediately after fuftained itielf in the air,
togerner with, the charge of between. 400 and 500
A T I O N. 215
-pounds weight. It -was evident that it would have
afcended to a great height; but as it was defigned fo
repeat the-experiment before the king and royal fami¬
ly at Verfailles, the cords by which it was tied down
were not cut. But in confequence of a violent rain and
wind which happened at this time, the machine was
fo far damaged, that it became neceffary to prepare a
new one for the time that it had been determined to
honour the experiment with the royal prefence ; and
fuch expedition was ufed, that this vail machine, of
near 60 feet in height and 43 in diameter, was made,
painted with water colours both within and without,
and finely decorated, in no more than four days and
four nights. Along with this machine was fent up a Some arii--
wicker cage, containing a flieep, a cock, and a duck, |.na|st^^
which were the firft animals ever fent through the at- air
molphere. The full fuccefs of the experiment was pre¬
vented by a violent guft of wind which tore the cloth
in two places near the top before it afcended ; how¬
ever, it rofe to the height of 1440 feet •, and after re¬
maining in the air about eight minutes, fell to the
ground at the diftance of 10,200 feet from the place
of its fetting out. The animals were not in the leaft
hurt.
The great power of thefe a-eroftatic machines, and f JIa.tns
their very gradual defeent in falling to the ground had ^
originally (bowed that they were capable of tranfport-ria! navigal
ing people through the air with all imaginable fafety ; tor.
and this was further confirmed by the experiment al¬
ready mentioned. As M. Montgolfier, therefore, pro-
pofed to make a new aeroftatic machine of a firmer
and better conftruftion than the former, M. Pilatre
de Rozier offered himfeif to be the firft aerial adven¬
turer.
This nerv machine was conftrufted in a garden in
the fauxbourg of St Antoine. It was of an oval ihape,
about 48 feet in diameter and 74 in height; elegantly
painted on the outfide with the figns of the zodiac,
cyphers of the king’s name, and other ornaments. A
proper gallery, grate, &c. were appended in the man¬
ner afterwards deferibed } fo that it was eafy for the
perfon who afcended to fupply the fire with fuel, and
thus keep up the machine as long as he pleafed. The
weight of the whole apparatus was upwards of 1600 -
pounds. The experiment was performed on the 15th
of Odlober 1783. M. Pilatre having placed himfeif Account of
in the gallery, the machine was inflated, and permit-cliffer~
ted to afeend to the height of 84 feet, where he kept™1 voya'
it afloat for about four minuter and a half: after8 S”
which it defeended very gently : and fuch was its
tendency to afeend, that it rebounded to a confiderabie
height after touching the ground. Two days after,
he repeated the experiment with the fame Juccefs as
before j but the wind being ftrong, the machine did
not iuftain itfelt io well as formerly. On repeating
the experiment in calmer weather, he afcended to the
height of 210 feet. His next afcent was 262 feet;
and in the defeent, a guft of wind having blown the
machine over fome large trees of an adjoining garden,
M. Pilatre fuddenly extricated himfeif from fo dan¬
gerous a fituation, by throwing fome draw and chop¬
ped wool on the fire, which raifed him at once to^rr
(uflicient height. On defeending again he once more
raifed himfeif to a proper height by throwing draw on:
the fire. Some time after, he afcended m company with
M. ■ G irouT.
A E R O S T
M. Girond de Villette to the height of 330 feet $ ho¬
vering over Paris at lead nine minutes in fight of all
the inhabitants, and the machine keeping all the while
perfe&ly fteady.
Thefe experiments had ftiown, that the aeroftatic
machines might be raifed or lowered at the pleafure of
the perfons who afcended : they had likewife difcover-
ed, that the keeping them fad with ropes ryas no
advantage ; but, on the contrary, that this was attend-
■ed with inconvenience and hazard. On the 2id of
November 1783, therefore, M. Pilatre determined to
undertake an aerial voyage in which the machine
ftiould be fully fet at liberty. Every thing being got
in readinefs,, the balloon was filled in a few minutes j
and M. Pilatre placed himfelf in the gallery, counter-
poifed by the marquis d’Arlandes, who occupied the
other fide. It was intended to make fome prelimina¬
ry experiments on the afcending pow-er of the ma¬
chine ; but the violence of the wind prevented this
from being done, and even damaged the balloon ef-
fentially; fo that it wrould have been entirely dedroy-
ed had not timely adidance been given. The extra¬
ordinary exertions of the wrorkmeh, however, repaired
it again in twTo hours, and the adventurers fet out.
I hey met with no inconvenience during their voyage,
which laded about 25 minutes; during which time
they had paffed over a fpace of above five miles.—
From the account given by the marquis d’Arlandes,
it appears that they met with feveral different cur¬
rents of air; the effeid of which wra«, to give a very
fenfible diock to the machine, and the diredliqn of the
tnotion feemed to be from the upper part downrwards.
It appears alfo that they were in fome danger of hav¬
ing the balloon burnt altogether ; as the marquis ob¬
served feveral round holes made by the fire in the low¬
er part of it, which alarmed him confiderably, and in¬
deed not without reafon. However, the progrefs of
the fire wTas eafily dopped by the application of a vret
fponge, and all appearance of danger ceafed in a very
fhort time.
This voyage of M. Pilatre and the marquis d’Ar¬
landes may be faid to conclude the hidory of thofe aero-
perfeded by ^atic machines which are elevated by means of fire ; for
thofe filled though many other attempts have been made upon the
with in- fame principle, mod of them have either proved unfuc-
ff mmable cefsful or were of little confequence. They have there¬
fore given place to the other kind filled with inflam¬
mable air {hydrogengas') ; which, by reafon of its fmall-
er fpecific gravity, is both more manageable, and ca¬
pable of performing voyages of greater length, as it does
not require to be fupplied wdth fuel like the others. This
was invented a very diort time after the difcovery had
been made by M. Montgolfier. This gentleman had
indeed defigned to keep his method in fome degree a
fecret from the world ; but .as it could not be conceal¬
ed, that a bag filled ivith any kind of duid lighter than
the common atmofphere would rife in it, infianfmable
air was naturally thought of as a proper fuccedaneum
for the rarefied air of M. Montgolfier. The fird ex¬
periment was made by two brothers Meffrs Roberts,
Montgol¬
fier’s ma¬
chines fu-
Experi-
ment of
Me firs
A T I O N, Hiflory,
diameter. Many difficulties occurred in filling it with
the inflammable air, chiefly owing to their ignorance
of the proper apparatus ; infomuch, that, after a
whole day’s labour from nine in the morning, they
had got the balloon only one-third part full. Next
morning they were furprifed to find that it had fully
inflated of itfelf during the night; but, upon inquiry, In what
it was found, that they had inadvertently left open a manner a
dop-cock connefled with the balloon, by which thebaUoon
common air gaining accefs, had mixed itfelf with the may inflate
inflammable air ; forming a compound dill lighter than itfelf. *
the common atmofphere, but not fufficiently light to
anfwer the purpofes of aerodation. Thus they were
obliged to renew their operation ; and, by fix o’clock
in the evening of next day, they found the machine
confiderably lighter than the common air; and, in an
hour after, it made a confidexable effort to afcend.
The public exhibition, however, had been announced
only for the third day after ; fo that the balloon was
allowed to remain in an inflated date for a whole day ;
during which they found it had lod a power of afcent Lofs of
equal to about three pounds, being one-feventh partP0%yerin
of the whole. When it was at lad fet at liberty, after fieir bal“
having been well filled with inflammable air; it was 35 0°n'
pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. It
remained in the atmofphere only three quarters of an
hour, during which it had traverfed 15 miles; Its
fudden defcent was fuppofed to have been owing to a
rupture which had taken place when it afcended into
the higher regions of the atmofphere.
The fuccels of this experiment, and the aerial voy- Firfl aerial
age made by Meffrs Rozier and Arlandes, naturally vofage of
^ n   .’ - -J Meflrs
Charles and and M. Charles a profeffor of experimental pftilofo-
Koberts. phy. The bag which contained the gas was compof-
ed ®f lutedring, varnifhed over with a folution of the
eladic gum called caoutchouc ; and that with which they
/uade their fird effay was only about 13 Englidi feet in,
fuggeded the idea of undertaking fomething of the^eflf
fame kind with a balloon filled with inflammable air. Roberts.311
The machine ufed on this occafion was formed of gores
of filk, covered over with a varnidr made of caoutchouc,
of a fpherical figure, and meafuring 27^ feet in dia¬
meter. A net was fpread over the upper hemifphere,
and was fadened to a hoop which paffed round the
middle of the balloon. To this a fort of car, or ra¬
ther boat, was fufpended by ropes, in fuch a manner
as to hang a few feet below the lower part of the bal¬
loon : and, in order to prevent the burding of the ma¬
chine, a valve was placed in it; by opening of which
fome of the indammable air might be occadonally let
out. A long filken pipe communicated with the bal¬
loon, by means of which it was filled. The boat was
made of balket work, covered with painted linen, and
beautifully ornamented ; being 8 feet long, 4 broad,
and 34" deep ; its weight 130 pounds. At this time,
however, as at the former, they met with |jreat difficul¬
ties in filling the machine with inflammable air, owing
to their ignorance of the mod proper apparatus. But
at lad, all obdacles being removed, the two adventur¬
ers took their feats at three quarters after one in the
afternoon of the fird of December 1783. Perfons
Ikilled in mathematics were conveniently datibned with
proper indrunients to calculate the height, velocity,
&c. of the balloon. The Weight of the whole appa¬
ratus, including that of the two adventurers, was found
to be 6044 pounds, and the power of afcent when they
fet out was 20 pounds; fo that the Whole diderence
betwixt the weight of this balloon and an equal bulk
of common air was 624 pounds. But the weight of
common atmofphere difplaced by the Inflammable gas
was
217
Hiftory. A E R O S
Specific ^ was calculated to be 771 pounds, fo that there remains
£ravitl of 147 for the weight of the latter ; and this calculation
mable air m ma-^es lt: onv 5+ lighter than common air.
this fir ft At the time the balloon left the ground, the ther-
voyage. mometer flood at 590 of Fahrenheit’s fcale 5 and the
quickfilver in the barometer at 30.18 inches j and, by-
means of the power of afcent rvith which they left the
ground, the balloon rofe till the mercury fell to 27
inches, from which they Calculated their height to be
about 600 yards. By throwing out ballaft occafion-
ally as they found the machine defcending by the
efcape of feme of the inflammable air, they found it
practicable to keep at pretty near the fame diftance
from -The earth during the reft of their voyage *, the
quickfilver fimftuating between 27 and 27.65 inches,
and the thermometer between 53° and 570, the whole
time. They continued in the air for the fpace of an
hour and three quarters, tv hen they alighted at the
diftance of ay miles from Paris: having fuffered no
inconvenience during their voyage, nor experienced
any contrary currents of air, as had been felt by Mdf.
Mr Charles Pilatre and Arlandes. As the balloon ftill retained
a.cends by a great quantity of inflammable gas, Mr Charles de-
ualc '■ termined to take another voyage by himfelf. Mr
Robert accordingly got out of the boat, which was
thus lightened by 130 pounds, and of confequence
the aeroftatic machine now had nearly as much power
of afcent. r! hus he was carried up with fuch velocity,
that in twenty minutes he was almort 9000 feet high,
and entirely out of fight of terreftrial objefts. At
the moment of his parting with the ground, the
globe had been rather flaccid ; but it foon began to
fwell, and the inflammable air efcaped from it in great
quantity through the filken tube. He alfo frequent¬
ly drew the valve that it might be the more freely
emitted, and the balloon effe&ually prevented from
burfting. 1 he inflammable gas being confiderably
warmer than the external air, diffufed itfelf all round,
and was felt like a warm atmofphere; but in ten mi¬
nutes the thermometer indicated a variation of tem¬
perature as great as that between the warmth of
Has a pain Spring and the ordinary cold of winter. His fingers
in his ear were benumbed by the cold, and he felt a violent pain
when^n ^ ^.S ear anc* Jaw? which he aferibed to the di-
the higher ^ata*f°n °f ^le air in thefe organs as well as to the ex-
tegions. ternal cold. The beauty of the profpeft which he
now enjoyed, however, made amends for thefe incon-
veniencies. At his departure the fun was fet on the
valleys ; but the height to which Mr Charles was got
in the atmofphere, rendered him again vifible, though
only for a ihort time. He law, for a few feconds, va¬
pours rifing from the valleys and rivers. The clouds
feemed to afeend from the earth, and collect one upon
the other, ftill preferving their ufual form ; only their
colour was gray, and monotonous for want of fufficient
Various light in the atmofphere. By the light of the moon,
currents of he perceived that the machine W'as turning round w ith
edd-VsT^ t;iie air ■> anci obferved that there were con-
thefe re- currents which brought him back again. He ob-
gions. ferved alio, with furprife, the effefts of the wind, and
Streamers the ftreamers of his banners pointed upwards;
of his ban- which, ne fays, could not be the effeft either of his
ners ft and afcent or dement, as he was moving horizontally at the
h >d time. At lad, reccllefting his promife of returning
to his mends in half an hour, he pulled the valve, and
Vol. I. Part I.
T A T I O N.
accelerated his defeent. When within 200 feet of the
earth, he threw out two or three pounds of ballaft:,
which rendered the balloon again ftationary ; but, in
a little time afterwards, he gently alighted in a field
about three miles diftant from the place whence he fet
out ; though, by making allowance for all the turn¬
ings and windings of the voyage, he fuppofes that he
had gone through nine miles at leaft. By the calcu¬
lations of M. de Meunier, he rofe at this time not lefs
than 10,500 feet high 5 a height fomewhat greater than
that of Mount ./Etna. A fmall balloon, which had
been fent off before the two brothers fet out on their
voyage, took a diie&ion oppofite to that of the large
one, having met with an oppofite current of air, pro¬
bably at a much greater height.
The fubiequent aerial voyages differ fo little from
that juft now related, that any particular defeription of
them feems to be fuperfiuous. It had occurred to Mr Attempts
Charles, howrever, in his laft flight, that there might be to guide
a poiftbility of directing the machine in the atmo- aero%tlc
fphere; and this was loon attempted by Mr Jean
Pierre Blanchard, a gentleman who had, for feveral mofphere.
years before, amufed himfelf with endeavours to fly by
mechanical means, though he had never fucceeded in
the undertaking. As foon as the difeovery of the ae¬
roftatic machines was announced, however, he refolved
to add the wings of his former machine to a balloon,
and made no doubt that it w ould then be in his power
to dired himfelf through the air at pleafure. In his Two firft
firft attempt he was fruftrated by the impetuofity of a voyages of
young gentleman, who infilled, right or wrong, on af- ^lan“
cending along with him. In the feuffle which enfuedc 1‘iru‘
on this occafion, the wings and other apparatus were
entirely deftroyed ; fo that M. Blanchard w^as obliged
to commit himfelf to the direftion of the wind ; and in
another attempt it was found, that all the ftrength he
could apply to the wings w as fcarce fufficient to coun-
terad the impreffion of the wind in any degree. In
his voyage, he found his balloon, at a certain period,
aded upon by two contrary winds ; but, on throwing
out four pounds of ballaft, he afeended to a place
where he met wfith the fame current he had at fetting
out from the earth. His account of the fenfations he His fenfa-
felt during this voyage, was fomewhat different from hons while
that of Mr Charles ; having, in one part of it, found ^ jv atJ
the atmofphere very warm, in another cold ; and hav- * ° ^
ing once found himfelf very hungry, and at another
time almoft overcome by a propenlity to fleep. The
height to which he arofe, as meafured by feveral ob-
fervations with mathematical inftruments, was thought
to be very little lefs than 10,000 feet; and he remain¬
ed in the atmofphere an hour and a quarter.
The attempts of Mr Blanchard to dired his machine Voyage of
through the atmofphere, wrere repeated in the month of
April 1784 by Meff. Morveau and Bertrand, at ••
jon, who raifed themfelves with an inflammable-air
balloon to the height, as it was thought, of 13,000
feet ; paffing through a fpace of 18 miles in an hour
and 25 minutes. Mr Morveau had prepared a kind
of oars for direding the machine through the air ; but
they were damaged by a guft of wand, fo that only
tv.'o of them remained lerviceable ; by working thefe,
however, they were able to produce a fenfible effed
on the motion of the machine. In a third aerial voy- Third voy¬
age performed by Mr Blanchard, he feemed to pro-age of M,
E e duce Blanchard
aiS A EROS'
d ace fame effect by the agitation of his wings, both in
attending, defcending, moving lideways, and even in
fome meafure againft the wind ; however, this is fup-
pofed, with fome probability, to have been a miftake,
as, in all his fucceeding voyages, the effects of his ma¬
chinery could not be perceived.
vcTewc of - ^ ^ ^ucce^s Meffrs Charles and Robert in their
Meffe J former experiments, encouraged them loon to repeat
Charles and with the addition of fome machinery to direct
Robert. their courfe. Having enlarged their former balloon to
the fize of an oblong fpheroid 46} feet long and 27 h
in diameter, they made it to float with its longeft part
parallel to the horizon. The wings were made in the
fhape of an umbrella without the handle, to the top of
wh>ch a flick was faftened parallel to the aperture of
the umbrella, live of thele were difpoled round the
boat, which was near 17 feet in length. The balloon
was filled in three hours, and, with the addition of
45° pounds of ballafl, remained in (equilibria with the
atmofphere. About noon, on the 19th of September
1784, they began to afcend very gently in confequence
of throwing out 24 pounds of ballaft, but were foon
obliged to throw out eight pounds more, in order to
Are in dan-avoid running againlf fome trees. Thus they rofe to
ger of nm- +}ie height of 1400 feet, when they perceived fome
thunder0 Powder clouds near the horizon. On this they afcend-
douds. ed and defcended, to avoid the danger, as the wind
blew dire&ly towards the threatening clouds; but,
from the height of 600 feet to that of 4200 above the
lurface of the earth, the current was quite uniform and
in one dire&ion. During their voyage they loft one
of their oars ; but found, that by means of thofe which
remained, they confiderably accelerated their courfe.
From the account of their voyage, it would feem that
they had palled fafely through the thunder clouds \ as
wre are informed, that, about 40 minutes after three,
they heard a loud clap of thunder 5 and three minutes
after, another much louder 5 at which time the ther¬
mometer funk from 77 to 59 degrees. This fuddcn
cold, occaiioned by the approach of the clouds, con-
denfed the inflammable air fo that the balloon defcend¬
ed very low, and they were obliged to throw out 40
Heat of the pounds of ballaft \ yet on examining the heat of the
air within air within the balloon, they found it to be 104°, when
‘Ja"" that of the external atmofphere was only 63°. When
they had got fo high that the mercury in the barome¬
ter flood only at 23.94 inches, they found themfelves
becalmed j fo that the machine did not go even at the
rate of two feet in a fecond, though it had before gone
Effelt of at the rate of 24 feet in a fecond. On this they de-
t-heir o; r> termined to try the eiTecl of their oars to the utmcft ;
the'ma-1^ anc*> by working them for 35 minutes, and marking
thine. the fhadow of the balloon on the ground, they found,
in that time, that they had defcribed the fegment of
an- ellipfis whofe longeft diameter wTas 6000 feet. Af¬
ter having travelled about 15.0 miles* they defcended,
only on account of the approach of night, having itill
200 pounds of balh’ft left. v
Their conclufion, with regard to the effedl of their
wings, is as follows : “ Thofe experiments Ihowq that
far from going againft the wind, as is faid by fbme
perfons to be poflible in a certain manner, and fome
aeronauts pretend to have aflually done, wTe only ob¬
tained, by means of two oars, a deviation of 22 de¬
cree? ; it is certain, however, that if we could have.
’ A T I O N. Hiftoty,
ufed our four oars, we might have deviated about 40
degrees from the direction of the wind ; and as our ma¬
chine wTould have been capable of carrying feven per¬
fons, it would have been eafy for five perfons to have
gone, and to have put in aftion eight oars, by means of
which a deviation of about 80 degrees would have bcrti
obtained.
“ We have already obferved (fay they), that if we
did not deviate more than 22 degrees, it was becaufe
tire wind carried us at the rate of 24 miles an hour ;
and it is natural to judge, that, if the wind had been
twice as ftrong as it was, we fhould not have devia¬
ted more than one-half of what we a&ually did 5
and, on the contrary, if the wind had been only half
as ftrong, our deviation would have been proportion-
ably greater.”
Having thus related all that has been done with re-Contrivan-
gard to the conducing of aeroftatic machines through ces ufed to
the atmofphere, we iliall now relate the attempts that prtvc-r.t the
have been made to leffen their expence by falling upon Q
fome contrivance to afcend without throwing out bal- a]r/
laft, and to defcend without lofing any of the inllam-
mable air. The firft attempt of this kind was made Voyage of
by the duke de Chartres j who, on the 15th of July the duke
1784, afcended with the two brothers, Roberts, and ade cliar-
fourth perfon, from the Park of St Cloud. The balloontres’
was of an oblong form, made to afcend with its longeft
diameter horizontally, and meafured 55 feet in length
and 24 in breadth. It contained within it a fmaller
balloon filled with common air j by blowing into which
with a pair of bellows, and thus throwing in a conli-
derable quantity of common air, it was luppofed that
the machine would become fufticiently heavy to de¬
fcend, efpecially as, by the inflation of the internal bag,
the inflammable air in the external one would be con-
denfed into a fmaller Ipace, and thus become fpecifically
heavier. The voyage, however, was attended with
fuch circumftances as rendered it impoffible to know
what would have been the event of the fcheme. The
power of afeent with which they fet out, feems to have
been very great; as, in three minutes after parting with
the ground, they were loft in the clouds, and involved ;nvoi_
in fuch a denfe vapour that they could fee neither thevedin
Iky nor the earth. In this fituation they feemed to bedark clouds,
attacked by a whirlwind, which, befides turning the ,
balloon three times round from right to left, fliccked a^hh-I-'7
and beat it fo about, that they were rendered incapable wind,
of ufing any of the means propofed for directing their
courfe, and the filk fluff of which the helm had been
compofed was even torn away. No feene can be con¬
ceived more terrible than that in which they were now
involved. An immenfe ocean of fhapelefs clouds rolled
one upon another below them, and feemed to prevent
any return to the earth, which ftill continued inviilble,
while the agitation of the balloon became greater every
moment. In this extremity they cut the cords which
held the interior balloon, and of confequence it fell
down upon the aperture of the. tube that came from
the large balloon into the boat, and flopped it up.
They were then driven upwards by a gufl of wind from
below, which carried them to the top of that ilormy
vapour in which they had been involved. They now
faw the fun without a cloud ; but the heat of his rays, ,
with the diminiflied denfity of the atmolphere had fuch
an effect cm the inflammable air; that the balloon feemed
every
Hiftory. A E R O S T
every moment ready to' burft. To prevent this they
introduced a Hick through the tube, in order to pufh
away -the inner balloon from its aperture : but the ex¬
pansion of the inllammable air pulhed it fo clofe,, that
all attempts of this kind proved ineffectuah It was
now, however, become abfolutely neceflaiy to give vent
to a very confiderable quantity of the inflammable air;
for which purpofe the duke de Chartres himfelf bored
two holes in the balloon, which tore open for the length
of feven or eight feet. On this they defcended with
great rapidity; and would have fallen into a lake, had
they not haftily thrown out 60 pounds of ballalt, which
enabled them juft to reach the water’s edge.
The fuccefs of the fcheme for railing or lowering
aeroftatic machines by means of bags filled with com¬
mon air being thus rendered dubious, another method
was thought of. This was to put a fmall aeroftatic
machine with rarefied "air under an inflammable air
balloon, but at fuch a diftance that the inflammable air
of the latter might be perfectly out of the reach of the
fire ufed for inflating the former; and thus, by increaf-
ing or diminifhing the fire in the fmall machine, the
abfolute weight of the whole would be confiderably di-
Unfortu- minifhed or augmented. This fcheme was unhappily
natc voy- put in execution by the celebrated M. Pilatre de Roxier,
age and and another gentleman named Mr Roniaine. Their
MeffbRo inflammable air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter,
zier and anA the power of the rarefied-air one was equivalent to
Roniaine. about 60 pounds. They afcended without any appear¬
ance of danger or finifter accident : but had not been
long in the atmofphere when the inflammable air bal¬
loon was feen to fwell very confiderably, at the fame
time that the aeronauts were obferved, by means of te-
lefcopes, very anxious to get down, and bufied in pull¬
ing the valve and opening the appendages to the bal¬
loon, in order to facilitate the efcape of as much In¬
flammable air as poflible. A fhort time after this the
whole machine was on fire, when they had then attain¬
ed the height of about three quarters of a mile from
the ground. No explofion was heard; and the filk
which compofed the air balloon continued expanded,
and feemed to refill the atmofphere for about a minute;
after wfliich it collapfed, and the remains of the appa¬
ratus defcended along with the twm unfortunate travel¬
lers fo rapidly, that both of them \vere killed. Mr Pi¬
latre feemed to have been dead before he came to the
ground; but Mr Romaine was alive when fome perfons
came up to the place where^he lay, though he expired
immediately after.
Thefe are the moll remarkable attempts that have
been made to improve the fcience of aeroftation; though
a great number of other expeditions through the at-
Voyage of mofphere have taken- place. But of all the voyages
Meffrs which had been hitherto projected or put in execution,
and^effric^ mo^ daring rvas that of Mr Blanchard and Dr
lerofs the Jeffries acrofs the ftraits of Dover, wfliich feparate
ftraits of Britain from France. This took place on the 7th of
Dover. January 1785, being a clear frofty morning, with a
wind, barely perceptible, at N. N. W. The operation
of filling the balloon began at 10,o’clock, and, at three
quarters after 12, every thing was ready for their de¬
parture. At one o’clock Mr Blanchard defired the
boat to be puftred off, which now flood only twTo feet
eliftant from that precipice fo finely deferibed by Sbake-
(peare in - his tragedy of King Lear. As the balloon
A T I O N. 219
vTas fcarcely fufficient to carry txvo, they were obliged
to throw out all their ballaft except three bags of 10
pounds each; when they at laft rofe gently ; though
making very little w-ay on account of there being lo
little wind. At a quarter after one o’clock, the ba¬
rometer, w-hich on the cliff flood at 29.7 inches, was
nowr fallen to 27.3, and the weather proved fine and
w-arm. They had now a moft beautiful profpedt of
the fouth coaft of England, and were able to count
37 villages upon it. After pafling over feveral vef-
fels, they found that the balloon, at 50 minutes after
one, was defeending, (Jr which they threw7 out a fack
and a half of ballaft ; but as they faw that it ftill de¬
fcended, and with much greater velocity than be¬
fore, they now threw- out all the ballaft. This ftill
proving ineffeftual, they next threw7 out a parcel of
books they carried along w-ith them, w-hich made the
balloon afeend, w-hen they were about midway betwixt
France and England. At a quarter paft tw-o, finding
themfelves again defeending, they threw- aw ay the re¬
mainder of their books, and, ten minutes after, they
had a moft enchanting profpeft of the French coaft .
Still, however, the machine defcended ; and as they had
now no more ballaft, they were obliged to throw
away their provifions, the wings of their boat, and
every thing they could poftibly fpare. “ We threw
away (fays Dr Jeffries) our only bottle, which, in
its defeent caft out a fleam like fmoke, w-ith a rufli-
ing noife ; and when it ftruck the water, w-e heard and
felt the flrock very perceptibly on our car and balloon.’’
All this proving infufficient to ftop the defeent of the
balloon, they next threw out their anchors and cords,
and at laft ftripped off their clothes, faftening them¬
felves to certain flings, and intending to cut away the
boat as their laft refource. They had now the fatisfac-
tion, however, to find that they were rifing ; and as
they paffed over the high lands between Cape Blanc
and Calais the machine rofe- very faft, and carried them
to a greater height than they had been fit any former
part of their voyage. They defcended fafely among
fome trees in the foreft of Guiennes, where there was
juft opening enough to admit them.
It would be tedious as well as unneceffary to recount
all the other aerial voyages that have been performed
in our own or other countries : It appeared fufficient
for the purpofe of this article to notice thofc which
were moft remarkable and interefting ; and therefore
an account of the ingenious Mr Baldwin’s excurfiorx
from Chefter, alluded to above, muft not be omitted in
our enumeration.
On the 8th of September 1785, at forty minutes paft Baldwin’s
one P. M. Mr Baldwin afcended from Chefter in Mr v0Jage'*
Lunardi’s balloon. After traverfing in a variety of
different diredfions, he firft alighted, at 28 minutes
after three, about twelve miles from Chefter, in the
neighbourhood of Frodffiam; then reafeending and
purfuing his excurfion, he finally landed at Rixton
mofs, five miles N. N. E. of Wavington, and 25 miles
from Chefter. Mr Baldw-in has publiftied his Obferva-
tions and Remarks made during bis voyage, and taken
from minutes. Our limits w-ill not admit of relating
many of his c.bfervatians - but the few following are
fome of the moft important and curious. “ The fen-
fation of afeending is compared to that of a ftrong
preffure from the bottom of the car upwards againtt
E e 2 the
220
A E R 0 S
the foies of his feet. At the diftance of what appeared
to him feven miles from the earth, though by the ba¬
rometer fcarcely a mile and a half, he had a grand and
moft enchanting view of the city of Chefter and its
^ lew from adjacent places belorv. 1 he river Dee appeared of a
the balloon, red. colour 5 the city very diminutive j and the town
entirely blue. . The whole appeared a perfeft plain,
tne higheil building having no apparent height, but
reduced all to the fame level 5 and the whole terreftrial
prolpeft appeared like a coloured map. Juft after his
ftrft afcent, being in a well watered and maritime part
of the country, he obferved a remarkable and regular
tendency of the balloon towards the fea 5. but fhortly
after riling into another current of air, he efcaped the
danger : this upper current he fays, was vifible to him
at the time of his afcent, by a lofty found ftratum of
clouds flying hi a fife diredlion. The perfpe&ive ap¬
pearance of things to him was very remarkable. The
Appear- loweft bed of vapour that firft appeared as cloud was
dcuds Pure white’ in detached fleeces, increafing as they
rofe .: they prefently coalefced, and formed, as he ex-
prefles it, a fea 01 cotton, tufting here and there by
the a&ion of the air in the undifturbed part of the
clouds. The whole became an extended white floor
of cloud,. the upper furface being fmooth and even.
Above this white floor he obferved, at great and une¬
qual diftances, a vaft afiemblage of thunder clouds,
each parcel confifting of whole acres in the denied:
form : he compares their form and appearance to the
Imoke of pieces of ordnance, which had confolidated as
it were into mafles of fnow,~ and penetrated through the
upper furface or wThite floor of common clouds, there
remaining viiible and at reft. Some clouds had mo¬
tions in flow and various direftions, forming an appear¬
ance truly ftupendous and majeftic.” He°endeavours
to convey fome idea of the feene by a figure ; (and from
this fig. i. Plate II. is copied). A reprefents a cir¬
cular view he had from the car of the balloon, hrmfelf
being over the centre of the view, looking down on
the white floor of clouds and feeing the city of Chefter
through an opening, which difeovered the landfcape be¬
low’-, limited by furrounding vapour to lefs than two
miles in diameter. The breadth of the outer margin
defines his apparent height in the balloon (viz. 4miles)
above the white floor of clouds. Mr Baldwin alio vives
a curious defeription of his tracing the ftiadow of the
balloon over tops of volumes of clouds. At firft it
was fmall, in fize and fhape like an egg 5 but foon in-
creafed to the magnitude of the fun’s dife, ftill grow-
ing larger, and attended with a moft captivating ap¬
pearance of an iris encircling the whole ftiadow at fome
diftance round it, the colours of which were remarkably
brilliant. The regions did not feel colder, but rather
warmer than below. The fun was hotteft to him
when the balloon was ftationary. The difeharge of a
cannon when the balloon was at a confiderable height,
was dirtinftly heard by the aeronaut ; and a difeharge
from the fame piece, when at the height of 30 yards,
fo difturbed him as to oblige him for fafety to lay hold
firmly of the cords of the balloon. At a confiderable
height he poured down a pint bottle full of water ; and
as the air did not oppofe a reilftance lufticient to break
the fleam into fmall particles, it moftly fell down in large
drops. In the courfe of the balloon’s track it was
found much affedted by the water (a circumftance ob-
T A T I O N. Hiftory.
ferved in former aerial voyages). At one time the
direction of the balloon kept continually over the w a¬
ter, going direftly towards the fea, fo much as to en¬
danger the aeronaut ; the mouth of the balloon w;as
opened, and in two minutes he defeended into an under
current blowing from the fea : he kept defending, and
lauded at Bellair farm in Rinfley, 12 miles from Chefter.
Here he lightened his car by 31 pounds, and inftantly
reafeending, was carried into the interior part of the
country, performing a number of different manoeuvres.
At nis greateft altitude he found his refpiration free
and eafy. Several bladders which he had along with
him crackled and expanded very confiderably. Clouds
and land, as before, appeared on the fame level. By
way of experiment, he tried the upper valve two or
three times, the neck of the balloon being clofe ; and
remarked, that the efcape of the gas w as attended wfith
a growTing noife like millftones, but not near fo loud.
Again, round the ftiadow of the balloon, on the clouds
he obferved the iris. A variety of other circumftances
and appearances he met with, is fancifully deferibed j
and at 53 minutes pail three he finally landed.
The following is an account of an eftablifhment
formed in France during the late war for the improve¬
ment of aerial navigation:
The aeroftatic inftitute, founded by the commit-Aerofiatic
tee of public fafety, and enveloped in the moft pro- afthtute in-
found fecrecy at Meudon, to which alfo was added a FraBce‘
camp for the exercife of the artillery, Is even yet
looked upon as a fecret arrangement of the repub¬
lic, refpedling which the greateft precautions are
taken j the doors being fliut againft the public and all
foreigners.
It w’as impoflible to have feledled a more convenient
fpot for the eftablifhment of the aeronautic inflitute
than the royal lodge of Meudon. From its elevated
fite on a mountain, it commands a beautiful and exten-
five profpect over a plain covered with villages and
cultivated fields, interfefted by the Seine, and termi¬
nated by the city of Paris.
I he perfection and the rational application of aero- Objects of
nautics are the objects of the labours of this eftablifh- it.
ment, to which the celebrated natural philofopher
Guyton Morveau has in particular rendered the moft
important fervices. But the inftitution flood in need
of fuch a director as Conte, for whom Guyton Morveau
has procured the appointment. With a love of the
fcience Conte unites a penetrating genius for refearch
and invention, accompanied by indefatigable affiduity.
i lie corps of aeronauts, intended to ferve in the ar- Ejnploy-
mies of the republic, and confifting of fifty courageousment of the
youths, is trained at the fchool of Meudcn : it is there PuPil5,
the balloons are prepared wTiich are fe-nt off to the ar¬
mies ; and every day in fummer the pupils are em¬
ployed, at one time in performing their exercifes, at
another in making refearches, in natural philofophy,
with a balloon which is kept, eonftantly filled for the
purpofe.
T he improvement in the preparation of the balloon,,
the difeovery of a new mode of filling it with inflam-,
mable air from the fubftance of water (hydrogen gas),
difeovered by Lavoifier, the invention of a new tele¬
graph, connected with the balloon, are the principal
advances which have been made in aeroftatics at Meu-,
dan under the direction of Conic.
The
22.1’
Hlftory. ^ A E R O S T
The old lodge of Meudcn ferves as a manufaflory
for the preparation of the balloons, and of all the ap¬
paratus neceiTary to accompany them to the armies.
The new lodge is appropriated to the inftitute, and to
the accommodation of the pupils, and of the direftor and
his family. There were prepared the Entrcprenant for
the army of the north, by means of which the hoftile
army was reconnoitred at the battle of Fleurus •, the
Celejle for the army of the Sambre and Maefe ; the Her-
cule and the Inirepide for the army of the Rhine and
Mofelle.
Mode of The filk for the balloons is manufa&ured at Lyons,
preparing and is very thick and ilrong : and Conte has rendered
the bal- them much more durable by the precaution of only var-
looas. nifiling the outer furface. The varnifh is of an excel¬
lent quality ; it fufticiently hardens the ontfide, and
does not make the filk flick together when the balloon
is folded. Moreover experience has proved that the
inner coat of varnifh cannot refill the operation of fil¬
ling the balloon, that it is corroded by the gas, and
that this friclion renders the filk flabby.
The filling of the balloon with hydrogen gas is the
refult of the difcoveries made by the great Lavoifier,
and has for its balls his important experiment of the de-
compofition of water. The gas is prepared by the fol¬
lowing fimple and unexpenfive procefs.
The p-as or more hollow iron cylinders are fet in brick
work, befide and over each other, in a "furnace which
may be conftruCted in twelve hours \ and both ends of
each cylinder are made to projedl from the furnace.
The openings of thefe cylinders are flopped with flrong
iron covers, through which metal tubes are let in.
The tube at one end ferves for pouring water, pre-
vioufly heated, into the cylinders when red hot 5 that
on the oppofite fide is deflined to conduit the air which
firlt prefents itfelf, through a refervoir filled with a
cauflic lixivium, and to convey it into the balloon.
The cylinders are partly filled with coarfe iron filings,
which the exceffive heat of the furnace, kept up with
pit coal during the whole time of the operation, re¬
duces to a flate of excandefcence.. At this itage of
the procefs, the valve of one of the tubes, of each cy¬
linder is opened, and a fmall quantity of boiling wa¬
ter is gently poured into the heated cylinder. As foon
as the vapour of the water touches -the heated iron, the
two fubftances which compofe the water are feparated:
the one (the oxygen) attaches itfelf to the iron, which
it calcines, and which, after the operation, is found
partly cryllallized, after the manner of volcanic pro-
dudlions: the other of the component fubilances of
the water (the hydrogen) combines- with a quantity of
the igneous fubflance termed calorique, and becomes
inflammable air (hydrogen gas), which continues in a
permanent flate of elailic fluidity, and weighs feven or
eight times lefs than the atmofpherie air.
As the water contains a fmall portion of the fub¬
flance of carbone (carbonique) w hich would render the
air in the balloon heavy, the air, as it find ruflies out
of the cylinders is made to pah through a refervoir of
water impregnated with a cauflic alkali. This fluid
attracls to itfelf all the carbonique, and nothing riles
into the balloon but very pure and inflammable air.
During the operation, it has fometimes happened
that the cylinders, heated to excandefcence, melted. To
guard againll this accident, the projecting end of the
1 A T I C N.
cylinder is furnifhed with a pyrometer, and a fcale,
which, by means of an iron rod, indicates the degrees
of rarefaftion of the air. A particular point on the
fcale announces the moment when the cylinders are
heated in the degree nearefl to fufion : v.-hen ftich is
the cafe, the fire is immediately diminifhed. The ope¬
ration of filling a balloon of thirty feet diameter em¬
ploys one third of a day.
The exercifing balloon at Meudon is of a fpherical
form, and thirty-two feet in diameter. Its upper half
is covered with a linen cafe to keep off the rain from
the balloon and its netting. This netting, woven with
flrong cords, embraces the upper part of the balloon,
and is deilined to fupport the car for the reception of
the aeronauts. The balloon, kept conflantly full and
ready for afeent, and expofed in the open air in all
weathers, preferves its buoyant flation in the atmo-
fphere, being faiiened on the great terrace of the lodge.
When the -weather is favourable, the aeronautic exer-
cifes are begun. The balloon is fet free from its lall-Exercifes
enings, and elevated to a certain height j when the of the pu-
car is made faft to the cords which hang down fromPlls'
the net: the whole of this is done in five minutes. A
colonel then mounts the car with one of the pupils,
and the balloon rifes to the height, generally, of from
a hundred and fixty to two hundred and forty yards.
The pupils feparate into divifions, for the purpofe o£
holding the balloon in the air, fuffering it to mount,
and drawing it down, by means of three principal
ropes faiiened to the net, and ramified with feveral
others : in thefe manoeuvres they employ the aid of a
capflerm When the balloon has been newly filled,
has yet fuffered no evaporation, and flill retains all its
force, it requires the flrength of tw-enty perforis to
hold it 5 and in that Hate it will bear eight hundred
w’eight. After a fpace of two months, though much
evaporated, it. is flill capable of bearing two perfons
with their inflruments, and even a confiderable ballafl,
at the fame height in the air : but then ten perfons are
fufficient to hold it.
The car is conflruifted of a light lattice work of Form of'
wood, lined with prepared leather, and hang$ about the car.
fixteen feet beneath the balloon : it affords convenient
room for tw7o perfons feated oppofite each other, with
the neceffary inliruments for making obfervations.
The- balloon afeends as often in the day as is requi--
fite for the fucceflion of obfervations which are to be
made', but thefe afeentstake place only-in calm and fe-
rene -weather. Whenever any unforefeen accident oc¬
curs, the aerial machine is hauled down in five ml- -
nuteSi In flrong guffs of wind which fuddenly arife,
the aeronauts are always expofed to fome danger : the
balloon, held by. the ropes, cannot rife freely \ and its
vibrations and fluctuation refemble thofe of a paper
kite which has not yet reached a certain degree of al ¬
titude. This fpeftacle, neverthelefs, is more terrific
to the fpeclator than to the aeronaut,, who, feated in
his car which its own weight preferves in a perpendi¬
cular pofition under the. balloon, is but flightly aftefled
by its defultory motion. No inftance of any unfortu¬
nate accident has yet occurred at Meudon.
All fear, all idea of danger, vanifhes on examining
the folidity of the whole apparatus, the precautionary
meafures adopted w-ith the moft prudent forefight and
the utmoft fecurity, and dpecially when we are more
particularly
At***
Utility of
aeroltatic
experi-
•ments.
Aeroftatic
telegraph.
A EROS
particularly acquainted with the cool unaffuming ftea-
dinefs of Conte, the dirredtor of the whole.
W hen the return of peace fliall allow more leifure,
and mad layout the employment of this apparatus in
other experiments than thofe immediately connedled
with the military fervice, we may expedl to derive
fiom it tne molt important and diverfified advantages
to natural fcience. The experiments will then be con-
dufled under the direction of a committee of natura¬
lists from the national inftitute, with a view of makino-
diicovertes in natural phdoiophv, meteorology, and
other branches. When the labours of the aeroftatic
inftitute ftiall have accompliftied ends fo important to
the arts, and of fo great general utility, there will be
printed a particular account of the eftablilhment, and
of the courfe of experiments purfued : at prefent, thefe
matters are kept from the knowledge of the public.
. Tllle recent invention of Conte, admirable for
its fimplicity and precifton, is the aeroftatic telegraph.
It conftfts of eight cylinders of varniihed black liik,
ftretched on hoops, and refembling thofe little pocket
lanterns of crimped paper, which draw out and fold
down again on themfelves. Thefe eight moveable cy^.
linders, each three feet in diameter, and of a propor¬
tionate length, are fufpended from the bottom of" the
car, connected together with cords, and hanging one
above another, at the diftance of four feet* By means
of cords palling through the bottom of the car, the ae¬
ronautic obfervers direct thofe cylinders, give them dif-
ferent petitions at will, and thus carry on their telegra¬
phic correfpondence from the regions of the air. °
Conte has further applied his thoughts to the inven-
i!on 0^,a ^m^ar aeroftatic telegraph, which, without
the a diftance of a great balloon, or an aerial corrcf-
pondent, Ihould be managed by a perfon Handing on
the ground, by means of cords; the apparatus keinF
fufpenaed to a fmall balloon, of only twelve feet dia¬
meter.
Coutel, captain of the aeronautic corps, was the man
who afceiided with the Entreprenant balloon on the
Afcent of a
'balloon at
the battle r' ci J     
cl Fleums. 2'^fE °t June, 1794> an<^ who conduced the wonder¬
ful and important fervice of reconnoitring the hoftile
armies at the battle of Fleurus, accompanied by an ad¬
jutant and a general. He afeended twice on that day,
10 obferve, from an elevation of four hundred and*
forty yards, the polition and manoeuvres of the enemy.
On each occalion he remained four hours in the air
and, by means of preconcerted fignals with flags, carried
on a correfpondence with General Jourdan, the com¬
mander of the French army.
His intended afcent had been made known to the
enemy, who, at the moment when the balloon began
to take its flight, opened the fire of a battery againft
the aeronauts. The firft volley was directed too°low ;
one ball, neverthelefs, paffed between the balloon and
the car, and fo near to the former, that Coutel ima¬
gined it had ftruck it. When the fubfequent difeharges
were made, the balloon had already reached fuch a de¬
gree of altitude, as to be beyond the reach of cannon
ihot, and the. aeronauts faw the balls flying beneath
die car. Arrived at their intended height, the ob¬
servers, remote from danger, and undifturbed, viewed
all the evolutions of the enemies, and, from the peace¬
ful regions of the air, commanded a diftintt and com-
3
1 A T 10 N. Hiflory,
prehen five profpeft of two formidable armies engaged
in the vvoik of death.” (Month. Masr. vol. vi. p.
On the 28th of June, 1802, M. Garnerin, a French Garnerin’s
aeronaut, in company with an Englifh gentleman, af- voyage in
cended in a balloon of 20 feet diameter from Ranelauh Eng!and xe*
gardens. They pafl'ed over London, rofe to the height
of 10,000 feet, and landed in three quarters of an hour dfty. 1
from the time of their afcent on a common near Col-
chefter, a diftance of near 60 miles from London. The
temperature of the air when they afeended to the clouds
was 15 degrees lower than on the furface of the earth j
but when they rofe above the clouds, it became fenfi-
biy milder. 1 he rapidity of M. Garnerin’s voyage is
unequalled in the hiftory of aeroftation.
I he frequency of aerial voyages, accompanied with ufes of ae
particular details of trifling and uninterefting circum-roftatiom
nances, and apparently made with a view to promote
tne intereft of particular perfons, regardlefs of any ad¬
vancement in knowfledge, had funk the fcience of aero¬
ftation fo low in the opinion of moft people, that before
■ue give an account of the moft proper methods of con-
ftracting thefe machines, it is necefiary to premife
lomething concerning the ufes to which they may pof-
fibly be applied. I hefe, according to Mr Cavallo
are the following :—
“ The fmall balloons, efpecially thofe made of paper,
and raifed by means of fpirit of wine, may ferve to ex-
ploie the direftion of the winds in the upper regions
of the atmcfphere, particularly when there is a calm
below' j they may ferve for figfials in various circum-
ftances, in which no other means can be ufed ; and
letters or other fmall things may be eafily fent by them,
as for mftance from (hips that cannot fafely land on
account of llorms, from befieged places, iflands, or the
like. ^ The larger aeroftatic machines may anfwer all
the aoove mentioned purpoles in a better manner 5 and
they may, befides, be ufed as a help to a perfon who
wants to afeend a mountain, a precipice, or to crofs a
river j and perhaps one of thefe machines tied to a boat
by a long rope, may be, in fome cafes, a better fort of
fail than any that is ufed at prefent. The largeft fort
of machines, which can take up one or more men, may
evidently be fubfervient to various economical and phi-
lofophical purpofes. Their conveying people from
piace to place with great iwiftnefs, and without trouble,
may be of eflential ufe, even if the art of guiding them
m a direction different from that of the wind fliould
never be difeovered. By means of thofe machines the
ftiape of certain feas and lands may be better afeertain-
tu 5 men may afeend to the tops of mountains they
never vifited before j they may be carried over marfliy
and dangerous grounds j they may by that means come
out of a befieged place, or an illand 5 and they may, in
hot climates, afeend to a cold region of the atmofphere,
either to refrefh themfelves, or to obferve the ice, which
is never feen below j and, in fliort, they may be thus
taken to feveral places, to which human art hitherto
knew of no conveyance.
“ The philofophical ufes, to which thefe machine's
may be fubfervient, are numerous indeed : and it may
be fufficient to fay, that hardly any thing which paffes
in the atmofphere is known with precifion, and that
principally for want of a method of afeending into it.
The formation of rain, of thunder ftorms, of vapours,
hair,
Principles. A E R O S 1
hail, fnow, and meteors in general, require to be atten¬
tively examined and alcertained. The action ot the
barometer, the refraction and temperature of the air in
various regions, the defcent of bodies, the propagation
of found, &c. are fubjefts which all require a feries of
obfervation's and experiments, the performance of which
could never have been properly expected before the dii-
covery of aeroftatic machines.”
To thofe ufes we may add the gratification of curio-
fity and pleafure as a very ftrong inducement to the
practice of an art, in which, with any tolerable degree
of caution, there appears not to be the fmalleft danger.
Every one who has tried the experiment teftifies, that
the beauty of the profpeCt afforded by an afcent, or
the pleafure of being conveyed through the atmofphere,
cannot be exceeded. No one has felt the lead; of that
giddinefs confequent upon looking from the top of a
very high building or of a precipice, nor have they any
of the fieknefs ariling from the motion of a veffel at
fea. Many have been carried by balloons at the rate
of 30, 40, or even 50 miles an hour, without feeling
the lead; inconvenience, or even agitation of the wind ;
the reafon of which is, that as the machine moves with
nearly the velocity of the wind itfelf, they are always
in a calm, and without uneafmefs. Some have appre¬
hended danger from the eleCfricity of the atmofphere j
and have thought, that a llroke of lightning, or the
fmalleft eleftric fpark, happening near a balloon, might
fet fire to the indammable air, and deftroy both the
machine and the adventurers. Mr Cavallo has liig-
gefted feveral confiderations for diminilhing apprehen-
lions of this kind. Balloons have been already raifed
in every feafon of the year, and even when thunder has
been heard, without injury. In cafe of danger, the
aeronauts may either defcend to the earth, or afcend
above the region of the clouds and thunder ftorms.
Befides as balloons are formed of materials that are not
conductors of eleCtricity, they are not like to receive
ftrokes, efpecially as by being encompafled with air,
they Hand infulated. Moreover, inflammable air by
itfelf, or unmixed with a certain quantity of common
air, will not burn 5 fo that if an eleCtric fpark fhould
happen to pafs through the balloon, it would not let fire
to the inflammable air, unlefs a hole was made in the
covering.
Principles general principles of aeroftation are fo little
of aerofta- different from thofe of hydroftatics, that it may kern
tion. fuperlluous to infift much upon them. It is a fad
univerfally known, that when a body is immerfed in any
fluid, if its weight be lets than an equal bulk of that
fluid, it will rife to the furface 5 but if heavier, it will
fink •, and if equal, it will remain in the place where it
Experi- is left. For this reafon fmoke afcends into the atmo-
ments fphere, and heated air in that which is colder. The
fhowing arcent of ^ latter is fhown in a very eafy and fatis-
ofheated^ manner by bringing a red hot iron under anc
ak ' of the fcales of a balance, by which the latter is in-
ftantly made to afcend 5 for as foon as the red hot
iron is brought under the fcale, the hot air being light¬
er than that which is colder, afcends, and ftrikes the
bottom, which is thus impelled upwards, and the op-
pofite fcale defcends, as if a weight had been put into it.
Upon this fimple principle depends the whole theo¬
ry of aeroftation •, for it is the fame thing whether we
render the air lighter by introducing a quantity of
1 A T I O N. 223
heat into it, or cnclofing a quantity of gas fpetifically
lighter than the common atmofphere in a certain fpace j
both will afcend, and for the fame reafon. A cubic
foot of air, by the mod accurate experiments,' has
been found to weigh about 554 grains, and to be ex¬
panded by every degree of heat, marked on Fahren¬
heit’s thermometer, about Part ^le whole.
By heating a quantity of air, therefore, to 500 de¬
grees of Fahrenheit, we (hall juft double its bulk when
the thermometer ftands at 54 in the open air, and in
the fame proportion we (hall diminilh its weight j and
if fuch a quantity of this hot air be enclofed in a bag,
that the excefs of the weight of an equal bulk of com¬
mon air weighs more than the bag with the air con¬
tained in it, both the bag and air will rife into the at¬
mofphere, and continue to do fo until they arrive at a
place where the external air is naturally fo much rare¬
fied that the weight becomes equal: and here the whole
will float.
The power of hot air in railing weights, or rather
that by which it is itfelf impelled upwards, may be
(hown in the following manner : Roll up a ftieet of
paper into a conical form, and, by thrufting a pin in¬
to it near the apex, prevent it from unrolling. Faften
it then, by its apex, under one of the fcales of a ba¬
lance by means of a thread, and, having properly coun-
terpoifed it by weights, put it into the oppofite fcale 5
apply the flame of a candle underneath, you will in-
ftantly perceive the cone to arile, and it will not be
brought into equilibrium with the other but by a much
greater weight than thofe who have never fecn the ex¬
periment would believe. If we try this experiment
with more accuracy, by getting proper receptacles
made which contain determinate quantities of air, we
{hall find that the power of the heat depends much
more on the capacity of the bag which contains it than
could well be fuppofed. Thusr let a cubical recep¬
tacle be made of a fmall wooden frame covered with
paper capable of containing one foot of air, and let the
power of a candle be tried with this as above dire&ed
for the paper cone. It will then be found that a cer¬
tain weight may be raifed ; but a much greater one
will be raifed by having a receptacle of the fame kind
which contains two cubic feet ; a ftill greater by one
of three feet; a yet greater by one of four feet, &c.
and this even though the very fame candle be made
ufe of} nor is it known to what extent even the power
of this fmall flame might be carried.
From thefe experiments it appears, that in the aero- Rarefied
ftatic machines conftru&ed on Montgolfier’s plan, it air balloons
muft be an advantage to have them as large as poffibie j ^ be
becaufe a fmaller quantity of fire will then have a great-iarge as
er effeift in raifing them, and the-danger from that ele-poffibie.
ment, which in this kind of machines is chiefly to be
dreaded, will be in a great meafure avoided. On thisHow bal-
lubjetft it may be remarked, that as the cubical con-loons might-
tents of a globe, or any other figure of which balloons nle 0^be
are made, increafe much more rapidly thaw their fur-£°at 0ftj,e
faces, there muft ultimately be a degree of magnitude atmofphere.
at which the fmalleft imaginable, heat would raife any
weight whatever. Thus, fuppoffng any aeroftatic ma¬
chine capable of containing yoo.cubic feet, and the air
within it to be only one degree hotter than the exter¬
nal atmofphere ; the tendency of this machine to rife,
even without the application of artificial heat, would
.2 24
AEROSTATION.
A balloon
at Dijon
rifes thus
into the at
niolphere.
'Internal
heat ef the
balloons
has great
influence
on aerial
voyages.
be near an ounce. Let its capacity be increafed 16
times 5 and the tendency to arife will be equivalent to
a pound, _ though, this may be done without making
the machine 16 times heavier than before. It is cer¬
tain, however, that all aeroflatic machines have a ten¬
dency to produce or preferve heat within them, which
would by no means be imagined by thofe who have
not made the experiment. When Meffrs Charles and
Roberts made their longeft aerial voyage of 150 miles,
they, had the curiofity to try the temperature of the air
within their balloon, in comparifon with that of the
external atmofphere ; and at this time they found
that, when the external atmofphere was 63°, the ther¬
mometer within the balloon rtood at 104°. Such a
difference of temperature muft have given a machine
at the. magnitude which carried them a confiderable
amending power independent of any other caufe, as it
amounted to 41 grains on every cubic foot 5 and there¬
fore m a machine containing 50,000 fuch feet would
have been almoft 200 pounds. Hence we may eafilv
account for what happened at Dijon, and is recorded
by Mr Morveau. A balloon, intended to be filed
with inflammable air, being completed, was, by way of
. tnal> with common air, and in that ftate expofed
to the atmofphere. Now it was obferved, and indeed
a limilar oblervation bad been made before, that the
air within the.balloon was much hotter than the cir¬
cumambient air : the thermometer in the former flood
at 120° } whereas in the latter, even when the fun
inone upon it, the thermometer flood at 84°. This
fbowed a confiderable degree of rarefatlion within the
balloon 5 and confequently it was fufpefled, that, by
means of this rarefaction alone, efpecially if it were to
increafe a little, the balloon might afcend. On the
30th of May, about noon, the wind being rather
Itrong, agitated the balloon fo that two men were em¬
ployed to take care of it 5 but, notwithflanding all
their endeavours, it efcaped from its confinement ;
and, lifting up about 65 potmds weight of cords, equa¬
torial circle, &c. rofe many feet high, and, palling
over fome houfes, went to the diflance of 250 yards
where at length it was properly fecured.” ’
This.difference between the external and internal
heat being fo very confiderable, muff have a great in¬
fluence upon aeroflatic machines, and will undoubtedly
influence thole filled with inflammable air as well as
the other kind. Nor is it unlikely, that the fhort
time, which many aerial voyagers have been able to
continue in the atmofphere may have been owing to
the want of a method of preferving this internal heat,
ic may naturally be iuppofed, and indeed it has always
been found, that balloons, in pafling through the high¬
er regions of the atmofphere, acquire a very confider¬
able quantity of moiflure, not only from the rain or
mow they fometimes meet with, but even from the dew
and vapour which condenfes upon them. On this an
evaporation will inftantly take place ; and, as it is the
property of this operation to produce a very violent
cold, the internal heat of the balloon muff be foon ex-
haufted in fuch a manner as to make it become fpeci-
fically heavier than the common atmofphere, and con¬
fequently defeend in a much fhorter time than it would
have done by the mere lofs of air. To this, in all pro¬
bability, we are to aferibe the defeent of the balloon
which carried Meffrs Blanchard and Jeffries; and
Principles.
which feemed. fo extraordinary to many people, that Great ten.
tliey W'ere obliged to have recourfe to an imaginary flenc7
attraction in the waters of the ocean, in order to folve
the phenomenon. This fuppofition is rejefted by Mr^onl’o de"1"
Uavalhy who explains the matter, by remarking, thatfeend ac- “
m two former voyages made with the fame machine, counted
it could not long fupport two men in the atmofphere •for'
fo that we had no occafion to wonder at its iveaknefs
on this occafion. “ As for its riling higher (fays he)
juft when it got over the land, that may be eafily ac¬
counted for. . In the firft place, the two travellers
threw out their clothes juft about that time ; fecondly,
in confequence of the wind’s then increafing, the bal¬
loon travelled at a much greater rate than it had done
whilft over the fea ; which increafe of velocity leffen-
ed its tendency to defeend : befides which, the viciffi-
tudes of heat and cold may produce a very confider-
able effedt ; for if we fuppofe, that the air over the
land, was colder than that over the fea, the balloon
comiijg into the latter from the former, continued to
be hotter than the circumambient air for fome time
after; and confequently, it was comparatively much
lighter when in the cold air over the land, than
when in the hotter air over the fea; hence it floated
eafier in the former than in the latter cafe.”
^ It feems indeed very probable, that there was fome-
thing uncommon in the cafe of Mr Blanchard’s bal¬
loon while paffing over the fea ; for, as it rofe higher
after reaching the land than in any former period of
the voyage, and likewife carried them to a diftance
over land more than half of that which they had paf-
fed over water, we can fcarce avoid fuppofing, that it
had a tendency to defeend when over the water more
than W'hen over land, independent of any lofs of air.
Now, it does not appear that the air over the fea is at
ad "warmer than that above land ; on the contrary,
there is every reafon to believe, that the fiiperior re-
fleCHve power of the land renders the atmofphere above
it warmer than the fea can do : but it is very natural
to fuppofe, that the air above the fea is more moift
than, that above land ; and confequently, by letting
fall its moifture upon the balloon, muft have occafion-
ed an evaporation that would deprive the machine of
its internal heat, which it would partly recover after it
entered the warmer and drier atmofphere over land.
We fhall.now proceed, to the conftruftion of aero-Conftrac_
Italic machines j of which the fmaller are only fortionofae-
amufement, or fome flight experiments, and are veryro^atic rua.
eafily made. As in all of them, however, it is of the chines*
utmoft confequence to have the weight as little as pof-
fible, the fhape becomes an objed of great confidera-
tion. For this purpofe a fpherical figure has been thei-
thematically demonftrated to be the beft ; as capable offhapef"
containing a greater quantity under a fmaller furface
than any other. Thus a perfed fphere contains lefs
furface in proportion to its folidity than a fpheroid ; a
fpheroid lefs than a cylinder; the latter lefs than a
cube ; and a cube ftill lefs than a parallelepiped. In
all cafes, therefore, where we can fill the whole capa¬
city of the balloon with air equally light, the fpherical
figure is undoubtedly to be preferred : and this holds
good with regard to all inflammable air balloons, whe¬
ther their fize be great or fmall; but in the rarefied
air ones, where the under part muft neceflarily be much
colder than the upper, the globular ihape feems not fo
proper.
Pra&ice. A E R O S
proper. An inverted cone, or truncated pyramid, with
the fmaller part undermoft, feems then to be mod pro¬
per, as it allows the heated air (which has a great ten¬
dency to expand as well as to afcend) to colleft in the
wide part at the top, while the ufelefs furface, in the
lower part, and which, in any other figure, would con*
tain only the colder and heavier air, is thus thrown
aiide. In fa£l it has been found, that aeroflatic ma¬
chines, raifed by means of rarefied air, when made of
the fhape of a parallelepiped, or even one deviating
ftill more from the fhape of a globe, have anfwered the
purpofe as well as they could have been fuppofed to
do, bad ever fo much care been taken in forming them
exaftly to that fhape. The very firft machine made
by Mr Montgolfier was in form of a parallelepiped ;
and though it contained only 40 cubic feet, fhowed a
very confiderable power of afeent. A very large one,
74 feet high, which Mr Montgolfier had defigned to
exhibit before the royal family, had the middle part of
it priimatic for about the height of 25 feet } its top
was a pyramid of 29 feet j and its lower part was a
truncated cone of near 20 feet. It weighed 1000
pounds ; and, notwithstanding its fhape, in a very fhort
time manifefled a power of afeent equal to 500 pounds.
Another aeroflatic machine of a fmall fize, but of the
figure of a parallelepiped, being fuffered to afcend with
30 fheets of oiled paper fixed in a wire frame, and fet
on fire, rofe to a great height, and in 22 minutes could
not be feen. It feems therefore, that, with regard to
the fhape of thefe machines, it is by no means necef-
fary to adhere rigidly to that of a fphere j but that any
oblong form anfwers very well.
Materials. For experimental purpofes, both the inflammable
and rarefied air balloons may be made of paper 5 the
former being made of that kind called thin pq/}, var-
nilhed over with linfeed oil; the latter either of that
or any other kind, without varnifh. In order to avoid
the danger of burning, however, it has been propofed
to impregnate the paper of which thefe fmall rarefi¬
ed air balloons are made with a folution of fal ammo¬
niac, alum, or fome other fait j but this does not
feem to be neceffary. Thofe filled with inflammable
air have been made of gold-beaters fkin or peeled blad¬
ders ; but the cheaper material of paper is undoubted¬
ly preferable.
Bed var- For aeroflatic machines of a larger fize; the material
unJverf'all>r employed is varnifhed filk ; and for thofe of
air bTl-,j e ^le rarefied a^r l^en painted over with fome fize
loons. colour, or lined with paper. The beft varnifh for an
inflammable air balloon is that made with birdlime,
and recommended by Mr Faujas de Saint Fond, in a
treatife publifhed on the fubjefh The following is his
method of preparing it: “ Take one pound of bird
lime, put it into a new proper earthen pot that can re¬
fill the fire, and let it boil gently for about one hour,
viz. till it ceafes to crackle j or, wdiich is the fame
thing, till it is fo far boiled, as that a drop of it being
let fall upon the fire will bum : then pour upon it a
pound of fpirit of turpentine, Ifirring it at the fame
time with a wooden fpatula, and keeping the pot at a
good diftance from the flame, left the vapour of this
eflential oil fhould take fire. After this, let it boil for
about fix minutes longer ; then pour upon the whole
wiree pounds of boiling oil of nuts, linfeed, or poppy,
rendered drying by means of litharge j flir it well, let
Von. I. Part I.
EA T I O N. 22i
it boil for a quarter of an hour longer, and the vamifh.
is made. After it has refted for 24 hours, and the
fediment has gone to the bottom, decant it into ano¬
ther pot} and when you want to ufe it, warm, and ap¬
ply it with a flat brufh upon the filk fluff, whilft that
is kept well ftretched. One coat of it may be fuffi-
cient j but if two are neceffary, it will be proper to
give one on each fide of the filk, and to let them dry
in the open air while the filk remains extended.”
_Mr Cavallo gives the following method of preparing jvir Caval.
this varnifh, which he prefers to that of M. de St lo’s me*
Fond—“ In order to render linfeed oil drying, boilt!10(b
it with two ounces of faccharum faturni and three
ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil
has diflolved them, which will be accompliihed in half
an hour ; then put a pound of birdlime and half a pint
of the drying oil into a pot (iron or copper pots
are the fafeft for this purpofe), the capacity of which
may be equal to about one gallon, and let it boil very
gently over a flow charcoal fire till the birdlime ceafes
to crackle, which will be in about half or three quar¬
ters of an hour; then pour upon it two pints and a
half more of drying oil, and let it boil for one hour
longer, flirring it very- frequently with an iron or
wooden fpatula. As the varnifh, whilft boiling, and
efpecially when it is nearly done, fwells very much,
care fhould be had to remove, in thofe cafes, the pot
from the fire, and to replace it when the varnifh fub-
hdes, otherwife it will boil over. Whilft the fluff is
boiling, the operator fhould, from time to time, ex¬
amine whether the varnifh has boiled enough ; which
is thus known :—Take fome of it upon the blade of a
knife, and then, after rubbing the blade of another
knife upon it, feparate the knives ; and when, on this
feparation, the varnifh begins to form threads between
the two, you may conclude that it is done 5 and,
without lofing time, it muft be removed from the fire.
When it is almoft, though not quite, cold, add about
an equal quantity of Ipirit of turpentine: mix it
well together, and let it reft till the next day 5 when,
haying warmed it a little, ftrain and bottle it. If
it is too thick, add fome more fpirit of turpentine.
When this varnifh is laid upon the filk, the fluff
fhould be made perfe&ly dry, and ftretched 5 fo that
the varnifh, which ought to be ufed lukew7arm, may
fill up the pores of the fluff. The varnifh fhould be
laid once very thin upon one fide of the fluff; and,
about 12 hours after, two other coats of it fhould be
laid on, one on each fide ; ancf, 24 hours after, the
filk may be ufed, though, in cold weather, it may be
left to dry fome time longer.”
Much has been faid in France of their elaftic gum
varnifh, and its compofition kept a lecret; but Mr
Baldwin, after many expenfive trials, declares to the
world wdiat he confiders as the fecret ; and it is merely
this : “ 'Fake any quantity of caoutchouc, as twTo ounees
avoirdupois ; cut it into fmall bits with a pair of feif-
fars ; put a ftrong iron ladle (like that ufed by plum¬
bers) over a common pitcoal or other fire. The fire
muft be gentle, glowing, and without fmoke. When
the ladle is hot, much below7 a red heat, put a fingle
bit into the ladle. If black fmoke iflues, it will pre¬
sently flame and difappear, or it will evaporate with¬
out flame: the ladle is then too hot. When the
ladle is lefs hot, put in a fecond bit, which will pro-
F f duce
226
A E R O S T
duce a white fmoke. This white fmoke will continue
during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc :
therefore no time is to be loft ; but little bits are to
be put in, a lew at a time, till the whole are melted.
It fhould be continually and gently ftirred with an
iron or brafs fpoon. Two pounds or one quart of
the beft drying oil (or of raw linfeed oil, which, to¬
gether with a few drops of neats-foot oil, has flood a
month, or not fo long, on a lump of quicklime, to
make it more or lefs drying), is to be put into the
melted caoutchouc, and ftirred till hot, and the whole
poured into a glazed veffel through a coarfe gauze or
fine fieve. When fettled and clear, which will be in
a few minutes, it will be fit for ufe either hot or cold.”
Mr Baldwin is not at liberty, he obferves, to publiih
the art of laying on the varnifh : but fays, that it con-
fifts in making no intejline motion in the varnifh, which
would create minute bubbles 5 that therefore brufhes
are improper. Mr Blanchard’s method of making elaftic
gum varniih for the filk of a balloon, is the following,
4< DiiTolve elaftic gum (caoutchouc) cut fmall in five
times its weight of fpirit of turpentine, by keeping
them fome days together •, then boil one ounce of this
folution in eight ounces of drying linfeed oil for a few
minutes 5 laftly, ftrain it. It muft be ufed warm.” The
pieces of filk for the balloon muft be- cut out of a pro¬
per fize, according to the dimennons, after the varnifh
is fufficiently dry. They may be joined by laying
about half an inch of the edge of one piece over the
edge of the other, and fewing them by a double Hitch¬
ing. Mr Blanchard ufes expeditioufly the following
method : He lays about half an inch of the edge of
qne piece flat over the edge of the other, and paflbs
a hot iron over it; in doing wdiich a piece of paper
ought to be laid both under and over the lilk. The
joining may be rendered more iecure by running it
with a filk thread, and flicking a ribband over it. The
ribbands laid over feams may be ftuck with common
glue, provided the varniih of the filk is properly dried.
When the glue is quite dry, the ribbands fhould be var-
nifhed over, to prevent their being unglued by the rain.
Of cuttiiw The beft method of cutting the pieces of filk that are
the gores to form a balloon, is to deferibe a pattern of wood or
for a globe, card-paper, and then to cut the filk upon it; As
the edges of fiich a pattern are not perfect circles, they
cannot be deferibed by a pair of compafles : but the
beft method of drawing them is as follows. Firft, Draw
on a flat furface two right lines AE and BC, fig. 2. per¬
pendicular to each other. Secondly, Find the circum¬
ference anfwering to the given diameter of the balloon
in feet and decimals of a foot ; and make AD and DE
each equal to a quarter of the circumference, fo that
the whole length AE of the pattern may be equal to
half the circumference. Thirdly, Divide AD into 18
edual parts ; and to the points of divinon apply the
lines fg, hi, kl, &c, parallel to each other, and perpen¬
dicular to AD. Fourthly, Divide the whole circum¬
ference in twice* the given number of pieces, and make
DC and BB each equal to the quotient of this divi-
fion : fo that the whole, BC, is equal to the greateft
breadth of one of thefe pieces. Fifthly, Multiply the
above-mentioned quotient by the decimals annexed to
0.99619, and then the produft expreffes the
length of fg ; again, multiply the lame length of DE
by the decimals annexed to hi} and the product, ex-
A T 1 O N. Practice.
preffes the length of hi; and, in fnort, the product
arifing from the multiplication of the length of DC by
the decimals annexed to each of the parallel lines,
gives the length of that line. Laftly, Having found
the lengths of all thefe lines, draw by hand a curve
line palling through all the extremities of the laid
lines, and that is-the edge of one quarter of the pat¬
tern. The other quarters may be eafily deferibed, by
applying to them a piece of paper cut according to
that already found. Suppofe, for example, that the
diameter of the balloon to be conftrudled is 20 feet,
and that it is required to make it of 12 pieces : then,
in order to draw the pattern, for thofe pieces, find the
circumference of the balloon, which is 62.85 feet> ar|d
dividing it by four, the quotient is 15.7 feet j make
therefore AD equal to 15.7 feet, and DE likewife of
the fame length. Divide the circumference 62.83 ^7
24, which is double the number of pieces that are to
form the balloon, and the quotient, 2.618 feet, is the
length of DC and likewile of BD 5 fo that BC is
equal to 5.236 feet. Then, having divided the line
AD into 18 equal parts, and having drawn the paral¬
lel lines from thofe points of divifion, find the length
of each of thole lines by multiplying 2.618 by the de¬
cimals annexed to that line. Thus, 2.618 multiplied
by 0.99619, gives 2.608 feet for the length of^; and
again, multiplying 2.618 by 0.98481, gives 2.578
feet for the length of hi; and fo of the reft. In cut¬
ting the pieces after fuch a pattern, care Ihould be
taken to leave them about three quarters of an inch all
round larger than the pattern, which will be taken up
by the feams.
To the upper part of the balloon there fkould be
adapted, and well fitted in, a valve, opening inwards $
to which Ihould be faftened a ftring pafiing through
a hole made in a fmall piece of round w ood fixed in
the loweft part of the balloon oppofite to the valve, and
the end of this ftring faftened in the car belowq fo that the
aeronaut may open the* valve when occafion requires;
The adlion of this valve may be underftood from fig.3>
A round brafs plate AB has a round hole CD, about
twTo or three inches diameter, covered on both fides
with ftrong fmooth leather. On the infide there is a
Ihutter E, alfo of brafs, covered with leather, which is
to clofe the hole CD ; being about two inches larger
in diameter than the hole. It is faftened to the lea¬
ther of the plate AB •, and by a fpring, vhich need
not be very ftrong, it is kept againft the hole.. The
elafticity of the gas itfelf will help to keep it fliut;
To this Ihutter the ftring is faftened, by which it is
occafionally opened for the efcape of gas. A fmall
ftring or other fecurity fhould' be fixed to the fhutter
and the plate, fo as not to admit the'fhutter to be
opened beyond a certain fafe eiftance. io the lower
part of the balloon twTo pipes ihould be fixed, made of
the fame fluff as the envelope ; 6 inches diameter for
a balloon of 30 feet, and proportionably larger for bal¬
loons of a greater capacity. They muft be long enougil
for the car. For balloons of 18 feet and lefs diame¬
ter, one neck or pipe will be fufficient. Thefe pipes
are the apertures through which the inflammable gas
is introduced into the balloon.
The car or boat is beft made of wicker-work, cover¬
ed with leather, and well painted or varnifhed over 5
and the proper methedof ft;fpending it, is by ropes pro¬
ceeding
A E R O S
Of filling
aeroftatic
machines.
Practice.
ceeding from die net wlilcli goes over the balloon.
This net fhould be formed to the (hape of the balloon,
and fall down to the middle of it, with various
cords proceeding from it to the circumference of a
circle about two feet below the balloon j and from
that circle other ropes fhould go to the edge of the
boat. This circle may be made of wood, or of feve-
ral pieces of ilender cane bound together. 1 he meflies
of the net may be fmall at top, againft which part
the balloon the inflammable air exerts the greateft
force ; and increafe in fize as they recede from the top.
A hoop has fometimes been applied round the middle
of the balloon to fallen the net. This, though not
absolutely neceflary, is bell made of pieces of cane
bound together, and covered with leather.
With regard to the rarefied-air machines, Mr Ca-
vallo recommends firll to foak the cloth in a Solution
of fal ammoniac and common fize, uling one pound of
each to every gallon of water ; and when the cloth is
quite dry, to paint it over in the infide with Some
earthy colour, and Itrong fize or glue. When this
paint has dried perfetlly, it will then be proper to
varnilh it with oily varnilh, which might dry before it
could penetrate quite through the cloth. Simply dry¬
ing linfeed oil will anfwer the purpofe as well as any,
provided it be not very fluid.
It now only remains to give Some account of the
method by which aeroftatic machines may be filled
with their proper gas, in order to give them their
power of afcending into the atmofphere } and here we
are enabled to determine with much greater precifion
concerning the inflammable air balloons than the others,
of With regard to them, a primary confideration is, the
procuring moll proper method of procuring the inflammable air.
It may be obtained in various ways, as will be fliown un¬
der the article Chemistry. But the moll advantageous
methods are, by applying acids to certain metals 5 by
expofing animal, vegetable, and fome mineral fub-
ftances, in a clofe veflel to a llrong fire *, or by trans¬
mitting the vapour of certain fluids through red-hot
tubes.
1. In the firll of thefe methods, iron, zinc, and
Sulphuric acid are the materials moll generally ufed.
'I'he Sulphuric acid mutt be diluted with five or fix
parts of water. Iron may be expected to yield in the
common way 1 700 times its own bulk of gas) or one
cubic foot of inflammable air to be produced by 4^
ounces of iron, the like weight of fulphuric acid, and
2 2± ounces ef water. Six ounces of zinc, unequal
weight of fulphuric acid, and 30 ounces of water, are
neceffar-y for producing the fame quantity of gas. It
is more proper to ufe the turnings or chippings of great
pieces of iron, as .of cannon, &c. than the filings of
that metal, becaufe the heat attending the effervefcence
will he.diminished *, and the diluted acid will pafs more
readily through the interftices of the turnings when
they are heaped together, than through the filings,
which flick clofer to one another. The weight of the
inflammable air thus obtained by means of fulphuric
acid, is, in the common way of procuring it, gene¬
rally one-feventh part of the weight of common air ;
but with the neceffary precautions for philofophical
experiments, lefs than one-tenth of the weight of
common air. Two other forts of elaftic fluids are
Sometimes generated with the inflammable air. Thefe
inflamma¬
ble air.
T A T I O N.
may be feparated from it by palling the inflammable
air through water in which quicklime has been dillol-
ved. The water will abforb thefe fluids, cool the in¬
flammable air, and prevent its over-heating the bal¬
loon when introduced into it.
Fig. 4. of Plate II. reprefents an apparatus deferib-
ed by Mr Cavallo as proper for filling balloons of
the fize of two or three feet in diameter with inflam¬
mable air, after palling it through water. A is the
bottle with the ingredients ; BCD a tube fattened in
the neck at B, and patting through C, the cork of the
other bottle, in which there is another hole made to re¬
ceive the tube on which the balloon is tied. Thus it
is plain, that the inflammable air coining out of the
tube D will pafs firft through the water of the bottle
E and then into the balloon. Two fmall calks may
be ufed inftead of the bottles A and E.
2. Inflammable air may be obtained at a much
cheaper rate by the adlion of fire on various fubfiances }
but the gas which thefe yield is not fo light as that
produced by the eftervefcence of acids and metals. The
fubftances proper to be ufed in this way are, pitcoal,
afphaltum, amber, rock-oil, and other minerals} wood
and efpecially oak, camphor-oil, fpirits of wine, aether,
and animal fubftances, which yield air in different de¬
grees, and of various fpecific gravities; but pitcoal is
the preferable fubftance. A pound of this expofed to
a red heat, yields about three cubic feet of inflammable
air, which, whether it be patted through water or not,
weighs about one-fourth of the weight of common air.
Dr Prieftlcy found, as we have elfewhere noticed, that
animal or vegetable fubftances will yield fix or feven
times more inflammable air when the fire is fuddenly
increafed than when it is gently raifed, though it be
afterwards made very ftrong. Mr Cavallo obferves,
that the various .fubftances above enumerated generally
yield all their inflammable air in about one hour’s time.
The general method is, to enclofe the fubftances in
iron or earthen veffels, and thus expofe them to a ftrong
fire fufficient to make the veffels red hot : the inflam¬
mable air proceeding from the aperture of the veffel is
received into a tube or refrigeratory, and, patting through
the tube or worm, is at laft collected in a balloon or
other veffel. A gun-barrel has often been ufed for ef-
fays of this kind. The fubftance is put into it fo as
to fill fix or eight inches of its loweft part, the re¬
mainder filled with dry fand: a tube, adapted to
the mouth of the barrel, is brought into a bafon of
water under an inverted receiver } and the part of the
barrel containing the fubftance being put into the
fire and made red-hot, the inflammable air is col-
lefted in the inverted receiver. As the gun-barrel can¬
not ferve for producing a large quantity of inflammable
air, Mr Cavallo recommends, as the moft advantageous
fhape, the following contrivance : Let the veflel be
made of clay, or rather of iron, in tne fliape of a 1 lo-
rence flalk, fomewhat larger, and whole neck is longer
and larger (See ABC, fig. 5.) Put the fubftance to be
ufed into this veffel, fo as to fill about four-fifths or lefs
of its cavity AB. If the fubftance is of fuch a nature
as to fwell much by the action of the fire, lute a tube
of brafs, or firft a brafs and .then a leaden tube, to the
neck C of the veffel; and let the end D of the tube be
fliapcd as in the figure, fo that going into the water of a
tube HI, it may terminate under a fort of inverted vef-
F f 2 fcl-
228
Mr Caval-
Jo’s re¬
ceipt.
A E R O S '
fcl EF, to the upper aperture of which the balloon G
k adapted. Things thus prepared, if the part AB of
the velTel is put into the fire, and made red hot, the in¬
flammable air produced will come out of the tube CD,
and palling through the water will at laft enter into the
balloon G. Previous to the operation, as a confider-
able quantity of common air remains in the inverted
veflel EF, which it is mere proper to expel, the veffel
EF fhould have a flop-cock K, through which the
common air may be fucked out, and the water afeend
as high as the flop-cock. The dimenfions of fuch an
apparatus Mr Cavallo gives thus : Diameter of largefl
part of the veffel ABC feven inches, length of whole
velfel 16 inches ; diameter of its aperture one inch, dia¬
meter of the cavity of the tube CD three-fourths of an
inch •, lower aperture of the veflel EF fix inches, leaft
height of the veflfel EF 24 inches ; its aperture F about
two inches. The aperture of the veflfel EF ihould be
at leaft one foot below the furface of the water in HI.
Care muft be taken that the fire ufed in this procefs be
at a fufficient diftance, otherwife it may happen to fire
the inflammable air which may efcape out of the vef¬
fel EF.
3. The laft method of obtaining inflammable air
was difeovered by Mr Lavoilier, and alfo by Dr
Prieftley. Mr Lavoifier made the fleam of boiling wa¬
ter pafs through the barrel of a gun, kept red hot by
burning coals. Dr Prieftley ufes, inftead of the gun-
barrel, a tube of red hot brafs, upon which the fleam
of water has no efteft, and which he fills with the
pieces of iron which are feparated in the boring of
cannon. By this method he obtains an inflammable air,
the fpecific gravity of which is to that of common air
as 1 to 13. In this method, not yet indeed reduced
to general pradice, a tube about three quarters of an
inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is filled
with iron turnings ; then the neck of a retort, or clofe
boiler, is luted to one of its ends, and the worm of a
refrigeratory is adapted to its other extremity. The
middle part of the tube is then furrounded with burn¬
ing coals, fo as to keep about one foot in length of it
red hot, and a fire is always made under the retort or
boiler fufficient to make the water boil with vehemence.
In this procefs a confiderable quantity of inflammable
air comes out of the wTorm of the refrigeratory. It is
laid that iron yields one-half more air by this means
than by the adion of fulphuric acid.
f or filling large balloons, a greater apparatus is ne-
ceffary •, and the only materials that can, with any cer¬
tainty of fuccefs, be employed for producing the proper
gas, are, fulphuric acid, and iron filings or turnings.
It has indeed been recommended to ufe zinc inftead
of iron filings, becaufe white vitriol, the fait produced
by the union of the fulphuric acid and zinc, is much
more valuable than the green fort produced by the
union of the fame acid with iron. But though this is
undoubtedly the cafe, it will as certainly be found, up¬
on trial, that the fuperior price of the zinc will be more
than an equivalent for all the advantage that can be
derived from the additional price of the white vitriol.
For a balloon of 30 feet diameter, Mr Cavallo recom¬
mends 3900 pounds of iron turnings, as much fulphu¬
ric acid, and 19,500 pounds of water. Thefe pro¬
portions, however, appear too great with icfpeft to
the acid and metal, and too little with refpe£t to'the
NATION. Pradice.
water. ^ Sulphuric acid will not exert its power upon
non umefs it oe diluted with five or fix times its quan¬
tity oi water } in which cafe, a much Imaller quantity
of both acid and metal will ferve. Mr Lunardi, whoMl.Tnnar
from the number of his voyages had certainly much di’s me- *
praftical knowledge in aeroftation, filled his" balloon thod.
at Edinburgh and Glafgow with about 2000 pounds
of iron (the borings of cannon procured from Carron),
as much fulphuric acid, and 12,000 pounds of water.
The iron was placed in his veffels in layers, with ftraw
between them, in order to increafe the furface. His
apparatus was not materially different from that of
Mr Cavallo, fig. 6. where AA are two tubes, about
three feet in diameter and nearly two feet deep, in-,
verted in large tubs BB filled with water. In the
bottom of each of the inverted tubs a bole is made,
and a tube E of tin adapted, which is about feven
inches in diameter, and feven or eight long. To
thefe tubes the fiiken ones of the balloon are to be
tied. Round each of the tubes B, five, fix, or more
ftrong calks are placed j in the top of each two holes
are made, and to one of thefe holes a tin tube is
adapted, and fo ihaped, that, paffing over the edge
of the tub B, and through the water, it may ter¬
minate with its aperture under the inverted tube A.
rI he other hole ot thefe calks ferves for the introduc¬
tion ot materials, and is flopped with a wrooden plug.
W hen the balloon is to be filled, put the net over it,
and let it be fufpended as ftiown by CDF ; and having
expelled all the common air from it, let the fiiken tube
be faftened round the tin ones EE ; and the materials
being put into the calks, the inflammable air, paffing
into the-balloon, will foon diftend, and render it ca¬
pable of fupporting itfelf; after wffiich the rope GH
may be flipped off. As the balloon continues to be
filled, the net is adjufted properly round it} the cords
that furround it are faftened to the hoop MN ; then
the boat IK being placed between the two lets of
calks, is faftened to the hoop MN, and every thing
that is required to be fent. up, as ballaft, inftruments,
&c. is placed in it. At lafl, when the balloon is little
more than three quarters full, the fiiken tubes are fe¬
parated from the tin ones of the inverted tubs, and
their extremities being tied up, are placed in the boat.
Laftly, The aeronauts being ieated in the boat, the la¬
teral ropes are flipped off, and the machine is aban¬
doned to the air. (See Blanchard"1 s Balloon, Plate III.)
This apparatus was at laft reduced by Mr Lunardi to
its utmoft fimplicity, by uling only two large calks,
and fuftering the vapour to go into the balloon with¬
out paffing through wrater. 'Thus his balloon wTas filled
in lels than half an hour, when before, it had required
two hours at leaft. The finking of his calks in the
ground was alfo an additional convenience, as it created
no confufion, and rendered the materials much more
eafily conveyed into them.
With regard to the rarefied air balloon's, the method Of filling
of filling them is as follows. A fcaffold ABCD, fig. 7. rarefied air
the breadth of which is at leaft twro-thirds of the dia-^a^00ns”
meter of the machine, is elevated about fix or eight
feet above the ground. From the middle of it defeends
a well E, rifmg about two or three feet above it, and
reaching to the ground, furriilhed wuth a door or two,
through which the fire in the well is fupplied with fuel.
The well Ihould be conftrufted of brick or of plaftered
I wood,
f
,\E HO STATION.
-c.osy/o
c./yio
-
c. a no ■/
- C. 12-ifil
-ft J
' ft 'tJ'i 'iK
ft Oi'iJV
ft/ft///
■ O.fftOc'.
V,
0,0003J
o. /yyuji
('■ya'-i&i
ft. qy6,y
//Jr// !r„„.//,r/Wr,
—
B*™?T
i
b 'V
r
Montgolli er s B a 1 Loon.
V Au/xr/wt ry > l'’ /ntenir
aerostation.
Tlate III.
Blanchard's Lialloon.
C//ir// yftrtn.//a/Z/atfttorjrrtf ■
Pra&ice. A E R O S
wood, and its diameter fhould be fomewhat lefs than
that of the machine. On each fide of the fcaffold are
ere fled two malls HI, KL, each of which has a pulley
at the top, and rendered firm by means of ropes KG,
fvP, HP, HG. The machine to be filled is to be pla~
ced on the fcaffold, with its neck round the aperture
of the well. The rope pafling over the pullies of the
two mails, ferves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the
balloon about 15 feet or more above the fcaffold 5 and
the rell of the machine is reprefented by the dotted
lines in the figure MNO. The machine is kept Heady,
and held down, whilfl filling, by ropes paffing through
loops or holes about its equator; and thefe ropes may
eafdy be difengaged from the machine, by flipping
them through the loops when it is able to fuftain it-
felf. The proper combuftibles to be lighted in the
well, are thofe wdrich burn quick and clear, rather than
Inch as produce much fmoke ; becaufe it is hot air,
and not fmoke, that is required to be introduced into
the machine. Small wood and flraw have been found
to be very fit for this purpofe. Mr Cavallo obferves, as
the rcfult of many experiments with fmall machines,
that fpirit of wine is upon the whole the bell com-
buftible ; but its price may prevent its being ufed for
large machines. As the current of hot air aicends, the
machine will foon dilate, and lift itfelf above the fcaf¬
fold and gallery which w'as covered by it. The paffen-
gers, fuel, inflruments, &c. are then placed in the gal¬
lery. When the machine makes efforts to afcend, its
aperture muff be brought, by means of the ropes an¬
nexed to it, towards the fide of the well a little above
the fcaffold ; the fire-place is then fufpended in it, the
fire lighted in the grate, and the lateral ropes being
flipped off, the machine is abandoned to the air. (See
Montgolfier'shalloon, Plate III.) It has been determined
by accurate experiments, that only one-third of the
common air can be expelled from thefe large machines:
and therefore the afcending power of the rarefied air in
them can be eftimated as only equal to half an ounce
avoirdupois for every cubic foot.
The condufl of balloons, when conftrufled, filled,
and a finally afcending in the atmofphere, is an objecl
of great importance in the pradice of aeroftation. The
method generally ufed for elevating or lowering the
balloons with rarefied air, has been the increafe or di.
minution of the fire : and this is entirely at the com¬
mand of the aeronaut, as long as he has any fuel in the
gallery. The inflammable air balloons have been ge¬
nerally railed or lowered by diminiflung the weight in
the boat, or by letting out feme of the gas through
the valve: but the alternate efcape of the air in de-
feending, and difeharge of the ballafi for afcending,
will by degrees render the machine incapable of float¬
ing j for in the air it is impofiible to fupply the lofs of
ballaft, and very difficult to fupply that of inflammable
air. Thefe balloons will alfo rife or fall by means of
the rarefaflion or condenfatlon of the enclofed air, oc-
cafioned by heat and cold. It has been propofed to
aid a balloon in its alternate motion of afeent and de-
T A T I O N.
feent, by annexing to it a veffel of common air, which
might be condenfed for lowering the machine, and ra¬
refied^ again, by expelling part of it, for railing the
machine : But a veflel adapted to this purpofe mull
be very ftrong; and, after all, the affiflance afforded by
it would not be very confiderable. M. Meunier, in or¬
der to attain this end, propofes to enclofe one balloon
filled with common air in another filled with inflam¬
mable air: as the balloon afeends, the inflammable air
is dilated, and of courfe compreffes the internal balloon
containing the common air: and by diminilhing its
quantity, leilens its weight. If it Ihould be neceffary
to fupply this lofs, he fays it may be eafily done by
a pair of bellows fixed in the gallery. Others have
propofed to annex a fmall machine with rarefied air
to an inflammable-air balloon by ropes, at fuch a di-
ftance that the fire of the former might not affecl the
inflammable air of the latter: the whole apparatus,
thus combined, of balloons formed on the two princi¬
ples of heated and inflammable air, might be raifed or
lowered by merely increafing or diminifliing the fire in
the lower balloon.
Wings or oars are the only means of this fort that
have been ufed with fome fuccefs : and, as Mr Cavallo
obferves, they feem to be capable of confiderable im¬
provement. Although great effefls are not to be ex¬
pected from them, when the machine goes at a great
late, the Deft methods of moving thole wings a!?fe by the
human ftrength applied ixmilarly to the oars of a water¬
man. They may be made in general of filk ftretched
between wires, tubes, or flicks; and when ufed, muff
be turned edgewife w7hen they are moved in the direc¬
tion in which the machine is intended to be impelled,
but flat in the oppofite direflion. Fig. 8. is the repre-
fentation of one of Mr Blanchard’s wings. Fig. 9. is
one of thofe ufed by Mr Lunardi, which confifts of
many fllk fliutters .or valves, ABCD, DECF, &c«.
every one of wdiich opens on one fide only, vi%. ADBC
opens upon the line AB, DECF opens upon the line
DC, &c. In confequence of this conffrudion, this fort
of oars does not need being turned edgewife. Fig. 10.
reprefents one of the w'ings ufed by the brothers Ro«
beits in the aerial voyage of the 19th September
and fig. 11. reprefents one of the wings conftru&ed by
Count Zambeccari, which confifts of a piece of filk
ftretched between two tin tubes fet at an angle 5 but
thefe wings are fo contrived as to turn edgewife by
themfelves when they go on one dire&ion. Other con¬
trivances have been made to direft aeroflatic machines,
but they have moftly been invented to effeCl a power
upon them as upon a ftiip. It appears, however, that
they can have no effefl when a machine is only moved
by the wind^ alone, becaufe the circumambient air is
re^ refpeft to the machine. The cafe is quite
different with a veffel at fea, becaufe the w’ater on w7hich
it floats Hands Hill whilft the veffel goes on j but it
mull be time and experience that can realize the ex-
peflations fuggefted by thefe contrivances.
A KRSCIIOT,
JE S C [ 230 ] iE s e
Aerfchot AERSCHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
ffp-hines t^e ^rat>ant, and capital of the duchy of
" Aerfchot. It is feated on the river Demur, ten miles
call; of Malines or Mechlin, and eight north of Lou¬
vain. E. Long. 5. 44. N. Lat. 51.
iERUGINOUS, an epithet given to fuch things as
refemble or partake of the nature of the rult of copper.
iERUGO, in Natural Hijlory, properly fignifies the
ruft of copper, whether natural or artificial. The
former is found about copper mines, and the latter,
called verdigris, made by corroding copper plates with
acids.
yER USC AT OR ES, in Antiquity, a kind of flrol-
ling beggars, not unlike gypfies, who drew money from
the credulous by fortune-telling. &c. It was alfo a
denomination given to gripping exaftors, or colledlors
of the revenue. The Galli, or prielts of Cybele, were
called ternfeatores tnagnee tnatris; and ^r^yv^leti, on
account of their begging or collefting alms in the
itreets •, to which end they had little bells to draw
people’s attention, fimilar to fome orders of mendicants
abroad.
AERY, or Airy, among fportfmen. See Airy.
iES uxorium, in Antiquity, a fum paid by bache¬
lors, as a penalty for living {ingle to old age. This
tax for not marrying feems to have been firft impofed
in the year of Rome 350, under the cenforfhip of M.
Turius Camillus and M. Pofthumus. At the cenfus,
or review of the people, each perfon was alked, Et tu
ex anima fententia uxorem babes liberum quarendorum
taufu l He who had no wife was herupon fined after a
certain rate, ces uxorium.
JEs per et hbram was a formula in the Roman law,
whereby purchafes and Tales were ratified. Originally
the phrafe feems to have been only ufed in fpeaking of
things fold by weight, or by the feales j but it after¬
wards w7as ufed on other occafions. Hence even in
adoptions, as there was a kind of imaginary purchafe,
the formula thereof expreffed, that the perfon adopted
was bought per ces et libram.
Ms Flavum, yellow copper, among the Romans, an
appellation given to the coarfer kinds of brafs.
The ancients had different kinds of brafs, as ces can-
didum, ces Conntbium, denoting probably different metal¬
lic alloys or mixtures.
Ms Caldariutn, a term ufed by the German minera-
lifts, for a fubffance which fometimes occurs to thofe
who work upon cobalt, and is ufed for making the fine
blue colour called /malt.
JEs UJlum, a chemical preparation, made of thin
leaves of copper, fulphur, and nitre, placed Jlratum fu-
perJlratum in a crucible, and fet in a charcoal fire till
all the fulphur is confumed ; after which, the copper
is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to powder.
Some quench the leaves of copper in vinegar, and re¬
peat the calcination.—Its principal ufe is in colouring
-glafs, to which it gives a beautiful tin£lure. The fur-
geons ufe it as a deterfive, and fome have given it in¬
ternally $ but it is certainly a very dangerous medicine,
and Ihould be avoided.
AESCHINES, an Athenian, a Socratic philofopher,
tbcJb.n of Charinus a faufage-maker. He was conti¬
nually with Socrates $ which occafioned this philofo¬
pher to fay, that the faufag e-maker’s fon was the only
perfon who knew how to pay a due regard to him. -Efchines.
It is faid that poverty obliged him to go to Sicily to'—‘"Y'—
Dionyfius the Tyrant; and that he met with great
contempt from Plato, but w7as extremely well received
by Arittippus j to whom he {bowed fome of his dia¬
logues, and received from him a handfome reward.
He would not venture to profefs philofophy at Athens,
Plato and Ariftippus being in fuch high erteem •, but
he opened a fchool in which he taught philofophy to
maintain himfelf. He afterwards wrote orations for
the Forum. Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongft
the belt orators, aijd mentions his orations as the rtan-
dard of the pure Attic ftyle. Hermogenes has alfo
fpoken very highly of him. He wrote befides feveral
Dialogues, of which there are only three extant :
1. Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught.
2. Eryxias, or Erafiftratus j concerning riches, whe¬
ther they are good. 3. Axiochus 5 concerning death,
whether it is to be feared. Mr Le Clerc has given a
Latin tranflation of them, with notes and feveral dif-
fertations, entitled Sylvce Pbilologicce.
AEschines, a celebvated Grecian orator, wras born
at Athens 327 years before the Chriftian era. Ac¬
cording to his own account, he was of diftinguilhed
birth ; according to that of Demofthenes, he was the
fon of a courtezan, and a humble performer in a com¬
pany of comedians. But w hatever was the true hifto-
ry of his birth and early life, his talents, wdiich ware con-
fiderable, procured him great applaufe, and enabled him
to be a formidable rival to Demofthenes himfelf. The
twro orators, infpired probably with mutual jealoufy
and animofity, became at laft the ftrenuous leaders of
oppofing parties. AYchines was accufed by Demof¬
thenes of having received money as a bribe wThen he
wTas employed on an embaffy to Philip of Macedon.
He indireftly retaliated this charge by bringing an ac-
cufation againft Ctefiphon the friend of Demofthenes
for having moved a decree, contrary to the lawrs, to con¬
fer on Demofthenes a golden crown, as a mark of pu¬
blic approbation. A numerous affembly of judges and
citizens met to hear and decide the queftion : each ora¬
tor employed all his powders of eloquence j but De¬
mofthenes, writh fuperior talents, and with juftice on
his fide, wras victorious; and TEfchines ivas fent into
exile. The refentment of Demofthenes was nowr foft-
ened into generous kindnefs } for when iElchines was
going into banifhment, he requefted him to accept of
a fum of money *, vkich made him exclaim, “ How7 do1
I regret leaving a country where I have found an ene¬
my fo generous, that I muft defpair of ever meeting
with a friend who {hall be like him !”
TEfchines opened a fchool of eloquence at Rhodes,
which- was the place of his exile, and he commenced
his lectures by reading to his audience the tw7o ora¬
tions which had been the caufe of his banilhment.
His own oration received great praife ; but that of
Demofthenes was heard with boundlefs applaufe. In
fo trying a moment, when vanity muft be fuppofed to
have been deeply wounded, with a noble generofity of
fentiment, he faid, “ What would you have thought,
if y« u had heard him thunder out the ivords himfelf.”
—AYchines afterwards removed to Samos, where he
died, in the 75th year of his age. Three of his ora¬
tions only are extant. His eloquence is not without
energy.
3
jE S C • [ 23
JEichylus. energy, but it is diffufe and ornamented, and mere
v—y—calculated to pleafe than to move the paffions. {Gen.
Biog.)
iESCHYLUS, the tragic poet, was born at Athens.
The time of his birth is not exactly afeertained ; fome
fuppofe that it w7as in the 65th, others in the 70th
Olympiad } but according to Stanley, wrho follows the
Arundelian marbles, he was born in the 63d Olym¬
piad. He was the fon of Euphorian, and brother to
Cynegirus and Aminias, wTho diftinguifhed themfelves
in the battle of Marathon, and the fea-fight of Salamis,
at which engagements iEfchylus was likewife prefent.
In this laft aftion, according to Diodorus Siculus,
Aminias, the younger of the three brothers, command¬
ed a fquadron of {hips, and fought with fo much con-
du6t and bravery, that he funk the admiral of the Per-
fian fleet, and flgnalized himfelf above all the Athe¬
nians. To this brother our poet was, upon a particu¬
lar occafion, obliged for faving his life : JElian re¬
lates, that iEfchylus being charged by the Athenians
with certain blafphemous expreflions in fome of his
pieces, w^as accufed of impiety, and condemned to be
ftoned to death : They were juft going to put the fen-
tence in execution, when Aminias, with a happy pre¬
fence of mind, throwing aftde his cloak, fltowed his
arm without a hand, which he had loft at the battle of
Salamis in defence of his country. This fight made
fuch an impreflion on the judges, that, touched with
the remembrance of his valour, and with the friend-
fttip he ftiowed forhis brother, they pardoned iEfchy¬
lus. Our poet, however, refented the indignity of this
profecution, and refolved to leave a place where his
life had been in danger. He became more determi¬
ned in this refolution when he found his pieces lefs
pleaftng to the Athenians than thofe of Sophocles,
though a much younger wuiter. Some affirm, that
iEfchylus never fat down to compofe but when he had
drank liberally. He w7rote a great number of trage¬
dies, of which there are but {'even remaining : and
notwithftanding the {harp cenfures of fome critics, he
muft be allowed to have been the father of the tragic
art. In the time of Thefpis, there W’as no public
theatre to a£t upon} the ftrollers driving about from
place to place in a cart. iEfchylus furniftted his act¬
ors with ma{ks, and drefled them fuitably to their cha-
rafters. He likewufe introduced the bulkin, to make
them appear more like heroes.—The ancients gave
iEfchylus alfo the praife of having been the firft who
removed murders and {hocking fights from the eyes of
the fpeclators. He is faid likewdfe to have leffened
the number of the chorus. M. Le Fevre has obferv-
ed, that iEfchylus never reprefented women in love in
his tragedies ; which, he fays, was not fuited to his ge¬
nius 5 but, in reprefenting a woman tranfported with
fury, he was- incomparable. Longinus fays, that
iEfchylus has a noble bolduefs of expreflion *, and that
his imagination is lofty and heroic. It muft be owned,
however, that he a fie fled pompous words, and that his
fenfe is too often obfeured by figures : this gave Sal-
mafius occafion to fay, that he was more difficult , to
be underftood than the Scripture itfelf. But notwith¬
ftanding thefe imperfedtions, this poet w-as held in
great veneration by the Athenians, who made a public
decree that his tragedies ftiould be played after his
deuth, He was killed in the 69th year cf his age, by
1 ] s o
an eagle letting fall a tortoife upon his head as he was iEu lyno-
walking in the fields. He had the honour of a pom- I!‘<. ''
pous funeral from the Sicilians, who buried him near j^p.
the river Gela 5 and the tragedians of the country per- w—^—-
formed plays and theatrical exercifes at his tomb.—
The beft edition of his plays is that of London, 1663^
folio, with a Latin tranflation and a learned commen¬
tary by Thomas Stanley.
iESCHYNOMENE,Bastard sensitive plant,
in Botany. See Botany Index.
iESCULAPIUS, in the Heathen Mythology, the
god of phyfic, was the fon of Apollo and the nymph
Coronis. He was educated by the centaur Chiron,
who taught him phyfic } by which means vEfculapius
cured the moft defperate diieafes. But Jupiter, enraged
at his reftoring to life Hippolitus, who had been torn
in pieces by his own horfes, killed him with a thunder¬
bolt. According to Cicero, there were three deities
of this name : the firft, the fon of Apollo, worftiipped
in Arcadia, w7ho invented the probe, and bandages ior
wounds ; the fecond, the brother of Mercury, killed
by lightning j and the third, the fon of Arifippus and
Arfinoe, who firft taught the art of tooth-drawing
and purging. At Epidaurus, .ZEfculapius’s ftatue w as
of gold and ivory, w7ith a long beard, his head fur-
rounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty flick,
and the other entwined with a ferpent j he was feated
on a throne of the fame materials as his Itatue, and
had a dog lying at his feet. The Remans crowned
him with laurel, to reprefent his defeent from Apol¬
lo ; and the Phaliafins reprefented him as beardlefs.
The cock, the raven, and the goat, were facred to
this deity. His chief temples w7ere at Pergamus,
Smyrna, Trica a city in Ionia, and the ifle of Coos $
in all which votive tablets w7ere hung up, {bowing the
difeafes cured by his aftiftance. But his moft; famous
{brine w7as at Epidaurus ; where, every five years,
games wrere inilituted to him, nine days after the Ifth-
mian games at Corinth.
iESCULUS, the Horse-chesnut, in Botany.
See Botany Index.
iESOP, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon.,
about the 50th Olympiad, under the reign of Crocfus
the laft king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he
was greatly indebted to nature j but in other reipecls
not fo fortunate, being born a Have and extremely de¬
formed. St Jerome, fpeaking of him, fays he was un¬
fortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death j
hinting thereby at his deformity, fervile ftate, and tra¬
gical end. His great genius, however, enabled him
to fupport his misfortunes j and in order to alleviate
the hardftiips of fervitude, he compofed thofe entertain¬
ing and inftruSive fables which have acquired him fo
muclr reputation.. He is generally fuppofed to have
Hen the inventor of that kind of writing : but this is
contefted by feveral, particularly Quintilian, who leems
to think that Hefiod was the firft author of fables.
EE fop, however, certainly improved this art to a very-
great degree-; and hence it is that he has been ac*.
counted the author of this fort of productions :
JEfopusauElor- an am materiam reperl:,
Hanc ego polivi verjibus fenariis. Fh.tex.
Mine is the talk, in eafy verfe,
The tales of EEIop to rehearfe.
9
JE,fop.
M o 0 [ 232
The f.rft mailer whom ^fop ferved, was one Cara-
•*' fius Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens, and there,
in all probability, he acquired his purity in the Greek
tongue. After him he had feveral mailers j and at length
came under a philofopher named Idmon or ladmon, who
enfranchifed him. After he had recovered his liberty,
be foon acquired a great reputation amongft tire Greeks j
fo that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wif-
dom having reached Croefus, he fent to inquire after
him, and engaged him in his fervice. He travelled
through Greece, according to the fame author ; whe¬
ther for his own pleafure, or upon the affairs of Croefus,
is uncertain j and palling by Athens foon after Pifi-
flratus had ulurped the fovereign power, and finding
that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he
told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned fupiter
for a king. The images made ufe of by Atfop are cer¬
tainly very happy inventions to inflruft mankind j they
poiTefs all that is neceffary to perfeft a precept, having
a mixture of the ufeful with the agreeable. “ iEfop
tne fa'oulifl (fays Aulus Gellius) wTas defervedly efleem-
ed wife, fince he did not, after the manner of the philo-
fophers, rigidly and imperioufly didate fuch things
as were proper to be advifed and perfuaded ; but fram¬
ing entertaining and agreeable apologues, he thereby
charms and captivates the human mind.”—JEfop was
pat to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us, that he came
there with a great quantity of gold and filver, being
ordered by Croefus to offer a facrifice to Apollo, and
to give a confiderable fum to each inhabitant: but a
-■quarrel arifing betwixt him and the Delphians, he fent
back the money to Croefus j for he thought thofe for
whom the prince defigned it, had rendered themfelves
unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi brought
an accufation of facrilege againfl him ; and pretending
they had convicted him, threw him headlong from a
1
JE T U
tt* ^ 1 • . r,. o “ * .aa, wa 1 ti iiiuiiM mtic town m me xiu-
For this cruelty and mjuftice, we are told they , flrian Netherlands and province of Hainault, fituated
liren with tnrmnp anH   ^1 _ • -i~v i .
rock.
were vifited with famine and peflilence 5 and confulting
the oracle, they received for anfwer, that the god de¬
figned this as a punifhment for their treatment 0^Atfop:
they endeavoured to make an atonement, by raifmg a
pyramid to his honour.
AtSOP, Clodius, a celebrated aclor, who flourifh-
ed about*the 670th year of Rome. He and Rofcius
w ere cotemporaries, and the bell performers who ever
appeared upon the Roman flage j the former excelling
in tragedy, the latter in comedy. Cicero put himfelf
under their direction to perfedl his a&ion. JEfop lived
m a^ moll expenfive manner, and at one entertainment
is faid to have had a difh which cofl above eight hundred
pounds j this difh, we are told, was filled with finging
and fpeaking birds, fome of which cofl near 50I. The
,delight, which jEfop took in this fort of birds proceed¬
ed, as Mr Bayle obferves, from the expence. He did
not make a difh of them becaufe they could fpeak, ac¬
cording to the refinement of Pliny upon this circum-
flance, this motive being only by accident; but becaufe
of their extraordinary price. If there had been any
birds that could not fpeak, and yet more fcarce and
Bear than thefe, he would have procured fuch for his
table. ^ At fop’s fon was no lefs luxurious than his fa¬
ther, tor he diiTolved pearls for his guefls to fwallow.
Some fpeak of this as a common praflice of his j but
others mention his falling into this excefs only on a
particular day, when he was treating his friends. Ho¬
race ^ fpeaks only of one pearl of great value, which JEftlnjatio
he dilTolved in vinegar, and drank. Atfop, notwith- II
Handing his expences, is faid to have died worth above iEther-
16o,oool. W hen he tvas upon the flage, he entered .
into his part to fuch a degree, as fometimes to beTeized ii. J-j'
with a peifect ecflacy : Plutarch mentions it as report¬
ed of him, that rvhilfl he was reprefenting Atreus de¬
liberating how he fhould revenge himfelf on Thyefles,
he was fo tranfported beyond himfelf in the heat of
action, that w ith his truncheon he fmote one of the
fervants croiling the Hage, and laid him dead on the
fpot.
jES7 IMATIO capitis, a term met with in old
law books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for
offences committed againfl perfons of quality, accord¬
ing to their feveral degrees.
BESTIVA.L, in a general fenfe, denotes fbmething
connefled with, or belonging to, fummer. Hence,
acflival fign, seflival folflice, &c.
iESFUARIA, in Geography, denotes an arm of
the fea, which runs a good way within land. Such is
the Briftcl channel, and many of the friths of Scotland.
iESl UAR1ES, in ancient baths, were fecret paf-
fages from the hypocauftum into the chambers.
-ESTUARY, among PhyJjcians, a vapour bath, or
any other inftrument for conveying heat to the body.
A£S\ MNIUM, in Antiquity, a monument ere died
to the memory of the heroes by JEfymnus the Mega-
rean. He confulting the oracle in what manner the
Megareans might be mofl happily governed, was an-
fwered, If they held confultation rwith the more nutne-
rous: whom he taking for the dead, built the faid mo¬
nument, and a fenate-houfe that took W'ithin its com-
pafs the monument; imagining, that thus the dead
would aflifl at their confultations. (Paufanias.)
jEETH, or Ath, a ilrong little towm in the Au-
on the river Dender, about twenty miles fouth-well of
Bruffels.
Ah i HA LI A, or Ilua, vn Ancient Geography, now
Elba ; an ifland on the coafl of Etruria, in compafs an
hundred miles, abounding in iron. It was fo called
from ucSctM, fmoke, w7hich iffued from the fhops of
Vulcan.
-ETHELSTAN, fee Athelstan.
-E 1 HER, is ul’uaily underflood of a thin, fubtile
matter, or medium, much finer and rarer than air j
which commencing from the limits of our atmofphere,
pofiefles the whole heavenly fpace.—7Te wTord is Greek,
ctiSrg, fuppofed to he formed from the verb tuSuv, “ to
burn, to flame y' fome of the ancients, particularly
Anaxagoras, fuppofing it to be of the nature of fire.
I he philofophers cannot conceive that the largefl
part of the creation ihould be perfedlly void ; and there¬
fore they fill it with a fpecies of matter under the de¬
nomination of ceiher. But they vary extremely as to
the nature and character of this sether. Some con¬
ceive it as a body fui generis, appointed only to fill up
the vacuities between the heavenly bodies ; and there¬
fore confined to the regions above our atmofphere.
Others fuppofe it of fb fubtile and penetrating a nature,
as to pervade the air and other bodies, and poflefs the
pores and intervals thereof. Others deny the exiftence
of any fuch fpecific matter ; and think the air itfelf, by
that immenfe tenuity and expanfion it is found capable
of,
.ffi T H
/Ether.
of, may diffufe itfelf through the interftellar fpaces, and
*•' be the only matter found therein.
In eftedl, aether, being no object of our fenfe, but
the mere work of imagination, brought only upon the
ftage for the fake of hypothefis, or to folve fome phe¬
nomenon, real or imaginary ; authors take the liberty
to modify it how they pleafe. Some fuppofe it of an
elementary nature, like other bodies ; and only diilin-
guifhed by its tenuity, and the other affections confe-
quent thereon : which is the philofophical aether. O-
thers will have it of another fpecies, and not elemen¬
tary 5 but rather a fort of fifth element, of a purer,
more refined, and fpirituous nature, than the fubflances
about our earth ; and void of the common affections
thereof, as gravity, &c. The heavenly fpaces being
the fuppofed region or refidence of a more exalted clafs
of beings, the medium muff be more exalted in propor¬
tion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of tether,
or tethereal matter.
The term ather being thus embarraffed with a va¬
riety of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to fo many dif¬
ferent things, the later and feverer philofophers choofe
to fet it afide, and in lieu thereof fubffitute other more
determinate ones. Thus, the Cartefians ufe the term
materia fubtilis ; which is their aether : and Sir Ifaac
Newton, fometimes a fubtile fpirit, as in the clofe of
his Principia ; and fometimes a fubtile or (ethereal t?ie-
liium, as in his Optics,
Heat, Sir liaac Newton obferves, is communicated
through a vacuum almoft as readily as through air : but
fuch communication cannot be without fome interja¬
cent body, to aCl as a medium. And fuch body may
be fubtile enough to penetrate the pores of glafs, and
may permeate thofe of all other bodies, and confequent-
ly be diffufed through all the parts of fpace.
The exiffence of fuch an cethereal medium being fet¬
tled, that author proceeds to its properties ; inferring
it to be not only rarer and more tluid than air, but ex¬
ceedingly more elaftic and aCHve : in virtue of which
properties he (hows, that a great part of the phenome¬
na of nature may be produced by it. To the weight,
e. p. of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or the
weight of all other bodies ; and to its elafticity the
elaftic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the
emillion, refraftion, refleclion, and other phenomena
of light; as alfo, fenfation, mufcular motion, &c. In
fine, this fame matter feems the prhnum mobile, the firff
fource or fpring of phyfical afrion in the modern fyftem.
The Cartefian tether is fuppofed not only to pervade,
but adequately to fill, all the vacukies of bodies ; and
thus to make an abfolute plenum in the univerfe.
But Sir Ifaac Newton overturns this opinion, from
divers confiderations •, by fhowing, that the celeffial
fpaces are void of all fenfible refiffance : and, hence it
follows, that the matter contained therein muff be im-
menfely rare, in regard the refiftance of bodies is chief¬
ly as their denfity ; fo that if the heavens were thus
adequately filled with a medium or matter, how fubtile
foever, they would refill the motion of the planets and
comets much more than quicklilver or gold. But it
has been fuppofed that what Newton has faid of aether
is to be confidered only as a conjeClure, and efpecially
as no new proofs of its exillence have been adduced
fince his time.
I he late difeoveries in electricity have throwm great
Von. I. Part I.
[ 233 ]
£ T 1
/Elite?.
light upon this fubjeCl, and rendered it extremely pro- /Eiher
bable that the aether fo often talked of is no other than
the eleftric fluid, or lolar light, which diffufes itfelf,
throughout the whole fyftem of nature.
/Ether, in Chemiflry, a light, volatile, and very
inflammable liquid, produced by diftillation of acids
with rectified fpirit of wine. See Chemistry Index.
/ETHEREAL, ALth e r e u s, fomething that belongs
to, or partakes of, the nature of /Ether. Thus we
fay, the (etherealfpace, (ethereal regions, &c.
Some of the ancients divided the univerfe, with re-
fpeCt to the matter contained therein, into elementary
and asthereal.
Under the tethereal world was included all that fpace
above the uppermoff element, viz. fire. This they
fuppofed to be perfectly homogeneous, incorruptible,
unchangeable, &c. 1 he Chaldees placed an aethereal
world between the empyreum and the region of the
fixed^ liars. Befide which, they fometimes alfo fpeak
of a fecond aethereal world, meaning by it the Harry orb:
and a third athereal world, by which is meant the pla¬
netary region.
./ETHIOPIA. See Ethiopia and Abyssinia.
•/El HIOPS, Mineral, Martial, and Antmionial.
See Chemistry Index.
/ETHUSA, Fools Parsley, in Botany. See Bo¬
tany Index.
AE 1 IANS, in Church Hi/lory, a branch of Arians,
who maintained that the Son and Holy Ghoft are in
all things diffimilar to the Father. See Aetius.
M PiOLOGY, is that part of pathology which is
employed in exploring the caufes of difeafes.
AETION, a celebrated painter, who has left us an
excellent picture of Roxana and Alexander, which he
exhibited at the Olympic games ; it reprefents a mag¬
nificent chamber, where Roxana is fitting on a bed of a
molt fplendid appearance, which is rendered Hill more
brilliant by her beauty. She looks downwards, in a
kind of confufion, being ftruck with the prefence of
Alexander Handing before her. A number of little Cu¬
pids flutter about, fome holding up the curtain, as if
to fiiow Roxana to the prince, whilff others are bufied
in undreffmg the lady ; fome pull Alexander by the
cloak, who appears like a young bafhful bridegroom,
and prefent him to his miflrefs : he lays his crown at
her feet, being accompanied by Epheflion, who holds
a torch in his hand, and leans upon a youth, who re¬
prefents Hymen. Several other little Cupids are re-
prefented playing with his arms 5 fome carry his lance,
Hooping under lo heavy a weight ; others bear along
his buckler, upon which one of them is feated, whom
the red carry in triumph; another lies in ambufli in his
armour, waiting to frighten the red as they pafs by.
This picture gained Action fo much reputation, that
the prefident of the games gave him his daughter in
marriage.
/ETITES, or Eagle-stone, in Natural Hijiory,
a flinty or crudated Hone, hollow within, and contain¬
ing a nucleus, which, on fliaking, rattles within. It
was formerly in repute for feveral extraordinary magi¬
cal as well as medical powers 5 fuch as preventing abor¬
tion, difeovering thieves, and other ridiculous proper¬
ties. The word is formed from «stoj, “ eagle,” the
popular tradition being, that it is found in the eagle’s
neff, whither it is fuppofed to be carried while the fe-
U g male
JE" T N [234' ] iE T N
Aetius male fits, to prevent her eggs from being rotten. It
^ is found in feveral parts : nearTrevoux in France, one
^ ~ ‘ ’ can fcarce dig a few feet, without finding confiderable
flrata or beds of the coarfer or ferruginous kind. They
are originally foft, and of the colour of yellow ochre.
But the fineif and molt valued of all the eagle-ftones,
are accidental dates of one or other of our common
pebbles.
AETIUS, one of the moll zealous defenders of
Arianifm, was born in Syria, and flourilhed about the
year 336. After being fervant to a grammarian, of
whom he learned grammar and logic, he was ordained
deacon, and at length bilhop, by Eudoxus patriarch of
Conflantinople. Aetius was banifhed into Phrygia on
account of his religious opinions ; but was recalled
from exile on the acceflion of Julian, and was much
efteemed by that emperor. He died, it is fuppofed,
at Conftantinople, about the year 366. St Epiphanius
has preferved 47 of his propofitions againft the Trini¬
ty. His followers were called Aetians.
Aetius, a famous phyfician, born at Amida in Me-
fopotamia, and the author of a work entitled Tetrabi-
blos, which is a collection froih the. writings of thofe
phyficians who rvent before him. He lived, according
to Dr Freind, at the end of the 5th or the beginning
of the 6th century.
Aetius, governor of Gallia Narbonenfis in the reign
of Valentinian III. forced the Franks who were paf-
fing into Gaul to repafs the Rhine. He defeated the
Goths ; and routed Attila king of the Huns, who in¬
vaded Gaul with an army of 700,000 men. But the
emperor, jealous of the merit of this great man, killed
him in 454 with his own hand, under the pretence that
he had permitted the invafion of the Huns, after At-
tila’s defeat.
iETNA, (in the Itineraries JEthana, fuppofed from
ad',;, “ to burn according to Bochart, from athuna,
a furnace, or cetuna, darknefs), now Monte Gibe/Io :
a volcano or burning mountain of Sicily, fituated in
N. Lat. 38°. E. Long. 150.
This mountain, famous from the remotefl antiquity,
both for its bulk and terrible eruptions, Hands in the
eaftern part of the ifland, in a very extenfive plain, cal¬
led Val di Demoni, from the notion of its being inha¬
bited by devils, who torment the fpirits of the damned
in the bowels of this volcano.
Inconfiftent Concerning the dimenfions of Mount iEtna, we can
accounts fcarcely extracf any thing confiftent, even from the ac-
concerning counts of the lateft and moft ingenious travellers. Pin-
tiemagm- (jar^ w]10 iive4 about 435 years before Chrift, calls it
^ 4 * the Pillar of Heaven, on account of its great height.
All modern writers likewife agree, that this mountain
is very high, and very large ; but differ much both
as to its height and magnitude : fome making it no
lefs than twelve miles high, others eight, others fix,
fome four; while Mr Brydone, and Sir William Ha¬
milton, who lately afcended to its higheff fummit,
reduce its height to little more than two miles ; nay,
by fome it is reduced to 10,036 feet, fomewhat lefs
than two miles. No lefs remarkable are the differ¬
ences concerning its circumference : fome making it
only 60 miles round, others 100 ) and Signior Recupe-
ro, from whom Mr Brydone had his information in
this refpeft, affirms it to be no lefs than 183 miles in
circuit.
We are forry to detraft from the merit of Mr Bry-
done, or to involve in obfcurity what he has been at v'“—"\ “
fo much pains to elucidate 5 but every perfon who com¬
pares the account of Mount ALtna’s circumference, gi¬
ven by Signior Recupero, and to which Mr Brydone
leems to have afi'ented, with its apparent circumference
on the map prefixed to that gentleman’s tour through
Sicily and Malta, muff at once be ftruck with the pro¬
digious difparity. Indeed, it is plain, that in the map,
the geographer has not left room for any fuch moun¬
tain : nor can we help thinking, that, by comparing
the diftances of fome of the Sicilian towns from one
another, Signior Recupero’s dimenfions will be found
enormoufly exaggerated.-—Certain it is, that vffiere the
geographer has placed Catania, which Hands at the foot
of Mount /Etna, on one fide, there is no more than 2 8
miles from the molt diflant point of the river Alcan¬
tara, which forms the boundary on the oppofite fide j
fb that a circle, wffiofe radius is 14 or 15 miles, mult
encompafs as much fpace as u'e can pofilbly think is
occupied by the bafis of Mount /Etna. Thus we fliall
reduce the circumference of this famous mountain to
between 80 and 90 miles j and even when wTe do fo, it
is perhaps too great.
But if wfe are embarrafied with the circumference of
/Etna, wre are much more fo with the accounts relating
to its height ; and one circumHance, particularly, cre¬
ates almoH infurmountable difficulties. It is agreed up¬
on by all travellers, and among the refl by Sir William
Flamilton, that from Catania, where the afcent fiiff
begins, to the fummit, is not lefs than 30 miles. The
defcent on the other fide wre have no account of 5 but
wffiatever fuppofition w^e make, the height of the moun¬
tain muH be prodigious. If we fuppofe it likewife to be
30 miles, and that Mount /Etna can be reprefented by
an equilateral triangle, each of whofe fides is 30 miles,
we will have an amazing elevation indeed, no lefs than
26 miles perpendicular !—Such a height being beyond
all credibility, we mufi contradf the fides of our tri¬
angle, in proportion to its bafis. We {hall begin with
allowing ten miles for the difference betiveen a ftraight
line from Catania to the fummit, and the length of
the road, occafioned by the inequalities of the moun¬
tain 5 and ffippofing the defcent on the other fide to be
fomewhat ffiorter, we may call it 15 miles. Mount
/Etna will now be reprefented by a fcalene triangle,
wffiofe bafe is 30 miles, its longeff fide 20, and its
ffiorteff 15 } from which proportions we wall Hill find
its height to be betwixt eight and nine miles.— This is Dimenfiotis
Hill incredible } and when all the various relations con- uncertain,
cerning the height of /Etna are compared, wTe hope it
will not be thought prefumptuous in us to give it as
our opinion, that the true dimenfions of this mountain
are as yet unknown. The following meafures are given
by different authors.
Height above the furface of the fea, 10,036 feet.
One hundred and eighty miles circumference at the
bafe.—Faujas de St Fond, in his Volcans du Vivarais.
Height 12,000 feet.—Brydone. Tour to Sicily.
Height 2,500 toifes.—La Platriere, faid as from Re¬
cupero.
Height 1950 toifes.—Diameter 30 miles.—Mentelle
Geogr. comp.
Others make its height only 2000 toifes, and its
fuperficies 300 fquare miles.
Concerning
iEtna.
  '
General ap¬
pearance,
See.
Crater de-
feribed.
jE T N
[
Concerning the produds and general appearance of
this volcano, authors are much better agreed.—'I'he
■ journey from Catania to its fummit has been lately de-
feribed by feveral travellers, M. D’Orville, Mr Bry-
done, Sir William Hamilton, M. Houel, and the
Abbe Spallanzani. They all agree, that this fingle
mountain affords an epitome of the different climates
throughout the whole world : towards the foot, it is
extremely hot; farther up, more temperate ; and grows
gradually more and more cold the higher we alcend.
At the very top, it is perpetually covered with fnow :
from thence the whole ifland is fupplied w ith that ar¬
ticle fo neceffary in a hot climate, and without which
the natives fay Sicily could not be inhabited. So
great is the demand for this commodity, that the bi-
ihop’s revenues, which are cenfiderable, arife from the
fale of Mount ^Etna’s fnow; and he is faid to draw
loool. a-year from one fmall portion lying on the north
fide of the mountain. Great quantities of fnow and
ice are likewife exported to Malta and Italy, making
a confiderable branch of commerce. On the north
fide of this fnowy region, Mr Brydotie was affured,
that there are feveral fmall lakes which never thaw }
and that the fnow mixed with the afhes and lalt of tne
mountain are accumulated to a vafl depth. The quan¬
tity of falts contained in this mountain, he, with great
probability, conje&ures to be one reafon of the prefer-
vation of its fnoiV'S } for fait increafes the coldnefs of
fnow to a furprifing degree.
In the middle of the fnowy region Hands the great
crater, or mouth of iEtna ; from which, though con¬
trary to the ufual method of travellers, we lhall begin
■ our particular account of this mountain. Sir William
Hamilton deferibes the crater as a little mountain,
about a quarter of a mile perpendicular, and very fteep,
fituated in the middle of a gently inclining plain, of
about nine miles in circumference. It is entirely form¬
ed of Hones and afhes j and, ^ he was informed
by feveral people of Catania, had been thrown up
about 25 or 30 years before the time ('1769) he vi-
fited Mount iEtna. Before this mountain was thrown
up, there was only a prodigious large chafm, or gulf,
in the middle of the above-mentioned plain } and it has
been remarked, that about once in 100 years the top
of iEtna falls in j which undoubtedly muH be the cafe
at certain periods, or the mountain behoved continually
to increafe in height. As this little mountain, though
emitting fmoke from every pore, appeared folid and firm,
Sir William Hamilton and his companions went up to
the very top. In the middle is a hollowq about two miles
and a half in circumference, according to Sir William
Hamilton ; three miles and a half, according to Mr Bry-
done *, and three or four, according to Mr D’Orville.
The infide is crufled over with falts and fulphur of dif¬
ferent colours. It goes Hielving down from the top,
like an inverted cone 5 the depth, in Sir W. Hamilton’s
opinion, nearly correfponding to the height of. the
little mountain, from many places of this fpace iltue
volumes of fulphureous fmoke, which being much hea¬
vier than the circumambient air, inHead of afeending
in it, roll down the fide of the mountain, till, coming
to a more denfe atmofphere, it fhoots off horizontally,
and forms a large track in the air, according to the di-
redlion of the wind j wdiich, happily for our travellers,
carried it exadlly to the fide oppokte to which they
35 1 i£ T N
wrere placed. In the middle of this funnel is the tre- iE’ng- ^
mendous and unfathomable gulf, fo much celebrated
in all ages, both as the terror of this life, and the place
of punilhment in the next. From this gulf continually
iffue terrible and confufed noifes, which in eruptions
are increafed to fuch a degree as to be heard at a Pro¬
digious diilance. Its diameter is probably very differ¬
ent at different times: for Sir W. Hamilton obferyed,
by the wind clearing aw7ay the fmoke from time to time,
that the inverted hollow7 cone was contracted almoff to
a point •, while Mr D’Orville and Mr Brydone found
the opening very large. Both Mr Brydone and Sir \\ .
Hamilton found the crater too hot to defeend into it ■,
but Mr D’Orville was bolder : and accordingly he
and his fellow traveller, faflened to ropes which two 01
three men held at a diffance for fear of accidents, de-
feended as near as pofhble to the brink of the gulf ;
but the fmall flames and fmoke which iffued from it on
every fide, and a greenifli fulphur, and pumice ftones,
quite black, which covered the margin, would not
permit’ them to come fo near as to have a full view7.
They only faw, diffindtly in the middle, a mafs of
matter wdiich rofe, in the fliape of a cone, to the
height of above 60 feet, and which tow^ards the bale, as
far as their fight could reach, might be 600 or 800 feet.
While they w7ere obferving this fubftance, fome mo¬
tion wras perceived on the north fide, oppofite to that
wdiereon they flood ; and immediately the mountain
began to fend forth fmoke and alhes. This eruption
was preceded by a fenfible increafe of its internal roar¬
ings ; wFich, howTever, did not continue 5 but after a
moment’s dilatation, as if to give it vent, the volcano
refumed its former tranquillity j but as it was by no
means proper to make a long flay in fuch a place, our
travellers immediately returned to their attendants.
On the fummit of Mount iEtna, Sir W. Hamilton ob-
ferves, that he was fenfible of a difficulty in refpiration
from the too great fubtility of the air, independent of
what arofe from the fulphureous fmoke of the moun¬
tain. Mr Brydone takes no notice of this : which pro¬
bably arofe from the air being in a more rarefied Hate
at the time of Sir W. Hamilton’s obfervation than of Mr
Brydone’s 5 the barometer, as obferved by the foimer,
{landing at 18 inches and 1 o lines, by the latter at 19
inches 6-i lines.
In thefe high regions there is generally a very vio¬
lent wind, which, as all our travellers found it conflantly
blowfing from the fouth, is perhaps moft frequently di-
refted from that point. Here Mr Brydone’s thermo¬
meter fell to 2 70.
The top of iEtna being above the common region Splendour
of vapours, the heavens appear with exceeding great o* t5ie dars
fplendour.—Mr Brydone and his company obferved, as ^ ^
they afeended in the night, that the number oi ftars jgtna>
feemed to be infinitely increafed, and the light of each
of them appeared brighter than ufual, the whitenefs of
the milky wray wras like a pure flame which fliot acrois
the heavens ; and, with the naked eye, they could ob-
ferve clufters of ftars that w7ere invifible from below.
Had Jupiter been vifible, he is of opinion that iome of
his fatellites might have been difeovered with the naked
eye, or at leaft with a very fmall pocket glafs. He like-
wife took notice of feveral of thofe meteors called ./h/-
lingjlars ; which appeared as much elevated as when
viewed from the plain 3 a proof, according to Mr Bry-
(y g 2 ilonCj
;
T N
./Etna.
Extenfive
profpe<ft.
jDivifion
into three
zones.
Regione
deferta.
Regione
fyivofa.
tioae, that ii tliefe bodies move in regions much be¬
yond the bounds that fome philofophers have affigned
to our atmofphere.” °
To have a full and clear profpea: from the fummit
of Mount -/Etna, it is neceffary to be there before fun-
•V frthe vaPours raiPed by the fun, in the day time,
via ooicure every ebjefl : accordingly, our travellers
took care to arrive there early enough; and all ao-ree
tiiat the beauty of the profpeft from thence cannot be
exp re {led.—Here Mr Brydone and Sir W. Hamilton
nad a view of Calabria in Italy, with the fea beyond it :
the Lipari iflands, and Stromboli, a vo1cano at about
70 miles diflance, appeared juft under their feet ; the
whole iliand of Sicily, with its rivers, towns, harbours,
See. appeared diftinft, as if feen on a map. Maffa a
Sicilian author, affirms, that the African coaft, as well
as that of Naples, with many of its idands, have been
uncovered from the top of JEtm. The vifible horizon
here is not lefs than 8 or 900 miles in diameter. The
pyramidal fhadow of the mountain reaches acrofs the
whole ifland, and far into the fea on the other fide
forming a vifible track in the air, which as the fun rifes
above the horizon, is fhortened, and at laft confined
to the neighbourhood of VEtna. The moft beautiful
part of the feene, however, in Mr Brydone’s opinion
is the mountain itfelf, the ifland of Sicily, and the nu¬
merous iflands lying round it. Thefe laft feem to be
clole to the fleirts of zEtna 3 the diftances appearing re¬
duced to nothing. *" °
.This mountain is divided into three zones, which
might properly enough be diftinguiffied by the names
ox torrid, temperate, and frigid: they are, however,
known by the names of the Piedmontefc, or Regions cul-
ta, the cultivated,, or fertile region 3 the Syhofa,
T°0 r •’ •°i temPerate zone ; and the Regions deferta,
the. frigid or defert zone or region. All thefe are
plainly diftinguiffied from the fummit. The Regions
aejejta is marked out by a circle of fnow and ice,
which extends on all fides to the diftance of about eight
miles, beginning at the foot of -the crater. Great
pa t Ox this region is ftnooth and even. This is imme¬
diately fucceeded by the Sylvofa, or woody region j
which forms a circle of the moil beautiful green, fur¬
rounding the mountain on all fides. T his region is va¬
riegated with a vaft number of mountains of a conical
fonn, thrown up by ./Etna in thofe eruptions which
burft out from its fides. Sir W. Hamilton counted 44
on ffie Catania fide, each having its crater, many with
large trees flouriffiing both within and without the
crater. All thefe, except a few of late date, have ac¬
quired a wonderful degree of fertility. The circum¬
ference of this zone, or great circle, according to Re-
cupero, isxfT&t lefs than 70 or 80 miles. It is every¬
where fucceeded by the Regions culta ; which is much
broader than the reft, and extends on all fides to the
foot of the mountain. Here terrible devaftations are
fometimes committed by the eruptions 3 and the whole
region is likewife full of conical mountains thrown up
by them. The circumference of this region is, by Re-
cupero, reckoned 183 miles 3 but we have'already gi¬
ven our.reafons for reje&ing thefe dimenfions. This
region is bounded by the fea to the fouth and fouth-
eaft ; and on all other fides, by the river Semetus and
Alcantara, which ioxm the boundaries of Mount
vEtna.
[ 236 ]
iE T N
1 Tl'ie g°d defeends eight or nine miles be- ^Elr.a.
low the Regions deferta, but differs greatly in the tem- ' v—
perature of its climate. Sir W. Hamilton obferved a
gradual decreafe of the vegetation as he advanced 3 the
under part being covered with large timber trees, which
grew gradually lefs as he approached the third region
at laft they degenerated into the fmall plants of the
northern climates. He alfo obferved quantities of ju¬
niper and tanfy 3 and was informed by his guide, that
later in tne feafon (he vifited riEtna in June 1769)
there are a great many curious plants, and in fome
places mubarb and faftron in great plenty. Tn Carre
ra’s hiftory of Catania, there is a lift of all the plants
and herbs of ./Etna.
This region is extolled by Mr Brydone as one of
the moft delightful fpots on earth. He lodged for a
night m a large cave near the middle, formed by one
of tne moft ancient lavas. It is called La Spelonca del
Capriole, or. the goats, cavern 3 becaufe it is frequented
by thole animals, which take refuge there in bad wea-
tner. Here his reft was difturbed by a mountain
thrown, up m the eruption 1766. It difeharged great
quantities of fmoke, and made feveral explofions like
heavy cannon fired at a diftance 3 but they could ob-
ierve no appearance of fire.
This gentleman likewife vifited the eaftern fide of
the R-egionefyliiofa, intending to have afeended that
way to the fummit, and defeended again on the fouth
xiue to Catania, but found it imprafficable. On this Eruption
fide, part of the woody region was deftroyed in 17c r of boiling
by an immenfe torrent of boiling water, which if:water-
fued from the great crater. Its traces were ftill very
vifible, about a mile and a half broad, and in fome
places more. The foil -was then only beginnino- -to
recover its vegetative power, which it feems this tor-
rent had deftroyed for 14 years. Near this place are
ome. beautixul woods of cork, and evergreen oak, grow-
fg ab[°Iutely out of the lava, the foil having hardly
fixlea the. ere vices 3 and not far off, our traveller obferved'
feveral little mountains that feemed to have been form¬
ed by a late eruption. Each of thefe had a regular cup,
or crater, on the top ; and, Tn fome, the middle gulf’
or voragme, as the Sicilians call it, was ftill onen.
Into thefe gulfs Mr Brydone tumbled down ftones’
and heard the noife for a long time after. All the
fields lound, to a confiderable diftance, were covered
with large burnt ftones difeharged from thefe little
volcanoes.
The woody region., efpecially the eaft fide, called Over-
Carpinetto, abounds with very large chefnut trees 3 the £row»
moft remarkable of which has been called, from its fize, chefnufcs
Cafagno di Cento Cava Hi, or chefnut tree of a bun-^^'
dred horfe. Mr Brydone was greatly difappointed at
the fight of this tree, as it is only a bufti of five large
ones growing together : but his guides allured him,
that all tliefe five were once united into one Item ; and ‘
Signior Recupero told him, that he himfelf had been
at the expence of carrying up peafants with tools to
dig round it, and found all the ftems united below
ground in one root. The circumference, as meafured
by Meff. Brydone and Glover who accompanied him
amounted to 204 feet. Here the barometer flood at
26 inches 5 lines and a half, indicating an elevation of
near 4000 feet.
Ine Piedruontcfe diftrift is covered with towns, vil-Region*
lages, Cnlta.
j£ T N [ 237 ] iE T N
JEtna. lages, monaderies, &c. and is well peopled, notwitli-
'■-‘—V—^ {landing the danger of fuch a lituation ; hut the ferti¬
lity of the foil tempts people to inhabit that country;
and their fuperftitious confidence in the faints, with
the propenfity mankind have to defpife danger which
they do not fee, render them as fecure there as in any
other place. Here, Sir William Hamilton obferves,
they kept their vines low, contrary to the cuftom of thole
who inhabit Mount Vefuvius j and they produce a
llronger wine, but not in fuch abundance : here alfo
many terrible eruptions have burft forth j particularly
Subterra- one in 1669. At the foot of the mountain railed by
neous ca- that eruption, is a hole, through which Sir William
Hamilton defeended, by means of a rope, into feveral
fubterraneous caverns, branching out, and extending
much farther than he chofe to venture ; the cold there
was exceffive, and a violent wind extinguifhed fome
of the torches. Many other caverns are known in this
and the other regions of /Etna ; particularly one near
this place called La Spelonca della Palumba, (from the
wild pigeons building their nefts there.) Here Mr
Brydone was told that fome people had loft their fenfes,
from having advanced too far, imagining they faw de¬
vils and damned fpirits.
Saver Acis. In this region the river fo much celebrated by
the poets, in the fable of Acis and Galatea, takes its
rife. It burfts out of the earth at once in a large
ftream, runs with great rapidity, and about a mile from
its fource throws itfelf into the fea. Its water is re¬
markably clear ; and fo extremely cold, that it is rec¬
koned dangerous*to drink it: it is faid, however, to
have a poifonous quality, from being impregnated with
vitriol ; in confequence of which cattle have been kill¬
ed by it. It never freezes, but is faid often to contrail
a greater degree of cold than ice.
Houel’s ob- The following additional particulars relating to the
fervations. eruptions, magnitude, feenery, and products, of this ce¬
lebrated volcano, are chiefly colleiled from the Voy¬
age 'Piitorefque of M. Houel, who appears to have
furveyed it with greater accuracy than any former
traveller.
The form of Mount /Etna is that of a cone, very
broad at the bafe, which is more than 40 miles in cir¬
cumference. From the bottom you afeend ten leagues
before reaching its fummit on the fouth fide ; and on
any of the other fides, the way being not fo ftraight,
would be confiderably longer. /Etna is entirely com-
pofed of fubftances that have been difeharged from the
volcano in its various explofions.
It appears from the quantities of marine bodies depo-
filed all over the under part of /Etna, that it muft have
been once covered by the fea to at leaft one half of its
prefent height. The whole ifiand of Sicily, and the
greateft part of Mount /Etna, have been, in our author’s
opinion, formed under water. But the period when the
eruptions from this volcano firft commenced, the man¬
ner in which the fea fubfided, and the precife time at
which it fell fo low as its prefent level on the fhores of
Sicily, are fa els concerning which we have no certain
Knowledge.
The general principle, however; M. Houel thinks
may be regarded as undeniable. When this mountain
itood half under water, the currents of the ocean
would gradually accumulate upon it large maffes, both
or its own produ&ionSj fuch as' fhclls, and bones of
fifties, and 01 various other matters, which would be JFtna.
intermixed with the volcanic matters difeharged from
the focus cf the burning mount. In a long feries of
ages thefe ftrata of heterogeneous matters would na¬
turally become fo confiderable as to form the enor¬
mous mafs of mountains with which the volcano is
now furrounded. The currents of the ocean might
often convey the volcanic matters to a confiderable
diftance from the volcanic focus. And there are moun¬
tains at no frnall diftance from /Etna, which feem to -
have been produced in this manner. Thofe of Carlin-
tini, at the diftance of 15 leagues, confift chiefly of a-
mixture of pozzolana with calcareous matters. At
Lintini, and in places around it, there are diftin£t beds'
of pozzolana, fcoria;, and real lava, as ■'.veil as others in
which all thefe matters are blended together in a mafs
of calcareous matter. At Palazzolo, about 24 miles
from the city of Syracufe, the fides of the hills having
been cut by the ftreams which run down them, in many
places to a confiderable depth, difplay huge maffes of
lava, and extenfive beds of pozzolana. In the neigh¬
bourhood of Noto there are alfo volcanic productions
to be found.
At Pachino, where the ifiand of Sicily forms an
angle, there is a range of hills extending for feveral
miles, which confift all of pozzolana.
The province of Val di Noto is more homogeneous in
the matters of which its foil confifts, than the two other
dales of Sicily. Thefe, in every hill which they con¬
tain, exhibit a vaft variety of different matters. So
amazing, indeed, is that variety, that they may be
confidered as exhibiting a collection of fpecimens of all
the different materials which enter into the compofition
of the globe. In thofe two dales few volcanic pro¬
ductions have been yet obferved. But it is not to be
inferred for this feafon that they contain but few.
They may be hereafter difeovered in great plenty. In
the volcano of water at Maccalubbe, between Ara-
gona and Girginti; in the baths of Caftellamare, near
Alcamo and Segefte ; in the baths of Termini ; in the
Ifles of Llpari ; in the hot waters of Ali, between
Mefiina and Taormina, by the lake in the valley of
Caltagirone ; in all thefe places, which comprehend the
whole circumference of Sicily, the influence of the
volcano of /Etna is, in fome meafure, felt. Nay, it
would even feem, that in thefe places there are fo many
volcanic craters. All of thefe are fo difpofed as to
fhow that they exifted prior not only to the volcanic
matters, but to the other fubftances intermixed with
them.
The waters of the fea have, in former times, rifen
much higher than at prefent. But how they retreated,
or whether they are to continue ftationary at their
prefent height, we know not. For. more than 2000
years, during which Sicily has been inhabited, and has
had cities and harbours, the fea has not been obv
ferved either to recede or encroach in any ccnftderable
degree.
When the fea fubfided from Mount /Etna, the moun¬
tain muft have been covered over with fuch matters as
the fea uiually depofites ; confequently with calcare¬
ous matters. A part of thofe matters would be in¬
durated by the aflion of the atmofphere, while the
reft would be carried down by the rain waters, and
again conveyed into the ocean. The torrents of rain
water-.
p-
JEtna.
Account of
the north-
eaft fide of
the moun¬
tain.
Suppofed
to be in a
State of de¬
cay*
Sauflure’s
account of
the height
of iEtna.
Mountains
of calcare¬
ous matter.
JE T N [ 2
water which pour down the Tides of Mount iEtna have
furrowed its Tides, by cutting out for themfelves chan¬
nels ; and they have removed from its fummit, and are
ftill removing to a further diftance, all the extraneous
bodies upon it. In many places, they flow at prefent
over a channel of lava, having cut through all the
matters which lay above it: ftill, however, there re¬
main in many places both calcareous matter and other
marine productions, which ihow that this volcano has
been once covered by the waters of the ocean. But
thefe are daily wafting away ; not only the rains, but
men likewife, who carry them off as materials for lime
and for building, conipire to deface them.
No fewer than 77 cities, towns, and villages, are
fcattered over the Tides of iEtna. They are molt nu¬
merous on the fouth fide, where the temperature of the
air is milder than on the north. Reckoning thofe ci¬
ties, towns, and villages, one with another, to contain
eacn 1200 or 1500 fouls, the whole number of the in¬
habitants of Mount .CEtna will then be 92,400, or
115,500. But it is certainly much more conTiderable.
Plate IV. fig. 1. exhibits a view of the north-eaft
Tide of the mountain, taken at fea. The lower part
prefents to the eye very extenfive plains entirely cover¬
ed with lava of different thicknefs, on which vegeta¬
tion has not yet made any progrefs. The nearer the
fliore the more barren is the ground 5 while the fertili¬
ty of the foil increafes as we advance farther inwards.
The mountain is everywhere full of vaft excavations 5
which our author conliders as a proof, that inftead of
increafing in bulk, it is actually in a ftate of decay
and diminution. The vafl: torrents of lava, which
overfpread the Tides of it from time to time, he con-
fiders as infufficient to repair the wafte occafioned by
rains, rivulets, and torrents flowing down from the
fummit. Unlefs the eruptions, therefore, become
more frequent than they have been for fome time paft,
he fuppofes that, by degrees, the height of the moun¬
tain muft be reduced to that of the iurrbunding beds
of lava. He had not an opportunity of meafuring
the altitude of iEtna himfelf; but he obferves, that
it had been done by the celebrated M. de Sauffure,
who found the elevation to be 10,036 feet. This
was done on the 5th of June 1773, at 20 minutes af¬
ter feven in the morning. The height of the barome¬
ter on the molt elevated part at the brink of the cra¬
ter was 18 inches 11^ lines which, by the neceffary
corrections, is reduced to 18 inches ioh| lines. At
the fame time the mercury at Catania, placed only
one foot above the level of the fea, flood at 28 inches
2tV lines 5 which muft be reduced to 28 inches i-|-
lines, on account of the neceffary corredtions for the
thermometer.
From Giana our author had an opportunity of con¬
templating the vafl; number of calcareous mounts fcat¬
tered over that part of vEtna ; which (he fays) “ are
nothing more than fragments, the flender remains of
thofe enormous maffes which have been depoTited all
around the bafe of Mount iEtna; and are a very curi¬
ous monument of the revolutions which this mountain
has undergone.” They are of a true calcareous na¬
ture ; and the inhabitants are accuftomed to fupply
jthemfelves with limeftone from them. They alfo ufe
ftones of which thefe mounts are compofed for the pur-
jpofes of building ; as the lava is fo hard that it can-
38 ] /E T N
not be cut without the greateft difficulty, and they Mtn*.
have no other ftone in thefe parts. * ’ —v~—
Leaving this place, our author travelled over feveral
extenfive plains of lava, covered on each fide of the
way with ftunted trees, but without any cultivation ;
the lava being of that kind which is very unfavourable
to the growth of vegetables. Arriving at St Leo¬
nardo, he oblerved the courfe of the eruption of water
which happened in 1755.
rI his water took its courfe down the well Tide of the Particular
mountain : and the channel which it cut for itfelf is account of
ftill vifible. The eruption of water from burning moun- t;?ie eruP_
tains is ftill much lefs frequent than that of lava or !10n °f T a“
half vitrified folid matters, allies, &c. though that of 6 m I/SS'
water, and even mixed with the {hells of marine ani¬
mals (though we are not told whether it was fait or
not), has fometimes been obferved in other volcanoes,
particularly Vefuvius. The eruption we now fpeak of
happened in the month of February 1755. It was
preceded by an exceedingly thick black linoke iffuing
from the crater, intermixed with flalhes of fire. This
fmoke- gradually became thicker, and the burfts of
flame more frequent. Earthquakes and fubterraneous
thunder convulfed the mountain, and ftruck the in¬
habitants of the adjacent parts with the utmoft terror.
On Sunday the fecond of March, the mountain was
feen to emit a huge column of fmoke exceedingly
denfe and black, with a dreadful noife in the bowels
of the earth, accompanied alfo with violent flaflies of
lightning. From time to time there were loud cracks,
like the explofions of cannon ; the mountain appeared
to fhake from its foundations } the air on that fide
next Mafcali became very dark, and loud peals of
thunder were heard. Thefe feemed to iffue from two
caverns, confiderably below the fummit, on the fide of
the mountain, and were accompanied with violent blafts
of wind like a tempeft.
Thefe terrible phenomena continued and increafed j
./Etna feemed ready to fwallow up at once all thofe ma¬
terials which it had been for fo many years difgorging,
or rather about to fmk at once into the bowels of the
earth from whence it appeared to have been elevated.
The profpeft was far beyond any idea that can be
given by defcription of this tremendous fcene. The
inhabitants were alarmed beyond meafure j the fight
of the flames driven by the winds again!! the Tides of
the mountain, the ftiocks of the earthquake, and the
fall of rocks, ftruck the imagination with a horror not
to be conceived. During this dreadful commotion
an immenfe torrent of water was emitted from the
higheft crater of the mountain. Hie whole fummit
of iEtna was at that time covered with a thick coating
of fnow. Through this the boiling water directed its
courfe eaftward j and, in its paffage, met with fright¬
ful precipices. Over thefe it daffied with the utmoft
violence, adding its tremendous roaring to the com¬
plicated horrors of this awful fcene. The fnow, melt¬
ing inftantaneoufly as the boiling torrent advanced, in¬
creafed its deftruftive power by augmenting its quan¬
tity, while the mifchievous effefts of the heat were
fcarce dimini fired by reafon of the immenfe quantity of
boiling liquid which continued to pour from the fum¬
mit of the mountain.
This boiling torrent having dalhed its awful cata¬
racts from one chain of rocks to another, at length
reached
T N [ 239 ] T N
^tna. * reached the cultivated plains, which it overflowed for
* a number of jniles. Here it divided itfelf into feveral
branches, forming as many deep and rapid rivers;
which, after feveral other iubdivilions, difeharged
themfelves into the fea.
Though the mountain continued to difehatge water
in this manner only for half an hour, the ravages of it
wrere very terrible. Not only thofe of common inun¬
dations, fuch as tearing up trees, hurrying along rocks
and large Hones, took place here, but the Hill more
dreadful effedls of boiling water were felt. Every
cultivated fpot was laid wafte, and every thing touched
by it was deftroyed. Even thofe who were placed be¬
yond the reach of the torrent, beheld with inexpreflible
horror the deftrudtion occafioned by it } and though
the alarming noifes which had fo long ilfued from the
mountain now ceafed in a great meafure, the fliocks
of earthquakes and the violent fmoke which continued
to iflue from the mountains, fhowed that the danger
was not over. Two new openings were now obferved,
and two torrents of lava began to make their way
through the fnow.
On the 7th of March a dreadful noife was again
heard in the bowels of the mountain, and a new co¬
lumn of very thick and black fmoke began to iflue
from it. A horrid explofion of fmall Hones fucceeded ;
fome of which were carried as far as the hills of Maf-
cali, and great quantities of black fand to Meflina,
and even quite over the Hrait to Reggio in Calabria.
On the fliifting of the wind to the northward this
fand reached as far as the plains of Agofla. Two days
after the mountain opened again, and a new torrent of
lava was difeharged; which, however, advanced very
flowly towards the plain, moving only at the rate of
a mile in a day. It continued to flow in this manner
for fix days, when every thing appeared fo quiet, that
the Canon Recupero fet out to view the changes which
had taken place.
Courfe of That gentleman’s defign was to trace the courfe of
the current the dreadful torrent of water above mentioned. This
traced by he was very eafily enabled to do by the ravages it had
Recupero. macle • and, by following the channel it had cut all
the way from the fea to the fummit of the volcano, he
found that this immenfe quantity of wrater had iflued
from the very bowels of the mountain. After ifluing
from the crater, and increafing its Hrearn by pafling
through and melting the fnow which lay immediately
below the lummit, it deHroyed in an inflant a fine and
extenfive forefl of fir-trees. All of thefe were torn up
by the violence of the current, though many were no
lefs than 24 or 30 inches in diameter. He obferved
that the great Hream had, in its delcent, divided itfelf
into four branches; and thefe had again fubdivided
themfelves into feveral fmaller ones, eafily diflinguifli-
able by the quantity of fand they had depofited. Af¬
terwards reuniting their Hreams, they formed many
iflands, and rivers 900 feet in breadth, and of a depth
■which could not eafily be determined. Proceeding
farther down, and Hill forcing its way among the beds
of old lava, the channel of the waters was widened to
1500 feet, until it w7as again co'ntraiHed in the valleys
as before. Every objeft which flood in the way of
this tremendous torrent was moved from its place.
Enormous rocks were not only hurried down, but fe¬
veral of them moved to more elevated fituations thau
thofe they formerly occupied. Whole hills o£ lava ./Etna,
had been removed and broken to pieces, and their -
fragments fcattered along the courfe of the river, and
the valleys were filled up by vaft quantities of fand
w7hich the waters had depofited. Our author obferved,
that even at the time he vifited the mountain, about
ten years after the eruption, the whole fide of it Hill
bore the marks of this deluge.
On M. Houel’s arrival at Jaci Catena, he inquired
for the phyfician of the place ; it being cuflomary for
flrangers to do fo who want to learn any thing con¬
cerning the curiofities of the country, as the phyfi-
cians there are generally thofe wdio have any preten-
fions to literature. By this guide he was fhown a Account of?
v7ell which they call Ho/y Water. There is a flight a remark-
of Heps from the furface of the ground to that of the aUlL we
water. The well itfelf is 20 feet vdde and 40 feet
deep. It is fupplied by three different fprings, each
of wdrich is faid to have a peculiar tafle. The phy¬
fician informed our author, that one of them refem-
bled milk in its tafle j another tafled like foap •, and
the third had the tafle of common vrater : but our au¬
thor, after tailing each of them, could not find any re¬
markable difference.
In his way to La Trizza, our author difeovered ^cient
fome very ancient baths with ftoves. They had been
built here on account of a fpring of warm fulphureous
water, fuppofed to be excellent for the cure of cuta¬
neous diforders 5 and for which purpofe they are ftill
made ufe of. They are now called the Springs of 67 Springs of
Venera, of whom there is an image here. The loun-®1 Venera'
tain from which they flow is on a level with the furface
of the ground. The water taftes very difagreeably of
fulphur ; and depofites a quantity of white impalpable
powder, adhering to herbs and Hones, over which it
paffes. This fubftance our author calls the cream of
fulphur; though it is probably a felenitic fubftance
formed by the decompofition of the fulphur, and the
union of its acid with fome calcareous matter which
held it in folution before.
From this place our author proceeded to the fea-port Balfaltic
of Trizza, a fmall place, which with the adjacent coun-l°^.I^alou''
try contains only about 300 inhabitants. Off the har¬
bour of this place is a bafaltic rock, which feems to
be only the remains of a much larger one deftroyed by
the adlion of the air. All around are long ranges of
bafaltes, the fpecies of which are very various.
The rocks of the Cyclops Hand round the fmall har-Rocks
hour of La Trizza 5 and from this view we perceive !?^~
number of rocks of very different heights. All of them
appear more or lefs above water, though fome are fo
low that they cannot be feen without approaching
very near ; and this circumftance renders the harbour
inacceflible to veffels of any confiderable burden, at the
fame time that, by reafon of the depth of the fea, it
is impoflible either to cut or unite them by a mole.
The principal of thefe rocks is the extremity of an
illand, one half of which is compofed of lava placed on
a bafaltic bale *, over this is a cruft of pozzolana, com¬
bined with a kind of wjhite calcareous matter of a
pretty hard and compaft confiftence 5 and wftiich, by
the a£lion of the air, affumes the appearance of knot¬
ty porous wood. On this fubjedt our author obferves,
that “ the rock at feme former period, had become
fo hard as to fplit, and the clefts were then filled up
with ,
je r n
Atna.
DifFercnt
kinds of
bafaltes.
vyilh a very hard matter which was porous on all fides
fcoria;. That matter afterwards fplit alfo ; leav¬
ing large mterflices, which in their turn have been
filled up with a kind of compound yellow matter. The
illand appears to have been formerly inhabited, but is
at prefent deftitute both of inhabitants and of cul¬
ture, only the people of La Tiizza feed a few goats
upon it.”
I o the fouthward of the harbour of La Trizza we
oblerve feveral fragments of bafaltes, both in the form
of needles, and in that of prifmatie columns of a very
regular form, and which may be eafily leparated from
one another. From the pofition in which thefe frag¬
ments are difpofed, it appears that the mafs to which
they belong mull have fuffered fome very violent Ihock;
otherwife fuch huge rocks could never have been bro¬
ken, overturned, and fcattered in direftions fo very dif¬
ferent from their original pofitions. In one of thefe
ruins there are fome parts harder than the reft, which
withlland the aftion of the air, while the intervening
fpaces yield to it, and appear to be thus dellroyed. In
fome others this effect is much more remarkable 5 be¬
came the column happens to be much farther advanced
towards a Hate of diflblution, the parts of which they
con fill being already disjoined 5 and in each of thofe
which projeft we perceive a fiffure : which {hows that
each of thefe parts may be divided into two. “ They
are indeed (fays our author) actually divided, and
difplay a convexity ilfuing from a concavity, like a
pile of hats placed one upon another, when they are
removed one by one ; which is a very curious fingu-
larity.” 6
Continuing his journey Hill fouthward, our author
,, . arrived atjhe promontory of the Cailel d’Aci. This
deffribechCI15 -the moft Angularly curious of all that are in the
neighbourhood of ./Etna. The ancient mafs of it is en-
clofed between two bodies of lava of a more modern
origin. Thefe compofe the rocks on which Cailel
d’Aci is fituated, and which lie under the foil of the
adjacent country. Beyond that city are the immenfe
plains of the lower part of /Etna. Thefe gradually
rife tdl they reach the fummit, which is hid among
the clouds. The promontory is almoil entirely com-
pofed of bafaltes, the interilices of which are filled up
with a yellowilh matter, which feems to be a clay
nearly of the fame nature with that formerly taken no¬
tice of in the illand-of La Trizza. It alfo covers the
mafs of bafaltes, and has produced both the fuperior
and anterior parts of the promontory. Here our author
law a number of women employed in walking webs of
cloth in the fea: and takes notice of the dexterous me¬
thod they have of lifting it up in folds, and packing it
on their heads in bundles without receiving any affill-
ance. At the foot of this promontory are many cu¬
rious bafaltic rocks.
Great ^ All along the eallern fide of Mount /Etna the foil is
bafaltes5" ^ro^en’ but filled with beautiful varieties of bafaltes,
highly worthy of obfervation. Indeed, according to
our author’s opinion, there is no volcano in Europe fo
rich as /Etna in bafaltes, nor where fo many curious fi¬
gures of it are to be feen.
M. Houel having fpent fome more time In vifiting
the bafaltic columns around the foot of the mountaih,
fet out from Aci to vifit the famous chefnut tree for an
hundred horfcs which we have already mentioned. In
[ 240 1
T N
Promon¬
tory of the
-Cartel d’Ai
dertribed.
found on
/Etna.
M. Kouel’s
journey to
the great
chefnut
iSree.
his way thither he paffed through the villages of For-
tezza, Mangamo, St Leonardo, St Matteo, and La
Macchia. The landfcapes of each of thefe places by
itfelf are extremely beautiful j but the country between
them is a frightful wild defert, prefenting to the eye
nothing but extenfive plains of black lava, which at a
diilance have the appearance of vail quantities of pit-coal.
The roads became rougher as they advanced j but the
adjoining fields affumed a more Imiling afpeft. The
reafon of this is, that the torrents of lava (by which
the plains are rendered unfit for vegetation for a great
number of years) have rolled rapidly down the more
lleep fides of the mountain without dellroying the fer¬
tility of the foil.
Travelling through very difficult roads, and often
incommoded with dangerous precipices, our author at
lall arrived at the celebrated chefnut tree, which was
the chief object of this journey. He obferves, that, Great mini,
all over this fide of the mountain the chefnut trees bersorchef-
thrive very well, and are carefully cultivated by the in- nut trees*
habitants. 1 hey are worked into hoops for calks, and
a confiderable trade is carried on in this article. The Particular
great one which he came to vifit, exceeds the fize of account of
other trees fo much that it cannot fail to excite thethe great
greatell admiration. It has its name from the follow- tree‘
ing circumilance. Jean of Arragon fpent fome time
in Sicily on her way from Spain to Naples. While
here, lire viiited Mount /Etna, attended by her princi¬
pal nobility j and happening to be overtaken by a
ilorm, they took Ihelter under this tree, whofe branch¬
es were fufficiently extenfive to cover them all. By
others, however, this Itory is treated as a mere fable.
According to our author’s account, this chefnut
tree is 160 feet in circumference, which is lefs than
Mr Brydone’s account of it, but quite hollow within :
which, however, alle<5ls not its verdure 5 for the chef¬
nut tree, like the willow, depends upon its bark for
fubfillence, and by age lofes its internal part. As the a houfe
cavity of this enormous mafs is very confiderable, the and oven
people have built a houfe in it, where they have an hui,t in k*10
oven for drying nuts, almonds, and chefnuts, &c. ofIlollowo1
which they make conferves. They frequently fupply 1 ’
themfelves with wood from the tree which encircles
their houfe, fo that it feems likely, in a Ihort time, to
go to ruin through the thoughtlefs ingratitude of its
'inhabitants, to whom it gives proteflion.
It has been thought that this tree was compofed of Is not conj-
a number of others grown together ; but our author is Pofc‘l of a.
of a different opinion. For he fuppofes that the bark
and outer part of the wood have been rent afunder, to Lather?'
and that by a natural motion the divided parts of the
bark feeking to reunite, or rather to Ihelter themfelves
from the aclion of the external air, are bent inwards
fo as to form circular arcs, which may indeed be taken
for fo many different trees, though they appear proper¬
ly to belong to the fame trunk.
Befides this, there is abundance of other trees in Other trees
the neighbourhood very remarkable for their fize. vaH di-
Our traveller was fhown a number of young trees ofmenll0ns-
the fame fpecies, all very beautiful and llraight, and
almoll as fmooth as polilhed marble. One of thefe
was 38 feet in circumference, and there was a num¬
ber of others nearly of the fame fize. Among thefe
there were feven Handing together, which have receiv¬
ed the. name of the feven brethren. Another i s deno¬
minated
JE T N [24
^fitna. minated the /kip, from tlie general figure of its top,
* \r—' which has fome flight refemblance to a flrip. Its dia¬
meter is 25 feet, fo that the circumference cannot be
Jefs than 75. In thefe extenfive forefts, however, there
are chefnut trees of every age and fize.
Snow grot- Our author’s next vifit was paid to a fnowr grotto,
to deferib- being one of thofe magazines where that article, fo ne-
ec*' ceflary in the hot climate of Sicily, is preferred for
Foreft of ufe> jn j^s wTay thither he vilited the forefl: of pines ;
way to it16 is muc)l furrounded by rocks and precipices,
that it is fcarce acceflible ; and vafl; numbers of the
trees are dying of old age. Some of the neighbouring
peafants, however, now and then attempt to carry
them off. Our author faw one of them at this work.
It was drawn by oxen, who were yoked to it by a
chain connedfled with the beam by an iron cramp.
But the extreme roughnefs of the road made the tree
leap and bound in fuch a manner, that the poor crea¬
tures were every moment in danger of having their
legs broken, or being hurried over precipices along
with their driver \ accidents which happen not unfre-
quently, and which render this occupation lefs gene¬
rally practifed than otherwife it w'ould be.
The fnow grotto is but lately formed by the aftion
of the waters under the beds of lava, and carrying
away the ftratum of pozzolana belowr them. It is fitu-
ated on a mount named Finocchio, which, though of
very conuderable fize, is only a protuberance on the
fide of Etna. It has been repaired in the infide at the
expence of the knights of Malta, who have hired this
as well as feveral other caVerns in the mountain for the
purpofe of holding fnow, which they have ftill more
occafion for in their ifland than the inhabitants of Si¬
cily. There are trvo openings above, at which they
throw in the fnowr 5 and flights of ffeps have been cut
to thefe as well as in the internal parts. A confider-
able extent of ground is levelled and enclofed with high
rvalls above the grotto ; lo that when the wind, which
at this elevation blows with great violence, carries the
fnow down from the higher parts of the mountain, it
is flopped and detained by the walls of this enclofure.
It is then thrown into the grotto, rvhere the thicknefs
^ ^ of the beds of lava which cover it prevents any impref-
ow_ ie £on from tbe fummer heat. "When the feafon for ex-
inow is pre- . . r . .
ventedfromPortatlon comes 0Tb t'16 mtiw is put into large bags,
melting and preffed into them as clofe as pofliblei Thus it is
during ex- rendered compact and heavy, and likewife runs lefs rilk
portation. 0f being affe&ed by the heat. It is then carried out
upon men’s fhouldcrs, and conveyed to the fliore on
mules. Before it is put into the bags, the lumps of
fnow are carefully wrapped up in leaves, wdiich is ano¬
ther prefervative ; at the fame time that the frdh con¬
gelation of the little which melts, unites the maffes fo
together, that our author informs us he has feen pieces
of the fnow preferved in this manner which looked like
the faireft and moft transparent cryftal.
Our author’s next excurfion was to Mount Roffo,
or the Red Mountain, which is one of the mouths of
iEtna, and through which it difeharges from time to
time great quantities of lava, fand, allies, &c. It is
the moft celebrated of all the numerous rriouths w’hich
have opened on the fide of the mountain, though it
has become fo noted only for having poured forth the
matter of the great eruption in 1669, and which is the
moft remarkable of any recorded in hiftory.
Vol. I. Part I.
Account
«f Mount
Roflb.
r ] T N
“ When a new crater (fays our author) is fortned
on Mount iEtna, it is always in confequence of fome v—
ftiock that is powerful enough to break the arches of^^^**
its caverns. Doubtlefs it is inconceivable that there formeci;
ftiould be any agent endowed with fuch force ; but
when fuch a frafture is once made, it is neceffarily
very large, and the furface of the ground above cannot
but be broken in feveral different places at confiderable
diftances from one another. The matter which is dif-
charged always iffues from the principal opening and
thofe adjoining to it. None of thefe mouths, howeverj
continue open, excepting that which is dire&ly in
the line in which the matter is difeharged } the lava
foon choking up thofe wdrich are in a more oblique
diredlion.
Our author wrent down one of thefe openings with
torches *, but could not reach the bottom, and was
obliged to return on account of the extreme cold. The
defeent was extremely difficult, and became more fo in
proportion as he advanced. This crater is of an oval
form, and the opening through which he defeended
was in one extremity : but he was tempted to think
that the crater which rifes above it had been formed
of matter difeharged by another mouth : or perhaps it
might have had a more centrical opening, through
w hich the ftones, fand, &c. which form the crater, w ere
difeharged.
Four of the mouths of this mount appear to be
compofed of a reddilh pozzolana, which has procured
it the name of the Red Mountain ; but w hen we afeend
the pyramids, or rather funnels which they form, we
find them compofed of different coloured layers of fand.
Some of thefe are of a bluifti-gray colour, others of a
fine yellowq and fome of a kind of green formed by a
mixture of gray and yellow, while others are of a red
colour. A great number offmallcryftals, black fchoerls.,
and granites, are found among them, as well as pieces
of fcoria, which had been difeharged by the volcano in
the form of a thick and glutinous matter. All thefe
mouths have internally the form of a funnel, and their
fhape is nearly that of a mutilated cone or round py¬
ramid. This is the natural and unavoidable confequence
of the perpendicular fall of the pulverized matter which
the volcano difeharges from the orifice at the bottom.
The fides of the craters are not all of one height ; the
parts to the eaft and wTeft being confiderably higher
than the intermediate fummits, becaufe the currents of
the allies paffed alternately from eaft to w'eft, and fell
upon thefe fides in greater quantities than on the others j
which circumftance has given to this volcano the ap¬
pearance of having two fummits.
M. Houel, having finifhed his obfervations on Monte Convent of
Roflb, returned to the convent of Nicolofi, which isNicolofide-
now7 only a houfe for the entertainment of travellers.
The Benediblines of Catana, to whom it belongs, vifit
this place only when in an ill ftate of health, as the pu- <
rity of the air renders it very falutary to the human
Conftitution. A folitary brother, however, refides
here to take care of the houfe, and to fuperintend the
cultivation of the neighbouring plains. Thole fathers
once poffeffed an extenfive and very fertile tract of
land in this neighbourhood ; but the eruptions of Attna
have rendered it totally incapable of cultivation. This
houfe Hands at a very confiderable height, being no
lefs than 2496 feet above the level of the fea. Set-
H h ting
iE T N [ 242 ] ^ T N
Beautiful
appearance
of the fo-
^efts of
Grotto of
the goats,
how form¬
ed.
ting out from this place three hours before day, our
traveller direfted his courfe towards the grotto of the
goats. In his way thither, he paifed over feveral
plains of lava, fome of them ancient and others more
modern : but the roads were extremely rough and
dangerous ; or rather, as our author expreffes himfelf,
there was no track or path meriting the name of a
road. In two hours they reached the Regione Sylvofa,
where an immenfe foreft furrounds the mountain, and
which has undoubtedly been planted by the hand of
nature : for there the ground is fo high, fo full of
precipices, and fo entirely uninhabitable, that no hu¬
man being could ever think of making plantations on
it 5 nor is it to be fuppofed that the winds could take
up feeds from the plains to fow them on fuch a lofty
fituation.
Thefe majeftic forefts of ./Etna afford a fingular fpec-
tacle, and bear no refemblance to thofe of other coun¬
tries. Their verdure is more lively, and the trees of
which they confift are of a greater height. Thefe ad¬
vantages they owe to the foil whereon they grow j for
the foil produced by volcanoes is particularly favour¬
able to vegetation, and every fpecies of plants grows
here with great luxuriance. In feveral places where
we can view their interior parts, the moft enchanting
profpefts are difplayed. The hawthorn trees are of an
immenfe fize. Our author faw feveral of them of a
regular form, and which he was almoft tempted to take
for large orange trees cut artificially into the figures
they reprefented. The beeches appear like as many
ramified pillars, and the tufted branches' of the oak
like clofe bullies impenetrable to the rays of the fun.
The appearance of the woods in general is exceedingly
pifturefque, both by reafon of the great number and
variety of the trees, and the inequality of the ground,
which makes them rife like the feats in an amphitheatre,
one row above another j difpofing them alfo in groups
and glades, lb that their appearance changes to the eye
at every ftep 5 and this.variety is augmented by acci¬
dental circumftances, as the fituation of young trees
among others venerable for their antiquitv 5 the effedfs
of ftorms, which have often overturned large trees,
while Hems {hooting up from their roots, like the Ler-
nsean hydra, Ihow a number of heads newly fprung to
make up that which was cut off.
About three hours after the departure of our tra¬
vellers from St Nicholas, they reached the grotto of
the goats. It is formed by a bed of lava, which ha¬
ving flowed over a pile of fand and pozzolana while in
a fluid ftate, fettled and cooled in that fituation 5 and
the fand or pozzolana being afterwards carried off by
the filtration of water through the lava, a void fpace
has been left, which the torrents have gradually en¬
larged to its prefent fize.
This grotto Hands about 5054 feet above the level
of the fea, according to the calculations of M. de
Sauffure. It affords a retreat for thofe travellers who
vifit the fummit of ./Etna, who generally refrefh them-
felves by taking a repart and making a fire at the en¬
try, for which there is plenty of dry wood at hand j
while the fand ferves for a bed to repofe on. Here our
author and his company fupped, and about midnight
fet off for the fummit. They had the advantage of
the moon-lipht 5 and our author advifes all thofe who
intend to vifit the top of iEtna to take fuch a time for
their journey as may enable them to enjoy this advan- Altna,
tage. As they advanced beyond the grotto of the '' v—'
goats, the trees became gradually thinner. In a Ihort Acc““n^
time they were fo thin, that they might readily be C
counted j and, proceeding ftill farther, only a very few ;v.tna.
were feen fcattered here and there, whofe beauty and
fize were diminilhed feemingly in proportion to their
numbers. A few clumps of trees and fome tufts of
odoriferous herbs w^ere now only to be feen j and in a
little time thefe alfo became thinner, affuming a wi-,
thered or ftunted appearance. Then they are nothing
but the languilhing remains of an abortive vegetation 5
and a few paces further even this difappeared, and the
eve was prefented only with barren fand.
Having now got above the region of the trees, they Snowy and'
entered the third, which our author denominates the re- barren re¬
gion of fnow and fferility. The wind became more "
brilk and keen as they advanced, fo that they could
fcarce keep their hats upon their heads *, and our au¬
thor loft his, though tied on with a handkerchief
Here they were frequently obliged to crofs confider-
able ftreams of water formed by the melting of the
fnow. In general the furface was fufficiently hard to
bear them , but our author’s mule once funk up to her
belly, and was not extricated without great difficulty.
Having at laft overcome all difficulties, they arrived Plain on
at the large plain on the fummit of ./Etna, and in the the fummit
midft of which is the crater of the volcano. It is en-° tna"
tirely compofed of lava, cinders, ice, and fnow} and
has been ftyled, ironically as our author thinks, Monte
Frumente. Here the wind continued to blow with Wind ex-
exceffive violence $ and our author informs us, that in ceffively
order to have any notion of its keennefs, we muft be
accuftomed to feel it on fame very elevated ftation, as
it is impoffible to judge from what we feel at inferior
altitudes. They took ffielter behind a lump of lava,,
the only one which appeared in the whole plain, and,
which our author fays, would feem defigned exprefsly
for the ffielter of travellers. Here they lay, wrapped-
up in their cloaks, for an hour : but as foon as it was
day, fo that they could dirtinguiffi the place where the
fun was ta rife, they got up and advanced towards
the ruins of the building known by the name of the
Fhilofopher's Tower. The wind ftill blew fo violently,
that after an effort of four minutes they fell down ex-
haufted : but the extreme cold obliging them again to
get up, they made a fecond attempt} and after leveral
intermiffions of this kind, at laft accomplilhed their de-
fign. They were furprifed, however, to find nothing
but the corner of a wall not more than two feet high,
confifting of two rows of unpolilhed Hones; great part
of it having been probably buried by the fand and
other matters difeharged by the mountain. Here, be¬
ing ffieltered from the wind, and the day advancing,
they began to enjoy the glorious profpeft which every
moment became more extenfive. At the riling of the
fun, the .horizon was ferene, without a fingle cloud.
“ The coaft of ‘Calabria (fays our author) was as yet Extenfive ■
undiftinguiffiable from the adjoining.fea*, but in a fliort ProfPe<a* -
time a fiery radiance began, to appear from behind the
Italian hills, which bounded the eaftern part of the pro-
fpedt. The fleecy clouds, which generally appear early
in the morning, were tinged with purple *. the atmofphere
became ftrongly illuminated, and, reflefting the rays of
tbe riling fun, appeared filled with a bright effulgence
of
JE r N [ 243 J iE T N
iF.tna. of flame. The inamenfe elevation of the fummit of vEt-
v ' na made it catch the firfl: rays of the fun’s light, whofe
vaft fplendour, while it dazzled the eyes, diftufed a mofl;
cheriftiing and enlivening heat, reviving the fpirits,
and diflitfing a pleafant fenfation throughout the foul.
But though the heavens were thus enlightened, the
fea ftill retained its dark azure, and the Helds and fo-
rells did not yet reflect the rays of the fun. The gra¬
dual rifing of this luminary, however, foon difFufed
his light over the hills which lie below the peak of ^Et¬
na. This lafl flood like an ifland in the midft ot the
ocean, with luminous points every moment multiplying
around, and fpreading over a wider extent with the
greateft rapidity. It was as if the univerfe had been
obierved fuddenly fpringing from the night of non-
exiftence. The tall forefts, the lofty hills, and exten-
five plains of Etna, now prefented themfelves to view.
Its bafe, the vaft trails of level ground which lie adja¬
cent, the cities of Sicily, its parched Ihores, with the
daftiing wraves and vaft expanfe of the ocean, gradual¬
ly prefented themfelves, while fome fleeting vapours,
which moved fvviftly before the wind, fometimes veiled
part of this vaft and magnificent profpeft.” In a ftiort
time every thing was difplayed fo diftinftly, that they
could plainly recognize all thofe places with which they
were before acquainted. On the fouth wrere feen the
hills of Camerata and Trapani $ on the north, the
mounts Pelegrino and Thermini, with the celebrated
Enna once crowned with the temples of Ceres and
Proferpine. Among thefe mountains were feen a great
many rivers running down, and appearing like as many
lines of glittering filver winding through a variety of
rich and fertile fields, walking the walls of 28 cities,
while their banks wrere otherwife filled with villages,
hamlets, &c. rifing among the ruins of the moft illu-
ftrious republics of antiquity. On the fouth and north
were obferved the rivers which bound by their courfe
the vaft bafe of Mount Etna, and afford a delightful
profpefl to the eye ; while at a much greater dirtance
■were feen the ifles of Lipari, Alicudi, Felicocide, Pa-
rinacia, and Stromboli.
Having enjoyed for fome time the beauty of this
magnificent profpeft, our author fet about making a
draught of the place from which the view wras taken ;
and at length accomplilhed it, notwithftanding the
great impediments he met with from the wind. A-
mong the objedfts which he delineated on this occafion,
Philofo- the Philofoplier’s Tower was one. It feems, he fays,
pher’s tow- not to be very ancient; neither the materials of which
bed e^n" ^ confi^s> nor tfie m°de of architecture, bearing any
refemblance to thcf; of the Greeks and Romans. The
furrounding plain feems to conlilt entirely of a black
fand intermixed with pieces of fcoria, which have been
formerly thrown out by the volcano. Beyond that
plain, which rifes gently, appears a cone, the fummit
Defcnption of which is the volcanic crater. When viewed from
or the great the fouth fide, on which they ftood, this crater feems
'* 'l'L ' to confift of a number of fmall hills. Into thefe it was
broken by the emiflion of the boiling torrent in the
year 1755. When difcharged from the crater, thefe
waters fpread towards the right, and at the diftance
of a mile ealhvard fell in a cafcade from a prodigious
height.
The violence of the wind beginning nowT to abate a
little, the travellers fet out for the very fummit, in or- Altna.
der to take a view of the great crater 5 in which journey ~~v “"V
(our author fays) it would be difficult to make people,
who have never engaged in fuch enterprifes, compre¬
hend all the obftacles they had to encounter. This
cone (the little mountain mentioned by Sir William
Hamilton) is compofcd of allies, fand, and pozzolana,
thrown up at different times by the volcano. The ma¬
terials are fo loofe, that the adventurous traveller finks
about mid-leg at every ftep, and is in conflant terror
of being fwallowed up. At laid, w hen the fummit is
reached, the fulphureous exhalations, which are con¬
tinually emitted from the pores of the mountain, threa¬
ten fuffocation, and irritate the fauces and lungs in fuch
a manner as to produce a very troublefome and incef-
fant cough. The loofenefs of the foil, wdiich gives
way under the feet, obliges the traveller, every now
and then, to throw himfelf flat on his belly, that fo he
may be in lefs danger of finking. In this pofture our
author viewed the wide unfathomable gulf in the
middle of the crater j but could difcover nothing ex¬
cept a cloud of fmoke, which iffued from a number of
fmall apertures fcattered all around, and accompanied
with a kind of noife. Another and more dreadful Horrid
found, however, Iffues from the bowels of the volcano, -0lfes !‘1uc
and which, according to our author, “ ftrikes the heart
with terror, fo that all the ftrength of reafon is necef-gulf.
fary to prevent the obferver from flying with preci-
pitation from fuch a dreadful place.” Several travel¬
lers who had vifited this cone before him, were fo ter¬
rified by thefe dreadful founds, that they fled with
the utmoft hafte till they arrived at the foot of the
mountain.
Our author compares thefe founds to a difcharge of
cannon in the wade abyfs ; the noife of which is re¬
bellowed throughout all the caverns, and produces a
found perhaps the moft alarming that can be imagined ;
and during the fhort fpace in which he liftened, feveral
of thefe difcharges were heard to follow one another
almoft uninterruptedly.
This dreadful noife, our author, with very great pro¬
bability, fuppofes to be occafioned by the explofions
of the internal fire, or, as he calls it, the focus of the
volcano ; which, ftriking againft the fides of thefe im-
menfe caverns, the founds produced are re-echoed
through their cavities, and probably multiplied in an.
extraordinary manner 5 fo that what would be only a
flight explofion in the open air, occafions a found more
tremendous than the loudeft thunder. To fuch as are
convinced of this, and have fufficient courage to refift
the firft impreflions w-hich thefe founds muft unavoidably
occafion, they will in a ihort time not only appear ex¬
ceedingly fublime, but, by their variety, even fomewhat
agreeable. “ They enable us (fays our author) to form
fome conception of the fpace through which they muft:
pafs before they reach the ear, and of the vaft extent
and width of the hollows of the mountain.”
Having for fome time contemplated this awful fpec- Impoffible
tacle, our author wiftied to meafure the crater by walk- to walk
ing round it, but found this impoflible. On the north roiind Ae
fide the furface is hard and fmooth, the allies having crater-
been fo far diffolved by the moifture depofited by the
fmoke as to cement into one uniform mafs. This is
fometimes diffolved even into a fluid ftate, in fuch a
H h 2 manner
JEtv.z.
Figure of
the crater
.ffi T N
manner as to run down the fides of the cone 5 fo that
after feveral attempts, he was at laft obliged to aban¬
don his defign.
Fig. 2. exhibits a view of the crater of iEtna taken
on the brink of the eaft fide. The fore ground of
the figure is one divifion of the crater. Beyond it are
two eminences, b and c, higher than that on which fome
human figures are reprefented. All the three form a
triangle nearly equilateral; but, when viewed from any
confiderable dillance, only two of them can be feen ; for
which reafon the Sicilians have termed the mountain
bicorne, or double-horned.
The fmoke, as reprefented in the figure, iffues from
all quarters, either from chinks or holes fcattered over
the whole crater. But the fituation of the principal
mouth is in the midfi of the three eminences. Its
diameter, when our author vifited this mountain, was
only about 60 feet, and fo filled with fmoke that no¬
thing remarkable could be difeovered. From the height
d, the rock fituated on the left fide of the print, and
on which the human figures are reprefented, all the way
to the rock e on the right, the diftance is no more than
900 feet. Our author obferved, that the cone is not
exactly in the middle of the plain, but is fituated more
towards the north than the fouth. He did not attempt
to crofs the central valley f, on account of the loofenefs
of the ground, and that there was no objedt apparently
worthy of the rifk he muft run in fo doing. ^ At the
neareil view he took, it was only obferved that there
was fnow lying in feveral parts of it, though the heat
which otherwife prevailed feemed to be very intenfe.
The fmoke which iffues from the crater of iEtna is
generally carried in a direction from fouth to north ;
and, as it brings along with it a confiderable quantity
of water, the latter, condenfed by the cold Minds,
runs down the fide of the mountain in plentiful ftreams,
and often leaves pretty permanent marks of its courfe.
Eruption of In this manner he accounts for the great erruption of
water in 1755, which he fuppofes to have been occa-
fioned only by an unufual quantity of Mrater falling into
the burning focus of the mountain, there rarefied into
fleam, and aftemards condenfed by the coldnefs of the
atmofphere.
Like other travellers to Mount iEtna, this gentleman
found the v/ind blowing from the fouth 5 and he is of
opinion, that a fouth wind blou’s here more frequently
than any other, as he did not obferve any channels cut
by the MTater on any other fide than the north. Fie had
feveral opportunities of making this obfervation, having
frequently vifited the top of iEtna, and always paid at¬
tention to the crater. The fand on the eaft and weft
fides was always loofe, while that on the north nras
compacled into a folid body. The three fummits were
of a later date than the reft of the crater, having been
probably thrown up by fome eruption which had burft
it afunder. The black fpots on the fore-ground repre-
fent a number of hillocks about the fize of mole-hills,
irom which a falphureous vapour conftantly iffues, and
by which the adjacent ground is tinged of an ochrey
colour. This vapour iffues from the crevices with a
kind of hollow M7hiftling noife y which MTith the volca¬
nic thunder, fmoke, and noxious fmell, render it very
difagreeabie to flay here even for a few7 moments.
The fmoke is reprefented in the figure precifely as it
appeared on the day that he afeended, which was very
water in
1755 ac¬
counted
for.
South wind
generally
prevalent
mi the top
ei JEtna.
[ 244 ] JE T N
warm. But it does not ahvays rife in this^manner $ for iEtna.
when the cold is very intenfe, it collefls into a body,' v~-
and thickens around the edge of the crater : on which
occafion it is condenfed into Mrater, wdiich diffufes itfelf
around the edge of the crater, and mixing wuth the
allies converts them into a kind of clay. The cold Intenfe cold
on the top of this mountain is fo intenfe, that travel- produced
lers very often find their clothes infufficient to protect
them 5 and it is remarkable that fuch intenfe cold is al- * ^ ‘
M7ays produced by a fouth wind. The day that our
author took his draught, the wind blew faintly from
the north.
The bafe of Mount ./Etna, according to M. Houel’s Account of
obfervations, confifts of alternate layers of lava and ma-tlie ftrata
rine fubftances, which have been depofited fuccefiively a^.^e
one upon another. Thefe alternate layers extend to ^tna
an unknown depth. They muft needs go as far down
as the level of the ftratum of lava which w7as difeharged
by the volcano at its firft origin. The laft depofited
by the fea is a range of calcareous mountains of a con¬
fiderable height, and which are placed on a bafis of
lava. Beneath that layer of lava is another of fea
pebbles, wftiich are well knoM7n to be rounded by their
attrition againft one another by the motion of the
waves. This layer is of confiderable depth, and lies
upon a yellowifti rock confifting of a fpecies of indura¬
ted fand. The river Simeto flows over this rock,
which it has cut away confiderably. That part wdfich
is at prefent the bed of the river is much higher than
the bafe of /Etna that is on a level with the fea j and
not the leaft thing occurs to fuggeft an idea of what
has been the primary bafe of the volcano. The ma¬
rine fubftances, already taken notice of, lie nearly
in a horizontal diretftion, moi-e or lefs fo accord¬
ing to the nature of the furface on which they have
been depofited.
/Etna abounds very much with fprings, fountains, Great num-
and even rivers of confiderable magnitude. Ourau-berof
thor has computed, that if all the water flowing dovui f 'r:ngs °n
the fides of this mountain wTere collefled, it M ould fill
the channel of a river 36 feet broad and 6 in depth.
Many of the fprings afford fine fait ; fome are very
pure, and others are impregnated with noxious fub-
fiances; M’hile others are remarkable for their ufe in
dyeing particular colours.
“ It is M’orthy of notice (fays our author), that'Whence
ftreams of M'ater, fome of them more copious, others a)arge
more fcanty, are feen to iffue at all different degrees
height, from the bafe to the fummit of the mountain. rj(ecp
Even in fummer, M'hen very little rain falls for three
or four months, or M7hen perhaps for that fpace there is
no rain at all, and for three of nhich, at leaft, there is
not an ounce of fnow melted 5 even then a great num¬
ber of rivulets continue to flow doM7n the fides of /Et¬
na ; and at the fame time a number of ftreams, exter¬
nal and fubterraneous, each of them feveral feet wide,
are, according to the accounts of the country people,
plentifully fupplied with M7ater.
“ As the-trifling quantity of fnow which is melt¬
ed here even in the midft of fummer, and the ftill.
fmaller quantity depofited by the clouds, would be
totally infufficient to fuppiy thofe ftreams, and muft:
be all abforbed by the earth for the fuppert of vege¬
tation, thofe ftreams muft proceed from fome other.
caufe, vffiofe effefts are more copious and perma¬
nent;. .
Plate IY
JE T N
[ 245 ]
ill T N
Eruptions
of Jpltna
more fre¬
quent an¬
cle
now.
Xtna. fient. This caufe is the evaporation of thofe aque-
  ous particles which arife from the conftant ebulli-
Produced tion at the bottom of the volcanic focus. Thefe if-
twm'Tew- fuing ou^ >:^e gtcat crater, and at innumerable chinks
porationof hr the lides of the mountain, are foon condenfed by
the moun- the cold of that elevated region of the atmofphere,
tain. and, percolating through the earth, give birth to thole
numerous dreams in quellion.
“ A volcano, according to my ideas, cannot fublift
without water; nor can water occupy a place in any
volcanic focus without being changed into vapour.
But before that water can make its appearance, ex¬
cept in the form of fmoke, it mult have filled the
whole volcanic cavern, and muff have been forcibly
preffed by the action of the fire againlt its fides-: it
mull next have condenfed, and affumed the form of
■water •, in which date it mud have penetrated through
the inclined layers of fand and pozzolano which in¬
tervene betwixt the different drata of lava } for thefe
drata lie one above another, and are full of chinks,
in fuch a manner as to prefent to the eye an appear¬
ance pretty much refembling that of the infide of a
tiled roof.”
It has been a quedion, Whether the eruptions erf
Mount Altna were more frequent in ancient than in
modern times ? At firif it feems impoffible to give a
ntly than precife anfwer to fuch a quedion ; but when wre confi-
der, that the matter in the volcanic focus was then
greater in quantity than at prefent, in proportion to
the fpace which it occupied 5 that the cavities were
then fooner filled with vapour $ and that the centre of
the focus was then lefs remote, we will not hefitate to
pronounce, that in earlier times the eruptions wTere
more frequent as well as more copious.
The fird fymptom of an approaching eruption is an
increafe of the fmoke in fair weather: after fome time,
a puff of black fmoke is frequently feen to Ihoot up in
the midd of the •white, to a confiderable height. Thefe’
puffs are attended with confiderable explofions: for
while Vefuvius was in this date, Sir William Hamil¬
ton went up to its top, which was covered with fnow:
and perceiving a little hillock of fulphur, about fix
feet high, wdaich had been lately thrown up, and burnt
with a blue flame on the top, he was examining this
phenomenon, when fuddenly a violent report wras heard,
a column of black fmoke {hot up with violence, and
was followed by a reddiih flame. Immediately a flrower
of flones fell j upon which he thought proper to retire.
Phenomena of this kind, in all probability, precede the
eruptions of fEtna in a much greater degree.—The
fmoke at length appears wholly black in the day-time,
and in the night has the appearance of flame ; fliowers
of afnes are fent forth, earthquakes are produced, the
mountain difeharges volleys of red-hot dones to a great
height in the air. The force by which thefe dones
are projefled, as well as their magnitude, feems to be
in proportion to the bulk of the mountain. Signior
Recupero affured Mr Brydone, that he had feen im-
menfely large ones thrown perpendicularly upwards to
the height of 7000 feet, as he calculated from the time
they took to arrive at the earth after beginning to de-
feend from their greated elevation. The larged done,
or rather rock, that was ever known to be emitted by
Vefuvius, was 12 feet long and 45 in circumference.
This was thrown a quarter of a mile} but much larger
Atria.
Signs of an
approach¬
ing erup¬
tion.
ones have been thrown out by Mount ./Etna, aimed in
the proportion in which the latter exceeds Vefuvius in
bulk. Along with thefe terrible fymptoms, the imoke
that iffues from the crater is fometimes in a highly
eleftrified date. In this cafe, the fmali allies which
are continually emitted from the crater, are attracted
by the fmoke, and rife with it to a great height,
forming a vad, black, and to appearance denfe, column 5
from this column continual fladies of forked or zig-zag
lightning iffue, fometimes attended with thunder, and Thunder
fometimes not, but equally powerful with ordinary
lightning. This phenomenon was obferved by Sir fm0{re^
William Hamilton in the fmoke of Vefuvius, and has
alfo been taken notice of in that of iEtna j and where
this eledlrified fmoke hath fpread over a track of land,
much mifehief hath been done by the lightning pro¬
ceeding from it.
When thefe dreadful appearances have continued
fometimes four or five mouths, the /ava begins to make
its appearance. This is a flream of melted mineral
matters, which in Vefuvius commonly boils over the
top, but very feldom does fo in ./Etna; owing to the
great weight of the lava, which long before it can be
raifed to the vaft height of Mount ./Etna, burfts out
through fome wreak place in its fide. Upon the ap¬
pearance of the lava, the violent eruptions of the moun¬
tain generally, though not always, ceafe j for if this
burning matter gets not fufficient vent, the commo¬
tions increafe to a prodigious degree.—In the night¬
time the lava appears like a ftream of fire, accompanied
with flame } but in the day-time it has no fuch appear¬
ance : its progrefs is marked by a white fmoke, which
by the refleclion of the red-hot matter in the night ai-
fumes the appearance of flame.
We {hall clofe this article with an enumeration of all
the different eruptions from Mount /Etna which are
found upon record.
1. The firfl: mentioned in hillory, is that of which Lift °}
Diodorus Siculus fpeaks, but without fixing the pe-^U^"
riod at which it happened. That eruption, fays he,ear|jeft pe
obliged the Sicani, who then inhabited Sicily, to for-riod.
fake the eaftern, and retire to the font hern, part of
the ifland. A long time after that, the Sicilians, a
people of Italy, migrated into Sicily, and took up
their abode in that part of the iiland which had been
left defert by the Sicani.
2. The fecond eruption known to have iffued from
this volcano, is the firil of the three mentioned by
Thucydides 5 of none of which he fixes the date,
mentioning only in general, that from the arrival of
the firfl: Greek colonies that fettled in Sicily (which
was in the nth Olympiad, and correfponds to the
734th year before the Chriftian tera), to the 88th
Olympiad, or the year 425 before Chrilf, /Etna at
three different times difeharged torrents of fire. This
fecond eruption happened, according to Eufebius, in
the days of Phalaris, in the 565th year before the
Chriftian fera. The affertion of Eufebius is confirmed
by a letter from that tyrant to the citizens of Catania,
and the anfwer of the Catanians (if, after Bentley’s
Differtations agninft their authenticity, any credit be
due to the Epiftles of Phalaris). But Diodorus gives
both thefe pieces.
3. The third, which is the fecond of the three men¬
tioned by Thucydides, happened in the-65 th Olym¬
piad, ,
JE T N [ 246 ] ^ T N
tna. plad, in the 477th year before the ChrifHan aera, when
Xantippus was archon at Athens. It was in this fame
year the Athenians gained their boafted viftory over
Xerxes’s general Mardonius near Plataea. Both the
eruption of the volcano and the viftory of the Athe¬
nians are commemorated in an ancient infcription on
a marble table which Hill remains. An ancient medal
exhibits a reprefentation of an aftonifhing deed to which
that eruption gave occafion. Two heroic youths
boldly ventured into the midit of the flames to fave
their parents. Their names, which well deferved to
be tranfmitted to future ages, were Amphinomus and
Anapius. The citizens of Catania rewarded fo noble
a deed with a temple and divine honours. Seneca,
Silius Italicus, Valerius Maximus, and other ancient
authors, mention the heroifm of the youths with juft
applaufe.
4. The fourth eruption, the third and laft of thofe
mentioned by Thucydides, broke out in the 88th O-
lympiad, in the 425th year before the Chriftian asra.
It laid wafte the territory of Catania.
5. The fifth is mentioned by Julius Obfequens and
Orofius, who date it in the confulftiip of Sergius Ful-
vius Flaccus and Quintus Calpurnius Pifo, nearly 133
years before the Chriftian aera. It was confiderable 5
but no peculiar fafts are related concerning it.
6. In the confulihip of Lucius /Fmilius Lepidus and
Lucius Aurelius Oreftes, in the 125th year before the
Chriftian aera, Sicily fuffered by a violent earthquake.
Such a deluge of fire ftreamed from Attna as to render
the adjoining fea into which it poured abfolutely hot.
Orofius fays, that a prodigious quantity of filhes were
deftroyed by it. Julius Obfequens relates, that the
inhabitants of the iiles of Lipari ate fuch a number of
thofe fifties, as to fuffer, in confequence of it, by a dif-
temper which proved very generally mortal.
7. Four years after the laft mentioned, the city of
Catania w^s delblated by another eruption, not lefs
violent. Orofius relates, that the roofs of the houfes
were broken down by the burning afhes which fell
upon them. It was fo dreadfully ravaged, that the
Romans found it neceffary to grant the inhabitants an
exemption from all taxes for the fpace of ten years, to
enable them to repair it.
8. A ftiort time before the death of Caefar, in the
43d year before Jefus Chrift, there was an eruption
from Mount Ai,tna. Livy mentions it. It was not
diftinguiftied by any thing extraordinary. It was after¬
wards confidered as an omen of the death of CaTar.
9. Suetonius, in the life of Caligula, mentions an
eruption from Mount iEtna which happened in the
40th year after the Chriftian aera. The emperor fled
on the very night on which it happened, from Meflina,
where he at that time happened to be.
10. Carrera relates, that in the year 253, there was
an eruption from Mount /Etna.
11. He fpeaks of another in the year 420 ; which
is alfo mentioned by Photius.
12. In the reign of Charlemagne, in the year 812,
there was an eruption from /Etna. Geoffroy of Viter¬
bo mentions it in his Chronicle.
13. In the year 1169, on the 4th of February, about
day-break, there was an earthquake in Sicily, which
was felt as far as Reggio, on the oppofite fide of the
ftrait. Catania was reduced by it to ruins j and in
*
that city more than 15,000 fouls periihed. The bi-
fiiop, with 44 monks of the order of St Benedift, were v
buried under the ruins of the roof of the church of £>t
Agatha. Many caftles in the territories of Catania
and Syracufe were overturned ; new rivers burft forth,
and ancient rivers difappeared. The ridge of the
mountain was ob&rved to fink in on the fide next
Taormino. The fpring of Arethufa, fo famous for the
purity and fweetnefs of its -waters, then became muddy
and brackifti. The fountain of Ajo, which rifes from
the village of Saraceni, ceafed to flow for two hours j
at the end of which the water gufhed out more copi-
oufly than before. Its waters affumed a blood colour,
and retained it for about an hour. At Meflina, the
fea,* without any confiderable agitation, retired a good
way within its ordinary limits; but foon after re¬
turning, it rofe beyond them, advanced to the walls of
the city, and entered the ftreets through the gates.
A number of people wLo had fled to the Ihore for
fafety were fwallowed up by the waves. Ludovico
Aurelio relates, that the vines, com, and trees of all
forts, were burnt up, and the fields covered otfer with
fuch a quantity of ftones as rendered them unfit for cul¬
tivation.
14. Twelve years after this, in the year 1181, a
dreadful eruption iffued from /Etna on the eaft fide.
Streams of fire ran down the declivity of the moun¬
tain, and encircled the church of St Stephen, but with¬
out burning it.
Nicolas Speciale, who relates, though he did not fee,
this event, wras witnefs to another conflagration on
/Etna 48 years after this, in the year 1329, on the 23d
of June, of which he has given a defcription.
15. On that day, fays he, about the hour of vef-
pers, /Etna wTas ftrongly convulfed, and uttered dread¬
ful noifes j not only the inhabitants of the mountain,
but all Sicily, were ftruck with confternation and
alarm. On a hidden, a terrible blaze of fire iffued
from the fouthern fummit, and fpread over the rocks
of Mazarra, which are always covered with fnow\ ,
Together with the fire, there appeared a great deal of
fmoke. After funfet, the flames and the ftones that
iffued out with them were feen to touch the clouds.
The fire making way for itfelf with the moft furious
impetuofity, burnt up or reduced to ruins all thofe
ftrufhires wdiich the piety of former times had confe-
crated to the Deity. The earth yawming, fwallow^ed
up a great many fprings and rivulets. Many of the
rocks on the Ihore of Mafcali were fhaken and daftied
into the fea. A fucceflion of thefe calamities conti¬
nued till the 15th of July, when the bowels of /Etna
were again heard to rebellow. The conflagration of
Mazarra ftill went on unextinguifhed. The earth
opened near the church of St John, called 2/ Fapan-
necca ; on the fouth fide fire iffued from the gap with
great violence : to add to the horrors of the day, the
fun was obfcured from morning to . evening with clouds
of fmoke and afhes, as entirely as in an eclipfe. Ni¬
colas Speciale went towards the new-opened crater, to
obferve the fire and the burning ftones which were
iffuing from the- volcano. The earth rebellowed and
tottered under his feet 5 and he faw red hot ftones if-
fue four times fucceflively in a very fliort fpace from
the crater, with a thundering noife, the like of which,
he fays, he had never before heard.
In
^ T N [ 247 ] T N
In a few clays after this, all the adjacent fields were
burnt up by a {bower of fire and fulphureous alhes ;
and both birds and quadrupeds being thus left defti-
tute of food, died in ^reat numbers. A great quan¬
tity of fifties likewife died in the rivers and the conti¬
guous parts of the fea. “ I cannot think (lays he) that
either Babylon or Sodom was deftroyed with fach aw¬
ful feverity.”—The north winds, which blew at the
time, carried the afnes as far as Malta. Many perfons
of both fexes died of terror.
16. Scarce had four years elapfed after this terrible
event, when Ahna made a new explofion, and dif-
charged vollies of ftones, caufing the neighbouring
fields to tremble. This happened in the year 1333.
17. Forty-eight years after this, on the 25th of
Auguft 1381, an eruption from /Etna fpread its rava¬
ges over the confines of the territory of Catania, and
burnt up the olive yards in the neighbourhood of that
city.
18. In the year 1444, 63 years after the laft erup¬
tion, a torrent of lava iiTued from Aitna and ran to¬
wards Catania. The mountain {book 5 and the ftiocks
were fo violent, that feveral huge maifes of rock were
broken from its fummit, and hurled into the abyfs
with a tremendous nolle.
19. After this /Etna was fcarce at reft for 18 months
or two years. On Sunday the 25th of September 1446,
about an hour after funfet, an eruption iffued from
the place called La Pietra di Ma%arra. This erup¬
tion was foon over.
20. On the following year, 1447, on the 21ft of
September, there was another, with a good deal of
fire j but this eruption wras likewife of ftiort dura¬
tion.
21. AEtna now ceafed to emit fire, and that for a
confiderable time. The neighbouring inhabitants not
only afcended to the fummit of the mountain, but even,
if we may credit accounts, went down into the fiery
gulf, and believed the volcanic matter to be now ex-
hiufted : But on the 25th of April 1536, near a cen¬
tury from the flight eruption in 1447, a ftrong wind
arofe from the weft, and a thick cloud, reddilb in the
middle, appeared over the fummit of the mountain.
At the very fame inftant a large body of fire iffued
from the abyfs, and fell with the noife and rapidity of
a torrent along the eaftern fide of the mountain, break¬
ing down the rocks, and deftroying the flocks and eve¬
ry other animal that was expofed to its fury. From
the fame crater, on the fummit of the mountain, there
iffued at the fame time a ftream of fire more terrible
than the other, and held its courfe towards the weft.
It ran over Bronte, Adrans, and Caftelli. It confift-
ed entirely of fulphur and bitumen. On the fame day
the church of St Leon, which flood in a wood, was
firft demolifhed by the fliocks of the earthquake, and
its ruins after that confumed by the fire. Many
chafms were opened in the fides of the mountain 5 and
from thofe iffued fire and burning ftones, which darted
up into the air with a, noife like that produced by a
fmart difcharge of artillery. Francis Negro de Piaz¬
za, a celebrated phyfician, who lived at Lentini, wifh-
mg to have a nearer view of the eruptions, and to make
forne obfervations which he thought might be of con-
fequence, was carried off and burnt to alhes by a volley
of the burning ftones. This conflagration of /Etna iEtna*
lafted feme weeks. v—v—
22. In lefs than a year, on the 17th of April 1537,
the river Simeto fwelled fo amazingly as to overflow
the adjacent plains, and carry off the country people
and their cattle and other animals. At the fame time,
the country around Paterno, the neighbouring caftles,
and more than 500 houfes, were deftroyed by the ra¬
vages of the river j and moft of the wood was torn
up by the roots by violent blafts of wind. Thefe ra¬
vages of the elements were occafioned by ATna,
which on the nth of the following month was rent
in feveral places, difcloling fiery gulfs, and pouring
out a deluge of fire in more terrible torrents than
thofe of the preceding year. They dire£led their-
courfe towards the monaftery of St Nicholas d’Arena j
deftroyed the gardens and vineyards ; and proceeding,
onwards towards Nicolofi, burnt Montpeliieri and Fal-
lica, and dertroyed the vineyards and moft of the in¬
habitants. When the conflagration ceafed, the fum- .
mit of the mountain funk inwards with fuch a noife,
that all the people in the ifland believed the laft day
to be arrived, and prepared for their end by extreme
un&ion. Thefe dreadful difturbances continued
through the whole year, more efpecially in the months
of July and Auguft, during which all Sicily was in
mourning. The fmoke, the noife, and the Ihocks of
the earthquake, affefted the whole iiland j and if Fi-
lotes may be believed, who relates this event, many o£
the Sicilians were (truck deaf by the noife. Many
ftruftures were demolifhed 5 and among others the
caftle of Corleone, though more than 25 leagues dif-
tant from the volcano.
23. During the fucceeding 30 years there was no
difturbance of this nature. At the end of that fpace,
Sicily was alarmed by a new eruption from the moun¬
tain. AEtna difeharged new ftreams of fire, and co¬
vered the adjacent country with volcanic allies, which
entirely ruined the hopes of the hufbandman.
24. In the year 1579, AEtna renewed its ravages 5
but no particular account of the damage which it did
upon this occafion has been tranfmitted to us.
25. Twenty-five years had elapfed, when AEtna, in
the month of June 1603, flamed with new fury. Pe¬
ter Carrera affirms, that it continued to emit flames for
the fpace of 33 years, till 1636, without interruption,
but not always with the fame violence. In 1607, the
ftreams of lava which flowed from it deftroyed the
woods and vineyards on the weft fide of the mountain.
In 1609, Aey turned their courfe towards Aderno,
and deflroyed a part of the foreft del Pino, and a part
of the wood called la Sciamhnta, with many vineyards
in the diftrift Cofterna. Thefe torrents of lava con¬
tinued to flow for three months. In the year 1614.,
a new effort of the fubterraneous fire- opened another
crater, from which fire was difeharged on Randazza,
in the diftrift called il Pir&. The fire continued to
flame for 10 or I2. years longer.
26. The fame Peter Carrera relates, that a dreadful
conflagration happened in the year 1664, of which he
himielf was witnefs. It happened on the 13th of De¬
cember, and lafted without interruption, but with dif¬
ferent degrees of violence, till the end of May 1678.
But in 1669 the inhabitants of Nicolofi were obliged
JEtna.
& T N i 2
to forfake their houfes, which tumbled down foon after
they left them. The crater on the fummit of jEtna
had not at this time a threatening afpeft, and every
thing there continued quiet till the 25th of March :
but on the 8th of that month, an hour before night,
the air was obierved to become dark over the village
la Pedara and all that neighbourhood ; and the inha¬
bitants of that country thought that an almoft total
echpfe was taking place. Soon after funfet, frequent
Ihocks of earthquakes began to be felt 5 thefe were at
hr ft weak, but continued till day-break to become
more and more terrible. Nicolofi was more affe&ed
than any other trad of country on that fide of iEtna 5
about noon every houfe was thrown to the ground j
the inhabitants fted in confternation, and invoking the
protection of heaven. On the 10th of March a chafm
feveral miles in length, and five or fix feet wide, open¬
ed in the fide ol the mountain j from which, about two
hours before day, there arofe a bright light, and a very
strong fulphureous exhalation was diffufed through the
atmofphere.
About 11 in the forenoon of the fame day, after
dreadful fhocks of earthquake, a crater was opened on
the hill called (fes Nofettes, from which there iffued
huge volumes of fmoke, not accompanied with fire,
allies, or ftones, but with loud and frequent claps of
thunder, difplaying all the different phenomena with
which thunder is at different times attended. And
what was Very remarkable, the chafm was formed on
the fouth fide, between the top and the bottom of the
mountain. On the fame day another chafm was form¬
ed two miles lower, from which iffued a great deal of
fmoke, accompanied with a dreadful noif'e and earth¬
quake. Towards the evening of the fame day, four
other chafms were opened towards the fouth, in the
fame direction, accompanied during their formation
with the fame phenomena, and extending all the way
to the hill called /a Pufara.
About 12 paces beyond that, another of the fame
kind was formed. On the fucceeding night, a black
fmoke, involving a quantity of ftones, iffued from
this laft chafm ; it difcharged at the fame time flakes
of a dark earth-coloured fpongy matter, which became
hard after they fell. There ilfued from the fame gulf
a ftream of lava, which held its courfe into a lake cal¬
led la Hardia, fix miles from Montpellieri, and on its
way thither deftroyed many dwelling-houfes and other
buildings in the neighbouring villages.
On the next day, March 12th, this ftream of fire
direfted its courfe towards the tradl of country called
Malpajjb, which was inhabited by 800 people : in the
fpace of 20 hours it was entirely depopulated and laid
wafte. The lava then took a new diredlion, in which
it deftroyed fome other villages.
The mount of Montpellieri was next deftroyed with
all the inhabitants upon it.
On the 23d of the fame month the ftream of fire was
in fome places two miles broad. It now attacked the
large village of Mazzalucia 5 and on the fame day a
vatt gulf was formed, from which were difcharged fand
or afhes, which produced a hill with two fummits, two
miles in circumference and 150 paces high. It was
obferved to confift of yellow, white, black, gray, red,
and green ftones.
The new mount of Nicolofi continued to emit allies
48 ] & T N
for the fpace of three months j and the quantity dif- JEtn;1
charged was fo great as to cover all the adjoining tra£T
of country for the fpace of 15 miles: fome of thefe
afhes were conveyed by the winds as far as Medina and
Calabria 5 and a nortn wind arifing, covered all the
fouthern country about Agofta, Lentini, and even be¬
yond that, in the fame manner.
While at that height on Nicolofi fo many extraor¬
dinary appearances were pafllng, the higheft crater
on the fummit of ./Etna flill prel'erved its ufual tran¬
quillity.
On the 25th of March, about one in the morning,
the tvhole mountain, even to the moft elevated peak,
was agitated by a moft violent earthquake. The high¬
eft crater of ./Etna, which was one of the loftieft parts
of the mountain, then funk into the volcanic focus j
and in the place which it had occupied, there now ap¬
peared nothing but a wide gulf more than a mile in ex¬
tent, from which there ifiued enormous maffes of fmcke,
afhes, and ftones. At that period, according to the
hirtorian of this event, the famous block of lava on
Mount Frumento was difcharged from the volcanic
focus.
In a fhort time after, the torrent of fire, which ftill
continued to flow, directed its courfe towards Catania
with redoubled noife, and accompanied with a much
greater quantity of afhes and burning ftones than be¬
fore. For feveral months many moft alarming {hocks
of earthquakes w^ere felt; and the city w^as threatened
with deftrudlion by the torrent of fire. In vain they
attempted to turn or divert its courfe ; the lava rofe
over the walls, and entered by an angle near the Bene-
di&ine convent on the nth of June following. This
awful event is related by Francis Monaco, Charles
Mancius, Vincent Auria, and Thomas Thedefchi.
A defeription of the lava ifluing from Mount /Etna Lord Win*
in 1669 was fent the court of England by Lord chelfea’s
Winchelfea, vrho at that time happened to be at Ca-accounto^
tania in his way home from an embafly at Conftanti-jnenip*
nople. Sir W. Hamilton gives the following ex- j^.
trad of it. “ When it wTas night, I went upon tv'o
tow7ers in divers places \ and I could plainly fee, at
ten miles diftance, as we judged, the fire begin to run
from the mountain in a direft line, the flame to afeend
as high and as big as one of the greateft fteeples in
your Majefty’s kingdoms, and to throw up great ftones
into the air; I could difeern the river of fire to de-
feend the mountain of a terrible fiery or red colour,
and ftones of a paler red to fwim thereon, and to be
fome as big as an ordinary table. We could fee this
fire to move in feveral other places, and all the coun¬
try covered with fire, afeending with great flames in
many places, fmoking like to a violent furnace of iron
melted, making a noife with the great pieces that fell,
efpecially thofe that fell into the fea. A cavalier of
Malta, who lives there, and attended me, told me,
that the river wTas as liquid, where it iflues cut of the
mountain, as water, and came out like a torrent with
great violence, and is five or fix fathom deep, and as
broad, and that no ftones fink therein.”
The account given in the Philofophical TranfaCtiens
is to the fame purpofe. We are there told, that the
lava is “ nothing elfe than diverfe kinds of metals and
minerals, rendered liquid by the fiercenefs of the fire
in the bowels of the earth, boiling up and guflnng
forth
JE T N [2
Mtnz. Foitli as tlie water dot!) at the head of fome great ri-
■“ ^ Ver ; and having run in a full bod v for a ilone’s calf or
mora, began to craft or curdle, becoming, when cold,
ihofe hard porous ftones which the people call fciafri.
Thefe, though cold in comparifon of what fir if blues
from the mountain, yet retained fo much heat as to
refemble huge cakes of fea-coal ftrongly ignited, and
came tumbling over one another, bearing down or
burning whatever was in their way.—In tins manner
the lava proceeded flovvly on till it came to the fea,
when a moll extraordinary conHift enfued betwixt the
two adverfe elements. The nolle was vaftly more
dreadful than the loudeft thunder, being heard through
the whole country to an immenfe diftance ; the water
feemed to retire and diminilh before the lava, while
clouds of vapour darkened the fun. The whole filh on
the coaft were deftroyed, the colour of the fea itfelf
was changed, and the tranfparency of its waters loft for
many months.
While this lava was iffuing in fuch prodigious quan¬
tity, the merchants, whofe account is recorded in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions, attempted to go up to the
mouth itfelf •, but durftnot come nearer than a furlong,
left they ftiould have been overwhelmed by a vaft pillar
of albes, which to their apprehenfion exceeded twice
the bignefs of St Paul’s fteeple in London, and went
up into the air to a far greater height ; at the mouth
itfelf was a continual nolle, like the beating of great
waves of the fea againft rocks, or like diftant thunder,
which fometimes was fo violent as to be heard 60, or
even 100 miles off 3 to which diftance alfo part of the
alhes was carried. Some time after, having gone up,
they found the mouth from whence this terrible deluge
iffued to be only a hole about 10 feet diameter. This
is alfo confirmed by Mr Brydone ; and is probably the
fame through which Sir William Hamilton defcended
into the fubterranean caverns already mentioned.
27. Some years after this conflagration, a new burn-
mg gulf opened in the month of December 1682 on
the fummit of the mountain, and fpread its lava over
the hill of Mazarr’a.
28. On the 24th of May 1686, about ten in the
evening, a new eruption burft out from the fummit
0^1 the mountain, on the fide contiguous to the hill del
hue. Such a quantity of inflamed matter was thrown
out as confumed woods, vineyards, and crops of grain,
for four leagues round. It Hopped its courfe in a
large valley near the caftle of Mafcali. Several peo¬
ple from the neighbourhood had afcended a hill be¬
tween the wood of Catania and the confines of Cirrita
to obferve the progrefs of the lava : but the hill, on
a fudden, funk inwards, and they were buried alive.
29* ^Etna was now long quiet; for no lefs a fpace
of time indeed than one half of the prefent age. In
the year 1755 its eruptions were renewed. It open¬
ed near Mount Lepra, and emitted as ufual fire and
fmoke j after which it remained quiet onlv for eight
years.
30. In the year 1763, there was an eruption which
continued three months, but with intervals. ./Etna
pas at firft heard to rebellow. Flames and clouds of
liiioke were leen to ilkie out, fometimes filver-colour-
' 0, and at other times, when the rays of the fun fell
upon them, of a purple radiance : at 'length they were
carried off by the winds, and rained, as they were
Vol. I. Part I.
49 1 sE T N
driven before them, a fhower of fire all the way to ./Etna.
Catania and beyond it. An eruption foon burft: out} -y——
the principal torrent divided into two branches, one of
which ran towards the eaft, and fell into a deep and
extenftve valley.
The flames which iffued from this new crater af¬
forded a noble fpedtacle. A pyramid of fire was feen
to rife to a prodigious height in the air, like a beau¬
tiful artificial fire-work, with a conftant and formi¬
dable battery, which ftiook the earth under thole who
were fpe&ators of the fcene. Torrents of melted
matter running down the fides of the mountain, dif-
fufed a light bright as day through the darknefs of
night.
At fun-riling the burning lava was obferved to have
run round fome oaks that were ftill Handing unburnt.
Their leaves were all withered. Some birds'^had fallen
from their branches, and been burnt to death. Some
people call wood upon the lava, and it was immediate¬
ly burnt. This lava continued bet, and exhaled fmfcke
for two years. . For five years after this, no (now ap¬
peared on the fummit of jEtna.
31. In the year 1764 a new crater was opened at a
great diftance from Mount .Etna.
32. In the year 1766 another was opened at the
grotto of Paterno : fire, fmcke, and an inconfiderable
torrent of lava iffued out of it.
33. On the 27th of January 1780 a new opening
was formed two miles under the laft-mentioned crater’
On the 28th of February, and the 14th of March, the
earthquake was renewed on the north fide, and accom¬
panied with terrible noifes.
Between the 6th of April and the 7th of May the
conyulfions were again renewed, accompanied with
noife as before 5 a quantity of pumice ftones and fine
fand was difcharged from it.
On the 18th of May the Chocks were renewed : on
the 23d a new crater was formed on the fide of Mount
Frumento on the fummit of Etna : and from it a tor¬
rent of lava difcharged, which fpread through the val¬
ley of Laudunza. It was 200 paces in breadth. Two
other chinks were opened in the mountain near Pa¬
terno, and very near one another. The lava iffuing
from them proceeded, in the fpace of feven days, fix
miles; on the 25th it had run nine miles.
A new crater was likewile opened on the 25th ;
from which a quantity of red-hot ftones continued to
iffue for half an hour, and fell at a very great diftance:
there proceeded likewife from it a ftream of lava 5 which,
in the fame fpace of time, ran over a tract of country
two miles in extent.
Several parts of thofe ftreams of lava were obferved
to be cool on the furface, and formed into folid maffes,
but melted again by a new ftream of burning lava,
which however did not melt the old lava.
34.1 he lart eruption happened in 1787. From the ift Account of
to the 10th of July, there were figns of its approach.the ]ate
On the nth, after a little calm, there was a filbterra- elJJl:on»
neous noife, like the found of a drum in a clofe place, !' ~'
and it was followed bwa copious burft of black fmoke.
It was then calm till the 15th, when the fame progno-
ftics recurred. On the 17th, the fubterranecus noife
was heard again : the fmoke was more abundant, flight
frocks of an earthquake followed, and the lava flowed
from behind one of the.two little mountains which form
I i the
iE T N [2
na* t^e double bead of ^itna. On tne 18th, while the
' fpeflators were in anxious expeftation of a more fevere
eruption, all was quiet, and continued fo more than
12 hours : loon after they perceived fome new blocks,
accompanied with much noife 5 and the mountain
threw out a thick fmoke, which, as the wind was
wefterly, loon darkened the ealtern horizon : two hours
afterwards a Ihower of fine black brilliant fand defcend-
ed : on the call fide it was a ftorm of bones 5 and, at
the foot of the mountain, a deluge of babies of fire, of
fcoria and lava.
1 liefe appearances continued the whole day; at the
fetting of the fun the fcene changed. A number of
conical dames rofe from the volcano 5 one on the north,
another on the fouth, were very confpicuous, and rofe
and fell alternately. At three in the morning, the
mountain appeared cleft, and the fummit feemed a burn¬
ing mafs. The cones of light which arofe from the cra¬
ter -were of an immenfe extent, particularly the two
juh mentioned. The two heads feemed to be cut away:
and at their feparation was a cone of dame, feemingly
composed of many leffer cones. The dame feemed of
the height of the mountain placed on the mountain 5
fo that it was probably two miles high, on a bafe of a
mile and a half in diameter. This cone was bill co¬
vered with a very thick fmoke, in which there appear¬
ed very brilliant babies of lightning, a phenomenon
which Ahna had not before afforded. At times, founds
like thofe from the explofion of a large cannon were
heard feemingly at a lefs dibance than the mountain.
Irom the cone, as from a fountain, a jet of many
darning volcanic matters was thrown, which were car¬
ried to the dibance of fix or feven miles : from the
bafe of the cone a thick fmoke arofe, which, for a mo¬
ment, obfcured fome parts of the dame, at the time
when the rivers of lava broke out. This beautiful ap¬
pearance continued three quarters of an hour. It be¬
gan the next night with more force 5 but continued
only half an hour. In the intervals, however, hTtna
continued to throw out fiames, fmoke, ignited bones,
and blowers of fand. From the 20th to the 22d, the
appearances gradually ceafed. The bream of lava was
carried towards Bronte and the plain of Lago.
After the eruption, the top of the mountain on the
webern fide was found covered with hardened lava,
fcoria-, and bones. The travellers were annoyed by
fmoke, by blowers of fand, mephitic vapours, and ex-
cedive heat. They faw that the lava which came from
the webern point divided into two branches, one of
which was directed towards Libeccio; the other, as ive
have already faid, towards the plain of Lago. The lava
on the webern head of the mountain, had from its va¬
rious biapes been evidently in a bate of fubon ; from
one of the fpiracula, the odour was brongly that of
liver offulphur. The thermometer, in defeending, was
at 40 degrees of Fahrenheit’s fcale } while near the
lava, in the plain of Lago, it was 140 degrees. The
lava extended two miles 5 its width was from 13^- to
21 feet, and its depth 13^ feet.
Ihefe are the mob remarkable circumbances we have
been able to colie<51, that might ferve to give an ade¬
quate idea pf this famous mountain. Many things,
however, concerning the extent, antiquity, &c. of the
lavas, remain to be difeuffed, as well as the opinions of
philofophers concerning the origin of the internal fire
jo ] iE t o
which produces fo much mifehief: but the confidera- iEtolarcha,
tion of thefc belongs to the general article Volcano, -®tolia*
to which the reader is referred. s-—y—_
./h T.Na fait, Sal JLtme, a name given by fome au¬
thors to the fal ammoniac which is found on the fur-
face and fides of the openings of Aftna, and other
burning mountains, after their eruptions ; and fome-
times on the furface of the ferruginous matter which
they throw out. This fait makes a very various ap¬
pearance in many cafes : it is fometimes found in large
and thick cakes j fometimes only in form of a thin
powder, fcattered over the furface of the earth and
bones. Some of this fait is yellow, fome white, and
fome greenibk.
AETOLARCHA, in Grecian Antiquity, the prin¬
cipal magibrate or governor of the AEtolians.
AETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, compre¬
hending all that traft now called the Defpotat, or Little
Greece. It was parted on the eab by the river Evenus,
now the Fidari, from the Locrenfes Ozolte ; on the
web, from Acarnania, by the Achelousj on the north,
it bordered on the country of the Dorians and part of
Epirus; and, on the fouth, extended to the bay of
Corinth.
The AEtolians -were a reblefs and turbulent people y
feldom at peace among themfelves, and ever at war
with their neighbours ; utter brangers to all fenfe of
friend blip or principles of honour 5 ready to betray
their friends upon the leab profpeft of reaping any
advantage from their treachery : in biort, they were
looked upon by the other bates of Greece no otherwife
than as outlaws and public robbers. On the other
hand, they were bold and enterprifmg in war; inured
to labour and hardlhips 5 undaunted in the greateb
dangers 5 jealous defenders of their liberties, for which
they were, on all cccabons, willing to venture their
lives, and facrifice all that was mob dear to them.
They dibinguibied themfelves above all the other na¬
tions of Greece, in oppobng the ambitious debgns of
the Macedonian princes ; who, after having reduced
mob of the other bates, were forced to grant them a
peace upon very honourable terms. The conbitution
of the AEtolian republic was copied from that of the
Achceans, and with a view to form, as it were, a coun¬
ter alliance ; for the AEtolians bore an irreconcileafcle
hatred to the Achaeans, and had conceived no fmall
jealoufy at the growing power of that bate. The
Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the facial
war, were kindled by the AEtolians in the heart of
Peloponnefus, with no other view but to humble their
antagonibs the Achaeans. In the latter, they held
out, with the abibance only of the Eleans and Lace¬
demonians for the fpace of three years, againb the
united forces of Achaia and Macedon 5 but were
obliged at lab to purchafe a peace, by yielding up to
Philip all Acarnania. As they parted with this pro¬
vince much againb their will, they watched all oppor¬
tunities of wreiling it again out of the Macedonian’s
hands; for which reafon they entered into an alliance
with Rome againb him, and proved of great fervice to
the Romans in their war with him : but growing in-
folent upon account of their fervices, they made war
upon the Remans themfelves. By that warlike nation
they were overcome, and granted a peace on the fol¬
lowing fevere terms; 1. The xnajeby of the Roman
peopls
JS T O
JBtolia-. people iliall be revered in all iEtolxa. 2
■y—***-' not fuffer the armies of fuch as are at war with Rome
to pafs through her territories, and the enemies^ of
Rome ihall be likewife the enemies of /Etolia, 3. She
{hall, in the fpace of 100 days, put into the hands of
the magiftrates of Corcyra all the prifoners and defert-
ers fire has, whether of the Romans or their allies, ex¬
cept fuch as have been taken twice, or during her al¬
liance with Rome. 4. The vEtolians (hall pay down
in ready money, to the Roman general in /Etoiia, 200
Euboic talents, of the fame value as the ,A.thenian ta¬
lents, and engage to pay 50 talents more within the
lix years following. 5. They (hall put into the hands
of the conful 40 fuch hoilages as he {hall choofe ; none
of whom fhali be under 12, or above 40 years of age :
the praetor, the general of the horfe, and luch as have
been already hollages at Rome, are excepted out of
this number. 6. iEtolia {hall renounce all preten-
fions to the cities and territories which the Romans
have conquered, though thefe cities and territories
had formerly belonged to the iEtolians. 7. The city
-of Oenis, and its diftridl:, lhall be fubjeft to the Acar-
nanians.
After the conqueft of Macedon by /Emilius Paulus,
they were reduced to a much worfe condition } for not
only thofe among them who had openly declared for
Perfeus, but fuch as were only fufpedled to have fa¬
voured him in their hearts, were fent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themfelves before the fenate. There they
were detained, and never afterwards fuflfered to return
into their native country. Five hundred and fifty of
the chief men of the nation were barbaroufly alfafli-
nated by the partifans of Rome, for no other crime
-but that of being fufpetted to wifh well to Perfeus.
The iEtolians appeared before ALmilius Paulus in
mourning habits, and made loud complaints of fuch
inhuman treatment; but could obtain no redrefs : nay,
ten commiflioners, who had been fent by the fenate to
fettle the affairs of Greece, enafted a decree, declaring,
that thofe who were killed had fuffered juftly, fince it
appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedo¬
nian party. From this time thofe only were raifed to
the chief honours and employments in the ALtolian re¬
public who were known to prefer the intereft of Rome
to that of their country j and as thefe alone were coun¬
tenanced at Rome, all the magiftrates of yEtolia were
the creatures and mere tools of the Roman fenate. In
this ftate of fervile fubjeclion they continued till the
deftrudlion of Corinth, and the diffolution of the A-
chaean league 5 when iEtolia, with the other free ftates
of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, com¬
monly called the province of Achaia. Neverthelefs,
each ftate and city was governed by its own laws, un¬
der the fuperinteridency of the praetor whom Rome fent
.annually into Achaia. The whole nation paid a cer¬
tain tribute, and the rich were forbidden to polfefs
lands anywhere but in their own country.
In this ftate, with Ifetle alteration, Axtolia continued
.under the emperors, till the reign of Conftantine the
Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of
the empire, divided the weftern parts of Greece from
the reft, calling them New Epirus, and fubjecling the
whole country to the prwfeEius prcvtorii for Illyricum.
Under the fucceffbrs of Conftantine, Greece was par-
xelled out into feveral principalities, efpecially after
Afer
11
Affecticr
[ 1 A F F
Attolia Ihall the taking of Conftantinople by the Weftern princes.
At that time, Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian,
of the imperial family, feized on iEtolia and Epirus.
The former he left to Michael his fon; who maintain¬
ed it againft Michael Fakeologus, the firft emperor of
the Greeks, after the expulficn of the Latins. Charles,
the laft prince of this family, dying in 1430 without
lawful iffue, bequeathed iEtolia to his brother’s fon,
named alfo Charles; and Acarnaniato his natural fons,
Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules. But, great dii-
putes arifing about this divifion, Amurath II. aftet*
the reduction of Thefialonica, laid hold oi fo favour¬
able an opportunity, and drove them all out in I432,
The Mahometans were afterwards difpoffeire'd of this
country by the famous prince of Epirus, George Ca-
ftriot, commonly called Scanderbeg; who, with a imall
army, oppofed the whole power of the Ottoman em¬
pire, and defeated thefe barbarians in 22 pitched bat¬
tles. That hero, at his death, left great part of iEto¬
lia to the Venetians } but, they not being able to make
head againft fuch a mighty power, the whole country
was foon reduced by Mohammed II. whofe fucceftors
hold it to this day.
AFER, Domitius, a famous orator, born at Nif-
mes, flourifiied under Tiberius and the three fucceed-
ing emperors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of
him, and commends his pleadings. But he difgraced
his talents, by turning informer againft fome of the
moft diftinguiftied perlonages in Rome. Quintilian, in
his youth, cultivated the friendfhip of Domitius very
afliduoufly. He tells us that hrs pleadings abounded
with pleafant ftories, and that there were public col-
leftions of his witty fayings, fome of which he quotes.
He alfo mentions two books of his “ On WitneffesN
Domitius was once in great danger from an inferip-
tion he put upon a ftatue erefted by him in honour of
Caligula, wherein he declared that this prince wfas a
fecond time conful at the age of 27. This he in¬
tended as an encomium, but Caligula taking it as a
farcafm upon his youth, and his infringement of the
laws, raifed a procefs againft him, and pleaded himfelf
in perfon. Domitius, inftead of making a defence, re¬
peated part of the emperor’s fpeech with the higheft
marks of admiration 3 after wThich he fell upon his
knees, and, begging pardon, declared, that he dread¬
ed more the eloquence of Caligula than his imperial
powrer. This piece of flattery fucceeded fo well,
that the emperor not only pardoned, but alfo raifed
him to the corifulfliip. Afer died in the reign of Ne¬
ro, A. D. 59.
AFFA, a weight ufed on the Gold Coaft of Gui¬
nea. It is equal to an ounce, and the half of it is cal¬
led eggeba. Moft of the blacks on the Gold Coaft give
thefe names to thofe -weights.
AFFECTION, in a general fenfe, implies an attri¬
bute infeparable from its fubjedft. Thus magnitude,
figure, wTeight, &c. are affeftions of all bodies 3 and
love, fear, hatred, &c. are affedfions of the mind.
Affection, fignifying <7 fettled bent of mind toward
a particular being or thing, occupies a middle fpace
between difpoftion on the one hand, and pafjion on the
other *. It is diftinguilhable from Difpcfition, which * See Llf-
being a branch of one’s nature, originally, muft exift/£/?x/o«,
before there can be an opportunity to exert it upon any anc^
particular objedt 3 whereas Affedtion can never beori-
I i 2 ginal,
A F F [ 2
Afffers ^nal> becaufe, having a fpecial relation to a particular
Affinity. objea> ^ cannot exilt till the objeft have once at lea ft
  been prefented. It is alfo diftinguilhable from Paffion,
which, depending on the real or ideal prefence of
its objeft, vaniflies with it: whereas Affedion is a
lading connexion 5 and, like other connexions, fubftfts
even when we do not think of the perfon. A familiar
example will illuftrate this. There may be in one per-
ion’s mind a difpofttion to gratitude, which, through
want of an objeX:, happens never to be exerted 5 and
which therefore is never difcovered even by the peifon
himfelf. Another, who has the fame difpofttion, meets
with a kindly office that makes him grateful to his be-
nefaXor : An intimate connexion is formed between
them, termed aJf 'eSiion ; which, like other connexions,
has a permanent exiftence, though not always in view!
I he affeXion, for the moft part, lies dormant, till an
opportunity offer for exerting it: in that circumftance,
*t 15 converted into the paffion of gratitude ; and the'
opportunity is eagerly feized of teftifying gratitude in
the warmeft manner.
^Affection, among Phy/icians, fignifies the fame as
dileale. I has the hyfteric affection is the fame with
the hyfteric difeafe.
.AFhER._fc.RS, or Afferors, in Laxc, perfons ap¬
pointed in courts-leet, courts-baron, &c.to fettle, upon
oath, the fines to be impofed upon thofe who have been
guilty of faults arbitrarily punifhable.
AI ]• E 1 FUOSO, or Con jIffetto, in the Italian
Mu/ic, intimates that the part to which it is added
ought to be played in a tender moving way, and con-
fequently rather flow than fail.
AhFIANCE, in Law, denotes the mutual plight¬
ing ox troth between a man and woman to marry each
other.
AFFIDAVIT, fignifies an oath in writing, fworn
before fome perfon who is authorized to take the fame.
AFFINITY, among Civilians, implies a relation
contraXed by marriage 5 in contradiftinXion to con-
fanguinity, or relation by blood.—Affinity does not
found any real kinfliip ; it is no more than a kind of
fiXion, introduced on account of the clofe relation be¬
tween hulbaud and wife. It is even laid to ceafe when
the cauie ol it ceafes : hence a woman who is not ca¬
pable of being a witnefs for her hulhand’s brother du¬
ring his lifetime, is allowed for a witnefs when a wi-
dmv, by reafon the affinity is diffolved. Yet with re¬
gard to the contraXing marriage, affinity is not dif-
tolved by death, though it be in every thing elfe.
There are feveral degrees of affinity, wherein mar¬
riage was prohibited by the law of Mofes : thus, the
Ion could not marry his mother, nor his father’s wife
gLt /. xvm. 7. et feqX ; the brother could not marrv
Ids filler, whether fixe were fo by the father only or
by the mother only, and much lefs if fixe was his filler
both by the fame father and mother : the grandfather
could not marry his grand-daughter, either by his fon
or daughter. No one could marry the daughter of his
father’s wife, nor the filler of his father or mother ;
nor the uncle his niece ; nor the aunt her nephew •,
nor the ixephew the wife ol his uncle by the father’s
fide. 1 he father-in-law could not marry his daugh¬
ter-in-law : nor the brother the wife elf his brother,
while living ; nor even after the death of his brother’,
U he left children. Ir he left no children, the furviv-
'52 ] A F F
mg brother was to raife up children to his decor-fed Affin
brother by marrying his widow. It was forbidden to  v
marry tne mother and the daughter at one time, or the
daughter ol the mother’s fon, or the daughter of her
daughter, or two filters together. It is true the pa-
triarchs before the law married their fillers, as Abra¬
ham married Sarah, who was his father’s daughter by
another mother 5 and two fillers together, as [acob
married Rachel and Leah 5 and their own fillers by
both father and mother, as Seth and Cain. But thefe
cales are not to be propofed as examples : becaufe in
iome they were authorized by neceffity, in others by
cuilom; and the law as yet was not in being. If
lome other examples may be found, either before or
fince the law, the Scripture exprefsly difapproves of
them, as Reuben’s inceft with Bilhah his father’s con¬
cubine, and the aXion of Amnon with his filler Ta¬
mar ; and that of Herod-Antipas, who married Hero-
dias his filler-in-law, his brother Philip’s wife, while
her hulband xvas yet living.
Affinity is alio ufed to denote conformitv or
agreement. I nus xve fay, the affinity of languages, the
affinity of words, the affinity of founds, &c.
Affinity, in Cheniiftry, is a term employed to ex-
prefs that peculiar propenfity which the particles of
matter haxe to unite and combine with each other ex-
c hi lively, or in preference to any other conneXion.
The attraXions between bodies at infenfible di-
ftances, and whicn of courfe are confined to the parti¬
cles of matter, have been diftinguiflxed by the name
of affinity, while the term attraction has been more
commonly confined to cafes of fenfible dillance. And
as the particles of matter are of two kinds, either ho¬
mogeneous or heterogeneous, fo there are two kinds of
affinity.
“ Homogeneous affinity urges the homogeneous par¬
ticles towards each other, and keeps them at infenfible
alliances from each other 5 and confequently is the
cauie wny bodies almoft always exill united together,
fo as to conftitute mafles of fenfible magnitude. This
affinity is uiually denoted by the term cohefion, and
fometimes by adhejion when the furfaces of bodies are
only referred to. Homogeneous affinity is nearly uni-
verfal; as xar as is known, caloric and light only are
deftitute of it.
Heterogeneous affinity xirges heterogeneous parti¬
cles towards each other, and keeps them at infenfible
distances from each other, and of courfe is the caufe
of the formation of new integrant particles compofed
01 a certain .number of heterogeneous particles. Thefe
new integrant particles afterwards unite bv cohefion,
and form undies of compound bodies. Thus an in¬
tegrant particle of water is compofed of particles of
hydrogen and oxygen, urged towards each other, and
kept at an infenfible diilance by heterogeneous affinity j
and a mafs of water is compofed of an indefinite num¬
ber of integrant particles of that fluid, urged towards
each other by homogeneous affinity. Heterogeneous
affinity is univerfal, as far as is known j that is to fay,
there is no body xvhofe particles are not attraXed by
the particles of fome other body; but whether the
particles of all bodies have an affinity for the particles
of ail other bodies, is a point which we have no means
of afeertaining. It is, however, exceedingly probable,
and lias been generally taken for granted; though it
A F F [ 25
Affirmation is certainly affuming more than even analogy can war-
11 rant.” ( T^homfon's Chemifiry.')
AfForage. AFFIRMATION, in Logic, the aiTerting the truth
' ^ of any propoution.
Affirmation, in Law, denotes an indulgence al¬
lowed to the people called Quakers: who, in cafes
where an oath is required from others, may make a 1b-
lemn affirmation that what they fay is true ; and if they
make a falfe affirmation, they are fubjeft to the penal¬
ties of perjury. But this relates only to oaths taken
to the government, and on civil occafions 5 for Qua¬
kers are not permitted to give their teftimony in any
criminal cafe, &c.
Affirmation is alfo ufed for the ratifying or
confirming the fentence or decree of fome inferior
court: Thus we fay, the houfe of lords affirmed the
decree of the chancellor, or the decree of the lords
of feffion.
AFFIRMATIVE, in Grammar. Authors diftin-
guilh affirmative particles j fuch as, yes.—-The teri^i
affirmative is fometimes alfo ufed fubftantively. Thus
we fay, the affirmative is the more probable fide of the
queftion : there were fo many votes, or voices, for the
affirmative.
AFFIX, in Grammar, a particle added at the clofe
of a word, either to diverfify its form or alter its figni-
lication. We meet with affixes in the Saxon, the Ger¬
man, and other northern languages ; but more efpecially
in the Hebrew, and other oriental tongues. The He¬
brew affixes are fingle fyllables, frequently fingle letters,
fubjoined to nouns and verbs } and contribute not a little
to the brevity of that language. The oriental languages
are much the fame as to the radicals, and differ chiefiy
from each other as to affixes and prefixes.
AFFLATUS, literally denotes a blaft of wind,
breath, or vapour, ftriking with force againft another
body. The word is Latin, formed from ad “ to,” and
flare “ to blow.” Naturalifts fometimes fpeak of the
afflatus of ferpents. Tully ufes the word figuratively,
for a divine infpiration ; in which fenfe, he afcribes all-
great and eminent accomplifhments to a divine afflatus.
it The Pythian prieftefs being placed on a tripod or per-
* forated llool, over a holy cave, received the divine
afflatus, as a late author expreffes it, in her belly ; and
being thus infpired, fell into agitations, like a phrene¬
tic ; during which ffie pronounced, in hollow groans
and broken fentences, the will of the deity. This af¬
flatus is fuppofed, by fome, to have been a fubterra-
neous fume, or exhalation, wherewith the prieftefs was
literally infpired. Accordingly, it had the effebls
of a real phyfical difeafe; the paroxyfm of which
was fo vehement, that Plutarch obferves it fometimes
proved mortal. Van Dale fuppofes the pretended en-
thufiafm of the Pythia, to have arifen from the fumes
of aromatics.
AFFLICTION is not itfelf, in propriety of medi¬
cal fpeech, a difeafe, but it is the caufe of many : for
whatever excites envy, anger,, or hatred, produces dif-
eafes from tenfe fibres 5 as whatever excites fear, grief,
joy, or delight, begets difeafes from relaxation.
AFFORAGE, in the French cuftoms, a duty paid
to the lord of a diftrict, for permiffion to fell wine, or
other liquors, within his feigniory. Afforage is alfo
ufed for the rate or price of proviftons laid and fixed by
the provoft or fheripis of Paris.
2
Afghans.
3 1 A F F
AFFORESTING, Afforestatio, the turningAfforeftiug
ground into foreft. The Conqueror, and his fuccel-
fors, continued afforefting the lands of the fubjebl for
many reigns ; till the grievance became fo notorious,
that the people of all degrees and denominations were
brought to fue for relief; which wras at length obtain¬
ed, and commiffions w^ere granted to furvey and per¬
ambulate the foreft, and feparate all the new afforefted
lands, and reconvert them to the ufes of their proprie¬
tors, under the name and quality oipurlieu or pourallc
land.
AFFRAY, or Affrayment, in Law, formerly fig-
nified the crime of afixighting other perfens, by ap¬
pearing in unufual armour, brandifhing a weapon, &c.
but at prefent, affray denotes a fkirmiih or fight be¬
tween two or more.
AFFRONTEE, in Heraldry, an appellation given
to animals facing one another on an efcutcheon 3 a kind
of bearing which is otherwife called confrontee, and
ftands oppofed to adoffee.
AFFUSION, the a£I of pouring fome fluid fub-
ftance on another body. Dr Grew gives feveral expe¬
riments of the luftation arifing from the affufion of
divers menftruums on all forts of bodies. Divines and
church hiftorians fpeak of baptifm by affufion; which
amounts to much the fame with what we now calk
fprinhling.
AFGHANS, in Hiflory, a people who inhabit a
province of Cabul or Cabulistan, in the northern
parts of India. They boaft of being defcended of Saul
the firft king of Ifrael, and that their great anceftor
was raifed from the rank of a fhepherd, not on account
of his princely qualities, but becaufe his ftature- was ex-
aftly equal to the length of a rod which the angel Ga¬
briel had given to the prophet Samuel as the meafure
of the ftature of him whom God had deftined to fill the
throne of Ifrael.
Saul, whofe defcent, according to fome of them, was
of Judah, and according to others of Benjamin, had,
they fay, two fons, Berkia and Irmia, who ferved
David, and were beloved by him. The fons of Berkia
and Irmia were Afghan and Ulbec, wffio, during the
reigns of David and Solomon, diftinguiftied themfelves,
the one for ftrength of body, and the other for learn¬
ing. The ftrength of Afghan, we are told, fttuck ter¬
ror even into the demons and genii.
This hero ufed frequently to make excurfions to the
mountains, where his progeny, after his death, formed
eftabliihments, lived in a ftate of independence, fortified
themfelves, and exterminated infidels. When Maho¬
met appeared upon earth, his fame reached the Afghans,
who fought him in multitudes under their leaders
Khalid and Abdul Refpid, fons of Walid 3 and the
prophet honouring them with this reception—“ Come,
O Muluc, or Kings !” they affumed the title of Melic,
which they retain to this day.
The Afghans are fometimes called Solaitnani, either
becaufe they were formerly the fubjetfs of Solomon
king of Ifrael, or becaufe they inhabit the mountains of
Solomon. They are likewife called Patans, a name de¬
rived from the Hindu verbpaitna “ to rufh, ” which was
given to them by a fultan, in confequence of the ala¬
crity with which they had attacked and conquered his
enemies. The province which they occupy at prefent
was formerly called Roll 3 and -hence is derived the
name
A F R r 2
A^gJ'^ns name of tlie Rohillas. The city which was eitablifli-
Africa. fctI 'n .x; the Afghans was called by them Paifhwer
P‘u^nerj and is now the name of the whole dill rift.
I he lefts of the Afghans are very numerous, and they
are Muflulmans, partly of the Sunni, and partly of the
Schiek perfuafion.
They are divided into four claffes. The firif is the
pin-e clafs, confining of thole whofe fathers and mo¬
thers were Afghans. The fecond clafs conlills of thofe
whole fathers were Afghans and mothers of another na¬
tion. The third clals contains thofe whofe mothers
were Afghans and fathers of another nation. The
fourth clafs is compoled of the children of women
v hofe mothers were Afghans and fathers and hulhands
of a different nation. Perfons who do not belong to
one of thele claffes are not called Afghans.
This people have at all times dillinguilhed themfelves
by their courage. They have conquered for their
o\\ n princes and for foreigners, and have always been
confidered as the ftrength and fupport of the army in
which they ferved. As they have been applauded for
virtues, they have alfo been reproached for vices, ha¬
ving fometimes been guilty of treachery, and of afting
the bafe part even of affalfins.
^ Sir William Jones feems to have had no doubt but the
Afghans are defcendants of Ifrael. “ We learn (fays
he) fiom Efdras, that the ten tribes, after a wandering
journey, came to a country called Arfareth, where we
may fuppofe they fettled : now the Afghans are faid
by the bell Perlian hiftorians to be defcended from the
Jews. 1 hey have traditions among themfelves of futh
a deicent; and it is even aliened, that their families
are diftinguifhed by the names of Jewilh tribes, al¬
though, fmce their converfion to Iflam, they ftudioully
conceal their origin from all whom they admit not to
their fecrets. The Pulhto language, of which I have
feen a dictionary, has a manifeft refemblance to the
Chaldaic ; and a confiderable diltrift under their do¬
minion is called Hazareh or Hazaret, which might
eafily have been changed into the word ufed by Efdras.
I ftrongly recommend an inquiry into the literature
and hiftory of the Afghans.” (jlft a tic Refe arches.')
AFRANIUS, lucius, a Latin comic poet, who
dived about a century before Chrift. He wrote comedies
in imitation of Menander j and is commended by Tully
and Quintilian for his acute genius and fluent ftyle.
Some fragments of his works only are now extant.
AFRICA, (derived according to Bochart from a
Punic word fignifying Ears of Corn), was reprefented
by the ancients as one of the three great divifions or
continents of which they believed the world to conflft.
■—By them it was alfo called Libya. Since the difco-
very of America, it has been confidered by the mo¬
derns as one of the four quarters of the globe.
Excepting at its north-eaft corner, called the ifihmus
of Sue%, wThich is a neck of land, about fixty miles over
that unites it to Afia, Africa is entirely furrounded
by wrater. On the north it is bounded by the Medi¬
terranean fea, which divides it from Europe. Its wffiole
weftern coaff: is wafhed by the waters of the Atlantic
ocean, by which it is divided from America ; and on
the eaft, the Red fea and the Indian ocean feparate it
from Afia. from the Mediterranean fea, on the north,
to the Cape of Good Hope, which conftitutes its
fcmthern extremity, is no lefs than 43CO miles. Its
3
54 ] APR
broadeft part, from Cape Verd, in the Atlantic ocean, Africa.
to Cape Guarda-fui, near the ffraits of Babel-Mandel,  v *
at the mouth of the Red lea, is 35°° miles from weft
to eaft. In fhape it fomewhat refembles a triangle, of
v/hich the Mediterranean fea and the Atlantic&ocean
form two fides, while the third fide confifts of the Red
fea and the Indian ocean.
The greater part of this vaft peninfula has in all Africa lit-
ages remained unknown to the other inhabitants of thetIe kn0W11‘
world. The general afpeft howfever of its fituatiofi,
reprefents it as vTell fituated for maintaining a com¬
mercial intercourfe with the other quarters of the globe.
It Hands as it were in the centre between Europe^
Ana, and America 5 and therefore has a much nearer
communication with each of them than they can hare
with one another. It is oppofite to Europe, on its
northern boundary, the Mediterranean fea, for al-
moft 1000 miles in a line from eaft to w'eft 5 the di-
ftance feldom 100 miles, never ico leagues. It is op¬
pofite to Afia. the whole length of the Red fea ; the
diftance fometimes only 15 miles, feldom 50 leagues.
Its coaft, for about 2000 miles, lies oppofite to Ame¬
rica,. at the diftance of from 500 to 700 leagues, in¬
cluding the iflands 5 whereas America is nowhere nearer
Europe than 1000 leagues, and excepting at its north-
w'eft corner, where it is yet little known, is not nearer
to Afia than 2500 leagues.
The knowledge of the ancients concerning Africa
feems to have been, in a great degree, limited to the
countries adjoining to the Mediterranean or to the
Red .fea. The ideas, howTever, wdiich Herodotus en¬
tertained of this great continent are by no means in-
.-correft upon the wdiole : and it has been referved for
our own.times to verify a part of the delcription wdiich
he has given of the interior of Africa. Previous to his
time, the whole fea coaft of this continent had been
explored by the conduftors of an expedition fitted out
by Mecho one of the kings of Egypt. It is to be Expedition
oblerved that this TSecho took Sidon, and reduced of Necho
Phoenicia and Paleftine. He muft therefore have pof- kmg °f E-
felfed confiderable maritime power : Nor was he lefs IT? ■
powerful by land j for he marched through Paleftine |wnicia,
and Syria to attack the Alfyrians near the Euphrates,
and, in his way, defeated and flew Jofiah the king of
Judah, who oppofed his march at Megiddo (2 Kings
xxiii. 29.) Having defeated the Affyrians (or Baby¬
lonians) he placed a ftrong garrifon in Carchemifh, a
fortified city on the Euphrates which he had taken j
and, in his return, he took poffeflion of Jerufalem, call¬
ed Cadytis by Herodotus. This enterprizing prince
employed a body of Phoenician mariners to circumnavi-circumna
gate Africa, an undertaking which they accompliflied vigates A-
with fuccefs. The following is the fliort narrative gi- trica.
ven by Elerodotus of this remarkable tranfaftion :
“ Except in that particular part which is contiguous to Herodotus’s
Afia, the whole of Africa is furrounded by the fea. account <4
The firft perfon who has proved this, was, as far as we ’*•
are able to judge, Necho king of Egypt. When he
had defifted from his attempt to join by a canal the
Nile with the Arabian gulf, he difpatched fome veffels
under the conduft of Phoenicians, with direftions to
pafsby the Columns of Hercules, and, after penetrating
the Northern ocean, to return to Egypt. Thefe Phoe¬
nicians, taking their courfe from the Red fea, entered
into the Southern ocean. On the approach of autumn
they
A F R
[ 255 ]
A F R
Africa, tliey landed at Libya, and planted feme corn in the
v——V"-"’ place where they happened to find themfelves : when
this was ripe, and they had cut it down, they again de¬
parted. Having thus confumed two years, in the third
they paffed the Columns of Hercules, and returned to E-
gypt. Their relation may obtain attention from others,
but to me it feems incredible 5 for they affirmed that,
having failed round Africa, they had the fun on their
right hand. Thus was Africa, for the firft time, known.”
Many of the mofl eminent of the ancient kiftorians
and geographers regarded this account of the circum¬
navigation of Africa as altogether fabulous, chiefly in
confequence of the llory concerning the appearance
affumed by the great celeftial bodies in the courfe of the
voyage, which was then unintelligible, from the imper-
feft ftate of the fcience of aftronomy. But the very cir-
cumftances which, among the ancients, excited a doubt
about the exiftence or fuccefs of fuch a voyage, mull
now be regarded as affording the molt fatisfadtory in¬
ternal evidence of the veracity of the ancient Phoeni¬
cian navigators.
The Carthaginians were the rivals of the Egyptians
in commerce, and muff undoubtedly have explored
a great part of the coaft of Africa j but, according
to the ufual cautious and monopolizing fpirit of com¬
mercial Hates, it is probable that they concealed their
difeoveries from other nations. As almofl no monu¬
ments of their literature now exift, we are deprived of
the means of invefligating the full extent of their geo¬
graphical knowledge. One important document has,
however, reached our times, which demonftrates the
enterprizing fpirit of that people. This is, an appa¬
rently abridged journal of a voyage to the weftern coaft
of Africa, undertaken by Planno the Carthaginian,
about 30 or 40 years after the expedition above men¬
tioned under Necho king of Egypt. Herodotu^does not
feem to have been informed of this undertaking of Han-
no ; nor does Pliny appear to have feen the journal of
the voyage, though he is no ftranger to its contents.
Voyage of Planno is faid to have depofited, at his return,
Hanno. the journal of his voyage in the temple of Saturn ;
which may perhaps account for the means of its pxefer-
vation. It begins by Hating, that “ it was decreed by
the Carthaginians that Planno fliould undertake a voy¬
age beyond the Pillars of Plercules, and found Liby-
phoenician cities. He failed, accordingly, with 60 (hips
of 50 oars each, and a body of men and women to the
number of 30,000, and proviftons and other neceflaries.”
From the extent of this plan of colonization, or rather
of eftablifhing permanent garrifons, upon the w’eftern
coafts of Africa, it is evident that thefe coafts muft, in
fome meafure, have been previoufly examined. Major
Rennel, who has inveftigated the fubjedt with great ac¬
curacy, with a reference to the journal of the voyage,
is of opinion that the Carthaginian or Libyphoenician
cities founded by Planno, were all fttuated to the fouth
of the ftrait of Gibraltar, and to the northward of
the river Senegal j and that all of them, excepting one
at Cerne, now called Arguin, were placed to the north
of Cape Bojador. To the fouthward of Cerne, Hanno
during his voyage made two expeditions; but it does
not appear that he made any attempt to fix an eftablifti-
ment beyond the limits now mentioned. On his firft
expedition, he feems to have failed into the river Sene¬
gal, as may be fuppofed from the defeription given j
for it is faid to be “ large and broad, and full of cro- Africa,
codiles and river horfes”. During the fame voyage, ' ^
Hanno made a fecond expedition louthward, apparent¬
ly for the fake of difeovery. He appears to have
doubled Cape Verd, and to have failed acrofs the mouth
of the Gambia. His voyage is faid to have terminated
at a place which he calls the Southern Horn, fuppofed
to be either at Sierraleona, or, at a little diftance to
the fouth of it, at Sherbro. It is evident, from the
general ftyle of the journal, that the Carthaginians,
at the time of this voyage, wrere altogether unacquaint¬
ed wuth the interior ftate of the country on this wreftern
quarter of Africa. Excepting the mere defeription of
the coaft, and its windings and bays, every thing is
marvellous, and apparently fabulous. They talk of
having caught two women covered with hair, whofe
{kins they brought to Carthage, meaning, in all pro¬
bability, two monkeys of fome of the unknow n fpecies
which abound in the country of the Negroes. They alfo
talk of ftreams of fire, and of rivers of fire which feem-
ed to be running into the fea. At one place, during
the night, they faw a country which w as on fire: and af¬
terwards they faw another country full of fires ; in the
middle of which was a lofty fire, larger than the
others, wEich feemed to touch the ftars. When day
came, they difeovered this elevated fire to be a large
hill, which they called the chariot of the gods. Thefe
wonders have been explained to us by later travellers;
who remark that it is the cuftom, at certain feefons cf
the year, in the country of the Negroes, to fet fire to
the dry grafs 5 and that on thefe occafions, during the
night, the whole territory feems to be a ftieet of flame. Defeription
With regard to Africa in general, Herodotus de-of Africa
feribes it in this fummary w ay : “ All that part of by Herodo-
Libya towards the northern fea (Mediterranean), from
Egypt to the promontory of Soloeis (now Cape Cantin
on the coaft of Morocco) which terminates the third
divifion of the earth, is inhabited by the different
nations of the Libyans ; that diftridt alone excepted in
poffeffion of the Greeks and Phoenicians. The remoter
parts of Libya beyond the fea coaft, and the people who
inhabit its borders, are infefted by various beafts of
prey.—The country yet more difant is a parched and
immeafarable defert.'" Here this ancient hiftorian
clearly diftingunhes three belts or regions parallel to
the Mediterranean, the northernmoft of which we
muft conceive to have been that which extended along
the fea coaft, and was bounded on the fouth by Mount
Atlas, and other ridges. The middle one is nowr called
the Country of Dates, becaufe the inhabitants chiefly
live on that fruit ; and the third is the great African
defert. Beyond thefe, however, Herodotus had heard
of a fourth region, belonging to the negroes : for, in-
another place he divides the inhabitants of Africa ge¬
nerally into two races (with the exception of ftrangers,
viz. the Phoenicians and the Greeks). The natives
(fays he) are the Africans and Ethiopians, one of which
poffeffes the northern, and the other the fouthern part of
Africa.”—By thefe nations are evidently intended the
Moors and the Negroes, which two claffes are as dif-
tinft at the prefent day as they were in ancient times.
This author, whofe account of the ancient nations
will always be a matter of much curiofity, becaufe he
has juftly"been called the Father of Hi/lory, as being
the earlieft authentic hiftorian whofe waitings have
been
APR [ 25
Africa, been trtmfmitted to us, gives a detailed account of the
tribes that in his time inhabited the northern coaft of
Africa, upon the borders of the Mediterranean j be¬
ginning with Egypt and proceeding weftward to the
leffer Syrtis, mentioning only in general terms, the
reft of the country to the promontory of Soloeis, (Gape
Cantin), which was erroneoufly regarded by him as the
moft welterly point of the coaft of Africa. The people
•of this coaft he reprefents generally as Nomades, from
Egypt weftward to the lake Tritonis, by which he
means the leffer Syrtis, or gulf of Kabes ; and the
country, he fays juftly, is low and fandy. The coun¬
try farther to the weft, called Africa Proper, or Nu-
thidia by the Romans, including the prefent ftates of
Morocco, Algiers, and Tunis, he. defcribes as moun¬
tainous and interfperfed with wood, and infefted by
wild beafts and ferpents of an enormous fize. With¬
in this traft, however, he reprefents the inhabitants as
hufbandmen who cultivate the ground and live in
houfes. Mount Atlas is mentioned by him in the
fame magnificent terms in which all the ancient waiters
fpeak of it. “ At every approach it appears round
and fteep, and fo lofty that its fummit can never be
diftinguifhed by reafon of the clouds that envelope it.”
Egypt was, in the days of Herodotus, a rich and po¬
pulous ftate, from which the Greeks had derived a
great part of their arts and of their religion. Begin¬
ning from Egypt and proceeding weftward, he enu-
Inhabitants merates the Africans in the following manner. The
of Africa, are tbe Adyrmachidee, whofe manners were in
toHerodo eveiT relpe£l Egyptian, that is to fay, civilized. He
tus> imputes to them, however, a barbarous cuftom, that
their king poffeffed the privilege of fleeping the firft
night with every new married woman. They inhabi¬
ted the coaft between Egypt and the port of Pleunos,
adjoining to what is now called the defert of Barca.
Next to the Adyrmachidse were the Gil/igammce, who
occupied the coaft as far as the ifland of Aphrodifias,
fuppofed to be near Derna. The AJbyfice v'ere a
{’mall inland tribe, fituated between the Gilligammae
on the eaft, and the Aufchicce on the wreft, having no
communication with the fea. They were accounted
remarkable beyond all the Africans for the ufe of
chariots drawn by four horfes j and, it is to be obfer-
ved, that Herodotus fays the Greeks borrowed from
Africa the cuftom of harnaffmg four horfes to a cha¬
riot. The Aufchica:, urho bordered on the weft of the
Afbyftte extended from above Barca to the neighbour¬
hood of the Hefperides on the fea coaft. The Cabales,
an inconfiderable tribe, occupied the coaft oppofite to"
the centre of the Aufchicae, and extended themfelves
along the coaft near Tauchira, a towrn belonging to
Barca.
The province of Cyrenaica, (now Kairoan or Kurin),
was fituated within the traft of the Nomades. It was
the moft elevated part of it, and wonderfully fertile.
It contained the firft: Grecian colony, and was alfo
named Libya Pentapolis, from its having five towns of
note in it, Gyrene, Barce, Ptolemais, Berenice, and
Tauchira *, all of which not only ftill exift as tofvns or
villages, but it is remarkable that their names are
fcarcely altered, being called Kurin, Barca, Tollama-
ta, Bernic, and Pauhera. The celebrated gardens of
the Hefperides vcere fituated upon this coaft on the
weftern border of the defert of Ba^rca.
6 1 A F R
The Nafamones, according to Herodotus, were the A
moft powerful of the Nomadic tribes upon this coaft."
They bordered upon the greater Syrtis, now called
the gaff of Sort. He fays, that during the fummer
feafon they leave their cattle on the coaft, and go up
into the country to gather dates at a place called
Augela, wduch will be aftenvards noticed. The Na¬
famones are faid to have feized upon the territories of
the Pfylli. Thefe wrere a people who poffeffed the repu¬
tation of being able to charm ferpents, and to cure the
wounds occafioned by their ftings. Cato is faid by Plu¬
tarch to have carried fome of the Pfylli with him for that
purpofe, in his memorable march round the greater Syr¬
tis. It is certain that, in modem times, in Egypt, Abyf-
finia, and India, certain perfons are believed to poffefs
the power of completely fubduing ferpents of the moft
venomous kinds, fo as to have them entirely under
their command. They are faid to feize on them with
their naked hands, without apprehenfion of mifehief,
and this, not only on ferpents they have already been
accuftomed to, but on fuch as they never faw before.
Beyond the Nafamones to the fouthward, Herodotus
mentions the Garamantes, whom he reprefents as a nu¬
merous nation, fituated ten journeys from Augela,
between the Nafamones and the Macse. The Maccc
appear to have been the next tribe upon the coaft after
the Nafamones. The prefent towns of Mefurata and
Lebida are fituated within the territory that belonged
to them. The Gindanes, Lotophagi, and Machlyes, in
the order here mentioned, occupied the remainder of
the fpace between the Macae and the lake Tritbnis, or
gulf of Kabes j for Herodotus appears to have under-
ftood by the lake Tritonis, either the gulf alone, or
the gulf and an adjoining lake colleBively, which in
his time very probably had a communication, though
they are now feparated by a neck of land, and the lake
receives the name of Lowdeah. It is to be obferved,
that the Lotophagi derived their name from the fruit
of a tfee or ftirub called the lotus, upon which they
fubfifted, fuppofed to be the rhamnus lotus of Linnaeus.
It is not only found in this territory, but alfo upon the
whole northern coaft of Africa, and on many fpots of
the defert, and even in the country of the Negroes.
To the wTeftward of the lake Tritonis, Herodotus
mentions the Aufes, the Maxyes, the Zaveces, and the
Zygantes \ which laft appear to have been the inhabi¬
tants of the province that contained the city of Car¬
thage : of the territories of this laft ftate Herodotus
gives no deferiptipn, though he fays, that he is able to
name all the nations that inhabit the country as far as
the Atlantes, beyond which he knows nothing. Some
other pofitions in the north of Africa that were known
in the times of Herodotus, will be afterwards mention¬
ed.
With regard to the interior of Africa the know¬
ledge of Herodotus was very indiftinft. He mentions
Ethiopia in a w^ay that in fome meafure correfponds
with Nubia, and Abyflinia: “ Ethiopia, (fays he),
“ which is the extremity of the habitable world, is
contiguous to Arabia on the fouth-weft. It produces
gold in great quantities, - elephants with their prodigi¬
ous teeth, trees and (hrubs of every kind, as wrell as
ebony. Its inhabitants are alfo remarkable for their
* fize, their beauty, and their length of life.” To
Ethiopia, however, he gives a wide extent, fo as to in¬
clude
A F R
[ 257 [
A F R
Africa, elude the whole region inhabited by men of a black
complexion, as he calls it, the “ extremity of the ha¬
bitable world.” The remoteft fource of the Nile was pire.
unknown in his days } and after all the efforts that
have been made for its difeovery, it may be regarded
las having hitherto been vifited by no European. He
fuppofes, however, that the courfe of the Nile, “ with¬
out reckoning that part of it which flowTs through
Egypt, was known to the extent of four months jour¬
ney, partly by land, partly by w^ater 5” but beyond this
its courfe was unknown, though he fays “ it is certain
that the Nile rifes in the well.” The moll remarkable
fa cl, however, mentioned by Herodotus concerning^
the inveftigation of the interior of Africa conlifts of
the adventures of certain Nafamones w'ho came from
the neighbourhood of Gyrene, now called Kurin. He
fays that they made an expedition into the interior of
Africa, with a viewT to extend their difeoveries beyond
all preceding adventurers. No attempt is made to
Hate the dillance to which they penetrated ; but it
mull have been very great, “ firll proceeding through
the region w'hich wTas inhabited, they next came to
that which was infelled by wdld beads 5 leaving which,
they diretted their courfe welhvard through the defert,
and w’ere finally taken prifoners by black men of a di¬
minutive llature, and carried to a city walked by a
great river, which flowed from wrell to call, and
abounded in crocodiles.” Of this great river nothing
farther was ever difeovered by the ancients. Hero¬
dotus thought that it w^as probably the Nile, and Pliny
calls it the river Niger, or the river of the blacks or
Ethiopians.
The Romans were not a commercial people, and
troubled themfelves little about the difeoveries of the
Egyptians and Carthaginians whom they vanquilhed.
The fertile dillridls, howxver, in the north of Africa
adjoining to the Ihores of the Mediterranean, formed
the chief granary of the empire during its moll profper-
ous period. Beyond thefe dillrids they pulhed their
conquells only fo far as wras necelfary to fecure their
polfeflions againll the barbarians of the defert. Both
Auguftus and Nero, however, fent perfons to attempt
to difeover the fource of the Nile, but without fuccefs ;
and the Romans were never remarkable for invelliga-
ting the Hate of foreign countries wdien they had no
ffcheme of conqueft in viewu In the decline of the
Roman empire A. D. 426, Bonifacius, the governor
of Africa, revolted, and called in the aid of Genferic,
the chief of a horde of barbarians called Vandals, who
had penetrated from the north of Europe into Spain.
Irruption of Thefe barbarians crolfed the llraits of Gibraltar, and
the Van- foon became mailers of the country. About a century
thereafter, their defeendants, in a fertile and enervating
climate, having loll their military charadler, were
vanquilhed by the celebrated Belifarius under Julli-
nian, then at the head of the eallern divifion of the
Roman empire. At a later period, when Mahomet
had roufed his countrymen to war and conquell, under
the influence of a furious fanaticifm, Egypt and the
rell of the north of Africa wrere overrun by the
Arabs, or, as they are called, the Saracens, A. 13. 647.
In a few7 centuries thereafter, the empire of the Sara¬
cens in Africa, where they wrere called Moors, w7as
gradually divided into a variety of petty Hates called
Vol, I. Part I.
the States of Barbary, which acknowdedged ratner a
nominal than a real dependence upon the 1 urkilh em-
Afriia.
dais into
Africa.
Overrun
by the Sa¬
racens.
The rell of Africa w7as forgotten till the fifteenth
century, wdien the difeovery of the mariners compafs
enabled the Europeans to extend their maritime enter-
prifes to all the quarters of the globe, with a facility
that wras formerly unknowm. In thefe enterpriles the Difcoveries-
Portuguefe took the lead. They had never failed along ^ ^^ or~
the wellern coall of Africa, beyond Cape Non, in 27®
north latitude till A. D. 1412, when they ventured
160 miles farther to Cape Bojador, whofe rocky cliffs
ftretching out to a conliderable diftance into the At¬
lantic ocean, intimidated them from advancing far- Of the Ma¬
ther. In 1419, when attempting to double this cape, ^eirai e:>‘
they difeovered the Madeira illes. Afterwards in
1433, they palled Cape Bojador, penetrated between
the tropics, and difeovered the river Senegal and
the Cape de Verd illes fituated between 140 and i8°CaPe<*e
north latitude. In 1471, they croffed the equator, ^ erd ifles’
and w7ere altoniflied to find that the torrid zone con¬
tained fertile and populous regions, inllead of being
burnt up by perpetual heat as had been formerly be¬
lieved. In 1484, the Portuguefe navigators, now7 be¬
come ambitious of the reputation of dilcoverers of new
countries, penetrated 1500 miles beyond the equator •, Of the Cape
and two years thereafter Bartholemew7 de Diaz difeo- Good
vered the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497? this cape,
being the fouthern extremity of Africa, was paffed by
Vafquez de Gama.
At this time the European nations w7ere fall emerg¬
ing from barbarifm. The feudal arillocracies, by which
they had been kept in a Hate of perpetual anarchy,
were gradually fubdued by different princes, and a few
powerful Hates or monarchies wrere railed upon their
ruins. Thefe Hates enjoying greater domeflic tranquil¬
lity, wrere become capable of dire£ling the energy and
fuperior intelligence, wdiich began to prevail in the Eu¬
ropean charafter, to enterprifes requiring united and
fucceflive efforts. The difeoveries of the Portuguefe,
by pointing out a very fertile region in the centre of
Africa, in which gold and ivory could be obtained in
exchange for the manufadlures of Europe, and in which
fettlements could be eafily formed, wrould in all proba¬
bility have direfted to this quarter the whole activity
of the moll enterprifing of the European Hates, had
not other events diverted them to different quarters.
The events now7 alluded to, w7ere the difeovery of A- Caufes that
merica by Columbus in 1492, and the eafy communi-^e^Pted
cation with the Eaff Indies, opened up by the difeo- coverie,« ;a
very of the paffage, round the Cape of Good Hope. Africa.
Hence it has happened, that during thefe three centu¬
ries Africa has been much negle&ed *, and, in the moH
enterprifing period of the hiffory of the world, the Eu¬
ropean nations, though the moff enterprifing of man¬
kind, have left in a great meafure unexplored this im-
menfe continent, though fituated in their vicinity, and
abounding in valuable productions. A few7 faftories European
for the purpofe of procuring Haves have been effablifhed fettlements.
by the Englifh, French, and Spaniards, upon the wefl-
ern coaff, to the north of the equator. From thence to
the tropic of Capricorn, the Portuguefe have a few7 fet¬
tlements, upon the eaff and the well coaff, for the fame
purpofe j and the Dutch fettlement at the Cape of Good
K k Hope,
A F R [ 258 ] A F R
Africa. Hope, is the only eftablifhment at all worthy of the
1 ^ name of a European colony, retaining the language
and fomewhat of the manners of the parent date.
What is known of the interior of Africa, is chiefly
the refuit of the efforts of particular travellers, who
have penetrated into different quarters of that great
continent, impelled by the ambition of extending the
limits of human knowledge ; or it is the fruit of the
exertions of a private fociety of perfons of rank in Eng¬
land, inftituted in 1788, bearing the name of the A-
African Af- frican Affociation, who have employed, at their expence,
fociation. various individuals to enter Africa at different points,
and to proceed by fuch routes as have been thought
moft likely to lead to important difcoveries.
We fliall now give a concife account of the great
continent of Africa, fo far as a knowledge of it has
been obtained from thefe different fources. In the
ftatement now to be given, however, we fliall avoid
taking any farther notice of that fertile ftripe of terri¬
tory on the north of Africa, which borders upon the
Mediterranean fea, or upon the Atlantic ocean, fouth-
ward to the mountains of Atlas, conftituting the dates
of Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Fez, and Moroc¬
co. Neither fhall we take any notice of the country
of Abyffinia at the head of the Nile, or of the Dutch
fettlement of the Cape of Good Hope, as each of fchefe
will be fepsrately difcuffed under their proper names.,
Biviiionsof Africa, to the fouth of the dates on the Mediterra-
Airica, nean and of Morocco, confids of two great divifions,
the Sahara, or great defert, which is the country of the
Moors or Arabs; and Nigritia, Negroland, or the
country of the Negroes or ^Ethiopians. The limits of
thefe two divifions, though not in all cafes accurately
defined, depend on the foil and climate, and appear
to have remained permanent from the days of Hero¬
dotus.
Sahara, or The Sahara or great defert, extends from the fouth
great de- 0f Morocco and of the dates on the Mediterranean,
*ert' commonly called the Barbary States, to the rivers Se¬
negal and Niger, or to a line drawn acrofs the conti¬
nent of Africa, from Cape Verd to the Red fea.. Be¬
yond the Sahara or defert, to the fouthward, is the
country of the Negroes.
The Sahara prefents a furface equal in extent, to
nearly one half of Europe. It is upwards of 800 miles
in breadth from north to fouth, and more than double
that extent in length from the Atlantic ocean on the
wed, to the frontiers of Abydinia on the ead. Its ge¬
neral defcription is that of a vad wxldernefs of lifelefs
fand, parched by the intolerable heat of an almod ver¬
tical fun. Its chief varieties confift of immenfe plains
covered with naked pebbles, or of barren rocks tower¬
ing towards an unclouded and burning Iky. The de-
riiity of the /oil is rather marked than alleviated by
feme fcattcred plants,. and by the verdure of a few
valleys in which water either dagnates or fprings up.
This general defcription, however, of the great A-
frican wnldernefs, is by no means to be underdood as
tmiverfal or without exception. The defert is here
and there interfperfed with fpots of adonifiling fertility,
which are crowded with inhabitants. Every thing in.
the climate of Africa is in extremes. No cold is in¬
deed experienced in that vad continent ; but barren-
nefs and fertility of foil border upon each other with a
degree of fuddennefs, of which, in the temperate cli¬
mates of Europe, we have no conception. The tra- Africa,
veller paffes in an indant from burning fands to a rich -V—i-/
landfcape, in which flocks and herds, and towns and
villages abound. The fame vicinity of a tropical fun
which renders the wdldernefs intolerable, rears up all
vegetable productions in the utrnod luxuriance and
perfection, in every fpot in which water and a tole¬
rable depth of foil are to be found. Thefe fequedered
fituations in this great defert wrere called Oa/es, or
IJlands, by the ancients. Under the Roman empire
it was not unufual to banifh date criminals to an ifland
in the great Libyan defert. The continent of Africa,
like that of South America, is highed on its w'edern
fide, and its greater rivers the Senegal, the Gambia,
and the Niger, rife in a chain of mountains dtuated
nearer to the Atlantic than the Indian ocean. As the
Sahara extends towards the ead, and alfo towards
the diores of the Mediterranean on the north, itsiflands
abound mod in thefe regions. But the lefler islands are
not always permanent. A furious wind from the defert,
bringing along with it an immenfe quantity of land,
fometimes overwhelms a whole fertile did riel, and re¬
duces it to . barrennefs. We fhall here take notice,
however, of fuch of the fequedeved itlands of this de¬
fert as are now known to be mod important.
The ancients mention very particularly under the oafe,
name, of Oafis three jituations, called the Greater Oafis, illands or
the Lefj'er Oajts, and the Oafis. of Ammon. .Of thde^ert^e ^Potr
the Greater Oafis is at prefent the bed known to the 6 e"
Egyptians and the Arabs, becaufe the caravans from
Cairo to Darfur; pats along it. It is named Al-Wah,
or the Oafis, by wmy of excellence. It appears to con-
fid of a number of detached fertile fpots or iflands, ex¬
tending in a line, parallel to the courfe of the Nile,
arfd of the mountains that border the valley of Upper
Egypt. The iflands of the Greater Oafis are Separated
from each other by deferts of from two to 14 hours
travelling. The whole extent of the chain is about
100 Englilh miles, but by far the greated part of it is
defert. The whole Oafis is fubjeCt to Egypt, and has
ever been reckoned, an appendage to it, being didant
from it about 90 miles. This Oafls contains abun¬
dance of date trees, and plenty of good water. The
principal village in it is called Chagre, and is fituated
in 26° 25' N. Lat. and 290 40' E. Long.
The Lefler Oafis does not lie in any of the tracks of
the caravans, and is therefore little known. It is un-
derftood, however, to begin at the didance of about
40 miles to the northward of the Greater Oafis, and to
proceed to a confiderahle didance in a direction to¬
wards the north. It is called by the neighbouring
Arabs Al-Wah-el-Gherbi, which appears to mark po¬
verty or inferiority, perhaps in comparifon wdth. the
other. It confids, like the Greater Oafis, of a chain of
narrow iflands running parallel to the Nile.
The third Oafis contained the celebrated temple Tenmle of
and oracle of Jupiter Ammon, which w-as vifited by Juicer
Alexander the'Great. Though in its dimenfions it is Ammon,
perhaps lefs than the two former Oafes, it is undoubt¬
edly the greated, fo far as hidorical importance is con¬
cerned. In the time of Herodotus, the date or king¬
dom of Ammon occupied a confiderable fpace betwixt
Egypt on the ead and the defert of Barca on the
-wed, and between the Nomadic tribes along the
coad of the Mediterranean on the north, and the great
Libyan
Africa.
APR [2
Libyan defert on tlie foutli.—As tbe ancient Perfians
worftiipped one fupreme deity whom they reprefented
by the fun, and as they had a regular and well difci-
plined priefthood, they wrere taught to regard with in¬
dignation the idolatry of the Greeks. Hence the Per-
fian monarch Cambyfes fent an army againft the Am-
monians, with orders to burn the temple from whence
the oracles of Jupiter were delivered. The expedition
was unfaccefsful, the army having been overwhelmed
with fand, or left by their guides to perilh in the de¬
fert; fo that no remnant of them ever returned.—
The poiition of the Oalis of Ammon has lately been
afcertained by our countryman Mr Brown, wrho tra¬
velled into that quarter with a view to its difcovery.
It appears to correfpond with the modern Siwah, in
■290 12' N. Lat. and 26° 1 S' E. Long. As a build¬
ing of fuch antiquity muft be an objecf of great cu-
riolity, wre lhall tranfcribe Mr Brown’s defcription
of the fin all part of the temple that remains, the reft
having been deftroyed by the modern inhabitants of
the country to build their houfes and garden-walls.
Mr Brown’s<l It is a Angle apartment,” fays Mr Brown, “ built of
-defcript'on many ftones of the fame kind as thofe of which the
of the tern*, pyramids confift, and covered originally w7ith 6 large
and folid blocks that reach from one wall to the other.
The length I found 32 feet in the clear, the height
• about 18, the width 15. A gate fttuated at one ex¬
tremity forms the principal entrance, and two doors
alfo near that extremity open oppoftte to each other.
The other end is quite ruinous •, but, judging from cir-
cumftances, it may be imagined that the building has
never been much larger than it now is. There is no
appearance of any other edifice having been attached
to it, and the lefs fo, as there are remains of fculpture
on the exterior of the walls. In the interior are three
rows of emblematical figures, apparently defigned to
reprefent a proceflion; and the fpace between them is
filed with hieroglyphic charadlers, properly fo called.
The fofRt is alfo adorned in the fame manner ; but one
of the ftones which formed it is fallen within, and
breaks the connexion. The other five remain entire.
The fculpture is fumciently diftinguifhable } and even
the colours in fome places remain.”
Mr Horneman, a native of Germany, a traveller
employed by the African Affociation, has ftill more re¬
cently vifited Siwah on his way from Cairo to Fezzan
along with a caravan, in which he travelled under the
Mr Horne- character of a Mahometan merchant. He feems to
man’s. think, that the total circumference of the ruins of the
ancient temple of Jupiter Ammon may be feveral hun¬
dred yards, though in many places the outward wail
has been entirely carried away. He feems to have mea-
fured the outfide of the fame building whofe infide
appears to have been meafured by Mr Brown, and
accordingly defcribes the length as from 30 to 36 feet,
the width 24, and the height 27 5 but he wTas inter¬
rupted in taking his meafurements by the jealoufy of
the natives He alfo defcribes the ceiling as formed of
vaft blocks of ftone of four feet in breadth, and three
feet in depth, which extend acrofs the whole building ;
and this roof feems to have preserved this part of the*
fabric entire, as the prefent barbarous inhabitants dare
not attempt to demolifn the walls, left they them-
felves fhould be overwhelmed by the fall of the ftones
which form the roof. One of thefe ftones of the roof
Africa.
59 I . A F R
has fallen in, and is broken j “ but the people, fays Mr
Horneman, have not been able to remove the large w‘""v
fragments fallen from the roof, which their anceftors
were enabled to bring from the quarry, and to raife
entire to the fummit of the edifice : fuch are the vicif-
fitudes of art, of knowledge, and of human powers
and means, as well as of human happinefs and for¬
tunes.”
The fertile part of the territory of Siwah appears State of
to be about 18 miles in circumference, containing fe-Siwah.
veral fmall villages befides Siwah the capital. It is '
an independent ftate, acknowledging the Grand Seig¬
nior as lord paramount, but paying no tribute. It
affords abundance of vegetable produflions, with corn
and oil 5 and is copioufly fupplied with water fromfprings
and fmall ftreams, but none of them flow beyond its
territory. They are either evaporated on approach¬
ing the furrounding defert, or, ii they reach it, are
loft in the fterile fand. Its government is veiled in Govern-
about 32 wealthy citizens, who affume the title ofment*
fcheihs. Juftice is adrniniftered according to ancient
ufage and general notions of equity. Fines, which
are paid in dates, conftitute the punifhment. The drefsDrcfs.
of the men confifts of a white cotton fhirt and breeches,
and a large piece of eallico cloth ftriped white and
blue, manufaftured at Cairo, which is throwm over the
left fhoulder, and is called me/aye. On their heads
they wear a cap of red worfted or cotton, which is the
diftinflion of a Muflulman, no Jew or Chriftian being
permitted to ufe it. The women of SiwTah wyear wide
blue fhifts, ufually of cotton, which reach to the an¬
cles, and a melaye, above defcribed, which they wrap
round their head, and which falls over the body like a
cloak. They plait their hair into three treffes one
above the other, and fallen little bells to the loweft.
They wear ear-rings and necklaces of glafs beads.
Thofe of the higher clafs vrear round their necks a fo¬
lid ring of filver thicker than the collar ufually wTom
by criminals in fome parts of the continent of Europe.
There are many catacombs in the neighbourhood of Si¬
wah, which formed the burying places of the ancient in¬
habitants, which Ihow great labour and neatnefs of wrork.
The fame traveller, Mr Horneman, on his way to- ^ ^
wards Fezzan, paffed through Augila, an ifland or ^
oafis in the defert, that was well known in the days of
Herodotus. It is fituated in 330 3' N. Lat. and 22°
46' E. Long. The territory contains three towns, Au¬
gila the capital, Mojabra, and Meledila. Many of the in¬
habitants engage in the caravan trade. Thofe who do
fo, very frequently have three houfes, one at Cairo,
one in the territory of Augila, and a third in Fezzan,
wfith a w’ife and family eftablilhment at each. The
country is level, and the foil fandy, but being well
w atered it is tolerably fertile. After a march of 16
days from Augila, Mr Horneman reached Temiffa, in
the territory of the important oafis Fezzan, of which
wre fhall nowr give fome account upon the authority of
the journal which he has very recently tranfmitted to
Europe.
Fezzan, the country of the ancient Garamantes of of
Herodotus, called by Pliny Phazania Regio, is up-Fezzan.
wards of 1100 miles w'eft from Grand Cairo, and com
fills of an extenfive plain amidft a furrounding \wilder-
nefs of fand and of naked rocks.
The greateft length of the cultivated part of Fezzan
K k 2 is
A F R
Africa.
% 300 Englifti miles from north to fouth, and its
^ ' greateft breadth from call to welt is 200 miles. It
contains 101 towns and villages, of which Mourzouk
is the capital, fituated according to Rennel, in 270 48'
N. Lat. and 150 3' E. Long. The principal towns to the
northward of the capital are Sochna, Sibha, Hun, and
Wadon 5 Gatron to the fouth ; and Quila to the ealt.
> ae climate is never temperate. During fummer the
heat is intenfe, and the fouth wind is fcarcely fupport-
able even by the natives. A penetrating north wind
prevails during winter, which drives to the fire even
tile natives of a northern country. Tempefts of wind
are frequent, which whirl up the fand and dull fo as to
give a tinge of yellow to the atmofphere. Rain falls
ieldom, and in fmail quantities. T. here is no river,
nor even a nvulet deferving notice, throughout the
whole country. The foil is what in Europe would be
called a lignt land, covering calcareous rock or earth,
and fometimes a bottom of clay.
“T Diii^ are the ilaple produce of Fezzan, and in the
wellern parts fome fenna of a good quality is cultivated.
Pot herbs are plentiful. Wheat and barley are fuited
to the loil and to the climate 5 but from the indolence
of the people, and the opprefiion of the government,
enough is not raifed for the fupply of the inhabitants,
and they rely for a part of their fubfilfence on importa¬
tions from the north. Horned cattle are only found
in the moll fertile diftrids. They are employed in
arawing water from the wells, and are only flaughtered
in cafes of extreme neceffity. The goat is the ordinary
domellic animal, though Iheep are bred in the fouthern
parts. The wool is manufactured into coarfe cloths,
and along with the meat the Ikin is roalled and eaten.
Horfes are few. Affes are the beafts of general ufe,
whether for draught or burden. Camels are exceflively
dear, and only kept by the chief people.
Mechanics There are no other tradefmen in Fezzan than flioe-
oi Fe22an- makers and fmiths, the latter of whom work every me¬
tal; and the fame man forges Ihoes for the fultan’s horfe,
and makes rings for his princeffes. The value of the
ivoollen cloth, which is manufactured by the women,
may be eltimated from this circumltance, that the
weavers Ihuttle is unknown, and that the woof is in-
ferted into the warp thread by thread, and the whole
worked folely by the hand. Hence it happens, that
though the commerce of Fezzan is confiderable, it
confills merely of foreign merchandife, brought by ca¬
ravans from various quarters, which are here difpofed
of as at a centrical market. Cairo fends filks, calicoes,
woollen cloths, glafs, imitations of coral, beads, and
Eaft India goods. From Tripoli, a caravan brings
paper, falfe corals, fire arms, fabres, knives, cloths call¬
ed aMes, and red worfted caps. From Bornou, on the
fouth-eaft, copper is imported in great quantities, and
the caravans from the fouth or weft bring ilaves of both
iexes, oftrich feathers, zibette, tigers Ikins, and gold,
partly in dull, partly in native grains, to be manufac¬
tured into ornaments for the people of interior Africa.
1 he fmaller caravans of the tribes of the defert import
oil, butter, fat, and corn, and thofe from the more
fouthern diftricts bring fenna, oftrich feathers, and ca¬
mels for the flaughter-houfe.
lezzan is governed by a fultan, defcended from the
family of the Ihereefs; but he pays 4000 dollars an-
aually, as a tribute to the baiha of Tripoli; and in
260 ] A F R
his correfpondence with that bafha, he affumes only the Africa,
title oi Icheik, inftead ol fultan. 1 he throne is here-'
ditary, but the eldeft prince of the family fucceeds,
though a brother or a nephew, to the exclufion of the
children of the laft fultan, if they are younger. This
law gives rife to many civil wars between the fons of
their fultans and the collateral branches of the family.
rI he fultan’s houfe or palace is within the fortrefs palace and
of Mourzouk. He has no other inmates than eunuchs.harem.
Flis harem is contiguous. It confifts of about 40 flaves,
who are often fold and replaced by others if they have
no children, and of a fultana, who mult be of the fa¬
mily of the Ihereeis of Wadan or Zuila. The fultan
never enters the harem, but any female whom he willies
to fee is conduced to his apartment.
I he fultan gives audience three times a-day, in a Ceremonies,
particular apartment, feated on an old-falhioned elbow
chair, railed fome fteps, which forms his throne. Per¬
sons introduced kifs the hand of the fultan, then raife
it fo as to touch their foreheads, and then kneel before
him. ft he lultan goes on Fridays to the great mofque
on horfeback, and on other days of folemnity he rides
a plain near the town, attended by his courtiers,
Trade.
, Govern¬
ment,
on
who exhibit their Ikill in equeftrian exercifes and in
fhooting. His official attendants confift of two mini-
fters, and of a number of black and a few white flaves,
termed Mamelukes. All the intereft and power reft
with thefe Mamelukes, who are moftly Europeans,
or their immediate defcendants. The apparel of the j)refs 0f ^
fultan, on days of ceremony, confifts of the 1’ripolitan fultan.
drefs, over which he wears a large white embroidered
flrirt, made after the faftiion of the Negroes. Flis tur¬
ban extends a full yard from the front to the hinder
part, and is two-thirds of a yard in breadth. His re-Revenue*
venues confift of afleflments on all cultivated lands, and
of arbitrary requifitions, which are collefted by his
flaves in an oppreflive manner, if they are not bribed.
Fie alfo derives an income from duties on foreign
trade, from certain territorial domains, and from fait
pools and natron lakes. The prefent fultan has added
to his treafures by predatory expeditions againft the
weaker tribes in the neighbourhood of his country.
The chief booty upon thefe occafions confifts of men and
women, who are fold as flaves. The princes of the royal
family are fupported from certain territories allotted to
them, together with a weekly diftribution of corn from
the fultan’s ftores, and occafional exaftions from the
people.
The clergy, and the cadi or chief judge, are fup¬
ported by the produce of certain woods and gardens 5
and they poffefs great authority with the people. The
dignity of cadi is hereditary in a certain family ; but
the fultan, upon every vacancy, appoints to the office
that individual of the family who can beft read and
write, accompliftnnents which here feem to be fome-
what unufual, and therefore much valued.
The population of Fezzan amounts to about 70,000 or Population
75,000 fouls. In the fouthern diftridls they have mixed,
with the natives of the delert, whom they refemble ;
but the original Fezzanians are a people of ordinary
ftature, of a deep brown complexion, with fhort black
"hair and regular features. They poffefs little energy
either of mind or body. Almoft their only food con- r*
lifts of dates, or of a kind of farinaceous pap, with no
butchers meet- The men who can afford it are much
addicted'
Africa.
Habits and
amufe-
ments.
Dancing.
Mufical in-
•ftruments.
Difeafes.
Empire of
jCaffina.
Trade in
fait.
Bornou,
A F R [ 26
addifled to drunkennefs. They ufe a very intoxicating
liquor prepared from dates. The women have a great
fondnefs for dancing, which they practife publicly,
not only in the day time but after funfet. rI he amufe-
ment is thus delcribed by Mr Horneman : “Two or
three men Hand together with their tambourins } the
women immediately form a circle round the men, beat
a tune, and thofe in the circle accompany it with
finging and clapping of hands. A girl then advances
dancing towards the drummers •, the men, as fhe ap¬
proaches near them, join in the dance, and preis
towards her; on which fhe makes fome fteps backwards,
and then falls on her back with her body and limbs
ftiff and perfectly ftraight } when the women behind
catch her in the fall, a few fpans from the ground,
and tofs her in the air, whence ihe defcends on her feet.
The men then refume their ftation in the centre, and
a fecond female dancer repeats the fport, which is
fucceflively engaged in by each brifk damfel of the
circle.”
In Fezzan there are great numbers of loofe women,
and alfo of fmging girls whole fong is Sudanic, that is
derived from the country of the Negroes. Their mu¬
fical inftrument is called I'hababe; it is an excavated
hemifphere, made from a fhell of the gourd kind, and
covered with leather 5 to this a long handle is fixed, on
which is ifretched a firing of horfe hairs longitudinally,
clofed and comp aft as one cord, about the thicknefs of
a quill. This ts played with a bow.
Various forts of venereal diforders prevail in Fezzan •,
but it is worthy of remark, that, for the cure of all
the fpecies, they only ule falts and the fruit handal
(colycinth) as powerful cathartics ; the fores, if any,
are at the fame time w’aflied with a folution of foda 5
and thefe remedies feldom fail. Other maladies pre¬
valent there are the ague and haemorrhoids, for neither
of which have they any other remedy than amulets,
confifting of certain fentences of the Koran written on
a flip of paper, which the patient wears about his neck,
and in bad cafes is made to fvvallow. It is faid, how¬
ever, that their knowdedge of furgery is fufficient to
enable them to cure a fimple frafture.
South from Fezzan a variety of other iflands are
fcattered, which have been united by conqueft under
one chief, and receive the name of tire empire of Caf-
fina or KalTeena. The territories of this empire, there¬
fore, confift of a confiderable quantity of land of ama¬
zing fertility, interfperfed with arid waftes, where the
rays of the fun, retlefted from the land or the rocks,
produce the moft intenfe and fuffocating heat. Cafiina,
the capital, is fituated in N. Lat. 160 20'. W. Long.
ii° 45'. Agadez, which is an ifiand, or province as
rt may be called, of the empire of Cafiina, fends annu¬
ally a caravan of 1000 camels to certain fait lakes in
the defert, at a place called Domboo 5 and the fait is di-
fiributed among the other ifiands or provinces of this
empire.
A fimilar empire, as travellers are pleafed to call it,
confifting of a number of fertile fpots of this immenfe
defert, is called Bornou. Mathan, the capital, is fi¬
tuated in N. Lat. 240 32'. E. Long. 22° 57'. It is fur-
rounded by a ditch, and a wall 14 feet in height. I he
king is faid to be more powerful than the emperor of
Morocco. His dominions extend beyond the defert
into the fertile country of the Negroes, of which he pof-
1 ] A F R
feffes a large portion. He is elefted by three of the prin- ■At'nca/ ^
cipal chiefs j but the choice is reftrifted to the royal
family. The military force of the ftate confifts of ca¬
valry armed with the fabre, the pike, and the bow.
Fire-arms are not unknown, but they are too difficult
to be procured.
Befides thefe, there is a variety of other diftrifts of
this defert, of which fome flight intelligence has been
obtained ; fuch as Gadamis, north-weft from Fezzan,
about N. Lat. 32° 5 fouth-eaft from which is another
ifland, called Tuat, at the diftance about 400 miles. On
the fouth-eaft of Fezzan is Tibefti, at the diftance of
200 miles: eaftward of which, and 500 miles from the
Nile, is Bardoa. Zegzeg and Kuar are in the fame
vicinity. Farther to the louth is Bergoo and Daifoor. Darkon
This laft lies to the fouthward of the general latitude
of the great defert. It has of late years been made
known by Mr Brown, the firft difcoverer of the Oafis
of Ammon. He penetrated into Darfoor in 1792, and
remained there a confiderable time. Its chief town,
Cobbe, is fituated in 140 iT N. Lat. and 28° 8' E.
Long, and the country contains about 200,000 inha¬
bitants, confifting of native tribes of a deep black com¬
plexion and woolly hair, though with features different
from thofe of the Negroes, and of Arabs of various
tribes. The wild animals are, the lion, the leopard,
the hyaena, the wolf, and the wild buflalo. d he dc-
meftic animals are, the camel, the ffieep, the goat, aiffi
horned cattle. Confiderable quantities of grain of
different forts are reared, and, as the country is with¬
in the tropics, after the periodical rains the fertility is
very fudden and great. The people are very barba¬
rous. The praftice of polygamy is not only eftabliih-
ed, but the intercourfe of the fexes is totally deftitute
of delicacy or decency. The moft fevere labours of
the field are left to the women *, and the houfes, which
are of clay covered with thin boards, are chiefly built
by them. Salt is the general medium of commerce at
Darfoor, as gold dull is in many other places of Africa.
This territory is governed by a chief, who calls him- Sultan of
felf fultan, and aflumes the moft extravagant titles. Darfoor.
He appears in public on a fplendid throne, while an j;xtraortii_
officer proclaims, “ See the buffalo, the offspring of a nary titles,
buffalo, the bull of bulls, the elephant ©f fuperior
ftrength, the powerful fultan Abd-el-rachman-el-raffiid.
May God preferve thy life ! O mailer, may God af-
fift thee, and render thee viftorious !”
Thefe iflands of the African defert are too little
known to render valuable any attempt at a more mi-
' nute defcription of them.. They all refemble each
other in the fertility of their foil and the barbarous
ftate of their inhabitants, w ho are Mahometans, unlefs
where they approach the country of the Negroes.
Though they maintain towards each other the maxims
of apparent hofpitality, yet a Chriftian is- everywhere
odious; and they account it meritorious to perfecute
or enflave him. Their language is chiefly a dialeft of
the Arabic, and their literature is in a great meafure
confined to reading the Koran. Their only intercourfe
with other nations is carried on by the caravans which
periodically traverfe thefe immenfe deferts : and the
fmaller iflands that are neglefted by the caravans are
fometimes abfolutely forgotten by the reft of the
world for many years ; and their inhabitants, left to
theiafelves and to their native ignorance, at laft ima-
A trie;
Tribe of
Monfele.
mines in
Weltern
Africa.
Govern-
inent.
Produc¬
tions.
TVude agr!'
culture.
Wars.
J-Iunnws.
APR j” 262
•^ine, that, except their ottTi little territory, the whole
earth refembles the great defert which they fee arouiid
them.
It is to be obferved, that the Sahara, or great wil-
dernefs, does not on its weftern boundary all at once
attain its utmoft degree of barrennefs. Immediately
to the fouth of Morocco, and of the mountains called
Mount Atlas, is a confiderable extent of territory in¬
habited by a tribe called the Monfelemines. In their
manners, they differ confiderably from the Moors on
the coafts of the Mediterranean, and alfo from the
Moors or Arabs of the defert. Their civil govern¬
ment is republican, as they choofe new chiefs every
year, who are accountable to the aged men of the com¬
munity. It is probable, however, that order is pre-
ferved among them chiefly by the influence of their
priefts, who are greatly refpected j and the influence
of the high prieft amounts almoft to defpotic power.
The people are chiefly engaged in a fort of paftoral
life, to which agriculture is occafionally united. They
have alfo villages in which various tradefmen refide,
chiefly weavers, ihoemakers, fmiths, and potters, who
have no cattle ; But feme opulent perfons refiding in
the towns have flocks and herds of cows, horfes, ca¬
mels, fneep, and goats, befides poultry, kept by Haves
at a diftance in the country. The foil poflelfes confi¬
derable fertility, and produces the necefiaries of life
with little cultivation. The plains abound with date,
fig, and almond trees 5 and grapes are cultivated.
Oil, wax, and tobacco, are alfo produced, and fold in
the villages. Their agriculture is very rude. The
chiefs of families, or fmall tribes, choofe the ground
•Jmoll fit for cultivation. Its furface is flightly turned
over with a kind of paddle, for the plough is un-
knownj and then the feed is fowm upon it. ' The fpot
is then deferted by the inhabitants, -who wander in all
direftiens with their cattle, and do not return till har-
vefl, when the corn is cut down and threfhed. Ma¬
gazines are then formed, confifting of holes in the
earth, into which the corn is put. Planks are laid
over it, which are covered with a layer of earth, made
level with the foil, to prevent its being difeovered by
enemies. Thefe magazines belong to every chief of a
family or tribe, in proportion to the number of men
he employed in the common labour.
The Monfelemines are almofl conftantly engaged in
■war againfl: the emperor of Morocco. They are ex¬
tremely jealous of their independence and freedom j
and their country is the retreat of all the difeontented
Moors. No fooner does the emperor of Morocco take
the field againft them, than the whole inhabitants of
the country diftricls mount their horfes j and, while a
part of them cfcort the women and Oaves, and cattle,
to places of fafety, or even into the defert if they are
clofc prefled, the reft of them occupy the pafFes of the
mountains, and meet the enemy. During peace, par¬
ties of them often undertake to efcort caravans, by
which means there is preferved among them a confi¬
derable military fpirit. In other refpe£ts, they bear a
great refemblance to the ancient Arabs. They per¬
mit polygamy, but their women are not fo much le-
cluded from fociety as among the Moors on the fea-
coaft. Their children are brought up with care, and
are net confidered as men till they exhibit forne proofs
of their courage. Jews are permitted to live among
APR
them in their villages, but they are not allowed to cul- Africa.
tivate the earth, or to carry arms. Chriftians are **v'-w
much hated ; but a Chriftian Have is better treated
than among the other Arabs, becaufe the avarice of
the JVlonfelemines is greater than their fanaticifm. As
their Haves conftitute their riches, they treat them to-
lera ly well from a principle of prudence.
To the fouth of the country of the Monfelemines,
upon the ccaft of the Atlantic, is the wandering tribe
of Wadehms ; to the fouth of whom are the LahdeJTe-
b&s : And next to thefe are the Trafarts, who border
with the country of the Negroes. Eaftward along
the northern frontier of the Negroes lie the Moorilh
ftates oi Jaffnoo, Ludamar, and others. With the ex-
ception of thefe fmall ftates, it is to be obferved, that
the great defert, or Sahara, reaching from the Atlan¬
tic ocean to the frontiers of Abyftinia, and from the
vicinity of the Mediterranean to the country of the
Negroes, is poftefled by two great Moorifti nations
called the Tiuarich and the Tilbo. Of thefe the Tuarick Tuarick
is the moft powerful : It confifts of the whole defert and Tibbe.
weftward from the meridian of Fezzan. The defert,
or Sahara, eaftward from the fame meridian belongs to
the Tibbo. The manners and character of the whole
of thefe tribes, whether great or fmall, is nearly or
altogether fimilar. The defert which they inhabit is
parched and uncultivated. Many places of it have
the appearance of being capable of cultivation, as
fhrubs grow in various fituations ; and palms, or dates,
rife at diftant intervals. But the flying fand is the
great obftacle to cultivation, by rendering the refult
of it uncertain. The fand drifts with every gale, and *
is at times accumulated into high mountains, which
difappear as the winds blow. Thus it is ftiifted about
with every change of the blaft, excepting when the
air is entirely ftagnant. When the fand Ihower be¬
comes formidable, the Moors are obliged to load their
camels, turn their backs to the gale, and haften away,
to avoid being buried alive.
As water is very fcarce in the defert, the Arabs or
Moors form large holes for refervoirs to colled! the
rain water, which, though it foon becomes putrid and
difgufting, is the -only drink of man or be aft. Fronj.
the fcarcity of water, they have few horned cattle ;
and their flocks confift chiefly of ftieep, goats, and ca¬
mels, animals which are patient of thirft. None but
the wealthieft Arabs, who pofiefs numerous herds, are
able to maintain horfes, as it is often neceffary to give
them milk to drink inftead of water. The urine of the
camels is carefully preierved to wafh the veffels ufed
to contain food 5 and the Arabs are frequently under
the neceffity of drinking it, mixed with milk, for the
purpofe of allaying their thirft. As their riches ccn-
fift of their herds and flocks, they attend them with
the greateft care. If a beaft be fick, it is attended
with more anxiety than a man ; but if it feem likely
to die, they kill and eat it. If it die before its blood
be fhed, it is accounted unclean, and is never eaten.
The Sahara, or defert, abounds in'antelopes, wild Animals of
boars, leopards, apes, and ferpents. I he Arabs or the defert.
Moors are exnert hunters, and, as the leopard’s ft in
is an article of commerce, that animal from being fre-
quently attacked, learns to keep at a diftance from
their habitations. Hunting the oftrich is a favourite
amufement. It is undertaken by about twenty horfemen
who
Africa.
Hunting
the oftrich.
The Arabs
live in
tents.
Furniture.
Trade.
War.
Divifion of
fpcul.
Artificers.
Brefs.
APR [2
who advance in a line againft the wind, at the inter¬
val of a quarter of a league behind each other. As
foon as the foremoft perceives an ollrich he ruflies
upon it. The oftrich cannot fly but with the afliftance
of its wings : it runs in the direction oi the wind, and,
though it may avoid a few of the Arabs fuccefilvely,
cannot efcape the whole number. In their hordes,
the Moors or Arabs lodge by families in tents covered
with a cloth of camels hair, w7hich the women fpin
and weave. The furniture of the tent conflfts of twro
large facks of leather, in which they keep their clothes
and pieces of old iron, a few goat ikins for holding
milk and water, twro large itones for grinding their
barley, a mattrefs of oiler wdiich ferves for a bed, a
carpet for a covering, a (mail kettle and fome wooden
diflies, with pack faddles for their camels. They of¬
ten aflociate to convey fait which abounds in the de-
iert into the country of the Negroes 5 for which, in
return, they bring back proviftons and blue cotton
cloth and Haves. They allb aftbeiate for war and for
hunting 5 and in moft cafes, where the property ac¬
quired conilfts of goods which can be packed up into
parcels, they divide it into fliares, which they cover
up, and fix upon a woman, a child, or a ftranger, wrho
know7s nothing of the contents of the various parcels,
to diftribute them by hazard to the different affociates
of the enterprife.
The only artificers among the Moors of the defert,
are fmiths, or a kind of tinkers, who go among them
from the country of the Monfelemines to mend their
broken veffels, or repair their arms, and are paid in
fkins, goats and camels hair, or oftrich feathers, ac¬
cording to agreement. All of them are more atten¬
tive to their arms than to their drefs 5 the latter of
which often confifts only of a long blanket which
they wrap round them, with a cloak of camels hair,
and more frequently of goats ILins. They wear loofe
frocks or fiiirts, however, of blue cotton cloth, if
they can procure them from the Negroes, by whom
this cloth is manufadtured. Their arms confift of dag¬
gers and clubs, with fabres and mufkets if they can
obtain them. To this general defeription of poverty,
however, fome of the- Moors of the great inland na¬
tion or tribe of Tuarick form an exception, in that
part of the defert which borders upon Fezzan, where
they have an opportunity of acquiring wealth by en¬
gaging in the caravan trade. Mr Horneman faw at
Fezzan many individuals of the Hagara, one of the
tribes of the Tuarick, and deferibes them thus : “ The
H agara are yellowifh, like the Arabs 5 near Soudan,
there are tribes entirely black. The clothing of this
nation confifts of wide dark blue breeches, a fhort
narrow ihirt of the fame colour, with wide fieevesj
which they bring together and tie on the back of their
neck, fo that their arms are at liberty. They wind a
black cloth round their-head in fuch a manner, that at
a diftance it appears like a helmet, for their eyes only
are feen. Being Mahometans, they cut off their hair,
but leave fome on the top of the head, round which
thole who wear no cap contrive to fold their black
cloth, fo that it appears like a tuft on their helmet.
Round their vvaift they wear a girdle of a dark colour.
From feveral cords which fall from their fhoulders
hangs a Koran in a leather pouch, and a row of fmall
leather bags containing amulets. They always carry
63 ] A F R
in their hands a fmall lance neatly worked, about five •Af’rra-
feet long. Above the left elbow, on the upper part of 7——
the arm, they wear their national badge, a thick
black or dark-coloured ring of horn or ftone. Their
upper drefs is a Soudanian (Negro) fnirt, over which
a long fword hangs from the Ihoulder. The travelling
merchants of this nation carry fire arms, though ethers
ui'e only the fword, the lance, and the knife, which
they carry on their left arm 5 but the handle is finely
worked j for they have the art of giving to copper as
bright a colour as the Englifti artiils, and this art they
keep very fecret. They carry on a commerce between
Soudan, (i. e. Nigritia), Fezzan and Gadamis. Their
caravans give life to Mourzouk, which without them
is a defert j for they, like the Soudanians ("Negroes)
love company, fong, and mufic. The Tuarick are not
all Mahometans. In the neighbourhood of Soudan
and Tombuiftoo live the Tagama, who are white, and
of the Pagan religion.”
Hofpitality is the moft remarkable virtue of the Hofpitality.
Moors, or Arabs of the defert. The chief of a horde
is by cuftom bound or entitled to entertain all ftran-
gers ; but every tent contributes to his flock of pro-
vifions. When a ftranger reaches an Arab horde, the
firft perfon who perceives him points out the tent of
the chief. If the mafter is not prefent, the wife or
the flave comes forth to meet him, and brings him milk
to drink. His camels are then unloaded and his ef-
fefts ranged around him. His arms are depofited near
thofe of the mafter of the tent. The Arab, who in
the field is a rapacious plunderer, in his tent is gene¬
rous and hofpitable 5 and the perfon of an enemy is in¬
violable, though he fhould have killed the near kinf-
man of its mafter. All this, however, is chiefiy to be
applied to perfons of their own religion ; for towards
Chriitians and jews, their fanaticifm renders them ex¬
tremely intolerant. A Jew, more efpecially, if difeo-
vered, can fcarcely efcape alive from among them.
Polygamy is allowed among the Arabs of the defert, Manners. -
as among other Mahometans 5 but it is very eft'edftually
reftrained by the poverty of the people. Divorce is
permitted at the will of either party ; but if a male
child is born, the marriage becomes indiffoluble. In
the education of children force is never employed. Education,
The priefts, who are the teachers, inftruft them to read
the Arabic characters and fentences of the Koran ; but
if the child become weary of the fchool, he quits or
returns to it at pleafure, without being reproached.
Property defeends by inheritance in equal {hares to Mode of
the male children ; but the females have no {hare, andfuccefficn
are obliged to refide with their eldeft brother.. Thet0 ProPerty*
chief of the horde becomes the guardian of the chil¬
dren who are left orphans. Property is ill fscured by
their cuftoms. If a thief is caught in cue faff he may
be punifhed ; but if he efcape with his booty, it cannot
afterwards be claimed.
The abftinence and hardftiips which the Moors ofCharadler
the defert are frequently under the neceftity of en-ofthe
countering, and their habits of predatory war againft ^oors"
palling caravans, or hoftile tribes, bellow upon them
an evident fupeffority over the more peaceful tribes of
Negroes who inhabit the fertile regions of the fduth.
They poffefs alfo the knowledge of writing, and of the
Arabic language, which infpires them with no final1,
confidence of the imnortance of their own character-
Africa.
Periodical
A F R [2
and acconaplifhments. Hence, they aflame a liaughti-
nefs of gait, and a ferocity of afpeft, which diftinguifhes
them no lefs than their complexion from the Negroes
in their neighbourhood. Such is the prefumption re-
fulting from thefe fentiments, that though a fmall party
of Negroes would never rifk. themfelves in the defert,
one or two Moors will travel with impunity through
all Africa, and plunder the Negroes by whom they
have been entertained.
As the equator pafles almoft through the centre of
Africa, by far the largeft portion of that great conti¬
nent is fituated within the torrid zone, and is poiiefled
by the Ethiopians and Negroes, who are called by the
Arabs Biled-al-Soudan, or Biled-al-Abiad, the land of
blacks, or the land of (laves. In all countries within
the tropics,, exceffive rains fall twice every year about
the time of the vernal and of the autumnal equinoxes.
At thefe periods every river is fwelled into a mighty
flood, and if the country be level it is completely in¬
undated. From this circumftance, along with the heat
of the climate, arifes the extreme fertility of the mid¬
dle regions of the globe.
Though the Sahara, or great African defert extends
a few degrees beyond the tropic of Cancer, yet its
boundaries begin to be ill defined } fertile fpots be¬
come more frequent j and at laft, in the latitude of the
Cape de Verd ifles, and in the neighbourhood of the
firfl: rivers, the Senegal and the Niger, the gum forefts
mark the commencement of the land of the Negroes.
About 600 miles from the weftern coaft, in the moun-
River Sene-tains of Kong, the river Senegal takes its rife, and
-al. flows weftward into the Atlantic ocean. The fame
mountains are the fource of the great river of the E-
thiopians, the Niger, the knowledge of which, from
the time of Herodotus, feems to have been loft by the
European nations, and has only been recently reftored
in confequence of the intrepid and perfevering exer¬
tions of our countryman Mungo Park, who had been
employed by the African Affociation to endeavour to
difcover whether its exiftence ought to be regarded as
a reality or as an error of the ancient geographers. It
runs eaftward ) but its termination, as will be after¬
wards noticed, is (till unknown.
To the fouth of thefe rivers, all Africa belongs to
various nations of Negroes, among whom confiderable
varieties of appearance and of charadler exift. In ge¬
neral, however, they are diftinguiftied by (hort woolly
hair, flat nofes, thick lips, and black complexion,
while their intelleclual powers have been fuppofed by
fome to be inferior to thofe of the civilized European
or Afiatic nations. Some modern writers, however,
fuch as Bruce and Volney, are of opinion, that the
elements of the arts and fciences came originally from
Upper Egypt and Abyflinia, and the ancients appear
to have afcribed to the Ethiopians the commencement
of civilization among mankind. u The Fnebans (fays
Diodorus) confider themfelves as the moft ancient peo¬
ple on the earth ; and affert, that with them originated
philofophy and the fcience of the ftars. Their fitua-
tion, it is true, is infinitely favourable to aftronomical
obfervation, and they have a more accurate divifion of
time into months and years than other nations.” I he
fame opinion he attributes to the Ethiopians. “ 1 he
Ethiopians conceive themfelves to be of greater anti¬
quity than any other nation ; and it is probable that,
Africa.
Negroe-
land.
Niger.
64 ] A F R
born under the fun’s path, its warmth may have ripen¬
ed them fooner than other men. They fuppofe them¬
felves alfo to be the inventors of divine worfliip, of
feftivals, of folemn aflemblies, of facrifices, and every
other religious praftice. They aftirm that the Egyp¬
tians are one of their colonies ^ and that the Delta,
which was formerly fea, became land by the conglo¬
meration of the earth of the higher country, which was
waftted down by the Nile. They have, like the E-
gyptians, two fpecies of letters, hieroglyphics, and the
alphabet; but among the Egyptians, the firft was
known only to the priefts, and by them tranfmitted
from father to fon, whereas both fpecies are common
among the Ethiopians.” “ The Ethiopians (fays Lu¬
cian) were the firft who invented the fcience of the ftars,
and gave names to the planets, not at random, and
wdthout meaning, but delcrintive of the qualities w7hich
they conceived them to pofiefs and it was from them
that this art pafled in an imperfeft ftate to the Egyp¬
tians.”
But though the antiquity of the civilization of Egypt
cannot be difputed, there is little reafon to believe that
the middle regions of Africa ever exhibited the human
charafter in a higher ftate of cultivation than it now
poffefies there. In all ages its inhabitants wrere engaged trace?
in the barbarous praftice of felling each other into of former
flavery to diftant nations. No remains of ancient mag-refinement
nificence are to be found in their country, nor any in-
ftruments of art which mark the genius of an improved
people. Even the plough is (till unknowm, and the
ingenuity of man is only exerted to fupply his moft
limple wants.
A great part of the country of the Negroes receives ^nc;ent
among Europeans the name of Guinea, a term as old name,
as the time of Ptolemy, wdio applies it to the maritime
diftri&s, though this name is faid to be utterly unknown
to the natives of the country themfelves, excepting
where they have learned it from European traders. It
would appear, however, to have originated from one
of the central dates or empires of Africa, upon tlm
banks of the Niger, which though once pofleffed of
great pow7er, has now fallen into decay, and is loft in
the empire of Tombucloo, and fome neighbouring
dates.
The middle regions of Africa bring to maturity all ProduAions
the tropical prbduaions or fruits in their utmoft perfec-of the mid-
tion and abundance. With the (lighteft cultivation,dle reg^m-
rice, maize, millet, fugar, cotton, indigo, &c. aie
railed, along wdth fome fruits peculiar to itfelf, among
which may be mentioned the (hea-tree, fram which the
vegetable butter is prepared, which forms a principal
article of commerce in all the interior diftrifts. 1 he
fhea-tree is faid to referable the American oak j the Vegetable
butter is prepared from the kernel of the fruit. Fhisbutter.
kernel refembles a Spanifh olive, and is .enclofed in a
fweet pulp under a thin green rind. It is dried in the
fun, and then boiled in water. Travellers tell us that
the butter produced from it is white, firm, and better
flavoured than that of milk. If this account of it be
correbl, which w7e have no reaion to doubt, mcaiuies
ought certainly to be taken for conveying this tree to
the European fettlements in the \v cw Indies, and for
cultivating it there, as it would undoubtedly be very
valuable when reared in the vicinity of the Bread-fruit,
tree, which has lately been brought from Otaheite.
Kind.
Snakes yery
deftructive,
4nd of im-
inenfe fize.
The came-
leon.
Immenfe
myriads of
ants.
Spiders.
Metals.
iron and
Gold.
A F R [2
Various fpecies of wild beads inhabit this country,
as Hons, leopards, hyaenas, elephants, buffaloes, wild
boars, rhinocerofes, with great variety of the fpecies
of deer, and various kinds of monkeys. Innumerable
fpecies of fnakes are alfo to be found hefe •, one of
the moil remarkable of which, called the jinyticki, is of
a pale green colour, with black fpots, about a foot in
length, and as thick as a man’s finger. It poffeffes
the power of eje&ing a fubtile vapour into the eyes of
any animal that approaches within the diftance of two
or three feet, fo as to occafion extreme pain for feveral
days, and even incurable blindnefs. Another fpecies
of fn’ake, faid to be found alfo in Ceylon, grows here to
the enormous fize of 50 feet in length •, the colour of
the back is dark gray, with lines of a duiky yellow.:
part of the belly is of a lighter colour and fpotted :. it
lurks, in nioift fituations, wreathed into curls, which
include a fpace of about five feet diameter* and give it
at a diftance fome refemblance to the mouth of a well;.
Over thefe curls or rings it rears its head and. part of
its body, and remains immoveable till fome animal ap¬
proach within its reach, when it darts upon it *, and, if
the animal is large, twifts its body round it, and with
an immenfe force crufties all its bones ■, and, having
Juljncated with faliva, fwaliows it entire. Aiicr
having devoured 111 this manner a large animal, tne
fnake remains as if lifelefs for many days during the
procefs of digeftion, and in this fituation may be eafily
deftroyed. The cameleon is alfo found in this coun¬
try, along with an immenfe variety of reptiles. Of
thefe the ants are the moft formidable and deftru&ive
to man. They differ in fize from an inch in length
to a minutenefs that is almoft imperceptible, to the na¬
ked eye. They fometimes burft from their nefts. in
fuch innumerable myriads as to deftroy every thing
on the fur face of the earth, and to oblige the natives
to defert their habitations* They often exfinguiftl
fires by their numbers, and form bridges of their own
dead bodies over ftiallow waters which impede their
progrefs.—One fpecies forms fwarms like bees, and
cre&s round pyramids of clay which becomes extreme¬
ly bard. Thefe pyramids are ufually eight or ten feet
high. Their interior confifts of galleries fuited to the
fize of the animal, interwoven like a labyrinth, having
a fmall opening as a door or entry to the dwelling.
Monftrous ipiders alfo exift in this country, a firt-
gle thread of whofe web, it is faid, will fupport a
weight of feveral ounces*
The natives of this country have too little art of
induftry to take much advantage of the metals with
which the earth is fuppofed in many places to abound.
In fome fituations, howfever, they produce iron of a
tolerable quality, but gold is the chieTobjedft of their
fearch. It does not appear, however, that they have
ever wrought the mines of it which they have difco-
vered to any depth, and it is chiefly procured from the
fands of the rivers or of torrents after violent rains.
'It is then collected in fome diltricls in confiderable
'quantities, and forms an important article of commerce.
Women chiefly engage in this employment, and an
individual may colleft in general during the dry fea-
ion, as much as is equal to the value of two flaves.
The gold obtained is either ufed in commerce or
wrought into ornaments for the women. T he ftand-
Vol. I* Part I.
% 1 A F k. ,
ard of value is called meniat/i, which is equal m vwae ; ^
to about tos.
In general, however, it may be remarked, with re- Natural
gard td all the natural produaions of this continent, FoduAions
whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, that they Adi know.
remain in great obfeurity, and prefent a vaft field for
the inveftig'ation of the natural hiftorian*
The general charafter of the Negroes, who are the
inhabitants of thefe fertile regions, is that of extreme s.
levity. It is faid, that they will dance for almoft 24
hours together, and they do not fuffer their gaiety to
be difturbed by events, which, in cAher countries, aie
produ.aive of much unhappineis. I hey do not ap¬
pear to want the feelings of humanity, nor are they
more deftitute of fagacity than other men and women
of an equal degree of education 5 but the general fei-
tility of their country, which fupplies them with food
in confequence of the exertion of a very flight degree
of induftry, and the little occafion they have for cloth¬
ing amidft the heat of their climate, produces an in¬
dolent and general habit of feeking prefent pleafure,
and of banilhing from their minds all care for the fu-
tU The kind of government that.exifts among the Ne- ’
gro nations is by no means uniform. In many dif-
trifts the country is governed by an immenfe multitude
of independent petty chiefs, who are engaged in fre¬
quent wars with each other. In other places tne ta¬
lents of individual cliieftans have been able to reduce
confiderable trafts of territory under their dominion.
In fuch cafes, in confequence of the internal tranquil¬
lity produced by the extenfion of the prince s pow er,
flourifiling towns have grown up. I bus upon the
river Niger Hands the town of Sego the capital of Town of
Bambara, Which was vifited by Mungo Park, andSeg°-
W’hich lies in N. Lat. 140 io', and W . Long. 2° 26 ,
containing about 30,000 inhabitants. Two hundred
miles below this upon the fame river Hands Tombuc-Tombtic-
too, the great centre of the commerce of Fezzan,t00-
Cairo, and the countries on the north of Africa,
with the land of the Negroes. Farther down the fame HoulTa.
river ftands Houffa, which is underftood to be a city
of ftill greater extent. Many of the Negro towns
are fortified with ditches and walls, built like the
houfes of the native*; of clay and Hone. The trenches
are fometimes flanked with fquare towers like a regu¬
lar fortification, and the w’alls are very high.
Domeftic flavery prevails in a very great degree Slavery,
among all the Negro dates. As the tropical rains
fometimes fail or are deficient in quantity, the fcorch-
ing heat of the fun burns up the face of the country,
and produces a moft frightful barrennefs. On thefe
occaftons it is not uncommon for parents to fell their
children, and even themfelves, for brtead. A freeman
may alio lofe his liberty by being taken prifoner in
war, or on account of the real or fuppofed crimes of
murder and forcery. He alfo forfeits it in confe¬
quence of mfolvency. From thele cauies domeftic
flavery prevails to fuch a degree, that in. many places
three-fourths of the natives are flaves. I heie flaves,
however, form in fome meafure a part of the commu¬
nity and, by the cuftom of the country, the mafter
cannot fell one who is born his Have, without accufing
him of a crime, a circumftance, which, in confequence
LI of
A F R [ 266 ] A F R
Africa, of' tlie {lave trade at times, gives rife to much diflen-
y,—w f10nj anci to Wars which refemble, in fome meafure,
the fanguinary contefts which exiiled in various coun¬
tries in Europe, during the feudal times, between the
villains and their lords. • Thus, in 1785, a general in-
furredlion took place in many diftri&s on the weftern
coaft : the Haves attacked their mafters, maffacred
great numbers of them, fet fire to the ripe rice, block¬
aded the towns, and obliged them to fue for peace.
Arts in a Few arts have been brought to much perfection by
rude ftate. the Negroes, becaufe the diviuon of labour has been
little known among them. The fame individual fpins,
weaves, fews, hunts, fifties; forms balkets, fiftiing-tackle,
inftruments of agriculture ; makes foap, dyes cloth with
indigo, and makes canoes. In all thefe, the neatnefs
of the work excites the aftoniihment of llrangers who
know the diverfity of occupations in which the fame
individuals engage, and the imperfeftion of the tools
with which they labour. They are no ftrangers, how¬
ever, to that ordinary divifion of labour to which na¬
ture herfelf feems to have given rife in confequence of
the diftinftion of the fexes. The women fpin, and the
men weave the cotton cloth of which their drefles are
compofed. The cotton is prepared for fpinning by
rolling it with an iron fpindle upon a fmooth Hone or
Weaving, board. The thread is rvell twifted though coarfe, but
the loom is fo narrow that the web is only about four
Dyeing. inches broad. The women dye this cloth wuth the leaves
of indigo, pounded frefti, and mixed with a flrong
alkaline ley, formed by the lixiviation of wood allies.
The colour thus produced is a rich and durable blue
with a purple glofs.
The workers in metals and the manufacturers of
leather appear to be almoft the only inftances of what
may be called a feparate profeffion exiiling among the
Tanning. Negroes. The manufacturers of leather feparate the
hair by fteeping the hides in a mixture of wood allies
and water, and ufe the pounded leaves of a tree called
goo, as we do the oak bark, for the purpofe of tanning.
They dye the {kins of ftieep and goats red with pow¬
dered millet {talks, and yellow- with a root which
abounds in their country. The manufacturers of iron
Imelt that metal in fome of the interior diitriCts ; but
it is generally hard and brittle. They form their
weapons and tools of it, however, with confiderable
ingenuity. In fmelting gold they ufe fixed alkaline ■
fait, obtained by walking with water the allies of burn¬
ed corn {talks, and evaporating the ley to drynefs. It
Ounpow- ^ft: alfo be remarked, that, in the interior of the coun¬
ter. try, Mungo Park found a Negro who manufactured
gunpowder from nitre collected from the refervoirs of
water frequented by the cattle, and fulphur fupplied by
the Moors, who obtain it from the Mediterranean. He
pounded the ingredients in a wooden mortar, and gra¬
nulated it ; but the grains were unequal, and the
flrength of the gunpowder was .very inferior to that of
Europe.
The only neceffary of life in which the country of
the Negroes appears to be extremely deficient is fait,
which is the more wranted among them in confequence
of their fubfifting chiefly upon vegetable food. A
child cries for a piece of fait as for a great delicacy;
and it is a proverbial expreftion of a man’s riches, to
fay, that he eats fait to his food. This important ar¬
ticle they receive from the great defert by caravans of
trading Moors. They alfo receive arms, hardware, Africa.
glafles, and trinkets of all forts, on the w^eftern coaft   w—-'
from the Europeans, and, in the interior, from the ca- Trade,
ravans of Cairo, Fezzan, and Morocco. For thefe
they give in return, gold, ivory, and Haves. With
regard to the ivory, the Negroes cannot comprehend
for what reafon it is ib much valued by ftrangers.
It is in vain to tell them that fliips are built, and long
voyages undertaken, to procure it to make bandies for
knives. They are fatisfied that a piece of wood might
ferve the purpofe as well, and imagine that it is ap¬
plied to i’ome important ufe which is concealed from
the Negroes, left they flrould raile the price of it. The
trade ot the Negroes is conducted by barter ; and to Medium of
adjuft the value of their different articles of commerce, conunerce“
they appeal to a nominal ftandard, confifting of a cer¬
tain quantity of any commodity for which there is a
great demand. Thus on the Gambia, that quantity
of ivory or of gold-duft which is eftimated as equal in
value to a bar of iron, is denominated a /uir ot ivory, or
a bar of gold-duft.
A marvellous ftory has, in all ages, been told of a Singular
ftrange mode of conducing commerce that exifts n)0^c
among certain African tribes who live in the wildeft fia ng*
mountainous diftridls: they are faid to engage annual¬
ly in trade, but at the fame time to feclude themfelves
from all perfonal intercourfe with the traders who villt
them : They traftic chiefly in gold-dull, which they
bring to particular places, and there leave it upon the
approach of the traders, who depofite quantities of
goods which they are willing to give for the gold-duft,
and thereafter retire. The natives then approach and
carry oif the goods, or the gold-duft, according as they
think fit to accept or reject the bargain. From the
days of Herodotus down to our own times, this ftory
has been repeated by various writers, and in particular
by Wadftrom, upon the authority of the chevalier de
la Touch, vice-governor of Goiee, in 1788, who is
faid to have vifked the diltricts inhabited by thefe in-
vifible traders.
ft'he knowledge of the Negroes with regard to all Knowledge
fpeculative iubjects, E extremely limited, ft'heir no-of t5ie Na¬
tions of geography and aftronomy, like thofe of other
rude nations, are altogether puerile. 'They regard the mited/ ^
earth as a vaft plain, the boundaries of which are
covered with clouds and darknefs. The lea is a great
river of falt-water ; beyond which is the land of the
white people ; and at a ftill greater diftance, is the
land to which the Haves are carried, which is inha- '
bited by giants, who are cannibals. Eclipfes are
alcribed to enchantment, or to the interpofition of a
great cat, which puts its paw between the moon and
the earth. They divide the year by moons, and cal¬
culate the years by the number of rainy feafons. They
feem to believe in one God, who has power over all Religious
things; but their religious opinions are extremely un-oP:ni0ris*
denned, fo that it is in vain to expedl to find among
them any fyilem of belief that is either univerfally re¬
ceived or even conliftently adhered to by the lame in¬
dividuals. They in general feem to think, that the
god of the blacks or Negroes is different from the god
of the whites : When they are pleafed with their own
condition and their country, they reprefent the black
deity as a good being, and the white deity as a kind off
devil, who fends the white people to make Haves of
APR [ 267 ] APR
Afticft. the Negroes i But when they ;irc in ill humour, they
complain of their black deity as mifehievous and cruel 5
while they fay that the white deity gives his people
the Europeans brandy and fine cloths, and other good
things which are denied to the Negroes. Their no-
Notions of tions of a future date are of the fame fluctuating na-
ftiteUre ture. They have a confufed idea that the exiltence of
the human mind does not terminate with this life 5
and they feem to venerate the ipirits of the dead, re¬
garding them as prote&ors, and placing victuals at the
graves of their anceilors upon Hated occafions. In
general, however, they regard , death with great hor-
.ror 5 and in Whidah it was a law, that no perfon, on
pain of death, fliould mention it in prefence of the
king. Some of them have a notion of a future Hate
as connected with rewards and punifliments of their
conduit in this life. They imagine that the deceafed
are conveyed to a mighty river in the interior regions
of Africa, where God judges of their pall lives, and
particularly of the regularity with which they have ce¬
lebrated the new moons, which among the Negroes
are kept as feHivals j and of the fidelity with which
they have adhered to their oaths. If the judgment is
in their favour, they are gently wafted over the great
river to a happy country, refembling in defeription the
paradife of Mahomet, where they enjoy plenty of all
thofe things which they were accuflomed to value in
this world : But if the judgment is unfavourable, they
are plunged into the river, and never heard of more.
They alfo believe, like the vulgar of moll other coun¬
tries, that the ghoHs of perfons who have been guilty
of great and unexpiated crimes, find no relf after
death, but haunt or wander about thofe places in
which their crimes were committed. The Afiatip
doctrine of the tranfmigration of the fouls of men after
death into the bodies of other animals, is alfo enter¬
tained by fome of them.
Of the ere- r^'llle 0pini°ns Negroes concerning the creation
•ation of of man are not more fixed or definite than their ideas
man. of his future exiflence. In general, they aferibe his ori¬
ginal creation to the deity ; but fome of them pretend
that he emerged, they know not how, from the caves
and holes of the earth, or wras produced by a monHrous
fpider. A curious fiftion upon this fubje£l is alfo faid
to prevail in fome of the Negro Hates ;—That God ori¬
ginally created both black men and white men j that
he meant to beftow one gift upon each of them, gold
or avlfdom •, that he gave the black men their choice,
and that they preferred gold, and left wifdom or inge¬
nuity to the whites *, that God was offended with them
on account of this improper choice, and ordained them
to be Haves for ever to the white men.
Ofprovi- They alfo believe in a divine providence which fends
deuce. rain to give fertility to the earth and the trees, and to
wafh down gold from the mountains. Accordingly,
they pray fervently to God to give them thofe things
upon which they fet the greateH value, fuch as rice
and yams, and gold, and Haves, and health, and adlivi-
ty. At the fame time, from their inaccuracy of thinking
upon this fubje£t, they readily fay, when converfed
with, that it is net God but the earth that gives them
rice j that their cattle produce young without the affiH-
ance of God ; apd that, if- they did not labour for
themfelves, tj’.ey might Harve before God would help
them.
From this loofe and inaccurate mode of reafoning Africa,
the religion of the Negroes fits very light upon them, '“■—w
They feem to have a fort of prieHs, who perform fome
ceremonies at the new moons, and on certain occafions,
fuch as, at marriages, or on giving names to young
children j but thefe prieHs having no fettled fyllem ot
dochine, and not being united into a difeiplined body,
poffefs very little influence. Hence it is extremely
eafy to induce the Negroes to adopt the religion of any
more intelligent people. Accordingly, the Moors have
made many converts among them •, and fome of the
mofl confiderabie Negro Hates upon the northern fron¬
tier, that is upon the denegal and the Niger, are Ma¬
hometan.
But though the Negroes have little fpeculative reli- Superfti-
gion, they have much fuperflition, as appears from the don-
great ufe which they make of what are called fetiches,
or charms termed obi by the Africans in our WeH-In-
dia iilands. The fetiche confiHs of any natural object,
which chances to catch hold of the fancy of a Negro.
One feledfs the tooth of a dog, of a tiger, or of a cat.
or the bone of a bird ; while another fixes on the head
of a goat, a monkey, or parrot, or even upon a piece
of red or yellow wood, or a thorn branch. The fetiche
thus chofen, becomes to its owner a kind of divinity,
which lie worfhips, and from which he expedls aflifiance
on all occafions. In honour of his fetiche, it is com¬
mon for a Negro, to deprive himfelf of fome pleafure,
by abHaining from a particular kind of meat or drink. '
Thus one man eats no goats fiefh, another taltes no
beef, and a third no brandy or palm wine. By a con¬
tinual attention to his fetiche, a Negro fo far impofes
upon himfelf, as to reprelent it to his imagination as
an intelligent being, or ruling power, infpetling his ac¬
tions, rewarding his virtues, and punifiiing his crimes.
Hence he covers it up carefully whenever he performs
any aftion that he accounts improper. The importance
or value of a fetiche is always edimated according to
the fuccefs of its owner, and the remarkable profperity
of an individual brings his fetiche fo much into falhion,
as to induce others to adopt it. On the contrary, when
a Negro fuffers any great misfortunes, he infallibly at¬
tributes it to the weaknefs of his fetiche, which he relin-
quiHies, and adopts another that he hopes will prove more
powerful. A fortunate fetiche is ufually adopted by the
whole family of its poffeffor, to which it becomes an
objefl of reverence, or a guardian like the houfehold
gods, dii lares and penates, of the ancient Romans.
Sometimes a whole tribe or a large diilridt has its fe¬
tiche, which is regarded as a kind of palladium upon
which the lafety of their country depends. Thus at
Acra the national fetiche wTas a lake, which the people
accounted facred. This lake was converted into a
fait pit by the Portugucfe, and the natives regarded
this profanation as the caufe of the conquelt of their
country by a neighbouring tribe called the Aquam-
boans. Thus alfo at Whidah, although the people be¬
lieve in one fupreme god, they worflfip as their national
fetiche a kind of ferpent oi mondrous fize, which they
call the grandfather of the fnakes. They fay that it
formerly deferted fome other country, on account of its
wickednefs, and came to them, bringing good fortune
and profperity along with it. From this account of the
fetiches of the Negroes, the intelligent reader will na¬
turally remark that even idolatry itfelf remains in
L1 2 imperfeft
Africa.
Singular
cultoms.
Secret £b-
cieties of
5nen.
v.'crac
A F R t 268 ]
imperfeft ft ate among the people j and he will obferve
the difference between the poliihedfuperftition of ancient
Greece and Rome, and the vulgar and unadorned cre¬
dulity of thefe rude and artlefs tribes. In the vicinity
of their fettlemcnts, the Moors have prevailed with the
illiterate Negroes, to adopt as fetiches or charms, cer¬
tain fentences of the Koran, which they write out and
fell to them, under the name offaphies. Mungo Park,
when travelling among them, fometimes fold faphies
which ufually conilfted of the Lord’s prayer.
Among the Negroes fome lingular cuftoms prevail,
which are not unworthy of notice, on account of their
having fome limilarity to certain praftices that have
fubfifted among other nations. Perfons accufed of any
crime, more eipecially of poifoning, are frequently re¬
quired to prove their innocence, by drinking what is
called the red water. This is a poifonous liquor form¬
ed from the roots of certain plants, and the barks of
trees, of a very narcotic quality. The accufed is pla¬
ced on a high chair, and ftript of his clothes, having '
only a quantity of plantain leaves wuapt round his
waift. He then, in prefence of the whole village, eats
a little rice, and drinks about an Englifh gallon of the
red w’ater, which is extremely apt to find the accufed
perfon guilty. If he efcape unhurt, howTever, and with¬
out vomiting, he is judged innocent. Much dancing
and finging takes place on account of his efcape, and
he is allowed to demand that fome punifiiment be in-
flifted on his accufers on account of the defamation.
Among the fuperftitious cuftoms of the Negroes, may
be mentioned the pradtice of circumcifion, wdiich is
univerfal among them. It is not regarded as a religious
rite, but as a kind of charm for preventing barrennefs.
It is not performed till the age of puberty.
Infeveral Negro ftates certain fecret focieties or fra¬
ternities exift, which poffefs great political influence,
and in fome places abfolute powrer. One of thefe fo¬
cieties, called the fociety of the Belli, is appropriated to
men, to the exclufion of women. It fupports itfelf by
the ufe of myftical fymbols, a pretence to the know¬
ledge of important fecrets, and by fubjeclion to an ima¬
ginary being called the Belli, wdio is faid to be capa¬
ble of changing his form at pleafure. This fociety mo¬
nopolizes all public offices, to the exclufion of the unini¬
tiated. The young men are introduced into it by a
noviciate which lafts fome years. A fpace is marked
out of eight or nine miles in circumference in a fertile
fpot, in which huts are built, and provifiens railed. The
young men refort thither, and are taught by inftruftors
pitched upon by the fociety, to fight, to filh, to hunt,
and to fing certain fongs peculiar to the fraternity; they
alfo receive new names as a mark of their new' birth,
and certain fears are imprinted upon their bodies, with
heated inftruments of iron, to point them out as be¬
longing to the fraternity. On returning home after
their initiation, they are received with great ceremony
by their relations, as perfons now introduced into pub¬
lic life.
There is a kind of counterpart of this affociation,
though of lefs political importance, called the fociety
of the Nejfoge or Saudi, which is confined to females.
In a remote wmod, which men are prohibited to ap¬
proach, a number of huts are conftru&ed, and the
voung marriageable girls are conduced thither during
the night. They remain hi i,his fylitudeq under the
A F R
care of certain matrons during four months, and are Africa,
taught a variety of religious cuftoms and fuperftitions.
When their noviciate is expired, they return by night
to their villages, where they are received by all the
women both old and young quite naked, who parade
about with them, playing upon fome rude mufical in¬
ftruments till daybreak. If any man ffiould approach
this proceftion, he would fuffer death, or be compelled
to redeem himfelf by a very heavy fine.
There is a third kind of fociety which is much more Strange
univerfal than thofe now mentioned, and ieems to exift mytlerw*
in all the Negro ftates. This fociety docs not appear
to have any fpecial name, but it condiufts the myfte-
ries of a ftrange imaginary being, called Miimbo Jum¬
bo. As the praftice of polygamy exifts very univer-
fally among the Negroes, they often find great diffi¬
culty in preferving the peace of their families amidft
a variety of rival wives. When the hufband finds his
authority altogether contemned, he has recom fe to the
affiftance of Mumbo Jumbo. The drefs of this ftrange
minifter of juftice ufually hangs upon a tree in a fo-
reft in the neighbourhood of every Negro village. It
is made of bark, and forms a figure of about eight or
nine feet high, with a tuft of ftraw on its head. Wffien
Mumbo is about to appear he announces his approach
in the evening by difmal fereams from the adjacent
woods, and as foon as it is dark he enters the village
and proceeds immediately to the public place, where
all the inhabitants both male and female are obliged
to affemble at his call; for this phantom has abfolute
pow'er. Nobody muft appear covered in its prefence,
and every perfon is bound implicitly to execute its
commands. As the women know' that the vifit is in¬
tended againft fome of them, they can have no great
relifti for the folemnity, but they dare not refufe to at¬
tend. The ceremony commences with fongs and
dances. Thefe continue till midnight, when Mum¬
bo Jumbo fixes upon the individual on w-hofe account
he comes. She is immediately feized by his command,
ftripped naked, tied to a poll, and fcourged with Mum-
bo’s rod, to the great entertainment of the whole af-
fembly, and efpecially of the reft of the v’omen, who.
are always loudeft in their derifton and cenfure of the
culprit. The fociety that condu&s the appearances of
this myfterious perfonage make ufe of a peculiar or
cant language which is not underftood by the unini¬
tiated. They pretend that Mumbo Jumbo is a wild
man, or fome ftrange being that knows every body’s-
thoughts. They bind themfelves by oaths never to
reveal their fecrets to a woman or ahoy. 1 he frater¬
nity is fo powerful, that when one of the Negro kings
was weak enough to reveal the fecret of Mumbo Jum¬
bo’s character to a favourite wife, who communicated
it to the other females of the houfebold, he and his
whole- family w'ere immediately affaffinated, in the pre¬
fence, and by the command, of Mumbo Jumbo ; and
nobody dared to difpute the propriety of their punifh-
ment.
Like all rude nations, the different tribes of Ne- Magic and-
groes are implicit believers in witchcraft and magic, forcery.
and in the exiftence of various kinds of forcerers. Thefe
forcerers they regard wuth the utmoft terror and ab¬
horrence. They believe that fome of them have power
to controul the feafons, and to prevent the rice from ar¬
riving at maturity. Others ot them are fuppofed to
0 htek
A F R r 269 ] A F R
Africa, fuck tke Klood of men and beads, and to occafion all
 v ' kinds of difeafes. When they fufpedl a pexfon to have
died in confequence of forcery, they interrogate the
corpfe, which they believe gives anfwers in the affir¬
mative, by forcibly impelling forward the perfons who
bear it, and in the negative by a rolling motion. If
.an anfwer is given in the affirmative, they inquire con-
'Ceming the murderer, beginning with the relations of
the deceafed and naming the fufpe&ed perfons. When
the guilty perfon is named, they fay, that the corpfe
impels the bearers forward ; and upon the authority
of this evidence, the perfon accufed is feized and fold
into flavery, and fometimes alfo his whole family. It
is evident that a trial of this kind may be fo managed,
as on all occafions to fecure the condemnation of the
accufed perfon. Accordingly, in proportion to the
demand for Haves, acculations of forcery are more fre¬
quently brought forward againft their fubjedis by the
Negro chiefs. Thefe accufations, however, are fome¬
times alfo brought againft perfons of importance, who
cannot be fold on account of their rank, or againft
aged perfons, whom nobody will purchafe. In thefe
cafes, the perfon convidied is compelled to dig his own
grave 5 and being placed at the foot of it, one from
behind ftrikes him a violent blow upon the back of
the head or neck, which caufes him to fall upon his
face into the grave. Some loofe earth is then thrown
upon him ; a ftake of hard w ood is driven through his
body, and the grave is filled up.
Tenacious Of thefe and all their other cuftoms, the Negroes are
of their extremely tenacious ; and this tenacity of their cuftoms,
ciiftoms. down to the minuteft trifles, forms the principal ob-
ftacle to their civilization or improvement. Thus it is
the cuftom to cut the rice, fix or eight inches below
the ear, by two or three ftalks at a time, according as
they can be grafped between the thumb of the right
hand and a knife, which is held in the fame hand.
The ftalks are leifurely transferred to the left hand,
and when it is almoft full, they are tied like a nofegay
and put into a baiket. A Negro chief who had feen
the Englifli mode of reaping, faid, that it would coft
African his life, ffiould he attempt to introduce it
into his country, as he wrould be accufed of intending
to overturn the ancient cuftoms, and would be com¬
pelled to drink the red water. By means of their cu¬
ftoms, alfo, property is rendered lefs valuable than in
other countries, which operates as a difcouragement to
The la- induftry. Their agriculture is carried on in concert
fHdner- e^ t^e in^abitants of every diftrict, who ftiare in com-
formed in mon tlie Produ&s °f their harveft. Hence the idea cf
eomtnon. exclufive property is rendered very vague, wdiile the
Hofpitality unlimited exercife of the law or cuftom of hofpitality,
unlimited, renders the pofleffion of it uncertain j as the induftrious
are forced to ffiare their wealth with the indolent.
Encourages Begging is not reckoned difgraceful j and if a perfon
indolence, has been negligent in providing the neceflaries of life,
he has only to difcover where provifions are to be
found, and he muft obtain a ffiare 5 for if he enter a
houfe during a repaft, the mafter, by cuftom, cannot
avoid inviting him to partake. As domeftic flavery,
however, and the traffic in Haves, conftitutes a moft
profitable branch of the African cuftoms, it is not
wonderful that their chiefs adhere to them with pecu¬
liar obftinacy.
With regard to the private or domeftic economy of
the Negroes, it may be obferved, that their houfes Africa.
confift ufually of a circular wall, built of mud, or of1—■“ v u
clay and ftone, about four feet high, with a conical Houles,
roof of bamboos, covered or thatched w’ith hay. As
houfes of this ftru&ure cannot well be divided into fe-
parate apartments ; w’here there is a plurality of w ives,
each has a hut appropriated to herfelf, and the whole
huts belonging to a family are furrounded by a fence
of bamboos formed into a kind of wicker work. A
number of thefe enclofures, with intermediate pafiages
or ftreets, which have no regular arrangement, form a
town or village. The furniture of their houfes ufually
confifts of a bed, formed of a frame of canes, covered
with'a bullock’s fkin or with a mat, and of one or
two wrooden ftools, and a few wooden diffies and pots
for dreffing food. The drefs of both fexes is formed Drer
of cotton cloth } that of the men ufually confifts of a
loofe Hurt or frock with wide lleeves, together with
drawers or trow'fers, which reach to the middle of the
leg. Some of the Negroes add to thefe a cap and fan-
dais. The drefs of the wminen confifts of two pieces
of cloth, each of which is about fix feet long, and
three feet broad. The one is wrrapt round the waift
and hangs down to the ankles, and the other is negli¬
gently throwTi over the (boulders.
The ftate of the wromen, as among other barbarous State of
nations, is by no means favourable. It is in general w omen;
accounted altogether unneceflary for a lover to make
propofals to his intended bride. She is confidered as
the property of her father, from whom he purchafes
her, and to wfliom he generally pays a price equal to
the value of about twro Haves. When he has agreed
with the parents, therefore, with whom he eats a few
nuts to ratify the contraft, the propofed bride mult
give her confent, or remain for ever unmarried ; for if
iiie is given to another, the lover is entitled to feize her
for a Have. On the day of marriage the bride is con- Marriages^
•dufted with great ceremony to the houfe of the bride- 41 ~~
groom, who muft furniffi abundance of liquor and re-
frelhments to her attendants. On approaching the
houfe, the bride is covered all over with a robe of
white cotton, and is carried on the back of a wmman
to the houfe of her hulband. She is then placed amidft
a circle of matrons, who give her many inftru&ions
about her future life. The day is concluded with
dances, fongs, and feafting, and the validity of the
marriage is confirmed by exhibiting tokens of virginity
according to the Mofaic law\
A man is allowed to have as many wives as he can Polygamy;
afford to purchafe, and they are treated in a great
meafure as Haves, being, in general compelled to take
the whole charge of the agriculture abroad, as well
as of the preparation of food for the family at home.
When the huffiands, however, are contented with one
or two wdves, inftances of conjugal infidelity are un¬
common 5 but wffien they have a greater number, they
are often under the neceffity of overlooking the ac¬
cidental gallantries of their wives, in confequence of
the impoffibility of fubjefting them to rigid con¬
finement in the fimple ftate ot fociety in which thev
live. The Negro women fuckle their children till.
they are able to walk, and fometimes till they are three
years old, and during that period have no connexion.
with their huffiands.
After this account of the Negroes in general, we;
A fiic
Particular
tribes.
M ^ndin-
■goej.
Xanguage
polifiied,
and exten-
fively
known.
Induftrious
as mer¬
chants,
and inftruc
tors of
youth.
Courts of
juftice.
APR [2
(halt proceed to take notice of fofne of the more re¬
markable tribes into which they are divided, and with
which we have^ been made acquainted by the lated
travellers. Of thefe the tribe of Mandingoes is the mod
important. 'I hey derive their name from a diftriCt in
the interior of Africa, called Mundifig. This territory
is lltuated in the moft elevated northern traft of the
country 01 the Negroes, near the lources ct the rivers
Senegal and Gambia, which flow into the Atlantic on
the well, and of the Niger, which proceeds towards
the call. Kamaliah, which is one of its towns, and was
vifited by Mr. Park, lies in 120 46' N. Lat. Though
Manding is in fo high a level, and abounds in gold, it
is not mountainous or barren. The tribe that has iffued
from it, and aflumes the name of Mandingoes, forms
by Kir the moll numerous race of Negroes through the
whole weftern quarter of the continent of Africa.
I heir territories intermingle in various Actuations with
the poiTeffions of other Hates, and they even form the
bulk of the population where other tribes enjoy the
fovereign power. Their language is by far the moll
univerlaby underdbod of all the Negro tongues, and
it appears to be more polidied than .any other. The
Mandingoes are a tall llender race, of a colour mode¬
rately black. T heir eyes are remarkably fmall, and
they wear their beards. 1 hey are more indudrious,
and engage more extenfively in commerce than the
other Negroes, fo that they are frequently employed as
agents in making bargains by perfons of other tribes.
In the charafter of travelling merchants, and indruc-
tors of youth, they have infmuated themfelves into all
the Negro countries, where they are didinguilhed by
wearing more regularly than others a red or white cot¬
ton cap, and landals. Some of them who have learn¬
ed to read and write Arabic, and who profefs Maho-
. metanilrn, erefl fchools in the Pagan villages, and in-
HruCl tne youth gratis. i hey affume a great appear¬
ance of fanflity, abllain from drong liquors, and pre¬
tend to the power of counteracting magic. Thus they
acquire a mod extenfive influence, and few affairs of
importance are tranfaCled without their advice. In
aim oil every diffricl, troops of Mandingo merchants
are to be met with; and as their intelleftual powers are
more developed than thofe of the other Negroes, they
have been able to extend their language, as a kind of
learned tongue, fecond only to the Arabic, along the
Senegal and the Niger.
In mod of the Mandingo towns there are two pub¬
lic buildings j a mofque for public prayers, and what
is called the bentang, which is a large dage formed of
interwoven bamboos ereCted under a fpreading tree.
At the bentang all public affairs are tranfacled, and
idle perfons aflemble to fmoke tobacco, and hear news.
In every village there is a magidrate, who preferves
public order, levies the duties on merchants, and pre-
fides at the palavers or courts held by the old men
where jullice is adminidered. At thefe courts civil
quedions between parties are debated. In the Pagan
dates the decifions are pronounced according to the
cudoms of their fathers ; but where Mahometanifm is
more generally received, which is ufually the cafe a-
mong the Mandingoes, the Koran is the rule of judg¬
ment, or the Sharra, which contains a diged of Ma¬
hometan laws both civil and criminal. Certain Maho¬
metan Negroes, who make the law's of the prophet
70 ] APR
then- particular fludy, are frequently retained in ’caufes, Africa,
as pioieffional pieaders, and they are laid to exhibit v-**
great dexterity in perplexing the judges.
The Pagan Mandingoes believe ?n one G od, the Religion,
cieator of all things j but they confider him as of a
nature too much exalted above human affairs, to frive
much attention to their prayers. They addrefs him,
however, at the new moons, and imagine every new
moon to be a new creation. They fancy that certain
iubordmate jpirits rule the world, and that thefe fpirits
are influenced by enchantments and fetiches. They
believe in a future date, but mod of them admit that
they know nothing about it. Their funerals confid of
a tumultuous procedion, in which they make difmal
bowlings; and after burying the body befide lome large
tree, the folemnity terminates in a revel of drinking,
and at lad of dancing and flnging.
Next to the Mandingoes, the Foulahs are the mod Foulahs.
numerous race of Negroes on the wedern quarter of
the continent of Africa. Their original country is
called Foolcidoo. It is a fmall date, fituated near the
iouices of the Senegal and the Niger. Frotn thence
they have emigrated in powerful clans, and have ac¬
quired extenfive territories, efpecially along thefe rivers,
and along the Gambia. The Foulahs alfo poffefs the
fovereignty of various infulated trafts fouthward, to¬
wards Sierra Teona. Ileiides the fixed fettlements in
which they enjoy the fovereignty, they have introdu¬
ced themfelves in many places along the banks of the
Gambia, and to the fouthward along what is called
the gulf of Guinea, to a great diflance, into the greater
part of the Negro dates, in the character of fliepherds
and cultivators of the ground. They obtain adiniflion
by paying a tax or rent to the chiefs of the territory
for whatever lands they occupy, and emigrate at plea-
fure. In confequcnce of this mode of life, the fovereignty
frequently fluctuates in the fmall dates, betivecn them
and the Mandingoes, and other tribes, according to
the proportion of' the population, which often alters,
from the emigrations of the Foulahs.
The features of the Foulahs are very different from Features
theie ot the other Negroes, d hey have a Roman nofe,
a thin face, and fmall features, with long giddy foft
hair, fo as to referable in a great degree the Eaft In¬
dian Lafcars. I heir complexion is by no means of
the. permanent jetty colour of the other Negroes, but
varies with the didriCIs they inhabit, approaching to
yellow in the vicinity of the Moors, and deepening
into a moderate black towards the equator. Their
dature is of the middle fize, their form graceful, and
their air infinuating. Their women are well draped,
and have regular features ; but neither men nor women
are fo robud.in their make as the other Negroes.
Hence, they are accounted by the Negroes an inter¬
mediate race bctwreen themfelves and the Moors; but
the Foulahs ccmfider themfelves as fuperior to the Ne¬
groes, and clals therafelves among w hite nations. Their
natural difpofltion is mild and humane, and they are chaKidcr
extremely hofpitable where the Mahometan religion
has not taught them to treat infidels with referve.
rI hey fupport %vith great care the aged and infirm cf
their own tribe, and frequently relieve the neceffities
of perfons of others tribes. There are few indances of
one Foulah being infulted by another, and they never
fell their countrymen for Haves; on the contrary, if a
Foulah
A F R [27
Foulah have the misfortune to be en Have cl, his whole
clan or village contributes to pay his ranfom.
The Foulahs engage more extenfively than the other
Negroes in the railing of corn, and the breeding of
cattle, but efpecially in the latter occupation. Hence,
the Mandingoes frequently entrult their cattle to tae
care of the Foulahs. They render them tradlable by
familiarity } feed them by day in the woods and open
meadows, and iecure them by night in tolds, which they
fence very ilrongly. Not iatisfied with this precaution,
the herdfmen, whofe huts are erefted in tne middle ol
the fold, keep fires during the night burning around
the folds, for the prote&ion of the cattle againft wild
beafts, and to Ihow that they are in a ftate of prepara¬
tion againlt robbers. From the neceflity of guarding
their cattle they become intrepid hunters, and kill
lions, tigers, elephants, and other wild beads, with
poifoned arrows, or with mulkets which they purchafe
from the whites upon the coaft. To poifon their ar¬
rows, they boil the leaves of a particular Ihrub in rva-
ter, and dip in the black juice a cotton thread, which
they fallen round the barbs of the arrow.
From the milk of their cattle the Foulahs make
confiderable quantities of butter ; but like all the Ne¬
gro nations, they are entirely ignorant of the art of
preferving milk by making it into cheefe. 1 his art
is probably pi'evented from being introduced by the
heat of the climate, and by the extreme fcarcity of
fait, which can be obtained in no other way but by
purchafing it from the fea coafl, or from caravans of
trading Arabs, wdio bring it on the backs of camels
from the great defert. They entertain a lingular i'u-
perltition, that to boil the milk of a corv prevents her
from having any more. Hence, they will fell no milk,
to any perfon whom they have once dilcovered to
have boiled it.
Like the other Negro tribes, the Foulahs are ex-
ceflively fond of dancing. They have alfo a lirong
palTion for mufic, and their chiefs account a practical
fkill in it a mod refpedlable accompliIhment. Their
national airs have a peculiar character, and are tender
and pleafing.
Though the Foulahs do not enflave each other, they
do not hefitate to make war upon the neighbouring
tribes for the purpofe of obtaining Haves, chiefly with
a view of felling them to the Europeans upon the coall
for fire-arms and gunpowder. Such at lead is the ac¬
count of the matter, which w^as obtained in 1794 ^7
Melds Watt and Winterburn, who vifited Foota-jal-
lo, an extenfive .Foulah kingdom in the interior of
Sierra Leona. This kingdom extends about 300
miles from ead to well, and 200 from north to fouth.
Temboo, the capital, contains Jcco inhabitants. The
power of their king is in a great meafure arbitrary.
On an emergency, he can bring to the field 16,000
cavalry. The markets and all kinds of trade are re¬
gulated by him and his officers. The foil is in many
places extremely fertile, producing rice and maize,
which are cultivated by the women, and carried to
market by the men. In general, however, the ground
is dry and deny, but affords padure for all kinds of
cattle. Their women dig a fpecies ol iron done from
mines of confiderable depth. The ore is afterwards
manufadlured into a very malleable metal. In this
kingdom of Foota-jallo there are fehools in every
1 'J A F R
town j and the majority of the people can read. The Arnca.
Mahometan religion is profeffed, but the mild charac- 1 1
ter of the Foulahs prevents it from exhibiting that
afpecl of intolerance towards drangers which charac¬
terizes the profeffors of this religion in other countries.
On the wellern coad, a great part of the dillri£t be- jal0fts.
tween the rivers Senegal and Gambia, or, as it is often
called, Senega mb 1a, is inhabited by a nation called the
JaioJfs, which differs confiderably from the other
tribes of the Negroes. Their dature is tall and ro-
bud, and, though their complexion is of the deeped
black, their nofes are not fo much depreffed, nor their
lips fo protuberant, as thofe of the Mandingoes. They
excel their neighbours in the manufadlure and dying
of cotton cloth, which they form of a finer thread and
a broader web. They ufe their toes with the lame
dexterity as their fingers in many operations. Hence
when they perceive a pair of feiffars, a knife, or a toy
which they covet, they turn their backs upon it, and,
having engaged the owmer in converfation, they feize
it artfully with their toes, and throw it into a pouch
which they wear behind. In this way, drangers tra¬
ding in their towns are amazed to find their goods va-
nidiing before their eyes, while they cannot perceive
the thief. The Jaloffs are very warlike, and equal the
Moors in the management of horfes j but, as they are
divided into a variety of petty dates, which are conti¬
nually engaged in war with each other, they have little
powder as a nation. In the fuccedion to their leaders or
chiefs, they follow the female line as the fured j and
therefore, the elded fon of the elded fider of the chief
is preferred.
On the coad to the fouth of the river Gambia, thereFeloops. -
exids a rude but indudrious tribe, called the Fe/oops,
who have little intercourfe with their neighbours.
They poffefs confiderable energy of charadler, and
have refided fuccefsfully the attacks of the Mandin-
goes, even w hen aflided by the Portuguefe. They are
very faithful in friendfhip, and their enmity is equally
permanent, as they tranfmit their family feuds Irom ge¬
neration to generation. When a man is killed in a
quarrel, his elded fon procures his fandals, which he
wears on the anniverfary of the murder of his father,
till he can revenge his death. In thofe parts of their
country in which the Europeans have committed any
ravages, they give no quarter to a white rnan.^ I hey
fell to the Europeans, however, rice, goats, poultry,
wax, and honey.
Befides thefe, d variety of tribes inhabit the fame .
coad, and are known to Europeans under the appella¬
tion of AW/our, Biafaras, Bi/fagoes, Bet/antes, Pape/s,
and Banyans, of whom it is unneceffary to take parti¬
cular notice, as they appear to be didinguifiied by no
peculiarity from the other Negro tribes.
Proceeding eadward. in the country between theBambonk.
Senegal and the Gambia is Bambouh, a region of con¬
fiderable extent. The natives were originally termed.
Malinkups ; but, by intermingling with the Mandin¬
goes, they have gradually fo much aflxmilated to that
people, as to lofe the charadler of a didin£t tribe.
The country is mountainous, but is unwholefome and
full of minerals. It abounds in mines of gold, filverrM;nes of
copper, tin, and iron, but is neither well fuited for goi^ See.
agriculture nor for padurage. The working of the
mines is regulated bv the caprice or the wrants .of the
chiefs
A F R [27
cnicl’s of tlie different diitrifts. Tlie miners are indo¬
lent and unfkilful: I'hey never penetrate beyond 10
feet in depth, though the quantity of gold increafes
with the depth of the mine. They regard gold as a
capricious and malevolent being, who delights in delu¬
ding the miners } on which account they never attempt
to recover a vein when it difappears. The govern¬
ment of Bambouk fluftuates, like that of many of the
Negro dates, between monarchy and ariftocracy, and
the power of the king or fupreme chief is extremely
limited.
The frontiers of the Negro kingdoms ufually confift
of a wild or defert traft. Thus the kingdom of
Woolli, which is on the north-weft of Bambouk, is fe-
parated on its eaftern boundary, by a wildernefs filled
with wdld beads, from the kingdom of Bondou, which
lies to the north of Bambouk. Fattecondi is the capi¬
tal of Bondou, at wdrich the king refides. The king
caufed Major Houghton, an Englilh traveller employ¬
ed by the African Affociation, to be plundered } and he
begged from Mr Mungo Park his blue coat, which
that traveller was under the iieceffity of giving him,
to avoid bad ufage. His revenues, however, are con-
iiderable. His authority is firmly eftabliihed, and his
power is formidable to his neighbours. Fie was fo
well pleafed with obtaining Mr Park’s blue coat,
adorned as it was with yellow buttons, that, on the
following day he prefented to him fomewhat more than
half an ounce of gold, exempted his baggage from ex¬
amination by the tax-gatherers, and allowed him to pay
a vifit to the women of his feraglio. The country at
large is covered with w-ood, and, as it is is. an elevated
fituation, and cortfequently fomewhat lefs expofed than
elfewhere to the burning heat of the climate, it is
abundantly fertile. The frontier town of the kingdom
eaftward is called Joag. It contains 2000 inhabit¬
ants, is furrounded by a high wall with holes for muf-
kets, and is in 140 25' N. Lat. and 90 12' W. Long.
To the north-eaft of Bondou is the Mandingo
kingdom of Kaffon, in wdiich this peculiar cuftom or
fuperftition prevails, that no woman is allowed to eat
•an egg. Kooniakary, the capital, lies in N. Lat. 14°
34', about 591. geographical miles to the eaft of
|oag. To the fouth*eaft of Kaffcn is the kingdom of
Kaarta, wThich is bordered on the eaft by Bambara,
between which and Kaarta there are very frequent
w ars ; a circumftance which renders travelling through
thefe and other Negro ftates not a little difficult. The
people are induftrious : The cultivation of corn is Car¬
ried on to a great extent, efpecially in Bambara. They
are Mahometans, without the intolerant fanaticifm of
that religion 5 and accordingly, they are hofpitable to
ftrangers, though of a different faith. The neigh¬
bourhood of the Moors, however, renders the country
unfafe 5 and, to guard againft their incurfions, the Ne¬
groes, when employed in agriculture, are under the ne-
ceffity of carrying their arms to the field.
Sego, the capital of Bambara, lies in N.Lat. 140 ic/,
and W. Long. 2° 26'; and contains about 30,000 inha¬
bitants. It was here that Mungo Park at laft beheld
the long-fought majeftic river Niger glittering to the
morning fun, as broad as the Thames at Weftminfter,
and flowing flowly from weft to eaft. This river is
here called the Joliba by the natives. Front the times
of the Nafamonian explorers prior to the days of He-
2 I A F R
rodotus, during 2300 years, no certain intelligence Aincs.
concerning this river had been obtained by the Euro-v-—-v-*“
pean nations, and its very exiftence had been doubted
by the moft intelligent writers. Mr Park is the only
European traveller who fince that period can boaft of
having reached it. Sego confifts of four difiimft towns,
two of which are on the north and two on the fouthern
part of the Niger. They are furrounded by high mud
wnlls. The houfes are of a fquare form j they are built
of clay, and have flat roofs. The ftreets are narrow; and,
as the Moors form a confiderable proportion of the in¬
habitants, their mofques appear in every quarter. The
language, however, is a dialed! of the Mandingo. The
authority of the Negro king of Bambara is not a little
reftrained here by the influence of the Moors ; and, to
avoid giving offence to their intolerant fpirit, he was
under the neceffity of fending Mr Park immediately
out of the city to a village in the neighbourhood.
The weather was rtormy, but feme Negro women con-
dudted him into a hut, gave him food, and thereafter
began to their accuftomed labour of fpinning cotton.
During their work they amufed themfelves with a
fong, compofed upon the occafion, which one of them
fung to a plaintive air. The tranflation of the fong
is in thefe terms : “ The wind roared and the rains
fell j the poor white man, faint and weary, came and fat
under our tree. He has no mother to bring him milk,
no wife to grind his corn. Chorus. Let us pity the
white man, no mother has he,” &tc.
The current money of this place confifts of cowries,
a kind of (hells (cyptcea tnoneta Lin.) which are alfo em¬
ployed in the fame way in Bengal. A man and his horfe
can fubfift during 24 hours upon the provifiens that
IOO of them will purchafe. The king of Bambara
prefented Mr Park with 5000 cowries, and defired him
to leave the neighbourhood of his capital, that he
might not be deftroyed by the Moors. This traveller
perfevered in advancing eaftward down the river to an¬
other town called Si//fl, fituated in N. Lat. 140 48', Silla.
and W. Long. i° 24', about 1090 Britilh miles eaft of
Cape Verd. This formed the utmoft limit to which
he was able to advance, and therefore remains the
boundary of our certain knowledge of the countries in
that dire&ion. He learned, however, that Silla (lands
within 200 miles of the city of Tombuftoo, which is
upon the fame river, and had long been an objedt of
fearch of the Portuguefe, the French, and Englifh.
He was informed, that the country is very populous in
that direftion. He was alfo told, that about two days
journey below Silla, where he (lopped, there is a larger
town than Sego called Jenne, which lianas on a fmall
id and in the Niger j and that two days journey below
Jennc, the river expands into a large lake called Dib-
bie, from which the water iffues in two large branches,
infulating a fertile and fwampy country called Gin-’
bala; and that the two great branches of the river re¬
unite at Kabra, which is one day’s journey to the
fouth of the city of Tombudloo, of which it is the port.
The government of Tombudloo is faid to be in the
hands of the Moors; and that place is the principal
emporium of the Mooriffi commerce in Africa. Be-
low Tombudloo, to the eaftward, is the Negro city of
Houffa, the capital of a great kingdom, and poffeffed
of extenfive commerce. The Niger paffes to the fouth
of Houffa at the diftance of two days journey; but Mr
x Park
tjouffa.
A F R [ 27
Africa. Park could learn no thing further concerning its courfe,
V—-' as the traders who arrive at Tombuctoo and Houffa
from the coaft can fay nothing more of it, than that
it runs towards the rijing of the fun to the end of the
Soudan and world. Any farther intelligence that has hitherto been
Nigritia. obtained, concerning Soudan or Nigritia to the east¬
ward of the route of Mr Parkj is extremely uncertain,
being merely the refult of inquiries made by Mr Hor-
neman among the merchants of iezzan during his re-
fidence there. In the prefent irnperfeft Hate of our
knowledge, however, this information is entitled to
attention? He obferves, that “ the Houfla are certain¬
ly Negroes, but not quite black 5 they are the mod
intelligent people in the interior of Africa ; they are
diftinguilhed from their neighbours by an interefting
countenance ; their nofe is fmall and not flattened j and
their ftature is not fo difagreeable as that of the Ne¬
groes, and they have an extraordinary inclination for
pleafure, dancing, and flnging. Their character is be¬
nevolent and mild. Induflry and art, and the culti¬
vation of the natural productions of the land, prevail
in their country 5 and in this refpeft they excel the
Tezzanians, who get the greatefl part of their clothes
and houfehold implements from the Soudanians. I hey
can dye in this country any colours but fcarlet. I he
culture of their land is as perfedl as that of the Euro¬
peans, although the manner of doing it is very trou-
blefome. In Ihort, fays Mr Hornertian, we have
very unjuft ideas of this people, not only with reqjefl
to their cultivation and natural abilities, but alfo of
their ftrerigth and the extent of their poffeflions, which
are by no means fo confiderable as they have been re-
prefented. Their mufic is imperfetf, compared to the
European; but the Houffanian women have fkill
enough to affedf their hufbands thereby even to weep¬
ing, and to inflame their courage to the greateft fu¬
ry againft their enemies; The public fingers are call¬
ed Kadanka.”
jjorn0Uj The fame traveller informs us, that to the eaftward
of Houffa are fituated the dominions of the fultan of
Bornou. The people are blacker than the Houflanians,
and completely Negroes. They are ftrong, patient of
labour, and phlegmatic. Their food is a pafte made
of flour and fleih, and their liquor is an intoxicating,
but nouriihing kind of beer; Their belt natural pro-
duftion is copper. The low country of Wangara is faid
to be fubjeft to Bornou. It is periodically overflowed
by the Niger ; but the courfe of that river farther eaft¬
ward is not known. Mr Horneman was informed that
it has at leaft a periodical communication with the long¬
er branch of the Nile, called the Bahr Abiad or White
river, which rifes in the mountains A1 Komri, or moun¬
tains of the Moon, about the feventh degree of N. Eat.
Darfoor. To the eaftward of Wangara, at the diftance of about
fix degrees of longitude is the country of Darfoor already
mentioned j beyond which lies Kordafan, another bar¬
barous ftate 5 and ftill farther to the eaftward is the
country of Abyffmia, in which the fliorter branch . of
the Nile, the Bahr Azrac or Blue river, takes its rife,
which was vifited and traced to its fource by our coun¬
tryman Mr Bruce. That traveller conlidered the
Bahr Azrac as the Nile, whereas in truth it is oftly
■one of its tributary ftreams.
The belt or ftripe of territory of which wre have
hitherto taken notice is fttuated between the 10th and
Voi. I. Part I.
j ] A F R
17th degrees of N. Lat. To the fouthward of this
line the interior of Africa is ftill unknown, as it has
hitherto been viftted by no European traveller. W7e
only know that it contains various nations or tribes of
Negroes, of different charadlers and degrees of civiliza¬
tion. It may be obferved, however, that to the fouth Gago
of Tombudfoo and Houffa lies the kingdom of Gago,
near a ridge of mountains which run from weft to eait,
and give rife to many ftreams that flow northward into
the Niger. It produces much gold, and the people
are warlike. Their armies are compofed of cavalry j and
no warrior is permitted to take an enemy prifoner before
he has obtained, by the mutilation of perfons whom he
has (lain, an hundred bloody trophies, iimilar to th>Je
which, in the jewifti hiftory, David is laid to have v on
from the Philiftines and prefented to King Saul as the
price of his daughter Michal (1 Samuel xviii. 25.^ In
Gago, when the general takes the field he fpreads a buf¬
falo’s hide upon the ground j and, pitching a fpearat each
fide, he caufes the foldiers to march over it till a hole
be worn through the hide, when the army is utider-
ftood to be fufficiently numerous. The king is abfolute'j
but, when they are offended with his conducl, his fub-
jedfs fometimes rebel and fend him a prefent of parrots
eggs, with a meffage, importing that “ his fttbjefts,
confidering that he muft be fatigued with the trouble
of government, are of opinion that it is time for him
to indulge in a little deep.” If the rebellion appear
too formidable to be refilled, his majefty takes the
hint, and defires his women to ftrangle him ; upon
which he is immediately fucceeded by his fom
To the fouth of Gago, and near to the gulf oi Guinea, Dahomy.
is the kingdom of Dahomy. Fhe capital, called Abo-
my, Hands in N. Lat. 70 59'. The country is fertile and
cultivated, bearing every kind of grain, as well as indigo,
cotton, and fugar. The charafter of the people is
ftrongly marked, and fome of their cuftoms are fingular.
In their wars they are bold, and even ferocious j but to¬
wards ftrangers they are hofpitablej without any mixture
of rudenefs. Their king poffeffes abfolute power in
the moft complete fenfe of the word. All children,
vzhether male or female, are confidered as his property.
They are early feparated from their parents, and receive
a fort of public education, with a view to deftroy from
their minds all family connexions. The king’s dwell¬
ing occupies a fpace of about a mile fquare. It con-
fifts of a multitude of huts formed of mud walls with
bamboo roofs; and the whole is enclofed by a mud wall
of 20 feet in height. The entrance of the king’s apart¬
ment is paved with human ikulls and the fide walls are
ornamented with the jaw bones of men. On the thatch¬
ed roofs numerous human {hulls are ranged on wooden
{lakes j and he declares war by announcing that his horde
wants thatch. He has commonly about 3000 females
immuredinthis dwelling j and about 500 are appropriat¬
ed to each of the principal officers. W hen a man wants
a wife he muft purchafe her from the king or fome of
thefe officers. He muft firft lay down the price, which
is 20,000 cowries ; and muft then be contented with the
wife that is allotted to him. At his acceffion the king
proclaims that he knows xrobody, and is not inclined
to make any new acquaintance ; that he wall adminifter
juftice rigoroufly and impartially, but wall liften to no
reprefentations againft his will ; and that he will receive
no prefen&s except from his officers, who approach him
Mm ’ with
Afr-ic?.,
European
eftablilh-
ments.
Slave-
trade.
.A F R [2
with the moft abj^ft fubmiflion. His whole fubje&s
' acknov.’ledge themfelves his haves, and admit his right
to the abfolute diipofal of their property and perfons.
Their characier is neverthelefs aftive and intrepid 5 and
they facrif ce tbemfelves in war without hefitation, in
obedience to his commands. Thus the Dahomans ap¬
pear to form a fort of exception to the general mildnefs
of the Negro charafter.
In addition to what has been here hated concerning
the black inhabitants of the fouthern regions of Africa,
it may be remarked, that a French traveller, Vaillant,
proceeding northward from the Cape of Good Hope,
has made repeated efforts to inveftigate the character
and ftate of the natives in that quarter. He has ex¬
tended his refearches into what is called the country of
the Cajfres, far beyond the limits that had been reach¬
ed by any other traveller, and has given us the names
of various African tribes under the appellation of Ghef-
fquas, Nimiquas, Koraquas, Kahobiquas, and Howzou-
anas. Hide tribes differ confiderably in their features
and make of body from the general Negro race, which
we have already deferibed. In their moral and intel¬
lectual character, however, they are not a little inferi¬
or : Their wants are extremely few, and are fupplied
by their docks and herds without the neceflity of agri¬
culture ; and their lives pals awray in a routine of lilt-
lefs inaftivity, or of limple and uninterefting occu¬
pations, the detail of which would afford little amufe-
ment or initruction.
We have already mentioned, that the European na¬
tions, during thefe three laft centuries, have eitablilh-
ed fmall fettlements or garrifons upon different parts
of the Negro coaft, chiefly for the purpofe of obtaining
flaves by trading wntli the natives. The number of
people that are annually exported from that country, in
confequence of this trade, by Europeans or Moors is
very great. The Europeans have frequently carried
from the weft coaft above 100,000 flaves a-year 5 and
the caravans of Egypt and Fezzan carry off about
20,000 annually. The very great extent to which
this traffic is carried on the weffern coaft, undoubtedly
gives rife to many abufes among the native ftates in
that neighbourhood, and is produftive of frequent wars
among them. Unfortunately, the nations of Europe
have hitherto made few efforts to compenfate thefe
evils by any attempts to introduce their arts, their ci¬
vilization, or their fcience, among the natives. Till
lately, the Portuguefe were the only nation that at¬
tempted the improvement of the Negroes. They did
not confine themfelves to garrifons or trading factories,
but formed confiderable colonies on the coafts. They
attempted to inftruft the natives in 'the better cultiva¬
tion of their foil} and introduced their own religion
among them. It is even faid, that in Loango, Congo,
Angola, and Benguela, they have been fo fedulous in
the converffon of the Negroes, that they have made
them better Chriftians than themfelves. It is worthy
of notice, as a faft of fome importance in natural hi-
ftory, that fuch of the defendants of the Portuguefe
in thefe climates as have adopted the manners of the
Negroes, and their modes of life,' are hardly to be di-
ftinguilhed in colour from the darkeft Negroes. From
the weaknefs of the parent ftate, the Portuguefe fet¬
tlements, in many places, are greatly decayed ; and
their efforts for the civilization of the natives have
74 ] A F R
not been fufficiently extenfive or perfevering : ftill, Africa.
however, they are faid to carry on the flave-trade with ' v—■
more mildnefs and humanity than other nations. The
flaves are catechifed and baptized before they are {hip¬
ped •, which tends to diminifli the terrors attending
tranfportation. The flave-fhips of the Portuguefe are
never crowded, and they are chiefly navigated by
black mariners.
In 1779, a Swediftr fociety formed the protect of
fettling a European colony on the weftern coaft of
'Africa, with the view of diffeminating the general
principles of civilization. This project was, at a later
period, eagerly preffed by Charles Berns Wadftrom,
a native of that country, but without fuccefs. After¬
wards the Danes eltabliihed a frnall colony with the
fame view, near the mouth of the river Volta, under
the fuperintendence of Docftor Ifert. In the mean
time, the muverfity of Cambridge in England, in 1785,
propofed, as the iubject of a prize-effay, a queftion con¬
cerning the lawffulnefs of the flavery and commerre
of the human fpecies. The prize was won by Mr
J. Clarkion 5 and the queftion began to attraft public
notice : Vaft numbers of pamphlets were written ; and
in a few years the whole nation interefted itfelf in the
fubjeft, and the flave-trade became an object of popular
indignation. Some legillative attempts were made to¬
wards its abolition, which, were probably fruftrated
by the convulfed ftate into which Europe was plunged
by the French revolution. In the mean time, as early
as 1783, Doftor H. Smeathman had propofed a fpe-
cific plan for the colonization of Africa. This plan
was not immediately attended to j but in the year
1787, after the fubjeft had affumed a greater degree
of importance, an attempt was made to carry it into
execution, by fending about four hundred blacks and fix-
ty whites, chiefly people of abandoned characters, col¬
lected about London, to Sierra Leona, In confe-Sierra
quence of the kind of perfons chofen as colonifts, this Feona.
firft attempt did not fucceed. But in July 1791, a
number of perfons who had contributed money for the
purpofe of making a fettlement with a view to the in-
ftruCtion and civilization of the Africans, were incor¬
porated by aCt of parliament under the name of the
Sierra Leona Company. At the termination of the
American war, many black loyalifts had been convey¬
ed to Nova Scotia, which they difliked, in confequence
of the fterility of the lands allotted to them, and the
feverity of the climate. The new Sierra Leona Com¬
pany made propofals to thefe blacks to form a fettle-
rnent upon the coaft of A frica, to which they were to
be conveyed at the expence of the Company. The
propofal was accepted by 1 200 blacks, who arrived at
Sierra Leona in March 1792. After experiencing
confiderable difficulties, the colony began to enjoy to¬
lerable profperity, and received ambaffadors from the
neighbouring Negro ftates j but on the 28th Septem¬
ber 1794 a French fquadron ftiddenly plundered and
deftroyed the colonial town. This fquadron had been
fitted out »or the purpofe of difturbing the trade of the
Envlilh f!ave-fa<ftories on the coaft, and is faid to have
been infligated by an American flave captain, who
had taken fome offence at the governor, to make the
attack now mentioned. The damage was repaired.
The fettlement has fince been vifited by various mif-
fionajies from different religious feds in Britain, with
the
A F W [ 275 1
Afnca tlie view of extending the Chriftian religion. Hie colo
A G A
A?a'
II ny, however, dill languilhes. It has been engaged in
Afweftad. j-ome unf0rtunate contefts with the natives; and it has
v——v—-J fOUnd neceffaiy to affift the Company with
the public money. It feems doubthu how far it is
likely ever to fulfil the purpofe for which it wTaS infti-
tuted, chiefly in confequence of the difficulty of main¬
taining a very Heady intercourfe with the countiy
which founded it, and from the unfavourable natui e of the
climate to the health of the natives of Europe. With¬
out fuch an intercourfe, it is nearly impoffible for any
infant colony to preferve its own civilization, and much
lefs to confer it upon others. The firfl: colonifts, from
the neceflity of engaging in agriculture, foon forget
the arts and the fciences of the parent Hate •, and un-
Jefs new fettlers, from time to time, revive among them,
and keep up the improvements of their anceftors, the
whole fettlement is apt to fink into a femibarbarous
Hate, or into a refemblance of the natives of the coun¬
try into which they have come. Inis has been the
fate of moft of the Portuguefe colonies that were in¬
tended for the civilization of the Africans 5 and mull
prove the deftiny of our own fettlement of Sierra Leona,
Unlefs the ordinary courfe of events {hall be counteract¬
ed by extraordinary efforts.
AFRICAN Company. See Company.
’African AJJbciation. See Association.
AFRIC ANUS, Julius, an excellent hiltorian of the
third century, the author of a chronicle which was
greatly efteemed, and in which he reckons 55°° yea^s
from the creation of the world to Julius Csefar. This
work, of which we have now no more than what is to
be found in Eufebius, ended at the 221ft year of the
vulgar aera. Africanus alfo wrote a letter to Origen
on the hiftory of Sufanna, which he reckoned fuppo-
fltitious : and we have ftill a letter of his to Ariftides,
in which he reconciles the feeming contradidlions in
the twTo genealogies of Chrift recorded by St Matthew
and St Luke.
AFSLAGERS, perfons appointed by the burgo-
jnafters of Amfterdam to prefide over the public iales
made in that city. They muft always have a clerk of
the fecretary’s office with them, to take an account of
the fale. They correfpond to our brokers, or auc¬
tioneers.
AFT, in the fea language, the fame with Abaft.
AFTERBIRTH, in Midwifery, fignifies the mem¬
branes which ffirround the infant in the womb, gene¬
rally called the fecundines. See Midwifery.
AFTERMATH, in Hujbandry, fignifies the grafs
which fprings or grows up after mowing.
AFTERNOON, the latter half of the artificial day,
or that {[Dace between noon and night.
AFTER-PAINS, in Midwifery, exceffive pains felt
in the groin, loins, &c. after the woman is delivered.
AFTER-SWARMS, in the management of bees,
are thofe which leave the hive fome time after the firft
has fwarmed. See Bee.
AFWESTAD, a large copper-work belonging to
the crown of Sweden, w'hich lies on the Dala, in the
province of Dalecarlia, in Sweden. It looks like a
town, and has its own church. Here they make cop¬
per plates ; and have a mint for fmall filver coin, as
well as a royal poft-houfe. W. Long. 14. 10. N. Lat.
cL 10.
AG A, in the Turkijh Language, fignifies a great
lord or commander. Hence the aga of the janizaries Agat.jppej
is the commander in chief of that' corps; as the gene-
ral of horfe is denominated fpahiclar aga. 'I he aga of
the janizaries is an officer of great importance. He
is the only perfon who is allowed to appear befoi e tne
Grand Signior without his arms acrofs his breaft in the
pofture of a Have. Eunuchs at Conftantinople are in
poffeftion of moft of the principal polls of the iera-
glio : The title aga is given to them all, whether in
employment or out. 'I his title is alfo given to all
rich men without employ, and efpecially to wealthy
landholders. _ r .
. We find alfo agas in other countries. The chief
officers under the khan of Fartary are called by this
name. And among the Algerines, wre read of agas
chofen from among the boluh bajhis (the firft rank of
military officers), and fent to govern in the chief towns
and gatrifons of that ftate. 1 he aga of Algiers is the
prefident of the divan, or fenate. For fome years, the
aga was the fupreme officer •, and governed the ftate in
the place of baffiaw, whofe power dwindled to a ffia-
dow. But the foldiery rifing againft the bolub bajhis,
or agas, maffacred moft of them, and transferred tne
fbvereign powrer to the caliph, with the title of L)ey
or King.
AGADES, a kingdom and city of Negfoland in
Africa. It lies nearly under the tropic of Cancer, be¬
tween Gubur and Cano. T he town Hands on a river
that falls into the Niger; it is walled, -and the king’s
palace is in the midft of it. I he king has a retinue, .
who ferve as a guard. 1 he inhabitants are not
black as other Negroes, and confift of merchants and
artificers. Thofe that inhabit the fields are ffiepherds
or herdfmen, whofe cottages are made of boughs, and
are carried about from place to place on the backs of
They are fixed on the fpot of ground where
they intend to feed their cattle. The houfes in the city
are ftately, and built after the Barbary faftiion. This
kingdom was, and may be ftill, tributary to the king
of Tombu&oo. It is well watered ; and there is great
plenty of grafs, cattle, fenna, and manna._ The pre¬
vailing religion is the Mahometan, but it is not rigid¬
ly pra&ifed. N. Lat. 26. 10. E. Long. 9. 10.
AGALLOCHUM, a very fragrant medicinal wood
brought from the Eaft Indies. See Exc^caria, Bo¬
tany Index.
AGALMATA, in Antiquity, a term originally
ufed to fignify any kind of ornaments in a temple 5 but
afterwards for the ftatues only, which were moft con-
fpicuous.
AGAMEMNON, the fon of Atreusby Erope, was
captain general of the Trojan expedition. It was fore¬
told to him by Caffandra* that his rvife Clytemneftra
would be his death : yet he returned to her; and ac¬
cordingly was flain by JEgifthus, who had gained up¬
on his wife in his abfence, and by her means got the
government into his own hands.
AGAN, in Geography, one of the Ladrone iflands.
The circumnavigator, Magellan, was affaffinated here
in the year 15 2 5.
AGANIPPIDES, in Ancient Poetry, a defignation
given to the l\Iufes, from a fountain of hlount Helicon,
called Aganippe. K
AGANIPPE, in Antiquity, a fountain of Bosofia,
M m 2 ‘d
A G A [ *
Agape at Mount Helicon, on the borders between Phocis and
A'Jird Boeotia, facred to the Mufes, and running into the ri-
Permeffus; (Pliny, Paufanias.) Ovid feems to
make Aganippe and Hippocrene the fame. Selinus
more truly diftinguifhes them, and afcribes the blend¬
ing them to poetical licenfe.
AGAPE, in EcciejinJlical Hi/lory, the love-feaft, or
feaft of charity, in ufe among the primitive Chriftians ;
when a liberal contribution was made by the rich to
feed the poor. The word is Greek, and fignifies /ove.
St Chryfoftom gives the following account of this feaft,
which he derives from the apoftolical praftice. He
fays, “ The firft Chriftians had all things in common,
as we read in the Acls of the Apoftles; but when that
equality of pofleflions ceafed, as it did even in the A-
poftles time, the agape, or love-feaft, was fubftituted
in the room of it. Upon certain days, after partaking
o.f the Lord’s fupper, they met at a common feaft ; the
rich bringing provifions, and the poor who had nothing
being invited.” It was always attended with receiving
the holy facrament 5 but there is fome difference between
the ancient and modern interpreters as to the circum-
ftance of time, viz. whether this feaft was held before
or after the communion. St Chryfoftom is of the lat¬
ter opinion 5 the learned Dr Cave of tire former.—Thefe
love-feafts, during the three firft centuries, were held
in the church without fcandal or offence ; but, in after
times, the heathens began to tax them with impurity.
I his gave occafion to a reformation of thefe ago pee.
The kifs of charity, with which the ceremony ufed to
end, was no longer given between different fexes ; and
it was exprefsly forbidden to have any beds or couches,
for the conveniency of thofe who flrould be difpofed to
eat more at their eafe. Notwithftanding thefe precau¬
tions, the abufes committed in them became fo noto¬
rious, that the holding of them (in churches at leaft)
was folemnly condemned,, at the council of Carthage,
in the year 307.
AG A PETAL, in EccleJlaJIical Hijlory, a name given
to certain virgins and widows, who, in the ancient
church, affociated themfelves with, and attended on,
ecclefiaftics, out of a motive of piety and charity.
In the primitive days there were women inftituted
D eaconesses ; who, devoting themfelves to the fervice
of the church, took up their abode with the minifters,
and aftifted them in their functions. In the fervour of
the primitive piety, there w^as nothing fcandalous in
thefe focieties : but they afterwards degenerated into
libertinifm 5 infomuch, that St Jerome afks, with in¬
dignation, unde agapetarum pejlis in ecclejias introiit ?
This gave occafion to councils to fupprefs them.—St
Athanafius mentions a prieft, named Leontius, who,
to remove all occafion of fufpicion, offered to mutilate
himfelf, to preferve his beloved companion.
AGARD, Arthur, a learned Englifh antiquarian,
born at Tofton in Derbyihire in the year i'540. His
fondnefs for Englifh antiquities induced him to make
many large collections; and his office as deputy cham¬
berlain of the exchequer, which he held 45 years, gave
him great opportunities of acquiring fkill in that ftudy.
Similarity of tafte brought him acquainted with Sir
Robert Cotton, and other learned men, who affociated
themfelves under the name of The Society of Antiqua¬
rians, of which fociety Mr Agard was a confpicuous
member. He made the Poojnfday book his peculiar
76 ]
A G A
ftudy 5 and compofed a work purpofely to explain it,
under the title of Tracfatus de ufu et obfeurioribus ver¬
bis libri dc Domefday : he alfo compiled a book for the
fervice of his fucceffors in office, which he depbfited
with the officers of the king’s receipt, as a proper in¬
dex for fucceeding officers. All the reft of his collec¬
tions, containing at leaft twenty volumes, he bequeathed
to Sir Robert Cotton ; and died in 1615.
AGARIC, Female. See Boletus, Botany
Index.
Agaric, Mineral, a marly earth, refembling the
vegetable of that name in colour and texture. It is
found in the fiflures of rocks, and on the roofs of ca¬
verns ; and is fometimes ufed as an aftringent in fluxes,
hemorrhagies,. &o.
AGARICUS, Mushroom. See Agaricus, Bo¬
tany Index.
AGATE, or Achat, (among the Greeks and'La*
tins, AfcXTns, and Achates, from a river in Sicily, on
the banks of which it was firft found), a very exten-
ftve genus of the femipellucid gems.
Thefe ftones are variegated with veins and clouds*
but have no zones like thofe of the onyx. They are
compofed of cryftal debafed by a large quantity of
earth, and not formed, either by repeated incruftations
round a central nucleus, or made up of plates laid
evenly on one another ; but are merely the effieft of
one fimple concretion, and variegated only by the dif-
polition given by the fluid they were formed in to
their differently coloured veins or matters.
Agates are arranged according to the different co¬
lours of their ground. Of thofe with a white ground
there are three fpecies. (1.) The dendrachates, mocca
fone, or arborefeent agate. This feems to be the fame
with what fome authors call the achates with rofemary
in the middle, and others achates with little branches
of black leaves. (2.) The dull milhy-looking agate*
This, though greatly inferior to the former, is yet a
very beautiful ftone. It is common on the fhores of
rivers in the Eaft Indies, and alfo in Germany and
fome other parts of Europe. Our lapidaries cut it in¬
to counters for card-playing, and other toys of fmall
value. (3.) The lead-coloured agate, called the phajfa-
chates by the ancients.
Of the agates with a reddijh ground there are four
fpecies. (1.) An impure one of a flefh-coloured white,
which is but of little beauty in comparifon with other
agates. The admixture of flefh-colour is but very
flight; and it is often found without any clouds, veins,
or other variegations ; but fometimes it is prettily vein¬
ed or variegated w-ith fpots of irregular figures, ha¬
ving Tmbriated edges. It is found in Germany, Italy,
and fome other parts of Europe ) and is wrought into
toys of fmall value, and often into the German gun-
flints. It has been fometimes found with evident fpeci.
mens of the perfedl moffes bedded deep in it. (2.)
That of a pure blood colour, called hcemachates, or
the bloody agate, by the ancients. (3.) The clouded
and fpotted agate, of a pale flefti colour, called by the
ancients the cornelian achates or fardachatejs. (4.) The
red-lead coloured one, variegated with yellowq called
the coral agate, or coralla-achates, by the ancients.
Of the agates with a yellowifh ground there are only
twro knowm fpecies; the one of the colour of yellow
wax, called aerachates by the ancients • the other a
very
Agate.
# f.phcm-
German.
dec. i. an. I
obf. 151.
4- De gem.
1. ii. C. <?5.
^ Pliny
1. xxxvii.
c- 3*
A G A [ ^
very elegant ftone, of a yellow ground, variegated with
white, black, and green, called the leonina, and Icon-
tcferes, by the ancients.
Laftly, Of the agates with a greenijl ground, there
is only one known i’pecies, called by the ancients jaf-
pachates. . .
Of all thefe fpecies there are a great many varieties ;
fome of them having upon them natural reprefentations
of men and different kinds of animals, &c. Thefe
reprefentations are not confined to the agates whole
ground is of any particular colour, but are occafional-
ly found on all the different fpecies. Velfchius had in
his cuftody a fiefn-coloured agate, on one fide of which
appeared a half-moon m great pemeclion, reprelented
by a milky femicircle ; on the other fide, the phafes of
vefper, or the evening ftar : whence he denominated it
an aphrodijian agate. An agate is mentioned by Kir-
cher *, on which was the reprefentation of a heroine
armed } and one m the church of St ivlark in Venice
. has the reprefentation of a king,s head adorned witn a
diadem. On another, m tne mufteum of the pnnce
of Gonzaga, wTas reprefented ‘he body of a man with
all his clothes in a running pofture. A ttill_ more cu¬
rious one is mentioned by De Boot f, wherein appears
a circle ftruck in brown, as exaflly as if done with a pair
of compaffes, and in the middle of the circle the exact
figure of a bilhop with a mitre on : but inverting the
ftone a little, another figure appears } and if it is turn¬
ed yet further, two others appear, the one of a man,
and the other of a woman. But the moft_ celebrated
agate of this kind is that of Pyrrhus, wherein were re¬
prefented the nine Mules, with their proper attri¬
butes, and Apollo in the middle playing on the harp|.
In the emperor’s cabinet is an oriental agate of a fur-
prifing bignefs, being faffiioned into a cup, whofe dia¬
meter is an ell, abating two inches. In the cavity is
found delineated in black fpecks, B. xristor.. s. xxx.
Other agates have alfo been found, reprefenting the
numbers 4191, 191whence they were called arith¬
metical agates, as thofe reprefenting men or women
have obtained the name of anthropomorphous.
Great medicinal qualities were formerly attributed
to the agate, fuch as refilling poifons, efpecially thofe of
the viper, fcorpion, and fpider ; but they are now very
juftly rejefled from medicinal practice. The oriental
ones are all faid to be brought from the river Gambay.
A mine of agates was fome time ago dilcovered in
Tranfylvania, of divers colours \ and fome of a large
fize, weighing feveral pounds.
Agates may be ftained artificially with folution of
filver in fpirit of nitre, and afterwards expofing the
part to the fun ; and though thefe artificial colours
difappear on laying the ftone for a night in aquafortis,
yet a knowledge of the prafticability of thus flaming
agates, muft render thefe curious figures above men¬
tioned ftrongly fulpeffed of being the wOrK. not of na¬
ture, but of art. Some account for thefe phenomena
from natural caufes. Thus Kircher, who nad feen
a ftone of this kind in which were depiffed the four
letters ufually infcribed on crucifixes, I. N. R. I. ap¬
prehends that fome real crucifix had been buried un¬
der ground, among ftones and other rubbifh, where the
infcription happening to be parted from the crofs, and
to be received among a foft mould or clay fufceptible
of the imp re Ton of the letters,.came afterwards to be
J A G A
petrified. In the fame manner he fuppoles the agate Agate,
of Pyrrhus to have been formed. Others rcfolve much v
of the wonder into fancy, and fuppofe thofe ftones
formed in the fame manner with the camaieux * or Tk>- * See Cc-
maieux.
rentme itones. _ .
The agate is ufed for making cups, rings, feals,
handles for knives and forks, hilts for fwords and
hangers^ beads to pray with, imelling boxes, pate h-
boyes, &c. being cut or fawed with no great difficul¬
ty^ At Paris none have a right to deal in this com¬
modity except the wholefale mercers and goiufiniths.
The fwoid cutlers are allowed to fell it, but only when
made into handles for couteaux de chaffe, and ready let
in. The cutlers have the fame privilege for their
knives and forks.
Conffderable qnantites of thefe ftones are ftill found
near the river Achates in Sicily. Ihere are iound in
fome of thefe the furprifing reprefentations above men¬
tioned, or others fimilar to them. By a dexterous
management of thefe natural itams, medals have been
produced, which feem mafterpieces of nature : for this
ftone bears the graver well ; and as pieces of all
magnitudes are found, they make all forts of work of
it. The high altar of the cathedral of Medina is ail
over encrufted with it. The lapidaries pretend that the
Indian agates are finer than the Sicilian j but Father
Labat * informs us, that in the fame quarries, and even * Fcoyage
in the fame block, there are found pieces much finer d'ltai. tom. -
than others, and thefe fine pieces are fold for Indian V,F V •
agates in order to enhance their prices.
~ Agate, among Antiquaries, denotes a ftone of this
kind engraven by art. In this fenfe, agates make a
fpecies of antique gems } in the workmanlhip whereof
we find eminent proofs of the great {kill and dexterity
of the fculptors. Several agates of exquifite beauty are
preferved in the cabinets of the curious j but tne fads
or hiitories.reprefentrcd on thefe antique agates, however
well executed, are now become fo oofeure, and their
explications fo difficult, that feveral diverting miftakes
and difputes have arifen among thofe who undertook
to give their true meaning.
The great agate, of the apotheofis of Auguftus, in
the treafury of the holy chapel, when fent from Con-
ftantinople to St Lewis, paffed for a triumph of Jofeph.
An agate, which was in the French king’s cabinet f, had f tip. Ax ad.
been kept 700 years with great devotion,.in the Bene--^- Irfcrlp.
difline abbey of St Evre at Toulr where it paffed for’-0™’1 P-
St John the Evangelift carried away by an eagle, and'J
crowned by an angel •, but the Heathenii'm of it having
been lately-detefted, the religious would no longer give
it a place among their relicks, but prefented it in 1684
to the king. The antiquaries found it to be the ape-
theofis of Germanicus. In like manner the triumph
of Jofeph was found to be a reprefentation of Germa¬
nicus and Agrippina, under the figures of Ceres and
Triptolemus. Another was preferved, from time im¬
memorial, in one of the moft ancient churches of
France, where it had paffed for a reprefentation of pa-
radife and the fall of man *, there being found on it two
figures reprefenting Adam and Eve, with a tree, a fer-
pent, and a Hebrew infcription round it, .taken from
the third chapter of Genefis, “ The woman law that
the tree was good,” &c. I he French academifts, in-
ftead of our firft parents, found Jupiter and Minerva
reprefented by the two figures : the infcription was of
a-
'344-
A G D [ 278 ] AGE
a modern date, written in a Rabbinical chara&er, very
incorreft, and poorly engraven. The prevailing opi¬
nion was, that this agate reprefented limply the worfhip
of Jupiter and Minerva at Athens.
Agate is alfo the name of an inftrument ufed by
gold-wire drawers ; fo called from the agate in the
middle of it, which forms its principal part.
AGATHIAS, or, as he calls himfelf in his epi¬
grams, Agathius, diftinguifhed by the title of Scho-
lajlicus, a Greek hiftorian in the 6th century under Ju-
llinian. He was born at Myrina, a colony of the an¬
cient Atolians, in Alia the lefs, at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Phythicus. He was an advocate at Smyrna. Though
he had a tafte for poetry, he was yet more famous for
his hilfory, which begins with the 26th year of Jufti-
nian’s reign, where Procopius ends. It wms printed
in Greek and Latin by Vulcanius, at Leyden, 1594, in
4to ; and at Paris at the king’s printing houfe, 1660,
in folio.
AGATHO, the Athenian, a tragic and comic poet,
was the difciple of Prodicus and Socrates, and applaud¬
ed by Plato in his Dialogues for his virtue and beauty.
His firll tragedy obtained the prize j and he was crown¬
ed in the prefence of upwards of 30,000 perfons in the
4th year of the 90th Olympiad. There is nothing now
extant of his works, excepting a few quotations, in
Ariftotle, Athenceus, and others.
AGATPIOCLES, the famous tyrant of Sicily, was
#he fon of a potter at Reggio. He was a thief, a common
foldier, a centurion, a general, and a pirate, all in re¬
gular fucceffion. He defeated the Carthaginians feve-
Tal times in Sicily, and was once defeated himfelf. He
firft made himfelf tyrant of Syracufe, and then of all
Sicily ; after which he vanquifhed the Carthaginians
again both in Sicily and Africa. But at length hav¬
ing ill fuccefs, and being in arrears with his foldiers,
they mutinied, forced him to fly his camp, and cut the
throats of his children, -whom he left behind. Reco¬
vering himfelf again, he relieved Corfu, befieged by
Gaffander; burnt the Macedonian fleet 5 returned to
Sicily ; murdered the wives and children of thofe who
had murdered his: afterwards meeting with the fol¬
diers themfelves, he put them all to the fword ; and, ra-
Taging the fea-coaft of Italy, took the city of Hippo-
ruum. He was at length poifoned by his grandfon
Archagathus, in the 72c! year of his age, 290 years be¬
fore Chrift, having reigned 28 years.
AGATHYRNA, or Agathyrnum, Agathyr-
sa, or Agathyrsum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Sicily } now St Marco ; as old as the war of Troy,
being built by Agathyrnus, fon of iEolus, on an emi¬
nence. The gentilitious name is Agathyrnccus; or,
according to the Roman idiom, Agathyrnenjis.
AGAVE, American aloe, in Botany. See Bo¬
tany Index.
AGDE, a city of France, in the department of He-
rault, formerly the province of Languedoc, in the ter¬
ritory of Agadez, with a bifhop’s fee. The diocefe is
fmall, but is one of the richeft countries in the king¬
dom. It produces fine wool, wine, oil, corn, and lilk.
It is feated on the river Herault, a mile and a quarter
from its mouth, where it falls into the gulf of Lyons,
and where there is a fort built to guard its entrance.
It is well peopled } the houfes are built of black ftone,
und there is an entrance into the city by four gate’s.
2
The greatefl part of the inhabitants are merchants or
feamen. The public buildings are but mean : the
cathedral is fmall, and not very handfome : the bi¬
fhop’s palace is an old building, but convenient. The
city is extended along the river, where it forms a little
port, wherein fmall craft may enter. There is a great
concourfe of pilgrims and other devout people to the
chapel of Notre Dame de Grace. It is a little with¬
out the city, between which and the chapel there are
about thirteen or fourteen oratories, which they vifit
with naked feet. The convent of the Capuchins is well
built, and on the outflde are lodgings and apartments
for the pilgrims who come to perform their neuvaine or
nine days devotion. The chapel, which contains the
image of the Virgin Mary, is diflinct from the convent.
E. Long. 3, 28. N. Lat. 43. 19.
AGE, in the moll general fenfe of the word, figni-
fies the duration of any being, from its firft coming in¬
to exiftence to the time of fpeaking of it, if it Bill con¬
tinues 5 or to its deftrudtion, if it has ceafed to exifl:
fome time before we happen to mention it.
Among the ancient poets, this uTord rvas ufed for the
fpace of 30 years 5 in which fenfe, age amounts to
much the fame wflth generation. Thus, Neftor is faid
to have lived three ages when he wTas 90 years old.—
By ancient Greek hiftorians, the time elapfed flnee the
beginning of the world is divided into three periods,
which they called ages. The firlT reaches from the
creation to the deluge which happened in Greece du¬
ring the reign of Ogyges ; this they called the obfeure
or uncertain age, becaufe the hiftory of mankind is al¬
together uncertain during that period. The fecond
they call the fabulous or heroic age, becaufe it is the
period in which the fabulous exploits of their gods and
heroes are faid to have been performed. It began wflth
the Ogygian deluge, and continued to the firit Olym¬
piad ; where the third or hijlorical age commenced.—
This divifion, however, it muft be obierved, holds good
only vrith regard to the Greeks and Romans, rvho had
no hiftories earlier than the firfl: Olympiad j the Jews,
Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Chaldees, not to mention
the Indians and Chinefe, who pretend to much higher
antiquity, are not included in it.
The interval fince the firfl: formation of man has
been divided by the poets into four ages, diftinguifhed
by the epithets oi golden, fiber, b'ra%en, and iron. Du¬
ring the golden age, Saturn reigned in heaven, and
juftice and innocence in this lower world. The earth
then yielded her produftions without culture ; men
held all things in common, and lived in perfeft friend-
fhip. This period is fuppofed to have lafted till the
expulfton of Saturn from his kingdom. I he fiber age
commenced when men began to deviate from the paths
of virtue 5 and, in confequence of this deviation, their
lives became lefs happy. The brazen age commenced
on a farther deviation, and the iron age took place in
confequence of one ftill greater. A late author, how¬
ever, refledling on the barbarifm of the firfl: ages, will
have the order which the poets aflign to the four ages
inverted; the firfl: being a time of rudenefs and igno¬
rance, more properly denominated an iron than a gold¬
en age. When cities and ftates were founded, the fil¬
ler age commenced 5 and fince arts and fciences, navi¬
gation and commerce, have been cultivated, the golden
age has taken place.
In
AGE [27
Age. In Tome ancient northern monuments, the rocky or
—V—1Jlony age correfponds to the braxen age of the Greeks.
It is called rocky, on account of Noah’s ark, which
refted on Mount Ararat j whence men were laid to be
defcended or fprung from mountains : or from Deu¬
calion and Pyrrha reftoring the race of mankind, by
throwing Hones over their heads. The northern poets
alfo ftyle the fourth age of the world the a/ben age,
from a Gothic king Madenis, or Mannus, who on ac¬
count of his great iirength was laid to be made of alh,
or becaufe in his time people began to make ufe of
weapons made of that wood.
Among the Jews, the duration of the world is alfo
divided into three ages. 1. The feculum inane, or
void age, was the fpace of time from the creation to
Mofes. 2. The prefent age, denotes all the fpace of
time from Mofes to the coming of the Mefliah j and,
3. The age to come, denotes the time from the coming
of the Mediah to the end of the world.
Various other divifions of the duration of the world
into ages have been made by hiftorians.—The Sibyl¬
line oracles, wrote, according to fome, by Jews ac¬
quainted with the prophecies of the Old Teitament,
divide the duration of the world into ten ages ; and ac¬
cording to Jofephus, each age contained fix hundred
years. It appears, by Virgil’s fourth eclogue, and
other teftimonies, that the age of Auguftus was repu¬
ted the end of thofe ten ages, confequently as the period
of the world’s duration.
By fome, the fpace of time commencing from Con-
ftantine, and ending with the taking of Conftantinople
by the Turks in the 15th century, is called the mid-
d/e age : but others chooie rather to date the middle
age from the divifion of the empire made by Theodo-
fius at the clofe of the 4th century, and extend it to
the time of the emperor Maximilian I. in the begin¬
ning ot the 16th century, when the empire was firlt
divided into circles The middle is by fome denoted
the barbarous age, and the latter part of it the lowejl
age. Some divide it into the non-academical and aca¬
demical ages.. The firft includes the fpace of time from
the 6th to the 9th century, during which fchools or
academies were loft in Europe. The fecond from the
9th century, when fchools were reftored, and univer-
fities eftablilhed, chiefly by the care of Charlemagne.
The feveral ages of the world may be reduced to
three grand epochs, viz. the age of the law of nature,
called by the Jews the void age, from Adam to Mofes-,
the age of the Jewilh law, from Mofes to Chrilt •, and
the age of grace, from Chrifl to the prefent year.
Age is alfo frequently ufed in the fame fenfe with
century, to denominate a duration of 100 years.
likewife fignines a certain period of the dura¬
tion of human life j by fome divided into four ftages,
namely, infancy, youth, manhood, and old age 5 the
firft extending to the 14th year, the fecond to the
25th, the third to the 50th, and the fourth to the end
of life ; by others divided into infancy, childhood,
youth, manhood, and old age.
Age, in Law, fignifies a certain period of life, when
perfons of both fexes are enabled to do certain acts.
Thus, one at twelve years of age ought to take the
oath of allegiance to the king in a leet -, at fourteen
he may marry, choofe his guardian, and claim his lands
held in foccage. Twenty-one is called full age, a man
Agen.
9 ] AGE
or woman being then capable of afting for themfelves, Age.noth
of managing their affairs, making contracts, difpofing
of their eftates, and the like.
Age of a Horfe. See Horse.
Age of frees. Thefe after a certain age wafte.
An oak at an hundred years old ceafes to grow. 1 he
ufual rule for judging of the age of wood, is by the
number of circles which appear in the iubftance of a
trunk or ftock cut perpendicularly, each circle being
fuppofed the growth of a year } though fome reject
this method as precarious, alleging, that a Ample circle
is fometimes the produce of feveral years j befides that,
after » certain age, no new circles are formed.
Aan-prior, in Law, is when anaflion being brought
againft a perfon under age, for lands defcended to him,
he, by motion or petition, fhows the matter to the
court, praying the adlion may be ftaid till his full age,
which the court generally agrees to.
AGELNOTH, Egelnoth, or iErHELNOTH, in
Latin Acbelnotus, archbiftiop of Canterbury, in the
reign of Canute the Great, fucceeded Livingus in that
fee in the year 1020. This prelate, furnamedthe Good,
was fon of Earl Agilmer, and at the time of his elec¬
tion, dean of Canterbury. After his promotion he
went to Rome and received his pall from Pope Bene-
dhft VIII. In his way thither, as he paffed through
Pavia, he purchafed, for an hundred talents of filver
and one of gold, St Auguftin’s arm, w hich was kept
there as a relic ; and lent it over to England as a pre¬
fent to Leofric earl of Coventry. Upon his return, he
is faid to have railed the fee of Canterbury to its for¬
mer luftre. He was much in favour with King Ca¬
nute, and employed his intereft with that monarch to
good purpofes. It was by his advice the king fent
over large fums of money for the fuppert of the foreign
churches; and Malmfbury obferves, that this prince
was prompted to a£ts of piety, and reftrained from ex.-
cefles, by the regard he had for the archbiihop. Agel-
noth, after he had fat 17 years in the fee of Canter¬
bury, departed this life on the 29th of Oftober 1038,
and was fucceeded by Eadfius, King Harold’s chap¬
lain. This archbifhop was an author, having written,
1. A Panegyric on the bleffed Virgin Mary. 2. A
Letter to Earl Leofric concerning St Auguftin. 3. Let¬
ters to feveral perfons.
AGEMA, in Macedonian Antiquity, was a body of
foldiery, not unlike the Roman legion.
AGEMOGLANS, Agiamoglans, or Azamo-
glands, in the Turkijh Polity, are children purchafed
from the Tartars, or raifed every third year, by way
of tribute, from the Chriftians tolerated in the Turkifh
empire. Thefe, after being circumcifed and inftru&ed
in the religion and language of their tyrannical mafters,
are taught the exercifes of war, till they are of a pro¬
per age for carrying arms; and from this corps the ja¬
nizaries are recruited. With regard to thofe who are
thought unfit for the army, they are employed in tire
loweft offices of the feraglio. Their appointments alfo
are very fmall, not exceeding feven afpers and a half
per day, which amount to about threepence-halfpenny
of our money.
AGEN, a city of France, on the river Garonne, the
capital of Agenois, in the province of Guienne, now
the department of the Garonne, andthefec'of a biftiop^
The gates and old walls, which are yet remaining, Ihow
that
AGE [2
that this city is very ancient, and that its former cir¬
cuit was not fo great as the prefent. The palace,
wherein the prelidial holds his feffions at this day, was
heretofore called the caftle of Montravel, and is feated
without the Walls of the old city, and on the fide of
the fofle. There are likewife the ruins of another
caltle called La Sdgne, which was without the walls,
Clofe by a brook. Though the fituation of Agen is
convenient for trade and commerce, the inhabitants
are fb extremely indolent that there is very little ) of
which the neighbouring cities take the advantage. It
h feated on the bank of the river Garonne, in a plea-
fant country ; but is itfelf a very mean and difagree-
able place, the houfes being ill-built, and the ftreets
narrow, crooked, and dirty. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat.
44- 12. . .
AGENDA, among Fhilofophers and Divines, fig-
nines the duties which a man lies under an obligation
to perform : thus we meet with the agenda of a Chri-
ftian, or the duties he ought to perform 5 in oppofition
to the credenda, or things he is to believe.
Agenda, among Merchants, a term fometimes ufed
for a memorandum-book, in which is fet down all the
bufmefs to be ttanfafted during the day, either at home
or abroad.
Agenda, ambng EccleftajHcal Writers, denotes the
fervice or office of the church. We meet with agenda
matutina et vefpcrtina, “ the morning and evening pray¬
ers agenda diet, “ the office of the day,” whether
feaft or fail ; agenda mortuorum, called alfo fimply
agenda, “ the fervice of the dead.”
Agenda, is alfo applied to certain church-books,
tompiled by public authority, prefcribing the order
and manner to be obferved by the minifters and peo¬
ple in the principal ceremonies and devotions oi the
church. In which fenfe agenda amounts to the fame
with what is otherwife called ritual, liturgy, acalou-
thia, mijfal, formulary, directory, &c.
AGENHINE, m our old writers, fignifies a gueft
that has lodged at an inn for three nights, after which
time he was accounted one of the family and if he
offended the king’s peace, his hoft was anfwerable for
him. It is alfo written hogenhine and hogenhyne.
AGENOIS, in Geography, a country of France, in
the department of the Garonne, formerly the province
of Guienne. It contains about one hundred and twenty
fpuare leagues 5 is fertile and healthy } and, according
to Caffiar, was inhabited by the Nitiobriges. It con-
flituted part of the kingdom of Aquitania 5 was held
by the counts of 1 ouloufe, and fucceffively by the
Eneliffi and French.
t">
AGENORIA, in Mythology, the goddefs of cou¬
rage and induftry, as Vacua a was of indolence.
AGENT, in a general fenfe, denotes any aftive
power or caufe. Agents are either natural or moral.
Natural agents are fuch inanimate bodies as ha\e a
power to act upon other bodies in a certain and deucr-
minate manner } as, gravity, fire, &c. Moial agents,
on the contrary, are rational creatures, capable of re¬
gulating their actions bv a certain rule.
Agent, is alfo ufed to denotea perfon intrufted
with the management of an affair, whether belonging
to a fociety, company, or private perfon.
yLcENTES in rebus, one of the ranks of officers in the
court of the Conftantinopolitan emperors, whofe buff-
3
80 ] AGE
nefs was to collect and convey the corn both for the A
army and houfehold ; to carry letters and meffages
from court to all parts of the empire \ to regulate , A.
couriers, and their vehicles $ to make frequent jour¬
neys and expeditions through the provinces, in order to
irifpedt any motions, difturbances, or machinations tend¬
ing that way, and to give early notice thereof to the
etnperor.
The agentes in rebus, are by fome made fynonymous
with our poll-mailers, but their fun&ions were of great
extent. They correfpond to what the Greeks call
Trveyipopoi, and the Latins i)eredarii.
There were various orders or degrees of agentes in
rebus ; as tribuni, primicerii, fenatores, ducenarn, bi-
circhi, circitores, equites, tyrones, &c. through all which
they role gradatim. Their chief, who refided at Con-
ftantinople, was denominated pnneeps; which was a
poll of great dignity, being reckoned on a level with
that of proconfuh They wTere fettled in every part
of the empire , and are alfo laid to have ferved as in¬
terpreters.
AGER, in Roman Antiquity, a certain portion of
land allowed to each citizen. See Agrarian Law.
AGER picenus, or Picenum, in Ancient Geography,
a territory of Italy to the fouth-eall of Umbria, reach¬
ing from the Apennines to the Adriatic. 'I he people
are called Picentes (Cicero, Livy,) diftina from the
Picentini on the Tufcan fea, though called by Greek
writers nixivTivet, This name is faid to be derived from
the bird picus, under wffiofe condua they removed from
the Sabines, of whom they were a colony.
AGERATUM, bastard Uemp-agrimony, in
Botany. See Botany Index.
AGESPLikUS, king of the Lacedaemonians, the
fon of Archidamus, was raifed to the throne in oppo¬
fition to the fuperior claim of his nephew Leotychides.
As foon as he came to the throne, he advifed the La¬
cedaemonians to anticipate the king of Perfia, who
was making great preparations for war, and to attack
him in his own dominions. He was himfelf chofen for
this expedition } and gained fo many advantages over
the enemy, that if the league which the Athenians and
the Thebans formed againft the Lacedaemonians had
not obliged him to return home, he would have car¬
ried his vidlorious arms into the very heart of the Per-
fan empire. He gave up, however, all thefe triumphs
readily, to come to the fuccour of his country, which
he happily relieved by his victory over the allies in Boe-
otia. He obtained another near Corinth; but to his
great mortification, the Thebans afterward gained fe-
veral over the Lacedaemonians. I hefe misfortunes at
firft raifed a clamour againft him. He had been fick
during the firft advantages which the enemy gained }
but as foon as he was able to aft in perfon, hL. vaioui
and prudence prevented the T hebans from leaping the
advantages of their viftoties ; fo that it r\as generally
believed, had he been in health at the beginning, the
Lacedemonians would have fuftained no Ioffes, and that
all would have been loft had it not been for his affift-
ance. It cannot be denied but he loved war more
than' the intereft of his country required 5 for if he
could have lived in peace, he had faved the Lacede¬
monians feveral Ioffes, and they would not have beep
engaged in many enterprifes which in the end contri¬
buted much to weaken their power. He died in the
third
A G G [28
Agefilaus third year of the 104th Olympiad, being the 84th
fl year of his age and 41ft of his reign, and was luc-
ceeded by his fon Archidamus. Agefilaus would ne-
_v ver fuffer any picture or fculpture to be made of him,
and prohibited it alfo by his will: this he is fuppofed
to have done from a confcioufnefs of his own defoimi-
ty } for he was of a fiiort ftature, and lame of one foot,
fo that ftrangers ufed to defpife him at the firlt figh.t.
His fame went before him into Egypt, and there they
had formed the higheft idea of Agefilaus. When he
landed in that country, the people ran in crowds to
fee him : but great was their furprife when they faw
an ill dreffed, flovenly, mean-looking little fellow, ly-
jng upon the grafs : they could not forbear laughing,
and applied to him the fable of the mountain in labour.
He was, however, the firft to jeft upon his own per-
fon 5 and fuch was the gaiety of his temper, and the
ilrength with which he bore tne rougheft exerciles,
that thefe qualities made amends for his corporeal de-
fefts. He was remarkable for plainnefs and frugality
in his drefs and mode of life. _ “ This (fays Cornelius
Nepos) is efpecially to be admired in Agefilaus : when
very great prefents were fent him by kings, governors,
and Hates, he never brought any of them to his own
houfe 5 he changed nothing of the diet, nothing of the
apparel of the Lacedsemonians. He was contented
•with the fame houfe in which Eurifthenes, the founder
of his family, had lived : and whoever entered there,
could fee no fign of debauchery, none of luxury j but
on the contrary, many of moderation and abftinence ;
for it was furniihed in fuch a manner, that it differed
in nothing from that of any poor or private perfon.”
Upon his arrival in Egypt, all kinds of provifions were
fent to him •, but he chofe only the moil common, leav¬
ing the perfumes, the confeftions, and all that was
elteemed moll delicious, to his fervants. Agefilaus
was extremely fond of his children, and would often
amufe himfelf by joining in their diverfions :. one day
when he was lurprifed riding upon a flick with them,
he faid to the perfon who had feen him in this poflure,
“ Forbear talking of it till you are a father.”
AGGA, or Aggonna, a Britifh fettlement on the
Gold coaft of Guinea. It is fituated under the meri¬
dian of London, in 6 degrees of N. Lat.
AGGER, in the Ancient Military Art, a work of
fortification, ufed both for the defence and the attack of
towns, camps, &c. In which fenfe it is the famewdth
what was otherwife called vallum, and in later times
aggejlum ; and among the moderns lines, fometimes ca¬
valiers, terraJJ'es, &c. The agger was ufually a bank,
or elevation of earth or other matter, bound and fupport-
ed with timber •, having fometimes turrets on the top,
wherein the workmen, engineers, and foldiery, were
placed. It was alfo accompanied with a ditch, which
ferved as its chief defence. The ufual materials of
which it was made were earth, boughs, fafcines, flakes,
and even trunks of trees, ropes, &c. varioufly croffed,
and interwoven fomewhat in the figure of liars j whence
they were calledJlellati axes. When thefe were want¬
ing, Hones, bricks, tiles, fupplied the office : on feme
occafions, arms, utenfils, pack-laddles, were thrown
in to fill it up. We even read of aggers formed of the
carcafes of the flain •, fometimes of dead bones mixed
with lime ; and even with the heads of flaughtered ci¬
tizens. For want of du« binding, or folid piaterials.,
V-ojl. I. Part L
1 ] A G G
aggers have fometimes tumbled down, with infinite Aggerhnys
mifehief to the men. The befiegers ufed to carry on a Arr,.r!! ,e>
work of this kind nearer and nearer towards the place, . -^1—^
till at length they reached the very wall. The methods
taken on the other fide to defeat them were, by fire,
efpecially if the agger were of wood •, by Tapping and
undermining, if of earth } and in fome cafes, by erect¬
ing a counter agger,
The height of the agger was frequently equal to
that of the wall of the place. Caefar tells us of one he
made, which was 30 ieet high and 330 feet broad.
Befides the ufe of aggers before towns, the generals
ufed to fortify their camps with iuch works \ for want
of this precaution, armies have often been furprifed and
ruined.
There were vaH aggers made in towns and places on.
the fea-fide, fortified with towers, caflles, &c. Thole
made by Caefar and Pompey at Brundufium, are famous.
Sometimes aggers were even built acrofs arms of the
fea, lakes, and moraffes j as was done by Alexander be¬
fore Tyre, and by M. Antony and Caffius.— I he wall
of Severus, in the north of England, may be confider-
ed as a grand agger, to which belong feveral leffer ones.
Agger, in ancient writers, likewife denotes the
middle part of a military road, raifed into a ridge, with
a gentle flope on either fide, to make a drain for the
wTater, and keep the w7ay dry.
The term is alfo ufed for the whole road, or military
wray. Where highways wrere to be made in low grounds,
as between twro hills, the Romans ufed to raife them
above the adjacent land, fo as to make them of a level
with the hills. Thefe banks they called aggeres. Ber-
gier mentions feveral in Gallia Belgica, w7hich were
thus raifed, ten, fifteen, or twenty feet above ground.
—They are fometimes alfo called aggeres calceati; and
now generally known by the name chaujfees or caufe-
ways.
AGGERHUYS, a city of Norway, capital of the
province of the fame name, fubjecl to Denmark, and
fituated in E. Long. 28. 35» andN. Lat. 59. 30.
AGGERS-HERRED, a diffrift of ChriHianfand,
and a diocefe of Norway. It confifts of three juridical
places : namely, Afcher, Weff Barm, and Agger.
AGGLUTINANTS, in Pharmacy, a general name
for all medicines of a glutinous or vifeid nature *, v;hich,
by adhering to the folids, were iuppoled to contribute
to repair their lofs.
AGGLUTINATION, in a general fenfe, denotes
the joining tw7o or more things together, by means of
proper glue or cement.
Agglutination* among Phyficians, implies the
aftion of reuniting the parts of a body, feparated by a
w'ound, cut, &c. It is alio applied to the action of
fuch internal medicines as are iuppofed to be of an ag¬
glutinating quality.
AGGREGATE, in a general fenfe, denotes the
fum of feveral things added together, or the colletlion
of them into one v7hole. I hus, a houle is an aggre¬
gate of Hones, v7ood, mortar, &c. It differs from
a mixed or compound } for, in the latter, toe union
is more intimate than between the parts of an ag¬
gregate.
Aggregate, in Botany, is a term ufed to expreis
thofe fiowers which are compofed of parts or florets,
fo united, by means either of the receptacle or calyx,
N n that
A G I [ 282 ] A G I
Aggrega- that no one of them can be taken away without de-
tion ftroying the form of the whole. They are oppofed to
. o.. j1 fimple dowers, which have no fuch common part. See
. - . Botany Index.
AGGREGATION, in Phyjics, a fpecies of union,
whereby feveral things which have no natural depen¬
dence or connexion with one another are collefted to¬
gether, fo as in fome fenfe to conftitute one. Thus, a
heap of fand, or a mafs of ruins, are bodies by aggre¬
gation.
AGHER, a town of Ireland, fituated in the fouthcrn
part of Ulfter, not far from Clogher.
AGHRIM, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Wicklow, and province of Leinfter, lituated about 3 x
miles fouth-weft of Wicklow.
Aghrim, in Galway j a fmall village, diftant about
32 miles from Dublin, and rendered memorable by a
decifive battle fought there, and at Kilcommodon-hill,
the 12th of July 1691, between General Ginkle and
Monfieur St Ruth, the commanders under King Wil¬
liam III. and James II. when St Ruth, the general of
the Irilh army, with 7000 of his men, was {lain; but
of the Englilh only 600. The victory was the more
eonfiderable, as the Englidi army confifted of no more
than 18,000 men } v/hereas the Irifh were computed at
20,000 foot and 5000 horfe and dragoons. They loft
likewife nine pieces of brafs cannon j all their ammuni¬
tion, tents, and baggage \ moft of their fmall arms,
which they threw away to expedite their flight j with
1 j ftandards, and 32 pair of colours.
AG1ADES, in the Turkiih armies, a kind of pio¬
neers employed in fortifying camps, fmoothing of roads,
and the like offices.
AGILITY, an aptitude of the feveral parts of the
body to motion. The improving of agility was one
of the chief objefts of the inftitution of games and ex-
ercifes. The athletse made particular profeffion of the
fcience of cultivating and improving agility. Agility
of body is often fuppofed peculiar to fome people •> yet
it feems lefs owing to any thing peculiar in their frame
and ftrufture than to practice.
AGINCOURT, a village of the French Nether¬
lands, fituated in E. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 50. 35. j fa¬
mous on account of the victory obtained by Henry V.
of England over the French, in 1415.
The army of Henry, after landing in France, was by
various accidents reduced to 10,000 men, of whom not
a few were lick, or flowly recovering from ficknels j.
—they had to traverfe a long tract of country, inha¬
bited by exafperated enemies, from whom they were
to procure proviiions, lodging, guides, intelligence, and
every thing they wanted ,—that country was defended
by many ftrong towns, interiected by deep rivers, and
guarded by an army of 100,000 or (according to fome
contemporary writers) 140,000 men.
Henry, undaunted by all thefe dangers and difficul¬
ties, departed from Harfleur, marching his army in
three lines, with bod.es of cavalry on the wings. He
proceeded by very eafy journeys, that he might not fa¬
tigue his troops, or difeourage them by the appearance
of a flight 3 obferving the ftriffeft difeipline, and pay¬
ing generoufly for every thing he received 3 which in¬
duced the country people to bring proviiions to his
camp, in fpite of all the commands they had received
to the contrary. To keep his men in fpixits, and. from
repining, the king fared as ill as the meaneft foldier, Aglncour,4,
always appearing with a cheerful countenance, and ad- *—"-V’'-''
drefling them in the moft friendly and encouraging
language. They arrived at the village of Agincourt
in the county of St Pol, on the evening of Odlober
24th 3 and there beheld the whole French army, at a
fmall diftance, directly in their route. The king took
an attentive view of it from an eminence 3 and being
fully convinced that it was impoffible to proceed any
further on his way to Calais without a battle, and equal¬
ly impoffible to return to Harfleur with fo great air
army in his rear, refolved to hazard an a£fion next
morning, as the only means of preferving himfelf and
his little army from deftruftion.
The Engliffi army lodged that night in the villages
of Agincourt, Maifoucelle, and ibme others 3 where
they met with better accommodation than they had
been accuftomed to for fome time paft, and fpemt part
of their time in mutual exhortations to fight bravely in
the approaching battle. The king, overhearing fome
of his nobles expreflfmg a wifh, that the many brave
men who were idle in England were prefent to affift
them, is fald to have cried out—“ No ! I would not
have one man more :—if we are defeated, we are too
many—if it {hall pleafe God to give us the viftory, as
I truft he will, the frnaller our number the greater our
glory.” The moon happening to ihine very bright,
Henry, with fome of his belt officers, carefully exa¬
mined the ground, and pitched upon a field of battle,
admirably calculated to preferve a fmall army from be¬
ing furrounded by a great one. It was a gentle decli¬
vity from the village of Agincourt, of fufficient extent
for his fmall army, defended on either fide by hedges,
trees, and bruih-wood. Having placed guards and
kindled fires on all fides, the king and his army betook
tbemfelves to reft; except fuch as were of a more fe-
rious turn of mind, who, confidering that as the laft
night of their lives, {pent it in devotion.
1'he French, exulting in their numbers, confident of
viflory, and abounding in proviiions, fpent the night
in noify feftivity, and in forming fanciful fchemes a-
bout the difpofal of their priibners and their booty.
It was in general refolved to put all the Englifh to the
fword, except the king and the chief nobility, who
were to be taken prifoners for the fake of their ran-
foms.
On the morning of Friday the memorable 25th of
October, A. D. 1415, the day of Crifpin and Crifpia-
nus, the Englifh and French armies were ranged in or¬
der of battle, each in three lines, with bodies of cavalry
on each wing. The conftable d’Albert, who com¬
manded the French army, fell into the fnare that was
laid for him, by drawing up his army in the narrow
plain between the two woods. This deprived him, in
a great meafure, of the advantage he fliould have de¬
rived from the prodigious fupenority of his numbers 'y
obliged him to make his lines unneceflarily deep, about
30 men in file 3 to crowd his troops, particularly his
cavalry, fo clofe together, that they could hardly move,
or ufe their arms 3 and, in a word, was the chief caufe
of all the difafters tliat followed. The French, it is
faid, had a confiderable number of cannon of different
fizes in the field; but we do not hear that they did
any execution, probably for want of room. The firft
line of the French army, which confifted of 8oco men-
at-arms
A G I t 28
Aeincourt. at-a'-ns on foot mixed with 4000 archers, with 500
men-at-arms mounted on each wing, was commanded
by the conftable d1 Albert, the dukes of Orleans and
Bourbon, and many other nobles *, the dukes of Alen-
con, Brabant, and Bar, &c. conduced the fecond hnej
and the earls of Marie, Damartine, Fauconberg, &c.
Were at the head of the third line. The king or^ Eng¬
land emnloyed various arts to fupply his dme6f of num¬
bers. Fie placed 200 of his beft archers in ambufh, m
a low meadow, on the flank of the firft line of the
French. Flis own firft line confifted wholly of archers,
four in file ; each of whom, befides his bow and ar¬
rows, had a battle-axe, a fword, and a flake pointed
with iron at both ends, which he fixed before him in
the ground, the point inclining outwards, to pretext
him from cavalry. Fins was a new invention, and had
a happy effea. That he might not be encumbered, he
difmiffed all his prifoners, on their word of honour to
furrender themfelves at Calais, if he obtained the vic¬
tory *, and lodged all his baggage in the village of A-
gincourt, in his rear, under a {lender guard. The
command of the firft line was, at his earneft requeft,
committed to Edward duke of York, affifted by the
Lords Beaumont, Willoughby, and Fanhope } the fe¬
cond "was condufted by the king, with his youngeit bio-
ther Humphry duke of Clouceftcr, the calls of Ox¬
ford, Marftial, and Suffolk; and the third was led by
the duke of Exeter, the king’s uncle. The lines be¬
ing formed, the king, in fhining armou#, v\ith a crown
of gold adorned wuth precious ftones on his helmet,
mounted on a fine white horie, rode along them, and
addreffed each corps with a cheerful countenance and
animating fpeeches. lo inflame then leientment a-
gainft their enemies, he told them, that tne French had
■determined to cut off three fingers of the light hand
of every priloner : and to rouie their love of honour,
he declared, that every foldier in that army who be¬
haved well, ftiould from henceforth be deemed a gen¬
tleman, and entitled to bear coat armour..
When the tivo armies were drawn up in this man¬
ner, they flood a confiderable time gazing at one ano¬
ther in folemn filence. But the king, dreading that
the French would difeover the danger of their fituation
and decline a battle, commanded the charge to be
founded, about ten o’clock in the forenoon. At that
inftant, the firft line of the Englifti kneeled down,
and kiffed the ground ; and then flatting up, difehar-
cred a flight of arrows, which did great -execution a-
mong the crowded ranks of the French. Immediate¬
ly after, upon a fignal being given, the archers in am-
bufti arofe, and difeharged their arrows on the flank of
the French line, and threw it into fome diforder. The
battle now became general, and raged with uncommon
fury. The Englifli archers, having expended all their
arrows, threw away their bows, and, rufliing foiward,
made dreadful havoc with their fwords and battle-axes.
The firft line of the enemy was, by thefe means,, de¬
feated ; its leaders being either killed or taken prifon¬
ers. The fecond line, commanded by the duke d A-
len^on, (who had made a vow either , to kill or take
the king of England, or to perifti in the attempt),
tioav advanced to the charge, and was encountered, by
the fecond line of the Englifli, conduced by the hmg,
This con flic! was more clofe and furious than the for¬
mer. The duke of Gloucefter, wounded and unhorfed,
3 ] AG!
was protected by his royal brother till he was carried
off the field. The duke d’Alcn^on forced his way to ^,ns-
the king, and affaulted him with great fury •, but that —
prince brought him to the ground, where he was m-
ftantly difpatched. Difcouraged by this difafter, the
fecond line made no more refiftance} and the third fled
without ftriking a blow 5 yielding a complete and glo¬
rious victory to the Englifti, after a violent ftruggle of
three hours duration.
The king did not permit his men to purfue the fu¬
gitives to a great diftance, but encouraged them to take
as many prifoners as they could on or near the field \ in
which they were fo fucceisful, that, in a.little time, his
captives ivere more numerous than bis loluieis. A
great proportion ot thefe prifoners were men of rank
and fortune j for many of the French nobleffe being on
foot, and loaded with their heavy armour, could not
make their efcape. Among thefe were the duke'- o£
Orleans and Bourbon, the marihal Boucicaut, the
counts d’Eu, Vendome, Richemont, and Flarcourt j and
7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The French
left dead on the field of battle, the conftable d’Albert,
the three dukes of Alencjon, Brabant, and Bar, the
archbiftiop of Sens, one marftial, 13 earls, 92 barons,
x500 knights, and a far greater number of gentlemen,
befides feveral thoufands of common foldiers. Even
the French hiftorians acknowledge, that the lofs cf the
Englifti was inconfiderable: thofe of our own cotempu
rary writer who make it the greateft, aihrm, that it d-u
not exceed 100, and that the duke of T ork and the
earl of Suffolk were the only great men who fell on
that fide in this memorable a&ion.
AGIO, in Commerce, is a term chiefly ufed in Hoi
land, and at Venice, to fignify the difference, between
the value of bank ilock and the current coin. The
agio in Holland is generally three or four per cert, and
at Rome it is from 15 to 25 per cent, but at \enice
the agio is fixed at 20 per cent.
AG IO SYM ANDRUM, a wooden inftrument.uled
by the Greek and other churches under the dominion
of the Turks, to call together affetnblies of the people.
The agiofymandrum was introduced in the place of bells,
which the Turks prohibited their Chriftian fubjedts
the ufe of, left they fliould make them fubfervient to
AG IS, king of Lacedaemon, was defeended from
Agefilaus II. in a right line. He projedled the refor¬
mation of his kingdom, by the reftoring of the laws
offrLycurgus } but he fell under the weight of ah en-
terpriie that could not but be dilagreeable to all tnofe
who had great poffeilions, and had been long accuftom-
ed to the fweets of a voluptuous lile. Agis being in
the flower of his age, and having a. very refined defire
of glory, pradlifed the ancient diicipline firft in his
own perfon : his clothes and his table wcie according
to the manners of former times } which is fo much the
tnore to be admired, becaufe Agefiftrata his mother
and Archidamia his grandmother had brought him up
voluptuoufly. When he founded his people’s minds, he
found the younger fort oppofed his projedf left -than
thofe who had enjoyed a relaxation of difciplme fcveral
vears. The greateft difficulty was expedied to anie
from the women. They had at that time more credit
than ever •, for their power is never greater than when
luxury is in fafliion. Agefilaus’s mother did not at all
N n 2 renin.
A G I [2
relifh the propofed reformation. She mud have loft
her riches, which gave her a {hare in a thoufand forts
of intrigues 5 fo die oppofed the defign at once, and
treated it as a chimera. But her brother Agciilaus,
whom Agis had engaged in his interefts, knew how
to manage her in fuch a manner, that fhe promifed to
fecond the enterprife. She endeavoured to gain the
women : but inftead of fuffefing themfelves to be per-
fuaded, they applied to Leonidas the other king of
Lacedfemon, and humbly befought him to fruftrate
the defigns of his colleague. Leonidas durft not op-
pofe it openly, for fear of irritating the people ; to
whom the reformation was agreeable, becaufe they
found their account in it. He contented himfelf with
countermining it by intrigues, and fowing fufpicions as
if Agis had afpired to tyranny, by pulling down the
rich and raifmg the poor. Agis did not fail to pro-
pofe his new laws to the fenate, relating to the dif-
charge of debts, and a new divifion of the lands. Leo¬
nidas, being fupported by the rich, oppofed this pro¬
ject fo ftrongly, that there was one voice more againft
it than for it. He paid dear for his fuccefs in this af¬
fair. Lyfander, one of the Ephori, who had been
the grand promoter of the reformation, called him to
account; alleged the celeilial figns } and put to death
Cleombrotus, a prince of the royal blood and fon-in-
law to Leonidas, to make fare of the kingdom. Leo¬
nidas being frightened at this, took refuge in a tem¬
ple ; whither his daughter, the wife of Cl^ombrotus,
followed him. He was fummoned ; and becaufe he
did not appear, he was degraded of his dignity, which
was conferred on Cleombrotus. He obtained leave to
retire to Tegtea. The new Ephori had Lyfander and
Mandroclidas tried for innovation : thefe perfuaded the
two kings to unite and turn out thefe Ephori. The
thing was brought about} but not without a great up¬
roar in the city. Agefilaus, one of the Ephori that
fucceeded thofe who were juft turned out, would have
caufed Leonidas to be killed on the way to Tegaea, if
Agis had not fent him a ftrong guard. The reforma¬
tion might then have been eftablifhed, if Agelilaus
had not found means to elude the good intentions of
the two kings. Whilft this was tranfadling, the A-
chaians aiked afliftance *, which was given them, and
Agis had the command of the troops. He acquired
a good deal of reputation in this campaign. At
his return, he found his affairs fo embroiled by the
ill conduct of Agefilaus, that it was impoffible for
him to maintain himfelf. Leonidas was recalled to
Lacedaemon : Agis retired into one temple and
Cleomenes into another. The wife of the latter be¬
haved herfelf in fuch a manner that ihe became the ad¬
miration of every body. Leonidas wras contented with
baniihing his fon-in-law j after which he applied him¬
felf entirely to the ruin of Agis. One of the Ephori,
who had no mind to return wrhat Agefiftrata had lent
him, was the principal inftrument of the misfortune
of this family. Agis never went out of his fanfluary
but to bathe. One clay, as he was returning from
thence to the temple, he was feized by that Ephorus
and carried to prifon. Then he wras brought to his
trial and condemned to death, and delivered to the
executioner. His mother and grandmother ufed all
the intreaty and importunity imaginable, that, as he
was king of Lacedteinoxa, he might at leaft be permit'
84 ] A G I
ted to plead his caufe before the people. But they Agiftment
were apprehenfive left his w'ords would make too great . II
an impreflion, and therefore they ordered him to be Agltator\
ftrangled that very hour. The Ephorus who was in y- ^
debt to Agefiftrata permitted that princefs to go into
the prifon } which he granted likewife to Agis’s grand¬
mother : but he gave orders to ftrangle them one after
another. Agefiftrata died in a manner that was ex¬
tremely to her honour. The wife of Agis, who was
a princefs of great fortune and prudence, and one of
the fineft ladies in Greece, was forced away from her
apartment by King Leonidas, and obliged to marry his
fon, who was then very young, and hardly fit for mar¬
riage.
AGISTMENT, Agistage, or Agistation, in
Law, the taking in other people’s cattle to graze at fo
much per w'eek. The term is peculiarly uled for the
taking cattle to feed in the king’s forefts, as well as for
the profits arifing from that practice.—It is alfo ufed,
in a metaphorical fenfe, for any tax, burden, or charge $
thus, the tax levied for repairing the banks of Romney-
madh was called agijlamentum.
AGISTOR, or Agistator, an officer belonging
to forefts, who has the care of cattle taken in to be
grazed, and levies the monies due on that account.
They are generally called quejl-tahers or gift-takers,
and are created by letters-parent. Each royal foreft
has four agiftors.
AGISYMBA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of
Libya Interior, according to Agathemerus, fituated to
the fouth-eaft of the ALthiopes Anthropophagi j the
parallel palling through which, at 160 to the fouth of
the equator, was the utmoft extent of the knowledge
of the ancients to the fouth (Ptolemy).
AGITATION, the a<ft of lhaking a body, or tofs-
ing it backwards and forwards.
Agitation, in Fhyjlcs, is often ufed for an inteftine
commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fermenta¬
tion and effervefcence are attended with a brilk agita¬
tion of the particles.
Agitation is one of the chief caufes or inftruments
of mixtion : by the agitation of the parts of the blood
and chyle, in their continual circulation, fanguification
is in a good meafure effe£led. Butter is made out of
milk by the fame means : in wffiich operation, a repa¬
ration is made of the oleous parts from the ferous, and
a conjundlion of the oleous together. Digeftion itfelf
is only fuppoled to be an infeniible kind of agitation.
Agitation is reputed one of the fymptoms of in-
fpiration. Petit informs us*, that in the laft century, * Petit de
there arofe in a church of Italy, for the fpace of a year, Sibylla, 1.1.
a vapour of an extraordinary kind, which put all the
people into trembling and agitations, and unlefs they v^j>p<
got awray betimes, fet them a dancing, with ftrange
contortions and gefticulations. This feems to verify
what has been related of the temple of Delphi.
Agitation is alfo ufed in Medicine for a fpecies of
exercife popularly called fwinging. Maurice prince of
Orange found this method a relief againft the fevere
pains of the gout and ftone. Bartholine mentions fits
of the toothach, deafnefs, &c. removed by vehement
agitations of the body.
AGITATOR, in Antiquity, a term fometimes ufed
for a charioteer, efpecially thofe w’ho drove in the cir*
cus at the curule games.
Agitators,
Agitators
II
Agnoetse.
>-*—V—
A G N [is
Agitators, in the Englijh Hijlory, certain officers
fet up by the army in 1647, to take care of its inte-
refts.—Cromwell joined the agitators, only with a vieav
to ferve his own ends *, which being once accompliffied,
he found means to get them aboliffied.
AG LAI A, the name of the youngeft of the three
Graces, efpoufed to Vulcan.
AGLIONBY, John, an Engliffi divine, chaplain
in ordinary to King [ames I. was born in Cumberland,
and admitted a Undent at Oxford in 15^3* was
a man of univerfal learning, and had a very confider-
able hand in the tranilation of the New Teilament ap¬
pointed by King James I. in 1604* fde died in 1609*
AGMEN, in Antiquity, properly denotes a Roman
army in march : in which lenfe, it Hands contradillin-
guiffied from acies, which denoted the army in battle
array ; though, on fome occalions, we find the two
words ufed indifferently for each other. The Roman
armies, in their marches, were divided into primum
agmen, anfwering to our van-guard ; medium agmen,
our main-guard 5 and pqftremum agmen, the rear-guard.
The order of their march was thus : After the firft
fignal with the trumpets, &c. the tents were taken
down, and the baggage packed up at the lecond
fignal the baggage was to be loaded on the horfes
and carriages j and, at the third fignal, they were to
begin their march. Firft came the extraordinaru ;
then the auxiliaries of the firft wing, with their bag¬
gage $ thefe were followed by the legions. The cavalry
marched either on each fide or behind.
AGNATE, in Law, any male relation by the fa¬
ther’s fide.
AGNEL, an ancient French gold coin, firft ftruck
under the reign of St Louis, worth about twelve fols
fix deniers. The agnel is alfo called fometimes mouton
d'or, and agnel d'or. The denomination is fuppofed to
have ariienfrom the figure of a lamb {agnus'), or iheep,
ftruck on one fide.
AGNES, Saint, in Geography, one of the Scilly
ides, on the weft of England, which is of fmall extent,
but well cultivated, and fertile in corn and grafs. On
the moft elevated part of the ifland Hands the light-
houfe, built of ftone, which is 51 feet high. fhe
whole inhabitants confift of about 50 families. It is
fituated in N. Lat. 49. 56. W. Long. 6. 46.
AGNO, a river of Naples, which, taking its rife in
the mountainous parts of Terra di I.avora, waffies the
town of Acerra ; and, paffing between Capua and A-
verfa, falls into the Mediterranean, about feven miles
north of Puzzuoli.
AGNOETiE (from to be ignorant of), in
Church Hi/lory, a feci of ancient heretics, who main¬
tained that Chrift, confidered as to his human nature,
was ignorant of certain things, and particularly of the
time of the day of judgment. Eulogius, patriarch of
Alexandria, afcribes this herefy to certain folitaries in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem, who built their opi¬
nion upon the text Mark xiii. 32. “ Of that day and
hour knoweth no man, no not the angels who are in
heaven, neither the Son, but the Father only.”—
The fame paffage was made ufe of by the Arians j^and
hence the orthodox divines of thofe days were induced
to give various explications thereof. Some allege, that
our Saviour here had no regard to his divine nature,
but only fpoke of his human. Others unnlerftand it
3 ] AGO
thus, That the knowledge of the day of judgment Agnomen-
does not concern our Saviour confidered in his quality A
of Meffiah, but God only : which is the moft natural
folution.
AGNOMEN, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of fourth
or honorary name, given to a perfon on account, of
fome extraordinary adlion, virtue, Or other accomplifh-
ment. Thus the agnomen Africanus was bellowed
upon Publius Cornelius Scipio, on account of his great
achievements in Africa.— I he agnomen was. the third
in order of the three Roman names : thus, in Marcus
Tullius Cicero, Marcus is the praenomen, Tullius the
nomen, and Cicero the agnomen.
AGNUS, or Lamb, in Zoology, the young of the
ovis or ffieep. See Ovis.
Agnus Cajlus, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of the vitex. See Vitex, Botany/Wiw. The
Greeks call it ctyvo?, chajle; to which has fince been,
added the reduplicative cajlus, q. d. chafte, chafte. It
was famous among the ancients as a fpecific for the
prefervation of chaftity. The Athenian ladies, who
made profeffion of chaftity, lay upon leaves oi agnus
cajlus during the feafts of Ceres.—from the time of
Diofcorides the feeds of agnus cajlus have been much
celebrated for their antiaphrodifiac virtue. Modern
writers afcribe to them an oppofite efledl j but they are
feldom ufed in pra&ice.
Agnus Dei, in the church of Rome, a cake of wax
ftamped with the figure of a lamb fupporting the ban¬
ner of the crofs. Thefe being confecrated by the
pope with great folemnity, and diftributed among the
people, are fuppofed to have great virtues j as, to pre-
ferve thofe who carry them wmrthily, and with faith,
from all manner of accidents j to expel evil fpirits, &.c. ‘
The name literally fignifies Lamb of God; this being^
fuppofed an image or reprefentation of the Lamb of
God who took away the fins of the world. They co¬
ver it up with a piece of fluff cut in form of a heart,
and carry it very devoutly in their proceffions.—The
Romiffi priefts and religious derive confide rable pecu¬
niary advantage from felling thefe Agnus Dei'sX.o lome',
and prefenting them to others. The pope provides a
regular fupply, by confecrating once in feven years :
they are diftributed by the mafter of the wardrobe, and
received by the cardinals and other prelates, with great
reverence, in their caps and mitres.—d his ceremony
they pretend to derive from an ancient cuftom of tne
church, wherein part of the pafchal taper confecrated on
Holy Thurfday was diftributed among the people,; to
perfume their houfes, fields, &c. in order to drive a-
way devils, and to preferve them from ftorms- and tem-
pefts. The Agnus Deih forbidden to be. brought into
England under pain of incurring a premunire ; 13 Eliz.
cap. 2.
Agnus Dei is alfo a popular name for that part of
the mafs wherein the prieft, ftriking his breaft. three
times, rehearfes, with a loud voice, a prayer- beginning
with the words Agnus Dei.—It is faid to have been firft
brought into the miffal by Pope Sergius I.
AGOGE, among ancient' muficians, a fpecies of
modulation, wherein the notes proceed by continuous-
degrees.
AGON, among the Ancients, implied any difpute
or conteft, whether it had regard to bodily exerciles or
the accomplifhments of the mind j and therefore poets,^
muficians-.
Agon muiicians, painters, &c. had their agones, as well as
A^onothe t^le Games of this kind were celebrated at
& ta. moil: of the heathen feftivals with great folernnity, ei-
^ ther annually, or at certain periods of years. Among
the latter were celebrated at Athens, the agon gymni-
cus, the agon Nemeus inftituted by the Axgives in t;*e
53d Olympiad, and the agon Olympias inllituted by
Hercules 430 years before the firit Olympiad.—-T’u
Romans alio, in imitation of the Greeks, inilituted con-
tells of this kind. The emperor Aurelian ell a Mi iked
one under the name of agon foils, the conteft of the
Tun ; Dioeleiian another, which he called agon capita-
hnus, which was celebrated every fourth year, after
the manner of the Olympic games. Hence the years,
•inftead of Infra, are fometimes numbered by agones.
Acori alfo figniMd one of the minifters employ¬
ed in the heathen facrilices, and whole bufmefs it
was to firike the vidlim. The name is iuppofed to
have been derived from hence, that Handing ready
to give the ftroke, he aiked, ylgon'1 ? or Agone ? Shall
I llrike.
AGONALES, an epithet given to the Salii.
AGONAL I A, in Roman Antiquity, feftivals cele¬
brated in honour of Janus, or the god Agonius, whom
the Romans invoked before undertaking any affair of
importance.
AGONALIS circus, now La Piazza Navona, a
long, large, beautiful ftreet in the heart of Rome,
adorned with fountains, and the obeliik of Caracalla,
ftill retaining the form of that circus. The reafon of
the name Agonalis is either unknown or doubtful.
Ovid feems to derive it from the agones, or folemn
_games, there celebrated ; fuppofed to have been the
Ludi Apo/linares, or Alliaci, inftituted by Auguftus 3
\ whence the circus was called Apollinaris; alfo A/ex-
andnnus, from the emperor Alexander Severus, who
either enclofed or repaired it.
AGONISMA, in Antiquity, denotes the prize given
to the viftor in any combat or difpute.
AGONISTARCHA, from asyov “ combat,” and
“ chief,” in Antiquity, feems to have been much
the fame with agonotheta ; though fome iuggeft a dif¬
ference, making it the office of the former to prefide
at and direct the private exercifes of the athletse, which
they went through by way of praftice, before they
made their appearance on the public theatres or am-
-phitheatres.
AGONISTICI, in Church lliflory, a name given
by Donatus to fuch of his difciples as he fent to fairs,
markets, and other public places, to propagate his doc¬
trine \ for which reafon they were alfo called Circuito-
res, Circelliones, Catropitce, Coropitm, and at Rome
Montenfes. They were • called Agoniftici, from the
Greek <*yov, “ combat,” in regard they were fent as it
were to fight and fubdue the people to their opinions.
AGONIUM, in Roman Antiquity, was ufed for the
day on which the rex facrorum facrificed a victim, as
well as for the place where the games were celebrated,
otherwife called agon.
AGONOTHETA, or Agonothetes, in Grecian
Antiquity, was the prelident or luperintendant of the
facred games } who not only defrayed the expences at¬
tending them, but infpefled the manners and difeipline
of the athietse, and adjudged the prizes to the viftors.
AGONY, any extreme pain. It is alfo ufed for
x
the pangs of death. Much of the terror of death ton- Agenydi®
fills in the pangs and convulfions wherewith the agony II.
feems attended 5 though we have reafon to believe that / ■granai'1‘.
the pain in fuch cafes is ordinarily not extremely acute j
a courfe of pain and ficknefs having ufually ftupified
and indifpofed the nerves for any quick fenfations.
Hov, ever, various means have been thought of for mi¬
tigating the agony of death. Lord Bacon confiders
this as part of the province of a phyfician; and that
not only when fuch a mitigation may tend to a reco¬
very, but alfo when, there being no further hopes of a
recovery, it can only tend to make the pafiage out of
life more calm and eafy. Complacency in death, which
Auguftus fc much defired, is certainly no fmall part of
happinefs. Accordingly the author laft cited ranks exx-
thanafa, or the art of dying eafily, among the defide-
rata of fcience \ and does not even feem to difapprove
of the courfe Epicurus took for that end,
 limefygias ebrius haufi aquas.
Opium has been applied for this purpofe, with the ap-
plaufe of fome, but the condemnation of more.
AGONYCLITiE, or Agonyclites, in Church
Hiftory, a feci of Chriftians, in the 7th century, who
prayed always Handing, as thinking it unlawful to
kneel.
AGORzEUS, in Heathen Antiquity, an appellation
.given to fuch deities as had ftatues in the market¬
places } particularly Mercury, whofe ftatue was to be
feen in almoft every public place.
AGORANOMUS, in Grecian Antiquity, a magi-
ftrate of Athens, who had the regulation of weights •
and meafures, the prices of provifions, &c.—The ago-
ranomi, at Athens, were ten in number, five belonging
to the city, and as many to the Piraeus y though
others make them 15 in all, of whom they affign 1 o
to the city. To thefe a certain toll or tribute was paid
by all who brought any thing to fell in the market.
AGOUTI, or Aguti. See Mus.
AGRA, the capital town of a province of the fame
name, in Hindoftan, and in the dominions of the Great
Mogul. It is looked upon as the largeft city in thefe
parts, and is in the form of a half moon. A man on
horfeback can hardly ride round it in a day. It is fur-
rounded with a wall of red ftone, and with a ditch 100
feet wide. The palace is prodigiouily large, and the
feraglio commonly contains above loco women. There
are upwards of 8co baths in this town 5 but that which
travellers moft admire, is the maufoleum of one of the
Mogul’s wives, which was 20 years in building. The
indigo of Agra is the moft valuable of all that comes
from the Eaft Indies. This town is feated on the river
Jemma, about 50 miles above its confluence with the
Tehemel, and is 300 miles N. E. of Surat. E. Long.
76. 44. N. Lat. 26. 43.
'AGRARIAN laws, among the Romans, thefe
relating to the divifion and diftributicn of lands 5 of
which there were a great number ; but that called the
Agrarian Law, by way of eminence, was pubhfhcd by
Spurius Caffius, about the year of Rome 268, for di¬
viding the conquered lands equally among all the citi¬
zens, and limiting the number of acres which %ich
citizen might enjoy.—The Roman lands were of feve-
ral kinds 5 fome conquered from the enemies, and not
yet brought to the public account 5 others brought in¬
deed
A G R - [ ai
Agreda deed to the public, but clandeftinely ufurped by pri¬
ll vate great men ; laftly, others purchafed with the pub-
Agricola. money> £n oi'der to be divided. Agrarian laws,
either for dividing lands taken from the enemy, or the
public lands, or thofe purchafed with the public mo¬
ney, "were ealily palled without diilurbance } but thofe
whereby private rich men were to be deprived of their
lands, and the common people put in polieffion of what
had been held by the nobility, were never attempted
without great difturbances.
Several have pleaded for the neceffity of agrarian
laws among us : but no author has entered fo deeply
into the fubjeft as Mr Harrington in his Oceana; which
the reader may confult.
AGREDA, a town of Spain, in Old Caflile, near
the frontiers of Arragon, and about three leagues fouth-
weft of Taracon.
AGRIA, called by the Germans Eger, is a fmall
but flrong town in Upper Hungary, and is a bilhop’s
fee. It is lituated on a river of the fame name, and
has a citadel called Eriaw. It was belieged by the
Turks in 1552, with 70,000 men : but they loft Sooo
in one day jand were obliged to raife the ftege, though
the garrifon confifted only of 2000 Hungarians, aflift-
ed by the women, who performed wonders on this oc-
cafton. However, it was afterwards taken by Maho¬
met III. in 1596 but was retaken by the emperor in
1687 : fmce which time it has continued under the do¬
minion of the houfe of Auftria. It is 47 miles north-
eaft of Ruda, and 55 fouth-weft of Caffovia. E. Long.
20. 10. N. Lat. 48. 10.
AGRICOLA, Cn^eus Julius, born at Frejus in
Provence, was, in Vefpafian’s time, made lieutenant to
Vettius Bolanus in Britain ; and upon his return, was
ranked by that emperor among the patricians, and'
made governor of Aquitania. This poll he held three
years j and upon his return was chofen conful, and af¬
terward appointed governor of Britain, where he great¬
ly diftinguifhed himfeif. He reformed many abufes oc-
caftoned by the avarice or negligence of former gover¬
nors, put a flop to extortion, and caufed juftice to be
impartially adminiftered. Vefpaftan dying about this
time, his fon Titus, knowing the great merit of Agri¬
cola, continued him in the government. In the fpring*
he marched towards the north, where he made feme
* new conquefts, and ordered forts to be builLfor the
Romans to winter, in. He fpent the following winter
in concerting fchemes to bring the Britons to conform
to the Roman cuftoms. He thought the beft way of
diverting them from riling and taking arms, was to
foften their rough manners, by propofing to them new
kinds of pleafure, and infpiring them with a defire of
imitating the Roman manners. Soon after this, the
country was adorned with magnificent temples, porti¬
cos, baths, and many other fine buildings. T he Britiih
nobles had at length their fons educated in learning ;
and they who before had the utmoft averfion to the Ro¬
man language, now began to ftudy it with great afli-
duity : they wore likewife the Roman habit; and, as
Tacitus obferves, they were brought to confider thofs
things as marks of politenefs, which were only fo many
badges of fiavery. Agricola, in his third campaign, ad¬
vanced as far as the Tweed 5 and in his fourth, he fub-
dued the nations betwixt the Tweed and the friths
of Edinburgh and Clyde, into which the rivers
j A G R
Glotta and Bodotria difeharge themfelves', and here he Ag
built fortrefies to fhut up the nations yet unconquered. ~~
In his fifth, he marched beyond the friths j where he
made feme new acquifitions, and fixed garrifons along
the rveftern coafts, over againft Ireland. In his ftxth
campaign he paired the river Eodotria, ordering his
fleet, the firft which the Romans ever had in thofe
parts, to row along the coafts, and take a view of the
northern parts. In the following fpring, the Britons
raifed an army of 30,000 men ; and the command w^as
given to Galgacus, who, according to Tacitus, made
an excellent i'peech to his countrymen on this occafion.
Agricola likewife addrefled his men in very ftrong and
eloquent terms. The Romans gained the viftory, and
10,000 of the Britons are faid to have been killed.
This happened in the reign of the emperor Domitian j
who, growing jealous of the glory of Agricola, recall¬
ed him, under pretence of making him governor of
Syria. Agricola died foon after; and his death is
fufpe&ed to have been occafioned by poifon given him
by that emperor. Tacitus the hiftorian married his
daughter, wTote his life, and laments his death in the
moft pathetic manner.
Agricola, George, a German phyfician, famous
for his {kill in metals. He was born at Glaucha, in
Mifnia, the 24th of March 1494. The difeoveries
which he made in the mountains of Bohemia, gave him
fo great a defire of examining accurately into every
thing relating to metals, that though he had engaged
in the pra&ice of phyfic at Joachimftal by advice of his
friends, he ftill profecuted his ftudy of foflils with great
afliduity; and at length removed to Chemnitz, where
he entirely devoted himfeif to this ftudy. He fpent
in purfuit of it the penfion he had of Maurice duke of
Saxony, and part cf his own eftate 5 fo that he reaped
more reputation than profit from his labours. He wrote
feveral pieces upon this and other fubjefls ; and died
at Chemnitz the 21ft of November 1555, a very firm
Papift. In bis younger years he feemed not averfe to
the Proteftant doflrine •, and lie highly difapproved of
the fcandalous traffic of indulgences, and feveral other
things in the church of Rome, ’i he following lines-
of his were polled up in the ftreets of Z, wick aw, in.
the year 1719 :
Si nos injeEla falvebit cijbula nummo,
Heu nimium infelixtu mihi, pauper, eris !
Si nos, Chrijie, tua fervatos morte beafti,
Tam nihil irfelix tu mihi, pauper, eris.
If wealth alone falvation can procure,
How fad a ftate for ever waits the poor !
But if thou, Chrift, our only faviour be,
Thy merits ftill may blefs ev’n poverty !
In the latter part of his life, however, he had attack¬
ed the Proteftant religion : which rendered him fo *
odious to the Lutherans, that they fuffered his body-
to remain unburied for five days together; fo that it
was obliged to be removed from Chemnitz to Zeits,
where it was interred in the principal church.
Agr.icola, John, a Saxon divine, born at Eifleben
in 1492. He went as chaplain to Count Mansfeld,
when that nobleman attended the eleftor of Saxony to
the diet of Spire in 1526, and that of Augfhurg in 1530.
He was of a reftlefs, ambitious temper, rivalled and;
wrote,*
A G R [ 288 ] • A G R
Agricola, wrote againft Melanfthon, and gave Count Mansfeld either of the eleclor of Saxony or of Luther, he receiv- Agricola,
occafion to reproach him feverely. He obtained a pro- ed fome confolation from the fame he acquired at Ber- -\r—
feflforfhip at Wittemberg, where he taught particular lin : where he became preacher at court ;* and was cho-
do&rines, and became founder of the fedt of Antino- fen in 1548, in conjunflion with Julius Phlug and
rnians 5 which occaiioned warm difputes between him Michael Heldingus, to compofe the famous Interim,
and Luther, who had before been his very good friend. which made fo much noife in the world. He died at
But though he was never able to recover the favour Berlin in 1566.
AGRICULTURE.
Definition. A GRIQULTURE in general, or in the abftradl,
may be defined to be, The art of making the
earth to produce in large quantities, and in the great-
ell perfeftion of which their nature is capable, thofe
2 vegetables which are neceffary to the fubfiftence, or
Differs from ufeful for the accommodation, of mankind. Agricul-
gardening. ture differs from gardening in this refpedl, that the
gardener is chiefly occupied in rearing fmall quantities
of the nicer and more delicate vegetables, which are
rather valued as objefts of luxury than as articles of
food, whereas the agriculturifl labours upon a larger
fcale, with a view to fupply himfelf and his country-
3 men with the neceffaries of life.
Isafeparate In civilized focieties agriculture, or the cultivation
art. of the foil, becomes a feparate bufinefs or employ¬
ment ; and agriculturifts, or the perfons engaged in
agriculture, receive the appellation of farmers or huf-
4 bandmen.
Includes the To enable the agriculturifl or hufbandman to con-
cattle^ 0t' ^u<^- bufinefs with fuccefs, it is necelfary that he
fhould not confine his attention to the mere cultiva¬
tion of the foil, or the rearing of vegetables. The
vegetables which are capable of affording a comfort¬
able fubfiflence to the human conflitution are few in
number j and it has been found by experience, that
they cannot be profitably fown and reproduced year
after year upon the fame fpot of ground. Hence it
becomes neceffary at times to rear upon it graffes or
other vegetables which are unfit for affording nourifh-
ment to man. But although men cannot eat grafs,
they may, neverthelefs, contrive to obtain fubfiftence
from it in an indirect manner. They may give it to
cattle, whofe ordinary and natural food it is } and ha¬
ving thus, as it were, converted the grafs into the flefli
of animals, they can devour thefe animals 5 and in this
way, obtain a richer and more flimulating food than
any vegetable production can poffibly afford: It is
therefore a part of the bufinefs of the hufbandman to
rear and to feed thofe animals which are ufed as food
in the fociety of which he is a member, that he may
be enabled at all times to derive profit from the por¬
tion of territory that he cultivates. It is alfo neceffary
towards conducing his operations with fuccefs, that he
fnould rear and feed other animals, not as [a fource of
human fubfiftence, but for the fake of the fervices
which they are capable of affording ; for it has pleafed
the beneficent Contriver of this world, to place upon
it beings of a fubordinate nature, capable of afiifting
mankind in theif labours without being degraded by
tlie Hate of fervitude in which they are placed. To the
cultivators of the foil, thefe animals, from their ftrength
£nd patience of labour, are particularly ufeful, and
2
even abfolutely neceffary in our cold and barren cli¬
mates. They muft therefore be fed and lodged with
the greateft care. ^
Hence, the employment of the hufbandman is of an Importance
extenfive nature, requiring much forefight, and a con- of the art.
fiderable knowledge of the relations that fubfift be¬
tween the moft important objects in nature—the foil,
the fe'afons, the animals, and the plants, fo far as they
are connected with the fubfiftence of mankind. It is
by bringing to perfeftion this art that man becomes
truly the lord of the univerfe. He fubdues by his ope¬
rations every part of the furface of the earth, and ac¬
quires over the animals which inhabit it, a folid right
of dominion or of property, in confequence of ha¬
ving reared, and afforded them fubfiitence by his fkill
and his labour. He ufes them indeed as food $ but be¬
fore he can do fo, he muft firft beftow upon them fub¬
fiftence, attend to their multiplication, and to their
health and welfare. As they poffefs no forefight, the
purpofe to which they are deftined, is to them no evil.
It is only in proportion to the degree in wThich this
important art of agriculture has flourilhed, that nations
have been, or ever can be, permanently profperous.
Every improvement that is made in it is a moral bene¬
fit conferred upon mankind ; for by increafing the quan¬
tity of human food, or facilitating the production of
it, one of two things muft always happen : Either the
number of our fpecies will be increafed, that is to fay,
a greater multitude of rational and intelligent beings
will exift in the creation j or a greater number of thofe
who already exift, will find leifure for the improvement
of their intellectual characters by ftudying and carry¬
ing to perfection the fciences and arts. Thus, the
ftrength of nations is increafed in proportion to the
degree in which their foil is fkilfully cultivated, and
their independence is lecured by finding upon the fpot
which they inhabit all that is neceffary for their fub¬
fiftence.
It is a fortunate circumftance, that the art of the
hufbandman, which is the foundation of all others, and at
all times indifpenfable to human exiftence, is in every
refpeCt conducive to the welfare of thofe engaged in it. <>
The praCtice of it bellows health upon the body ; and Its adtan-
by the variety of occupations which it affords, it alfo ^
bellows a confiderable degree of refleaion upon the £
minds of the loweft perfons occupied in it; while, at
the fame time, it prevents their acquiring that fpirit of
artifice and of cunning, which in all countries is apt
to degrade the character of thofe engaged in the in¬
ferior branches of commercial employment. Nor does
it fail, in all ranks and conditions of life, to produce a
more c^did and liberal character than any other em¬
ployment.
2Sg
Hiilory. A G R I C U
ployment. No Britlfh hufbandman has ever refufed,
or even hefitated to allow to be communicated to the
public every branch of his art, and every improvement
which he and his forefathers may have made in it 5
whereaSj in all the branches of manufa&ure or of com¬
merce, every tranfattion, as far as poflible, is covered
with a myfterious veil of fecrecy, and every improve¬
ment, as far as poflible, is concealed by its inventor, and
fometimes undoubtedly periihes with him.
Hiltory, The antiquity of this art is undoubtedly beyond
that of all others ; for we are informed by Scripture,
that Adam was fent from the garden of Eden to till
the ground; and, this being the cafe, he certainly
mull have known how to do lb.—It would be ridicu¬
lous, however, to imagine that he was acquainted with
all the methods of plowing, harrowing, fallowing,
&c. which are now made ufe of, and it would be
equally fo to fuppofe, that he ufed fuch clumfy and
unartful inftruments as wooden hooks, horns of oxen,
&c. to dig the ground, which were afterwards employ¬
ed for this purpofe by certain favages : but as we know
nothing of the particular circuroltances in which he was
fituated, we can know as little concerning his method
of agriculture.
The prodigious length of life which the antedilu¬
vians enjoyed, mull have been very favourable to the
advancement of arts and fciences, efpecially agriculture,
to which it behoved them to apply themfelves in a par¬
ticular manner, in order to procure their fubfiftence*
It is probable, therefore, that, even in the antediluvian
world, arts and fciences had made great progrefs, nay*
might be farther advanced in fome refpefts than they
are at perfent. Of this, however, we can form no
judgment, as there are no hiftories of thofe times, and
the Scripture gives us but very flight hints concerning
thefe matters.
No doubt, by the terrible cataftrophe of the flood}
which overwhelmed the whole world, many fciences
would be entirely loft, and agriculture would fuffer ; as
it was impoflible that Noah or his children Could put
in practice, or perhaps know, all the different methods
of cultivating the ground that were formerly ufed. The
common methods, however, we cannot but fuppofe to
have been known to him and his children, and by them
tranfmitted to their pofterity : fo that as long as man¬
kind continued in one body without being difperfed in¬
to different nations, the arts, agriculture efpecially,
would neceffarily advance ; and that they did fo, is evi
dent from the undertaking of the tower of Babel. It is
from the difperfton of mankind confequent upon the
confufton of tongues, that we muft date the origin of
favage nations. In all focieties where different arts are
cultivated, there are fome perfons who have a kind of
general knowledge of moft of thofe pracftifed through
the whole fociety, while others are in a manner ignorant
every one of them. If we fuppofe a few people of
underftanding to feparate from the reft, and become the
founders of a nation, it will probably be a civilized
one, and the arts will begin to flourilh from its very
origin •, but, if a nation is founded by others whole
intellefts are in a manner callous to ever human fcience
{and of this kind there are many in the moft learned
countries), the little knowledge or memory of arts that
were among the original founders will be loft, and fuch
a people will continue in a ftate of barbarifm for many
Vol. I. Part h
L T U R E.
ages, unlefs the arts be brought to them from other
nations.
From this, or ftmilar caufes, all nations of equal an¬
tiquity have not been equally favage, nor is there any
folid reafon for concluding that all nations were origi¬
nally unHulled in agriculture •, though as we know not
the original inftruments of hufbandry ufed by mankind
when living in one fociety, wTe cannot fix the date of
the improvements in this art. Different nations have
always been in a different ft ate of civilization ; and agri¬
culture, as well as other arts,- has always been in diffe¬
rent degrees of improvement among different nations at
the fame time;
From the earlieft accounts of the eaftern nations, we
have reafon to think, that agriculture has at all times
been underftood by them in eonfiderable perfeftion j
feeing they were always fupplied not only with the ne-
ceffaries, but the greateft luxuries of life.
As foon as the defcendants of Abraham were fettled
in Paleftine, they generally became hufbandmen, from
the chiefs of the tribe of Judah to the loweft branch
of the family of Benjamin. High birth or rank did not
at that time make any diftinclion, for agriculture was.
confidered as the moft honourable of all employments ^
witnefs the illuftrious examples of Gideon, Saul, and
David.
The Chaldeans, who inhabited the country where
agriculture had its birth, carried that valuable art to a
degree of excellence unknown in former times. I hey
cultivated their lands with great affiduity, and feem to
have found out iorhe means of reftoring fertility to an
exhaufted foil, by having plentiful harvefts in fuccef-
fion j on which account they were not obliged, as their
predeceffors had been, to change their fituations, in or¬
der to obtain a fufficiency for themfelves and their nu¬
merous flocks and herds.
The Egyptians, who, from the natural fertility of
their country by the overflowing of the Nile, railed
every year vaft quantities of corn, were fo fenfible of
the bleflings refulting from agriculture, that they aferi-
bed the invention of that art to Ofiris. They alfo re¬
garded Ifis, their fecond deity, as the difeoverer of the
ufe of wheat and barley, which before grew wild in the
fields, and were not applied by that people to the pur-
pofes of food; Their fuperftitious gratitude was carri¬
ed fo far, as to worfliip thofe animals which were em¬
ployed in tillage } and even the produce of their lands,
as leeks, onions, &c.
The divine honours paid to Bacchus in India were
derived from the fame fource, he being confidered in
that country as the inventor of planting vineyards, and
the other arts attendant upon agriculture.
It is alfo related of the ancient Perfians, on the moft
refpectable authority, that their kings laid afide their
grandeur once every month to eat with hulbandmen.
This is a ftriking inftance of the high eftimation in
which they held agriculture; for at that time arts were
pra£Hfed among that people in great perfedtion, parti¬
cularly thofe of weaving, needle-work, and embroidery.
The precepts of their religion taught by their ancient
magi, or priefts, included the practice of agriculture.
The/amt among them wTas obliged to w'prk out his fal-
vation by purfuing all the labours of agriculture : And
it was a maxim of the Zendavefta, that he who .fows
the ground with care and diligence, acquires a.greater
O 0 ' degree
aoo
A G R I C U
degree of religious merit, than he could have gained by
the repetition of ten. thoufand prayers.
The Phoenicians, fo well known in Scripture by the
name of Phihjhnes, were alfo remarkable for their at¬
tention to, and Ikill in agriculture. But finding them-
felves too much diilurbed and confined by the incur-
fions and conquefts of the Ifraelites, they ipread them-
felves throughout the greateft part of the Mediterra¬
nean iilands, and carried with them their knowledge
in the arts of cultivation.
Mago, a famous general of the Carthaginians, is
faid to have written no lefs than 28 books on the fub-
jedl 5 which Columella tells us were tranflated into
Latin by the exprefs order of the Roman fenate. We
are informed by the ancient writers, that Ceres was
born in Sicily, where fhe firll: invented the arts of till¬
age and of fowing corn. For this effential fervice,
fire was, agreeably to the fuperftition of thofe ages,
deified and worfhipped as the goddefs of plenty. I he
truth of this is, that in the time of Ceres, the ifland,
through her endeavours and the induftry of the people,
became .very fruitful in corn ; and agriculture was
there efteemed fo honourable an employment, that
even their kings did not difdain to pracliie it with their
own hands.
But time, which at firfi: gave birth to arts, often
carried them to be forgotten wdren they were removed
from the place of their origin. 1 he defeendants of
Noah, who fettled in Europe, doubtlefs Carried their
knowledge of agriculture with them into the regions
which they fuccefiively occupied. But thofe who took
poffeffion of Greece were fuch an uncivilized race, that
they fed on roots, herbs, and acorns, after the manner
of beafts. Pelafgus had taught them the culture of
the oak, and the ufe of acorns as food j for which
fervice, wre are told, divine honours wTere paid him by
the people.
The Athenians, who were the firfi; people that ac¬
quired any tiu&ure of politenefs, taught the ufe of corn
to the refi of the Greeks. They alio inftrufted them
how to cultivate the ground, and to prepare it for the
reception of the feed. This art, we are told, was
taught them by Triptolemus. The Greeks foon per¬
ceived that bread was more wholefome, and its tafte
more delicate, than that of acorns and the wild roots
of the fields 5 accordingly they thanked the gods for
fuch an unexpeffed and beneficial prefent, and honour¬
ed their benefa£lor.
As the arts of cultivation increafed, and the blef-
fings they afforded became generally experienced, the
people foon preferred them to whatever the ravages of
conquefi, and the cruel depredations of favage life,
could procure. And accordingly we find, that the
Athenian kings, thinking it more glorious to govern a
fmall ft ate wifely, than to aggrandize themfelves, and
enlarge the extent of their dominions by foreign con¬
quefts, withdrew' their fubjefls from war, and moftly
employed them in cultivating the earth. Thus, by
continued application, they brought agriculture to a
confiderable .degree of perfe&ion, and icon reduced it
to an art.
Hefiod was the firft we know of among the Greeks
who wrote on this interefting fubjeft. According to
the cuftom of the Oriental authors, he wuote in poetry,
and embellilhed his poem with luxuriant defcxipticn
L T U R E; Hiftory
and fublime imagery. He calls his poem Works and
Days, becaufe agriculture requires exaft obfervations
on times and feaions.
Xenophon has alfo, in his Oeconomics, remarked,
that agriculture is the nurfing mother of the arts. For,
fays he, “ where • agriculture fucceeds profperoufiy,
there the arts thrive 5 but where the earth neceffariiy
lies uncultivated, there the other arts are deftroyed.”
Other eminent Greek writers upon agriculture were,
Democritus of Abdera, Socraticus, Archytas Taren-
tinus, Ariftotle, and Theophraftus, from whom the art
received conliderable improvements.
The ancient Romans efteemed agriculture fo honour¬
able an employment, that the moft illuftrious fenators
of the empire, in the intervals of public concerns, ap¬
plied themfelves to this profeffion ; and fuch was the
fimplicity of thofe ages, that they aflumed no appear¬
ance of magnificence and fplendour, or of majefty, but
when they appeared in public. At their return from
the toils of war, the taking of cities, and the Subduing
of hoftile nations, their greateft generals were impatient
till they wrere again employed in the arts of cultiva¬
tion.
Regulus, when in Africa, requefted of the fenate to
be recalled, left his farm might fuffer, for want of pro¬
per cultivation, in his abfence *, and the fenate wrote
him for anfwer, that it ftiould be taken care of at the
public expence, while he continued to lead their ar¬
mies.
Cato the cenfor, after having governed extenfive
provinces, and iubdued many wrarlike nations, did not
think it below his dignity to write a Treatife on Agri¬
culture. This work (as wm are told by Servius) he
dedicated to his owm fon, it being the firft Latin trea¬
tife written on this important fubjeeft j and it has been
handed down to us in all its purity, in the manner that
Cato wrote it.
Varro compofed a treatife on the fame fubje£l,_ and
on a more regular plan, ft his wTork is embelliftied
with all the Greek and Latin erudition of that learned
author, w!ho died 28 years before the commencement
of the Chriftian aera. Virgil who lived about the fame
time, has, in his Georgies, adorned this fubjedl with
the language of the IVIufes, and finely illuftrated the
precepts and rules of hufbandry left by Hefiod, Mago,
and Varro.
Columella, who ftourfthed in the reign of the em¬
peror Claudius, wrote 12 books on hulbandry, replete
with''important inftruftion.
From this period to that of the reign ©f Conftantine
Poganatus, hufbandry continued in a declining ftate j
but that wife emperor caufed a large colleftion of the
moft ufeful precepts relating to agriculture to be ex¬
tracted from the beft writers, and publifhed them un¬
der the title of Geopomcs. It has been afferted, that he
made this collection with his own hand j and the truth
of the affertion is not improbable, as it is well known,
that after he had conquered the Saracens and the Ara¬
bians, he not only praftifed and encouraged, but ftudied
the arts of peace, fixing his principal attention on agri¬
culture, as their beft foundation.
After the death of Conftantine, however, the in-
creafing attention of the people to commerce, and the
ignorance and grofs fuperftition of the ages which fuc-
rLded, feern to have rendered agriculture an almoft ne-
" ? gleClad
Hiftory. A G R I C U
gleded feience. The irruptions of the northern na¬
tions foon aboliihed any improved fyitem. Thefe innu¬
merable and enterprifing barbarians, who overran all
Europe, were originally diepherds or hunters, like the
prefent Tartars and the favages of America. They con¬
tented themfelves with pofl'eUing, without labour or
trouble, thofe vaft countries rendered deferts by their
own ravages, cultivating only a very fmall fpot near
their habitations ; and in this trilling hufbandry only
the meanell Haves were employed : fo that the art it-
felf, which formerly was thought worthy of the ftudy
of kings, was now looked upon as mean and ignoble 5 a
prejudice which is fcarcely effaced at prefent, or at leaft
but very lately.—During this period, therefore, we find
no veftiges of any thing tolerably written on the fub-
jeft. No new attempts were made to revive it, or to
improve it, till the year 1478, when Crefcenzio pub-
lifhed an excellent performance on the fubjeft at Flo¬
rence. This roufed the flumbering attention of his coun¬
trymen, feveral of whom foon followed his example.
Among thefe, Tatti, Steffano Auguftino Gallo, Sanfo-
vino, Lauro, and Tarello, deferve particular notice.
At what time agriculture was introduced into Bri¬
tain, is uncertain. When Julius Caefar firft invaded this
iiland, it was not wholly unknown. That conqueror
was of opinion, that agriculture was firft introduced by
fome of thofe colonies from Gaul which had fettled in
the fouthern parts of Britain, about 100 years before
* Cccfar di tlie Roman invafion*.
Bell. Gall. It is not to be expe&ed that we can now be acquaint-
lib. v. c. iz.ed with many of the praftices of thefe ancient huf-
bandmen. It appears, however, that they were not
unacquainted with the ufe of manures, particularly
marl. This we have on the authority of Plinyf, who
tells us, that it was peculiar to the people of Gaul and
of Britain j that its effe&s continued 80 years j and
that no man was ever known to marl his field twice,
&c.—It is highly probable, too, that lime was at this
time alfo ufed as a manure in Britain, it being certainly
made ufe of in Gaul for this purpofe at the time of
Julius Caefar’s invafton.
The eftablilhment of the Romans in Britain produ¬
ced great improvements in agriculture, infomuch that
prodigious quantities of corn were annually exported
from the ifland •, but when the Roman power began to
decline, this, like all the other arts, declined alfo, and
was almoft totally deftroyed by the departure of that
people. The unhappy Britons were now expofed to
frequent incurfions of the Scots and Pifts, who deftroy¬
ed the fruits of their labours, and interrupted them in
the exercife of their art. After the arrival of the Sax¬
ons in the year 449, they were involved in fuch long
wars, and underwent fo many calamities, that the huf-
bandmen gradually loft much of their {kill, and were at
laft driven from thofe parts of their country which were
moft proper for cultivation.
After the Britons retired into Wales, though it ap¬
pears from the laws made relative to this art, that agri¬
culture was thought worthy of the attention of the le-
giflature, yet their inftruments appear to have been very
unartful. It was enabled that no man ftiould undertake
to guide a plough who could not make one *, and that
the driver fliould make the ropes of twifted willows,
with which it was drawn. It was ufual for fix or eight
perfons to form themfelves into a fociety for fitting out
t Plh.
Nat. Hrjl.
lib. xvii.
cap. 6.
L T U R E. 29X
one of thefe ploughs, providing it with oxen and every
thing neceffary for ploughing ; and many minute and
curious laws were made for the regulation of fuch io-
cieties. If any perfon laid dung on a field with the
confent of the proprietor, he was by law allowed the
ufe of that land for one year. If the dung was carried
out in a cart in great abundance, he v’as to have the
ufe of the land for three years. Whoever cut down a
wood, and converted the ground into arable, wdth the
confent of the owner, rvas to have the ufe of it tor five
years. If any one folded his cattle, for one year, up¬
on a piece of ground belonging to another, with the
owmer’s confent, he wras allowed the ufe of that field
for four years.
Thus, though the Britons had in a great meafure
loft the knowledge of agriculture, they appear to have
been very afliduous in giving encouragement to fuch as
would attempt a revival of it; but, among the Anglo-
Saxons, things were not at prefent in fo good a ftate. -
Thefe reftlefs and haughty warriors, having contract¬
ed a diftafte and contempt for agriculture, were at
pains to enaCl laws to prevent its being followed by any
other than wromen and Haves. When they firft arrived
in Britain, they had no occafion for this art, being
fupplied by the natives with all the neceflaries of life.
After the commencement of hoftilities, the Saxons
fubfifted chiefly by plunder : but having driven out or
extirpated moft of the ancient Britons, and divided
their lands among themfelves, they found themfelves in
danger of ftarving, there being now no enemy to plun¬
der : and therefore they were obliged to apply to agri¬
culture.
The Saxon princes and great men, who, in the divi-
fion of the lands, had received the greateft ftiares, are faid
to have fubdivided their eftates into two parts, wdiich
were called the in-lands and the out-lands. The in¬
lands were thofe which lay moft contiguous to the
manfion-houfe of their owner, which he kept in his
own pofleflion, and cultivated by his Haves, under the
direction of a bailiff, for the purpofe of raifing provi-
fions for the family. The out-lands were thofe at a
greater diftance from the houfe, and were let to the
ceorls, or farmers of thofe times, at very moderate
rents. By the law7s of Ina king of the Weft Saxons,
wTo reigned in the end of the feventh and beginning
of the eighth century, a farm confining of ten hides,
or plough-lands, was to pay the following rent: “ Ten
calks of honey 5 three hundred loaves of bread j twelve
calks of ftrong ale ; thirty calks of fmall ale *, tw7o
oxen •, ten wsdders ; ten geefe *, twenty hens ; ten
cheefes; one calk of butter-, fivefalmonj twenty pounds
of forage 5 and one hundred eels.” From this low
rent, the imperfeCtion of agriculture at that time is
eafily difcoverable ; but it is ftill more io from the low
prices at which land was then fold. In the ancient
hiftory of the church of Ely, publiflied by Dr Gale,
there are accounts of many purchafes of lands by Aidel-
wold the founder of that church, and by other bene-
faftors, in the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, in the
tenth century. By a comparifon of thefe accounts it
appears, that the ordinary price of an acre of the beft
land in that part of England, in thofe times, wras no
more than 16 Saxon pennies, or about four ftiillings of
our money : a very trifling price, even in compariion
with that of other commodities at the fame time: for, by
O o 2
comparing
292
AGRICULTURE.
comparing otlier accounts, it appears, that four fheep
were then equal in value to an acre of the bell land,
and one horfe of the fame value with three acres. The
frequent and deplorable famines which affli&ed England
about this time, are further inilances of the wretched
ilate of agriculture. In 1043, a quarter of wheat fold
for 60 Saxon pennies (15 of our (hillings), at that
time equal in value to feven or eight pounds of our
money now.
The invafion of the Normans, in 1066, contributed
very much to the improvement of agriculture j for, by
that event, many thoufands of hufhandiuen from Flan¬
ders, France, and Normandy, fettled in Britain, ob¬
tained eftates or farms, and cultivated them after the
manner of their country. The implements of hufban-
dry, ufed at this time, were of the fame kind with thofe
employed at prefent ; but fome of them were lefs per¬
fect In their conftruftion. The plough, for example,
had but one ftilt or handle, which the ploughman
guided with one hand, having in his other hand an in-
ftrument which fcrved both for cleaning and mending
the plough, as well as for breaking the clods. The
Norman plough had two wheels 5 and in the light foil
of Normandy was commonly drawn by one or two
oxen ; but, in England, a greater number was often
neceffary. In Wales, the perfon who coadufted the
oxen in the plough walked backwards. Their carts,
harrow’s, feythes, lickles, and flails, from the figures
of them ftill remaining, appear to have been nearly of
the fame conftruftion with thofe that are now ufed. In
Wales, they did not ufe a fickle for reaping their corns,
but an inftrument like the blade of a knife, with a
wooden handle at each end.—Their chief manure next
to dung, feems ftill to have been marl. Summer fal¬
lowing of lands defigned for wheat, and ploughing
them feveral times, appear to have been frequent prac¬
tices of the Englifh farmers in this period.
We are, after all, very much in the dark w!ith refpefl
to the date and progrefs of agriculture in Great Bri¬
tain previous to the fourteenth century. That it was
pretty generally praftifed, efpecially in the eaftern,
fouth, and midland parts of England, is certain 5 but
of the mode, and the fuccefs, we are left almoll totally
ignorant. In the latter end of the fifteenth century,
how’ever, it feems to have been cultivated as a fcience,
and received very great improvement.
At this time our countryman Fitzherbert, judge of
the common-pleas, Ihone forth with diftinguiflied emi¬
nence in the pracHcal parts of hufbandry. He appears
to have been the firft: Englifliman who ftudied the na¬
ture of foils and the law's of vegetation with philofophi-
cal attention. On thefe he formed a theory confirmed
by experiments, and rendered the fludy pleafing as well
as profitable, by realizing the principles of the ancients,
to the honour and advantage of his country. Accord¬
ingly, he publifhed twm treatifes on this fubjefl : the
firft,"entitled The Book of Hujbandry, appeared in 1534 j
and the fecond, called The Book of Surveying and Im¬
provements, in 1539. Thefe books, being written at
a time when philofophy and fcience were but juft emer¬
ging from that gloom in which they had long been bu¬
ried, were doubtlefs replete with many errors 5 but they
contained the rudiments of true knowledge, and revived
the ftudy and love of an art, the advantages of wdiich
were obvious to men of the leaft refleflion. We there-
Hifloiy*
fore find that Fitzherbert’s books on agriculture foon
railed a fpirit of emulation in his countrymen ; and many
treatifes of the fame kind fucceflively appeared, which
time has however deprived us of, or at leaft: they are
become fo very fcarce as only to be found in the libra¬
ries of the curious.
About the year 1600, France made fome confider-
able efforts to revive the arts of hulbandry, as appears
from feveral large works, particularly Les Moyens de
devenir Riche; and the Cofrnopohte, by Bernard de
Paliffy, a poor porter, who feems to have been placed
by fortune in a ftation for which nature never intend¬
ed him ; Le Theatre d'Agriculture, by Deferres j and
Id Agriculture et Maifon Rujlique, by Meffrs Etienne,
Liebault, &c.
Nearly in the fame period, the Ikilful pra£Hce of huf¬
bandry became more prevalent among this people and
the Flemings than the publifhing of books on the fub-
jeft. Their intention feemed to be that of carrying on
a private lucrative employment, without inftrudfing
their neighbours. Whoever therefore became defirous of
copying their method of agriculture, wras obliged to
vifit that country, and make his own remarks on their
praftice.
The principal idea they had of hulbandry wa,s, by
keeping the lands clean and in fine tilth, to make a
farm refemble a garden as nearly as polfible.
Such an excellent principle, at firft fetting out, led
them of courfe to undertake the culture of ifnall farms
only, which they kept free from wreeds, continually
turning the ground, and manuring it plentifully and
judicioufly. • When they had by this method brought
the foil to a proper degree of cleanlinefs, health, and
fweetnefs, they chiefly cultivated the more delicate
graffes, as the fureft means of obtaining a certain pro¬
fit upon a fmall eftate, without the expence of keep¬
ing many draught horfes and fervants. A fewr years
experience wms fufficient to convince them, that ten-
acres of the beft vegetables for feeding cattle, properly
cultivated, wmuld maintain a larger flock of grazing
animals than forty acres of common farm grafs on
land badly cultivated. They alfo found, that the beft
vegetables for this purpofe w’ere lucerne, faintfoin, tre¬
foil of moft kinds, field-turnips, &c.
The grand political fecret of their hufbandry, there¬
fore, confifted in letting farms on improvement. They
are faid alfo to have difcovered nine forts of manure 5
but what they all were, we are not particularly in¬
formed. We find, however, that marl was one of
them } the ufe and virtues of which appear alfo to have
been well known in this kingdom two hundred years
ago, although it was afterwards much negle&ed. They
W'ere the firrt people among the moderns who plough¬
ed in green crops for the fake of fertilizing the foil j
and who confined their Iheep at night in large fheds
built on purpofe, the floors of which were covered
with fand or virgin earth, &c. which the Ihepherd cart¬
ed away each morning to the compoft dunghill.
In England, during the civil wars, though the ope¬
rations and improvements in hufbandry fuffered fome
temporary checks, there flourilhed feveral excellent
writers on the fubjedl, and the art itfelf received con-
fiderable encouragement. Sir Hugh Platt was one of
the moft ingenious hufbandmen of the age in which he
lived ; yet fo great was hismodefty, that all his works,
except
AGRICULTURE.
Hiftory.
except KIs Paradife of Flofa, feem to be pofthumous.
He held a correfpondence with moft of the lovers and
patrons of agriculture and gardening in England ; and
fuch was the juftice and modefly of his temper, that he
always named the author of every difeovery communi¬
cated to him. Perhaps no man in any age difeovered,
or at lead: brought into ufe, fo many new kinds of ma¬
nure. This will be evident to thofe who read his ac¬
count of the compoft and covered dunghills, and his
judicious obfervations on the fertilizing qualities lodged
in fait, ftreet dirt, and the fullage of ftreets in great
cities, clay, fullers earth, moorifh earths, dunghills
made in layers, fern, hair, calcination of all vegetables,
tnak dull, willow tree earth, foapers alhes, urine, marl,
and broken potlherds.
Gabriel Plattes may be faid to have been an origi¬
nal genius in hufbandry. He began his obfervations
at an earlier period, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,
and continued them down to the Commonwealth. But
jiotwithlfanding the great merit of this writer, and the
elfential fervice he had rendered his country by his
writings, the public ungratefully fuffered him to ftarve
and perilh in the ftreets of London j nor had he a Ihirt
on his back when he died.
Samuel Hartlib, a celebrated writer on agriculture
in the laft century, was highly efteemed and beloved
by Milton, and other great men of his time. In the
preface to his -work entitled his Legacy, he laments
that no public director of hufbandry was eftablilhed in
England by authority; and that we had not adopted
the Flemilh method of letting farms upon improve¬
ment. This remark of Hartlib’s procured him a penlion
of 100I. a-year from Cronrwell j and the writer after¬
wards, the better to fulfil the intention of his benefac¬
tor, procured Dr Beatti’s excellent annotation on the
Legacy, with other valuable papers from his numerous
correfpondents.
The time in which Hartlib flourifhed feems to have
been an era when the Englifh hufbandry rofe to great
perfe&ion, compared with that of former ages ; for
the preceding wars had impoverifhed the country gen¬
tlemen, and of courfe made them induftrious. They
found the cultivation of their own lands to be the moft
profitable ftation they could fill. But this wife turn
■was not of long continuance. At the Reftoration,
they generally became infected with that intoxication
and love of pleafure which fucceeded. All their in-
duftry and knowledge wrere exchanged for negledt and
diflipation 5 and huibandry defeended almoft entirely
into the hands of common farmers.
Evelyn wTas the firft writer who infpired his country¬
men with a defire of reviving the ftudy of agriculture ;
and he wras followed by the famous Jethro Tull. The
former, by his admirable treatifes on earth and on
planting, and the latter, by fhowing the fuperior ad¬
vantages of the drill hufbandry, excited numbers to
bring their theory to the teft of fair experiment.
Many valuable and capital improvements have fince
that period been made in Englifh hufbandry : and thefe
great men have been fucceeded by a-variety of writers,
many of whom have done effential fervice, by enlight¬
ening the minds of their countrymen, and exciting them
to emulation.
About the middle of the laft century, Ireland began
to make a. confiderable figure in the art of huibandry.
It muft indeed be confefied, that the Iriih had very
ftrong prejudices in favour of a wretched method of
agriculture, till Blyth opened their eyes by his excel¬
lent writings. Since that time, a fpirit of improve¬
ment has more or lefs been promoted, and in many in-
ftances carried on with great zeal, by the nobility,
clergy, and gentry of that kingdom. In proof of this,
it will be fufficient to obferve, that the Tranfadions of
the Dublin Society- for encouraging Hufbandry are
now cited by all foreigners in their memoirs relating
to that fubjed. And the obfervations of that difeern-
ing and judicious writer, Arthur Young, Efq. in his
Tour through that kingdom, (how, that in many re-
fpeds improvements there have of late years made a
progrefs nearly as rapid as in England.
After the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, moft of the na¬
tions of Europe, by a fort of tacit confent, applied
themfelves to the ftudy of agriculture, and continued to
do fo, more or lefs, amidft the univerfal confufion that
fucceeded.
The French found, by repeated experience, that,
they could never maintain a long wTar, or procure a to¬
lerable peace, unlefs they could raife corn enough to
fupport themfelves in fuch a manner as not to be obli¬
ged to fubmit to harfh terms on the one hand, or to pe¬
rilh by famine on the other. This occafioned the king
to give public encouragement to agriculture, and even
to be prefent at the making of feveral experiments.
The great, and the rich of various ranks and ftations*
follow’ed his example 5 and even the ladies wrere can¬
didates for a fhare of fame in this public-fpirited and
commendable undertaking.
During the hurry and diftrefles of France in the war
of 1756, confiderable attention was paid to agriculture.
Prize queftions were annually propofed in their rural
academies, particularly thofe of Lyons and Bourdeaux ;
and many judicious obfervations were made by the So¬
ciety for improving agriculture in Britanny.
After the conclufion of that wrar in 1763, mat¬
ters wrere carried on there with great vigour. The
univerfity of Amiens made various propofals for tho
advancement of huibandry *, and the marquis de Tour-
billy (a writer who proceeded chiefly on experience)
had the principal diredlion of a georgical fociety efta-
hlilhed at Tours.
The fociety at Rouen alfo deferves notice 5 nor did
the king and his minifters think it unworthy their at¬
tention. There foon exifted about fifteen focieties ia
France, eftablilhed by royal approbation, for the pro¬
moting of agriculture ; and thefe had twenty co-ope¬
rating focieties belonging to them.
About this time vigorous exertions began to be made
in Ruffia to introduce the moft approved fyftem of
huibandry which had taken place in other parts of Eu¬
rope. The late emprefs fent feveral gentlemen into
Britain and other countries to ftudy agriculture, and
gave it all poflible encouragement in her owm domi¬
nions.
The art of agriculture has alfo been for many years
publicly taught in the Swedilh, Danilh, and German
univerlities, where the profeffors may render effe&ual
fervice to their refpe&ive countries, if they underftand
the pra&ical as well as the fpeculative part, and can
converfe with as much advantage wdtfi the faring
with Virgil .and Columella. .
m
Even
294 A G R I C
Even Italy lias not been totally inactive. The Nea¬
politans of this age have condefcended to recur to the
firft rudiments of revived hufbandry, and begun to ftu-
dy anew the Agricultural Syftem of Crefcenzio, firft
published in 1478. The people of Bergamo have pur-
fued the fame plan, and given a new edition of the Ri-
cordo d’Agriculturse de Tarello, firlt publifhed in 1577.
The duchy of Tufcany has imbibed the fame fpirit
of improvement. A private gentleman, above 40
years iince, left his whole fortune to endow an acade¬
my of agriculture. The firft eccleliaftic in the duchy
was prehdent of this fociety, and many of the chief no¬
bility were members.
His Sardinian majefty alfo fent perfons to learn
the different mo4es of practice in foreign countries j
and made fome fpirited attempts to eftablilh a better
method of agriculture among his fubjects.
In Poland, alfo, M. de Bielufki, grand marfhal of
the crown, made many fuccefsful attempts to in¬
troduce the new hulbandry among his countrymen 5
and procured the beft inftruments for that purpofe from
France, England, and other parts of Europe.
The Hollanders are the only people now in Europe
who feem to look upon agriculture with indifference.
Except the fingle collateral inftance of draining their
fens and moraffes, they have fcarcely paid any atten¬
tion to it j and even this feems to have proceeded more
from the motive of felf-prefervation, than any love of,
or difpofltion to, hufbandry.
In the year 1759, a few ingenious and public-fpi-
rited men at Berne in Switzerland eftablifhcd a fociety
for the advancement of agriculture and rural econo¬
mics. In that fociety were many men of great weight
in the republic, and moft of them perfons of a true
call for making improvements in hufbandry, being
enabled to join the practice with the theory.
Nor muft we here omit to mention, that the juftly
celebrated Linnaeus and his difciples have performed
great things in the north of Europe, particularly in
difcovering new kinds of profitable and well-tafted
food for cattle. About the fame time, Sweden be¬
llowed fuccefsful labours on a foil wrhich had before
been looked upon as cold, barren, and incapable of
melioration. Of this the Stockholm Memoirs will be
a lafting monument.
Denmark, and many of the courts in Germany, fol¬
lowed the fame example. Woollen manufactures were
encouraged, and his Danifh majefty fent three perfons
into Arabia Felix to make remarks, and bring over
fuch plants and trees as would be ufeful in hufbandry,
building, and rural affairs.
The duchy of Wirtemburg, alfo, a country by no
means unfertile, but even friendly to corn and pafture-
age, has contributed its affiftance towards the improve¬
ment of agriculture, having more than 50 years fince
publifhed 14 economical relations at Stutgard.
Neither muft we forget the very afliduous attention
of the learned in Leipfic and Hanover to this import¬
ant object. During the rage and devaftation of a long
war, they cultivated the arts of peace; witnefs the
'Journal d'Agriculture printed at Leipfic, and the Re¬
cue ih d’Hanover printed in that city.
Even Spain, conftitutionally and habitually inactive
on fuch occafions, in fpite of all their natural indo¬
lence, and the prejudices of bigotry, invited Linnaeus,
2
U L T U R E. Iliftory.
wfth the offer of a large penfion, to fuperintend a col¬
lege founded for the purpofe of making newr inquiries
into the hiftory of nature and the art of agriculture.
Among the Japanefe, agriculture is in great re¬
pute } and among the Chinefe it is diftinguifhed and
encouraged by the court beyond all other fciences.
The emperor of China yearly, at the beginning of
fpring, goes to plough in perfon, attended by all the
princes and grandees of the empire. The ceremony is
performed with great folemnity} and is accompanied
with a facrifice, which the emperor, as high-prieft, of¬
fers to Chang-Ti, to enfure a plentiful crop in favour
of his people.
But, without any improper partiality to our own
country, wre are fully juftified in afferting, that Bri¬
tain alone exceeds all modern nations in hufbandry $
and from the fpirit which for the laft twenty years
has animated many of our nobility and gentry, to
become the liberal patrons of improvement, there
is reafon to hope that this moft ufeful of arts will,
in a few years, be carried to a.greater pitch of perfec¬
tion than it has ever yet attained in any age or
country.—The Royal Society, the Bath Society, and
the Society of Arts, &c. in particular, have been fig-
nally ufeful in this refpect *, and the other affociations>
which are now eftablifhed in many parts of the king¬
dom, co-operate with them in forwarding their lau¬
dable defign. •
It is not, howrever, to the exertion of public focie-
ties, excellent and honourable as they are, that all our
modern improvements in agriculture owTe their origin.
To the natural genius of the people have been added
the theory and practice of all nations in ancient and
modern times. This accumulated mafs of knowledge
has been arranged, .divided, and fubdivided j and af¬
ter palling the teft of practical experiments, the effen-
tial and moft valuable parts of it have been preferved,
improved, and amply diffufed in the wrorks of Lord
Karnes, Mr Young, Stillingfleet, Dr Hunter, Ander-
fbn, Dickfon, Ellis, Randal, Lifle, Marfhal, Mortimer,
Duhamel, Bradley, Kent, Mills, and a few other writ¬
ers upon this great art of rendering mankind happy,
wealthy, and powerful.
We alfo remark wTith much fatisfadlion, that the
Britifh government has of late years thought fit to ren¬
der the improvement of agriculture an objedl of public
attention and encouragement, by the inftitution of a g
board of agriculture.—About the year 1790, Sir John The boar4
Sinclair, Bart, invited the clergy of the church ofofagricul-
Scotland to tranfmit to him deferiptions of the ftate ofture*
their different parifhes, with a view to the publication
of what is called a Stati/iical Account of Scotland. The
wdiole members of this body having readily complied
with his requeft, a wmrk in 20 volumes odtavo wras
compiled from the materials afforded by them, con¬
taining an account of the agriculture, manufadtures, and
population of the country. The fame gentleman, a-
bout that period, v'as alfo adlive in obtaining the in¬
ftitution of a private fociety, called She Bntijh Wool
Society, which was very fuccefsful in calling the atten¬
tion of the public to the improvement of that important
article of national growth and rnanufafture. By thefe
patriotic exertions, having acquired a confiderable fhare
of popularity, he was encouraged on 15th May 1793,
to make a motion in the koufe of commons, of which
be
295
Theory. AGRICULTURE.
he was a member, for an addrefs to the crown, recom- Efq. fo well known for his agricultural publications,
mending the inftitution of a board of agriculture. 'I he was appointed iecretary. # 9
chancellor of the exchequer, Mr Pitt, on perceiving The regular fittings of the board did not commence Com-
that the propofal was acceptable to the majority of the till 23d January J794> hnce which time it las <;ont.1'0f-ts
houfe, gave it a decided fupport, and on the 17th May, nued to exert a very confiderable degree oi activity mtings>
to which the debate had been adjourned, the motion eftablifhing an extenfiye foreign correfpondence, and m
was carried for an addrefs to his majefty to inftitute procuring and publilhmg every kind of ufeful domeitic
fuch a board, at an expence not exceeding 3000I.—In agricultural intelligence, fome fpecimens of which we
confequence of this application, a charter palled the fhall afterwards have occafion to notice. I his board,
great feal, incorporating the members of adminilfration loon after its inllitution, alfo employed perlons 01
for the time, with the archbiihops of Canterbury and known reputation to^ prepare^ agricultural lurveys of
York, and all their fucceffors in office, together with every county in the ifland of Great P>ntam.—Many of
certain other noblemen and gentlemen, into a hoarder thefe lurveys have been publiffied, and loim treatifes
fociety, by the name of the Board or Society for the upon this important art, which, for extent of intelli-
encouragement of Agriculture and internal improvement, gence and ability of execution, have not been ex-
under the patronage of the crown *, with power to the ceeded in any age or country. I he board has alio ob-
members to eleft office-bearers and fucceflors to them- tained parliamentary rewards to fome individuals for
felves : and in the mean time Sir John Sinclair was ap- important difeoveries, and has offered premiums for
pointed to be the firft prelident, to continue in bffice effays or treatifes upon fubjedls connected with the pur-
till 25th March following} Sir John Caul, Bart, was pofe of its inftitution, which have produced a great
appointed to be the firft treafurer, and Edwrard Young, variety of valuable and ingenious difquilitions.
THEORY OF AGRICULTURE.
IN an art that is fo neceffary to mankind, and that
has been fo univerfally praftifed, it might perhaps
be expefted, that the principles upon wffiich its opera-
1© tions depend, vTould have been by this time completely
The theory anci accurately inveftigated, and confequently that a
of agricul- theory of agriculture could ealily be exhibited,
fective. ^ “1S* however, is by no means the cale 5 and it is not
a little lingular, that, in this moft ufeful of all arts, the
theory ftiould ftill be more defective than in almoft any
fcrence with wffiich we are acquainted. It is fortunate,
however, for the human race, that in moft cafes, or at
leaft in all important arts, they fucceed better in prac¬
tice than in fpeculation. During many ages, various
artifts were accuftomed to extract the moft ordinary,
but moft ufeful metals, from the ftate of ore or earth
in which nature produces them, and to reduce them
back from their metallic form and luftre, to a ftate of
ore or earth again. Thefe artifts were unacquainted
w ith the principles upon wffiich the fuccefs of their ope¬
rations depended ; and it is only within thefe few years
that fome ingenious chemifts have fuccefsfully invefti¬
gated the nature of thefe procefles, and have explained
what they have called the oxygenation and difoxygena-
tion of metals. The fame thing has happened in agricul¬
ture. Men have often cultivated the ground well, while
ti they have fpeculated ill concerning the mode of doing fo.
Difficulty Various reafons render it ftill more difficult to form
ot forming a compjete theory of agriculture, than of chemiftry,
mechanics, or other arts. In agriculture, an experi¬
ment cannot be made in an inftant, or even in an hour,
or in a day or two. A wffiole feafon muft pafs away
before a Angle experiment can be performed, and after
all, as in other arts, the inquirer after truth may be
milled by fome unobferved circumftances. Some fa£I,
quite foreign to the experiment itfelf, ariling out of the
peculiar ftate of the foil, or of the train of feafons, may
produce plentiful crops for a year or twm, though, in
ordinary circumftances, no fuch effeft would follow ;
and the ingenious contriver of the experiment, who
thought he had made an important difeovery, may af¬
terwards derive from it only difappointment and morti¬
fication. But human life is too Ihort to admit of a very
great variety of agricultural experiments to be perform¬
ed by the fame individual. After a few' feafons, he
muft leave his place to be occupied by a new inquirer,
poffeffed of a different character and of different view's.
Unfortunately, till of late years, it was not ufual for
hufbandmen to publiffi, and thus to immortalize and
diffufe over wffiole nations, the refult of their private^
experience and reflexions. Scattered over the face of
great countsies, and having little intercourfe wdth fo¬
reigners, or even with each other, they knew little of
what was done by men engaged in the fame profeffion,
though at no great diftance.—In this way, the benefit
of local difeoveries was not communicated to the world
at large, nor wras an opportunity afforded of eradicating
local prejudices and erroneous praXtces. As the ftate
of this valuable profeffion is now rapidly altering in
thefe refpeXs, there is little doubt that we are fall ap¬
proaching towards a period at wffiich it wall be poffible
to exhibit a clear and correX theory of agriculture, or
to arrange under a fewr Ample heads the rules or prin¬
ciples upon which the praXice of the art depends.—
What wc are now to offer, is not to be confidered as
perfeX, nor even as poffeffing any nearer approxima¬
tion towards a perfeX theory of the huffiandman’s art j
but merely, fuch a general ftatement of its principles
as refults "from the degree of information hitherto col-
leXed upon the fubjeX. _ iz
A theory, or general view7 of the principles of agri- What it
culture feems neceffarily to refolve itfelf into the two
following inveftigations: ift, To inquire among the
great variety of vegetables that exift in nature, what
particular plants ought to be regarded as mpft worthy
of cultivation : and zdly, I o confider the beft mode of
cultivating with fuccefs the plants thus feleXed. ^
With regard to the firft of thefe divifions of the fub- The value
jeX, or the vegetables that ought to be chofen as moft of vegeta-
valuable and worthy of cultivation, it may be obferved,^^5^3'
that the value of a plant is of two kinds, abfolute, or relative.
relative;
296
Vegetables
Food for
Man.
H
They are
ufeful di-
reftly and
indiredlly.
Men feed
on fruits
and roots.
Fruit trees
not trailed
to for food,
17
becaufe
they ripen
fiowly, and
are de-
ilroyed in
A G R I C U
relative : The abfolute value of a plant depends upon
its fitnefs to afford fubfiftence to the human fpeeies,
whereas its relative value confifts of the tendency which
the cultivation of it will have to enrich a particular
hufbandman, or clafs of hufbandmen, either becaufe
their lands are well adapted for its growth, or becaufe
there is a ready market for it in the vicinity, where it
bears a high price.
Concerning the abfolute value of plants, or their
tendency to afford fubfiftence to mankind, it is to be
obfervedj that fome plants are difccily ufeful or valu¬
able, becaufe they are immediately confumed as food
by man, fuch as wheat, oats, or potatoes; whereas
mankind derive fubfiftence from another clafs of plants,
only in an indirefl manner, by giving them to cattle,
and afterwards eating the fiefh of thefe cattle^ as hap¬
pens with regard to grafs and ftraW of all kinds.
Sect. I. Of Vegetables to be cultivated as Food for
Man.
So M F vegetables afford fubfiftence to the human fpe-
cies by means of the fruit that grows upon them, which
han^s, and is brought to Maturity in the air, at the
fummit of their ftems. Other vegetables derive their
value from producing roots which come to maturity in
the bofom of the foil, and are dug from thence to be
confumed by mankind.
Of fruit-bearing vegetables, thofe called trees, which
rife aloft with a ftrong trunk, are the moft permanent
and remarkable. It is faid that a fpot of ground, oc¬
cupied by fome kinds of trees fuch as chefnuts or dates,
is capable of producing a very great portion of food,
ufeful for the fupport of the human fpeciesi One ad¬
vantage attending the Cultivation of fuch vegetables,
would be that, after the trees are planted, and fecured
by fences for a few years againft animals, they would for
ever after, or at lead; for many years, continue to grow
and fiourifh without care or labour. It does not appear,
however, that in any nation of ancient or modern times,
forefts of fruit-bearing trees have been reared with a
view to afford fubfiftence to the community. For this
two reafons may be afligned. In the firft place, a coii-
fiderable number of years muft elapfe, before fuch plants
could arrive at maturity, and fulfil the putpofe of their
deftination. Of whatever ufe therefore they might be
to future ages, it is evident that they could afford little
benefit to the generation which planted them. But in
u queftion about fubfiftence, mankind are ufually under
the neceftity of confidering their own immediate wants,
and hence they have been led to the cultivation of fuch
plants, as afford the moft fpeedy reward for the efforts
of their induftry. Another reafon for preferring the cul¬
ture of fmall annual plants, to the greater and more per¬
manent productions of nature, would arife, in the early
ages of the world, from the turbulent ftate of fociety
and the frequency of wars. A community that fhould
depend for its fubfiftence upon the fruit of foreft trees,
might be ruined for half a century by the inroad of
an enemy. An example of this was exhibited in the war
between Great Britain, and her North American colo¬
nies. When the parent ftate hired the favages on the
weftern frontier, to join her party and to make inroads
upon the colonifts, the latter retaliated upon the favages
in the following manner. Several of the colonies united
3
L T U R E. Theory
in fending an expedition againft the Indians. The bodies Vegetables
of militia employed upon this expedition, were furprifed
to find fmall com fields around a confiderable number of,
the Indian hamlets. They were not fatisfied however
with deftroying the huts of the natives, and thefe incipi¬
ent efforts of favage induftry ; but they anxioufiy fought
out and deftroyed every fruit-bearing tree that they
found in their progrefs of almoft a thoufand miles, there¬
by rendering the wildernefs utterly uninhabitable to
a people deftitute of agriculture, and who could not
always depend for fubfiftence upon their fuccefs in hunt¬
ing. From this example we fee that the frequent wars
arifing from the barbarous charafter of ancient nations,
would compel them to feek fubfiftence, not from the
fruit of foreft trees, but from grain which fpeedily ar¬
rives at maturity, and which when deftroyed can foon
be renewed. Thus war becomes a lefs wafteful fcourge
to the human race, and communities are enabled fpeed¬
ily to recover from the devaftation which it produces.
Had the nations of Europe depended for fubfiftence,
upon any fruits which could not be fpeedily reftored
when deftroyed, it is evident, that, in the late fangui-
nary conflief, the greater number of them muft have
been irretrievably ruined. l8
Hence it appears that the cultivation of plants of an- Men rather
hual growth, as a fource of fubfiftence, is favourable to truft to
the permanence of civilization in the world; and that be- grain>
fore nations can venture to rely for their fubfiftence upon
the fruit of plants of flower growth, their charatter muft
have arrived at a degree of moral amelioration far fu-
perior to what it has ever been known to poffefs.
Of annual plants cultivated for fruit, wheat has al¬
ways been accounted the moft valuable. This has pro¬
bably arifen from the extreme facility with which the
flour of it undergoes a procefs of fermentation, which
renders it capable of becoming a more light and agree¬
able kind of bread than the flour of any other grain.
This quality is believed to arife from a quantity of a
fubftance contained in wheat that is of the fame nature
with the gluten, or glue, that is prepared from animal
bodies. In other refpeds, however, it does not ap¬
pear that -wheat is more valuable than fome other kinds
of grain } by queans of long boiling a given weight of
barley, or even of oats, will render a quantity of water
as thick or full of mucilage as can be done by the fame
weight of wheat.
It may not be improper here to remark, that, in The ufe
modern times, an author of no mean reputation, grain has
has arifen, who endeavours to prove that wheat ought
not to be cultivated, nor bread to be eaten. rI his is-' ^ e
M. Linguet, who has written a treatife exprefsly upon
the fubjeft’, and, ridiculous as the aflertion may feem, it
has been thought worthy of a formal refutation by Dr
Tiffot.— One of M. Linguet’s arguments is, that wheat
impoverifties the ground on which it grows : but in
oppofition to this, Dr Tiffot argues, that corn is more
eafily cultivated than grafs 5 and that confequently in
the country he fpeaks of (Switzerland), tlm beft fields
are appropriated to hay, and the worft to corn. “ If
there are fome diftrias of very poor land (fays he) al¬
moft entirely fown with corn, they are not poor be¬
caufe they produce only corn, but becaufe they are not
fit to produce any thing elfe. Their foil is fo bad, that
they can grow* but very little fodder : confequently they
maintain only fuch cattle as are abfolutely neceffary for'
labour ’r
Theory. A G R I 0 U
Vegetables labour; and tboie are ill fed, and frequently perifb.
Food tor They have but little manure, and their crops are
iv^a^ fmall; for large crops of all forts can only be expended
£._oiii |an(js n?;ura}ly rich or ftrongly manured. Thus
the poverty of the inhabitants is only owing to their
poffeffmg an ungrateful foil. What proves evidently
that it is the natural foil which is in the fault, and not
the corn which impoveriihes it, is, that where there is
meadow and arable land, the price of the meadow land
Is much more confiderable than that of the arable. In
moif parts of this country the proportion is nearly ten
to' one ; and there are even fome meadows, for one part
of which they would give 30 of field lands ; and fome
pf vines, for which 100 of arable would be given.
1'hofc difiridls where the foil will produce nothing but
corn, are poor ; but in thofe which furnilh fodder, and
alfo fine crops of grain, the inhabitants are wealthy
and happy, unlefs they are oppreffed by taxes.”
M. Linguet draws another objeftion from the length
of time required to cultivate wheat : but Tiffot, by
another calculation, ihows, that 48 days work through¬
out the year would cultivate more wheat than is fuffi-
cient for a family of fix perfons. The time necefiary
for cultivation of arable land alfo does not increafe in
proportion to its extent ; but in cafe more is cultiva¬
ted than is requifite for the fubfiilence of the family, a
trade is formed, which might be increafed to an unli¬
mited extent. He then compares the time requifite
for the cultivation of vines, which are recommended by
M. Linguet, and finds it to be much longer than that
required for wheat. “ I know very well (fays he) that
the one requires cattle, and the other does not: but
thefe cattle, far from being expenfive, will, if properly
managed, increafe the gain of the farmer : therefore
they muft not be looked upon as any expence. Corn
is fubjefl to many accidents, but vines are fubjefl to
many more : thofe which the vines fuffer, fometimes
fpoil the vintage for feveral years; whereas thofe which
happen to arable land, only fpoil the crop for the fea-
fon ; and as the expence of cultivating vines, for which
only manual labour can be employed, is much more
confiderable, therefore the vigneron (or perfon who
cultivates vines), who engages more largely than the
farmer, will confequently be a much greater lofer if un-
fuccefsful—Hay is alfo fiibject to frequent and very
difagreeable accidents ; the fecuring it is fometimes very
difficult } and, when it is badly made, it is very hurtful
to cattle.-—A fingle fact will be fufficient to prove the
cafualties to which hay is fubject •, viz. that it varies in
price as much as grain. Accidents of hay mows ta¬
king fire are but too frequent: and this is not to be
feared in corn mows.”
The other objeclions of M. Linguet to wheat ap¬
pear to be quite frivolous ; fo that concerning the cul¬
tivation of this grain, Dr TiiTot draws the following
concluiions: “ It appears then, from what has been
faid, that wheat is not a commodity that is impover-
iihing in itfelf; and that this grain will grow indiffer¬
ently at lead in lands and fituations which are unfavour¬
able to other plants. This grain is likewife adapted to
mod climates ; and if there are didricts almod entirely
Town with wheat, and yet poor, it is the fault of the
for!, and not of this ufeful grain.”
But the mod extraordinary argument perhaps ever
thought of on this fubjefl is M. Linguet’s affertion,
Vol. I. Part I.
L T U R E.
297
that the ufe of wheat, or bread made from it, is detrj- Vegetables
mental to population; and that the countries where this I'°°5^or
grain is cultivated are poor and thinly inhabited, where-     
as thofe which abound with vineyards and padure lands
are rich and populous. But this, in Dr Tifiet’s opi¬
nion, (hows only that one foil is more rich than an¬
other, and that a fertile foil will maintain mod inhabi¬
tants. “ No perfon (fays he) is more capable of af-
figning the caufe of the fubjediion of the Roman em¬
pire to the northern powers, than M. Linguet; but he
cannot furely be ferious when he fays, that they were
enabled to conquer them becaufe thofe northern coun¬
tries produced no corn, and that population decreafed
fince the introduflion of grain. I (hall make, three
obfervations on this padage : Firft, The armies of
Gudavus Adolphus, Charles XII. and the king of
Prufiia, whofe food was bread, would be as formidable
againd the Italians of thofe times, who eat lefs than
was eaten in the days of Scipio, as their ancedors were
1400 years ago againd the Romans : and M. Linguet
mud certainly know, that thefe Greeks who fubfided
on bread, thofe Romans who eat nothing but bread
and vegetables in pottage, fubdued all the known
world, among whom were many nations who ate lefs
bread than themfelves. A Roman foldier’s allowance
of bread was much greater than what fokliers have 'at
prefent; and by the ufe of this food they had much
more drength than our modern foldiers can boad of.
The allowance to a Roman foldier was 64 pounds of
wheat per month ; and this he was driftly forbidden
either to fell or exchange. Their foldiers had very
feldom any cheefe, bacon, or pulfe ; fo that wheat was
almod their only food, and the proportion was double
what is allowed foldiers in our days. They ate it in
bread, in flour-milk, and in thin cakes ; and they were
not fubjeft to epidemic or putrid diforders, which is
too much the cafe with our modern armies. We may
eafily judge, from the weight of their accoutrements,
that the Roman foldiers were not poffeffed of lefs per-
fonal drength than thofe who compofe the armies at
this day ; they were not lefs brave, nor did their food
render them in any way unhealthy : on the contrary,
where there is fuch difficulty in procuring a fupply of
good animal food to an army, as is often the cafe in
modern times, it is probable that reducing them to the
Ample diet of a Roman foldier would he the mod
proper method of preventing epidemic diieafes among
them. Secondly, It is very doubtful whether thole
countries were more populous formerly than they are
at this time ; it is even probable that they were lefs fo.
Ladly, The people of thefe northern countries were not
without wheat; it was the bafis of their food and
drink : without quoting other authors who atteit it,
fuffice it to fay, that Tacitus affirms it,’ &c.
In this lad particular, however, our author appears to
be midaken; but whatever may be in this, we apprehend
that few of our readers will entertain any doubt con¬
cerning the wholefomenefs of wheat,, or the propriety
of making it into bread alter once it is cultivated. 20
After wheat, oats have in our country been confi- Oats a va-
dered as of vary great importance. It is a hardy andluaWe
beautiful plant; grows with little cultivation, and isTam-
particularly well fuited for lands newly brought in
from a date of nature, upon which it was always ufed
as the firft crop, till the introdu&ion of the turnip huf-'
P p bandry.
-C)8
AGRICULTURE.
Vegetables
Food for
Man.
at
Barley va¬
luable from
its eafy con-
verfion to a
faccharine
fubltance.
22
Different
kinds of
grain are
not effen-
tially dif¬
ferent.
23
Roots ufed
as human
food.
24
They pro¬
duce more
food on
the fame
extent of
foil than
grain. .
Dandty. / he meal of it is ulually very coarfely grind¬
ed, and mixed with a confiderable quantity of the in¬
ner covering of the grain. Hence it has always a
confiderable degree of roughnefs, and is harfh, and’ un-
fuited to very delicate confiitutions j but this very
harfhnefs, from its ftimulant effeff, producing a feeling
of warmth in the ftomach, renders it more grateful to
perfons much expofed to the open air, and accuftomed
to hard labour, who account it a hearty kind of food.
Effentially, and in its intrinfic qualities, this grain dif¬
fers little from fome others.
Earley is chiefly valued in confequence of the facili¬
ty with which it produces a great quantity of faccharine
matter by the procefs of vegetation or malting, which
fits it for the preparation of vinous or fpirituous li¬
quors. Peafe are alfo fometimes ufed when grinded
into meal as an article of human food 5 but on account
of their vifeid and indigeftible quality, they can never
become valuable in that point of view, unlefs to per¬
fons engaged in the open air, in the molt aflive and
fevere kinds of labour.
In other refpeefs, however, it does not appear that
there is much difterence in point of quality or whole-
lomenefs between the various kinds of grain cultivated
in different countries. They are all capable of affording
nourifhment to the human conftitution, and of pre-
ferving it in health and vigour : When grinded into
meal, they require little farther preparation, and are
eafily made into bread, or otherwife prepared for im¬
mediate confumption, by being mixed according to the
fancy or tafte of different nations, with a fmall quanti¬
ty of water, or any other liquid.
Of the roots which are ufed to afford fubfiftence to
man, the potato has hitherto been the principal. The
reft, confifting chiefly of carrots, turnips, and parfnips,
are never ufed as a foie nutriment, being rather adopt¬
ed for the purpofe of giving variety and relifh to other
food, and chiefly to butchers meat. The potato, how¬
ever, is in fome meafure an exception to this general
rule. It contains a large quantity of ftarch, which
does not feern inferior to the ftarch prepared from
wheat, fo far at leaft as that ingredient is to be regard¬
ed as contributing to the nouriihing qualities of the
grain. Its tafte relembles, more nearly than any other
root, the tafte of bread ; and accordingly it is daily
beginning to be more extenfively ufed, and to form a
larger portion of the food of the poor. The celebrated
Dr Adam Smith long fince remarked its tendency to
produce a ftrong and handfome race of people, as de-
raonftrated by its effeft upon the common people of
Ireland, who have for a confiderable length of time in
a great meafure fubfifted upon it.
It is to be obferved concerning all the roots now
mentioned, that a crop of them always contains a much
larger quantity of human food than a crop of any kind
of grain upon the fame extent of ground. A Scots
acre of good land, which will not produce more than
1280 pounds weight of oatmeal, will eafily produce
20,000 pounds weight of potatoes, and will fometimes
in favourable feafons produce 30,000 or 35,000 pounds
weight of that valuable root. Suppofing one pound
of oatmeal to contain as much nourifhment as four
pounds of potatoes, ftill it is evident, that, where an
extent of territory employed in the produftion of oats
can only fupport one million of people, the fame terri-
Theory.
tory employed in the cultivation of potatoes will fun- Vegetables
port fifteen millions of perfons. * ^ Ior
Potatoes, however, and all the other roots, have hi- , .
therto poffefied thefe radical defedls : The carriage of 2.
them is extremely expenfive, in confequence of their Their de¬
weight, arifing from the vaft quantity of moifture they fedt as food,
contain. Hence they can only be cultivated in abun- 26
dance in the vicinity of great towns, or where they "
are meant to be confumed upon the farm as the food of of them ex¬
cattle. penfive.
Roots are alfo incapable of long prefervation. In 27_
the winter they are deftroyed by froft, and in fummer t
by heat, which caufes them to vegetate or to corrupt; preferva-
both of which changes render them unfit to be ufed as tion.
food. 28
Thefe roots are alfo much more bulky than grain in Too bidky
proportion to the quantity of nourifliment contained in ^or ^ fto-
them. Hence they are rendered lefs fit to be confu-mac^-
med by perfons engaged in fedentary profefiicns.
Such perfons accordingly feldom fail to find them in¬
jurious to the ftomach, by their bulkinefs, and their
tendency to injure the powers of digeftion, by produ¬
cing flatulencies and other unpleafant confequences. ^
On the whole, the difference between thefe fuccu-Wherein
lent roots and the grain of corn plants ieems to amount they dit¬
to this, that, although they are both formed of fimilar ^er :roni
fubftances, the potato being analogous to wheat, and ^ alI1‘
the carrot and parfnip to rye, or rather to barley, after
it has been converted into malt, yet, as the roots are
formed in the bofom of the foil, and are of a loofe and
watery texture, their formation requires from nature a
{lighter effort than the bringing to perfection the fmall
grains which are produced in the air at the top of corn
plants. She therefore compenfates by an abundant
crop the diminifhed quality of her work.
Hence it has appeared an important problem in eco- How they
nomics, to devife a plan by which the fucculent roots may be
of vegetables may be deprived of their fuperfluous renc^1.e(^
moifture, that thus human art may perform for them v^iue to
what nature has not accomplilhed } and that they may grain,
be rendered completely equal in value to grain in point
of quality, while in quantity they are fo fuperior.
With this view different proceffes have been adopted.
Potatoes have been grated down in their raw ftate, 31
and repeatedly •walhed with, water : the refult of which Potato-
operation is, that the ftarch contained in them is ob-^:art^•
tained with great labour ; but the reft of the root is loft;
and this operation cannot be applied to other kinds of
roots with fuccefs. Another mode of accompliftiing
the objeft was devifed a few years ago by M. Grenet, Grenet’s
and publifhed in the Journal of the Lycceum of Arts mode of
of Paris. It is performed in this manner : The pota- gramdating
toes muft firft be boiled by the heat of the fleam 0fkota-ce-
boiling water, without touching the water itfelf. They
are then ftript of their fkin, and allowed to cool, and
made ufe of in the following way :—A white iron tube
of two inches diameter, and eight inches in length,
open at the one end and clofe at the other, is every^
where perforated with fmall holes, and a round piece
of wood is prepared, which eafily goes into the tube,
but which at the fame time fills it. Things being
thus in readinefs, a quantity of the potatoes, boiled as
already mentioned, is put into the tube till it is full.
They are then forcibly rammed down with the round
piece of wood or pifton j the confequence of which
operatioa
t
33
Mr For-
fyth’s pro-
cefs for
Theory. A G R I C U
Vegetables operation is, tliat tliey are forced through the little
holes in the Tides of the tube, and'come out in the ihape
of worms. They are received upon linen cloths, co¬
vered with unlized paper, and dried in the heat of the
fun, or in a warm room. The fmall pieces mull be
ftirred from time to time j ancl it is faid, that in lefs
than 12 hours, the preparation dries fo as to be capable
of being preferved.
The defefl of this procefs evidently is, that it is a
petty operation, which can only proceed {lowly, and
upon a diminutive fcale. It is therefore unlikely to
be adopted in the great operations of an extenfive
agriculture, as a mode of preparing or preferving hu¬
man food.
At the beginning of the prefent year 1802, another
procefs for accomplifhing this important objeft was
contrived by Robert Forfyth, Efq. advocate. Of this
converting proceps> which has been communicated to the Board of
flour. 1 Agriculture, we are authorized to give the following
account:
The whole difficulty of difcovering a procefs, with
the view to render fucculent roots as eafily preferved
anti tranfported, and therefore in every refpefl as va¬
luable as grain, feems to arife from our not having the
command of fuch a degree of fteady and vigorous, but
moderate heat, as will deprive them of their moifture,
while at the fame time they are prevented from being
burnt or fcorched in the way that coffee-beans are
treated before being grinded. This requifite degree
of heat may be obtained in a very cheap and eafy man¬
ner, by making ufe of the ffeam of boiling water,
which never can burn any vegetable fubftance. Upon
this principle, Mr Forfyth’s procefs is founded, and is
conducted in the following manner :
iff, Let a quantity of potatoes, or carrots, or parf-
nips, &c. be waihed, and then cut or chopped into
very fmall pieces.
zdly, Lay them upon a metallic plate, and dry them
with the heat of fleam tranfmitted through the metal.
They are then in a ftate analogous to grain, and feem
capable of being preferved for any length of time.
jdly, Reduce them into flour or meal, by grinding
in any mill, or with any inftrument capable of grind-
ing grain.
The meal or flour thus prepared has no tendency to
.attract moifture from the atmofphere, and may be pre¬
ferved during any length of time, if clofely prefled or
packed. Without this precaution, Mr Forfyth has
preferved it for fix months, when it had been coarfely
grinded in a coffee mill.
The drying procefs is not tedious. As potatoes
contain a great quantity of ftarch or gummy matter,
the pieces of them, while drying, are apt to adhere to
each other ; they muft therefore be frequently turned
or ftirred during that part of the operation. When
dry, they are almoft as hard as barley, and tafte fome-
what like the Ikin of a roafted potato.
Carrots and parfnips contain lefs gummy matter.
They require lefs attention while drying, and do not
become fo hard. They may be grinded with eafe.
Their flour is very fweet to the tafte. Its fmell is
fragrant, and though the tafte of the roots cannot be
faid to be altered, it is rendered rich and agreeable
by the concentration produced by the procefs. This
^ L more particularly the cafe with regard to the parf-
L T U R E. 299
nips. Their meal, when coarfely grinded, and expofed Vegetables
to the air for a month or two, loies its grateful fmell, *
but the tafte continues unchanged. The tafte is com- ^^
municated very rapidly to lukewarm water, by pouring
it upon the meal, fo that it may probably prove of
fome value when fubjetled to the vinous fermentation j
and it feems not improbable, that if fugar is ever to
be produced in abundance from plants of European
growth, it muft be by preparing them according to
this procefs.
Mr Forfyth performed his experiments with a fteam
apparatus, which, with fome alterations, may prove
not unfuitable, when erefted upon a great leale.
A, Plate XII, A (hallow veflfel, of white iron, 1 foot Mr For-
fquare, and 2 inches in depth, for containing fubftancesfyth’s fteam
to be dried. apw.raa...
B, a fmall round veffel, in which water is kept
boiling by a lamp, C, with three wicks.
D, a tube, by which the fteam paffes into E, which
contains the drying veffel A, and is clofely foldered all
round to the bottom of it.
F, a tube, by which the wmter formed by the
condenfed fteam, flows from the fteam veffel, E,
back into the boiler B, entering at the bottom of
the boiler.
G, a crooked tube, by which the luperfluous fteam
efcapes into the open air. It is crooked, that it may
retard the paffage of the fteam vdien the veffel is at
work, wrhich forces it to depofite more of its heat on
the bottom of the drying veffel A.
H, a tube by which the boiler B is filled with hot
water.
I, a tube palling up through the centre of the boil¬
er, and ferving as a chimney to the lamp C. It does
not communicate with the water in the boiler.
K {hows the figure of the cover of the drying vef¬
fel A. The cover has a groove or gutter LL, puf¬
fing round its lower edge. The vapour which rites
from the roots when drying, condenfes on touching the
cover, and flow’s down to the gutter, from which it
efcapes in the ftate of W’ater, by a hole left for that
purpofe at each corner. The cover is only ufed for
the neatnefs requifite in making experiments.
The whole is fupported by four moveable feet, at¬
tached to the corners of the drying veflel A, but not
appearing in the figure. Every part of it is made of
white iron or tinned plate.
Inftead of the lamp C, a fmall iron pan filled with
pieces of burning charcoal, wras fometimes ufed to keep
the wrater boiling, and a ftill more convenient plan
wras at times adopted during the winter feaforu It
confifted of refting the bottom of the boiler B, upon
the front of the grate of the chamber, while a fire w’as
burning, the reft of the inftrument being at the iame
time fupported by a rope attached to the back of a
chair, to a nail or peg in the wall for hanging a pic¬
ture, or to any other convenient fupport. When ufed
in this laft manner, however, the inftrument has this
defeft, that the water in the tube H boils over at times
into the fire, W’hich might be avoided, by placing the
tube on the oppofite fide oi the boiler.
Upon the above contrivance it may be remarked,
that a kiln formed of a large metallic plate, heated by
the fteam of boiling water, may prove valuable in
many procefles. In particular, it wall probably be
P p 2 found
*
joo
Food ror found ufeful for drying malt, with a view to prevent
. ”lttie\ . the ale formed of it from having a brown colour. It
may alfo, perhaps, be ufed with fuccefs for drying
wheat that is intended to be fown, to prevent the fu¬
ture crop from fudering by mildew, as will be after¬
wards mentioned ; and it affords a ready and cheap
mode of drying not only roots, but all vegetable pro-
dufKons, without burning them, or altering their talle
or other efiential properties.
Sect. II. Of the mojl proper kinds of Vegetables to
be raifed for the purpofes of feeding Cattle.
Though this muft be an article of the utmoft con-
fequence to every farmer, we do not find that it has been
much confidered. Mr Anderfon feems to have been
the firft writer on agriculture who‘hath properly at¬
tended to this fubjeft ; and what he hath wrote upon
it, is rather a catalogue of defiderata, than any thing
elfe : and indeed the defiderata on this fub?e& are
fo many and fo great, that we muft acknowledge our-
felves very unable to fill them up. To attain to a
competent knowledge in this refpedt, the following
Oualities of things muft be taken into confideration. (i.) The
the food' wholefomenefs of the food for cattle, with repard to
euttle^6101 ilealth antl or Fatnefs. (2.) The quantity
that any extent of ground is capable of yielding. (3.)
The quantity neceil'ary to feed the different kinds of
cattle. (4 ) The labour of cultivation 5 and, (5.) The
foil they require to bring them to perfection, and the
effeft they have upon it.
With regard to the wholefomenefs, it is plain, that
as the natural food of wild cattle is the green fucculent
plants they meet with all the year round, food of this
kind, could it be had, muft be preferable to hav •, and
accordingly we find that cattle will always prefer fuc¬
culent vegetables where they can get them. To find
plants of this kind, and having proper qualities in o-
ther relpeCts, we muft fearch among thofe which con-
35 tinue green all the year round, or come to their great-
Cabbages, eft perfe&ion in the winter rime.—Of thefe, cabbages
their pro- bid fair for holding the firft place ; both as being very
perties. fucculent, and a very large quantity of them growing
upon a finall fpace of ground. In Mr Young’s Six
Months Tour, we have an account of the produce of
ca >bages in many different places, and on a variety of
foils. The produce by Mr Crow at Keolin, on a clay
foil, was, on an average of fix years, 35 tons per acre;
by Mr Smelt at the Leaies, on a fandy gravel, 18 tons
per acre ; by Mr Troop at Danby, on an average of
fix years, 37 tons per acre: and the general average
of all the accounts given by Mr Young, is 36 tons per
acre.
Cabbages, however, have the great inconveniency
of fometimes imparting a difagreeable flavour to the
milk of cows feel with them, and even to the flefh of
other cattle. 1 Ids, it is faid, may be prevented by
carefully nicking off the decayed and withered leaves:
and very probably this is the cafe } for no vegetable
inclines more to putrefaction than this 5 and therefore
particular care ought to be taken to pull oxT all the
37 leaves that have any fymptems of decay. Dr Frieftley
Air render- found that air was rendered noxious by a cabbage leaf
ed noxious remaining in it for one night, though the leaf did not
by tutm. ftjOW ariy fymptoaa cf putrefaction .—For milk, cows,
Theory.
probably, the cabbages might be rendered more proper Food for
food by boiling them. Cattle.
The culture of the turnip-rooted cabbage has lately ' v' ^
been much praftffed, and greatly recommended, P^tti-T,irn^
cularly for the purpofe of a late fpring feed and feems rooted cab-
indeed to be a mold important article in the farming bage.
economy, as will be ftiowm in its proper place.
Turnips like wife produce very bulky crops, though Turnips,
far inferior to thofe of cabbages. According to Mr
Young’s calculations, the finelt foil does not produce
above five tons of turnips per acre ; which is indeed a
very great difpraportion : but poftibly fuch a quantity
of turnips may not be confumed by cattle as of cab¬
bages } an ox, of 80 ftone weight, ate 210 lb. of cab¬
bages m 24 hours, befides feven pounds of hay. 4<>
Carrots are found to be an excellent food for cattle Carrots,
of all kinds, and are greatly relifhed by them. In a
rich fand, according to Mr Young’s account, the pro¬
duce of this root was 200 brflhels per acre. In a finer
foil, it was 640 bulbels per acre. A. lean hog was fat¬
ted by carrots in ten days time : he ate I96 lb.; and
his fat was very fine, white, firm, and did not boil a-
way in the dreffing. They were preferred to turnips
by the cattle •, which having tailed the carrots, foon
became fo fond of them, as difficultly tc he made to
eat the turnips at all. It is probable, indeed, that
carrots will make a more wholefome food for cattle
than either cabbages or turnips, as they are ftrongly nn-
tifeptic; infomuch as to be ufed in poultices fer correfl-
ing the f nies of cancers. It is probably Owing to
tins, that the milk of cows fed on carrots is never found
to have any bad tafte. Six kerfes kept on them through
the winter without oats, performed their work as ufual,
and looked equally well. This may be looked upon
as a proof of their falubrity as a food ; and it certainly
can be no detriment to a farmer to be fo much ver-
fant in medical matters, as to know the impropriety of
giving putrefeent food to his cattle. It is well known
what a prodigious difference there is in the health cf
the human ipecies when fed on putrid meats, in com¬
panion of what they enjoy when fupplled w ith food cf
a contrary nature ; and why may there not be a dif¬
ference in the health of beafis, as wTell as of men, when
in fimilar circumftances 1—It is al(o very probable,
that as carrots are more folid than cabbages or tur¬
nips, they will go much farther in feeding cattle than
either of them. The above-mentioned example of the
hog teems fome kind of confirmation of this : he being
fed, for ten days together, with 21 lb. lefs weight of
carrots, than what an ox devoured of cabbages and hay
in one day. There is a great difproportion, it mutt
be owned, between the bulk of an c-x and that of a hog;
but we can ficarce think that an ox will eat as much
at a time as ten hogs. At Pailington in York flu re,
20 work horfes, four bullocks, and fix milk cows, were
fed on the carrots that grew on three acres ; from the
end of September till the beginning of May ; and the
animals never tafted any other food but a little Kay.
The milk was excellent, and 30 hogs were fattened
upon wdiat was left by the cattle. ^
Potatoes likewxfe appear to be a very palatable food Potatoes,
for all kinds of cattle ; and not only oxen, hogs, &c.
are eafily fed by them, but even poultry. The cheap-
nefs of potatoes compared with other kinds of feed for
cattle, cannot well be known, as, befides the advantage
1 of
AGRICULTURE.
art. 16.
Theory. A G R I G IT
Food or of t^ie croo, tKey improve the ground more than any
Cattle, other known vegetable. According to a correfpondent
*—“■v 0f the Bath Society *, “ roauing pork is never fo moift
*Lcttfn a«a’and delicate as when fed with potatoes, and killed from
Papers on the barn doors without any confinement. For bacon
A^r,culture,bams, two buihels of pea-meal thould be well in-
c' ' >1'11!*corporated with four bulhels of ooiled potatoes, which
cuantity will fat a hog of twelve ftone, (fourteen pounds
to the done). Cows are particularly fond of them:
half a bufhel at night, and the fame proportion in the
morning, with a fmall quantity of hay, is fufficient to
keep three cows in full milk; they will yield as much
and as fweet butter as the bed grafs. In fattening
cattle, I allow them all they will eat: a bead of about
35 done will require a bulhel per day, but will fatten
cne-third fooner than on turnips. The potatoes fhould
be clean walhed, and not given until they are dry. T hey
do not require boiling for any purpofe but fattening
hogs for bacon, or poultry ; tire latter eat them gree¬
dily. I prefer the champion potato to any fort I ever
cultivated. They do not anfwer fo well for horfes and
colts as I expefted (at lead they have not with me),
though fome other gentlemen have approved of them
as fubditutes for oats.”
The above-mentioned vegetables have all of them
the property of meliorating, rather than exhauding the
foil •, and this is certainly a very valuable qualification :
but carrots and cabbages will not thrive except in foils
that are already well cultivated •, while potatoes and
turnips may be ufed as the fird crops of a foil with
great advantage. In this refpeft, they are greatly fu-
perior to the others •, as it may be difagreeable to take
up the bed grounds of a farm with plants defigned only
for food to cattle.
Buck-wheat (Polygonum fagopyrum') has been lately
recommended as an ufeful article in the prefent as well
as other refpefls. It has been chiefly applied to the
feeding of hogs, and edeemed equal in value to barley;
it is much more eafily ground than barley, as a malt-
mill will grind it completely. Horfes are very fond
of the grain; poultry of all forts are fpeedily fattened
by it ; and the bloiTom of the plant affords food for
bees at a very opportune feafon of the year, when the
meadows and trees are modly dripped of their flowers.
Probably the grain may hereafter be even found a ma¬
terial article in didillation, fliould a fufficient quantity
be raifed with that view. From the fuccefs of fome
experiments detailed in the Bath Society Papers, and
foi; wdiich a premium was beffowed, it has been infer¬
red, that this article ought in numerous cafes to fuper-
fede the prasdice of fummer-fallowing.
Whins-have lately been recommended as a very pro¬
per food for cattle, efpecially horfes ; and are recom¬
mended by Mr Anderfon in a particular manner. They
have this advantage that they require no culture, and
42
Busk-
rvlieat.
43
V/ht > n
ex^el'ent
foc'i for
Lorfes.
ted by letting whins grow upon it for any length of
time. Notwithftandinfr theft difad vantages, however,
as whins continue green all the year round, and when
bruifed will award an excellent fucculent food, which
feems doffered of ftrcng^y invigorating qualities, they
may lie looked unon as the cheapeft winter food that
can ppflibly be given to cattle.—-According to the cal-
L T U R E.
culationsof Mr EddiCon of Gateford, aflnrde acre, well
cropped with whins, will winter ffx holies : at three or
four years growth, the whole crop fnould be taken, cut
clofe to the ground, and carried to the mill; in w inch
the whins are to be bruifed, and then given to ti e hor¬
fes. Four acres ought to be plai ted, that one may be
ufed each year, at the proper age to be cut ; and he
reckons the labour of one man fuflrxient for providing
food to this number of horfes. He fays they all prefer
the whins to hay, or even to corn. ^ ^
The herb called burnet hath likewife been reccm-Buujeu
mended as proper food for cattle, on account of its be¬
ing an evergreen ; and further recommended, by grow¬
ing almoft as faff in winter as in fummer. Of this
herb, however, we have very various accounts. In a
letter addreffed by Sir James Caldwell, F. R. S. to the
Dublin Society, the culture of this plant is ftrongly
recommended on the authority of one Bartholomew
Rocque, farmer at \\ alham-Green, a village about three
miles fouth-weft of London. 4 -
What gave occaflon to the recommendation of thisRecom-
plant, was, that about the year 1760, Mr Wych, chair-mended by
man of the committee of Agriculture of the London
Society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures,
and commerce, came to Rocque (who was become very
eminent by the premiums he had. received from the fc-
ciety), and told him, he had been thinking, that as
there are many animals -which fubfrff wholly upon the
fruits of the earth, there muff certainly be feme plant
or herb fit for them that naturally vegetates in winter ;
othenvife we muit believe the Creator, ini nitely wife
and good, to have made creatures without providing
for their fubfiftence ; and that if there had been no
fuch plants or herbs, many fpecies of animals would
have peri (bed before we took them out of the hands of
nature, and provided for them dry meat at a feafon,
when, indigenous plants having been indiferiminately
excluded, under the name of weeds, from cultivated
fields and places fet apart for natura.1 grais, green or
frelh meat was no longer to be found.
Rocque allowed the force of this reafoning ; but fad,
the knowledge of a grafs, or artificial pafture, that
would vegetate in winter, and produce green fodder
for cattle, was loft ; at leaft, that he knew of no fucu
plant.—Mr Wych, however, knowing how very great
the advantage would be of difeovering a green fodder
for winter and early in the fpring, wrote to Fern, and
alfo to fome confiderable places in Sweden, Rating the
fame argument, and afeing the fame queflion. biis an-
fivers to thefe letters were the fame that had been given
by Rocque. They owned there muff be fuch plant, but
declared they did not know it.
Mr Wych then applied again to R ecque ; and cle-
fired him to fearch for the plant io much dekred, and
fo certainly exilling. Rocque fet about tnis ftarch
with great afliduity ; and finding that a pimpernel,
called burnet, was cf very fpeedy growth, and grew'
nearly as faff in winter as in fumtner, he took a handful
of it and carried it into his liable, where them were
five horfes ; every one of which ate cf it with the
greateft
ing it. Up
cagernefs, fnatching it even without firfl In it II-
Upon the fuccefs of this experiment he went to
.ondon, and bought ail the burnet iced he could get,
mounting to no more than eight pounds, it having,
be^n cnly ufe.d in falads ; and hp paid for it at the 1 aig
o£
$02 A G R I C U
Food for 0f a poimd. Six of the eight pounds of feed he
Ca-tile. fowe(f Upon half an acre of ground, in March, in the
^ V"'L—' year 1761, with a quarter of a peck'of fpring wheat,
both by hand. The feed being very bad, it came up
but thin. However, he fowed the other two pounds
in the beginning of June, upon about fix rood of ground:
.this he mowed in the beginning of Auguft } and at
Michaelmas he planted off the plants on about 20 rood
of ground, giving each plant a foot every way, and
taking care not to bury the heart. Thefe plants bore
two crops of feed the year following 5 the firft about
the middle of June,* the fecond about the middle of
September; but the June crop was the bell. The
year after, it grew very rank and produced two crops
of feed, both very good. As it ought not to be cut
after September, he let it Hand till the next year j
•when it fheltered itfelf, and grew very well during all
the winter, except when there was a hard froft $ and
oven during the froft it continued green, though it
was not perceived to grow. In the March following
it covered the ground very well, and was fit to receive
cattle.
If the winter is not remarkably fevere, the bumet,
though cut in September, will be 18 inches long in
March ; and it may be fed from the beginning of Fe¬
bruary till May : if the cattle are taken off in May,
there will be a good crop of feed in the beginning of
July. Five weeks after the cattle are taken off, it may
be removed, if that is preferred to its Handing for feed.
It grows at the rate of an inch a-day, and is made into
hay like other grafs. It may be mown three times in
one fummer, and ftiould be cut juft before it begins to
flower. Six rood of ground has produced 1x50 pounds
at the firft cutting of the third year after it was fowed j
and, in autumn 1763, Rocque fold no lefs than 300
bulhels of the feed.
According to Rocque, the foil in which burnet flour
rlfhes beft, is a dry gravel} the longeft drought never
hurts it : and Sir James Caldwell afferts, that he faw a
very vigorous and exuberant plant of this kind, growing
from between two bricks in a wall in Rocque’s ground,
without any communication with the foil; for he had
cut away all the fibres of the root that had ftretched
downward, and penetrated the earth, long before.
Burnet was found equally fit for feeding cows, ftieep,
and horfes ; but the flieep muff: not be fuffered to crop
it too clofe. Though no feed was left among the hay,
yet it proved nourifhing food 5 and Rocque kept a horfe
upon nothing elfe, who, at the time of writing the ac¬
count, was in good heart, and looked well. He affirm¬
ed alfo, that it cured horfes of the diftemper called the
greafe, and that by its means he cured one which was
thought incurable ; but fays, it is only the firft crop
6 which has this effe£l.
Burnet rec- This is the fubftance of Sir James Caldwell’s letter
koned an to the Dublin Society, at leaft as to what regards the
improper culture of burnet 5 and it might reafonably be expefl-
MUler^nd" ec*’ t^at a Plant:, w^°^e ul"e was recommended to the
Mr Ander- public with fo much parade, would foon have come into
fon. univerfal efteem. We were furprifed, therefore, on
looking into Mr Miller’s Diftionary, to find the fol¬
lowing words, under the article Potenum :—“ This
plant has of late been recommended by perfons of little
fkill, to be fown as a winter pabulum for cattle: but
y/hoe-ver will give themfelves the trouble to examine
2
L T U R E.
Theory*
Food for
Cattle.
the grounds where it naturally grows will find the
plants left uneaten by the cattle, when the grafs about
them has beert cropped to the roots $ befides, in wet
winters, and in ftrong land, the plants are of ftiort
duration, and therefore very unfit for that purpofe j
nor is the produce fufficient to tempt any perfon of
{kill to engage in its culture ; therefore I wilh thole
perfons to make trial of it in fmall quantities, before
they embark largely in thefe new fchemes.”-—Mr An-
der-fon, too, in his Effays on Agriculture, mentions
the produce of burnet being fo fmall, as not to be
worth cultivating. *
Upon the authority of Mr Rocque, likewife, the \yiute t,ee^
white beet is recommended as a moft excellent food recom-
for cows \ that it vegetates during the whole winter, mended,
confequently is very forward in the fpring; and that
the moft profitable way of feeding cows is to mow this
herb, and give it to them green all the fummer. It
grew in Rocque’s garden, during a very great drought,
no lefs than four feet high, from the 30th of May to
the 3d of July 5 which is no more than one month and
four days. In fummer it grows more than an inch a-
day •, and is heft fown in March : a buflrel is enough
for an acre, and will not coft more,than ten {hillings.
It thrives beft in a rich, deep, light foil: the ftalks
are very thick and fucculent} the cows fliould therefore
eat them green.
Another fpecies of beet {Beta cicla), the Mangel Root of
Wurzel, or Root of Scarcity, as it has been called, has Scarcity,
been lately extolled as food both for man and cattle j
but, after all, feems only to deferve attention in the
latter view. It is a biennial plant} the root is' large
and fleftiy, fometimes a foot in diameter. ^ It riles above
the ground feveral inches, is thickeft at the top, taper-
ing gradually downward. The roots are of various
colours, white, yellow, and red 5 but thefe laft are al¬
ways of a much paler colour than beetrave. It is good
fodder for cows, and does not communicate any tafte
to the milk. It produces great abundance of leaves
in fummer, which may be cut three or four times with¬
out injuring the plant. The leaves are more palatable
to cattle than moft other garden plants, and are found
to be very wholefome. The farmers in thofe parts of
Germany where it is chiefly cultivated, w*e are told,
prefer this fpecies of beet, for feeding cattle, to cab¬
bages, principally becaufe they are not fo liable to be
hurt by worms or infetts j but they think they are not
fo nouriffiing as turnips, potatoes, or carrots, and that
cattle are not nearly fo foon fattened by this root as by
carrots, parfnips, or cabbages. It has even been afferted,
that this root affords lefs nouriffiment than any of thole
that have been commonly employed for feeding cattle.
This does not correfpond with the pompous accounts
with wffiich the public has been entertained. Upon the
wffiole, how'ever, it is a plant which feems to deferve the
attention of our farmers 5 as on fome foils, and in parti¬
cular circumftan^es, it may prove a very ufeful article
for the above purpofes. ^
In Mr Anderfon’s Effays, w^e find it recommended to sheep’s fef-
make trial of fome kinds of graffes, which probably cue grafs.
would not only anfwer for freffi fodder during the win¬
ter, but might alfo be cut for hay in fummer. This
is particularly the cafe with that fpecies called fieep',s
fefate grafs. “ I had, fays he, a fmall patch of this
grafs in winter 1773 j which, having been cut in the
0 month
Theory. A G R I C U
Food for montli of Augufl or September preceding, was faved
Cattle. from that period, and had advanced before winter to
^ length of five or fix inches ; forming the clofeft pile
that could be imagined. And although we had about
fix weeks of very intenfe froft, with fnow; and about
other fix weeks, immediately fucceeding that, of ex¬
ceeding keen frqft every night, with frequent thaws in
the day time, without any mow, during which time al-
moft every green thing was dertroyed ; yet this little
patch continued all along to retain as fine a verdure as
any meadowr in the month of P*day ; hardly a point of
a leaf having been wnthered by the uncommon feverity
of the weather. And as this grafs begins to vegetate
very early in the fpring, I leave the reader to judge
what might be the value of a field of grafs of this kind
^ in thefe circumftances.”
Purple fef- Of another kind of grafs, called purple fefcuc, Mr
cue. Anderfon gives the following charafler : “ It retained
its verdure much better than rye-grafs during the win¬
ter feafon; but it had more of its points killed by the
weather than the former. It likewife rifes in the fpring,
at leaft as early as rye-grafs.”
This ingenious farmer has alfo made experiments on
the culture of thefe and feveral other kinds of grafies •,
which being very wTell wmrthy of attention, we lhall
here infert.
X. Purple fefcue grafs. “ Although this grafs is very
often found in old paftures, yet, as it has but few flower-
flalks, and as it is greedily eaten by all domeftic animals,
thefe are feldom fuffer to appear j fo that it ufually re¬
mains there unperceived. But it feems to be better
able to endure the peculiar acrimony of the dung of
dogs than almoft any other plant 5 and is therefore of¬
ten to be met with in dog hills, as I call the little hills
by road fides where dogs ufually pifs and dung : and
as it is allowed to grow there undifturbed, the farmer
may have an opportunity of examining the plant, and
becoming acquainted with its appearance.
“ The leaves are long and fmall, and appear to be
roundilh, fomething like a wdre } but, upon exami¬
nation, they are found not to be tubulated like a
reed or rulh; tbe fides of the leaf being only folded
together from the middle rib, exatlly like the ftrong
bent-grafs on the fea ftiore. The flowrer-ftalk is fmall,
and branches out in the head, a little refembling the
wild oat; only the grains are much fmaller, and the ear
does not fpread full open, but lies bending a little to
one fide. The ftalks are often fpotted with reddifh
freckles, and the tops of the roots are ufually tinged
with the fame colour ; from whence it has probably
obtained its diftindlive name of fef uca rubra, or red
{purple) fefcue.
“ It is often to be met with in old garden walks ;
and, as its leaves advance very quickly after cutting,
it may ufually be difcovered above the other graffes,
about a wreek or fortnight after the walks are cut.
Nor do they feem to advance only at one feafon, and
then flop and decay, like the rye-grafs } but continue
to advance during the wdiole of the fummer, even
wdiere they are not cut ; fo that they fometimes at¬
tain a very great length. Laft feafon (1774), I mea-
fured a leaf of this grafs, that fprung up in a negle&ed
corner, wdiich was four feet and four inches in length,
although not thicker than a fmall wire. It is unnecef-
L T U R E. 303
fary to add, that thefe leaves naturally trail upon the iood for
ground, unlefs rvhere they meet with fome accidental C<une.^
lupport j and, tl* t if any quantity of it is fuffered to
grow for a whole feafon, without being eaten down or
cut, the roots of the leaves are almoft rotted, by the
overfhadowing of the tops of the other leaves, before
the end of the feafon. 51
“ This is the app.earance and condition of the plant Appeer-
in its native fituation : as it is feldom that it is diico-
vered but in pretty old paflures, and as in that ifateg.atei
it carries only a very few feed-ftalks, it w7as with fome
difficulty that I could colled! a fmall handful of the feed,
which 1 carefully finved in a fmall patch of garden
mould, to try if it could be eafily cultivated. It came
up as quickly as any other kind of grafs, but w7as at
firft as fmall as hairs : the leaves, however, advanced
apace 5 and wrere, before autumn, when the grain wdth
which they had been finved was cut dowm, about 16
or x 8 inches in length but having been fown very
thin, it was neceffary to pick out fome other kinds of
grafs that came up amongft it, left it might have been
choked by them. Early next fpring it advanced with
prodigious vigour, and the tufts that wTere formed from
every feed became exceeding large \ fo that it quickly
filled the whole ground. But now the leaves were al¬
moft as broad as thofe of common rye-grafs, and the
twm fides only inclined a little towards one another
from the mid-rib, wuthout any appearance of roundnefs.
In due time a great many feed-ftalks fprung out, which
attained very nearly to the height of four feet, and
produced feeds in abundancey which may be as eafily
faved as thofe of common rye-grafs.
“The prodigious difference between this plant in its
native and cultivated ftate amazed me; but it was with
a good deal of fatisfaclion that I found there would be
no difficulty in procuring feeds from it, wffiich I had
much doubted of at firft. It would feem, that nature"
hath endowed this plant w ith a ftrong generative power
during its youth, which it gradually lofes as it advan¬
ces in age (for the difference perceived in this cafe
could not be attributed to the richnefs of the foil) 5
and that, on the contrary, when it wTas old, the leaves
advanced with an additional vigour, in proportion to
the declining ftrength of the flower-ftalks : for the7
leaves of the young plants feldom exceed twm feet,
wffiereas numbers of the old leaves were near four feet
in length.
“ From thefe peculiarities in the growth of this plant,
it would feem to promife to be of great ufe to the far¬
mer ; as he could reap from a field of it, for the firrt two
or three years, as great a weight of hay as he could
obtain from any of the culmiferous graffes (thofe bear¬
ing a long jointed ftalk) ; and, if he meant afterwards
to pallure it, he would fuffer no inconveniences from
the flower-ftalks j and the fucculent leaves that con¬
tinue to vegetate during the whole fummer, wmuld at
all times furnifh his cattle with abundance of whole-
fome food. It has alfo been remarked, that this grafs
rifes as early in the fpring as rye-grafs j and continues
green for the greateft part of wunter, wffiich the other
does not. It is moreover an abiding plant, as it feems
never to wear out of the ground where it has once
been eftabliihed. On all wffiich accounts, it appears
to me highly to merit the attention of the farmer j and
well
:30'4 ■
Food for
Cattle.
S'
Sheep’s fef-
cue It-
fcribetl.
Its appear¬
ance when
cultivated.
5*
What foil
moft pro¬
per.
AGRICULTURE. Theory.
well deferves to have its feveral qualities, and the cul¬
ture that beft agrees with it, afcertained by accurate
experiments. *
2. “ Sheep's fefcue grafs, or fefluca ovine^ is much
praifed by the Swedilh naturalifts for its lingular value
as a pafture-grafs for Iheep j this animal being repre-
fented as fonder of it than of any other grafs, and fat¬
tening upon it more quickly than on any other kind of
food whatever. And indeed, the general appearance
of the plant, and its peculiar manner of growth, feems
very much to favour the accounts that have been given
us of it.
u This plant is of the fame family with the former,
and agrees with it in feveral refpefls ; although they
may be eallly diftinguilhed from one another. Its
leaves, like the former, in its natural Hate, are always
rounded, but much fmaller} being little bigger than
large horfe hairs, or fwine-briltles, and feldom exceed
Hx or feven inches in length. But thefe fpring out of
the root in tufts, fo clofe upon one another, that they
refemble, in this refpeft, a ciofe hair bruth more than
any thing elfe I know : fo that it would leem natural¬
ly adapted to form that thick Ihort pile of grafs in
which flieep are known chieily to delight. Its flower-
flalks are numerous, and fometimes attain the height
of two feet; but are more ufually about 12 or 15 inches
high.
“ Upon gathering the feeds of this plant, and fow-
ing them as the former, it was found that they fprung
up as quxcklv as any other kind of grafs; but the leaves
are at firft no bigger than a human hair. From each
fide fprings up one or two of thefe hair-like filaments,
that in a ihort time fend out new offsets, fo as quickly
to form a fort of tuft, which grows larger and larger,
till it at length attains a very large fize, or till all the
intervals are clofed up, and then it forms the clofeft pile
cf grafs that it is poilible to imagine. In April and
May it pufhed forth aw innumerable quantity of flower-
ftalks, that afforded an immenfe quantity of hay; it
being fo clofe throughout, that the feythe could fcarce-
ly penetrate it. This was allowed to Hand till the
feeds ripened ; but the bottoms of the italics were quite
blanched, and almoft rotted for want of air before that
time.
“ This was the appearance that it made the firit year
after it was fowed : but I have reaibn to think, that,
after a few years, it likewife produces fewer ieed-ftalks,
and a greater quantity of leaves, than at firft. But
however that may be, it is certain, that if thele are est
down in the fpring, it does not, like rye-grafs, perfift
in a continued tendency to run to feed ; but is at once
determined to puih forth a quantity of leaves without
almoft; any ftalks at all: and as all domeftic animals,
but more efpeclally iheep, are extremely fond of this
grafs, if they have liberty to pafture where it grows,
they bite it lb clofe as never to fuffer almoft a fingle feed-
ftalk to efcape them ; fo that the botanift will often
fearch in vain for it, when he is treading upon it with
his feet. The beft way to difeover it in any pafture,
is to fearch for it in winter, when the tufts of it may
be eafily diftinguiihed from every other kind of grafs,
by their extraordinary clofenefs, and the deep green
colour of the leaves.
“ It feems to grow in almoft any foil; altho’ itis ima¬
gined that it would flourilh beft in a light fandy foil, as
it can evidently live with lefs moifture than alraoff any toed :cr
other kind of grals ; being often feen to remain in the
fods that have been employed in coping for ftone dykes, -y~"~*
after all the other graffes that grew in them have di{'ap¬
peared. It is likewife found in poor barren foils, where
hardly any other plant can be made to grow at all; and
on the iiirface of dry worn-out peat mols, where no moif¬
ture remains fulheient to fupport any other plant what¬
ever : but in neither of thefe fituations does it thrive; as
it is there only a weak and unfightly plant, very unlike
what it is when it has the good fortune to be eftablilhed
upon a good foil; although it is feldomer met with in
this lait itate than in the former.
“ I will net here repeat what has been already faid
about the particular property that this plant poffeffes cf
continuing all winter; nor point out the benefits that
the farmer may reap from this valuable quality.—He
need not, however, expefl to find any verdure in win¬
ter on fuch plants as grow upon the loofe moffy foil
above-mentioned ; for, as the froft in winter always
hoves up the furface of this foil, the roots of the plants
are fo lacerated thereby, as to make it, for feme time
in the fpring, to ail appearance dead. Nor will he of¬
ten perceive much verdure in winter upon thole plants
that grow upon poor hungry foils, which cannot afford
abundant nourilhment to keep them in a proper ftate of
vegetation at all times : but fuch plants as grow on
earthen dykes, which ufually begin to vegetate with
vigour when the autumnal rains come on, for the molt
part retain their verdure at that feafon almoft as well
as if they were in good garden-mould.
“ I have been very particular in regard to this plant ;
becaufe, in as far as my obfervations have yet gone, it
promifes on many accounts to make a moft valuable ac-
quilition to the farmer, and therefore juftly demands a
very particular ftiare of his attention.”
3. The holcus /ana:us, or creeping foft-grafs of Hud- Hole us ia-
fon.—This is confidered by our author as one-of the nates,
moft valuable kinds of meadow-graffes ; its pile being
exceedingly clofe, foft, and fucculent. It delights
much in moifture, and is feldom found on dry ground,
unlefs the foil is exceeding rich. It is often found on
thofe patches near fprings, over which the water fre¬
quently flows ; and may be known by the uncommon
foftnefs and fucculence of the blade, the lively light
green colour of the leaves, and the matted intexture of
its roots. But, notwithftanding the foftnefs of its fii ft
leaves, when the leed-ftalks advance, they are rough
to the touch, fo that the plant then aflumes a very dif¬
ferent appearance from what we would have expected.
The ear is branched out into a great number of fine ra¬
mifications fomewhat like the oat, but much fmaller.—-
This kind of grafs, however, would not be eafily culti¬
vated, on account of a kind of foft membrane that
makes the feeds adhere to the ftalk, and to one another,
after they are feparated from it, as it they were inter¬
mixed with cobweb, fo that it is difficult to get them
feparated from the ftalk, or to fpread readily in Towing.
It fpreads, however, fo faft by its running roots, that
a far all quantity fowed very thin, would be fufficient to
ftock a large field in a ftiort time.
Thefe are the kinds of grajfes, properly fo called,
which have not as yet been cultivated, that Mr An-
derfon thinks the moft likely to be of value ; but, be-
fides thefe,fhe recommends thefollowing of the oea tiibe.
I. Milk-vetch}
Theory
• 57
Xt^ good
qualities.
A G R I C XT
d
I. M'Jk-vctch, liquorice-vetch, or milkwort. J his
plant, in feme refpe&s, very much refemoles the com¬
mon white clover : from the top of the root a great
number of (hoots COme out in the fpring, fpreading
along the furface of the ground every way around it }
from which arife a great many clutters of bright yel¬
low flowers, exactly refembling thofe of the common
broom. Thefe are fucceeded by hard round pods, ai¬
led with fmall kidaey-lhaped feeds. From a fuppofed
refembiance of'a clutter of thefe pods to the fingers of
an open hand, the plant has been iometimes called
ladies-fingers. By others it is called crow-toes, from a
fancied refembiance of the pods to the toes of a bird.
Others, from the appearance of the bloflom, and the
part where the plant is found, have called it feal, im-
oroperly fell-broom. It is found plentifully almon
everywhere in old grafs fields 5 but as every fpecies of
domettic animals eat it, almoft in preference to any
other plant, it is feldom allowed to come to the flower
in pafture grounds, unlefs v.diere they have been acci¬
dentally faved from the cattle for fome time; fo that
it is only about the borders of corn fields, or the Aides
of inclofures to which cattle have not accefs, that we
have an opportunity of obferving it. As it has been
imagined, that the cowts which teed on the paltures,
where this plant abounds, yield a quantity o' rich milk,
the plant has, from that circumftance, obtained its moil
proper Englilh name of imlk-vetck.
One of the greateft recommendations of this plant
is, that it grov/s in poor barren ground, -where almoft
no other plant can live. • It has been obferved in
ground fo poor, that even heath, or ling (erica commu¬
nis f wnuld fcarcely growrand upon bare obduiate
clays, where no other plant could be made to vege¬
tate 5 infomuch that the furface remained entirely un¬
covered, unlefs where a plant of this kind chanced to
be eftabliihed j yet, even in thefe unfavourable cir-
cumftances, it flouriihed with an uncommon degree of
luxuriance, and yielded as tender and fucculent, though
not fuch abundant (hoots, as if reared in the richeft
manured fields. In dry barren fands, alfo, where al¬
moft no other plant could be made to-live, it has been
found to fend out fuch a number of healthy (hoots all
round, as to cover the earth with the clofeft and mod
beautiful carpet that can be defined.
The ftalks of the milk-vetch are weak and (lender,
fo that they fpread upon the furface of the ground,' un¬
lefs they are fupported by fome other vegetable. In
ordinary foils they do not grow to a great length, nor
produce many flowers ; but in richer fields the ftalks
grow to a much greater length, branch out a good
deal, but carry few or no flowers or feeds. From thefe,
qualities our author did not attempt at hrfl: to cultivate
it with any other view than that of pafture } and, with
this intention, fowed it with his ordinary hay feeds,
expeflinir no material benefit from it till be den. nd
from cutting his field. In this, ^however, ne was
agreeably difappointed; the milk-vetch growing the
firft feafon as tall as his great clover, and xorming ex¬
ceeding fine hay •, being fcarce diftinguilhable irom lu¬
cerne, but by the (lendernefs of the ftalk, and propoi-
tional fmallnefs of the leaf.
Another recomra^ndation to this plant is, tr.at it is
perennial. It is fevcral years after it is fowTed before
it attains to its full perfe&km j but, when once ella-
Voir. I. Part I.
L T U R E. ^
blifhed, it probably remains for a great number or years
in full vigour, and produces annually a great quantity
of fodder. In autumn 1773, Mr Anderfon cut ti*e
ftalk from an old plant that grewr on a very indifferent
foil; and, after having thoroughly dried it, he found
that it weighed 14 ounces and-a half.
The ftalks of this plant die down entirely in winter,
and do not come up in the fpring till the lame time
that clover begins to advance •, nor coes it advance
very fail, even in fummer, when once cut aorvn or eaten
over : fo that it feems much inferior to the above-men¬
tioned graffes 5 but might be of ufe to cover the word
parts of a farm, ou which no other vegetable could
thrive. 58
2. The common yellow vetch ling (La thy r us Yellow
fits), or everlafiing tare, grows with great luxuriance
"in (tiff clay foils, and continues to yield annually a
great wxeight of fodder, of the very bed quality, for
any length of time. This is equally fit for paftuie or
hay ; and'grows -with equal vigour in the end of fum¬
mer as in the beginning of it; fo wrould admit being
paftured upon in the fpring, till the middle, or even
the end of May, without endangering the lofs of the
crop of hay. This is an advantage which no other
plant except clover poffeffes j but clover is equally un¬
fit for early pafture or for hay. Sainfoin is tne only
plant whofe qualities approach to it ■n this refpeft, and
the yellow vetchling will grow in fuch foils as are ut¬
terly unfit for producing fainfoin.—It is alfo a peren¬
nial plant, and increafes fo fail by its running roots,
that a fmall quantity of the feed would produce a (uf-
ficient number of plants to fill a whole field in a very
(hort time. If a fmall patch of good ground is fowed
with the feeds of this plant in rows, about a foot di(-
tance from one another, and tne intervals kept clear of
weeds for that feafon, the roots will fpread fo much as
to fill up the whole patch next year; when the ftalks
may be cut for green fodder or hay. And h that
patch were dug over in the fpring following, and tne
roots taken out, it would furnifh a great quantity of
plants, which might be planted at tw^o or three feet
diftance from one another, where they would probably
overfpread the whole field in a (hort time. -9
3. The common blue tare feems more likely than the Blue tare,
former to produce a more fiouriftung kind of hay, as
it abounds much more in feeds *, but as the ftalks come
up more thinly from the root, and branch more above,
it does not appear to be fo v/ell adapted for a pafture
grafs as the other. The leaves of this plant are much
fmaller, and more divided, than thofe of the other $
the ftalks are likewife fmaller, and grow to a much
greater length. Though it produces a great quantity
of feeds, yet the fmall birds are fo fond of them, that,
unlefs the field were carefully guarded, few of them
would be allowed to ripen. Go
4. The vie in fepiurn, purple ever Infi mg, or bufi-vetch.
Our author gives the preference to tins plant beyondVtL" ‘'
all others of the fame tribe for pafture. The roots of
it fpread on every fide a little below the furface of the
ground, from which, in the fpring, many Hems arife
quite clofe by one another", and as thele have a broad
tufted top covered with many leaves, it forms as clofe
a pile as could be defined. It grows very quickly after
being cut or cropt, but does not arrive at any great
height} fo that it feems more proper for pafturage than
Qji
making
3°6
Food for
Cattle.
61
Everlalling
pea.
62
Achillea
millefo-
liura.
63
lucerne.
Ttmothy
grafs.
A G R I C U
making kay although, upon a good foil, it •will grow
fufficiently high for that purpofe ; but the llalks grow
fo clofe upon one another, that there is great danger of
having it rotted at the root, if the feafon fhould prove
damp. It feems to thrive beft in a clay foil.
Bolides thefe, there are a variety of others of the
fame clafs, which he thinks might be ufeful to the
farmer. The common garden everlafting pea, culti¬
vated as a flowering plant, he conjeftures, would yield
a prodigious weight of hay upon an acre } as it grows
to the height of ten or twelve feet, having very ftrong
ftalks, that could fupport themfelves without rotting
till they attained a great height.
One other plant, hitherto unnoticed, is recommend¬
ed by our author to the attention of the farmer ; it is
the common yarrow [Achillea millefolium^), or hundred¬
leaved grafs. Concerning this plant, he remarks, that
in almofl: every fine old parture, a great proportion of
the growing vegetables with which the field is covered
confifts of it; but the animals which feed there are fo
fond of the yarrow, as never to allow one feed-ftalk of
it to come to perfection. Hence thefe feed-ilpiks are
never found but in neglefted corners, or by the fides of
roads ; and are fo difagreeable to cattle, that they are
never tafted ; and thus it has been erroneoufly thought
that the whole plant was refufed by them.—The leaves
of this plant have a great tendency to grow very thick
upon one another, and are therefore peculiarly adapted
for pafturage. It arrives at its greateft perfeClion in
rich fields that are naturally fit for producing a large
and fucculent crop of grafs. It grows alfo upon clays j
and is among the firfl plants that ftrike root in any
barren clay that has been lately dug from any confi-
cl"table depth *, fo that this plant, and thiftles, are ufual-
ly the firfl: that appear on the banks of deep ditches
formed in a clayey foil. All animals delight to eat it;
but, from the dry aromatic tarte it pofiefl'es, it would
feem peculiarly favourable to the conftitution of iheep.
It feems altogether unfit for hay.
Bcfides thefe plants, which are natives of our own
country, there are others which, though natives of a
foreign climate, are found to thrive very well in Bri¬
tain ; and have been railed with fuch fuccefs by indi¬
viduals, as highly to merit the attention of every farmer.
Among thefe the firft place is claimed by lucerne.
This is the plant called medica by the ancients, be-
caufe it came originally from Media, and on the culture
of which they bellowed fuch great care and pains. It
hath a perennial root, and annual llalks, which, in
a good foil, rife to three feet, or fornetimes more in
height \ its leaves grow at a joint like thofe of clover •,
the flowers, which appear in June, are purple and its
pods are of a ferew-like fliape, containing feeds which
ripen in September. All forts of domeftic cattle are
fond of this plant, Specially when allowed to eat it
green, and black cattle may be fed very well with the
hay made from it $ but air excefs of this food is faid to
be very dangerous.
Lucerne has the property of growing very quickly
after it is cut down, infomuch that Pdr Rocque has
mowed it five times in a feafon, and Mr Anderfon af
firms he has cut it no lefs than fix times. It is, howr-
ever, not very eafily cultivated j in confequence of wdiich
it fometimes does not fucceed.
Another grafs was brought from Virginia, where it
L T U R E. Theory.
is a native, and Town by Rocque in I7^3’ This grafs Food for
is called timothy, from its being brought from New- Cattle.
York to Carolina by one Timothy Hanfon. It grows
beft in a wet foil 3 but will thrive in almofl: any. If it
is fown in Augufl, it will be fit for cutting in the latter
end of May or beginning of June. Horfes are very
fond of it, and will leave lucerne to eat it. It is alfo
preferred by black cattle and Iheep ; for a fquare piece
of land having been divided into four equal parts, and
one part fowed with lucerne, another with iainfoin, a
third with clover, and the fourth with timothy, fome
horfes, black cattle, and fheep, were turned into it,
tvhen the plants were all in a condition for pafturage j
and the timothy was eaten quite bare, before the clover,
lucerne, or fainfoin, was touched.
One valuable property of this grafs is, that its roots
are fo ftrong and interwoven with one another, that
they render the wetteft and fofteft land, on wdiich a
horfe could not find footing, firm enough to bear the
heavieft cart. With the view of improving boggy
lands, therefore, fo as to prevent their being poached
with the feet of cattle, Mr Anderfon recommends the
cultivation of this kind of grafs, from which he has
little expeftation in other refpefls. ^
On this fubjedl, of the kind of plants moft proper toGrazmgr
be raifed for feeding cattle, one general queftion ought corRPared
not to pafs unnoticed concerning the propriety of feed- jj10
ing them upon roots and plants cultivated by the aid1" °
of the plough, or upon leaving them to derive their
fubfiftence from lands allowed to remain continually
in pafturage. The advantages of the latter practice
are fet forth by Thomas Davis, Efq; of Longleet, in
the following words. “ Experience fufficiently evinces n ^ pa_
the extreme difficulty of perfuading tenants that they^erSt vop
get more (generally fpeaking) by feeding their lands,
than by ploughing them ; yet it requires very few ar¬
guments to convince a landlord, that, in cold wet land
efpecially, the lefs ploughed land you have, the lefs
you put it in the tenant’s power to ruin your eftate.
That a tenant of 60I. per annum on a dairy farm will
get money, while a corn farm of the fame fize will
ftarve its occupier (though perhaps the former gives
15s. per acre for his land, and the latter only 10s.),
is felf-evident. The plough is a friend of everybody’s,
though its advantages are very far from being particu¬
larly and locally felt 5 corn being an article that will
bear keeping till the whim or caprice, or fuppofed ad¬
vantage of its poffeffor, call it forth. But the pro¬
duce of the cow is far otherwife. Cheefe muft necef-
farily be fold at a certain period : it is a ponderous
article j and one-twelfth, or at leaft one-fifteenth of
its value, is often paid for carrying it to a fair 50 miles
off} and the butter and fkimmed milk find their way
no great diftance from home, as is evident by the
price of butter varying frequently one-third in 20 or
30 miles. Every inhabitant of Bath muft be fenfible,
that butter and cheefe have rifen one-third or more in
price within 20 years. Is not this owing to the great
encouragement given to the plough and to grazing,
at a time when, on account of the increafed demand
for milk, cream, butter, and cheefe, every exertion on
behalf of the dairy fhould have been encouraged ?” &c.
In fome remarks on this letter by Mr Billingfley,
the fame fuperiority of dairy farms to the arable kind
is afferted in the moft pofitive terms. “ Perhaps (fays
• he)
Theory. A G R 1 9 .U
Food for he) tliire cannot be a ftronger proof of the inferiority
Cattle, of the plough with refpett to profit, than the fuperior
pUn6luality of the dairy farmer in the payment ol his
rent. This obfervation, I believe, moft ftewards who
fuperintend mapors devoted partly to corn and partly
to dairy farms, will verify *, at leait I have never met
with one who controverts it. But perhaps the advo¬
cate for the plough will defire me not to confound
the abufe of a thing with its intrinfic excellence ; and
fay, that the generality of corn farmers are molt egre¬
gious flovens ; that lands devoted to the plough are
not confined to fuch a mediocrity of profit as 2QS. per
acre ; that the produce of artificial graffes (without
which a wTell managed arable farm cannot exiit), far
exceeds that of natural grafs both in refpecl of quan¬
tity and nutrition : that the draw yard is a more con¬
venient receptacle for the cow vdien freed from tue
pail. Thefe, and many other reafons, may be addu¬
ced to fhow the propriety of walking m the middle
path, and of judicioufly blending arab/e withpq/tufe, m
the proportion perhaps of three of the latter to otie o
the former.” r ,
On thefe letters we {ball only remark, that tor the
good of mankind vTe hope the opinions they contain
wall never come into general practice ; as thus the
price of bread mud be raifed fo high, that the lower
clafles of people would be entirely deprived of it.
In the Bath Papers, vol. v. p. 43. we have a method
propofed by Mr Wimpey of improving fmall arable
farms in fuch a manner as to make them yield as much
milk, butter, and cheefe, as thofe which are kept con¬
tinually in padure. He agrees with the maxim al¬
ready mentioned, that fmall arable farms do not afford
the occupier fo good a maintenance as dairy farms of
the fame value j and that the poffeffor of a dairy farm
will do well and fave money, while, the former, with
much toil and trouble* is darving himfelf and family.
Notwithdanding this, he maintains, that there is an
effential difference between ground that is naturally
arable, and fuch as is by nature adapted for .padure.
Land which is naturally arable, according to him, can
by no means be converted into padure of any dura¬
tion. “ Such as, from a wild date of nature, overrun
with furze, fern, bulhffs and brambles, has been ren¬
dered fertile by means of the plough, mud be kept in
that improved date by its frequent ufe ; otherwife it
would foon revert to that wild barren date which was
its original condition. A farm, therefore, which con-
-fids wholly, or almod fo, of land that. is. properly ara¬
ble, mud ever continue arable 5 for it is not prafli-
'cable to render it in any degree fertile but by means
of the plough, or to keep it long in that date even
when it is made fo.” He is of opinion, however, that
by railing crops proper for feeding cattle, the pollef-
for of an arable farm may raife as gfeat a number of
horned cattle as one w’ho has a padure farm } the on¬
ly quedion is, Whether he can be leimbiirfed .of his
expences by the produce ? << I o alcertam this fatt
(fays he), we mud inquire what may be the average
expences of keeping a milch cow on a dairy farm for
any given'time. It is faid, upon very good authority,
that the experice is generally from 3I. to 3I. \o$. per
annum. Two acres and a half of padure fit for this
ufe is fufficient to keep a cow the whole year through,
and fuch land is valued at from 25s' *° 30S* Per acre*
307
Food for
Cattle.
L T U R E.
At 25s. the keeping of each cow would amount to
3I. 2s. 6d. per annum. A dairy farm, therefore, con- . ^ _ ti.
fiding of 48 acres, at 25s. per annum, would amount
to 60I. rent *, and the number of cows that might be
kept on fuch a farm would be about 20. In the next
place, with regard to the expence of keeping a cow
upon food raifed in arable land as a fuccedaneum for
grafs, we are affur«l by. unquedionable authority, that
a bufhel of potatoes, given half at night and half in
the morning, with a. imall allowaiice of hay, is fuf-
ficient to keep three cows a day ; by which allowance
their milk will be as rich and as good as in the dim¬
mer months when the cows* are in padure. An acre
of land, properly cultivated with potatoes, will yield
337 bufhels j and the total expence of cultivation, rent
and tithe included, will not exceed 61. 13s* B three
cows eat feven buftiels per week, then they would eat
364 bufhels in a year j and 20 cows would confume
2433 bufhels :” So that, according to this calculation,
feven acres and a quarter would nearly maintain a?
many cows as on the padure farm could be maintained
by 48 acres. If then the cultivation of one acre of
ground cods 61. 13s. the cultivation of feven acres and
a quarter will cod about 48I. We have feen, how¬
ever, that the rent of a dairy farm capable of main¬
taining 20 milch cows, is not lefs than 60I. lo th«
the calculation is thus entirely in favour of the arable
farm j feven or eight acres of the arable iaim being
fuperior by 12I. in value, when cultivated with pota¬
toes, to 48 acres of meadow or padure ground.” “ it
mud indeed be obferved (adds our author), tnat lit
this datement no allowance is made for the fmall quan¬
tity of hay given to the cows with the potatoes. It
mud be noted alfo, that the account of cultivation
is charged with 40s. an acte for manure, and feme
expence for ploughing, which of right is chargeable
to the crop of wdieat that is to follow. ISow,. if vve
deduct 40s. an acre from the expence of cultivating
the potatoes, it reduces the fum to 4I. 13s. and the
whole expence upon feven acres and a quarter is thus
lefs than 34I. and confequently the keeping of 20 cows
is little more than half to the occupier of the arable
farm what it is to the occupier of the grazing farm.. It
this conclufion be fairly drawn, and the calculation
free from errors, it is matter of the greated import¬
ance, efpecially to the little arable farmer. It plainly
raifes him from a date of acknowledged inferiority to
one greatly fuperior.” _ _ _ 66
Our author next proceeds to obviate an obje&ion, OUjedtiott
“ that the whole of his reafoning mud be indecifive, asanfwered
relating only to potatoes.” In oppofition to this, he erx°“r^ent
adduces an experiment made on a pretty large fcale by ofMr
Mr Vagg ; from which it appears, that cabbages, when Vagg.
raifed upon arable ground, are nearly as much fuperior
to a natural crop as potatoes are. Iwelves acres v ere
employed in this experiment, and thofe of an inoifftr-
ent quality. The rent was acre, and tue
whole expence of culture and carting oft the crop
amounted only to il. 14s. fo that all the cod of the 6j
twelve acres was 38I. 9s. From the produce were Number of
fed 45 oxen and upwards of 60 fheep j and he was cattle fed
affured that they improved as fad upon it as they do ^ ^
in the bed padure months, May, June, and Juty-Cabbages,
“ Now (fays Mr Wimpey), if indead of 60 fheep we
reckon 15 oxen, or that four fheep are equal to about
O q 2
3^8 A G R I C
Profit from one ox, in winch we cannot err much ; then 60 oxen
Ve^etaWes.were ^:Pt we^ for'three months, or, which is the
v—fame thii\g, 15 for a whole year, for 38I. 9s.; and
confequentiy 20 oxen would coll 51I. 5s. ^.d. which
is not quite 3I. more than the keeping of 20 cows
would coil in potatoes. Turnips, turnip-rooted cab¬
bage, carrots, parfnips, and fome other articles, by
many experiments often repeated, have been found
quite adequate to the fame valuable purpofes ; at lead
fo far as to be more lucrative than meadow or pafture.
Clover and rye-grafs are omitted, as having been long
in general pra&ice ; but are in common very ftiort of
the advantages which may be derived from the culti¬
vation of the other articles recommended.” Sainfoin is
greatly recommended : but our author acknowledges
that it makes but a miferable appearance the firlt year,
though afterwards he is of opinion that one acre of
fainfoin is equal to two of middling pafture ground ",
for which reafon he accufes the farmer of intolerable
indolence who does not cultivate fo ufeful a plant.
On this fubject, however, we muft remember, that the
culture of fainfoin is clogged with the lofs of'one if
not twm crops ; w hich may fometimes be inconvenient,
though afterwards it remains in perfection for no lefs
than 20 years. The moft advantageous method of
raifing it he fuppofes to be after potatoes. Thus it
wall thrive even upon very poor ground ; as the cul¬
ture and manure neceffary for the potatoes both pul-
63 verize the foil and enrich it to a fufficient degree.
Feeding of We (hall afterwards have an opportunity of attend-
c at tie not ing to this fubjedl when we come to confider the fub-
perfeCtiorn Je^ of fee^ng cattle. In the mean time, it may be
remarked, that this branch of the art of the hufband-
man, has by no means hitherto been carried to its
higheft perfeflion in this country 5 and that in propor¬
tion as it is improved, and cattle are more carefully
fed, the value of the plough will appear more confpi-
cuous.
Sect. III. O/- the comparative Profit to he derived
from the Cultivation of different Vegetables.
circum- Like every other artift or tradefman, ahufhandman
fiances that will always be under the neceffity of regarding himfelf
render ve- as t]ie ferVant of the community, and mull endeavour
profitable to rear ^le vegetables that are in greateft demand, and
or not. that will enable him to derive the greateft profit from the
portion of territory wdiich he occupies. The product
of fome foils and fituations is fo fixed by nature, that
it is in vain for human art or induftry to alter her de-
ftination. In our owm and in many other countries,
there are extenfive trafts of lofty and rugged moun¬
tains, from which the art of agriculture feems to be
for ever banithed. Such fituations belong exclufively
to the fnepherd and his Hock, to the utter exclufion of
the plough. Even on fome arable lands it may be found
fruitlefs to attempt to rear many of the more valuable
vegetable produftions. In many bleak and unlheltered
fields of the higher country of Scotland, in which tur¬
nips and oats are cultivated with tolerable fuccefs, it
would be in vain to expeft regular crops of wheat ;
and though potatoes are found to profper in a fandy,
or even a moffy foil, it would be in vain to expedl
them to produce an equally valuable crop upon a ftiff
clay, in which the roots cannot fwell or expand to a.
U L T U R E. Theory,
proper fize. In forming a plan of agriculture, there-Profit from
fore, the hufbandman muft not overlook the peculiar ;dlffert,n)t
nature of the foil that has fallen to his lot, or its phyft- ,v egetab/cs*
cal relation to the nature of certain vegetables, as he'
can only hope for fuccefs by adapting the one of
thefe to the other.
The hufbandman muft ulfo have a fpecial regard to
the ftate of the market to which his commodities are
to be brought. It is in vain for him to cultivate large
quantities of roots, fuch as potatoes or carrots, at a di-
ftance from great towns, which alone can afford a
market for them, unlefs he intend to confume them
upon his owur farm by feeding cattle. In a part of the
country, however, in which great breweries are efta-
blifhed, if his foil is fit for the purpofe, he may fafely
venture to rear large quantities of barley ; as he can¬
not in fuch a fituation be at any time deftitute of a
market. Hence we can perceive, that it is the ftate
of the market which muft at all times regulate the en-
terprifes of the agriculturift, and the kind of crops
wdiich he is t® bring forward. Thus alfo we fee the
mode in wThich agriculture may be moft fuccefsfulJy
encouraged by a nation. Let an abundant market be
provided for the produce of the foil, and that produce
will infallibly be augmented. In this way, it is evi¬
dent that the confumption of grain, by means of di-
ftilleries or breweries, is highly favourable to the
production of it in great quantities. They are even
favourable to the exiftence of plenty, or of abund¬
ance of bread for the ufe of the people. In good
feafons, by affording a ready market, they give acti¬
vity to the hufbandman, and in bad feafons their ope¬
rations can be arrefted by law*, and the fuperfluous
quantity of grain which wus meant to be confumed
by them, can be converted into human food. Thus
they operate in fome meafure like a great public gra¬
nary, in which pro villous fhould be kept agninft an
accidental fcarcity.
It may fometimes happen, that by the charafter
of the age in which he lives, and the ftate of the
market which it produces, a hufbandman may find
himfelf moft profitably employed, when rearing a kind'
of food which is by no means the moft advantageous '
to the population of his country. This takes place,
when he is employed in preparing butchers meat in-
ftead of bread ; that is, when he finds it more profit¬
able to rear upon his lands vegetables which can only
be confumed by cattle, and thus contribute only in an
indiredl manner to the fuftenance of the human fpe-
cies, than to cultivate thofe vegetable productions
which are fuited to the human ftomach, and which
therefore direCbly and immediately afford fubfiftence to
man. According to Archdeacon 'Hiflop’s fcomparative
ftatement, lately publilhed, the weight “'(if food from
an acre of arable land, on the average of three years,
a fallow year being included, is nine and a half times
greater than from an acre of feeding ftock 5 and, ac-Paflurage-
cording to the calculations of the Rev. I)r Walker, ata!‘^ aSrk
Collington, profeffor of natural hiftory at Edinburgh, ^nUp^re<j^
a Scots acre of land in pafture, fed with ftieep, pro¬
duces only 120 pound weight of meat, whereas the
lame land will yield 1 280 pounds of oat meal, above
ten times as much. Let it even be fuppofed, then,
that one pound of mutton contains in itfelf as much
fubftanUal ncurilhment for the human conftitution, as
two
Theory, A Cr _ ^ 1 G U
Profit from two pounds weiglit of out meal*, fixll it vyill follow,
different tihat land cultivated for tlie produciion ox cats, tvill
Vegetables. pupp0r^ a population five times greater in nurabe.,
'—'V t\vm can be fupported by the fame land when ufed^
for the pallure of Iheep j and, where one million _ ox
people are found to exift upon a territory occupied
in the one way, between five and fix millions of people
might exift upon the fame land if it were cultivated
for raifing grain, and if the inhabitants would confent
to ufe it as their food. Were any contrivance adopted,
of the nature of thole already mentioned, for convert¬
ing the fucculent roots of potatoes, carrots, &c. into
dry meal or flour ; the fame proportional difference of
population would continue to exift, between nations
in which that kind of flour ftiould be confumed as hu¬
man food, and in wdiich it Ihould be ufed foi feeding
cattle : For a man always commits an enormous \vafte
of food, wdio, inftead of eating grain himfelf, gives it
to an inferior animal, in the expefftaticn of afterwards
receiving an equivalent, by devouring the ftelh of that
~x animal.
Population Accordingly, it feems impoflible for any nation^ to
greateft reach a very extenlive degree of population, umefs
where men ^ ople at large confent to fubfift chiefly, or alto-
cetabW2 ” gether, upon vegetable food. In China, where the
food. praftice of polygamy renders the families^ of. rich men
very numerous, and where the equal diftribution of
the property among the children of the fame family
prevents the accumulation of great wealth by individuals,
almoft all perfons have found it convenient or neceffary
to relmquilh the ordinary ule of butcners meat, and to
have recourfe to vegetable food. It is only in confe-
quence of this circumftance, that the enormous popula¬
tion of that empire is fupported. The quantity of
butchers meat confumed in a country will, therefore,
always in fpite of every agricultural improvement, fet
bounds to its population. A nation of hunters and
Ihepherds, w7ho live upon wild animals, or upon nocks
and herds, mull always be few in number. . By agri¬
culture, the numbers of thefe animals may indeed be
increafed •, but the men who can find fubfiflence by
eonfuming them, will always be five or fix times fewer
in number, than might live upon the fame territory,
were the cattle expelled, and the lands occupied in
rearing food to be immediately ufed by man.
With thefe general conliderations, however, the
practical agriculturift, or hufbandman, may have no¬
thing to do. To fucceed in his profeflion, he muft
accommodate himlfelf to the public tafte, or to the
ftate of the market around him ; and mull confider
what -commodity, whether grain or butchers meat,
will there bring the heft reward for bis labour. He
may even find the ftate of the market afFefled by other
circumftances, than the mere tafte of the public tor
butchers meat, in preference to vegetable food 5 al-
though that muft always be of great importance among
Ciraun- a luxurious people. Conquering nations, who" extend
ftancts thatq^gj,. p0i;tical dominion over diftant regions, never fail
“-to draw to their native country a very great portion
prefer paf- the wealth of the vanquilhed nates. I he vie.on-
thrage to ous nation never fails, in fuch calcs, to contain a great
the rearing -number of wealthy individuals, whole revenue k not
«f grain. derived from the cultivation of thetr native foil,- or
from any branch of manufafture or of* commercial in-
duftry carried on by them upon it $ .but which conlifts
L T U R E. 3°9
of money drawn from the remote provinces of tne em- • ■ -;
pire, in confequence of eftates poffeiTed, or ^ortlthr,ies vegetables-
acquired there* in the fervice of government. 1 he  
refult of luch circumftances naturally is, that theie
wealthy individuals not only live at home in a luxurious
manner, and increafe to an immenfe extent the. con-
fumption of butchers meat by themfelves and their nu¬
merous retinues *, but for the fake ox oftentation, and
as the only means of employing their wealtn, they
maintain great numbers of carriages and of riding
horfes. To fupport luch eftabliflimerits, they them¬
felves not only convert large trails of territory from
arable into pafture lands *, but even the whole hul-
bandmen of the country are induced to do. the lame,
to derive a profit from fupplying them with butcheis
meat, and with food for their pleafure horfes. In the
mean time, the grain that may be w'anted for the.con-
fumption of the people, whether rich or poor, being a
commodity w'bich is eafily prefer ved and transported, mult
be bought from foreign nations, by a portion of the fu-
perfluous wealth of the ftate j and thus a rich and prospe¬
rous people may come to depend upon foreigners for a
morfel of bread j and when thefe foreign nations hap¬
pen to experience an unfortunate feafon, this wealthy
people may luffer all the horrors of famine upon a fer¬
tile foil, and in the midft of overflowing treafures.
Such was the ftate of Italy under the ancient Ro¬
mans. Every part of it was adorned w7ith the parks
and villas and gardens of the nobles, who derived their
revenues from the remote parts ol the empire.. I his
feat of dominion exhibited a pidure of boundlefs fplen-
dour and magnificence. But the foil was entirely
occupied m the fervice of oftentation or of luxury ^
and Italy, one of the moft fertile corn countries in Eu¬
rope, depended for grain upon Egypt, and the weftern
provinces of Africa that border upon the IVIediteria-
nean. Such alio, though perhaps in an inferior degree,
feems to be the prefent ftate ox Great Britain. It has
acquired vaft and fertile and populous provinces, with¬
in the torrid zone in the eaft, from which individuals
are annually trahfporting home immenfe treafures ob¬
tained in the public 1’ervice. In the weft, alfo, within
the fame torrid zone, by a great expence of treaiure
and of human lives, the cultivation of certain valuable
commodities has been eftabbilred 5 and xiom ehates fi-
tuated there, individuals refiding at home now derive
great revenues, d he principles which regurate human
affairs are unalterable; and in every age the fame caufes
are attended with the fame confequences. What oc¬
curred in ancient Italy,- took place among us foon as the
poffeffion of diftant territories had leifure to difplay its
natural efFefls. Britain formerly not only produced a-
bundance of grain, for the fupport c£ its own inhabitants,
but it poueffed a confiderable furplus for exportation.
After the acquifition of foreign poiieffions,- this furplus
produce gradually ceafed to exift *, and it appears from,
documents, which the legiflature has acknow ledged to
afford authentic and complete evidence of the truth of
the faff, that, for twenty years pall, notwithftanding all
our agricultural improyemsnts, and the wafte lanes that
have been brought under the plow, the produce of grain
is annually becoming more and more unequal to the
confumption; and this decreafe appears in fome meafure
to keep pace with the increafing value of cur diftartt
poffeflions. In the.mean time, we are annually coming
unde:.
Principles of uniler the neceffity of purchaling larger and larger
..Culuv^atum. fUppiies of grain, from the foreign Hates of Europe or
of North America 5 and thus thefe nations, without un¬
dergoing the imputation of ufurpation, and without en¬
countering the hazard of an unfriendly climate, have
been enabled through the medium of our luxury to ob¬
tain a {hare of the riches of Hindoftan, and of the pro¬
fits of our Weft India cultivation. In the mean time
their agriculture is encouraged, while we are made to
depend upon them for the neceflaries of life. After all,
it appears unreafonable, and would perhaps be improper,
to regret a ftate of affairs, which is the refult of na¬
tional aggrandifement, and of the fuperiority and fuc-
cefsful enterprifes of our countrymen. Still, however,
it is obvioufty to be wiihed, that, fo far as agriculture
is concerned, we could be reftored to the ftate of inde¬
pendence which our anceftors enjoyed, when they were
able, from their own foil, to fupply themfelves with the
neceflaries of life : fuch a ftate is fometimes neceflary
to the independent exiftence of a community, and is at
all times conducive to its welfare. It can only how'-'
■ever be produced by means of agriculture. Therefore,
Ye generous Britons, venerate the P/oi/jh,
And o’er your hills and long withdrawing vales,
Let autumn fpread her treamres to the fun ;
So with fuperior boon may your rich foil,
Exuberant, nature’s better bleffmgs pour
O’er every land, the naked nations clothe,
And be th’ exhauftlefs granary of.a world !
Thomson.
f
Sect. IV. General Principles of Cultivation,
It is not our intention hereto enter into a minute
•difquilition, concerning the nature of vegetables, or
the different fubftances with which they may be con-
nedfted, in their growth or in their decay. Such invef-
tigations, in a proper arrangement of the fciences, ought
to be left to chemiftry j but even that fcience, fo far as
vegetable fubftances are concerned, is ftill in fuch a
ftate of imperfeftion, that a detail of the experiments
and opinions of philofophical chemifts, concerning ve¬
getables, would as yet afford but a very trifling portion
of ufeful information to the hufbandman. We fliall
therefore content ourfelves with here ftating fuch gene¬
ral remarks, as appear neceffarily connefted wdth the
73 important art of which wTe are now treating.
Nature of A vegetable is not to be regarded merely as a piece
of matter, or as a mixture of certain material fubftan-
tabks. " ces- ft »n organized being, poffefled of life, which
it derived from another fimilar organized beinsr that
exifted previous to itfelf; and this former organized
and living being derived its conftjtution from a parent
ftem, which grew out of a ftill older plant, up to an
antiquity of which we have no knowledge. A vege¬
table, in this manner, not only has a birth, but it alfo
has a growth, which is fupported by food that it takes
in and conveys by peculiar organs to the particular
parts for which it is deftined. When it has arrived at
maturity, or reached the perfeclion of its form and
conftitution, a vegetable like an animal begins to de¬
cay, and finally dies, and, by a procefs of putrefa&ion,
ds converted into a kind of earth.
To'the life of vegetables, in the fame manner as to
AGRICULTURE.
Theory..
the life of animals, the prefence of atmofpheric air is Principles of
neceffary. They alfo require a certain moderate de- Cultivation,
gree of heat; without wdrich their growth cannot pro- v—^
ceed, although a great degree of it is utterly fatal even
to their texture. That they require moifture, is equal¬
ly obvious $ as appears from the ordinary effedt of rain,
or of the continued want of it, upon fields and plants.
They require likewdfe to be inferted in the earth, or
in fome way connedted with a colledlion of its parti¬
cles j for although fome plants, particularly the bul-
boUs-rooted kinds, vegetate in pure water and air alone,
it appears that they acquire little addition of folid fub-
ftance, and that neither they, nor any of the other
larger plants, reach perfedtion, or produce feed, un-
lels planted in the earth, or fupplied with a portion
74
As all foils are by no means equally adapted for fup- Four kinds
porting vegetables, or bringing them to maturity, itoif fofls*
is neceffary for the hufhandman to attend to their na¬
ture, and the modes in which they may be altered or
ameliorated for his ufe. Independent of thefe hard
concretions, which obtain the name of ftones or rocks,
it is to be obferved, that the loofer and more divifible
earth which covers moft part of the furface of the globe,
and receives the appellation of the foil, may, upon the
whole, and with futficient accuracy for practical pur-
pofes, be divided into four kinds, which are in general
mixed with each other, but which receive their name,
in ordinary language, from the kind that predominates,
or is moft abundant. Thefe are fand, clay, chalk, and
garden mould. Of thefe, fand and clay are in fome
meafure the oppofites of each other, while chalk forms a
kind of medium bettveen them. Band allows water to
filter rapidly through it, and fpeedily becomes dry, while
clay is extremely tenacious of moifture j but a mixture
of chalk renders fand confiderably more tenacious of
water, while it renders clay more loofe, and eafily pe¬
netrated. None of thefe foils are valuable for the pur-
pofes of agriculture.—Sand does not fufficiently re~
tain water for the ufe of vegetables ; nor does clay fuf-
fer their roots to expand "with freedom in queft of nou-
rilhment. Chalk, or, as it is ufually called, a calcare¬
ous foil, is not of itfelf adapted for railing ufeful plants j
for, although it may not have the mechanical defefts
-of fand and clay, yet, it is found by experience to be
of little value to them, either in confequence of its ten¬
dency to deftroy their texture by its corrofive quality,
that is, by having too much chemical affinity with the
materials of which they Conftft, or from its not con¬
taining within itfelf the proper materials neceffary to
them as food.
The fourth kind of foil we have denominated garden
mould ; becaufe it is in its higheft perfeftion when it
approaches neareft to the rich black earth which re¬
ceives that appellation. This is the moft proper of all
kinds of foil for rearing the whole of thofe vegetables
which are accounted valuable in our climate. In pro¬
per circumftances, that is, with a moderate degree of
heat and of moifture, it never fails to fend forth and to
bring to perfection an abundant crop. In proportion
to the degree in which any foil confifts of this black
mould, its value increafes. If, therefore, a hufband-
man could cover the portion of territory allotted to him
wdth a tolerable depth of this kind of foil, nothing more
tvould be neceffary to the fuccefs ©f his enterprifes, as
3 he
Theory. A G R I C U
Principles of he could rear whatever vegetables he thought fit, in
Cultivation. perfe&ion, and in great profufion. It is to be obferved,
however, that this kind of mould or foil cannot be re¬
lied upon as permanent. If crops of grain fhould be
takeir from it year after year, it would foon lofe its fer¬
tile qualities, and become unfit for the purpofes of a
profperous agriculture. Here then is the remaikable
difference between this kind of foil and the three others
that were formerly mentioned, fand, clay, and chalk.
Whatever properties thefe poffefs are unperifhing, and
can only be altered or modified by the operation of a
fierce heat. Unfortunately, however, in their pure
ft ate, as already mentioned, they are of little value to
the hufbandman •, and*it is only in proportion to the de¬
gree in which they are mixed with the dark coloured
or garden mould, that they become adapted to his pur-
poles : but as the qualities of this mould are of a tran-
fitory nature, it is of the utmoll importance, and ought
indeed to form the great bafis of every theory of agri¬
culture, to explain how they may be preferved in exift-
hie ence, or rellored when loft.
To underftand this fubjed correttly, it is_ neceffary
to confider the nature and origin of this fertile mould.
It is evidently not one of thofe original fubrtances which
form a part of the great mafs of the folid globe of the
earth, but appears to be the refult of the operations
and of the deftru&ion of living and organized beings
Communua- that have exifted upon it. “ Were a naked rock, fays
tlons to the Mr Headrick, in an effay which we fhall afterwards
Board of have occafion to mention, fuddenly thrown up from
Agriculture, ^ fea or frotn the bowels of the earth, the firrt plants
VOl‘ 76 which nature would place upon it, would be the va-
Procefsby rious fpecies of lichens, and Inch as can fubfift wholly
which na- upon what they imbibe from the air, without needing
' ~ r ^' a foil in which to pufh their roots. Thefe plants ferve
the double purpofe of clothing the rock, and thus pre¬
venting the fine particles that are dilfolved by air and
moifture from being wafhed away, and, from their
growth and diffolution, of accumulating vegetable
foil for the fuftenance of more fucculent plants. The
rock is thus gradually made to acquire fuch a depth
of foil, that it becomes able to fuftain not only graffes
and ftrrubs, but may become a receptacle for the oak
itfelf.” The progrefs here ftated is correfl} but fome
Nature of
garden
mould.
ture ferti¬
lizes the
earth.
circumftances muft be added to it, to render it prafti-
cally ufeful to the hufbandman. It is to be obferved
then, that animal fubftances, after they have ceafed
to form a part of a living body, have a tendency to
proceed rapidly into a ftate of putrefa&ive fermenta¬
tion, by which the great eft part of their mafs is render¬
ed volatile. When"animal fubftances are mingled with
vegetables, they fpeedily communicate their own fer¬
mentation or putrefaction to the vegetables, which by
means of it are decompofed, fall to pieces, and are
transformed into that kind of black earth, which we
have called garden mould, and which forms the moft
fertile of all foils for the production of vegetables.
It is by this procefs then, that is, by the fermentation
of vegetable by means of animal fubftances, that the
furface of this globe has been fertilized, or a black and
rich mould produced upon it, as we daily fee-taking
place in a variety of fituations. No fooner do the
fmall lichens or moffes cover the face of the naked
rock, or gravel, or clay, than a variety of ipecies of
fin all animals appear, and feed upon them. As the
L T U R E. ^ 311
plants and animals die in iucceflion, their luufiamcesH^^
mingle and give nie to the putrefaction alreaay men- _ _ ,
tioned, which is productive of a fmall portion of foil.
A new race of plants of greater ftrength and bulk nfes
upon the ruins of the firft, and fupports larger animals,
all deftined in their turn to perilh and to increafe the
quantity of fertile foil. More valuable graffes loon
fupplant the original fmall and coarfe vegetables, and
the fpot affumes the appearance of a rich verdure.
New fpecies of animals alfo begin to inhabit it : Hails
and worms abound ; and by their remains contribute
to the diffolution of the roots of plants, which every¬
where penetrate the new foil, and to the decompofition
of the ftems which periodically fall down. W hen tne
foil has acquired fufficient depth, it is Iheltered by
fhrubs *, and, laftly, by foreft trees,^ under the fhade of
which the larger animals exift. 1 he trees Ihed their
leaves every leafon, and every feafun coniequently gives
an additional layer or Jfratum of fertile mould to the
foil: and thus while the foreft endures, the fertility of
the territory on which it ftands continues to be aug¬
mented by its fpoils, and by the bodies of the animals
which repair to it for ftielter.
This procefs, by which nature gives fertility to the
earth, or creates the rich mould on which vegetable*-,
flour!fh, ought to be imitated by the hulbandman ; and,
in faft, it has been imitated in confequence oi a know¬
ledge that is derived from experience and from prac¬
tice, rather than from the general {peculations of fei-
ence. The imitation of nature upon this point con-
flitutes the art of producing manures, which will be
afterwards confldered. 1 he principle upon vs inch it
proceeds, refts upon this foundation, which is known to
be true in fa&, that the fermentation oi animal and ve¬
getable fubftances produces that kind of dark rich-
mould which forms the moft fertile foil.
In wrhat way, or by wbat peculiar operation, this
kind of mould or (oil becomes fo highly conducive and
fubfervient to the growth of plants, is a point of more
difficult Hfearch, and is fortunately of lefs importance
to be known to the practical agriculturift. It may be
obferved, however, that this mould poflefies, in an emi¬
nent degree, all the requifites neceffary to the mccels of
vefetation. It retains moifture, which is lo neceffar\
to that procefs, without, at the fame time, keeping hold
of it with that retentivenefs which, in clay, has the ef¬
fect of injuring the roots of the plants. As this mould
confifts of the remains both of animal and vegetable
life, it neceffarily contains an immenfe variety of in¬
gredients wdiich have different degrees of chemical af¬
finity to each other. Ty the operation of thefe affini¬
ties in bringing the different fubftances into new com¬
binations, a great quantity of heat muft be continually
produced or evolved, as occurs in fo many chemical
proceffes. By this heat the roots of the plants will be
nourilhed, efpecially when affifted by the heat which
they themfelves throw out or produce when germi¬
nating. Thus, by the kind of foil nowr mentioned, or
by the aid of manure, the defeats of a cold and un-
genial climate may, in fome meafure, be rettified, and
the feeds and roots of vegetables may be fupplied with
due and feafonable warmth. It is alfo probable, that conjecqlir^
what is called the exhaufted ftate of a foil, in come- ex-
quence of much plowing, and many crops having been haulted
taken from it, may chiefly arife from this cireumftance,
12 A G R I C U
maples of tl;at all the chemical affinities having at laft operated,
utivation'every'particle of the foil remains at reft, and no more
heat is produced by the aftivity of res parts.
That plants growing in fertile mould, like that now
mentioned, derive nourifnment or food horn it, cannot,
be doubted, ftnee we fee, that when taken out of it, or
placed in another but lefs favourable foil, they fpeedi-
•y go into decay. What the particular fubftances are,
however, which they take from it, has not been dhoo¬
ve red. But it appears from the minutenefs of the ex
treme fibres of the roots of plants, that the food taken
in by them muft be foluble in water, or in a liquid
Bate when taken in by them. Accordingly, their food
is aflually found to afeend through their organs in a
liquid form. Of this liquor or fap there are two
kinds, the afeending and the defeending. The afeending
lap is that which rifes in the fpring j and by cutting a
fhort way through the bark into the wood of many
trees, large quantities of it may be drawn off, without
injury to their health or growth. This fap afeends to
the leaves, and there undergoes fome change by the
aclion of the air 5 for the leaves of vegetables appear
to perform to them an office fimilar to that which
is accompliftied in animals by the organ called the
lungs. From the leaves the fap, thus changed, defeends
to every part of the plant, and contributes to its
growth by becoming a part of its fubftance. It would
feem, however, that the liquors which circulate in
plants, not only undergo a change at the leaves, but
alfo at their firft entrance by the velfels of the roots j
for if feveral different kinds of trees are ingrafted upon
the fame common ilock, each of them is able to de¬
rive the fap peculiar to itfelf from the fap of the com¬
mon flock. Thus alfo the chemifts have informed us,
that vinegar, called by them the acetous acid, is found
varioufiy combined in the afeending fap of various
trees 5 but it has never yet been difeovered, that vine¬
gar exifts in any perceptible quantity in vegetable
mould. That fubftance, therefore, muft be formed by
the root, by bringing together the ingredients of that
acid which it finds and ielecfs in the earth. ,
When any plant, whether great or fmall, is put in¬
to a clofe veffel, and ftrongly heated, allowing only
the fmoke to efcape, the refidue is in all cafes of the
fame nature, and is called charcoal, or by the chemifts
carbon. Of this carbonaceous matter a confiderable
quantity is always found in rich garden mould, derived
no doubt from the remains of vegetable fubftances of
which that mould was originally formed. This car¬
bonaceous matter, however, or charcoal, being info-
luble in water, cannot in its ordinary itate enter into
the veffels of growing vegetables ; but, as it is render¬
ed foluble by a variety of combinations, it is no doubt
found out in fuch a ftate by the fibres of growing roots,
and conveyed upwards in the juice. But as all vege¬
table mould, and the charcoal or carbonaceous matter
which it contains, is the refult of the ruins of vegeta¬
tion, and as the lichens or vegetables of the coarfeft
and fimpleft kind, which originally grow upon the na¬
ked ftone, have no other nouriftiment than water and
atmofpheric air, it is probable, that out of thefe mate¬
rials they are capable of forming the charcoal, which
conftitutes the bafts of their form, and of the conftitu-
tion of every other vegetable. It is true*, that the che-
tnifts ftill regard carbon 01 charcoal as a Ample and
L T U R E. Theory.
uncompounded fubftance j and they have not found it Prir-c;.. rof
in water, nor in atmofpheric air, uulefs in the moft mi- Cultivau©ii,
mite degree, refin ing pro- ibly from the combullion of 'v w
fires and the breathing of animals in inhabited coun¬
tries. But although chemifts have not hitherto been
able to find charcoal in the three fiirq le fubftances,
oxygen, hydrogen, and azote, of which atmofpherlc
air and water are compcfed, it feems evident, that the
mighty Chemift who contrived this world and the con-
ftitution of vegetables, finds no difficulty ip forming it
of thole materials by means of their organization.
Hence we rather think, that water and air muft con-
ftitute the original food of the fimpleft and coarltft
kind of plants ; but if .this idea be true, it is to be re¬
garded as a fa£t that is more curious in fpeculation
than ufeful in practice : for it is certain, that the more
valuable and larger vegetables, which it is the bufinefs
of the hufbandman to cultivate, cannot be reared to
perfe&ion without the aid of vegetable mould.
Though they may pcffefs, therefore, the power of de¬
riving a portion ox their folid fubftance, or of the car¬
bonaceous matter which they contain, from common
air and water, they cannot obtain the whole by this
means, and require the aid of the remains of former
vegetation. It is thus that one fyftem is feen to per-y ' 1 <
vade every part of nature, as through all her works are the food.
one clafs of animated beings only enjoys life in confe- of each
quence of the deftrubfion of another. Thus the car-ot^er•
niverous animals confume thole that live upon vege¬
tables 5 and thus, in like manner, one fpecies of vege¬
tables only fubfifts upon the ruins, and is fed by the
fubftance, of a former generation of plants.
Befides animal fubftances, there are fome minerals
that have a tendency to accompliih the decompofition
of vegetables, and thereby to reduce them into a ftate
of mould, poiTeiTing in a great degree the qualities of
the garden mould that is produced by the fermenta¬
tion of the remains of animals and vegetables, the for¬
mation of which has now been deferibed. Of the mi¬
nerals that have this tendency, lime is the chief, and
indeed the one commonly in ufe, either pure or when
combined with clay under the form of marl. To the
elTebl of lime, therefore, we fnall now call the attention
of the reader.
Where the ground has been fuffered to remain un¬
cultivated for many ages, producing all that timfe fuc-
culent plants which are eafily putrefied, and trees, the
leaves of which likewife contribute to enrich the ground
by their falling off and mixing with it, the foil will in
a manner be totally made up of pure vegetable earth,
an,d be the richeft, when cultivated, that can be ima¬
gined. This was the cafe with the lands of America.
They had remained uncultivated perhaps fince the crea¬
tion, and were endowed with an extraordinary degree
of fertility ; neverthelefs we are affured by one who
went to America in order to purchafe lands there, that
fuch grounds as had been long cultivated, were fo much
exhaufted, as to be much worfe than the generality of
cultivated grounds in this country. Here, then, we 0ne ^eci-e5
have an example of one fpecies of poor foil; namely, 0f poor foil
one that has been formerly very rich, but has been de- deftxoyed
prived, by repeated cropping, of the greateft part of
the vegetable food it contained. The farmer who is
in poffeffiom of fuch ground, would no doubt willingly
teftore it tc its lormer ftate , the prefent queftion is,
What
i heory
Principles of WKat mufl: be done in order to obtain this end ? We
Cultivation, mentioned feveral kinds of manures which long
v pradlice has recommended as feryiceable for improving
ground : we fhall fuppofe the farmer tries lime or
chalk 5 for, as we have already feen, their operations
upon the foil mult be precifely the fame. This fub-
ftance, being of a feptic nature, will aft upon fuch
parts of the foil as are not putrefied, or but imperfeft-
ly fo •, in confequence of which, the farmer will reap a
better crop than formerly. The feptic nature of the
lime is not altered by any length of time. In plough¬
ing the ground, the lime is more and more perfeftly
mixed with it, and gradually exerts its power on every
putrefcible matter it touches. As long as any matter
of this kind remains, the farmer will reap good crops j
but when the putrefcible matter is all exhauiled, the
ground then becomes perfeftly barren ; and the cau-
flic qualities of the lime are moft unjuftly blamed for
burning the ground, and reducing it to a caput mor-
tuum; while it is plain the lime has only done its of¬
fice, and made the foil yield all that it was capable of
So yielding.
A fpecies of When ground has been long uncultivated, producing
poor foil all the time plants, not fucculent, but fuch as are very
meliorated difficultly diffolved, and in a manner incapable of pu-
fiy lane. trefaftion j there the foil will be exceflively barren, and
yield very fcanty crops, though cultivated with the
greateft care. Of this kind are thofe lands covered with
heath, which are found to be the molt barren of any, and
the moft difficultly brought to yield good crops. In this
cafe lime will be as ferviceable as it was detrimental
in the other : for by its feptic qualities, it will conti¬
nually reduce more and more of the loil to a putrid
ftate ; and thus there will be a conftant fucceffion of
better and better crops, by the continued ufe of lime
when the quantity firit laid on has exerted all its force.
Ey a continued ufe of this manure, the ground will be
gradually brought nearer and nearer to the nature of
garden mould ; and, no doubt, by proper care, might
be made as good as any : but it will be as great a mif-
take to imagine, that, by the ufe of lime, this kind of
foil may be rendered perpetually fertile, as to think
that the other was naturally fo •, for though lime enriches
this foil, it does fo, not by adding vegetable food to
it, but by preparing what it already contains ; and when
all is properly prepared, it muft as certainly be exhaufted
gi as in the other cafe.
Poor foils Here, then, we have examples of two kinds of poor
how relto- foils ; one of which is totally deftroyed, the other great-
fcvd- ly improved, by lime, and which therefore require very
different manures j lime being more proper for the laft
than dung j while dung, being more proper to reftore
an exhaufted foil than lime, ought only to be ufed for
the firft. Befides dunging land which has been exhauft¬
ed by long cropping, it is of great fervice to let it lie
fallow for fome time : for to this it owed its original
fertility 5 and what gave the fertility originally, cannot
fail to reftore it in fome degree.
By attending to the diftinftion between the reafons
for the poverty of the two foils juft now mentioned, we
will always be able to judge with certainty in what cafes
lime is to be ufed, and when dung is proper. The
mere poverty of a foil is not a criterion whereby we can
judge •, we muft confider what hath made it poor. If
it is naturally fo, we may almoft infallibly conclude^ that
Vol. I. Part I.
it will become better by being manured with lime. IfPrinciplesot
it is artificially poor, or exhaufted by continual cropA1-1^^0*j
ping, we may conclude that lime wall entirely deftroy
it.—-We apprehend, that it is this natural kind of po¬
verty only which Mr Anderfon fays, in his Effays on
A griculture, may be remedied by lime; for we can fcarce
think that experience would direft any perfon to put
lime upon land already exhaiifted. His words are, gj
“ Calcareous matters aft as powerfully upon land
that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more ^concern-
richly impregnated with thofe iubftances that tend lun^,
to produce a luxuriant vegetation.”
“ Writers on agriculture have long been in the cu-
ftom of dividing manures into two claffes, vita. Enriching
manures, or thofe that tended direftly to render the
foil more prolific, however fterile it may be •, among the
foremoft of which was dung : Exciting manures, or thofe
that were fuppofed to have a tendency to render the
foil more prolific, merely by afting upon thofe enrich¬
ing manures that had been formerly in the foil, and gi¬
ving them a new ftimulus, fo as to enable them to operate
anew upon that foil which they had formerly fertili¬
zed. In which clafs of ftimulating manures, lime was
always allowed to hold the foremoft place.
“ In confequence of this theory, it would follow,
that lime could only be of ufe as a manure when ap¬
plied to rich foils—and when applied to poor foils,
would produce hardly any, or even perhaps hurtful,
effefts.
“ I will frankly acknowledge, that I myfelf was fo
far impofed upon by the beauty of this theory, as to
be hurried along with the general current of mankind,
in the firm perfuafion of the truth of this obfervation,
and for many years did not fufficiently advert to thole
fafts that were daily occurring to contradict this theo¬
ry.—I am now, however, firmly convinced, from re¬
peated obfervations, that lime, and other calcareous
manures, produce a much greater/>ro/wVzo/?tf/improve¬
ment upon poor foils than fuch as are richer ;—and
that lime alone, upon a poor foil, will, in many cafes,
produce a much greater and more lafting degree of fer¬
tility than dung.”
Thus far Mr Anderfon’s experience is exaftly con¬
formable to the theory we have laid down, and what
ought to happen according to our principles. He men¬
tions, however, fome fafts which feem very ftrongly to
militate againft it ; and indeed he himfelf feems to pro¬
ceed upon a theory altogether different. g
“ Calcareous matter alone (fays he) is not capable Query con-
of rearing plants to perfeftion ;—mould is necef- cerning the
fary to be mixed with it in certain proportions,
before it can form a proper foil. It remains,1
however, to be determined, what is the due pro¬
portion of thefe ingredients for forming a proper
foil.
“ We know that neither chalk, nor marl, nor lime,
can be made to nourilh plants alone; and foils are fome-
times found that abound with the two firft of thefe to
a faulty degree. But the proportion of calcareous mat¬
ter in thefe is fo much larger than could ever be produ¬
ced by art, where the foil was naturally deftitute of thefe
fubftances, that there feems to be no danger of erring
on that fide. Probably it would be much eafier to cor-
reft the defefts of thofe foils, in which calcareous mat-
R r ters
AGRICULTURE.
3H A G R I C U
Principles of tersfuperabound, by driving earth upon them as a ma-
Cultivation. nure> t}lan is generally imagined j as a very fmall pro-
portion of it lometimes affords a very perfeft foil. I
flrall illuftrate my meaning by a few examples.
Examples u Near Sandfide, in the county of Caithnefs, there
®f foil per- is a pretty extenfive plain on the fea coaft, endowed
fertile^ moil lingular degree of fertility. In all feafons
it produces a moil luxuriant herbage, although it never
got any manure lince the creation ; and has been from
time immemorial fubjedted to the following courfe of
crops.
“ i. Bear, after once ploughing from grafs,
ufually a good crop.
“ 2. Bear, after once ploughing, a better crop
than the firft.
“ 3. Bear, after once ploughing, a crop equal
to the firft.
“ 4. 5. and 6. Natural grafs, as clofe and rich
as could be imagined, might be cut, if the
pofleflfor fo inclined, and would yield an ex¬
traordinary crop of hay each year.
“ After this the fame courfe of cropping is renewed.
The foil that admits of this lingular mode of farming,
appears to be a pure incoherent fand, dellitute of the
fmallel! particle of vegetable mould •, but, upon exami¬
nation, it is found to confift almolt entirely of broken
fhells : the fine mould here bears fuch a fmall propor¬
tion to the calcareous matter, as to be fcarce percep¬
tible, and yet it forms the molt fertile foil that ever I
yet met with.
“ I have feen many other links (downs) upon the
fea Ihore, which produced the moft luxuriant herbage,
and the clofeft and fweeteft pile of grafs, where they
eonfifted of ftielly fand •, which, without doubt, derive
their extraordinary fertility from that caufe.
“ A very remarkable plain is found in the ifland of
Jir-eye, one of the Hebrides. It has been long em¬
ployed as a common : fo that it has never been difturb-
ed by the plough, and affords annually the moft luxu¬
riant crop of herbage, confifting of white clover and
other valuable pafture grafs, that can be met with any¬
where. The foil confifts of a very pure fhelly fand.
“ From thefe examples, I think it is evident, that a
very fmall proportion of vegetable mould is fufficient to
render calcareous matter a very rich foil. Perhaps,
however, a larger proportion may be neceffary when it
is mixed with clay than with fand j as poor chalky foils
feem to be of the nature of that compofition.”
To thefe examples brought by Mr Anderfon, tve
may add fome of the fame kind mentioned by Lord
Karnes. His iordlhip having endeavoured to eftablilh
the theory of water being the only food of plants,
though he himfelf frequently deviates from that theory,
yet thinks it poffible, upon fuch a principle, to make a
foil perpetually fertile.
“ To recruit (fays he), with vegetable food, a foil
impoveriftied by cropping, has hitherto been held the
only objedt of agriculture. But here opens a grander
qbjeT, worthy to employ our keeneft induftry, that of
making a fori perpetually fertile. Such foils aftually
exift 5 and why Ihould it be thought, that imitation
here is. above the reach of art ? Many are the inftan-
ces of nature being imitated with fuccefs. Let us not
defpair while any hope remains ; for invention never
was exercifed upon a fubject of greater utility. The
L T U R It. Theory.
attempt may fuggeft proper experiments : it may open Principles of
new views : and if we fail in equalling nature, may we Cultivation,
not, however, hope to approach it ? A foil perpetually --v—
fertile mull be endowed with a power to retain moifture
fufficient for its plants, and at the fame time muft be
of a nature that does not harden by moifture. Calca¬
reous earth promiles to anfwer both ends : it prevents
a foil from being hardened by water; and it may pro¬
bably alio invigorate its retentive quality. A field
that got a fufficient dofe of clay marl, carried above
30 fucceflive rich crops, without either dung or fallow.
Doth not a foil fo meliorated draw near to one per¬
petually fertile ? Near the call fide of bife, the coaft;
for a mile inward is covered with fea fand, a foot deep
or lo 5 which is extremely fertile, by a mixture of fea
ftiells reduced to powder by attrition. The powdered
(hells, being the fame with ftiell marl, make the fand
retentive of moifture ; and yet no quantity of moifture
will unite the fand into a folid body. A foil fo mixed
feems to be not far diftant from one perpetually fertile.
Thefe, it is true, are but faint effays 5 but what will not
perfeverance accomplilh in a good caufe r”
Having thus, in a manner, pofitively determined with
Mr Anderfon, that no dole of calcareous matter can
poffibly be too great, we cannot help owning ourfelves
furprifed on finding his lordlhip expreffing himfelf as g :.
follows : “ An overdofe of (hell marl, laid perhaps an Inconfiften-
inch, and an inch and an half, or two inches thick, °y in Lord
produces, for a time, large crops: but at laft it renders Karnes’s
the foil a caput mortuum, capable of bearing neither com x
nor grafs } of which there are too many inftances in
Scotland. The fame probably would follow from an
overdofe of clay marl, ftone marl, or pounded lime-
ftone.”—To account for this, he is obliged to make a
fuppofition diredlly contrary to his former one ; name¬
ly, that calcareous matter renders the foil incapable of
retaining water. This phenomenon, however, we think
is folved upon the principles above laid down, in a fa-
tisfadlory manner, and -without the leaft inconfiftency.
As to rendering foils perpetually fertile, we cannot
help thinking the attempt altogether chimerical and g(-
vain. There is not one example in nature of a foil perpetual
perpetually fertile, where it has no fupply but from the fertility of
air and the rain which falls upon it. The above re- chime-
cited examples can by no means be admitted as proofsnca*'
of perpetual fertility. We know, that; the grafs on the
banks of a river is much more luxuriant than what
grows at a diftance : the reafon is, that the -water is at¬
tracted by the earth, and communicates its fertilizing
qualities to it *, but was the river to be dried up, the
grafs wmuld foon become like the reft. Why Ihould
not the ocean have the fame power of fertilizing plains
near its (bores, that rivers have of fertilizing fmall fpots
near their banks ? We fee, however, that it hath not:
for the fea {bores are generally fancly and barren. The
reafon of this is, that the -waters of the ocean contain a
quantity of loofe acid*; and this acid is poifonous to * See fFa/fj*.,
plants : but abftradling this acid part, we hefitate not
to affirm, that fea water is more fertilizing than river
water. It is impoffible to know how far the waters of
the ocean penetrate under ground through a fandy
foil. Where they meet with nothing to abforb their
acid, there the ground is quite barren ; but in paffing
through an immenfe quantity of broken {hells, the cal¬
careous matter, we are very certain, will abforb all the
acid;
/
»
Theory. A C R I C U
Princlplesof acid j and thus the foil will be continually benefited by
Cultivation. Jts vicinity to the ocean. All the above fields, there-
1 fore, are evidently fupplied with nourifhment from the
ocean: for if the fait water has fufficient efficacy to
render fields which are in its neighbourhood barren,
why ffiould it not render them fertile when the caufe of
barrennefs is removed from its waters ?
After all, the field in Caithnefs, mentioned by Mr
Anderfon, feems to have been perpetually fertile only
in grafs *, for though the fecond year it carried a better
crop of bear than it did the firft, yet the third year
the crop was worfe than the fecond, and only equal to
the firft. Had it been ploughed a fourth time, the crop
would probably have been worfe than the firft. Ground
is not near fo much exhaufted by grafs as corn, even
though the crop be cut and carried off} and ftill lefs
if it only feeds cattle, and is manured by their dung j
which appears to have been the cafe with this field.
Lord Kames, indeed, mentions fields in Scotland, that,
paft memory, have carried fucceffive crops of wheat,
peafe, barley, oats, without a fallow, and without a ma¬
nure j and particularizes one ^>11 the river Carron, of
nine or ten acres, which had carried 103 crops of oats
without intermiffion and without manure : but as we
are not acquainted with any fuch fields, nor know any
thing about their particular lituation, we can form no
^ judgment concerning them.
Clay and Befides the two kinds of foils above mentioned, there
faddy foils, are others, the principal ingredient of which is clay or
faftd. The firft of thefe is apt to be hardened by the
heat of the fun, fo that the vegetables can fcarce pe¬
netrate it in fuch a manner as to receive proper nou-
rilhment. The fecond, if it is not fituated fo as to re¬
ceive a great deal of moifture, is very apt to be parch¬
ed up in fummer, and the crop deftroyed ; nor has it
fufficient adhefion to fupport plants that have few roots
and grow high. From thefe oppofite qualities, it is
evident that thefe two foils would be a proper manure
for one another: the clay would give a fufficient de¬
gree of firmnefs to the fand, and the fand would break
the too great tenacity of the clay. According to Dr
Home’s experiments, however, fand is the worft manure
for clay that can be ufed. He recommends marl moft.
To reduce clay ground as near as poffible to the form
of pure vegetable mould, it muft firft be pulverized.
This is mod effectually performed by ploughing and
harrowing ; but care muft be taken not to plough it
wffiilft too wet, otherwife it will concrete into hard clots
which can fcarcely be broken. After it is pulverized,
however, fome means muft be taken to keep it from
concreting again into the fame hard maffes as before.
According to Lord Kames, though clay, after pulve¬
rization, will concrete into as hard a mafs as before, if
mixed with water ; yet if mixed with dunghill juice,
it will not concrete any more. Lime alfo breaks its
tenacity, and is very ufeful as a manure for this kind
88 of foih
Fertility of The conclufion we wiffi the praftical farmer to draw
the earthli-ffom our theory is, That there is a certain limit to the
L T U R E. 315
fertility of the earth, both as to duration and to de- Vegetable)!
gree, at any particular time : that the nearer any foil
approaches to the nature of pure garden mould, the jyieiiorat..
nearer it is to the moft perfeft degree of fertility j but ing the Soil,
that there are no hopes of keeping it perpetually in
fuch a ftate, or in any degree of approximation to it,
but by conftant and regular manuring with dung.
Lime, chalk, marl, &c. may be proper to bring it
near to this ftate, but are abfolutely unfit to keep it
continually fo. They may indeed for feveral years
produce large crops j but the more they increafe the
fertility for fome years, the fooner will they bring on
an abfolute barrennefs 5 while regular manuring with
plenty of dung wall always enfure the keeping up the
foil in good condition, without any occafion for fallow.
What we have faid concerning the ufe of lime, &c.
applies likewife to the practice of frequent ploughing,
though in a lefs degree. This tends to meliorate
ground that is naturally poor, by giving an opportu¬
nity to the vegetable parts to putrefy j but when that
is done, it tends to exhauft, though not fo much aS
lime. A judicious farmer will conftantly ftrive to keep
his lands always in good condition, rather than to make
them fuddenly much better ; left a few years ihould
convince him that he was in reality doing almoft irre¬
parable mifchief, wffiile he fancied himfelf making im¬
provements. As for the ridiculous notions of ftimu-
lating the ground by faline manures, wre hope they will
never enter the brain of any rational praCHtioner of
agriculture.
Sect. \'. Of the different hinds of Vegetables pro¬
per to be raifed with a view to the Melioration of
Soil.
....
The methods of meliorating foils, which wre have Soil pulve--
mentioned above, confifting of tedious and laborious rized by
operations that yield no return at firft, it is natural for
a farmer to wiffi for fome method of meliorating his b
ground, and reaping crops at the fame time. One very
confiderable ftep towards the melioration of ground is
its pulverization. This is accomplifhed by repeated
ploughings (a), as already mentioned j especially if
performed in autumn, that the ground may be expofed
to the winter’s froft 5 but thefe ploughings yield no crop
as long as the field is not fowm. By planting in the
field, how’ever, thofe vegetables whole roots fwell to a
confiderable bulk, the ground muft conftantly be acted
upon by the fwelling of their roots in all direftions :
and thus the growing of the crop itfelf may be equal,
or fuperior, in efficacy to feveral ploughings, at the
fame time that the farmer enjoys the benefit of it. The
plant moft remarkable for the fwelling of its roots is
the potatoe ; and by none is the ground meliorated
more, or even lb much. They are not, however, e-
qually proper for all foils. In clay they do not thrive,
nor are palatable j but in hard gravelly or fandy foils*
they grow to a large lize, and are of an excellent qua¬
lity. Turnips likewife contribute to meliorate the
K r 2 ground*
/• If ^ JhAS’ rTeVer’. be underftood with fome limitation : for it appears from experience, that many
Y Y ^ i01!s fce]vt detriment rather than advantage from frequent ploughings ; particularly in fummer.
w hen the fun exhales the nutritive particles in great abundance.
3i6 A G R I C U
OfDeftroy-ground, by tbe Avelling of tlieir roots, though not fo
mg eeds. as potatoes. They have this advantage, how-
*"" " v~'—‘ ever? that they will thrive in almoft any foil. In clay
ground, peale and beans thrive exceedingly well, and
therefore are proper in this kind of foil as a preparatory
for other kinds of grain. Thefe puih their roots deep
into the ground, and cover it with their leaves more
than other crops ; fo that the fun has not fo much ac-
cefs as when it is covered with other kinds of grain.
Wherever any of thefe kinds of vegetables are raifcd,
it is obfervable, that more or leis blacknefs is commu¬
nicated to the foil : an evident fign of its melioration ;
this being the colour of the true'vegetable mould, or
loamy foil, as it Is called.
Beiides the above-mentioned plants, carrots, parfnips,
cabbages, and all thofe vegetables which fink their
roots deep in the ground, anfwer the fame purpofe of
loofening and pulverizing the earth : but as they will
not thrive but on ground already well cultivated, they
cannot be railed to any advantage for the purpofe of
meliorating a poor foil.
It hath been cuftomary in many places, particularly
in England, to fow turnip, peafe, buck-wheat, <kc. and
then to plough them down for manuring the land.
This being fimilar to that operation of nature by which
{he renders the uncultivated lolls fo exceedingly fertile,
cannot fail of being attended with lingular advantages}
and might be looked upon as preferable even to driving
dung on the land to fatten it, was it not attended whh
the entire lofs of a crop for that year.
In addition to this, it may be proper to remark, that
an idea has been entertained with regard to the fuc-
ceflion of vegetables to each other, which ought not
to be overlooked, as at fome future period it may lead
Somevege-to important confequences. It has been fuppofed,
tables feem that the roots of plants, or at lealt of fome plants, pof-
to enrich fefs a pow'er of throwing out, as excrementitious, a part
of the fubllances which they have taken in, but which
are no longer neceffary for their fubliftence or growth.
It is undoubted, at leaft, that while by fome plants
the foil feems to be rendered altogether unfit for the
production of certain others, it is rendered by different
plants extremely vTell adapted to their growth. rI hus
wheat fucceeds uncommonly w'ell after drilled beans j
and thefe two vegetables have even been repeated for a
great number of years in rotation, without any defi¬
ciency or failure of crop.
the foil.
Sect. VI. Of defraying Weeds.
What we have already faid regarding the cultiva¬
tion of the foil, refpeCls only the fitting it for pro¬
ducing all kinds of vegetables indiferiminately. Ex¬
perience, however, {hows, that the ground is natu¬
rally much more difpofed to produce and nourih fome
kinds of vegetables than others •, and thofe which the
earth feems moft to delight in, are commonly fuch as
are of very little ufe to man 5 but if neglefted, will
increafe to fuch a degree, as entirely to deftroy the
plants intended to be raifed, or at leaft hinder them
from coming to perfeflion, by depriving them of nou-
riftiment. The clearing the ground of weeds, there¬
fore, is an article no lefs neceffary in agriculture, than
the difpofmg it to produce vegetables of any kind in
plenty.
I T U R E. Theory.
The wTeeds may be divided, according to the time Of Deftroy-
of tlieir duration, into annual, or fuch as fpring from ^ eec*s*
a feed, and die the fame year } and perennial, that is, ^
fuch as are propagated by the feeds, and laft for aWee^di-
number of years. The firft kind are the leaft noxious, vkled into
and moft eafily deftroyed. For this ptirpofe it will be annual and
fufficient to let them fpring up till near the time 0fpereimiaL
ripening their feed, and then plough them down be¬
fore it comes to maturity. It is alfo of fervice to de¬
ftroy fuch weeds as grow in borders or negleCled cor¬
ners, and frequently fcatter their feeds to a great di-
ftance ; fuch as the thiftle, dandelion, rag-weed, &c.
for thefe are fufticieitt to propagate their fpecies
through a deal of ground ; as their feeds are carried
about with the wind to very confiderable diftances.
A farmer ought alfo to take care, that the fmall feeds
of w'eeds, feparated from corn in winnowing, be not
fown again upon the ground ; for this certainly hap¬
pens when they are thrown upon a dunghill 5 becaufe,
being the natural offspring of the earth, they are not
eafily deftroyed. The beft method of preventing any
mifehief from this caufe, would be to burn them.
Perennial weeds cannot be effeCtually deftroyed, but peren^;a|
by removing the roots from the ground, which is often weeds,1 ho#
a matter of fome difficulty. Many of thefe roots ftrike deftroyed*
fo deep in the ground, that they can fcarcely be got
out. The only method that can be depended upon in
this cafe, is frequent ploughing, to render the ground
as tender as poffible ; and harrowing with a particular
kind of harrow, which (hall hereafter be deferibed, in
order to colleCt thefe pernicious roots. When collect¬
ed, they ought to be dried and burnt, as the only ef¬
fectual method of enfuring their doing no further mif¬
ehief.
There is a particular fpecies of wreed, peculiar only
to grafs lands, of a foft fpongy nature, called fog,
■which it is found very difficult to exterminate. Where
the land can be conveniently tilled, this weed may
be deftroyed by covering it with a crop of peafe, po¬
tatoes, &c. or, pafting a heavy roller over the ground
will be of great fervice ; for fog owes its origin to too
great a laxity of the foil, and will not grow on firm
ground.
Befides thefe kinds of weeds which are of an herba- 2ro<m,
ceous nature, there are others which are woody, and furze, &e.
grow to a very confiderable fize ; fuch as broom, furze how de-
or whins, and thorns. Broom is an evergreen ftirub,
that thrives beft in a fandy foil ; and there it grows fo
vigoroufly, as fcarcely to admit any grafs under it. It
propagates by feed which grows in pods 5 and thefe,
when fully ripe, break with violence, fcattering the
feeds all around. Thus, a field which is overgrown
with broom, befides the old plants, always contains an
infinite number of young ones : fo that though the old
plants die when cut over, a frefli crop conftantly fprings
up. It may, however, be deftroyed by frequent plough¬
ing and harrowung, in the fame manner as other pe¬
rennial wreeds are ; for it does not for fome time carry
any feed, and the frequent ploughing encourages the ve¬
getation of all thofe feeds that are already in the ground,
which cannot fail of being deftroyed by frequent repe¬
titions of the operation. Another method of deftroy-
ing broom, is by pafturing the field where it grows
with ffieep. A few of the old buffies may be left as a
{belter, and thefe will be in a good meafure prevented
from
Theory. A G R I C
Difeafes of from fpreading by tbe cropping of the (heep. Thefe
Plants, animals are very fond of broom, and greedily devour
every young (hoot •, fo that if any remain after the firlt
year, there will not be a veftige the fecond. If this
method of extirpating broom is equally effectual with
that of frequent ploughing, it is certainly much more
profitable, as there is no food more nouriflung to fheep
than young broom. Broom, however, is faid to have
u lingular effeft upon fheep : it makes them drunk fo
effectually, that when heated with a little driving,
they tumble over, and lie without motion.
The whin is a fine evergreen fhrub, carrying a fweet-
fmelling flower all the year round. It propagates both
by feed and by its roots, which fpread fometimes to the
diftance of 10 or 12 feet \ and hence, when once efta-
blifhed, it is with difficulty extirpated. The belt me¬
thod is to fet fire to the whins in frofty weather 5 for
froft has the effecd to wither whins, and make them
burn readily. The flumps muff then be cut over with
a hatchet; and when the ground is well foftened by
rain, it may be ploughed up, and the roots taken out
by a harrow adapted to that purpofe. If the field is
foon laid down to grafs, the whins will again fpring up
in great abundance from the feeds, and imall parts of
the roots left in the ground. In this cafe, pafturing
with fheep is an effeftual remedy ; as they are no lefs
fond of young whins than of young broom } and if
there are a fufficient number, they will not leave a fmgle
plant above ground. But if grafs is not immediately
wanted, the moft effe£!ual method of clearing a field
of whins, is by reiterated ploughings.
The thorn, or bramble, fpreads its roots very wide,
and at the fame time finks them deep in the earth.
Though cut in the winter, it rifes, and comes to fuch
perfeftion as to carry fruit in fummer. It can only be
extirpated by ploughing up the ground, and collecting
the roots.
Shmbs are One effeftual plan, which, as will afterwards appear,
deftroyed is practicable in many more fituations than it has hi-
by flooding therto been applied to, for deftroying thefe and all
an', other woody ffirubs and plants, together with a great
number of wTeeds that are of no value upon paflure
grounds, confifts of flooding the land, by direfling
over it a ftream of wTater. By means of fuch a device,
all whins and other fhrubs are completely rotted and
deftroyed.
Sect. VII. Of the Difeafes of Plants.
As fome of the mofl valuable kinds of vegetables
are liable to fuffer much by difeafes peculiar to them-
felves, it is of much importance to the hufbandman
to be aware of this circumftance, and to adopt every
knovm mode of protecting his crop againft them.
XI.* difeafes At the fame time, as the principles of vegetable life
of vegeta- are by no means wrell underftood, the caufes and the
^nde^ftood CUre t^e mo^T ^eri°us difeafes affeCHng plants Hill re-
in e. oot. rnajn unc[er a great degree of obfcurity, and the moft
experienced and intelligent hufbandmen exprefs great
uncertainty refpeCting the meafures to be adopted for
preventing their appearance. Hence it appears moft
proper to introduce the confideration of them in this
place before we proceed to the praCIical part of the
iubjeCI 5 and as wheat is accounted the moft valuable
U L T U R E. 3l7
kind of grain, we ihall begin with the difeafes to
which it is expofed. _ ,
Wheat chiefly fuffers from twro difeafes, the blight ^
and the mildew. Of the blight in wheat w e ihai- [jifeafes to
give an account upon the authority of an effay by which
Robert Somerville, Efq*, furgeon, 1 ft Battalion, Sth wheat is
Fencible Regiment, inferted in the communications to ia ie* _
the Board of Agriculture*, giving a ftatement of the* Vo!, ii..
nature and appearance of the blight which occafioned 97
the failure of the crop in 1795.—When the crop had Blight m
juft ftiaken the dowers, and the grains were beginning 1'9-'
to form, moft of them feemingly in a healthy manner,
it wTas obferved that many of the blades and ftalks
were rather of a dirty green colour, and in two weeks
thereafter there appeared upon them great numbers or
fmall red infcCts. As the leafon advanced, theie in-
fefts not only increafed in fize, but became more nu¬
merous, and in almoft every field the grain began to
manifeft unequivocal fymptoms of difeafe, which were
fo formidable, that in many inftances a total lofs was
dreaded, and in not a fewr cafes, one half of the crop
was aftually deftroyed. The minute fymptoms of the
blight were thefe:
ill, In the very early ftages of the dileafe, and before
the ear was affe^ied, the blades and ftalks wTere marked
with black and rufty fpots. Thefe fpots feemed to be oc¬
cafioned by a glutinous fubftance depofited upon them,,
eafily foluble in water, and which could be readily
wTafhed off by rubbing the ftalks with a wret cloth.
Some fpots, however, were white, and thefe feemed to
be owing to wounds or pundlures made by vermin} the
leaf having, to a certain extent, in confequence of
thefe, withered and become white. As the feafon ad¬
vanced, the black and rufty-coloured fpots became
larger and more numerous : and when the grain be¬
gan to ripen, not only the blades but the ftraw were
almoft entirely coloured with black fpots.
2d, After the crop had begun to ihoot, and was in
the ear, many of the heads wrere entirely empty.
Where the ftalk was green, and to appearance toler¬
ably healthy, but the ear at the fame time withered
and without grain, the misfortune feemed to have
arifen from an injury done to the neck of the ear, at
the place of its junction with the ftalk. ft here the
outer rind was deftroyed all round, which muft have
cut off the circulation between the ear and the ftalk,
as happens in trees that have had their bark deftroyed
all round.
3d, Many of the ears were entirely empty in the
upper part, while the lower half was well filled. In
thefe cafes, the injury feemed owing to the rind being
deftroyed about the middle of the ear, at that place
which feparated the full from the empty part, and was
fimilar to the injury done in the preceding cafe where
the whole ear was deftroyed.
4th, In very many cafes the ears had a plump well-
filled pickle and an empty hulk alternately. In thefe
the injury feemed owing to a wound inflidted at the
bottom of the empty grains, where they are joined to
the ftalk, and which had taken place while they were
in flower, preventing them from making any farther
progrefs.
5th, Many ears, though not entirely empty, contain¬
ed only fmall ftnivelled grains, or what are called
hungry
Plants.
A G R I C U
Thefe feemed to have efcaped any
318
Difeafes of hungry pickks
accident till they had made fome progrefs in filling, af¬
ter which they became flationary and ripened prema¬
turely. On examination they were found to be injur¬
ed at the place where they were joined to the flalk,
in the fame manner as was already mentioned, in the
cale of thofe that had empty heads or ears. Like thefe
alfo the whole ear was in fome cafes ill filled. In others
only half of it was in that flate, and in a very great
number the ears confifted of a well and ill filled grain
alternately. Without a fingle exception, the whole of
the ill filled or hungry grains, were wounded at the
place of their infertion into the ear.'
6th, A number of ears, though well filled, were upon
opening the hufks found almofi: entirely covered with
black and rufty fpots, nearly refembling thofe already
defcribed, and like them alfo they were eafily rubbed
or wafhed off. The downy part of many of thefe grains,
when examined carefully with a gqod glafs, appeared
to contain feveral fmall white tranfparent globes, re¬
fembling the eggs of infers.
7th, In many fields, efpecially fuch as had been fal¬
lowed and well manured for the wheat crop, a great
number of plants were entirely withered from top to
bottom. The decay, in moft of thefe cafes, took place
when the wheat was beginning to fhoot. No injury
was vifible in thefe cafes upon the blade or ftalk, but
on examining the roots, a worm was found at every one
of them.
Laftly, As the crop began to whiten, the dark or
rufty fpots on the ftraw and ears became more numer¬
ous, and appeared more confpicuous. In place of put¬
ting on a white or yellow appearance, the whole crop
looked as if it had been fprinkled with foot.
The whole of thefe fymptoms appeared to arife from
the attack of an infeft, and from the injuries and de¬
predation which it committed upon the plants. This
infeft when firft diftinguifhable by the eye, was of a
red colour, and fo foft as to be killed by the flighteft
preflure. As it increafed in fize the colour gradually
changed to a dirty black, at which it became ftationary.
During its growth it loft its foft texture, and in propor¬
tion as its colour darkened it became hard, and as it
were covered with a cruft or (hell upon the back. It
is faid to be not uncommon, and to be met with at all
times, even in the bert fields of wheat, though its num¬
bers are infinitely increafed in late wet feafons. From its
eggs appearing to lodge upon the well-filled ears of the
grain, it might be confidered as in danger of being pro¬
pagated to the fucceeding crop. On this account our
author hazards fome conjeftures upon the beft means
of preventing future danger from it. One of thefe
confifts of the ufe of lime mixed up with all manure,
with a view to prevent infefts from being generated
in it. It is alfo fuggefted that the manure, by means
of wThich Hugs and wrorms are chiefly fuppofed to be
produced, ought not to be plowed into the ground in
autumn, but applied as a top drefling in the fpring; be-
caufe it is underftood that manure, expofed to the fun
and air, has much lefs tendency to fofter infefts, than
when it is covered up in the earth.
Another difeafe, which is much more deftrufHve to
wheat, and much more frequently met with, is the mil-
bLick, cal- dew. ft is of two kinds, the black and the red. In both
led nnut. cafes ^ conlifts of a quantity of feemingly coarfe powT-
93
Mildew
is red or
L T U R E. Theory.
der attached to the grain in the ear, or loofely fur- Difeafes of
rounding it; in confequence of which it is evidently Plants-
prevented from filling or arriving at perfeftion. The
black kind of mildew is by far the moft frequent and
the moft pernicious. It is moft generally known in Eng¬
land by the name of fmut, and in Scotland by that of the
black, both of which are fufficiently expreffive. Con¬
cerning the caufe of this diieafe various opinions have
been entertained. Dr Home, in his Principles of
Agriculture and Vegetation, afcribes it to an over luxu-
riancy of growth. He is of opinion, that too great an
abundance of juices in a vegetable will produce dif¬
eafes fimilar to thofe cccafioned by repletion in animal
bodies, viz. ftagnations, corruptions, varices, cariofites,
&c. along wdth the too great luxuriancy we have juft
now mentioned, which he exprefles by “ too great an
abundance of water ihoots.” Hence he is induced to
clafs the fmut among difeafes arifing from this caufe, it
being a corruption happening moft in rainy feafons and
to wreak grain. Like other contagious difeafes, he
tells us, the fmut may be communicated from the in-
feffed to healthful grain. As a preventive he re¬
commends fteepmg the feed in a ftrong pickle of fea
fait. Befides the eft’eft which this has upon the grain
itfelf, it is ufeful for feparating the good from the bad;
the beft feed falling to the bottom, and the faulty
fwimming on the top of the liquor.
Independent of this notion of an over luxuriancy ofopirHons
growth, it may be obferved, that two opinions have concerning
chiefly been fupported by perfons who have fpeculated the caufe of
and written on this fubjeft. One opinion is, that the mildew-
mildew confifts of a great multitude of parafitical
plants adhering to the grains of whdat, living upon it,
and thereby confuming its fubftance. Another opi¬
nion is, that it confifts of great numbers of infedls and
of eggs of infecls, whofe form is too fmall to be diftin-
guilhable by the naked eye. The firft of thefe opinions
has been adopted by the celebrated Italian writer Fontana,
and the other by certain writers of our own country.
Fontana endeavours to refute the hypothefis, that p0,
the dull of the mildew confifts of animal eggs, by the opinion,
following experiment. He clofely confined the grains
of the mildew between two glafs plates, in fuch a
manner as neceffarily to break the fuppofed eggs. He
then, with an accurate microfcope, obferved them while
crulhed in fucceflion. No liquid or glutinous juice
proceeded from them, though great force was ufed in
crulhing them 5 but they appeared wholly to confift
of tough refilling fubftances altogether unlike real ani¬
mal eggs : their being faftened to the ftalk or leaves
of the grain, appeared alfo to militate again!! fuch a
fuppofition. From a variety of microfcopic obferva-
tions, he is of opinion, that the powder of the black
mildew or fmut confifts of a great multitude of fmall
plants attached to the grain by a flender fibre. Thefe
parafitical plants, though extremely fmall, he thinks
fufficiently regular. With regard to the red mildew
he admits, that it appears to be compofed of an im-
menfe multitude of minute eggs. After a variety of
experiments and obfervations, howrever, he thought he
difcovered, that thefe apparent eggs are in truth the
heads or fruit of very fine threads fixed on the ear
of corn ; that thefe threads or Hems are exceedingly
fine and tranfparent, which gives the appearance of
eggs to their outrvard extremities. Thefe Hems or tails
are
I
Theory. A G R I C U
Difeafes of are rcprefented by him, as infinitely finer than thofe of
Plants. t}ie black mildew •, and their heads, which referable
* “ eggs, may be feparated from them by the flighted:
(hock. From all his obfervations he concludes, that
both the black and the red mildew confift of real
plants, though, perhaps, of an imperfeft kind ; and
that they enfeeble and vvafte the crop by abforbing
the nutritive juices of the plant. He obferves, that,
if a heavy rain fpeedily fall on an extenfive mildew,
walhing the leaves and ftalks affedled, it prefently dif-
appears with hardly any damage to the corn 5 becaufe
the fmall plants having hardly taken root are eafily
difperfed before any mifchief is done. He thinks, that
the damage occafioned by this difeafe may fometimes
be moderated or dimmiihed by cutting down the grain
before it is fully ripe. In this cafe, he fays, that the
crop will be lefs than it ought to be } but flill it will
be confiderably greater than if the cuftomary time of
harveft is waited for, when the difeafe will have leifure
to produce greater mifchief.
In our own country, and particularly by Mr So¬
merville, in the eflay already quoted, the fmut in wheat
has been regarded as confiding of a great variety of
infedds. He alfo founds his opinion upon microfcopic
obfervations, and apprehends that from them he has
clearly afcertained the exiflence of the infeeds 5 and he
thinks that it is communicated to other grain by con-
ta<d, in confequence of the paffage of the infeeds.
Hence he endeavours to explain the utility of deeping
the feed in pickles before it is fown, with a view to
the deftruftion of fuch infeids.
It is to be remarked, that in all countries a great
variety of thefe pickles has been contrived, with a
view to prevent the exiflence of fmut in wheat, fome of
which we (hall now mention. One of the molt com¬
mon is the fait pickle, confiding of a folution of comr
mon fait in water, of fuch drength as that an egg will
fwim in it. To the wheat, after it has been walked
in this pickle, and the light grains removed, fome new
flaked lime is added, and carefully mixed with it with
a wooden (hovel, till it attain a fufficient degree of
drynefs, in which date it is committed to the earth.
A pickle confiding of very dale urine has alfo been
recommended to be ufed for wafhing wheat that is
meant to be ufed as feed. It is attended with this dif-
advantage, however, that if the urine is very dale,
and if any length of time is differed to elapfe, in con¬
fequence of rain or other accidents, before the grain is
fown, its vegetative power is faid to be greatly injured
by the corrofive quality of the volatile alkali with
which fuch urine abounds. This is more particularly
the cafe when quicklime is added to the urine; as
the alkali is then brought into a caudic date.
Another pickle has been propofed to the Board
of Agriculture by an Italian phyfician, J. B. Scandel-
la. It is prepared and ufed in the following manner :
—Take of nitre, three pounds ; alum, one pound j vi¬
triol, fix ounces ; verdegris, three ounces ; wood-afhes,
well fifted, fix pounds : Boil the whole in a copper
with five pails of water for an hour, then remove them
from the fire, and pour them into a large veffel; then
add fixteen pails of wTater, in which half a bulhel of
quicklime has been previoufly diffolved : mix the
whole intimately, and allow them to dand till they are
^uite cold. In this deep two bulhels and a half of
TOI
Pickles to
prevent
limit or
mildew.
L T U R E. 3 f
wheat are to be plunged, and left for about fix hours, Difeafes of
dirring it up frequently with a w7ooden fhovel, and *
Ikimming off w hat rifes to the furface j the wheat is v
then to be withdrawn, and fpread out till it is dry
enough for fowing. The procefs is thus to be conti¬
nued until the whole quantity of feed intended to be
fown is pickled. The above deep is generally fuffi-
cient for preparing about twenty-four bulhels of wheat.
Another pickle has been recommended, confiding of Communica-
a decoftion in water of Barbadoes aloes, tobacco, and t‘°ns to the
hellebore powaler. A committee of the Royal Society Board of A-
of Agriculture at Paris, in 1786, recommended the^j^i,rf*
following pickle for the fame purpofe, contrived by Annals of
M. Tillet :—Pour upon 50 pounds of wood-adies, 900 Agriculture,
pints of wrater 5 dir it well for three days, and then vol. ix.
draw off. Wadi the black wheat in fo many clear
waters as not at lad to dirty it. Heat the lye, fo as
jud to bear the hand in it flake in the hot lye one
pound of lime to every feven or eight pints of it. In¬
to the preparation dip the iced in bafkets many times.
For want of wood-afhes ul'e potaih, feven or eight
pounds for 100 pints of wTater. I02
In addition to thefe it may be remarked, that a fo- Arfenic
lution of arfenic in water is made ufe of in fome coqn- ufed to pre¬
ties of England, as a pickle in which they wadi or ve”’jt!ie
deep the grain previous to its being fown, for the pur- ‘ ‘1
pofe of protecting the future crop againd fmut. 103
The mod complete fet of experiments, however, Arthur
which wTe have met with upon the fuhjeCt, was made ^ °ung,Efq.
by Arthur Young, Efq. at prefent fecretary to the
Board of Agriculture. December 7. 1787, he fowed prevent mil-
14 beds w ith the fame feed wheat as black with the dew.
fmut as any he ever faw\
N0 I. Sown dry, nothing done to it.
2. Waflied tvell in clean water.
3. Waihed in lime-water.
4. Waihed in a lye of wood-adies.
5. Waihed in an arfenic and fait mixture.
6. Steeped in lime-water four hours.
7. Ditto in the lye four hours.
8. Ditto in the arfenic four hours.
9. Ditto in lime-water 12 hours.
10. Ditto in the lye 12 hours.
11. Ditto in the arfenic 12 hours.
12. Ditto in the lime-water 24 hours.
13. Ditto in the lye 24 hours.
14. Ditto in the arfenic 24 hours.
RESULT.
N° 1. Had
2. Ditto
3. Ditto
4. Ditto
5. Ditto
6. Ditto
7. Ditto
8. Ditto
9. Ditto
10. Ditto
11. Ditto
12. Ditto
13. Ditto
14. Ditto
377 fmuttyears.
325
43
31
28
12
3
1
6
o
4
o
o
5
A propofai has alio been made, to dedroy by
means
3 20
Difeafes of of heat the infers which are fuppofed to propagate the
Plants. difeafe called fmut from the feed wheat to the future
v crop. The following dire6lions for that purpofe are
Erlklne of extracfe(^ from the Agricultural Survey of the County
Marr’s re- °f Clackmannan, by J. F. Erfkine, of Marr, Efq.
medy. “ Let the wheat be laid upon the kiln, about three or
four inches thick : the kiln to be heated middling
■llrong with blind coal ; the wheat to continue on the
kiln for 24 hours, but turned frequently. After taking
it oiT the kiln, it muft be allowed 24 hours to cool $
during which time it mult be frequently turned j then
put it through the fanners once or twice. After the
wheat has lain a few hours on the kiln, and the fire
■begins to have effect, a great number of very fmall
worms, formerly undifcovered by the eye, appear on
the top of the grain, and are foon dellroyed by the
heat. Thefe come from blacked wheat, or other corns,
that could not be fufpe&ed to be indifferent 5 or may
lie in or on good wheat \ which wurms continuing,
(when not thus killed) might conlume the corn after
it is thrown into the earth, thereby checking the
growth entirely, or preventing it from having the
iirength it otherwife would have to bring forth a ftrong
productive ftalk. This praCtice is laid to have been
brought from Ireland, and is recommended as prefera¬
ble to pickling. It might perhaps be performed with
greater fuccefs by the ufe of a kiln heated by the fteam
of boiling water, in the way already mentioned, as
fuch a kiln wmuld inftantly afford a fixed and known
degree of heat, which could in no cafe be exceeded.”
After all, however, both from the reafon of the
thing, and from the concurring opinion of the molt
experienced and intelligent farmers, we think ourfelves
authorized to fay, that the hulbandman will aCt im¬
prudently if he place entire and complete confidence
in any one of the remedies above mentioned. His
fafelt and belt plan for procuring crops of wheat free
from fmut is this : In the firlt place, he ought to pro¬
cure feed from a fituation in which the grain has rifen
abfolutely free from this difeafe. He ought next to
exert the greateft care in cleaning out, in the molt
anxious manner, his whole barns and their floors, and
every place within doors into which his grain may
come, and in which difeafed grain has formerly been
kept : with this view it may probably be neceffary to
whitewafh the walls with a mixture of quicklime and
water, which wall prove an effectual remedy. After
having adopted thefe precautions, it may frill be ne¬
ceffary, with a view to fecure a found and full crop,
to plunge the feed into a Itrong pickle of fait and wa¬
ter, with a view to float the lighter grains, which
ought to be flammed off and laid afide for poultry,
to which they may be given after being walked in
frelh water. No future change of feed will be neceffary.
Of the farmers who have adopted this judicious mode of
proceeding, there is no inllance recorded of any one
whofe crop has fuffered by fmut; on the contrary, they
have ufually derived a confiderable profit from becoming
the furnilhers of grain for leed to all their neighbours.
The want of nourilhment in plants may be eafily
known by their decay 5 in which cafe, the only remedy
is, to fupply them with food, according to the methods
D leafes e-we liave already directed, or to remove from their
culiar to^ neighbourhood fuch other plants as may draw off the
nourilhment from thofe we wulh to cultivate.—In the
3
Theory.
Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1728, Mr Difeafes of
Du Hamel mentions a difeafe, which he calls le mart, plants.
that attacks faffron in the fpring. It is owing to an- '
other plant, a fpecies of trefoil, fixing fome violet-
coloured threads, which are its roots, to the roots of
the faffron, and fucking out its juice. This difeafe is
prevented by digging a trench, which faves all the un-
affedled. 106
The bad qualities, and unequal diftribution of the Vegetables
juices of plants, are the occafion of fo few of the difeafes
to which vegetables in this country are fubjeft, that inR‘
we forbear to mention them at prefent. Moll of the
difeafes of our plants are owfing to external accidents,
particularly to the depredations of infedls.—The in-
fedls by which the greateft devalfations are commit¬
ted in this country are, fnails, caterpillars, grubs, and
flies. The fnails and caterpillars feed on the leaves
and young Ihoots; by which means they often totally iCy
deftroy the vegetable. Where the plants are of eafy Infe&s de-
accefs, thefe vermine may be deftroyed by fprinkling ftroyed by^
the vegetable with lime-water ; for quicklime is a mor-lime"wal<“i'
tal poifon to creatures of this kind, and throws them
into the greatelf agonies the moment they are touched
with it. On trees, however, where this method can¬
not fo well be followed, fumigation is the moll pro¬
per ; and, for this purpofe, nothing is better than the
fmoke of vegetables not perfeflly dry. In fome cafes
the eggs of thefe dellroying creatures may be obferved,
and ought without doubt immediately to be taken away.
On the fruit trees, as apples, pears, medlars, on fome
forell trees, the oak and dwarf maple efpecially, and
the white and black thorn in hedges, a kind of little
tufts are to be obferved, refembling at firff fight withered
leaves twilled by a cobweb, about the uppermoft twigs
or branches. Thefe contain a vail number of little
black eggs, that in the fpring produce fwarms of ca¬
terpillars which devour every thing. 1 o prevent this,
all the twigs on which thefe cobwebs appear Ihould be
taken off and burnt as foon as poflible. This ought to
be done before the end of March, that none of the
eggs be allowed fufficient time for hatching. I0g
The grubs are a kind of worms which deftroy the Grubs,
corn by feeding upon its roots; they are transformed
every fourth year into the beetles called cock-chqtfers.
may-bugs, &c. they are very deftruclive when in their
vermicular ftate, and cannot then be deftroyed becaufe
they go deep into the ground. When become beetles,
they conceal themfelves under the leaves of trees,
where they feem afleep till near funfet, when they take
theif flight. It is only now that they can be deftroy¬
ed, and that by a very laborious method ; namely,
by fpreading pack-fheets below7 the trees in the day¬
time when the beetles are in-their torpid ftate, then
fliaking them off and burning them. Some time ago
they made fuch devaftations in the county of Norfolk,
that feveral farmers were entirely ruined by them ; one
gathered 80 bufhels of thefe infects from the trees
which grew7 on his farm. It is faid, that in 1574 there
fell fuch a multitude of thefe infeas into the river
Severn, that they flopped and clogged the wheels of
the wrater-mills. 109
Turnips, when young, are apt to be totally deftroy-Turnip-fly.
ed by a multitude of little black flies, from thence
called the turnip-fly. As a preventive of thefe,
fome advife the feed to be mixed with brimftone; but
this
AGRICULTURE.
Theory. A G R I C U
Difeafes of this Is improper, as brimftone is found to be poifonous
Plants. t0 vegetables. The belt method feems to be the fu-
'—v—*' migation of the fields with {moke of half-dried vegeta-
Prevented ^^es* I'or this purpofe weeds will anfwer as wrell as
b^fumiga- any. This fumigation mult no doubt be often repeat-
tion, See. ed, in order to drive away the innumerable multitudes
of thefe infedls which are capable of deftroying a large
field of turnips.
Some have fuppofed that the fly is either engendered
in new dung, or enticed by it j and have therefore ad-
vifed the manure to be laid on in the autumn preced¬
ing, by which it lofes all its noxious qualities, while
its nutritive ones are retained, notwithftanding thefe
might be fuppofed liable in fome degree to be exhaled
by the fun. This method is faid to have been afeer-
tained by experiments ; and it is added, that another
material advantage accruing from autumn manuring for
turnips is, that all the feeds contained in the dung, and
which of courfe are carried on the land with it, vege¬
tate almort immediately, are moftly killed by the fe-
verity of the winter, and the few that remain feldom
ITI avoid deftru&ion from the ploughfliare.
Various re- The following method of fowing has alfo been re¬
medies a- commended as a preventive of the fly :—“ About
tmif fly6 Midfummer, take the firft opportunity when it rains,
uinp- or there is an apparent certainty of rain approaching,
to fow your turnip feed; if about the full moon, the
better. In this cafe, neither harrow, brulh, nor roll,
after fowing. The natural heat of the ground at that
feafon, and the confequent fermentation occafioned by
copious rain, will give an aftonifhingly quick vegeta¬
tion to the feed, which in a few days will be up and out
of all danger from the fly. At all events, fow not till it
rains j it is better to wait a month, or even longer, for
rain, than to fow (merely for the fake of fowing about
the ufual time) when the ground is parched with heat.
By the fcorching of the fun, the oil and vegetative
quality of the feed are exhaufted *, and the few weak
plants that come up will be deftroyed by the fly before
they can attain ftrength to put forth their rough leaves.
The fly infefts the ground abundantly in dry hot wea¬
ther, but does no injury in rain. The falling rain will
fufficiently wafh the turnip feed into the ground with¬
out harrowing it in } which, inftead of merely cover¬
ing, too often buries this fmall feed at fo great a depth,
as never afterwards to get above ground.”
The following remedies are alio recommended as ha¬
ving often proved fuccefsful :—A fmall quantity of
foot fown over the land at their firfi: appearance.
Branches of elder, with the leaves bruifed, drawn in
a gate over them. Muik mixed with the feed before
it is fown. And fulphur burnt under it, after moiften-
ing it writh water in which tobacco has been fleeped.
But fliowers on the plants, as foon as they appear
above ground, are efteemed the befl: prefervatives.
They enfeeble and kill the fly, and haften the plants
into the rough leaf, in which ftate they are out of
danger.
The fweet fmell of the turnip has been thought to
attratt the fly; upon which fuppofition, the remedy
appeared to confift in overpowering that fmell by one
which is ftrong, fetid, and difagreeable. Hence it has
been recommended, that upon an acre of turnips fown
in the. ufual way, a ,peck or more of dry foot be thrown
Vo l. I. Part I.
L T U R E, 32*
after the ground is finiflied, and in as regular a way as'Difeafesof
he lows tne feed.
Some time ago an infeft, called the corn butterfly, ^
committed fuch ravages while in its vermicular ftate, corn-but-
in France, that upwards of 200 parifhes were ruined terfly.
by it; and the miniftry offered a reward to the difeo-
verer of an effeftual remedy againft this deftroying
worm. The cure which was at laft difeovered was,
to heat the corn in an oven fo much as not to de-
ftroy its vegetative power, but fufticiently to deftroy
the fmall worms which made their neft in the fubftance
of the grain, and at laft ate out the fubftance fo com¬
pletely, that nothing could be got from the hufk even
by boiling it in wrater. It is certain, that though in¬
fers can bear a great deal of cold, they are eafily de¬
ftroyed by a flight degree, of heat 5 nor is the vegeta¬
tive power of corn eafily deftroyed, even when kept for
a long time in a pretty ftrong heat. This method rnuffc
therefore be very effectual for deftroying all kinds of
infefts with which grain is apt to be infefted : but care
muft be taken not to apply too great a heat •, and the
adjufting of the precife degree neceflary to deftroy the
infeft, without hurting the corn, will be attended with
fome difficulty. 113
The curled difeafe in potatoes has long been a fub-Tjie curled
jeft of inveftigation and experiment among farmers :
and the knowledge of its caufe and cure feems yet to1
remain a defideratum. The Agricultural Society at
Manchefter, a few years ago, offered a premium for
difeovering by aftual experiment the caufe of the dif¬
eafe in queftion ; and a great variety of letters were,
in confequence, addreffed to them upon the fubjeft.—
As thefe contain many interefting obfervations both
on the difeafe itfelf and the beft methods hitherto
adopted for preventing it, the following abftraft of them
may not improperly be introduced in this place. 114
I. According to the'writer of the firft letter, this Various
difeafe is caufed by an infeft produced by froft or bad
keeping before fetting; aird the neweft kinds, fuch asPre%enLK Re
have been raifed within thefe nine or ten years, are *
moft apt to curl, becaufe they will not ftand to be kept
in winter and fpring before fetting, as the old kinds
will. In autumn 1776, he got up a bed of potatoes
to lay by in winter, leaving plenty in the ground as
regular as poflible } and, before the feverity of winter
came on, covered part of the bed with ftraw and peafe-
haulm, and left the other part of the bed uncovered.
That part of the bed which was covered was quite free
from curled ones ; but the uncovered part produced a
great many curled, owing, as the writer fays, to froft;
and feverity of the weather.
II. This writer had about a quarter of an acre of
potatoes, well manured with cow and horfe dung, and
took the greateft care in picking the fine fmeoth-ikinned
potatoes for fets \ yet nine out of ten parts were curled.
He attributes the caufe of this difeafe to a white grub
or infeft, which he found near the root, about half an
inch long, with eight or ten legs, its head brown and
hard j as upon examining a number of the curled roots,
he found them all bitten, chiefly from the furface to
the root, which of courfe flopped the progrefs of the
fap, and threw the leaf into a curl. The uncurled
roots were not bitten. He tried a few experiments as
follow :—Firft, he put foot to the infefts in the rows
S f for
Plants.
322 A G R I C U L T U R
D£'raf:s of t‘s,ro ^a>'s '■> an<^ a^er t“at» Fut tv them for fame land at the fame
| the fame time, but they ftill kept lively ; next he put
a little fait, -which deftroyed them in a feiv hours.
From which he infers, that if coarfe fait were put into
the ground at the time the land is preparing for pota¬
toes, it would effectually' cure this diftemper.
III. In this letter, the caufe of the'difeafe is attri¬
buted to the method of earthing the Hems while in cul¬
tivation ; and the branch, ftriking root into the new
earthed-up foil, it is faid, produces potatoes of fuch a
nature as the year following to caufe the difeafe com¬
plained of.
To prevent the difeafe, it is recommended to take
the fets from thcfe potatoes that have not bred any
from the branch covered ; or, otherwife, to dig the part
the fets are to be raifed from.
IV. According to this writer, the diforder proceeds
from potatoes being in old-tilled or worn-out ground j
for though thefe potatoes may look tolerably well, yet
their fets will moftly, if not all, produce curled potatoes.
Hence he is convinced, that no fets ought to be ufed
from old-tilled or couch-grafs land 5 and that, in order
to have good fets, they ihould be procured from land
that was purpofely fallowed for them ; from frefn ley
land, where they are not curled j or from ley land that
was burnt laft fpring. He directs to plant them on
virgin-mould, and the potatoes will have no curled ones
amongft them 5 and to keep them for winter, from any
other kind.
To avoid the uncertainty of getting good fets, he
recommends crabs to be gathered from potatoes grow¬
ing this year on frelh land free from curl, and the next
fpring to fow them on frelh ley land ; and continue to
plant their fets on frelh ley land yearly, which he is
convinced will prevent the curb
All the good potatoes he faw this year, either on
frelh ley land or on old-tilled land, were raifed from
fets that grew upon frelh ley land lall year 5 and where
he has feen curled potatoes, he found, upon inquiry,
the potatoe fets grew upon old-tilled and worn-out land
laft year. He gives as a general reafon for the difor¬
der, that the land is oftener cropt than it had ufed to
be, much more com being now raifed than formerly.
V. In 1772, this writer planted fome potatoes by
accident full nine inches deep : when taken up, many
of the plants were rotted, and a few curled. He kept
the whole produce for feed, and planted two acres with
it in 1773, not quite fix inches deep. The crop was
amazingly great *, and he did not obferve any curled
plants among them. In 1774, many of thefe were
planted in different foils 5 yet they were fo infefted
with the curled difeafe, that not one in twenty efcaped.
In 1775, the complaint of this difeafe became general.
In 1776, it occurred to him that the good crop of
1773 was owing to the accidental deep fetting of
J772 j and that the reafon why the fame feed became
curled in 1774, was their being fet fo near the furface
in 1773 5 an^ attributes the difeafe to the pratllce of
ebb-fetting. In 1777, he took fome potatoes from a
crop that was curled the year before, and after cutting
the fets, left them in a dry room for a month. Half
were planted in ground dug fourteen days before ; the
«ther half, having been fteeped in a brine made of
whitfter’s alhes for two hours, were alfo planted in the
E. Theory.
time. The ffeeped ones came IHeafes of
up ten days before the others, and hardly any miffed P131*5-
or were curled. The unfteeped ones generally failed,
and thofe few that came up were mcftly curled.
He therefore advifed as a remedy, 1. That the po-
tatoes Intended for next year’s fets be planted nine in
dies deep. 2. That they remain in the ground as lonp-
as the feafon will permit. 3. That thefe fets be well
defended from frcft till the beginning of March.
4. That the fets be cut a fortnight before planting.
5. That they be fteeped, as above, two hours in brine
or lye. 6. That the dung be put over the fets. And,
7. That frefh fets be got every year from fandy foils
near the coaft, or on the fhore.
P. S. At planting, the hard dry fets fnould be caft
afide, for they will probably be curled. Curled pota¬
toes always proceed from fets which do not rot or pu¬
trefy in the' ground.
VI. This writer had five drills of the old red pota¬
toes, and four of the winter whites, growing at the
fame time in the fame field. The drills were prepared
exatftly alike. Among the red not one was curled :
the winter whites were nearly all curled. He favs he.
has found by experience, that the red never curl.
VII. Two of the writer’s neighbours had their fets
out of one heap of potatoes. They both fet with the
plough, the one early, and the other late, in the fea¬
fon. Moft of thofe early fet proved curled, and moftf
of thofe fet late ftnooth ; the latter on clay land.
A few roods of land were alfo planted with fmall
potatoes, which had lain fpread on a chamber floor all
the winter and fpring till the middle of May. They
were foft and withered; they proved fmooth and a
good crop. Middle-fized potatoes, withered and foft,
which had been kept in a large dry cellar, and the
fprouts of which had been broken off three times, pro¬
duced alfo a fmooth good crop.
Hence he was led to think a fuperfiuity of fap, oc-
cafioned by the feed being unripe, might caufe the dif¬
eafe. To be fatisfied in this, he alked the farmer whe¬
ther he had fet any of the fame potatoes this year, and
what was the nature of his land ? He told him “ he
had ; that they had been fet on his farm fourteen years
without ever curling j that his foil was a poor wh'itifti
fand, of little depth j that he let thofe he defigned for
keeping grow till they were fully ripe.”
Hence he concludes, the only fure way to prevent
the curl is, to let potatoes intended for feed ftand till
they are fully ripe, and to keep them dry all winter.
VIII. This writer fet a quantity of the red potatoes,
without having a curled one amongft them. His me¬
thod is, when the fets are cut, to pick out fuch as are
reddeft in the infide. On digging them up at Mi¬
chaelmas, he mixes none of the curled feed among the
others. The curled are eafily diftinguiftred, by their
ftalks withering two months before the reft of the.
crop.
The caufe of the curled difeafe he attributes to po¬
tatoes being of late years produced from feed inftead
of roots, as formerly. Such will not ftand good more
than two or three years, ufe what method you pleafe.
Laft fpring, he fet the old reel and white ruffets, and
had not a curled potatoe amongft them.
On the lime-ftone land about Denbigh, in North
Wales,
Theory
Diftafes of
Plants.
A G R I
Wales, tliey liave no curled potatoes. If this be ow¬
ing to the nature of that land, perhaps lime might pre¬
vent the dii’eafe.
IX. According to this writer, all forts of grain
wear out and turn wild if fown too long on the lame
land , the fame will hold good in all forts of pulfe,
peafe, beans, and (as he conceives) potatoes. It ge¬
nerally happens, that thofe who have molt curled po¬
tatoes plant very fmall fets.
Eleven years ago he bought a parcel of frefh fets, of
the golden-dun kind, and has ufed them without change
to tire prefent year, without any being curled. This
he principally attributes to his having always planted
good large fets.
About four years fmce, he thought of changing his
fets, as his potatoes were too fmooth, too round, and
touch diminifhed in fize. But the curl at that time
beginning to be vary alarming, he continued his fets
till part of his crop miffing lalt year, he was obliged to
buy new fets this fpring, which, being fmall, were curled
like other people’s.
lie allows, that the curl has frequently happened to
..perfons who have ufed large potatoes for fets ; for, as
all roots are not equally affetted, fome curled ones may
be mixed with the reft.
To prevent the evil, cut your fets from clear and
ndddle-fized potatoes, gathered from places as clear of
the curl as poffible preferve them as ufual till fpring.
If any are harder, or grafh more in cutting than ufual,
caff them afide. He would alfo recommend the raifing a
frefh fort from the crab produced on the forts leaft affeft-
ed, which in Lancafhire are the long-duns.
X. Set potatoes with the fprits broke off, and they
will (fays the writer of this letter) be curled ones ; if
let with the fprits on, they will not be curled. Again,
take a potatoe which is fprit, and cut a fet off with two
ffghts: break one fprit off, and let the other ftay ®n,
and fet it j the former will be curled, and the latter
will not.
When you have holed your potatoes, take them out
before they are fprit, and lay them dry until you have
fet or fown them, and you will have no curled pota¬
toes.
XL This writer was at the expence of procuring
fets at fifty miles dirtance, and where this diieafe was
not known. The firil: year’s trial was fuccefsful; the
year following he procured fets from the fame place,
but one-fifth of his crop was infecled. By way of ex¬
periment, he planted fets from roots which had been
infecled the year before, and fome of thefe produced
healthy plants, free from all infeclion.
As every effe<ff muff have a caufe, he fuppofed it
plight be fome infect, which, living on the leaves, gave
them that curled and fickly appearance, as is the cafe
in the leaves of many fhrubs and trees. But whether
the infecl is lodged in the'oldfets, and to be deftroyed
at the time of planting, or, proceeding from fome ex¬
ternal caufe, can only be deftroyed afterwards, he is
not yet certain, although he has made the following
experiments.
On a piece of ground that had not been dug for 20
years, he planted four rows of fets, which he knew to
be perfecfly clear ; the drills were two feet diftant, the
fets one foot diftant in each drill. He then planted
on the fame ground four rows with fets from curled
CULTURE.
323
potatoes,
20 fets.
at equal diftances ; in each row were about Bheaies pr.
Plants.
Lot tft, The curled fets.
N* 1. Without manure, I N° 3. In foot,
.2. In fait, j 4. In quicklime.
Lot 2d, The clear fets.
N° 1. Without manure,
2. In fait,
N°
In foot,
In quicklime.
Thofe planted in fait and foot in both lots were de“
ftroyed. In Lot ift, N° 1. and 4. all curled. Lot 2d>
N° 1. and 4. quite clear.
This experiment was made on a luppofition that the
infeft lodged in the fet, and mull be deftroyed on plant¬
ing. But of that he is not fully fatisfied. He re¬
peated fait, foot, and quicklime, on the branches of
feveral curled potatoes. Salt deftroyed all he touched
with it. Lime and foot had, he thought, a partial ef¬
fect on the plants. After fome time, they appeared
almoft as healthy as the reft. Tims', although he had
done little towards the cure, he flatters himfelf he has
pointed out the caufe, the infefls on the curled plants
being not ofily very numerous, but vifible to the naked
eye.
XII. This w'riter aferibes the caufe of the difeafe
•to the froft, and bad keeping in winter and fpring be¬
fore fetting. They are liable to be damaged by froft
after they are fet j but this may be prevented by co¬
vering. If it be alked, why froft did not injure them
formerly ? he anfwers, it is only the h ew kinds which
are apt to curl. To this may be added, that lefs care
is now taken of the feed than formerly. To prevent
the latter, let them remain in the ground covered with
haulm or litter till the time they are wanted for fet¬
ting : and, in cafe no froft touches them afterwards,
they will be free from the difeafe.
XIII. This writer fays, the red potato was as gene¬
rally planted as the winter white and the Lincolnlhire
kidney are now. The firft, being a later potato, did
not fprout fo early as the others. The white fprout
very early, and therefore Ihould firft be moved out of
the place where they have been preferved in the winter.
Inftead of that, they are often let remain till their
roots and fprouts are matted together. On feparating
them, thefe fprouts are generally rubbed off, and they
are laid by till the ground is ready j during which in¬
terval they fprout a fecond time : but thefe fecond
fprouts, being weak and languid, will Ihrink, ficken,
and die ; and the fruit at the roots will be fmall, hard,
ill-lhaped, and of a brown colour.
Notv, if putting off' the fprouts once or more, be¬
fore the fets are put in the ground, be the caufe (as
he verily believes it is) of the curled difeafe, an eafy
remedy is at hand. When the potatoes intended for
fets are dug up, lay them in a weft afpe£t as dry as
poffible : in fuch a fituation they will not fprout fo
fcon. 1'he beft time for removing moft forts, is the
firft fine day after the 24th of February. Gut them
into fets as foon as poftible, and let them remain co¬
vered with dry fand till the ground is prepared, which
fhould be a winter fallow. Lay the fets in without
breaking off any oi the fprouts, for the fecond will not
be fo vigorous. This accounts for one fprout out of
three from the fame fet being curled. The two Items
not curled rofe from two later eyes, and were firft
S f 2 fprouts.
Plants.
324
I)^?afcs of- ^Prou{:s* The fprout curled was a fecond, the firft ha¬
ving been rubbed off.
XIV. This writer fays, that laft fpring one of his
neighbours cut and fet, in the ufual way of drilling,
fome loads of the largeft potatoes he could procure }
and more than half of them, proved curled. Being a
few fets fhort of the quantity wanted, he planted fome
very fmall potatoes which he had laid by for the pigs.
Thefe being fully ripe and folid, there was not a
curled plant among them. He apprehends, the others
being curled was owing to their not being fully ripe.
A crop of potatoes, fet this year in rows on ground
.that had borne a crop of them laft year, were moftly
-curled ; but many plants came up from feed left in th«
ground laft feafon, and there was not a curled one
among them.
XV. Of late years, this writer fays, great improve¬
ments have been made in fetting potatoes and cutting
the fets. The ground is dreffed cleaner and dunged
ftronger. Many people, in drilling, wrap up the fets
entirely in the dung 5 by which means, though their
potatoes are larger, the difeafe feems to be increafed.
They alfo cut their fets out of the richeft and largeft
potatoes, which is perhaps another caufe of this evil.
■In cold countries, where they fet their own feed,
which has grown on poor land, with lefs dung, they
have no curled plants. On the contrary, when they
bought rich and large potatoes for feed, they have
been curled in great quantities. He believes, the
richnefs and largenefs of the feed to be the caufe of
the evil; for he does not remember to have feen a
curled ftem which did not fpring from a fet of a large
potato.
XVI. This writer apprehends the curled difeafe in
potatoes to proceed from a defeft in the planta femina-
lis, or feed plant; and from comparing curled ones
with others, there appeared to be a want of, or ina¬
bility in, the powers of expanding or unfolding the
parts of the former ; which, from this defedt, forms
fhrivelled, ftarved, curled ftems. On examining fome
of the fets at the time of getting the crop, he found
them hard and undecayed 5 fo hard, indeed, that fome
of them would not be foft with long boiling. This
led him to think, that fome manures might have the
fame effedt on them as tanners ooze has on leather,
and fo harden them, that the embryo plant could not
come forth with eafe 5 but a clofer examination taught
him otherwife, and that they grow equally in all ma¬
nures.
Some have thought that the fermentation is occa-
fioned by too great quantities being heaped together j
but the writer has feen an inftance, wherein a tingle
potato, preferved by itfelf, wdien fet, produced ftems
of the curled kind. He thinks the moft conliftent and
rational opinion is, that the difeafe is occaftoned by
the potatoes being taken from the ground before the
ftamen, or miniature plant, is properly matured and
ripened.
For let it be obferved, that the potato, being a na¬
tive of a warmer climate, has there more fun, and a
longer continuance in the ground, than in its prefent
exotic ftate 5 confequently it has not the fame natural
caufes here to mature the feed plant as in its native
ftate. We ought, therefore, to give all the opportu¬
nities our climate will admit for nature to complete
AGRICULTURE.
Theory.
her work, and fit the ftamen for the next ftate cf ve- Biftafes-of
getation, efpecially in thole intended for feed. But if Plants,
the potato be taken up before the feed-plant be fully '
matured, or the air and lap veffels have acquired a pro¬
per degree of firmnefs or hardnefs, it muft, when thus
robbed of further nutrition, Ihrivel up 5 and when the
veffels, in this immature ftate, come to act again in
the fecond ftate of vegetation, they may produce plants
which are curled.
If it be alked, why are they more common now
than formerly ? he anfwers, that before the prefent
mode of fetting them took place, people covered them,
while in the ground, with ftraw, to protect them from
frolt.
If it be alked, why one fet produces both curled and
fmooth ftems ? he anfwers, we fuppofe every eye to
contain a planta feminalis; that all the embryos, or
feed plants, contained in one potato, are nouriftied by
one root 5 and that, as in ears of corn, fome of thefe feed
plants may be nourilhed before others.
One of his neighbours, laft year, fet tvco rows of
potatoes, which proving all curled, he did not take
them up } and this year there is not a curled one
among them. Such potatoes, therefore, as are defign-
ed for feed, Ihould be preferved as long in the ground
as poftible.
XVII. This waiter advifes fuch fets to be planted
as grow in mofs land ; and, he fa^s, there will not be
a lingle curled one the firft year. This is affirmed by
the inhabitants of two townlhips, wrhere they grow
amazing quantities. A medical gentleman fowed laft
year two bulhels of fets from one of the above places,
and had not one curled; but on fowing them again
this year, he had a fewn
Notwithftanding there feems to be a diverfity of
opinions in the above writers, occalioned by the diffe¬
rent appearances of their crops, and the feemingly
contrary efteSs of the means ufed to prevent or cure
the difeafe, we conceive that the following general
propofitions may be fairly drawn from the whole.
1. That fome kinds of potatoes are {cceteris paribus')
much more liable to be affedfted by the difeafe than
the reft 5 and that the old-red, the golden-dun, .and
the long-dun, are the moft free from it.— 2. That the
difeale is occaftoned by one or more of the following
caufes, either ftngly or combined : ift. By froft, either
before or after the fets are planted : 2d, From planting
fets out of large unripe potatoes : 3d, From planting too
near the furface, and in old worn-out ground: 4th, From
the firft ffioots of the fets being broken off before
planting •, by which means there is an incapacity in
the planta fetninafis to fend forth others fufficiently
vigorous to expand fo fully as they ought.—3. That
the moft fuccefsful methods of preventing the dif¬
eafe, are cutting the fets from fmooth middle-fized po¬
tatoes, that were fully ripe, and had been kept dry af¬
ter they were taken out of the ground ; and without
rubbing off their firft (hoots, planting them pretty deep
in frefh earth, with a mixture of quicklime, or on lime-
ftone land.
A correfpondent of the Bath Society is convinced,
that, whatever may be its caufe, the fault itfelf is inhe¬
rent in the feed ; and has communicated the following
method of avoiding it: “I made a hot-bed in the fol¬
lowing manner (which method I have ufed ever fince):
I
Hlftory. AGRICULTURE. 325
Difeafes of I laid horfe hung, See. (as is generally ufed in making
Plants, hot-beds), about 18 inches thick j over which I fpread
a layer of fine rich mould about four or five inches
thick: upon the top of this mould I laid, in different
divifions, a certain number of potatoes of various forts,
fome of my own growth, and others bought from dif¬
ferent parts, and covered thefe lightly over with more
mould*, they foon came up. I then obferved which
was freeft from the blight or curl •> for if there were not
more than one defective in forty or fofoy, I concluded I
might fet of that fort with fafety. This method I
have now praclifed near twelve years, and never loft
my crop, or any part thereof worth mentioning j whilft
my neighbours, who followed the old method,, were
frequently difappointed in their crops ; and to the beft
of my knowledge, all thofe of my neighbours who have
of late been perfuaded to take the trouble of ufing the
fame means as myfelf, hawe never failed of fuccefs to
their utmoft wifhes in one inftance j nor do I ever think
it will fail, if duly attended to ; the fault being fome
hidden caufe in the feed unknown at prefent, and I be¬
lieve incurable by any means, at leaft which have yet
come to my knowledge. My reafon for planting my
hot-beds fo foon is, that if the froft hinder the firft
experiment, or they all prove bad, I may have time to
make a fecond or third, if neceffary, with different forts
of feed, before the proper feafon arrives for planting
in the fields and grounds appointed for the great and
general crops.”
In addition to the interefting information upon this
fubjeft, which has been obtained by means of thefe
focieties, various other fpeculations about the caufe
and cure of this difeafe have of late been introduced
*%Imer'r t0 the notice of the public. In particular it has been
* ftrongly urged, that the dxfeafe is almoft always occa-
fioned by infedls. It is faid, that on looking at the
roots of fuch potatoes as grow up curled, it will ufu-
ally be found, that the bearing plant is devoured and
excavated by fnails, centipedes, or beetles. Sometimes
alfo, though more rarely, the curl is fuppofed to arife
from the leaves themfelves being infefted with mi¬
nute animalcula. Hence, in rich foils in the neighbour¬
hood of cities and well manured gardens, the potatoes
are moft fubjedf to the curl, becaufe fuch infefts as
devour the feed abound moft in thefe foils. The in¬
fers are thought to prefer one potato to another.
They will hardly touch a yam. A potato from a late
part of the country, which has been hardly ripened,
the vermin do not feem to like ; but a potato that has
been fomewhat fweetened or mellowed by the froft, is
fuppofed to be greedily devoured by them.
An ingenious notion concerning the caufe of the
difeafe has been fuggefted from attending to the hifto-
ry of the plant in this country. The potato plant was
introduced into the ifland @f Great Britain from a cli¬
mate much warmer than ours, as early as the reign of
Queen Elizabeth; but it is a Angular circumftance,
that the curled difeafe did not make its appearance till
Tranfaa w!t^u le^s t^an 4° years ag°* Indeed, the difeafe is
Soc.for to. ^ave hrft occurred in the year 1764, in the
couragement vtx'I diftridl of Lancafhire where potatoes had been
vol. firft cultivated. It is alfo faid, that the Surinam po-
viii. tato and fome other kinds which have been more re¬
cently introduced into our climate, have never yet
exhibited any fymptom of the curl. It is farther faid,
that till within thefe 40 years the potato plant never Difrafes of
brought its feeds to maturity in this country, though plants*
the roots were in full perfection. That the Surinam J v u”"*
potato and others lately introduced do not as yet pro¬
duce perfedt feeds at the top of their ftem; and that
potatoes, which have been cultivated for a length of
time in bleak and mountainous fituations, are ftill in
the fame ftate, and do not bring their feeds to matu¬
rity. Hence it is endeavoured to be inferred, that
there exifts a eonnexion in the nature of the plant be¬
tween this difeafe and the ftate of maturity to which
the feed is brought. It is fuppofed, that the plant is
unfit at once to afford mature and perfect feed at the
fummit of its ftem, and alfo roots capable of propa¬
gating it in perfection. From thefe premifes it is fug¬
gefted, that, to prevent the curl, it will be neceffary
to procure feed potatoes from mountainous fituations
into which the difeafe has not yet come, becaufe the
plant has never produced perfect fruit at the fummit
of its ftem 5 or an attempt may be made to procure
more perfect feed from the ordinary kind of potatoes, by
deftroying the flowers, which may have the effeCl to
prevent the plant from being exhaufted by bringing
to maturity both fruit at its fummit and roots at its
bottom. Laftly, It has been fuppofed, upon thefe
principles, that the difeafe may be prevented by rear¬
ing potatoes from the feed produced at the fummit of
the ftem j the mode of praftifing which will afterwards
be explained.
In the mean time, it may be obferved, that the fub-
jeCl has been farther difcuffed, in a lefs fpeculative
manner, by an anonymous correfpondent of the Board
of Agriculture *. This gentleman does not confider the * Communl*
curl as a fpecific difeafe, but as an accidental debility cation to the-
of thofe plants in which it occurs; that we are not, vol.
therefore, to feek for a cure or preventive in a change u*
of feed alone, as many have all along done, but in
complete attention to all that experience {hows to be
neceflary to an accurate culture, and to their perfedl
growth. In this way alone, he thinks, there is reafon to
expeft that this very ufeful article of human food may be
cultivated with the fame fuccefs as before its dreadful
enemy the curl made fuch havoc in our crops, as of
late years it certainly has done. He defcribes the difeafe
as occuring, in Mid-Lothian, moft frequently from the
following caufes: ift, From planting potatoes on foils al¬
together unfit for them. Being unable to penetrate a ftiff
foil, potatoes .require a light, pervious, or open mould.
For a long period after potatoes firft appeared in the
country, this circumftance was carefully attended to.
They were planted entirely with the fpade,in the lighteft
fpots upon every farm. Hence, the plants rofe vigo¬
rous, and no curl wTas feen ; but on farmers wiftiing to
extend the culture of potatoes, they wTere tempted to
plant them on every foil, without regard to its nature,
or tendency to produce this crop, idly, Imperfect
culture is defcribed as a frequent caufe of curling. A
crop of potatoes is commonly ftrong, abundant, and
free from curl, in proportion to the previous culture
given to the foil, and the care taken to keep it clean,
after they are planted. Hence, it frequently happens,
that while a farmer who cultivates this root in a negli¬
gent manner, and upon a great fcale, by means of the
plough, finds his crop deficient in confequence of
this difeafe, his cottars and fervants, to whofe ufe he
allots
326 A G R I C
.Dife^esof allots fmall portions of potato ground, which they
, " cultivate with the fpade, obtain crops free from curl,
■ r v and often double in quantity to his, in proportion to
the extent of ground which they occupy, ^dly, Small
roots, or too finall a portion cut off along with the eye,
that is to ferve for feed, appears to be a caufe of curl.
In the cafe of grain, it feldom happens, unlefs in very
fine feafons, that Imall feed produces a large crop •, and
it is thought that fomething fimilar may occur in the
cafe of potatoes. As the young plant mull always de¬
rive its earlieft nourilhment from the root, out of which
it fprings, before it is capable of feeking its food in the
furrounding foil, thofe plants, whofe early growth is
heft fupported and foftered, mull be expe&ed to reach
the greatell perfeclion. To fubjefl thefe ideas to the tell
of experiment, 64 fets w'ere planted ; 16 of which were
full grown potatoes, 16 from fmall roots, in which no
curl appeared when in the field, 16 from roots railed
from the feeds two years before, and 16 from roots of
plants flrongly curled. They were all planted in the
lame manner, in a light foil, in parallel furrow’s, with
a moderate .quantity of dung, and covered to the depth
of three inches. Of thofe taken frdm large potatoes,
none were curled, and the plants Were llrong and
healthy. Some good plants appeared in each of the other
rows, but nearly a half of the whole were curled. The
proportion of curled plants wTas rather greatell in thofe
tailed from the feed. 4thly, Sets taken from roots
that have fprouted early, and from which the germs
have been rubbed, are faid never to fail to produce
curl. Jthly, Too much, as well as too little dung,
appears to have an influence in producing curl 5 the
firil probably by corrupting the germ of the young
plant, the latter by not being fufficient to produce vi¬
gorous plants. Hehce, attention ought to be paid to
the regular fpreading of dung, which ought not to be
throwm about in a carelefs and llovenly manner, which
allows fome plants to have none, while others are co¬
vered with it to the depth of feveral inches. Cthly, Too
deep, as well as too {hallow planting, gives rife to the
curl. To afcertain the proper depth, 12 were planted
at 18 inches deep 5 the fame number at the depth of
16 inches, and of 14, 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and
2 inches; and 12 were fo lightly covered, that they
were not, perhaps, at the depth of one inch. The
fets were all from large roots, of the fame crop, cut as
nearly as polhble of the fame fize. They were all
planted at the fame time, in the firil week of April, in
a light dry foil, and they all got the fame quantity of
dung. The plants at the depth of 1 and 2 inches ap¬
peared firil; but they were weak, and fome of them
curled. Thofe at 3, 4, and 5 inches, -were all llrong,
and free from curl. At 6 and 7 inches, they were alfo
healthy, and free from curl, but they were three weeks
later in getting above the ground than thofe that were
thinly covered, and the plants were neither fo llrong,
nor the roots fo large. Thofe planted at the depth of
8 inches rofe Hill later, and were all weak.—Nine out
of the 12 were curled. Of thofe planted at 10 inches
. deep, only four appeared; and they were fo weak,
that they foon withered and died. Of thofe deeper
planted, none ever appeared. On digging them up at
the end of two months, thofe at 16 and 18 inches deep
w ere found unchanged ; while fome of thofe at the
depth of 12 and 14 inches, had put forth fome feeble
U L T U R E: Theory.
germs not exceeding the length ox an inch. Thofe Diieaf t. w?
planted at 3 and 4 inches were evidently the ftrongeft
during the whole feafon, and their roots larged. Hence,'
to procure an early, abundant, and healthy crop, 3 in¬
ches appears to be the.bed depth for planting potatoes,
ythly, Whatever injures the new fets or the germs af¬
terwards may produce curl: fuch as the trampling of
horfes feet at the time of planting; their being par¬
tially covered with dones or hard clods of earth; deep
harrowing, when the young fhoots are advancing ; and
grubs, fnails, or infers attacking the germs at fird, or
the Items afterwards. Hence, 8thly, The curl was pro¬
duced to an uncommon degree upon a field of did land,
by palling a roller over it, about a fortnight after plant-
ing. 9^7* The date of the weather when the crop
.is young may produce the curl. Rain alone will not
do fo, if it be not allowed to lodge ; but a long con¬
tinuance of dry w’eather, efpecially with cold winds,
when the fhoots fir’ll appear, is apt to produce this
difeafe, and alfo hoar-frods in this early date of the
crop. Hence, it is thought, that the three fird weeks
of April anfwer bed for planting potatoes in the fouth
of Scotland and north of England, as they do not, in
that cafe, appear till the middle or end of May. From
all thefe remarks it is concluded, that though with the
bed management the curl can never be completely ba-
nilhed from our fields, yet with due attention to the
leading points above mentioned, it may be prevented
from being attended with any ferious mifehief.
As no information upon this intereding fubjefl
ought to be overlooked, W’e think it neceffary to date,
that the following plan for preventing the curl in po¬
tatoes has very recently been laid before the public,
by an anonymous correfpondent of the publilhers of
the Farmer’s Magazine, who afferts, that he has adopt¬
ed it with complete luccefs. It confids of ufing for
feed what are called potato beans. Thefe beans are a
dark browm excrefcence, larger than a horfe bean,
which grows near the ground, on the haulm or diaw,
generally, it is fuppofed, where it has been broken or
■wounded. They are Ihaped like potatoes, and have a
number of eyes, from one of which grow’ two fmall
leaves. It is faid, that eight or ten years ago, feveral
of thefe potato beans were planted merely t© try if
they would grow, and that they produced a great
number of common fized potatoes, but of a bad qua¬
lity. Thefe potatoes, however, being cut and planted
next year, produced potatoes of an excellent quality,
and in great plenty. Since that time, a number ot
beans have always been planted fufficient to produce
enough of potatoes for next year’s feed. They are
planted at the fame diilance, and treated In every re.;
fpecl in the lame manner with common fets ; and their
produce is equally plentiful. No other change of feed
has ever been necefiary.
Sect. VIII. Of the Olfbacles to Agricultural Im~/
prove ment>
Before proceeding to the pra£ical part of the fub- Moral »n4
jedl, it may be proper to take notice of fome of the
moral and political circumftances which refill the pro- to
gtefs of the art of agriculture, and which ought not to
be overlooked by perfons engaged, or who have an in- mtnt
tention to engage in it.
One
ture.
Theory'. A G & I C
Obftaeles One of the firft alid moft obvlcus obftacles to the
to Agricul-improvement of this or of any other art coniifls of the
ignorance of its practitioners, or of its being carried on
by perfons of an illiterate and unintelligent charafter,
who are unable to take a comprehenfive view of the
principles of their profefiion, or who have not fufficient
curiolity to inquire after the belt modes of practice, or
underltanding to difcern the value of any new prac¬
tices that are explained to them. It ought never to
be forgotten, that the art of the hufbandman is an in¬
tricate and extenfive one, and that one of the chief
circumftances which has hitherto prevented its im¬
provement has anfen, as already mentioned, from the
fecluded fituation of perfons engaged in it. They are
fcattered over the face of the country, inftead of being
collected together like other artifts in towns, fo .as to
be enabled to derive aid from each other’s experience.
Fortunately this difficulty is palling away, in confe-
quence of the diffufion of agricultural knov> ledge, by
means of the great number of publications upon that
fubjedf which are gradually introducing themfelves in¬
to the remoteff corners of the country. Perfons re¬
ceiving a liberal education, particularly at the univer-
fity of Edinburgh, have now alfo an eafier opportuni¬
ty than formerly of acquiring a knowledge of the prin¬
ciples of this art, in confequence of the eifablifhment
of a profefforfhip of agriculture, which has been en¬
dowed by a private gentleman, Mr Pulteney. Even
with ail thefe advantages, however, aided as they are
by the exertions of the Board of Agriculture, it can
never be expected that this art can reach its ultimate
degree of perfeftion, unlefs a confiderable number of
the perfons engaged in It are men of intelligent cha-
rafters and good education, who will call in the im¬
provements which are making in other fciences as
well as in this art in diftant countries, to the aifiilance
of their perfonal experience. /
A fecond obllacle to agricultural improvement con-
fifts of the poverty of the hufbandman, or of his want
of capital, to enable him fully and completely to la¬
bour the foil, and provide materials for its ameliora¬
tion'. Complaints have often been made with little
reafop, of the obftmacy of farmers, and of the tena¬
cious manner in which they adhere to old praftices,.
though demonftrated to be improper : But a poor man
cannot afford to make experiments, or to hazard the
iofs of a crop for the chance of obtaining a more va¬
luable one by fome untried praftice. In confequence
of want of capital, large portions of territory remain in
fome parts of the country in a date of nature, and con-
fequently unprodu&ive, both to the occupier and to
the proprietor. Both landlords and tenants, there¬
fore, ought to know, that a man who engages in agri¬
culture without a fufRcxent capital takes up a bad trade,
in which fomething may be loll by both parties by the
deterioration both of the foil and of the flock upon it,
but from which neither the. public nor themfelves can
derive profit;
A third obftacle to agricultural improvement fome-
times arifes from the polfelfor of the foil not having a
fufficient interefl in it. In barbarous nations,, lands
are often poffeffed by communities as an undivided
property, without any individual member having an
exclufive right to a particular fpot. In fuch cafes, the
word kind of agriculture mud always prevail, for the
lame reafon that public affairs are always worfe mana-
U L i u iv ii.
ged than the affairs of private perfons-, who find their OM
indudry dimulated not merely by a fenfe or duty, butt0 ‘
by the influence of avarice, and of all the other felfifh w
padions. Conliderable portions of territory in Eng¬
land dill remain withheld from the exertions of an im¬
proving agriculture by this date of property. But,,
even where the intered which the cultivator has in the
foil is exclufive, it may dill be too limited. Where a
landlord is prevented by an entail, or other family fet-
tlement, or by narrorv prejudices and a diort-fighted
policy, from granting leafes of a proper endtiranee, it
is never likely that the foil can be well cultivated.
Every outgoing farmer will endeavour, during the lait
years of his leafe, to do as little for the land as pof-
dble, and to take from it all that he can pofhbly ob¬
tain. The fird years of every new leafe will there¬
fore be fpent by every new farmer in repairing the da¬
mage done by his predeceffor. Scarcely, however, has
he accomplidied this object, than he himfelf, ii his
leafe be diort, mud fet about procuring, indemnity for
the money he has laid out in ameliorating the foil, by
fcourging it in his turn, or by taking from it as hea^ y
crops as podible, and by bedowing upon it little or no
expence.
Under the fame head of a want of proper intered in
the foil, may be enumerated the payment of tithes, dfi
which in England every farmer fo grievoudy complains.
Whatever money the hufbandtnan may there lay out
in improvements, is not expended for himfelf; as the
proprietor of the tithes is entitled to draw a fhare of
the whole additional mcreafe, and thus becomes a part¬
ner in the profits of the enterprife, without running any
rifk of lofs by its failure. The odium of this tax, is.
faid to induce 'great numbers of hufbandmeit to con¬
tinue their lands in padurage, to the no fmall detri¬
ment of the public, from the comparative unproduc-
tivenefs of human food, which attends that mode of
occupying the foil. Fortunately in Scotland this evil
hath been removed, by the wifdom of our forefathers,,
as every landlord poffeffes the privilege of obtaining
his tithes to be fixed at a fettled rate of payment for
ever •, and, in many cafes, of having his- lands altoge¬
ther difburdened, upon payment of a very moderate
price.
The progrefs of the art of agriculture in Europe
was long retarded by the want of relpeclability which
attended it,, when engaged in as a profedion or trade
from which profit was to be derived. In the feudal
times, the military profedion was the only employment
in which a layman of liberal education could re-
fpeftably engage. Agriculture, the only art which is
abfolutely neceiTary to the exidence of man, was re¬
garded with contempt, and left in the hands of the
meaned of the people. Even the mod ordinary me¬
chanics were confidered as fuperior to perfons whoie
employment it was y becaufe the mechanic, redding in
a town, and ufually under the protect ion of the prince,
was fafe from the dominion and the infults of the petty
chieftans that ruled in every part of the open country.
The date of affairs is now greatly altered in this refpeft:
More enlightened views, and a better date of fociety,
have redored to the profedion of agriculture the re-
fpeftability which naturally belongs to it. It mud be
acknowledged, however, that the recent improvements
which have taken place in the art, have contributed not a
little to this change jn tb? fentitnents of mankind con¬
cerning
328
Obftacles cerning tlie perfons occupied in it. It is now found,
t0 1ureCUl"that a man may become rich by agriculture, and that
.there are few better ways in which a prudent and in-
duftrious man can lay out a moderate capital. In a
commercial age, the path that leads to wealth is al¬
ways refpefted and accounted honourable, and accord¬
ingly it is now not unufual for the fons of Britilh noble¬
men and gentlemen, of extenlive fortunes, to become
apprentices to farmers.
The laft obftacle to agricultural improvements, of
which we fhall take notice, arifes in fome countries
from the want of judicious legiflation, or proper arrange¬
ments made by the public in its favour. The produce
of the art of the hulbandman, and the manures of which
his lands have occalion, are all bulky commodities
which cannot be tranfported without labour and ex¬
pence. Unlefs care is taken, therefore, to prepare and
Practice.
maintain good roads throughout the country, the pro- Obftacles
fits of agriculture muft always be fubjetted to fuch de-t0 Agriciil-
ductions as will greatly retard its profperity. In the turc‘
fame manner, if the ftate, from any narrow policy,
fhall prevent the hulbandman from bringing his goods
to the bed market, by exportation or otherwife, it is
impoffible that his art can tlouriih. In former times,
nations were afraid to permit the exportation of grain,
even in feafons of plenty, left they fliould be left with¬
out food, not confidering that the fureft mode of pro¬
ducing abundance of any commodity conftfts in offer¬
ing, at all times, a good price for it. This error is
now rectified in moft nations; and at all events, in
the prelent ftate of affairs, the Britifh hufbandman
has no reafon to complain, as the grain reared in this
country is, even in the belt feafons, underftood to be
inadequate to afford fubfiftence to its inhabitants.
AGRICULTURE.
PRACTICE OF AGRICULTURE.
I id
Divifionof rT''HE practice of agriculture naturally divides itfelf
the iubject. X int0 three parts j ift, The cultivation of vege¬
table food for men and animals $ zdly, The cultiva¬
tion of vegetables, fuch as flax and hemp, which are
more properly articles pf commerce j and 3dly, The
rearing and management of animals. To thefe we
fhall add, as connected with all the branches of agri¬
culture, a fhort ftefcription of the moft ufeful modes
of fencing and enclofmg lands for cattle and other
objefts of hufbandry.
PART I. OF THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLE FOOD.
117.
Cultivation WE fhall confider this branch of the fubject under
ot vegeta- four flivjfions. In the firft we fhall prefent to the
into fouj ea reader a ftatement of the moft ufeful inftruments of
branches, agriculture : zdly, We fhall ftate the mode of pre¬
paring land for cropping, by removing the phyfical
obftructions to agriculture, and reducing the foil into
a proper ftate ; 3dly, We ftiall explain the culture of
particular plants, and the pra&ices of hulbandry con-
necled with it } and, laftly, We fhall ftate the princi¬
ples and operations of the horfehoeing, or drill huf-
fcandry.
Sect I. Injlruments of Hujbandry,
The inftruments employed in agriculture are vari¬
ous } as the plough, the harrow, the roller, &c. which
are again diverfified by various conftructions adapted
to particular ufes.
1. Of Ploughs.
iiS
Theplough. The plough, is a machine for turning up the foil by
the action of cattle, contrived to fave the time, labour,
and expence, which, without this inftrument, muft
have been employed in digging the grouAd, and fitting
it for receiving all forts of feed.
Amidft all the varieties which can occur in the man¬
ner of ploughing the ground, arifing from difference of
foil, local habits, and other caufes, there is ftill a fame-
nefs in the talk which gives a certain uniformity to the
I19 chief parts of the inftrument, and fhould therefore fur-
An inftru- nifh principles for its conftru&ion. There is not, per-
ment of thehapS) any invention of man that more highly merits our
yreateft endeavours to bring it to perfeftion ; but it has
been too much neglefled by thofe perfons who ftudy
2
machines, and has been confidered as a rude tool, un¬
worthy of their attention. Any thing appears to them
iiufticient for the clumfy talk of turning up the ground j
and they cannot imagine that there can be any nicety
in a bufinefs which is fuccefsfully performed by the ig¬
norant peafant. Others acknowledge the value of the
machine, and the difficulty of the fubjecl j but they
think that difficulty infuperable, becaufe the operation
is fo complicated, and the refiftances to be overcome
fo uncertain, or fo little underftood, that we cannot
difcover any unequivocal principle, and muft look for
improvement only from experience or chance.
But thefe opinions are ill founded. The difficulty
is indeed great, and it is neither from the ignorant
farmer nor the rude artift that we can expe£l improve¬
ment. It requires the ferious confideration of the
moft accompliffied mechanician } but from him wre may
expeft improvement. We have many data : we knowr ancj may
pretty diftinftly what preparation will fit the ground be improv-
for being the proper receptacle for the feed, and foreik
fupporting and nourifhing the plants 5 and though it
is, perhaps, impoffible to bring it into this ftate by
the operation of any inftrument of the plough kind,
we know that fome ploughs prodigioufly. excel others
in reducing the ftiff ground to that uniform crumbling
ftate in which it can be left by the fpade. The im¬
perfections of their performance, or what yet remains
to be done to bring the ground into this ftate, is di-
ftinftly underftood. It feems, then, a determinate
problem (to ufe the language of mathematicians), be¬
caufe the operation depends on the invariable laws of
mechanical nature. I2I
It will therefore be very proper under this article, The taik
to afcertain, if poffible, what a plough in general ought it perform',
to
of
Hufbandry
Plate VI.
122
General
form of
the plough
Part I. A G R I C
Inftruments to be, by defcrlbing diftinftly its tafk. Tills will fure-
ly point out a general form, the chief features of which
muft be found under every variety that can anfe from
particular circumftances.
The plough performs its talk, not by digging, but
by being pulled along. We do not aim at immediate¬
ly reducing the ground to that friable and uniform
liate into which we can bring it by the fpade } but we
wiih to bring it into fuch a date that the ordinary ope¬
rations of the feafon will complete the tafk.
For this purpofe, a flice or fod muft be cut off from
the firm land. This muft be fhoved to one fide, that
the plough and the ploughman may proceed in their
labour ; and the fod muft be turned over, fo that the
grafs and ftubble may be buried and rot, and that
i’refh foil may be brought to- the furface ; and all muft
be left in fuch a loofe and open condition, that it may
quickly crumble down by the influence of the weather,
without baking into lumps, or retaining water. The
fir ft office is performed by the coulter, which makes a
perpendicular cut in the ground. The point of the
fock follows this, and its edge gets under the fod, and
lifts it up. While lifting it up, it alfo heels it over,
away from the firm land. The mouldboard comes laft,
and pufhes it afide, and gradually turns it over as far
as is required.
The general form of the body of a plough is that
of a wedge, or very blunt chiffel, AFEDBC, (fig. i.),
having the lower corner D of its edge confiderably
more advanced than the upper corner B ; the edge
BD and the whole back AFDB is the fame perpen¬
dicular plane ; the bottom FDB approaches to a tri¬
angular form, acute at D, and fquare at F •, the fur-
face BCED is of a complicated fhape, generally hol¬
low, becaufe the angle ABC is always greater than
FDE : this confequence will be eafily feen by the ma¬
thematician. The back is ufually called the land side
by the ploughmen, and the bale FDE is called the
sole, and FE the Heel, and BCED the mould¬
board. Laftly, The angle AFE is generally fquare*
or a right angle, fo that the foie has level both as to
length and breadth.
By comparing this form with attention, the reader
will perceive that if this wedge is pulled or pulhed
along in the dire&ion FD, keeping the edge BD al¬
ways. in the perpendicular cut which has been previ-
oufly made by the coulter, the point D will both raiie
the earth and fliove it to one fide and twift it over ;
and, when the point has advanced from F to D, the
fod, which formerly refted on the triangle DFE, will
be forced up along the furface BCED, the line DF
rifing into the polition D f, and the line EF into the
pofitlon Eyf—Had the bottom of this furrow been co¬
vered with a bit of cloth, this cloth would be lying
on the mouldboard, in the pofition- D/E : the flice,
thus deranged from its former fituation, will have a
ftiape fomething like that reprefented in fig. 2.
In as much as the wedge raifes the earth, the earth
preffes down the wedge ; and as the wedge pulhes the
earth to the right hand, the earth preffes the wedge
to the left •, and in this manner the plough is ftrongly
preffed, both to the bottom of the furrow by its foie,
and alfo to the firm land by its back or land fide. In
flrort, it is ftrongly fqueezed into the angle formed
along the line FD (fig, i.) bv the perpendicular plane
Vol. I. Part I.
U L T U R E. 329
a b DF and the horizontal plane FDE ; and in this Inftruments
manner the furrow becomes a firm groove, diredting
123
Advantages
■of this
form.
firm groove,
the motion of the plough, and giving it a refifting fup-
port, by which it can perform all parts of its talk.
We beg our readers to keep this circumftance con-
ftantly in mind. It evidently fuggefts a fundamental 124
maxim in the conftrudlion, namely, to make the land A funda-
fide of the plough an exact plane, and to make the ^
foie, if not plane, at leaft ftraight from point to heel. th* con‘
Any projection would tear up the fupporting planes, fraction of
deftroy the diredting groove, and expend force in doing a plough,
mifehief.
This w'edge is feldom made of one piece. To give
it the neceffary width for removing the earth would re¬
quire a huge block of timber. It is therefore uiually
framed of leveral pieces, which we ftiall only mention
in order to have the language of the art. Fig. 3. re-
prefents the land fide of a plough, fuch as are made by
James Small at Rofebank, near Foord, Mid Lothian.
The bafe of it, CM, is a piece of hard wood, pointed
before at C to receive a hollow fhoeing of iron CO,
called the Sock, and tapering a little towards the I2S
hinder end, M, called the Heel. This piece is called The feveral
the Head of the plough. Into its fore part, juft be-parts of the
hind the fock, is mortifed a doping poll, AL, called pl°ugh-
the Sheath, the front of which is worked ftiarp, form¬
ing the edge of the wedge. Nearer the heel there is
mortifed another piece, PQ^ Hoping far back, called
the Stilt, ferving for a handle to the ploughman.
The upper end of the Iheath is mortifed into the long
Beam RH, which projects forward, almoft horizon¬
tally, and is mortifed behind into the ftilt. To the
fore end of the beam are the cattle attached. The
whole of this fide of the wedge is faihioned into one
plain furface, and the intervals between the pieces are
filled up with boards, and commonly covered with iron
plates. The Coulter, WEE, is firmly fixed by its
lhank, W, into the beam, rakes forward at an angle
of 450 with the horizon, and has its point E about fix
inches before the point of the fock. It is brought into
the fame vertical plane with the land fide of the plough,
by giving it a knee outward immediately belowT the
beam, and then kneeing it again downward. It is
further i^ipported on this fide by an iron ftay FH,
which turns on a pin at F, paffes through an eye-bolt I
on the fide of the beam, and has a nut ferewed on it
immediately above. When ferewed to its proper Hope,
i: is firmly wedged behind and before the (hank.—■
Fig. 3. N° 2. reprefents the fame plough viewed from
above. ST is the right hand or fmall ftilt fixed to the
infide of the mouldboard LV.
Fig. 4. reprefents the bottom of the wedge. CM
is the head, covered at the point by the fock. Juft
behind the fock there is mortifed into the fide of the
head a fmaller piece DE, called the wreft, making
an angle of 160 with the land fide of the head, and its
outfide edge is in the fame ftraight line with the fide
of the fock. From the point to the heel of the head
is about 33 inches, and the extreme breadth of the
heel is about nine. The fide of the wedge, called the
furrow fide, is formed by the mouldboard, which is
either made of a block or plank of wood, or of a thick
iron plate.
The lock drawn in this figure is called a Spearsocks.
Sock, and is chiefly ufed in coarfe or ftony ground,
'T t which
33o • A G R I C U
Inftmments wtiich requires great force to break it up. Another
T4 ^orm t1ne rePrefented in the next figure 4.
-Auudn. ry. ^t0 4'hJs is called a Feather Sock, and has a
cutting edge CF on its furrow fide, extending back
about ten inches, and to the right hand or furrow fide
about fix. The ufe of this is to cut the fod below, and
detach it from the ground, as the coulter detaches it
from the unploughed land. This is of great ufe when
the ground is bound together by knotted roots, but it
is evident that it cannot be ufed to advantage in very
ftony ground. In general, the feather fock. is only fit
for ground which has been under tolerable culture 5
but it greatly facilitates the labour of feparating the
fod. It may reafonably be alked, why the feather is
not much broader, fo as to cut the whole breadth of
the furrow ? This is fometimes done. But we mull re-
collecl that the fod is not only to be pufhed afide, but
alfo to be turned over. If it were completely detached
by the feather, and chanced at any time to break on
the back of the lock, it would only be pulhed afide ;
but by leaving a little of the fod uncut, it is held fall
below while it is llioved afide above, which cannot fail
to twill it round.. As the wrell advances, it ealily de-
llroys the remaining connedlion, which in general is
127 very flight and crumbling..
Proper The breadth of the foie at the heel determines the
breadth of ^fidth of the furrow. Nine inches will give enough
of room for a horfe or man to walk in. A greater
breadth is of no ufe, and it expends force in pufhing
the earth afide. It is a miltake to fuppofe that a broad
foie gives more room for the turned flice to Hand on ;
for whatever is the breadth of the furrow, the fucceffive
flices will be left at their former dillances, becaufe each
is Ihoved afide at the fame diilance. When the breadth
of a flice exceeds its depth,, and it is turned on its lide,
it will now Hand on a narrow bafe, but higher than
before, and therefore will Hand loofer, which the far¬
mers defire. But in. this cafe it generally falls on its
back before it has been far enough removed, and is-then
pufhed afide, and left with the graffy fide down, which
is not approved of. On the other hand, when the
depth confiderably exceeds the breadth, the fods, now
turned on their fides, mull be fqueezed home to the
ploughed land, which breaks them and tofles them up,
making rough work. In wet clay foil, this is alfo apt
to knead them together. On the whole, it is bell to
have the breadth and depth nearly equal. But all this
is workmanlhip, and has no dependence on the width
x a3 of the foie behind.
.t Ihould We have already laid that the foie is generally level
*«ie level. from right to left at the heel. This was not the cafe
formerly, but the wrell was confiderably railed behind.
It refulted from this form, that the furrow was always
shallower on the right fide, or there was left a lowlridge
of unllirred earth between the furrows. This circum-
ilance alone was a bad pra£lice ; for one great aim of
ploughing is the renewal of the fuperficial foil. In this
way of ribbing the furrows, the fod tumbles over as
loon as it is puflied to the top of the rib on the right
of the rut made by the plough j the firmell parts of it
f
L T U R E. PradUce.
fall undermoB, and the reft crumbles above it, making Inftruments-
the work appear neat ; whereas it is extremely une-, ^ of ,
qual, and what moll needs the influence of the wea-
ther to crumble it down is Iheltered from it. Add to - -
thefe circumftances, that the hollow is a receptacle for
water, with a furface which can retain it, having been
confolidated by the preffure of the plough. For all
thefe reafons, therefore, it feems advifable to form the
furr ow with a flat or level bottom, and therefore to
keep the heel of the wrell as low as the heel of the
head. For the fame reafon it is proper to hold the
plough with the land fide perpendicular, and not to
heel it over to that fide, as is frequently done, produ¬
cing the fame ribbed furrow as an ill formed foie. I2_
There is great variety of opinions about the length Length of
of the plough. If coulidered merely as a pointed in-thePlcusk
ftrument, or even as a cutting inftrument afting ob¬
liquely on a given length of fod, there can be no doubt
but that it will be more powerful as it is longer : that
is, it will require lefs force to pull it through the ground.
But it mull alfo fliove the earth afide, and if we double
its length we caufe it to aft on tivice as much earth at
once j for when the plough has entered as far as the
heel, the whole furrow fide is afting together in pufh¬
ing the earth to the fide. Now it is found, that the
force necefiary for pufliing a mafs of earth horizontally
along the rough ground is nearly equal to its weight.
It would feem, therefore, that nothing is to be gained
by making the bafe of the plough of a great length,
except a greater facility in making the firft penetration,
and this is chiefly performed by the coulter and fcck ;
and a great length renders the plough heavy and cum-
herfome ; and, by caufing it to aft long on the fod,
tends to knead and cake it.
- Nothing very precife can be offered on this fubjeft.
Some fenfible advantage is derived by making the
plough taper, efpecially forward, where it afts as a bo¬
ring and cutting inftrument ; and for this purpofe it is
convenient to give the coulter a Hope of 45 degrees. Slope of
(This has alfo the advantage of throwing up the ftonesthe coulter*
and roots, which it would otherwife drive before itnnt*
through the firm ground.) And for the fame realbn‘eatiier*
the edge of the feather has a great Hope, it being 10
inches long and only fix inches broad. But if we pur-
fue this advantage too far, we expofe ourfelves to ano¬
ther rilk. It is fometimes neceffary to heel over the
plough to the right in order to get over feme obftruc-
tion. In doing this, the coulter is neceffarily railed
for a moment, and the flaming cut now made by the
feather becomes the directing groove for the plough.
When the feather has a very long Hope, this groove
has force enough to guide the whole plough ; and it
is almoft irnpoflible for the ploughman to prevent it
from running out of the ground to the land fide (a).
The featlier, therefore, Ihould not exceed ten or twelve,
inches in length.
But to return to the length of the plough, from
W’hich this obfervation has diverted us a little, w e mull
add, that a long plough has a great advantage in the
fteadinefs of its motion, having a much more extenfive
fupport
(a) This is often felt with the excellent plough deferibed by Mr Aibuthnot ef Surry, in the Traufafticns c£
the Society for. the Encouragement of Arts, &c. London.
Part I.
Inftrument:
of
Hufbandry
The mould
feoard.
rtow to be
formed.
A G It I C U
ifupport both on tlie laitd fide and below, and being
therefore lefs affected by its inequalities. Accordingly
they are now made confiderably longer than formerly 5
and 33 inches has been affumed as a proportion to 9
inches of breadth, in conformity to the moil approved
ploughs now in ufe.
We come now to treat of the mouldboard. This
is the moil: delicate part of the plough, and is to be
feen in the greateft variety in the works of different
artifts, each of whom has a noftrum of great value in
his own opinion. It is here indeed that the chief re¬
finances are exerted and muff be overcome 5 and a judi¬
cious form of this part of the plough may diminifh them
confiderably, while it performs the work in the bell
fnanner. Without pretending to fay that the different
refiftances are fufceptible of an accurate determination,
we can fliil draw fufficient information from palpable
rules of mechanics to difedt us to what would be nearly
the bell poffible form for a mouldboard. The talk to
be performed is to raife, pufh afide, and turn over to a
certain degree, a llice already cut off from the firm
ground. As we cannot provide for every inequality of
the cohefion or tenacity of the earth, our fafeft way is
to confider it as uniform : the weight of it is always fo.
As we cannot provide for every proportion between the
tenacity and the weight, we muff take an average or
medium proportion which is not far from that of equa¬
lity. Conceiving the flice at firft as only tenacious, and
without weight, it is an eafy problem to determine the
form which fhall give it the intended twill and remo¬
val with the fmalleft force. In like manner we can
proceed with a flice that has weight without tenacity.
It is equally eafy to combine both in any proportion j
and it is eafieft of all to niake this combination on the
fuppofition of equality of wTeight and cohefioh. Sup-
pofing the flice like a brick, we know that it requires
the greateft force to begin to raife it on one edge, and
khat the ftrain becomes lefs as it rifes, till its centre of
gravity is perpendicularly above the fupporting angle,
it requires no force to raife it further; for on pulhing
it beyond this pofition, it would fall over of itfelf, un-
lefs withheld by the tenacity of what is not yet raifed.
But on confidering the form or plan of the fock, we
find that while the wreight of the fod refills nioft ftrong-
ly, there is lefs df it in this fituation actually rifing,
and this nearly in the fame proportion with the labour
of railing it; and we fee that after the fod has attain¬
ed that pofition in wdiich it is ready to fall over, it has
reached the wider part of the wreft, and is norv pullved
afide, which requires nearly the fame force as to raife
it: and this continues to the end of the operation.
When we take all thefe circumftances into confidera-
tion, it appears probable, that the compound refiitance
does ftot change much from firft to laft. If this be
really the cafe, it is an undoubted maxim that the
whole operation Ihould proceed equably f if it does not,
there mull be fome part of the fod that makes a refift-
ance greater than the medium •, and as the refiftances
m all this clafs of motions increafe nearly as the fquares
of the velocities with which they are overcome, it is
demonilrable that we lhall lofe power if we render
them Unequal.
Hence we deduce this maxim, Yhut as the plough ad¬
vances through equal [paces, the twi/l and the lateralJli-
ding of the fod fhould increafe by equal degrees. And
L
U R E,
33*
this determines a priori the form of the mouldboard. Inltrumentl
This principle occurred to Mr James Small, a plough-^ .
maker in Berwickftiire, and he publilhed a treatife on . .A 
the fubjeft in 1784. He has given feveral methods
for conllrukting mouldboards, which he fuppoles are
in conformity to his principle j but being merely a
country artift, and unacquainted with fcience, his rules
do not produce mouldboards having this property of
equable operation, although they do not deviate far
from it. His book is a very ufeful and inftruftive per¬
formance, and level to the capacity of thofe for whom
it is, intended j and we have here availed ourfelves of
the author’s information on many points.
The high charafter which Small’s ploughs have,
maintained for 25 years is a ftreng argument for the
truth of the maxim. We lhall therefore give fuch in-
ftrudlions as will enable any intelligent workman to
coriftrufl fuch a mouldboard without any rilk of fail¬
ure 5 and if future theory or experience Ihould difeo-
ver any error in the principles from which this maxim
is deduced, by Ihowing that either the weight, the te¬
nacity, or the lateral refiftance, is exerted according to
a different law from what has been affumed, the direc¬
tions to be given are of fuch a nature that they adapt
themfelves with precifion to thefe changes of principle,
and will Hill produce a perfect and efficacious plough*
Our readers will readily acknowledge that this is gain¬
ing a great point •, becaufe at prefent the inftrument is
conftrudled very much at random, and by a guefs of
the eye.
. Let us how return to the wedge formerly made ufe
cf for illullrating the a£lion of the plough. Suppofe
it placed in a furrow already ploughed, and that the
fpace before the line FE (fig. 1.), which is fquare froiri
the line of motion FD, is covered with a piece of cloth
or carpet, and that the point of the wedge enters upon
it at F, and advances to D. It‘will evidently raife the
cloth, which will now cover the fide of the wredge,
forming the triangleyDE. The line_/D is what for¬
merly lay in the angle along the line FD, and f E for¬
merly lay on FE. It is this line FE therefore that
we are to raife, ftiove afide, and twnft round, by equal
degrees, while the plough advances through equal
i’paces.
Now, if the length DF of the plough-wedge, reck¬
oned from the point of the fock to the heel, be 33
ihches, and the breadth FE behind be 9 inches, the
angle DEF or DE/’will be nearly 740. The conltruc-
tion of the furrow fide of the plough is therefore redu¬
ced to this very Ample problem, “ To make the angle
DEy turn equably round the axis DE, while the angu¬
lar point L advances equably from D to E. r^
This will be done by means of the following very Dcfcriptiofj
Ample tool or inftrument. Let IHFK (fig. J.) be a an ‘n-
piece of hard wmod, fuch as oak, a foot long, three
itiches broad, and ah inch thick. Plant on this ano-pUrp0fe>
ther piece BHFC of the fame breadth, four inches long,
and half an inch thick. This will leave beyond it a flat
8 inches long. We (hall call this the ftoch of the in¬
ftrument. Let ABC be a piece of clean oak half an
inch thick, 20 inches long, and three inches broad at the
end BC. Let tins be faftnoned like the ftyle of a fun-
dial, having its angle ABC 740. Let it have a part BCE
fquare, to the extent of four inches from C, and the
reft EA worked into the form of a ftraight flender rod;
T t z Let
33 2
AGRICULTURE.
T. 134
froper po-
fition of
tLe fod.
Inftruments Let EFG be a femicircle of clean plane tree or of me-
tal four inches radius: fallen this by fmall fcrews to
. lu"^riary; fqUare part of the ftile CE, fo that its centre may
be at C. Let this femicircle be divided into 180 de¬
grees, and numbered from G along the arch GFE, fo
that o° may be at G, and 180° at E. Let this flile
and femicircle turn round the line BC by means of
fmall hinges. This inllrument may be called the
mouldboard gage, or protractor. When the (tile is
folded down on the flock BIK, the point G will be
at F; and when it is raifed up to any angle, the de¬
grees will be pointed out on the femicircle by the ftraight
edge CF.
Nothing can be more obvious than the manner of
employing this inftrument once we have determined
the molt proper polition for the fod when the work is
completed. Now it feems to be the opinion of the
molt intelligent farmers, that the bell polition of the
fod is that reprefented in fig. 6.
Fig. 6. reprefents a feflion of the ground and the
working parts of the plough, as viewed by a perfon
flanding flraight before it. ABDC is the unploughed
ground, and WB the coulter, kneed in Small’s manner.
FGKB is the feftion of the plough (or rather of the
W'hole fpace through which the plough has palfed, for
no part of the plough has this feClion). HOFE is the
feCHon of a llice, pulhed afide and turned over, fo as to
lean on the next. HE is that fide of the llice which
formerly lay on KB. EF is the fide cut off by the
coulter j and FO is the upper or graffy fide. The low¬
er corners are fuppofed to be a little bruifed inwards, as
muft generally happen.
The fod is pulhed 9 inches to the right hand, and it
leans wdth its graffy fide on the preceding furrow, in an
angle , of about 50 degrees. In this pofition the grafs
is turned down fo as to rot j and there is a hollow7 left
below to allow the rain water to run freely off, and to
receive the earth as it crumbles dovrn by the w'eather :
and if the harrow is dragged acrofs thefe ridges, it dif-
tributes along the furface the mould which was former¬
ly at the bottom. The fod has got a twdfl of 130 de¬
grees : but it is evident, that after it has been turned
90 degrees, or even a little before this, it is ready to
fall over of itfelf. It is furheient therefore that it be
turned 90 degrees when the heel of the wweft has reach¬
ed it, and the remainder of the twill is given to it by
the wing or flap of the mouldboard. This, then, dic¬
tates to us the manner of applying the inftrument.
Divide the edge DE (fig. 7.) of the wreft, or of a
lath nailed on it, into 90 equal parts, and continue the
divifions backwards to G in the fame line to 130. Num¬
ber the divifions backwards from the point of the fock 5
then place the protraClor on the edge of the wreft, w7ith
the point B of fig. 5. at the 90th divifion (fig. 7.) ; that
is, juft at the heel, with the ftock under the wreft:, and
tire ftile raifed to 90°, and prefs it home to the joint,
fo that the ftock may be fquare to the edge, and then
the ftile will be in the pofition fuiting that part of the
mouldboard. In like manner Hide the ftock forward
to the 80th divifion, and lower the ftile to 8o°, and it
will have the pofition which fuits that part of the mould-
board. In the fame way Aide it forward to 70, 60, 50,
&cc. and lower the ftile to 70°, 6o°, 50°, &c. and wre
/hall have the pofition for thefe feveral parts of the
mouldboard 3 and thus it may be formed to the very
13S
How to
form the
mould-
beard.
Practice.
point of the fock, becaufe the ftraight edge of the wreft Inftruments
may be continued fo far. A block of wrood may be ,
hewed to fit thefe feveral pofitions of the protrafter ^al~k“T>3l7‘
ftile j and thus, wrhen placed with its ftraight edge on
the outer line of the wreft, and cut away behind in the
land-fide plane, will be the exaft Ihape of the plough-
wedge. It would rife up indeed into a tall piece of
Angular Ihape, gradually tapering down to the point of
the fock 5 but when cut off parallel to the ground, at
the height of about 12 inches, it will form the mould-
board, the front or edge of the Iheath, and the whole
back of the fock except the feather, which is an extra¬
neous piece. The wing or flap of the mouldboard is
formed in the fame manner, by Hiding the ftock of the
protraftor to 100, no, 120, 130, and opening the
ftile to ioo°, 1 io°, 1200, 130°. This will extend the
top of the mouldboard to about 22 or 23 inches 5 but
the lower part of the wing muft he cut away, becaufe
it would pufh the fod too far afide after it has get the
proper twift. The form of this part ftiould be fuch as
would exaftly apply itfclf to a plank fet at the heel of
the wreft, parallel to the land-fide of the head, and lean¬
ing outward 40 degrees. This will be very nearly the
cafe, if it be made a fweep fimilar to the edge of the
(heath. Fig. 8. is a refemblance of the furface of the
mouldboard 3 A D being the edge ox the (heath, E the
heel of the wreft, and EBC the wing or flap. When
cut through in a perpendicular direction, the feftion is
hollow 3 if cut horizontally it is convex 3 and if in the
direftion CE, making an angle of 74s with ED, it is
ftraight. If the protraftor be fet on it at D, and gra¬
dually Hidden backwards, the mouldboard will gradu¬
ally open the flile, and the ftile will (kirn its whole fur¬
face without any vacuity between them.
This form is given to the mouldboard on the autho¬
rity of the fuppofition that the fum of the refiftances
arifing from weight and tenacity remains pretty Con-
ftant in its whole length. This cannot be affirmed with
confidence in any cafe, and is by no means true in all..
In (tiff clay foils the effefts of tenacity prevail, and in
light or crumbling foils the weight is the chief refill-
ance. The advantage of this .mode of conitruftion isr
that it can be adapted to any foil. If the difficulty of
cutting and railing the fod is much greater than that
of (hoving it afide and turning it over, we have only to
make the rife and twift more gentle towards the point
of the fock, and more rapid as we advance 3 and it is.
eafy to do this according to any law of acceleration that
we pleafe. Thus, inftead of dividing the edge of the
wreft DE (fig. 9.) continued to G into 130 parts,
draw a line G^ perpendicular to it, and draw feme
curve line convex towards DG, and divide this in¬
to equal parts in the points 10, 20, 30, 40, &c 3 and
then draw perpendiculars to the wreft: edge, cutting it
in xo, 20, 30, 40, &c. and apply the protraftor to
thefe points. It is evident that the divifions of the wreft
line are bigger at D, and grow gradually lefs towards.
G3 and therefore, becaufe each has io° more twift
than the preceding, the twift will be more rapid as it
approaches the end of the mouldboard. This curve
may be chofen fo as to produce any law of acceleration.
On the contrary, we produce a retarded or diminilhed
twift by making the curve concave towards DG, as re¬
prefented by the dotted curve.
The mathematical reader will obferve, that this con-
ftruftioa
Parti. A G R I C U
Ir.ftrumentsftm&ion aims at regulating tlie twift round the Jme of
of the wreft ED. This does not produce precifely the
Hufbandry. pame regulation round the line FD, ^vhich is the line of
the plough’s motion, and of the fod’s pofition hetoie it
is ploughed over. 1 he diiference, however, is not vvcrv.h
attending to in a matter fo little fuiceptible of previ-
fion. But the twift round the line FD may be re¬
gulated according to any law by this inftrument with
equal facility. Inftead of placing the (lock of the
protractor fquare with the edge ot the wreft, it may
be placed fquare with the land fide of the plough.
To do this, draw a line BL (fig, 5. N° 2.) acrofs
the ftock from the point B, making the angle LBC
16®, and put a brafs pin at L, making a hole in the
ftyle that it may not be prevented from the folding
down. Then, in ufing the inftrument, let the points
B and L reft againft the edge of the wreft, and pro-
136
Mode of
the
plough’s
addon.
xeed as direfted.
A ftill greater variety of forms, and accommodation
to particular views, with the fame general dependence
on principle, will be procured by giving the rod BA
a motion round B in the plane of the ftile, io as to form
a ftile of a variable angle.
A tool may even be conftru&ed in which the rod BA
might be a cutting knife : and the whole may be led
along by a fcrew, while this knife turns round accoid-
ing to any law, and would gradually pare awray the
mouldboard to the proper form.
Thus have we reduced the fafhioning the operative
part of the plough to a rule which is certain. We do
not mean by this, that a mouldboard made according to
the maxim now given will make the beft poftible plough j
but we have given a rule by which this part of the
plough can be made unequivocally of a certain quality by
every workman, whatever tnis quality may be, and this
without being obliged to copy. No defcription or any
curve mouldboard to be met with in booK.3 has this ad¬
vantage 5 and we fay that this rule is capable of any
fyfternatic variation, either with refpeCl to the width
of furrow, or the quantity or variation of its twift. W e
have therefore put it in the power of any intelligent
perfon to make fuch gradaul and progreffive changes as
may ferve to bring this rnoft ufeful of all inftruments to
perfe&ion. The angle of the head and wreft, and the
curve for dividing the wreft-lme, can always be expreffed
in writing, and the improvements communicated to the
public at large.
After this defcription of the working parts of a
plough, and dire&ions for giving it the moft effective
^)rm,J it will not be improper to confider a little its
mode of aftion, with the view of attaining a more di-
ftinbt conception of what is done by the ploughman and
the cattle, and to dire£t him in his procedure.
Returning again to the wedge (fig. !•), we fee that
it is preffed down at the point D, and as far back along
the mouldboard as its furface continues to look upward,
that is, all the way to the heel of the wreft. Behind
this, the perpendicular factions or the mouldboard over¬
hang, and look downward ; and here, while preiling
down the fod, the plough is preffed upwards. 1 hefe
two preffures tend to twift; the plough round a trani-
vcrfe line fomewhere between the heel and the point.
1 he plough therefore tends to rife at the heel, and to
run its point deeper into the ground. Upon the whole,
the preffure downwards is much greater than the upward
L T U R E. _ 333
preffure. It Is exerted over a much greater (pace, ana Inftruments-
is greater in moft parts of that fpace. Behind, very Huib°ndry._
little downward preffure is neceffary, the fod being
ready to fall down of itfelf, and only requiring a gentle
touch to lay it in a proper pofition.
In like manner the plough is preffed backward by
the refiftance made to the coulter and fock, and part of
the refiftance made to the Hoping fide of the mould-
board : and it is preffed to the left by the other part of
the preffure on the fock and mouldboard.
All thefe preffures muft be balanced by the joint ac¬
tion of the cattle, the refiftance. of the bottom, and the
refiftance of the firm ground on the left hand or land-
fide.
It is the aftion of the cattle, exerted on that point
to which they are attached, which produces all thefe
preffures. It is demonftrated by the principles of me¬
chanics, that this force muft not only be equal to the
mean or compound force of thefe refifting preffures, but
muft alfo be in the oppofite direction.
It is further demonftrated, that if a body be dragged
through any refifting fubftance by a force a&ing on any
point G, and in any direftion whatever GH, and really
moves uniformly in that diredlion, the force exerted ex
aftly balances the refiftances which it excites, both as
to quantity and direftion : And if the body advances
without turning round the point by which it is drag¬
ged, the refiftances on one fide of this point are in equi-
librio with thefe on the oppofite fide.
And, laftly, it is demonftrated, that when this equi¬
librium is obtained, it is indifferent to what point in the
line, GH the force is applied. Therefore, in fig.^ 3.
Na 1. the force afting in the direftion HO may either
be applied to the point of the beam H, or to^ the
point N of the coulter, or to the point O of the fock.
When therefore a plough advances fteadily, requir¬
ing no effort of the ploughman to direft It, if the line
of draught OM (fig. 10.) be produced backwards to
the point G of the mouldboard, that point is the place
round which all the refiftances balance each other.
This point may be called the centre cf refijlance and
the centre of a£Iion.
It would be of importance to determine this point
by principle } but this can hardly be done with pveci-
fion even in a plough 01 a known form : and it is im-
poftible to do it in general for all ploughs, becauie it
is different in each. It even varies in any plough by
every variation of the proportion between, the weight
and the cohefion of the fod. We fee how it can be
found experimentally in any given uniform fod, viz.
by producing backwards the line of draught. 1 hen,
if the draught rope, inftead of being fixed to the muzzle
of the beam, were fixed to this point, and if it were
pulled in the fame direftion, the plough would continue
to perform its work, without any affiftance from the
ploughman, while the- fod continued uniform. But
the fmalleft inequality of fod would derange the plough
fo as to make it go entirely out of its path. Should
the refiftances between G and D prevail, the plough
would go deeper, which would increafe the refiftances
on that fide where they already exceed, and the plough
would run ftill deeper. Should the refiftances behind
G prevail, the heel would be preffed down, and the
point would rife, which would ftill farther deftroy- the
equilibrium, and, producing, a greater deviation from
*334
Inftrument
of
Hufbandry.
agricultor e.
137
Muzzle of
the beam.
*
' 1 he point
■of draught.
*39
Of the _
plough in
trim.
the right path, would quickly throw the plough out of
the ground.
For thefe reafons we muft not think of attaching the
draught to the centre of refiftance ; but muft contrive
a point of draught, fuch as (hall reftore the plough to
its proper pofttion when it has been driven out of it by
any obftrubtion.
The muzzle or end of the beam is a point which will
completely fuit our purpofe. For fuppofe that the re-
liftance on the back of the fock has prevailed, and the
plough MNfD (fig. 10.) has taken the pofition jt/V
reprefented by the dotted lines, the draught line GMO
is brought down into the pofition g ?n 0, diverging a lit¬
tle from GMO, and meeting the mouldboard in a
point g confiderably before G. By this means the re-
fiftances on the hinder fide of g are increafed, and thofe
before it are diminifhed, and the plough quickly re^
gains its former pofition.
From thefe oblervations it is plain, that whatever is
the fituation of the centre of refiftance, the point of
draught may be fo cbofen that the aftion of the cattle
(hall be dire&ly oppofed to the reliftance of the ground,
and that moreover the plough (hall have no tendency
either to go deeper or to run out. This is the ufe of
the apparatus at the point of the beam called the
muzzle, reprefented at H (fig. 3.) It turns round a
bolt 1 through the beam, and can be ftopped at any
height by another pin k put through the holes in the
arch /m. A figure is given of the muzzle immediately
below, as it appears when looking down on it. The
eye to which the draught rope is hooked is fpread out
horizontally, as (hown by HK, and hasfeveral notches
O in it, to either of which the hook can be applied,
i his ferves to counterafl any occafional tendency which
the plough may have to the right or left.
When the plough goes on fteadily, without any ef¬
fort of the ploughman, it is faid to be in trim, and to
fwim fair j the preffure before and behind the centre of
aftion being in equifibrio with each other. In order
to learn whether a plough will be in this manner under
management, hook the draught rope as high as pofiible.
In this date the plough fhoukl have a continual ten¬
dency to rife at the heel, and even to run a little into
the ground. Then hook the rope as low as pofiible.
1 he plough fhould now prefs hard on the furrow with
the heel, and have feme tendency to run out of the
ground. If both thefe are obferved, the plough is pro¬
perly conftrufted in this refpeft 5 if not, it muft be al¬
tered, either by changing the pofition of the fock or
that of the beam. Lowering the end of the beam will
correct: the tendency of the plough to go deeper 5 the
railing the point of the fock will alfo have the fame ef¬
fect. But it is of confiderable importance not to take
the point of the fock out of the plane of the fod, and
it is much better to make the alteration by the beam.
The Hope of the coulter has a confiderable effect, but
it cannot be placed very far from the inclination of 43'9
■without the ri(k of choaking the plough by driving the
roots and ftones before it. It is of great confequence
to have tire coulter fit exaftly in the direction of the
plough’s motion : if it is in any other diredlion, it will
powerfully twift the plough mto its own track. As
it muft be fixed in the middle of the beam’s thicknefs
to have (Length, it is removed a little from the plane
the land fide, and it was the ufual practice to point
3
Pra&tcQi
it to the left below to compenfate for this j but this by Inftmments
no means removes the difpofition to twift, and it ex- of
pofes to the ri(k of catching a (tone between its point Hufban<k.v-
and that of the lock, which muft now be driven for- *
ward through the firm ground at a great expence of la¬
bour to the cattle. Mr Small has very ingenioufly re¬
medied this by giving the coulter a (hort knee to the
left immediately below the beam, and thus pointing it
downwards in the plumb of the land fide. See fig. 6.
It is not without its itfe to know the abfolute force
neceffary for tilling the ground. This has been fre¬
quently meafured with a fpring fteelyard. One of
Small’s ploughs, worked by two holies, and employed
in breaking up (lift land which had been ploughed be¬
fore winter, and much confolidated by the rains, re¬
quired a force of gbolbs. avoirdupois ; and we ma/
ftate this as the ordinary rate of fuch work 5 but mo¬
derately firm fod, under good culture, requires at a
medium jjaolbs.
As we wdili to embrace every opportunity of render¬
ing this work ufeful to the public, we (hall conclude
this article with an account of a plough which lias juft
now' been recommended to public notice by the Scots
Highland Society as extremely proper for a hilly coun¬
try. The inventor, the Rev. Alexander Campbell mi-
nifter at Kilcalmonell in Argyleftiire, was honoured
with the fociety’s gold medal, value 2?1.
A, the fock (fig. i r.) 5 the land-fide of which fup-The Ar-
plies the place of the coulter, and the foie of it ferves gylefhfte
for a feather j it is 18 inches long, and is made of aP^ouSls'
plate of iron 12 inches broad when fiuiftied, and fome-
what under half an inch thick..—B, the head 5 to be
inade of iron in a triangular form, 4 inches broad by 2
inches at the thickeft part. There are 5 inches of the
head fixed in the fook.—-C, the beam, 4 inches thick
by 5 inches deep, gradually tapered thinner ) the length
6 feet.-i-E, the (heath, muft be of the fame thicknefs
with the beam above and the head below, and is five
inches broad. An iron fcrew-bolt connedfts the beam
and head behind the (heath..—F, the handles are fo
made that the (lope of the mouldboard, which is fixed
to one of them, may be the longer and more gradual,
Shey are 5 feet 8 inches long, and 2 feet 4 inches
afunder at the ends.—G, the mouldboard, confifts of
7 rounded fticks 2 inches in diameter; the covert of
them is in the plane of the foie, the reft in fuccefiion
clofe to each other above it. This makes the mould-
board 14 inches broad. To prevent any earth from get¬
ting over the mouldboard, a thin dale 4 or 3 inches bread
is fixed above it. The mouldboard, landfide, and foie
of the plough, are clad with iron.—The length is 20
inches : this added to 18 inches, the length of the fock,
makes the length from point to heel 3 feet 2 inches.—-
The muzzle or bridle OPH is alfo of a more conve¬
nient and better conftruftion than thofe commonly in
ufe. By means of the ferew pins at L and M different
degrees of land may be given to the plough j the iron
rod LFI being thereby moved fidewife in the focket
LN, and up and down by OP. The rod is 30 inched
long, one broad, and half an inch thick. It is hooked
into a fcrewbolt at H. Two inches of the rod pro}e£I
at N, in the form of an eye, before the muzzle, to re*
ceive the hook of the crofstree.
The advantages of this plough are faid to be : It is
not fo liable to be interrupted or turned out of its courfe
by
Part I.
A G R I C U
.141
Objedlions
to its con-
ft ruction.
luilruments by {tones, roots, &c. as other ploughs are ; nor does it
ot dip fo deep as to be liable to be broken by large ftones
Hufuancln. j-jagS> motJon Qf t]ie muzzle is alfo thought an
improvement. Another advantage it has over other
ploughs is, its not being fo liable to be choaked up by
ftubble, &c. This we underhand to be its chief ex¬
cellency, and an obi eft much defired in the conftruc-
tion of the plough. Upon the whole, wre are informed
that this plough is lighter, lefs expenfive, and lefs liable
to go out of trim than the ordinary plough, and that
with it two horfes can plough land which require four
with any other plough.
Such are laid to be the advantages of this conftruc-
tion 5 but we cannot help expreiTing our apprehenfion
that the uniting the coulter and feather at the point of
the fock rvill expofe the plough to great rifks of being
put out of order. When the upright edge ftrikes a
ftone obliquely, efpeciaily on the laud-fide, it mull be
violently twifted round the point of the head ; and,
having but a moderate thicknefs at this part, may be
broken or permanently twifted. The plough will then
be continually running out of its direttion: and we ap¬
prehend that this defect cannot be amended without
taking off the fock and putting it in the fire. When a
coulter is bent by the fame caufe, the ploughman can
either reftify it by altering the w-edging, or he can
ftraighten it in the field ; and it muft be obferved, that
the plough oppofes much lefs refiftance to the derange¬
ment of this fort of coulter than of the common one.
In the common coulter the ftrain does not fo much tend
to twift the plough round the line of its motion, as to
prefs it wholly to landward. The refifiance to this is
great •, but a very moderate force will twfift it round its
line of motion. In either cafe, if the blow be given in
that point of the coulter where the draught line crofles
it, there will be no twift of the whole plough, but the
point of the plough will be forced horizontally to or
from the land. When the blow is out of this line, the
ftrain tends to twift the beam or the plough. Expe¬
rience will determine which oi the tw7o is the moft ha¬
zardous. Thefe ploughs wrere made by Thomas Lind-
fay, Abbeyhill, Edinburgh, and models are to be feen
in the hall of the Highland Society.
The plough conftrufted in the following manner is
ftill the moft common and the moft generally underftood
in Scotland 5 and, if properly made, is the beft for an-
fwering all purpofes, when only one is ufed ; though
ethers are, perhaps, more proper an fame particular
occafions.
JSefcripdon The parts of which this plough is compofed, are,
of the Scots th.e head, the beam, the {heath, the wreft, the mould-
p.ough. boarcl? the two handles, the two rungs, the lock, and
the coulter ; the two lalt are made of iron, and all the
reft of wood.
The Head is defigned for opening the ground be¬
low. The length of the head from A to B is about
20 inches, and the breadth from A to D above five
inches } C is the point upon which the fock is driven,
and the length from B to C is about fix inches 5 a is
the mortife into which the larger handle is fixed,
and b is the mortife into which the {heath is fixed.
The head is that part of the plough which goes in
the ground *, therefore the fhorter and narrower it is,
the frifHon will be the lefs, and the plough more eafily
drawn; but the longer the head is, the plough goes
142
Scots
plough.
Plate VII.
fig. x.
L T U R E, 333-
more fteadily, and is not fo eafily put out ot its direc- Inftraments
tion by any obfiruflions that occur. Twenty inches
is confidered as a mean length } anti five inches as the . ~ 1
moft convenient breadth. r- 3 -
The Sheath, E, is driven into the mortife b, and e
thus fixed to the head A B. It is not perpendicular to
the head, but placed obliquely, fo as to make the angle
formed by the lines A B and E B about 60 degrees.
The {heath is about 13 inches long, befides what is
driven into the mortife b (fig. r.) j about three inches
broad, and one inch thick.
The fheath is fixed to the mouldboard, as in fig. 11. Fig. ^
E, in the fame manner as the wreft is fixed to the head
in fig. 7.
The Mouldboard is defigned to turn over the
earth of the furrow made by the plough j and it is ob¬
vious, that, according to the pofition of the {heath, the
mouldboard will turn over the earth of the furrow more
or lefs fuddenly. Befides, when it forms a lefs angle
with the head than 60 degrees, the plough is in great
danger of being choked, as the farmers term it.
The larger Handle, FA, is fixed to the head, by Fig. -u
driving it into the mortoife a (ng. 1.) It is placed in
the fame plane with the head; and its length from
AF is about five feet four inches, and its diameter at
the place where it is fixed to the beam is about two
inches and a half, and tapers a little to the top F.
About ten inches from A, there is a curve in the
handle, which, when F is raifed to its proper height,
makes the lower part of it nearly parallel to the {heath
E B. This curve is defigned to ftrengthen the handle.
The proper pofition of the handle is, when the top ’F
is about three feet two inches higher than the bottom
of the head x\B.
The longer the handles, the plough is the more ea¬
fily managed, becaufe the levers are more diftant from
the centre of motion. The higher the top of the
handles, the plough is- more eafily raifed out cf the
ground, provided they be no higher than the lower
part of a man’s breaft.
The Beam, is fixed to the larger handle and thep;(T ^
{heath, all of which are placed in the fame plane with b
the head.. The length oi it, from H to I, is about fix
feet } its diameter is about four inches. When the
plough is in the ground, the beam fiiould be juft high
enough not to be incommoded by any thing on the
furface.
The pofition of the beam depends on the number of
cattle in the plough. When two horfes are yoked, the
beam ihould be placed in fuch a manner as to make the
perpendicular diftance betwixt the bolt-hole of the beam
and. the plane of the head about twenty-one inches j
when four horfes are yoked, two a-breaft, this dillance
{hould only be about eighteen inches.
The Sock, BP, is fixed to the end of the head, Flo-
and is about two feet long. In fitting the fock to " ""
the head, the point ought to be turned a little to the
land or left fide *, becaufe otherwife it is apt to come
out of the land altogether. When turned to the
left, it likewife takes off more land ; when turned up¬
wards, the plough goes {hallowq and when downwards,
it goes deeper.
The Coulter, is fixed to the beam, and is about Fig-, c',
two feet ten inches long, two inches and a half broad,
{harp at the point and before, and thick on the back,
like
336 AGRICULTURE. Pradice.
InltrumentsUke a knife. It is ^xed and directed by wedges, fo as
°‘ to make the point of it equal to, or rather a little be-
. J' fore, the point of the fuck, and upon a line with the left
fide of the head. This oblique pofition enables it to
throw roots, &c. out of the land, which requires lefs
force than cutting or pufhing them forward.
Fig, I, The Wrest, ED, is fixed to the head, and is about
26 inches long, two broad, and one thick. It is fixed
to the head at B, in fuch a manner as to make the
angle contained between the lines AB and BD about
25 degrees. The wreft is feldom or never placed in
the fame plane with the head, but gradually railed from
the place where it is fixed to it 5 that is, from B to K,
as in fig. 8. The pofition of the wreft determines the
nature of the furrow. When the wreft is wide and
low fet, the furrow is wide ; and when it is narrow and
high fet, the furrow is narrow.
Fig. 9. reprefents the two Handles, fixed together
by the two rungs. The larger handle has already been
defcribed; the Idler one is a few inches fhorter, and
does not require to be quite fo ftrong. The diftance of
the handles at . the little rung depends on the pofition of
the wreft. Their diftance at M and P is about two
feet fix inches. The Idler handle is fixed to the mould-
board at M, fig. 10. and to the wreft KB, at L.’
Fig. 11. reprefents the plough complete, by joining
together figures 6. and 10. in the fheath E B. The
wreft BK is fuppofed to make an angle with the head
AB as in fig. 7. and the handles joined together as in
fig. 9.
After having given fuch a particular defcription of
all the parts and proportions of the Scots plough, it
will eafily appear how it feparates, raifes, and turns over
the earth of the furrow. If it had no coulter, the earth
would open above the middle of the fock, and in a line
before the (heath •, but as the coulter opens the earth
in a line with the left fide of the head, if the foil has
any cohefion, the earth of the furrow will be wholly
railed from the left fide, and, as the fock moves for¬
ward, will be thrown on the right fide of the (heath,
and by the cafting out of the mouldboard, or the rai¬
ling of the wreft, will be turned over.
Tig. 13. The Bridle, or Muzzle, is another article belong¬
ing to the plough. It is fixed to the end of the beam,
and the cattle are yoked by it. The muzzle commonly
ufed is a curved piece of iron, fixed to the beam by a
bolt through it. ABC is the muzzle, A C the bolt
by which it is fixed to the beam; 13 is the fwingle-tree
or crofs-tree, to which the traces are fixed ; and B is a
hook or cleek, as it is commonly called, which joins
the muzzle and fwingle-tree.
Fig. jj. Some ufe another kind of muzzle, A B C D. It is
fixed to the beam by two bolts, and has notches by
which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed ei¬
ther to the right or the left of the beam. There are
alfo different holes for the hind bolt to pafs through, by
which the draught may be fixed either above or below
the beam. A I) is the fore bolt upon which the
muzzle turns ; on B C are four notches, betwixt any
two of which the cleek of the fwingle-tree may be fixed.
When the cleek is fixed at B, the plough is turned to¬
wards the firm land, and takes off a broader furrow;
and when fixed at C, it is turned towards the plough¬
ed land, and takes off a narrower furrow. E and F
are the holes on each fide through wdfich the hindmoft
I
bolt paffes. When the bolt is put through the higheftInllrument*
two, thefe holes being thereby brought to the middle T of
of the beam, the fore part of the muzzle is raifed a- Hafbariur>; |
bove the beam, and the plough is made to go deeper, v
and when put through the loweft two, the fore part of
the muzzle is funk below the beam, and the plough is
made to go (hallower. This muzzle may be fo con-
ftrudfed as to have the fame play with the common one.
A is the end of the beam ; B a plate of iron funk in-pjc-.
to it, and, with a fimilar one in the other fide, is rivet-
led into it by bolts; C is the muzzle fixed to thefe plates
of iron by the bolt I), which bolt may be put through
any of the holes EE. From the conitruction of this
muzzle it is plain, that it has the fame play with the
common one, and that by it the land of the plough
may be altered at pleafure.
Of all forms, that of the Scots plough is the fit-Properties
teft for breaking up ftiff and rough land, efpeciallythe Sc£t3 J
where ftones abound ; and no lefs fit for ftrong clays^011^*
hardened by drought. The length of its head gives it
a firm hold of the ground ; its weight prevents it from
being thrown out by ftones ; the length of the handles
gives the ploughman great command to direft its mo¬
tion ; and by the length of its head, and of its mould-
board, it lays the furrow-flice cleverly over. This
plough was contrived during the infancy of agriculture,
and was well contrived : in the foils above defcribed
it has not an equal.
But in tender foil it is improper, becaufe it adds In what
greatly to the expence of ploughing, without any coun-1°^ linPrQ"
terbalancing benefit. The length of the head andPer'
mouldboard increafes the friction, and confequently it
requires a greater number of oxen or horfes than are
neceffary in a (horter plough. There is another par¬
ticular in its form that refifts the draught: the mould-
board makes an angle with the fock, inftead of making
a line with it gently curving backward. There is an
objection agahift it no lefs folid, that it does not ftir
the ground perfectly : the hinder part of the wreft
rifes a foot above the foie of the head : and the earth
that lies immediately below that hinder part, is left un-
ftirrecl. This is ribbing land below the furface, fimilar
to what is done by ignorant farmers on the furface.
Thefe defers muft be fubmitted to in a foil that re¬
quires a ftrong heavy plough; but may be avoided in
a cultivated foil by a plough differently conftrudted.
Of all the ploughs fitted for a cultivated foil free of
ftones, that already mentioned, which was introduced
into Scotland about 20 years ago, by James Small
in Blackadder Mount, Berwickfhire, is the beft. It
is now in great requeft ; and with reafon, as it avoids
all the defefts of the Scots plough. The (hortnefs of
its head and of its mouldboard lefien the fridtion great¬
ly : from the point of the fock to the back part of the
head it is only 30 inches; and the whole length,
from the point of the beam to the end of the handles,
between eight and nine feet. 1 he fock and mould-
board make one line gently curving ; and confequently
gather no earth. Inftead of a wreft, the under edge
of the mouldboard is one plain with the foie of the
head ; which makes a vide furrow, without leaving
any part unftirred. It is of late commonly termed the l x6
chain-plough, becaufe it is drawn by an iron chain Chain-
fixed to the back part of the beam immediately be-P 'uA _
fore the coulter. This has two advantages; firit. by h-‘ ^
means 4‘
Parti. . A G R I c U
Inftruments means ol' a muzzle, it makes the plough go deep or
of {hallow ; and, next, it ftreffes the beam lefs than it
Hufbandry. ^xe(j to point, and therefore a flenderer beam is
" fufficient.
As we have already fufficiently explained the fpecu-
lative principles upon which this plough is formed, we
{hall only remark, that it is proper for loams, for carfe
clays, and, in general, for every fort of tender foil
free of ilones. It is even proper for opening up pa-
fture ground, where the foil has been formerly v.'-d.
T4~ cultivated.
Qfthe fock. A fpiked fock is ufed in the Scots plough. . The
^late VII. difference between it and the feathered fock will be
bell underftood by comparing their figures. Fig. 14.
is the common fock, and fig. 15. the feathered one. _
From the conltrudtion of the feathered fock, it is
obvious, that it mull meet with greater refiilance than
the common fock. However, when the plough takes
off the earth of the furrow broader than that part of
the fock which goes upon the head, it is more eafily
drawn than the plough with the common fock ; for the
earth which the common fock leaves to be opened by
the wreft, is more eafily opened by the feather of the
other fock. In ley, the feathered fock makes the
plough go more eafily, becaufe the roots 01 the grab,
which go beyond the reach of the plough, are more
eafily cut by the feather than they can be torn afutider
by the common fock. The feathered fock is alio of
great ufe in cutting and deftroying root weeds. The
common fock, however, anfwers much better in flrong
land.
It is proper here to add, that in fitting the feathered
fock to the head, the point of it Ihould be turned a
little from the land, or a little to the right hand.
If we look back 40 years, ploughs of different con-
ftruftions did not enter even into a dream, d he Scots
plough was univerfally ufed, and no other was known.
There was no lefs ignorance as to the number of cattle
neceffary for this plough. In the fouth of Scotland,
fix oxen and two horfes were univerfal *, and in the
north, xo oxen, fometimes 12. I he firft attempt to
leffen the number of oxen was in Berwickihire. The
low part of that county abounds with ftone and clay
marl, the moft fubftantial of all manureSj which had
been long ufed by one or two gentlemen. About 30
years ago it acquired reputation, and fpread rapidly.
As two horfes and two oxen were employed in every
marl cart •, the farmer, in fummer fallowing, and in
preparing land for marl, was confined to four oxen and
two horfes. And as that manure afforded plenty of
fucculent draw for oxen, the farmer was furprifed to
find that four oxen did better now than fix formerly.
Marling, however, a laborious work, proceeded fiowly,
till people were taught by a noted farmer in that
country, what induffry can perform by means of power
properly applied. It was reckoned a mighty talk to
marl five or fix acres in a year. That gentleman, by
having plenty of red clover for his working cattle, ac-
compliihed the marling of 50 acres in a fummer, and
once of 54. Having fo much occafion for oxen, he tried
•with fuccefs two oxen and two horfes in a plough }
and'that praftice became general in Berwickihire.
Now'here appears -with luftre the advantage of the
chain-plough. The great friftion occafioned in the
.Scots plough by a long head, and by the angle it
Vo l* I. Part I,
14S
Ignorance
of farmers
In Scotland
but a few
years ago.
L T U R E. 337
makes with the mouldboard, neceffarily requires twoHdrumenu
oxen and two horfes, whatever the foil be. 1 he "'1C- Hufbandfy.
tion is fo much lefs in the chain-plough, that two good ^ ,
horfes are found fufficient in every foil that is proper I49
for it. Befides, the reducing the draught to a couple Advantages
of horfes has another advantage, that of rendering a of thee ham-
driver unneceffary. This faving on every Pl°Uj? ]’ticularly il-
where two horfes and two oxen were formerly uled, luftrated*
will, by the ftridfeff computation, be 151“ hurling
yearly ; and where four horfes were ufed, no lefs than
20I. fterling. There is now fcarce to be feen in the
low country of Berwickihire, or in the Lothian?, a
plough with more than two horles •, which undoubted¬
ly in time will become general. We know7 but of one
further improvement, that of ufing twro oxen inilead ot
two horfes. That draught has been employed with
fuccefs in feveral places and the faving L fo great,
that it muff force its way everywhere, providing only
a breed of oxen with a quick ftep could be obtained.
It may be confidently affirmed, no foil itirred in a pro¬
per feafon, can ever require more than two horfes and
two oxen in a plough, even the ftiffefl clay. In all
other foils, two good horfes, or two good oxen abreaft*
may be relied on for every operation of the chain-
plough.
A chain-plough of a fmaller fize than ordinary,
drawn by a fingle horfe, is of all the moft proper
for horfe-hoeing, fuppofing the land to be mellow,
which it ought to be for that operation. It is fuffi¬
cient for making furrow's to receive the dung, for
ploughing the drills after dunging, and for hoeing the
crop. . TS®
A ftill fmaller plough of the fame kind may be re- A fmall
commended for a kitchen garden. It can be reduced
to the fmalleft ftze, by being made of iron 5 and where coiriniemi_
the land is properly dreffed for a kitchen garden, an e(j for va_
iron plough of the fmalleft fize drawn by a horfe will rious pur-
fave much fpade-work. In Scotland, forty years ago, P«fes-
a kitchen garden was an article of luxury merely, be¬
caufe at that time there could be no cheaper food than
oatmeal. At prefent, the farmer maintains his fervants
at double expence, as the price of oatmeai is doubled }
and yet he has no notion of a kitchen garden more
than he had thirty years ago. He never thinks, that
living partly on cabbage, kail, turnip, carrot, would
fave much oatmeal : nor does he ever think, that
change of food is1 more wholefome, than vegetables
alone, or oatmeal alone. V e need not recommend
potatoes, which in fcanty crops of corn have proved
a great bleffing : without them, the labouring poor
would frequently have been reduced to a ftarving con¬
dition. Would the farmer but cultivate his kitchen
garden wTith as much induftry as he beftows on his po¬
tato crop, he needed never fear wrant 5 and he can cul¬
tivate it with the iron plough at a very xmaii expence.
It may be held by a boy of 12 or 1 3 ; and would be a
proper education for a ploughman. But it is the land¬
lord who ought to give a beginning to the improve¬
ment. A very fmall expcnce would enclofe an acre
for a kitchen garden to each of his tenants 5 and li.
would excite their induftry, to bellow an iron plougu
on thofe who do be ft. (
Nor is this the only cafe where a fingle horfe plougn
may be profitably employed. It is fufficient for feed-
furrowing barley, where the land is light and well-
U u dreffed*
333
Initrumeats drefled. It may be uied in the feeond or third plough-
Hufbandry. ^a^ow» to encourage annual weeds, which are
w—^   deltroyed in fubfequent ploughings.
151 The Rot her am plough is a machine of very fimple
Rotheram conftruftion, and eafily worked. AB is the beam
Ham IX C1) the fheath’ F-BD the main handle, FR the fmall-
fJ!7. 3. ‘ ' er handle, GH the coulter, KI the lock or lliare, NP
the bridle, S the fly-band, and MI* a piece of wood
in place oi a head. The whole of this plough fhould
be made of alh or elm ; the irons fhould be Heeled and
well tempered ; and that part of the plough which is
under ground in tilling fhould be covered with plates
of iron. The difference between this and the common
plough feems to confift in the bridle at the end of the
beam, by which the ploughman can give the plough
more or lefs land by notches at N, or make it cut deep¬
er or fhallower by the holes at P ; in the coulter or
fhare, which are fo made and fet as to cut off the new
furrow without tearing; and in the mouldboard, which
is fo fhaped at firft to raife a little, and then gradually
turn over, the new cut furrowr with very little refiflance.
But the greateft advantage attending it, is its beino- fo
eafy of draught, that it will do double the work of any
r52 common plough.
The Paring The paring plough is an inflrument ufed in feveral
TKwti paitS £nSland Pc>r Paiaug off the furface of the
% 4. " ’ gfound> in orcier t0 its being burnt. Mr Bradley has
given the following defcription of a very fimple inftru-
ment of this kind: From A to A (fig. 15.) is the
plough-beam, about feven feet long, mortifed and pi¬
nioned into the block B, which is of clean timber with¬
out knots. CC are the fheaths or flandards, made flat
on the infide, to clofe equally with the paring plate,
and faftened to it with a bolt and key on each fide, as
at D. E is the paring plate of iron laid with Heel,
about four inches w ide, and from 12 to 18 inches long.
This plate muft be made to cut on the fides, which are
bolted to the flandards as well as at the bottom part.
FF are two iron braces to keep the flandards from giv¬
ing wray : thefe flandards mull be mortifed near their
outfides and through the block. GG are the plough
handles, which muft be fixed flopeways between the
beam and the ftandards. The pin holes in the beam,
the ufe of which is to make this plough cut more or
lefs deep, by fixing the wheels nearer to or farther
from the paring plate, fhould not be above two inches
^ _ afunder.
The Four- ^ 'g- 1 • reprefents the four-coultered plough of Mr
coultered T ull. Its beam is ten feet four inches long, wdiereas
Plough, that of the common plough is but eight. The beam
- me IX. itraight in the common plough, but in this it is
ftraight only from a to h, and thence arched ; fo that
the line let down perpendicularly from the corner at
to the even furface on which the plough Hands, would
be 1 i-j- inches^ and if another line were let down from
the turning of the beam at b to the fame furface, it
would be one foot eight inches and a half; and a third
line let dowm to the furface from the bottom of the
beam at that part which bears upon the pillow, wall
(how the beam to be two feet ten inches high in that
part. At the diftance of three feet twTo inches from
the end of the beam a, at the plough-tail, the firft coul¬
ter, or that next the fhare, is let through ; and at 13.
inches from this, a fecond coulter is let through :'a third
kt the fame diftance from that; and, finally, the fourth
Pra&ice,
at the fame diftance from the third, that is, 13 inches, Inftruments
and from « to £ is feven feet. of
The crookednefs of the upper part of the beam 0fHufbanc!r^
this plough is contrived to avoid the too great length
of the three foremoft coulters, which would be too
much if the beam was ftraight all the way ; and they
would be apt to bend and be difplaced, unlefs they
were very heavy and clumfy. Afti is the beft wood to
make the beam of, it being fufficiently ftrong, and yet
light. The fheat in this plough is to be feven inches
broad. The fixing of the fhare in this, as well as in
the common plough, is the niceft part, and requires
the utmoft art of the maker ; for the well-going of the
plough wholly depends upon the placing this. Sup-
pofmg the axis of the beam, and the left fide of the
fliare, to be both horizontal, they muft never be fet
parallel to each other ; for if they are, the tail of the
fliare bearing againft the trench as much as the point,
would caufe the point to incline to the right hand, and
it would be carried out of the ground into the furrow.
If the point of the fliare fhould be fet fo, that its fide
fhould make an angle on the right fide of the axis of
the beam, this inconvenience would be much greater ;
and ii its point ftiould incline much to the left, and
make too large an angle on that fide with the axis of
the beam, the plough would run quite to the left hand;
and if the holder, to prevent its running quite ont of
the ground, turns the upper part of his plough to¬
wards the left hand, the pin of the ftiare will rife up,
and cut the furrow diagonally, leaving it half unplough¬
ed. To avoid this and feveral other inconveniences,
the ftraight fide of the fhare muft make an angle upon
the left lide of the beam ; but that muft be fo very
acute a one, that the tail of the fliare may only prefs
lefs againft the fide of the trench than the point does.
This angle is fhown by the pricked lines at the bottom
of fig. 9. where ef is fuppofed to be the axis of the
beam let down to the furface, and gf parallel to the
left fide of the ftiare : and it is the fubtenfe eg that
determines the inclination which the point of the
ftiare muft have towards the left hand. This fubtenfe,
fays Mr Tull, at the fore-end of au eight-feet beam,
ftiould never be more than one inch and a half, and
whether the beam be long or fliort, the fubtenfe muft
be the fame.
The great thing to be taken care of, is the placing
the four coulters ; which muft be fo fet, that the four
imaginary places defcribed by their four edges, as the
plough moves forward, may be all parallel to each
other, or very nearly fo ; for if any one of them ftiould
be very much inclined to, or ftiould recede much from,
either of the other, then they would not enter the
ground together. In order to place them thus, the
beam muft be carefully pierced in a proper manner.
The fecond coulter-hole muft be two inches and a half
more on the right hand than the firft, the third muft
be as much more to the right of the fecond, and the
fourth the fame meafure to the right hand of the third ;
and this two inches and a half muft be carefully mea-
fured from the centre of one hole to the centre of the
other. Each of thefe holes is a mortife of an inch
and a quarter wide, and three inches and a half long
at the top, and three inches at the bottom. The two
oppofite fides of this hole are parallel to the top and
bottom, but the back is oblique, and determines the
obliquity
A GRI.CULTURE.
Part I. A G R I C U
Inftruments obliquity of the ftanding of the coulte-r,^ which is
ot wedged tight up to the poll. The coultei is two feet
Hutbandry. JncVies long before it is worn} the handle takes
1 ' up iixteen inches of this length, and is allowed thus
long, that the coulter may be driven down as the point
, wears away. As to the wheels, the left hand wheel
is 20 inches diameter, and that*on the right hand twro
feet three inches, and the diftance at which they are
fet from each other is two feet 54 inches.
2. The Patent Sward-cutter.
154 r
Patent The different parts of this inftrument are reprefent-
Sward- e(i by 1.2. 3. of fig. 6. AA, &c. a fquare frame
“lt[er’x three feet four inches from the fore to the hind part,
by four feet three inches, the breadth of the machine
within fide ; the timber (when of fir) four inches
fquare, placed on twTo wheels ,rB.B three feet diameter,
a little more or lefs (the old fore-wheels of a chaife
may anfwer the purpofe), to fupport the hind part of
the machine.
CC, &c. are fix ftrong pieces of wood, called bulls,
three feet long, five inches and a half broad, the thick-
nefs fix inches at E, and tapering to three inches at F.
Into thefe bulls are fixed the cutting wlieels, which
are iron, 13 inches diameter, ^ths of an inch thick at
the centre, about an inch diameter, for piercing holes
to fix the iron axles in ; from that they are to be of
fuch thicknefs, as allow the edges to be well fteeled.
The wheels are fixed by two bolts going through the
bulls, with eyes on one end for the axles of the wheels
to run in, and nuts and fcrews on the other to make
them very firm by being funk in the bulls, to prevent
■ their interfering wdth the weights LL, &c. refting on
them.
GG, Stc. are hollow pieces of wood, called thorles,
each 34 inches long, which enclofe the bolt MM, and
keep the bulls CC, &c. at their proper diftances, but
may be made longer or {hotter at pleafure, according
as the fward requires to be cut in larger or fmaller
pieces. They are in twro pieces bound together, and
jointed by a ftrap of leather or cord, which allows
them to be readily changed when the cutting wrheels
require to be kept at more or lefs difiance.
The iron bolt MM goes through two pieces of
wood or iron PP, feven inches long, clear of the wuod,
fupported by iron ftays fixed to the frame, and through
all the bulls. It requires to" be ftrong, as the draught
of the horfes terminates there.
HH, N° 2. and 3. a cylinder or fegment of wood,
feven inches diameter, called a rocking tree, which
goes acrofs the frame, and moves on the pivots fixed
into it, one at each end, fupported by an iron bolt or
piece of wood mortified into the frame, eight inches
high, as appears in N° 2. and 3. to which fix chains or
ropes are fixed by hooks, at different diftances, as you
want your cuts, nine, eight, feven, or fix inches from
one another, and are joined to the end of each bull in
which the cutting wheels run *, fo that when the rock¬
ing tree is turned about by the lever I, fixed in the
middle of it, all the bulls, with their cutting^wheels,
are railed out of the ground at once, as in N° 3. by
which means the machine may be turned, or moved
from place to place with great eafe, without any dan¬
ger of {training the wheels.
LLL, &c, N° 1. 2. 3. are weights of freeftone,
L T U R E. 339
26 inches long and fix inches broad^ the under one Mreinents
four inches thick, the upper one three inches thick ;
weighing about 641b. the under, and 48 the^ upper ; > —r-*
each of them having two holes, through which iron
fpikes, firmly fixed in the bulls, pafis, in order to keep
them fteady.
When the ground is eafily cut, the under ftone may
anfwer ; when more difficult, the other ftone may be
added j fo that every wheel may have^ feven ftone
weight upon it, which has been found fufficient for the
ftiffeft land and tougheft fward the machine has ever
been tried on. Call iron weights will anfwer fully
better, but are more expenfive.
The lever I, N° 2. 3. which ought to be five feet
long, muft have a Aiding rope on it ; fixed to the back
part of the frame ; fo that when the cutting wheels
are all taken out of the ground three or four inches,
by the rocking tree’s being turned partly round by the
lever, the rope may be fixed to it by a loop over the
pin R, N° 3. (it ought to be placed three feet four
inches from the extremity of the lever I.) M hus all
the cutting wheels are kept out of the ground till tlm
machine is turned j and then by moving the loop off
the pin, it (lips back towards the frame, and the lever
is gently let back to its place, as in N° 2. by which
the cutting wheels are put into their former pofture,
by the wreights fixed on the bulls in which they run.
The levers may be made of good tough affi.
P P, N° I. a fmall bolt of iron, with a hook on one
end of it (one is fufficient), to ftrengthen the bolt
M M to be hooked on the centre of it, and joined to
the frame by a nut and ferew.
The grooves in which the cutting wheels run, may
be covered below at the hinder part with a plate of
thin black iron, 6 inches long, 3 inches broad,_ having
a flit in it wffiere the wheels run, to prevent (if found
neceffary) any grafs, weeds, or {mall ftones, from fill¬
ing the grooves, and clogging the wheels.
To the frame N° 1. are fixed (for a double-horfe
fward-cutter) three {hafts, as in a waggon, of fuch
length, ftrength, and diftance from one another, as any
workman may think proper.
For a fingle-horfe fward-cutter (which has only four
cutting wheels), a pair of (hafts are ufed, and may
make the two fides of the frame without any joinings.
The width of the frame, in proportion to the double-
horfe fward-cutter, is as four to fix.
It is recommended for a double-horfe fward-cutter
to have eight bulls and wdieels, in order that vffien it
is ufed to reduce hard clody iummer-fallow, or Iftnd
for barley, before the laft furrow, or even after it, the
■whole weight (42 ftone) employed in cutting the ftift-
eft land and tougheft frvard, may be applied to the 8
bulls then at 6 inches from one another. 1 he 641b.
weights to be applied to fix of the bulls, and two of the
481b. weights to each of the additional bulls, which is
a fufficient weight for the purpofe, and will effeftually
prevent a clod of more than fix inches breadth from
efcaping being broke into pieces.
In the fame manner, a fingle-horfe fward-cutter may
have fix bulls for the above-mentioned purpofe j the 28
ftone belonging to it divided thus : I he 64th• weights
to four of the bulls, and two of the 481b. weights to
each of the additional bulls.
That the machine may come as cheap as poffible to
U u 2 the
34° A G R I C
Inftruments the public, the inventor is of opinion, that the expence
Hufbandry °f two wheeIs and the jron axle (which is confx-
. —y_. derable) may be faved, by joining ftrongly to the frame
at S, N° 3. a piece of wood wuth a little curve at the
extremity of it, refembling the foot of a fledge for¬
merly much ufed in Scotland to carry in the corn from
the field j the part of it refting on the ground being
kept 18 inches (the half diameter of the wheels) from
the frame by a ftrong fupport of wood.
As the two outer bulls next the frame are apt to
get under it, fo as to prevent the cutting wheels from
being taken out of the ground, a thin flip of iron fixed
to the infide of the frame, nearly oppofite to the back
end of the bulls, of convenient length, will be found
neceflary.
The original intention of this machine was to pre¬
pare old grafs ground for the plough, by cutting it
acrofs the ridges, in the beginning of or during win¬
ter, when the ground is foft, in order to anfwer all
the purpofes that Mr Tull propofed by his four-coulter
plough above defcribed, and fo ftrongly recommended
by him for bringing into tilth grafs ground that has
been long refted. This the fward-cutter has been
found to do much more effectually and expeditioufly :
For Mr Tull’s machine cuts the fward in the fame di¬
rection with the plough 5 and is liable, from every ob-
ftruction any of the coulters meet with, to be thrown
out of its work altogether, or the inftrument broken ;
to which the fward-cutter, confifting of four, fix, or
more cutting wheels, is never liable, from thefe being
entirely independent of one another, cutting the ground
acrofs the ridges before ploughing, and rendering that
operation eafier to two horfes than it would be to three,
without its being cut. The furrow being cut acrofs,
falls finely from the plough in fquares of any fize re¬
quired, not under fix inches, in place of long flips of
tough fward feldom and imperfectly broke by the four-
coultered plough.
This inftrument is very fit for preparing ground for
burnbating, as it will fave much hard labour.
It may be properly ufed in crofs-cutting clover of
one or two years Handing, to prepare the ground for
w heat, if the land is ftiff and moift enough.
It may be applied to cutting and crofs-cutting pa-
fture ground, intended to have manure of any kind put
upon it to meliorate the grafs. In this it will far ex¬
ceed the fcarificator mentioned in one of Mr Young’s
tours ; as that inftrument is liable, as well as the four-
coultered plough, to be thrown out of its work when
meeting with a ftone or other interruption. This the
fward-cutter is proof againft, which is looked on as its
greateft excellence.
In preparing for barley, the fward-cutter excels a
roller of any kind in reducing the large hard clods in
clay land, occafioned by a hidden drought, after its
being ploughed too wet 5 and it is likewife very pro¬
per for reducing fuch clay land when under a fummer-
fallow. In this operation, the fward-cutter is greatly
to be preferred to the cutting-roller, likewife men¬
tioned by Mr Young in one of his tours ; for the
wheels of the latter being all dependent one on ano¬
ther, when one is thrown out by a ftone, three or four
muft ftiare the fame fate. Eefides, the cutting-roller
has but feven wheels in fix feet; whereas the fward-
< utter has fix in four feet three in<,'hes? at nine inches
U L 1 U R E. Practice.
diftant 5 and, if neceffary, may have them fo near as Inftruments
fix inches. of
After old grafs ground is cut acrofs with the fward- Hl,fbandT
cutter and ploughed, it has a very uncommon and '
worklike appearance, from each fquare turned over by
the plough being railed up an inch or two at the fide
laft moved by the earthboard ; fo that the field when
finiflied, is all prettily waved, and refembles a piece of
water when blown on by a gentle breeze. Ey this
means a very great deal of the land’s furfacc is expofed
to the froft and other influences of the air, which can¬
not fail to have a good effect on it.
Two horfes are lufficient for the draught of a double-
horfe fward-cutter, and one horfe for a fingle-horfe one.
One man manages the machine and drives the horfes.
He begins his operation by firft meafuring off 20 or 30
paces from the machine, lefs or more as he inclines,
and there fixes a pole. He then cuts the field crofs, as
near at right angles with the ridges as he can. When
the cutting wheels are paft the laft furrow about a
yard or fo, and the machine is upon the utmoft ridge
of the field on which it muft turn, he muft ftop the
horfes j then take hold of the lever I, N° 2. and by
pulling it to him be raifes the cutting wheels out of
the ground, which are kept fo by the loop of the rope
being put over the pin R, in the lever I, N° 3. till the
machine is turned and brought to its proper place,,
which is done by meafuring off the fame diftance for¬
merly done on the oppofite fide of the field. When
the cutting wheels are exaftly over the outmoft furrow,,
then, on the horfes being flopped, the rope is llipt off
the pin R, and the lever returned to its former place,,
as reprefented N° 2. wdiich allows the weights LL, &c„
to force the cutting wheels into the ground again. He
then goes on until the interval betwixt the firft and fe-
cond ftroke of the machine is all cut. In this manner
the field is to be finifhed, after which you may begin
to plough when you pleafe. (N. R. There muft be a
pole at each fide of the field.)
It is of no confequence whether the land to be
fward-cut is in crooked ridges or ftraight, in flat ridges
or in very high raifed ones. Be the furface ever fo un¬
even, the cutting wheels, being all independent of one
another, are forced by their weights into every furrow
or hollow.
One fward-cutter will cut as much in one day as fix
ploughs will plough.
1 he land may lie feveral months in ufinter after be¬
ing fward-cut, when there is no vegetation to make
the cuts grow together again before it is ploughed j
but the fooner it is ploughed after cutting the better,
that it may have the benefit of all the winter’s froft,
which makes it harrow better at feed time.
When the ground is harrowed, the harrows ought
to go with the waves which appear after ploughing,
not againft them, as by that means they are lefs apt to
tear up the furrows all cut into fquares. This, howr-
ever, need only be attended to the two firft times of
harrowing, as they are called.
Any common wright and fmith may make the in¬
ftrument. It is very ftrong, very fimple, and eafily
managed and moved from place to place } and, if put
under cover, will laft many years.
It wTas invented fome time ago by the Honourable
Robert Saudilacds ? and is reprefented in the Plate as
Part I.
AGRI CULT U
Inftrumeots it has been lately improved by him, the price being at
of, the fame time reduced from i cl. or 16I. to cl. or 61.
Hufbandry. J
3. The Cultivator.
This inftrument was invented by Mr William Lefter
of Northampton; and that gentleman received, from
the Society for the encouragement of Arts, the fociety’s
lilver medal. The purpofe of this inftrument is to pul¬
verize tenacious foils that have been once plowed, in a
much more complete and rapid manner than can be
accompliftied by any other Lnftrument. It is thus de-
fcribed, Plate XII.—A, the beam j BB, the handles j
CC, a crofs bar of a femicircular form containing a
number of holes, which allow the two bars DD to be
placed nearer or further from each other.
DD are two ftrong bars moveable at one end upon
a pivot E, and extending from thence in a triangular
form to the crofs bar C. In thefe bars are fquare holes,
which allow the fhares F placed therein to be fixed to
any height required.
The feven fliares marked F, are fhaped at their lower
extremities like fmall trowels j the upper parts of them
are fquare iron bars.
GGG are three iron wheels on which the ma¬
chine, is moved; they may be raifed or lowered at
pleafure.
H, the iron hook to which the fwingle-tree and
horfes are to be fixed.
When the machine is firft employed on the land, the
bars DD are expanded as much as pofiible. As the
foil is more loofened, they are brought nearer to the
centre *, the fliares then occupy a lefs fpace, and the
foil will confequently be better pulverized.
In working on a rough fallow, therefore, the culti¬
vator fliould be fet for its greateft expanfion, and con-
tra&ed in proportion as the clods are reduced. The
inventor declares himfelf confident that one man, a
boy, and fix horfes, will move as much land in a day,
and as effectually, as fix ploughs, meaning land in a fal¬
low ftate that has been previoufly plowed. It is requi-
fite in fome ftates of the foil to alter the breadth of the
lhares, but of this it is prefumed that every farmer will
be a proper judge. By the expanfion and contraftion of
the cultivator, the points of the ftiares are in a fmall
degree moved out of the direft line ; but this is faid to
be fo trifling as to prove no impediment to its working.
A certificate from Mr William Shaw of Cottenend,
near Northampton, ftates, that he had ufed Mr Lef-
ter’s cultivator, upon a turnip fallow in fummer 1800 j
and that he believes it to be a very ufeful implement
for cultivating the land in a fallow ftate by its working
or fcuffling off feven acres per day with fix horfes. He
adds, that from its property of contra&ing and expand¬
ing, it is calculated to work the fame land in a rough
or fine ftate, by wrhich means it unites the principles of
two implements in one, and by the index on the axis
it may be w®rked at any depth if required.
4. The Brake.
„ 156
Brake de-
fcribed,
The brake is a large and weighty harrow, the pur¬
pofe of which is to reduce a ftubborn foil, where an
Plate VIII. ordinary harrow makes little impreflion. It confifts of
2* four fquare bulls, each fide five inches, and fix feet and
a half in length. The teeth are 17 inches long, bend¬
ing forward like a coulter, Jour, of them are inferted
R E. 341
into each bull, fixed above with a fcrew-nut, having Inftruments
12 inches free below, with a heel clofe to the under part „ of ,
of the bull, to prevent it from being puflied back by . !lry’.
ftones. The nut above makes it eafy to be taken out
for fharping. This brake requires four horfes or four
oxen. One of a leffer fize will not fully anfwer the
purpofe : one of a larger fize will require fix oxen ; in
which cafe the wTork may be performed at lefs expence
with the plough.
This inftrument may be applied to great advantage Ufesf
in the following circumftances. In the fallowing ftrong
clay that requires frequent ploughings, a braking be¬
tween every ploughing will pulverize the foil, and ren¬
der the fubfequent ploughings more eafy. In the
month of March or April, wdien ftrong ground i^
ploughed for barley, efpecially if bound with couch-
grafs, a crofs-braking is preferable to a crofs-plough-
ing, and is done at half the expence. When ground
is ploughed from the ftate of nature, and after a com¬
petent time is crofs-ploughed, the brake is applied with
great fuccefs, immediately after the crofs-ploughing,
to reduce the wrhole to proper tilth.
Let it be obferved, that a brake with a greater num¬
ber of teeth than above mentioned, is improper for
ground that is bound together by the roots of plants,
which is always the cafe of ground new7 broken up from
its natural ftate. The brake is foon choked, and can
do no execution till freed from the earth it holds. A
lefs number of teeth would be deficient in pulverizing
the foil.
4. The Harrow.
Harrows are commonly confidered as of no ufe but
to cover the feed ; but they have another ufe fcarce lefs
effential, wThich is to prepare land for the feed. This
is an article of importance for producing a good crop.
But how imperfe&ly either of thefe purpofes is per¬
formed by the common harrow, will appear from the
following account of it.
The harrow commonly ufed is of different forms. imperfec_
The firft w7e ftiall mention has two bulls, four feet long tion of the
and 18 inches afunder, wTith four wooden teeth in each, common
A fecond has three bulls, and 12 wooden teeth. A harrow,
third has four bulls, and 20 teeth of w7ood or iron,
10, 11, or 12 inches afunder. Now, in fine mould,
the laft may be fufficient for covering the feed 5 but
none of them are fufficient to prepare for the feed any
ground that requires fubduing. The only tolerable
form is that with iron teeth j and the bare defcription
of its imperfeftionS will ffiow the neceflity of a more
perfect form. In the firft place, this harrow is by far
too light for ground new taken up from the ftate of
nature, for clays hardened wTith fpring drought, or
for other ftubborn foils : it floats on the furface ; and
after frequent returns in the fame track, nothing is
done effedtually. In the next place, the teeth are too
thick fet, by wffiich the harrow is apt to be choked^
efpecially where the earth is bound with roots, which
is commonly the cafe.. At the fame time, the lightnefs
and number of teeth keep the harrow7 upon the furface,
and prevent one of its capital purpofes, that of dividing
the foil : nor will fewer teeth anfwer for covering the
feed properly. In the third place, the teeth are too
ftiort for reducing a coarfe foil to proper tilth 5 and
yet it. wuuld. be in vain to make them longer, becaufe
the
342 A G R I C U
Inltruments the harrow is too light for going deep into the ground.
°* . Further, the common harrows are fo ill conftrufted, as
to ride at every turn one upon another. Much time is
loll in difengaging them. Laftly, It is equally unfit
for extirpating weeds. The ground is frequently fo
bound with couch-grafs, as to make the furrow-flice
ftand upright, as when old ley is ploughed : notwith-
ftanding much labour, the grafs roots keep the field,
and gain the victory.
A little reflexion, even without experience, will
make it evident, that the fame harrows, whatever be
the form, can never anfwer all the different purpofes of
harrowing, nor can operate equally in all different foils,
rough or fmooth, firm or loofe. The following, there¬
fore, have been recommended ; which are of three dif¬
ferent forms, adapted for different purpofes. They
are all of the fame weight, drawn each by two horfes.
Birch is the beft wood for them, becaufe it is cheap,
Improved and not apt to fplit. The firft is compofed of four
harrows, bulls, each four feet ten inches long, three and a quar-
^ la16 VIH-ter inches broad and three and a half deep j the in-
* terval between the bulls 11 and three fourths inches $
fo that the breadth of the whole harrow is four feet,
The bulls are connefled by four fheths, which go thro’
each bull, are are fixed by timber nails driven through
both. In each bull five teeth are inferted, ten inches
free under the bull, and ten inches afunder. They are
of the fame form with thofe of the brake, and inferted
into the wood in the fame manner. Each of thefe teeth
*is three pounds weight: and where the harrow is made
of birch, the weight of the whole is fix ftone 14 pounds,
Dutch. An eredl bridle is fixed at a corner of the
harrow, three inches high, with four notches for draw¬
ing higher or lower. To this bridle a double tree is
fixed for two horfes drawing abreaft, as in a plough.
And to ftrengthen the harrow, a flat rod of iron is
ndiled upon the harrow from corner to corner in the
line of the draught.
j.- The fecond harrow confifls of two parts, connefted
0 * together by a crank or hinge in the middle, and two
chains of equal length, one at each end, which keep
the two parts always parallel, and at the fame diftance
from each other. The crank is fo contrived, as to al¬
low the two parts to ply to the ground like two un-
connefted harrows j but neither of them to rife above
the other, more than if they were a Angle harrow
without a joint. In a word, they may form an angle
downward, but not upward. Thus they have the ef-
feft of two harrows in curved ground, and of one
weighty harrow in a plain. This harrow is compofed
of fix bulls, each four feet long, three inches broad,
and three and a half deep. The interval between the
bulls nine and a half inches ; which makes the breadth
of the wdiole harrow, including the length of the crank,
to be five feet five inches. Each bull has five teeth,
nine inches free under the wood, and ten inches afun¬
der. The weight of each tooth is two pounds $ the
reft as in the former.
*.• . The third confifts alfo of two parts, conne&ed to-
b gether like that laft mentioned. It has eight bulls,
each four feet long, two and a half inches broad, and
three deep. The interval between the bulls is eight
inches ; and the breadth of the whole harrow, inclu¬
ding the length of the crank, is fix feet four inches.
In each bull are inferted five teeth, teven inches free
z
L T U R E. Practice.
under the wood, and ten and an half inches afunder, Itiftruments
each tooth weighing one pound. The reft as in the of
two former harrows. Hribandry.
Thefe harrows are a confiderable improvement. They ^
ply to curved ground like twro unconnedted harrows ; properties
and when drawn in one plane, they are in effeft one of thefe
harrow of double weight, which makes the teeth pierce harrows,
deep into the ground. The imperfedlion of common
harrows, mentioned above, will fiiggeft the advantages
of the fet of harrows here recommended. The firft is
proper for harrowing land that has long lain after
ploughing, as where oats are fown on a winter furrow,
and in general for harrowing ftiff land : it pierces deep
into the foil by its long teeth, and divides it minutely.
The fecond is intended for covering the feed : its long
teeth lays the feed deeper than the common harrow can
do ; which is no flight advantage. By placing the feed
confiderably under the furface, the young plants are,
on the one hand, protected from too much heat, and,
on the other, have fufficieney of moifture. At the
fame time, the feed is fo "well covered that none of it
is loft. Seed flightly covered by the common harrows
wants moifture, and is burnt up by the fun j befide,
that a proportion of it is left upon the furface uncover¬
ed. The third harrow fupplies what may be deficient
in the fecond, by fmoothing the furface, and covering
the feed more accurately. The three harrows make
the ground finer and finer, as heckles do lint j or, to
ufe a different companion, the firft harrow makes the
bed, the fecond lays the feed in it, the third fmooths
the clothes. They have another advantage not infe¬
rior to any mentioned : they mix manure with the
foil more intimately than can be done by common har¬
rows ; and upon fuch intimate mixture depends greatly
the effe& of manure, as has already been explained.
To conclude, thefe harrows are contrived to anfwer an
eftablilhed principle in agriculture, That fertility de¬
pends greatly on pulverizing the foil, and on an inti¬
mate mixture of manure with it, whether dung, lime,
marl, or any other.
The Chain and Screw Harrow. Fig. 8. is the plan pjate vill.
of a harrow alfo invented by Mr Sandijands, and to
which he has given the name of the chciin and Jcrew
harrow. Its properties are, that if your ridges be
high, and you wifh to harrowr them from one end to the
other, by lengthening the chain (which the ferew com¬
mands), the harrow', when drawn along, fofpas an angle,
downwards, and miffes none of the curve of the ridge,
fo far as it extends (which may be nine feet, the di¬
ftance from A to B. The extent, in the contrary di-
reftion, is five feet fix inches). When the crowns of the
ridges have got what is thought a fuflacient harrowing
lengthwife, you fhorten the chain by the ferew, which
forms an angle upwards \ the harrow is then drawn by
the horfes, one on each fide of the furrow ; which com¬
pletely harrows it, and the fide of the ridges, if 18 feet
broad.
When you want to harrow' even ground or high
ridges acrofs with the ferew, you can bring the har¬
row to be horizontal, fo as to work as a folid harrow
without a joint.
The teeth are formed and fixed in the common man-
mer, fquare, not in the falhion of coulters \ and are nine
or ten inches below the wood, and of fuch ftrength as
it is thought the land requires. The teeth cut, or ra¬
ther
Part I. AGRICULTURE. 343
laftmments tlier tear, the ground at every four inches without va~
nation, though feemingly placed irregularly; and this
H'.ifbrau i) • wjt^out any Qf choking, except fometimes at the ex-
%l. v ' treme angles, where the teeth are neceffarily near each
other} but which may be cleaned with the greateft
eafe, by railing them a little from the ground. The
ligures i, 2, &c. point out where the 12 teeth on each
fide of the hamnv are placed.
Where a ftrong brake-harrow is not neceiTary, by
making the teeth Ihorter and lighter you may have 48
teeth, which wrill tear the ground at every two inches,
coyer the feed well, and make a fine mould.
It is recommended, that harrows for every purpofe,
and of any fize, be made on the above principle ; by
which no tooth can ever follow the track of another,
aad all of them will be kept conftantly afting.
5. The Roller.
The roller. The roller is an inftrument of capital ufe in hulban-
dry, though, till of late years, fcarcely known in ordi~
nary praftice •, and where introduced, it is commonly
fo flight as to have very little effeft.
Rollers are of different kinds j ftone, caft-iron, wood.
Each of thefe has its advantages. We would recom-
. pa end the laft, conftrufted in the following manner :
Take the body of a tree, fix feet ten inches long, the
larger the better, made as near a perfeft cylinder as
poflible. Surround this cylinder with three ro\js of
fillies, one row in the middle, and one at each end.
Line thefe fillies with planks of wood equally long with
the roller, and fo narrow as to ply into a circle. Bind
them fad together with iron rings. Beech wood is the
belt, being hard and tough. The roller, thus mount¬
ed, ought to have a diameter of three feet ten inches.
It has a double pair of lhafts for two horfes abreaft.
Thefe are fuflicient in level ground; in ground not le¬
vel, four horfes may be neceffary. The roller without
the fliafts ought to weight 2CO ftone Dutch j and the
large diameter makes this great weight eafy to be
T62 flrawn*
Seafon for Rolling wheat in the month of April is an import¬
rolling. ant article in loofe foil •, as the winter rains prefling
down the foil leave many roots in the air. Barley
ought to be rolled immediately after the feed is fown 5
efpecially where grafs feeds are fown with it. The
beft time for rolling a gravelly foil, is as foon as the
mould is fo dry as to bear the roller without clinging
to it. A clay foil ought neither to be tilled, harrowed,
nor rolled, till the field be perfectly dry. And as
rolling a clay foil is chiefly intended for fmoothing the
furface, a dry feafon may be patiently waited for, even
till the crop be three inches high. There is the greater
reafon for this precaution, becaufe much rain imme¬
diately after rolling is apt to cake the furface when
drought follows. Oats in a light foil may be rolled
immediately after the feed is fown, unlefs the ground
be fo wet as to cling to the roller. In a clay foil, de¬
lay rolling till the grain be above ground. The pro¬
per time for fowing grafs feeds in an oat field, is when
the grain is three inches high j and rolling (herald im¬
mediately fucceed, whatever the foil be. Flax ought
to be rolled immediately after fowing. This flaould
never be neglefted ; for it makes the feed pufli equally,
and prevents after-growth j the bad effe<51 of which is
vifible in every ftep of the procefsfor drefling flax. The
firft year’s crop of fown graffes ought to be rolled as Inftruments
early the next fpring as the ground will bear the horles.
It fixes all the roots precifely as in the cafe of wheat. , ' ^ j
Rolling the fecond and third crops in loofe foil is an
ufeful work 5 though not fo effential as rolling the firft
crop. 163
In the firft place, rolling renders a loofe foil more com- EfTed s of
pa£t and folid 5 wdlieh encourages the growth of plants, rolling,
by making the earth clap clofe to every part of every
root. Nor need we be afraid of rendering the foil too
compadl •, for no roller that can be drawn by two or
four horfes will have that effedl. In the next place,
rolling keeps in the moifture, and hinders drought to
penetrate. This effeft is of great moment. In a dry
feafon, it may make the difference of a good crop, or
no crop, efpecially where the foil is light. In the third
place, the rolling grafs feeds, befide the foregoing ad¬
vantages, facilitates the mowing for hay •, and it is to
be hoped, that the advantage of this praflice will lead
farmers to mow their corn alfo, which will increafe
the quantity of ftrawr both for food and for the dung¬
hill.
There is a fmall roller for breaking clods in land in¬
tended for barley. The common wray is, to break
clods with a medl 5 which requires many hands, and is a
laborious wmrk. This roller performs the work more
effeftually, and at much lefs expence : let a harrowing
precede, which will break the clods a little ; and after
lying a day, or a day and a half, to dry, this roller will
diffolve them into powder. This however does not fu-
perfede the ufe of the great roller after all the other
articles are finiftied, in order to make the foil compatt,
and to keep out the fummer drought. A ftone roller
four feet long, and fifteen inches diameter, drawn by
one horfe, is fufficient to break clods that are eafily dif-
folved by preffure. The ufe of this roller in preparing
land for barley is gaining ground daily, even among
ordinary tenants, who have become fenfible both of the
expence and toil of ufing wmoden mellv. But in a clay
foil, the clods are fometimes too firm, or too tough, to
be fubdued by fo light a machine. In that cafe, a
roller of the fame fize, but of a different conftrudlion, is
neceffary. It ought to be furrounded with circles of
iron, fix inches afunder, and feven inches deep 5 which
will cut even the mod ftubborn clods, and reduce them
to powder. Let not this inftrument be confidered as
a finical refinement. In a ftiff clay it may make the
difference of a plentiful or fcanty crop.
6. The Fallow-cleansing Machike.
I“4
This was invented by Mr Aaron Ogden, a fmith The fallow^
at A(hton-under-Line, near Manchefter in LancaftiLre. cleanfing
It is intended for cleanfing fallows from weeds, &c. ix*
which exhauft the riches of the foil. A, A, is the frame; ^ c
B, the firft roller; C, the fecond ditto; in which laft are
two cranks to move the arms D, D, which work the rake
up the direftors fixed on the plank E. The under fide of
the kwver ends or ftiares of thefe dirediens are (harp, to
cut the clods and let them come on the upper fide. Each
alternate heel of the (hare is longer than the intermedi¬
ate one, that they may not have more than one-half to
cut at once. At the back of the plank E are two ferews
to let it loofe, that the diredors may be fet higher or
lower. The (hares are to penetrate the ground trvo or
three inches, to raife the quicks till the rake I, I,
fetches
344 A G R I C U
Initrnmcrits fetches them into the cart H, where a man muft be
ready with a muck-hook to clear them backward when
. U1 <mt ry~ gathered. In the rake I are two teeth for every {pace
of the diredlors, that ftones, &c. may be gathered
without damage. K, K, are two flaples, by which
the machine is drawn : under them at h are twro hooks,
placed low to raife the machine in turning, by the help
of the traces ; and the axle-tree of the cart IhouM be
fixed upon a pin, that it may turn like a waggon.
F, F, are the triggers to throw the rake behind the
roots. The long teeth at G, G, are to cleafe the
roller C. I, I, is the rake which gathers up the weeds
into the cart H, and is drawn above the trigger F by
the working of the arms D, expreffed by the dotted
lines at dd, i i i. The triggers F, of which there is
one on each fide, move on the pivots a ; lo that when
the points b of the rake I have been drawn tip by the
direftors E to the part marked r, the trigger, giving
way, permits the rake to pafs } but immediately fall¬
ing, the rake returns along the upper furface of the
trigger marked e, e, and of courfe falls on the weeds
when it comes to the end, a little beyond the pivot a.
The reader will obferve, that the boarding is taken
away on one fide, in the Plate, in order to give a more
perfedl view of the inner parts of the machine ; and
in fadl it would perhaps be better if all the boarding,
marked L, L, L, was taken ajvay, and frame-work
put in its Head. The cart H might undoubtedly allb
be made lighter. The wheels M, M, appear in the
Plate to be made of folid wood : but there is no ne-
ceffity they Ihould be fo. At N, is another view of
the roller C, by which the diipofition of the fpikes
may be eafily comprehended. Suppofe the circle O,
defcribed by the end of the roller N, to be divided by
four ftraight lines into eight equal fegments, as repre-
fented at P. Let the fame be done at the other end of
the roller, atrd parallel lines be drawn from one corre-
fponding point to the other the length of the roller ;
mark the points with figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ;
• afterwards draw oblique lines, as from 1, at the end of
O, to 2, at the other end, and from 2 to 3, &c. on
thefe oblique lines the fpikes are to be fixed at equal
diftances, in eight circles, deferibed on the circumfe¬
rence of the roller. The fpikes of the fmall roller B
are fixed in the lame manner, except that the diameter
being fmaller, there are only fix inilead of eight rows.
R is another view of the dire&ors, with the plank E
on which they -are fixed ; and S is a feftion of a part
of the plank, with one of the direflors as fixed, in
which may be feen the heel m, from whence to the
point of the {hare n is a (harp cutting edge. See the
fame letters in figure R. At T is one of the long
teeth to be feen at G j it is bent towards the roller C,
which it ferves to cleanfe. When the end of the rake
h, after rifing above r, is pafhed, by the motion of the
arms D, D, along the upper part e, e, of the trigger
F, and comes to the end beyond a ) as it falls, the
■part of the arm marked 0 refts in the notch p, till it
is again raifed by the motion of the roller C with the
rake. The roller C is to be one foot diameter, the
fpikes nine inches long, that they may go through the
furrowT (if the foil ihould be loofe) into the hard earth,
the more effeftually to work the rake, wdiich other-
wife might be fo overcharged as to caufe the roller to
without turning. In the rake-ends b there fhould
L T U R E.
PracfUc&t
be pivots, wuth rollers or pullers on, to go in the Inftruments
groove, to take off the friftion ; and they would like- of
wfife take the triggers more furely as the rake comes, u an r'a
back. The rake fhould alfo be hung fo far backward,
that when it is fallen the arms of it may lie in the
lame plane or parallel with the direftors, on which it
comes up (whieh will require the frame to be two inches
longer in the model^). This will caufe the rake to fall
heavier, and drive the teeth into the roots, and bring
them up without fhattering. Thefe teeth muft be
made of ileel, very fine, and fo long as to reach dowm
to the plank on which the direftors are fixed, that k
to fay, fix inches long (the diredfors are alfo to be
made fix inches broad above the plank). 7'he rake-
head Ihould alfo fall a little before the crank is at its
extremity, wdiich wall eaufe the rake to pufh forward
to let the teeth come into the roots. The rake-teeth
muft drop in the fame plane with the roller and wheels,
or on the furface of the earth. No more fpace fiiould
be given from the roller C to the long teeth at G G
than that the rake may juft mifs the fpikes of the rol¬
ler C and fall on the places before mentioned. As the
fivft roller B w:as intended to cleanfe the fecond C more
than for any other ufe, it may be omitted w hen the ma¬
chine is made in large, as Mr Ogden has lately found
that the long teeth atG Ganfwer the end alone, and this
renders the machine about a fixth part fhorter. Now, to
fuit any fort of earth, there Ihould be to each machine
three planks, with directors at different fpaces to ufe oc-
cafionally } in the firft, the fpaces between the direftors
fhould be eight inches wide, in the fecond fix, and in the
third four. This will anfwer the fame end as having
fo many machines.
As there may be fome obje61ions to the rake not leav¬
ing the roots when it has brought them up, Mr Ogden
has feveral methods of cleanfing it 5 but as he wrould
make it as fimple as poffible, he choofes to let it be with¬
out them at prefent j but fuppofe it fhould bring fome
roots back again with it, it will probably lofc them be¬
fore it gets back to the extremity 5 whence they will lie
light, and be of but little detriment to the others com¬
ing up. Mr Ogden wrould have the firft machine made
four feet fix inches wide, the teeth divided into equal
fpaces, the outfides into half fpaces.
The new-invented Patent Univerfal Sowing
Machine.
K>S.
This machine, wdiether made to be worked by hand, Univenfl
drawn by a horfe, or fixed to a plough, and ufed with fowing
it, is extremely fimple in the conltruftion, and not “acb^e»
liable to be put out of order j as there is but one
movement to direft the whole, nor does it require any 0
{kill in working. It will few wheat, barley, oats, rye,
clover^ cole-feed, hemp, flax, canary, rape, turnip, be-
fides a great variety of other kinds of grain and feeds
broad-caft, with an accuracy hitherto unknown. It
is equally ufeful in the new hufbandry, particularly
w'hen fixed to a plough 5 it will then drill a more exten-
five variety of grain, pulfe, and feed (through every
gradation, with regard to quantity, and deliver each
kind with greater regularity than any drill-plough
whatever. When ufed in this manner, it will likewife'
be found of the utmoft fervice to farmers who are par¬
tial to the old hufbandry, as, among many other very
valuable and peculiar properties, it will not only few
in
Part I.
Inftruments in tlie broad-caft way with the moft Angular exaftnefs,
ot , but fave the expence of a leedfman; the feed being
Hufoandi v. pown ^eitber over or under furrow at pleafure), and the
"land ploughed, at the fame operation.
Perhaps a fair and decifive experiment for afcertain-
ing the fuperior advantage of broad-cafiing or drilling
any particular crop, was never before fo practicable j as
the feed may now be put in with the utmoft degree of
regularity, in both methods of culture, by the fame
machine ■, confequentiy, the feed will be Town in both
cafes with equal accuracy, without which it is impof-
fible to make a juft decilion.
The excellence of this machine conftfts in fpreading
any given quantity of feed over any given number of
acres with a mathematical exaftnefs, which cannot be
done by hand by which a great faving may be made
in feeding the ground, as well as benefiting the ex¬
pected crop.
There has always been a difficulty in fowing turnip
feed with any degree of exaCtnefs, both from the mi-
nutenefs of the feed, and the fmallnefs of the quantity
required to be fown on an acre. Here the machine
has a manifeft advantage, as it may be fet to fow the
leaft quantity ever required on an acre 5 and with an
accuracy the belt feedfman can never attain to.
It will alfo fow clover, cole, fiax, and every other kind
of fmall feed, with the utmeft degree of regularity,
It will likewife broad-caft beans, peafe, and tares, or
drill them with the greateft exaftnefs, particularly when
conltruCted to be ufed with a plough.
Another advantage attending the ufe of this machine
is, that the wind can have no effect on the falling of
the feed.
Of the Machine when jjiade to he tifed without a
Plough, and to be drawn by a Horfe.—It may in
, this cafe be made of different lengths at the defire of
the purchafer. The upper part AAAA, contains
the hoppers from which the grain or feed defcends into
the fpouts. The feveral fpouts all reft upon a bar,
which hangs and plays freely by two diagonal fupport-
ers BB; a trigger fixed to this bar bears a catch-wheel j
this being fixed on the axle, occafions a regular and
continual motion, or jogging of the fpouts, quicker or
flower in proportion to the pace the perfon fowing
with it drives } and of courfe, if he quickens his pace,
the bar will receive a greater number of ftrokes from
the catch-wheel, and- the grain or feed will feed the
rafter. If he drives {lower, by receiving fewer ftrokes,
the contrary muft take place. In going along the
fide of a hill, the ftrength of the ftroke is corrected by
a fpring which acts with more or leis power, in pro¬
portion as the machine is more or lefs from a horizon¬
tal pofition, and counteracts the difference of gravity in
the ban, fo that it preffes, in all fituations, with a pro¬
per force againft the catch-wheel. This fpring is un-
neceffary if the land be pretty level. At the bottom
of the machine is placed an apron or fiielf in a Hoping
pofition; and the corn or feed, by falling thereon from
the fpouts above, is fcattered about in every direction
under the machine, and covers the ground in a moft
regular and uniform manner.
To fow the corn-or feed in drills, there are moveable
{pouts (fee fig. 10.), which are fixed on or taken off
at pleafure, to direct the feed from the upper ipout to
the bottom of the furrow.
Vol. I. Part I.
345
The machine is regulated for fowing any particular Inftruments
quantity of feed on an acre by a brafs flider, A, fig. 7. 0I" _
fixed by ferews againft a brafs bridge on each of the 111 ^ -> •
fpouts. The machine is prevented from feeding while
turning at the ends, by only removing the lever E,
fig. 2. out of the channel G, to another at H, on the
right hand of it, which carries back the bar from the
eatch-wheel, and occafions the motion of the fpouts to
ceaie, and at the fame time brings them upon a level
by the aclion of the diagonal fupporters j fo that no
corn or feed can fall from them.
The machine in this form is particularly ufeful for
broad-cafting clover upon barley or wheat 5 or for lowT-
ing any other kind of feed, where it is neceffary that
the land {hould firft be harrowed exceedingly fine and
even.
Manner of ujing the Machine, when drawn by a
liorfe.—Place the machine about two feet from the
ends of the furrows where you intend it {hall begin to
fow. Fill the hoppers with feed, and drive it forwards
with the outfide wheel in the firft furrow. "When you
are at the end of the length, at the oppofite fide of the
field, lift the lever E, fig. 2. into the channel H, and
the machine will inftantly ftop fowing. Drive it on
about two feet, and then turn. Fill the hoppers again
if neceffary j then remove the lever back again into the
channel G, and in returning-, let the outfide wheel of
. .
the machine go one furrow within the track which
was made by it, in palling from the oppofite end } as
for example, if the wheel palled down the eighth fur¬
row from the outfide of the field, let it return in the
feventh and in every following length let the outfide
wheel always run one furrow within the track made b\
the fame wheel: becaufe the breadth'fown is about nine
inches lefs than the diftance between the wheels.
Let the machine be kept in a perpendicular fitua-
tion. If the farmer wifties to fow more or lefs feed
on any one part of the field than the other, it is only
railing the handles a little higher, or finking them a
little lower than ufual, and it will occafion a 1’ufficient
alteration } and {hould the laft turn be lefs in breadth
than the machine, thofe fpouts which are not wanted
may be taken up from the bar, and prevented from
feeding, by turning the knob above them.
Alfo, when the land required to be fown has what is
called a vent, that is, when the Tides of the field run in
an oblique line to the furrows, which by this means
are unequal in length ; the fpouts muft be taken up or
let down in fucceiiion by turning the knobs; as that
part of the machine where they are placed arrives at
the ends of the furrows. This is done while the ma¬
chine is going forwards.
If the land be tolerably level, the machine may be
fixed by the ferew in the front, and the machine may
then be ufed by any common harrow boy.
Method of regulating the Machine.—In each fpout is
fixed a bridge (fee fig. 7.), with an apertlire in it, B,
for the grain or feed to pafs through. This aperture is
enlarged or contrafted by a flider, A, whicli paffes over
it 5 and, when properly fixed for the quantity of feed
defigned to be fown on an acre, is faftened by means
of two ftrong ferews firmly againft the bridge. This
is madg ufe of in fowing all kinds of feed, where it is
required to fow from one bulhel upwards on an acre.
To fow one, two, three gallons, or any of the inter-
X x mediate
AGRICULTURE,
346
rurr
of
Hufbandry.
. J ilide
A G R I C U
Inflmments mediate quantities, as of clover, cole-feed, &c, the
brafs plate, fig. 6. is placed between the bridge and the
with the large!! aperture E downwards, which
aperture is enlarged or contra&ed by the Aider as be¬
fore. To fow turnips, the fame plate is placed between
the bridge and the Aider, with its fmalleft aperture A
downwards, and the hollow part about the fame aper¬
ture inwards.
Fig. 8. is a view of the regulator, by which the
apertures in the feveral fpouts are all fet exaftly alike,
with the utmoft cafe, to make them feed equally. The
extreme height of the largefi aperture is equal to the
breadth AB, and the breadth at C is equal to the
height of the fmalleA aperture ufed, viz. that for tur¬
nips, The fide AC is divided into 6o equal parts,
and on it moves the Aider or horfe D j which being
placed at any particular degree, according to the quan¬
tity of feed required to be fown on an acre, is fixed
upon it, by a fcrew on the fide of the Aider or horfe.
When this is done, the end of the regulator is put
through the aperture in the bridge or plate (whichever
is intended to be ufed), and the Aider again!! the bridge
in the fpout, raifed by it, till it Hops again!! the horfe
on the regulator : then the Aider is faftened again!!
the bridge firmly by the two fcrews ; care being taken
at the fame time that it ftand nearly fquare.
By this means the fpouts (being all fixed in the fame
manner) will feed equally.
It is eafy to conceive that the fize of the apertures,
and confequently the quantity of feed to be fown on an
acre, may be regulated with a far greater accuracy
than is required in common pradlice.
The fpouts may be regulated with the utmoft nicety,
in five minutes, to fow each particular feed, for the
whole feafon. But a little praftice will enable any per-
fon, who pofteffes but a very moderate capacity, to
make the fpouts feed equally, even without ufing the
regulator (a).
Of the Machine, when made to be vfed by Hand.—
The difference of the machine in this cafe is, that it is
made lighter, with but three fpouts, without drafts,
and is driveir forwards by the handles. It hath alio a
bolt in front, which being puftied in by the thumb, re-
leafes the machine •, fo that it can then eafily be placed
in a perpendicular pofition. This alteration is necef-
fary to keep the handles of a convenient height, in
fowing up and down a hill, where the Aope is confider-
able j and is done while the machine is turning at the
end of the length. The method of regulating and
ufing it is the fame as when made to be drawn by a
horfe.
L T U R E.
Pra&ice.
Of the Machine, when conJlruBed to be ufed with a Inftruments
Plough.—This is, without doubt, the moll ufeful ap- of
plication of the machine ; and it can be fixed without Hufl'an(‘fy‘.
difficulty to any kind of plough, in the fame manner as " ''' "
to that reprefented in fig. I.
The advantages arifing from the ufe of it. are great
and numerous j for, befide the increafe in the crop,
which will be enfured by the feeds being broad-call
with a mathematical nicety, a large proportion of feed
(the value of which alone, in a few months, will amount
to more than the price of the machine) and the feeds-
man’s labour will be faved. The feed may likewife be
fown either under or over furrow ; or one call each
way, as is pradtifed by fome farmers. The feeds alfo,
being caft by the machine upon the fre!h ploughed
land, may be immediately harrowed in, before the
mould has loll any part of its moifture j which in a dry
feafon wall greatly promote the crop. In drilling any
kind of grain, pulfe, or feed, it poffeffes every property
that can be wllhed for in the be!! drill-plough, nor will
it (as moft of them do) bruife the feed, or feed irre¬
gularly. The conlfrudlion of the machine is the fame
as the large ones, except being made with one hopper
and fpout inftead of feveral, and the apron moveable
inftead of being fixed, as may be feen by infpedling
fig. 4. The only alteration neceffary to make the
machine broad-caft or drill is, in the former cafe to
place the apron B, fig. 1. at the bottom of the ma¬
chine, upon the hooks FF, doping either towards the
furrows or the unploughed land, according as it is in¬
tended to fow the feed, either over or under furrow.
Whenever the apron is required to be drifted, it is
done in lefs than a fecond of time j as it only requires
to be moved up or down with the hand, when a catch
fixes it.
To prepare it for drilling, inftead of the apron, place
the long fpout, fig. 10. upon the brackets, on the front
of the machine, by the ears AA, to receive the feed
from the upper fpout, and fallen the lorver end of it,
by a fmall cord, to that hook upon which the apron is
hung for broad-cafting which is next the plough (fee
fig. 3.) ; the feed wall then be diredled by the long
fpout, to the centre of the furrow, near the heel of the
plough. The fpring for corredling the ftrength of the
ilroke, is neceffary only when they are required to go
along the fide of a confiderable declivity. The ma¬
chine, when fixed to a plough, does not require the
fmalleft degree of ftdll in ufing, as nothing is neceffary
hut to keep the hopper filled, which will contain a fuf-
ficient quantity of feed to go upwards of 140 rods, be¬
fore it w ill want refilling, when three bulhels and a
half
(a) Proper diredlions are given with each machine for ufmg it, as alfo for fixing the Aiders to fow any parti¬
cular quantity of corn or feed on an acre, fo as to enable any perfon to fet the fpouts.
The prices of the machine (exclufive of the packing cafes) arc as follow. If conftrufled to be ufed wdth a
Angle furrow plough j the wheel, wdth the axle and cheeks fteeled, ftrap, regulator, brafs-plateS for broad-caft-
ing or drilling turnips, lucerne, tares, wheat, barley, &c. &c. &c. and every article neceffary for fixing it inclu¬
ded, three guineas and a half. If made with a fpring (for fowing on the fide of a hill, where the Aope is confi¬
derable), but which is very rarely peceffary, five ftnllings more. If made to be fixed to any double-furrow
plough, four guineas and a half.
The large machine, fig. 2. when made to broad-caft feven furrows at a time and to be drawn by a horfe,
eight guineas and a half. If conftru6!ed to fow five furrows at a time, and to be ufed by hand^ fix guineas*.
Thefe are alfo five Aiillings mpre if made with a fpriag.
Parti. A G R I
Inftrumentshalf are fown on an acre. The accuracy with which
of it will broad-caft, may in fome meafure be conceived,
Hufbantlry. con{^cJerJng that the feed regularly defcends upon
*' "_v "'LJi the apron or Ihelf, and is from thence fcattered upon
the ground, in quantity exactly proportioned to the
fpeed of the plough : alio that each call fpreads to the
third furrow : and by this means fhuts upon the laft.
In this manner it is continually filling up till the whole
field is completely covered } fo that it is impoffible to
leave the fmalleft fpace without its proper quantity of
feed.
When the plough is wanted for any other purpofe,
the machine, with the wheel at the heel of the plough
for giving it motion, can be removed or replaced at any
time in five minutes.
Fig. 11. reprefents the machine fixed to a double-
furrow creafing plough, and prepared for drilling. As
this plough may not be generally known, it will not be
improper to obferve, that it is chiefly ufed for creafing
the land with furrows (after it has been once ploughed
and harrowed) ; which method is neceffary when the
feed is to be fown broad-caft upon land that has been a
clover ley, &c. becaufe, if the feed be thrown upon the
rough furrows, a confiderable part of it will fall be¬
tween them, and be unavoidably loft, by lying too
deep buried in the earth. This mode anfwers ex¬
tremely well, and partakes of both methods of culture;
the feed, though fown broad-caft, falling chiefly into
the furrows.
The machine is very ufeful for fowing in this, man¬
ner *, as the feed is broad-caft, with an inconceivable
regularity, at the time the land is creafed. The ad¬
vantages it likewife polfeffes for drilling all forts of
grain or feed with this plough, are too evident to need
mentioning.
The machine, when conftru£led to be ufed with a
double-furrow plough, is made with two upper and
two long fpouts for drilling, two aprons for broad-
cafting, and with a double hopper j but in other re-
fpefts the fame as when intended for a Angle furrow
plough : it is ufed in all cafes with the greateft eafe
imaginable.
The interval between the points of the two {hares of
a creafing plough is ufually ten inches 3 the beam about
nine feet long 3 and the whole made of a light con-
Itru&ion.
te xi A more particular explanation of the fgures.—Fig. 1.
a " ’ The machine fixed to a Kentifti turn wreft plough. A,
The machine. B, The apron upon which the feed falls
and rebounds upon the land, in broad-cafting. C, Lid
to cover the hopper. D, Wheel at the heel of the
plough. E, Strap. FF, Hooks, upon which the apron
turns by a pivot on each fide. G, Stay, to keep the
machine fteady. H, Lever, to prevent it from fowing-
Fig. 2. The machine conftru&ed to be drawn by a
horfe. AAAA, The hoppers. BB, The diagonal
fupporters. CCCC, 1 he upper fpouts. 1), Ihe apron
or ftielf upon which the feed falls from the upper fpouts.
E, The lever, which carries back the bar, and prevents
the machine from fowing. Fh, Staples upon the han¬
dles, through which the reins pafs, for the man who
condufts the machine, to direft the horfe by. I,
Screw, to fix the machine cccafionally. N. B. I he
knobs (by turning which each particular fpout may
be taken from off the bar, and thereby prevented from
U L T u R E. 347
feeding) are over each upper fpout 3 but, to prevent p^P^^on
confufion, are not lettered in the Plate.. . —^ .
Fig. 3. is the fame machine with that in fig. 1. I he
dotted lines, exprefling the lituation of the.long fpout,
when the apron is removed, and the machine adapted
for drilling. _ >
Fig. 4. Alfo the fame machine, with the front laid
open to ftiow the infide. A, Ihe catch-wdieel fixed
upon the axle. BB, The axle upon which the machine
hangs between the handles of the plough. C, The
pulley, by which the ftrap from the wheel at the heel
of the plough turns the catch-wdieel. D, the bar,
upon which the upper fpout refts, fufpended by the
diagonal fupporters EE, bearing againft the catch-
wheel by the trigger F, and thereby kept, in motion
while the plough is going. G, The apron in a ftoping
pofition, upon which the corn or feed falls from the
upper fpout, and is fcattered by rebounding upon the
land. It turns upon pivots, and by this means throws
the feed either towards the right hand or left at plea-
fure.
Fig. £. The upper fpout.
Fig. 6. The plate which is placed between the bridge
and the Aider, for fowing fmall feeds.. The aperture
A being dow’nwards for fowing turnips 3 the larger
one B downwards for fownng clover, &c.
Fig. 7. The bridge, fixed in the upper fpouts. A,
The Aider, which contrafts or enlarges, the different
apertures. B, The aperture in the bridge, through
which the feed pafies, when fowing any quantity from
one buftiel upwards on an acre.
Fig. 8. The regulator, made of brafs. D, Ihe
Aider or horfe which moves upon it, and is fixed at any
particular degree by a ferew in its fide..
Fig. 9. reprefents the movement in the machine ,
fig. 2. AAAA, Gleets, between which the upper
fpouts reft. BB, The diagonal fupporters, by which
the bar with the upper fpouts hang. C, The catch-
wheel. DD, The axle. E, The trigger upon the
bar, which bears againft the catch-wheel. IF, Stays
from the back of the machine, by which the bar plays.
Fig. 10. The long fpout. A A, The ears by which
it hangs.
Sect. II. Of preparing Land for croppmg, by remov¬
ing obflruElions and bringing the Soil into a proper
fate.
1. Of removing Stones.
\66
It is of the utmoft Importance to have land efiec- Importance
tually cleared of ftones, before undertaking any agr^" ving^oncs.
cultural operation upon it 3 for by means of them there
is frequently more expence incurred in one feafon, by
the breaking of ploughs and the injury fuffered by the
cattle and harnefs, than would remove the evil. It
has alfo been obferved that the foil round a large ftone
is commonly the beft in the field. It may be confider-
ed as purchafed at a low rate by removing the ftone.
At any rate, fuch ftones muft be removed before the
ground can be properly cultivated. For whether a
large ftone occupy the furface, or lie beneath it, but
within reach of the plough, a confiderable fpac.e
around it cannot be ftirred by that inftrument, and is
therefore ufelefs. Even the reft of the field where
X x 2 ftones
348 A G R I C U
Fof Land'00 ^°neS a^0imc^ mlu^ be laboured in a more flow and
,m ^K'_. tedious manner, on account of the caution neceflary
to avoid the danger which they produce.
the ftones which impede the improvement of land
are, ift, loole flones, or fuch as are thrown up to the
167 furfa?e by t1ae plough 5 and, 2dly, fltfaft ftones, which
Modes of are oltber upon or immediately below the furface, but
removing are of fuch magnitude that they cannot be ftirred by
ftones. the plough. The firft kind of ftones may ufually be
eafily removed by being gathered and carried off.
When land is laid down for hay, fuch ftones are
often improperly thrown in heaps into the furrows,
where they ever after continue to interrupt the plough,
or are dragged again by the harrow's over the land.
Inftead of proceeding in this manner, they ought to be
carried wholly off the field in carts at the dryeft feafon
of the year, and placed in fituations in which they may
be rendered ufeful to the farm. In this point of view,
ftones are fometimes of confiderable value for making
concealed drains, or for making and repairing the roads
through a farm, and alfo for the repairs of fome kinds
of fences.
The only writer upon agriculture who has in any
cafe objected to the propriety of clearing land of fmall
ftones, is probably Lord Kames. In lome parts of the
of the fouth of Scotland, and particularly in Gallow'ay,
the foil is faid to be compofed in a great meafure
of gravel, and of ftones of a fmooth furface, as if worn
by the running of water. After being ploughed, the
w'hole furface of every field appears to be compofed of
loofe ftones lying almoft in contact with each other.
Some induftrious farmers, with great labour, colle&ed
and removed the ftones from a few of their fields with
a view to their improvement; and the remit is faid to
have been, that the fucceeding crops were wholly blight¬
ed in the tender blade, and never came to maturity.
ri he itones upon the furface were fuppofed to have pre¬
vented the exhalation of the moifture from the (hallow
and extremely porous and open foil which they cover¬
ed : and they wrere alfo fuppofed to have contributed to
fofter the young plants, by reflecting powerfully from
their fmooth fui faces the fun’s rays in every direction
around them : but when they wrere removed, the foil,
in that bleak climate, became at once too cold and too
dry for any purpofe of agriculture. The farmers, there¬
fore, who had with fo much toil and coft removed
the ftones from part of their lands, could think of no
better remedy than, with equal toil, to bring them all
back again, and carefully replace them upon their fields.
Jtis added, that the foil immediately refumed its wont¬
ed fertility. The truth of this anecdote has never been
contefted 5 and there is no doubt that it has long been
current in the fouth of Scotland, both previous to its
publication by Lord Kames, and after that period, a-
utong a clafs of perfons w'ho are very unlikely to have
been acquainted with his w ritings. It is poflible that
the replacing the ftones wras the belt remedy for the
want ot fertility in the foil which its cultivators had
within their reach : but it is probable that they might
have found it of more importance to have covered the
furface of their land with a fubftantial coat of clay
marl, or even with almoft any kind of earth or clay
obtained from the bogs and fwamps that ufually abound
in thefe countries, providing only they could obtain a
quantity of lime to add to it. In this way, poffeffmg
^ ^ ^ ^ Practice,
land whofe bottom was very pervious to moifture, they Preparaocn
might have obtained a foil fuited to every purpofe of of Land.
agriculture ; whereas, in its prefent ftate, it muft re-
main for ever unfit to be touched with the feythe.
With regard to large or fitfaft ftones which cannot
be removed by any ordinary effort, they ufually either
appear fully above the furface or are concealed imme¬
diately under it. For the fake of difeovering con¬
cealed ftones, it is laid to be a cuftom in Yorkftiire,
when they intend to reduce wafte and rude land under
tne plough, in the firft place, carefully to go over the
W'hole furface with fharp prongs, which at the diftance
of every twelve or fourteen inches they thruft into the
giound to the depth of above a foot, and wherever a
ftone meets the prong they mark the (pot with a twig.
a bit of w'ood, or fome other objeft. They afterwards
trace all the marks, and remove every ftone before they
touch the land with the plough.
Concerning the modes which have been adopted for
removing large ftones out of the way of the plough 5
one of the ftmpleft is the following : A pit or hole is
dug befide the ftone, 16 or 18 inches deeper than the
height or thicknefs of the ftone. A number of men
are then affembled, who tumble it into the pit. It is
immediately covered up with a part of tire earth that
came out of the hole ; and the reft of the earth is feat-
tered over the field, or employed in bringing to a level
with the reft of the foil the fpot where the ftone for¬
merly lay. As the ftone now remains at a greater
depth than the plough can reach, it is no longer an
impediment to agriculture. In performing this opera¬
tion, however, the workmen muft attend to the nature
of the foil, and take care that the weight of the ftone
do not bring down the fide of the pit, which might be
attended wflth dangerous confequences. To obviate
any hazard of this kind, it is always proper to have at
hand a ftout plank, w hich ought to be laid acrofs the
pit or hole, immediately under the neareft corner or
edge of the ftone. With this precaution, a Angle man
may ufually perform the whole operation of burying
ftones or pieces of rock of very great fize and weight.
By the above operation, however, the ftones are ut¬
terly loft; whereas they may fometimes be ox confider¬
able value for fences or other buildings. When this
Is the cafe, they muft be broken to pieces before they
are removed. With this view it is to be ofcferved,
that a great variety of ftones have fome thin veins,
w'hich being found, wedges can be driven into them
by large hammers, fo that they may be eafily broken.
For fucb operations fpades and pick axes are neceffary
to clear aw'ay the earth, and a large and a fmall lever
to turn the ftones out of the ground. Hammers and
wedges are alfo requifite, with carts, to remove the
fragments from the field. In the Statiftical Account
of Scotland, vol. xix. p. 565. pariih of Maderty, wre
are told that “ the Rev. Mr Ramfay, the prefent in¬
cumbent, who occupies a piece of land full of fitfaft
ftones, eonftmdted a machine for the purpofe of railing
them. It operates on the principles of the pulley and
cylinder, or wheel and axis, and has a power as one
to 24 ", it is extremely fimple, being a triangle, on two
fides of which the cylinder is fixed 5 it can be ealily
wrought and carried from place to place by three men.
A low four-wheeled machine of a ftrong conftruflion
is made to go under the arms of the triangle, to receive
the
PartI. AGRICULTUR E. 34^
Preparation the {lone when railed up. This machine has been al-
ot Land. reacly of great ule in clearing feveral fields of large
ftones in this place and neighbourhood.”
It is evident, that the machine here defcribed is
only valuable for getting flones out of the way in the
grofs and unbroken j and, accordingly, we learn that
Hone fences are almoft unknown in the parilh of Ma-
derty.
Where Hones are valuable, therefore, and the opera¬
tion of breaking them with hammers and wedges is
found Impradlicable or too laborious, it will be necei-
fary to blaft them with gunpowder. To perform this
operation properly, however, confiderable experience
is requifite } for it is faid, that a fkilful workman can
in moil inflances, by the depth and pofition of the bore,
contrive to rend Hones into three equal pieces without
caufing their fragments to fly about. In time of war,
however, the expence of gunpowder is apt to become
very great. With a view to diminifh the coH of that
article, it has been fuggefled, that it is proper to per¬
form the operation not with gunpowder alone, but
with that article of a good quality, mixed up with
about one-third of its bulk of quicklime in fine powder.
It is faid that this corapofition poffeffes as much force
as an equal quantity of pure gunpowder, and it is even
- alleged, that the proportion of quicklime may be in-
creried with advantage. How the Hrength of gun¬
powder fhould be fo much augmented by the addition
of quicklime, we do not know. Perhaps it may add
to the force of the explofion by undergoing a chemical
decompofition of its parts, as it has of late been hd-
pe&ed, that this mineral is by no means a funple or
uncompounded body.
Where a field is very greatly overrun with conceal¬
ed Hones, the moll efteCtual method of getting quit of
them, and of rendering it permanently arable, confiHs
of trenching it wholly by the fpade. Nor is this al¬
ways the moH expensive mode of proceeding, d he
trenching can be done at the rate of from 3I. to 4I.
t>pr Scots acre, which is one-fixth larger than an Eng-
Efli acre, allowing at the fame time the Hones or their
price at the quarry to the labourers. In this way, the
expence of ploughing the field is faved. The foil is
deepened to the utraoil extent of which it is capable,
and can be laid out in the form moH convenient for
cultivation. In Dr Anderfon’s report of the Hate of
agriculture in Aberdeenfhire, it is faid that the expence
of trenching an acre to the depth of from 12 to 14
inches, where the Hones are not very large and nume¬
rous, runs from qd. to 6d. a fall, which is from 2l. 13s.
to 4!. per Scots acre. Ground that has been formerly
trenched, is fometimes done as low as 2A.per fall, or il.
(Ss. 6d./><?r acre. Hence, in confequence of the pradlice
of trenching ground by the fpade being not unfrequent
Iri Aberdeenihire, workmen have become expert, and
by competition have rendered the price extremely mo¬
derate. It is to be withod that the fame prattice were
more frequent in other parts of the country, as it
would have a tendency to introduce a ta.He for the
moH corredl and perfect of all modes of labouring
the foil, and would alfo occupy a confiderable part
of the population of the country, in the moH in¬
nocent and healthful of all employments, that of agri¬
culture..
preparation
2. Of Draining. of Land.
It has already been remarked, that the prefcnce of i(,g
xnoiHure is of the utmoH importance to the fiiccefs of ve-jmpprtance
getaticn. At the fame time, as mufi neceffarily happen 0f draining,
with every powerful and aftive agent, the too great a-
bundance of water is nolefs pernicious to many plants,
than an entire want of it. When it flagnates upon the
foil,'it decompofts or rots the roots and Herns of the moH
valuable vegetables. Even when it does not remain on
a fpot round the whole year, its temporary fiagnaticn
during thervinter renders the land unproductive. Sea-
fans of tillage are often loft, and in wet years the crop
muH always be fcanty and precarious. When in grafs,
the land can only produce the coarfeft and mofl hardy
vegetables, which can refiH the chill or cold Hate of
the foil, or the fermentation which is often produced
by Hidden warmth while the water remains upon the
ground. Hence arifes the importance of draining, by
which arable land is rendered manageable, is made
to dry gradually and early in the fpring, and the corn
Is increafed in quantity and weight; and by which, in
paHure lands, the graffes are made to change their co¬
lour and to lofe their coarfe appearance, and the finer
kinds of plants are enabled to flourifh. Even the cli¬
mate is, by means of draining, very confiderably im¬
proved. It is rendered lefs cold during the winter,
and by diminiflnng in hot weather the exhalations
from the foil, its falubrity both to animal and vege-
. table life is greatly increafed. Every kind of grain
comes earlier to maturity. The harvefi is lefs preca¬
rious, and the difeafes are baniflied which arofe from a
damp foil and a humid atmofphere. ^
The water which Hagnates upon the furface of a Landisren-
foil may originate from two caufes. It may defeend dered wet
upon it in the form of rain, or it may afeend from Ev ^ain “
fprings or refervoirs of water in the bowels of the
earth. The rules of draining land which is rendered too
wet for the purpofes of agriculture are different, ac¬
cording to the caufes which occafion the wetnefs. We
{hall firff take notice of the moff approved modes of
draining, when the exceflive mciiture is cecafioned by
rain water Hagnating upon the land *, and we (hall af¬
terwards take notice of the plan of draining to be
adopted, when the wetnefs arifes from fprings or water
arifing out of the earth. T„..
To relieve land from rain water that is apt to Hag-T)rains axe
nate upon it, two kinds of drains have been adopted, open or
One of thefe is called open drains, from their being hollow,
expofed to view in their whole length. The other
kind receives the appellation of hollow drams, from
their being covered, fo that their exiHence is not ap¬
parent to a Hranger, nor is any part of the land lofi in
confequence of their being made. Hollow draining is
fometimes avoided on account of the great immediate
expence with which it is attended, and in fome fituations T ^ t
it is altogether inadequate to the object in view. There Hollow
are fome foils that being chiefly compoied of a fliff clay, drains,
poffefs fo great a degree of tenacity as to retain water vv|ien jnaP -
upon every trifling depreflion of their furface, till eva-11,1' ‘iL'e*
poration carries it off. It is in vain to attempt to
drain fuch foils by hollow channels below ground, as
the w ater will never be able to filtrate through the
foil fo as to reach the drain. In fuch fituatious, there¬
fore;
A G R I C
35°
Preparation fore, open draining is tlie only mode that
t°* . adopted for clearing the foil of furfacfe water.
It alfo fometimes happens that on ordinary foils,
hollow drains would fpeedily be rendered ufelefs.
I his muft take place where the admiflion of furface
water cannot be avoided, and, from the figure of the ad¬
joining lands, muft be very greatly augmented in time
of heavy rains. In fuch cafes, a clofe or hollow drain
would fpeedily be choked up by the fand, and foil
brought down by hidden and violent torrents. In
thefe fttuations, therefore, open drains can alone prove
172 ufeful.
Draining Soils formed of a tenacious clay can only be drained
of clay foils, by being laid up properly in ridges which are high in
the middle, and have furrows at each fide for carrying
off the water. The great art of preferving land of
this defcription, therefore, free from fuperfluous moi-
fture, confifts of laying out every field in fuch a direc¬
tion as that all the furrows between the ridges may
have a gradual defcent to a common ditch or drain for
carrying off the water. Where at any particular fpot
the regularity of the defcent is interrupted, crofs fur¬
rows muft be kept open with the fame view. The
ridges muft alfo be laid up in fuch a form as to allow
the water to defcend from the fummit in the middle
to the furrows on each fide. If the ridges, however,
are too high in the centre, there will be a danger
that in heavy rains the foil may be wafhed from the
fummit down into the furrows, which would produce
the double evil of impoverilhing the centre of every
ridge, and of choking up the furrows, and rendering
them unfit to drain the land.
The diftinguifhed fuccefs of the Flemifti hufhand-
men, and alfo of the farmers in the central counties of
England where this kind of foil abounds, fufhciently de-
monftrates the pra&icability of preferving it in a due
degree of drynefs for the moft valuable purpofes of
agriculture. In thefe Englifh counties, and in Flan¬
ders, the general mode of drying land confifts of plough¬
ing it up in high and broad ridges, from 20 to 30, and
even 40 feet wide, with the centre or crown three or
four feet higher than the furrows. By attentively
preferving the furrows in good order, and free from
ftagnating water, the land is kept in a dry ftate, and
all kinds of crops flourifti.
Draining The mode of ridging and crofs-furrowing the clay
in the Carfe foil of the Carfe of Gowrie, Perthlhire, has been thus
of Gowrie. ftefcribed by George Paterfon, Efq. of Caftlehuntly in
that county. There are certain large common drains
which pafs through the diftrict in different dire&ions,
fufficiently capacious to receive the water drained from
the fields by the ditches which fiarround them, and of
fuch a level as to carry it clear off, and to empty
their contents into the river Tay. There are alfo
ditches which furround every farm, or pafs through
them as their fituation may require, but in fuch man¬
ner as to communicate with every field upon the farm.
Thefe ditches are made from two to four feet wide at
top, and from one and a half to one foot at bottom j a
fhape which prevents their fides from falling in: but
even then they muft be cleanfed and fcoured every
year at a confiderable expence. If the fields be of an
uniform level furface, the common furrows between
the ridges, provided they be fufficiently deepened at
their extremities, will ferve tp lay the grounds dry j
2
U L T U R E. Prafticg,
can be but, as it feldom happens that any field i^fo complete- Preparation
ly free of inequalities, the laft operation, after it is ofLand.
fown and harrowed in, is to draw a furrow with the
plough through every hollow in the field which lies in
fuch a direction, that it can be guided through them,
fo as to make a free communication with any of the
ditches which furround the farm, or with any of the
furrows between the ridges which may ferve as a con-
du&or to carry the water off to the furrounding ditches.
When this track is once opened with the plough, it
is widened, cleared out, and fo ftiaped with the ipade,
that it may run no rilk of filling up. Its width is from
fix inches to a foot according to its depth, which muft:
depend upon the level of the field j but the breadth of
a fpade at bottom is a good general rule. It frequent¬
ly happens that there are inequalities in feveral parts
of the fame field which, do not extend acrofs it, or
which do not pafs through it in any direction that a
plough can follow; but which may extend over two
ridges, or one ridge, or even part of a ridge. Such
require an open communication to be made with any
furrow, which may ferve as a condudtor to carry off
the water, which is always made with the fpade. All
thefe open communications are here called gaas, and to
keep them perfe&ly clear is a very effential objedl of
every Carfe farmer’s attention.
It is the general praftice in the Carfe to have head-
ridges, as they are called, at the two extremities of
each field 5 that is, the ground upon which the plough
turns, is laid up as a crofs ridge higher in the middle
and falling off at each fide, fo that a gaa is made in the
courfe of the inner furrow with which the whole fur¬
rows between the longitudinal ridges communicate,
and into which they pour all their furface water,
which is carried off by gaas or openings cut through
the head ridges, and emptied into the adjoining
ditches which convey the water to the main drain.
Befides all this an experienced Carfe farmer takes care
that his lands be carefully ploughed, and laid up equally
without inequalities that can hold water, and that the
ridges be gradually rounded, fo that the furface water
may neither lodge nor run fo rapidly off as to injure
the equal fertility of the field.
With regard to the general rule for making open Rules for
drains, it may be obferved, that their depth and wide- making o-
nefs muft always in fome meafure be left to the judge-Penc^ra^ns*
ment of each particular hufbandman, that they may be
varied according to the variety of foils and fituations.
Upon the whole, however, the width at bottom ought
to be one-third of that at top, that, by being fufficient¬
ly Hoped, the fides may be in no danger of falling in.
The fall or declivity alfo fliould be fuch as may carry
off the water without ftagnation, and along with it
any grafs and other loofe and light fubftances that may
get into the ditch. At the fame time, care ought to
be taken to lead the drain in fuch a direction down
any fteep declivity that may occur in an oblique man¬
ner, that the water may not have too rapid a motion,
as it would otherwife be apt to form inequalities in the
bottom, and to wear down the fides. In mofs and very
foft foils drains require to be of confiderable width, on
account of their tendency to fill up ; and their breadth
at top muft exceed that at the bottom in a greater de¬
gree than the proportion already mentioned. In all
cafes in which a ditch is intended for a drain only,
and
-v
*75
Parti. A G R I C U
Preparation and not to be ufed as a fence, none of the earth thrown
of Land. out; 0f it ought to be allowed to remain upon the fides,
but fhould be fpread abroad upon the land, or ufed in
filling up the neareft holes. When this is not done,
the utility of the drain is injured by the furface water
being prevented from reaching it, and by the tenden¬
cy which this weight of earth has to caule the fides to
fall in j the difficulty of fcouring or cleaning it is thus
alfo much increafed. If it be necefiary, however, to
ufe the ditch, and the earth thrown out of it, as a fence,
a deep furrow ought to be made along the back of the
mound of earth, with openings in convenient places
into the ditch for tranfmitting to it the water colleded
in the furrow.
In plantations, open drains are the only kind that
can be ufed, as the roots of the trees would be apt to
choke up covered drains. In paftures, fmall and nar¬
row open cuts, made with the plough or otherwife, are
often extremely ufeful, to carry off ftagnating water
and a part of the rain as it falls. The only objection
to them is, that they are eafily ftopt by the trampling
of the cattle ; but, on the other hand, they are. eafily
reftored. Concerning all open drains, indeed, it muff
be remembered, that they require to be cleaned out at
leaft once a-year •, and when this procefs is negletted
for any length of time, it becomes more difficult, and
the drains lofe their effeft. Hence, though open
drains are originally cheaper, yet, by the neceffity of
annual repairs, they fometimes become ultimately more
expenfive than covered or hollow drains, to the confi-
deration of which we ffiall next proceed.
Nature and Hollow drains, in which the water is allowed to
hiftory of flow along a bed of loofe ftones, or other porous mate-
hollow wlflie they are covered wdth a bed of earth in
which the operations of the plough can proceed, bear
a near refemblance to that part of the conftitution of
nature by which water flows in various channels along
beds of porous ftrata in the bowels of the earth, and
coming to the furface in various fituations, fupplies
fprings and the conftant flow of rivulets and of the
largeff ftreams. The practice of hollow draining was
known in a very remote antiquity. It is faid that the
prefent Perfians are fupplied by means of hollow
drains with water in their moft fertile fields, though
they know not from whence the water is brought, and
are unacquainted with the arts by which a more inge¬
nious people in former times contrived to deprive one
part of the foil of its fuperfluous moifture with a view
to enrich another. The ancient Roman writers, Cato,
Palladius, Columella, and Pliny, particularly mention
the pra£Hce of hollow draining. They knew the kind
of foils in which thefe drains are ufeful, and the pro¬
priety of direfting them obliquely acrofs the flope of
the field. They filled them half way up with fmall
ftones, and for want of thefe with willow poles, or even
with any coarfe twigs or other fimilar materials twill¬
ed into a rope. They alfo fortified the heads of their
drains with large ftones, and their mouths or outlets
with a regular building •, and they carried the whole
drain to the depth of three or four feet.
As already mentioned, hollow drains are of little va¬
lue in a foil that confifts of a ftiff clay, and are chiefly
ufeful where, from whatever caufe the wetnefs may re-
fult, the foil is fufficiently porous to allow the raoifttwe
to percolate to an internal drain.
L T U R E. 35i
If the field propofed to be drained lie on a decliyi-Preparation
ty, great care Ihould be taken to make hollow drains _0 ^1U ‘ ,
in a direction fufficiently horizontal to prevent a too ^
rapid fall of the water, which might wear the bottom Rules for
uneven, and have the effeft to choak, or, as it is lome-making
times called, to blow up the drain, whereby in certain hollow
fpots in the field artificial fprings would be formed.
Concerning the feafon for executing drains, dif-
cordant opinions are entertained. Some prefer win¬
ter, others fummer. Where much work is to be accom-
pliffied, a choice of feafons may not indeed be left to
the hulbandman. Some farmers, however, when they
have the choice of time, always prefer fummer for this
employment, being then able to execute the cuts in a
neater manner without that kneading of the foil which
takes place in winter, which they think hurts the ufe-
fulnefs of the drain, by ever after preventing the wa¬
ter from eafily finding its way to it j befides, that it is
eafier to bring the ftones or other materials to the fpot
in fummer than in winter. Others, however, prefer
draining in winter, becaufe in the cafe of a clay foil
the labour is at that feafon much eafier j and alio be¬
caufe labourers are then ufually moft eafy to be ob¬
tained.
The depth and width ufually adopted for hollow
draining is very various, according to the nature of
the foil and the fituation of the field. Wffien the prac¬
tice firft came into general ufe, three feet is faid to
have been the common depth 5 but, for many years
part, it is faid that hollow drains feldom exceed 30 or
32 inches, and that more drains are of two feet, or 26
inches deep, than of any other. One general rule,
however, cannot be negledled with fafety, that the
depth mull be fufficient to prevent the materials with
which the drain is filled from being affedled by the
feet of horfes in a furrow while ploughing ; twenty-
four inches is perhaps too little for this purpofe. A
horfe’s foot in a furrow is ufually at the depth of four
inches or more. If ten inches additional be allowed
for the materials employed in filling the drain, there
will remain only nine or ten inches to fupport the foot
of a horfe exerting his fttength in the aft of plough¬
ing, which upon a porous foil feems fcarcely fufficient.
What are called main drains, which are thofe intend¬
ed to receive the w^ater of feveral other drains, muft
always be fomewhat deeper than the reft, having more
water to convey. As to the widenefs of hollow drains,
moft farmers have of late been folicitous to render
them as narrow as poffible, becaufe by this means a
great faving takes place of the materials ufed for filling
them. If the ftones are coupled at the bottom of the
drain, that is, made to lean tow-ards each other, fo as to
conftitute a triangle, of which the bottom of the drain'
forms the bafe, the width need not be greater than one
foot 5 nor perhaps is it even neceflary to exceed this
breadth where large fiones are thrown in promifcuouf-
ly. That the ditches or cuts which are meant to be
converted into hollow drains may be executed with
neatnefs and care, a point of much importance to their
ufefulnefs, it is thought prudent that the workmen
fliould not be paid according to the extent of ground
which they open, but as day labourers. This, how¬
ever, is more particularly the cafe with regard to fil¬
ling the drains, an operation in which a ftill greater
degree of attention, is neceSary.
The
Preparation
of Land.
A G R I C U
The materials ufed for filling drains have been va-
    rious, according to the fubftances which dilferent far-
mers have been able to obtain. Stones, however,
Materials a.re, tlie moft common, and alfo the bell of all mate-
with which rials, on account of their permanency. If Hones from
hollow quarries are to be ufed, and the drain formed like a
drains may COnduit at the bottom, the trench muft be made at the
be tilled.
lowed: part 16 inches wide, containing two fide Hones
about fix inches afunder, and the fame in height, with
a cap or flat Hone laid over, which fecures the cavity.
Such hollow drains are commonly ufed for permanent
currents of water from fprings, and are mere expenfive
than where no fuch Heady current exifis, and the Hones
are either thrown in promifeuoufly, or laid down fo as
to form triangular cavities. Small Hones, however,
ought not to be ufed for the bottom of a drain.
Whether the Hones are large or fmail, they ought to
be very clean, having no clay or earth adhering to
them, and of the mofi hard and permanent quality that
can be procured, with as little tendency as poffible to
moulder or decay in confequence of alternate changes
from wet to dry. They ought alfo to be laid in care¬
fully, fo as not to tumble down any earth, winch might
choke up their interflices. The whole fubje&, how¬
ever, will be better underfiood by a'fiatement of the
way in which drains have been filled with fuccefs by
intelligent perfons.
The following directions are given by T. B. Bayley,
Efq. of Hope, near Manchefler: “ Tirfi make the main
drains down the Hope or fall of the field. When the
land is very wet, or has not much fall, there fiiould in
general be two of thefe to a flatute acre ; for the flrorter
the narrow drains are, the lets liable they will be to
accidents. The width of the trench for the main drains
fliould be 30 inches at top, but the width at the bot¬
tom mufi be regulated by the nature and fize of the
materials intended to be ufed. If the drain is to be
made of bricks, 10 inches long, 3 inches thick, and 4
inches in breadth, then the bottom of the drain mult
be x 2 inches ; but if the common fale bricks are ufed,
then the bottom mufi be proportionably contracted. In
both cafes there mufl be an interfiice of one inch be¬
tween the bottom brick and the Tides of the trench,
and the vacuity mufi be filled up with flraw, rufiies, or
loofe mould. For the purpofe of making thefe drains,
I order my bricks to be moulded 10 inches long, 4
broad, and 3 thick 3 which dimenfions always make the
bed drain.”
The method which this gentleman purfues inconfirudl-
ing his main drains is Hated by him to be the following :
When the ground is foft and fpongy, the bottom of the
drain is laid with bricks placed acrofs. On thefe, on
each fide, two bricks are laid flat, one upon the other,
forming a drain fix inches high, and four broad, which
is covered with bricks laid flat.—When the bottom of the
trench is found to be a firm and folid body, fuch as clay
or marl, be formerly thought that it might not be necef-
iary to lay the bottom with brick 3 but in this he has can¬
didly acknowledged that he was quite wrong. By the
runs of water, the alternate, changes from wet to dry,
and the accefs of air, thele hard bottoms were rendered
friable, crumbled away, and let in all the drains, and
allowed them to choke up, that were not Supported by
a bottom laid.with brick or Hone. When Hones are
ufed infiead of bricks, Mr Bayley thinks that the bot-
L T U R E.
tom of the drain fliould be about eight inches in width 3
and in all cafes the bottom of main drains ought to be
funk four inches below the level of the narrow ones,
whofe contents they receive, even at the point where
the latter fall into them.
The main drains fhould be kept open or uncovered
till the narrow ones are begun from them, after which
they may be finiflied 3 but before the earth is returned
upon the Hones or bricks, it is advifable to throw in
flraw, ruflies, or brufliwood, to increafe the freedom
of the drain. The fmall narrow drains fhould be cut
at the difiance of 16 or 18 feet from each other, and
fliould fall into the main drain at very acute angles, to
prevent any floppage. At the point where they fall
in, and 8 or 10 inches above it, they fliould be made
firm with brick or Hone. Thele drains Ihould be 18
inches wide at the top, and 16 at bottom.
A mode of draining clay foils wet by rain or furface
water, praftifed by Sir Henry Fletcher, Bart, with
great fuccefs, feems worthy of being here Hated. The
upper foil is of good quality, but being fituated in a
mountainous part of the country, the frequent rains*
kept the upper foil fo full of water, that it produced
only a coarfe grafs worth 3s. per acre. The inferior
foil of clay was of great depth. The mode of draining
which has been fuccefsfully praflifed upon it is the
following ; “ On grafs lands he digs 22 inches, or 2
feet deep 3 the firfl fpadeful is of the turf, taken fo
deep, as where it feparates from the clay, which is dug
carefully out, and preferved unbroken grafs fide up,
and laid on one fide of the cut 3 then, with a very
Hrong fpade, 1S inches long, 6 inches wide at top, and
2 at the bottom, he digs a fpadeful in the clay, which
the men fpread about the land, on the fide of the drain
oppofite to where the turfs were laid, as far as poflible
from the drain, fo as none may get in again. A fcoop,
to clear out the fragments in the bottom, follows,
which are alfo fpread in like manner. They are then
ready for filling 3 and in doing this, he takes three
Hones of a thin flat form, two of which are placed a-
gainfl the fides of the drain, meeting at bottom ; and
the third caps the ether two. Thus, a hollow trian¬
gular fpace is left to convey the water, which is fub-
jeft to no accidents that can fill it up or impede the
current. Stones always fink deeper in the ground ; and
in the common method, this frequently caufes Hoppa-
ges by tbeir being partly buried in the clay : but the
triangle, when it fubfides, does it regularly, and keeps
its form and the paflage for the water clear. One cart¬
load of Hones, in this way, will do a confiderable
length of drain. They are carefully laid down by the
fide of the cut, with a flxovel or bafket, and if there
are any fmall refufe Hones left on the ground after the
drain is fet, they are thrown in above. The Hones
being thus fixed, the fods are then trimmed to the
fiiape of the drain, and laid on them, with the grafs
fide downwards, and none 6f the clay ufed in filling up.
The expence is a halfpenny per yard, the men earn¬
ing 2s. and 2s. 6d. per day, at 10 yards diflance from
drain to drain. At 6 yards diftance they anfwered
well, but would not operate a cure, if more than 7
yards afunder. At this lafl diflance, therefore, the
expence of draining an Englifh acre, at fd per yard,
would amount to il. 9s. 2d. the Hones being not. mere
than half a mile difiant,
Not
Part I.
Preparation
of Land.
Part L
Preparation
of Land.
A G R I C
Not only Hones and bricks, but alio wood and other
materials have been ufed for filling drains. Upon this
point, Lord Petre expreffes himfelf thus : “ The drains
filled with wood, and covered as ufual wnth 11 raw or
rufhes, are preferable to Hones or any other kind of
materials •, the reafon is, as the wood decays, the water
continues to pafs. When filled with Hones, and the
drains flop up, which mufl be expected to take place
in time, the earth becomes quite lolid round the Hones,
and as they do not decay, the filtering or the water is
for ever obitrudled : not fo when bullies or wood are
ufed 5 continual filtering and draining are then for ever
to be perceived 5 and by repeating the operation a Se¬
cond time, cutting the drains tranfverfely of the old
ones, the benefit of the filterings through the rotten
wood is fecured, and the fpewing up of old, broken,
and datnaged drains correited and carried off. More¬
over, as bullies form a much .greater number of cavi¬
ties than either Hones or poles, they are lefs liable to
Hop up, and encourage filtering more than larger and
more folid bodies. " A load of buflres containing
120 faggots, will do about $60 rods 5 and a load ol
flraw containing 120 bottles, the fame: the load of
bulhes is generally wTorth about 14s. and the flraw iBs.
per load. I therefore calculate this expence about 12S.
per acre, ditches a rod apart.'1
Richard Prfeflon, Efq. of Blackmore, prefers, on
twenty years experience, black thorns to every other
material for filling drains. Wood is fometimes ufed
with this view, in the following manner: Two billets
are placed at oppofite fides of the dram, and each is made
to refl upon the oppofite fide to that on which its
lower part Hands, fo as to form with each other a St.
Andrew’s crofs. d he upper part of the crols is filled
with brufhwood, laid longitudinally, above which Hraw
is placed crofs-wrays, and the mould is thrown in over
all. This kind of drain is laid to have continued run¬
ning in Berwickfliire fdr 30 years,. and it is recom¬
mended by the author of the Agricultural Report of
the county of Caermarthen, in Wales. He fays, “ I he
completefl method I have yet known, is to cut tue
ffrongefl willows, or other aquatic bruffiwood, into
lengths of about 2Q inches, and place them alternately
in the drain, with one end againfl one fide of the bot¬
tom, and the other leaning againff the oppofite fide.
Having placed the flrong wood in this manner, I fill
the fpace left between them on the upper fide wuth the
'{mall brufhwood, upon which a few rufhes or Hraw
being laid, as before mentioned, the wmrk is done.
Willow, alder, afp, or beech boughs, are exceedingly
durable if put into the'drain green, or before the lap
is dried 5 but if they are fuffered to become dry, and
then laid under ground, a rapid decay is the confe-
quence. I have feen willow taken out of a bog, aftei
lyij-jg there thirty years, and its bark was as irefli and
fappy as if it had been recently cut from the hedge 5
and it is well known that beech laid green in the water
will continue found for any length of time.
Another method of ufing wood confifls of fixing- at
every foot diHance in the drain, a Hick in tne form of
a femicircular arch, and of laying upon thefe longer
branches or twigs longitudinally, f hus is a curved cavi¬
ty, or arch, formed beneath, capable of fuppoiting any
weight of earth. For this purpofe young wrood is re¬
commended, and in particular the prunings of larch.
Vol. I. Part I.
u L T U R E. 353
Inftead of wood or Hone, in many places, it has. of Preparation
late become cuflomary to fill the lowefl part of drains, a 1''n'c .
with Hraw, and with that view to make ufe of wheat
Hubble as the cheapefl kind of flraw. On this fubjecf,
Mr Vancouver, in his Report of the Effex hufbandry,
remarks, that when the foil is a very clofe and. reten¬
tive clay, the drains fliould be made proportionally
near to each other, lhallow, and filled with Hraw only,
it being totally unneceffary to ufe wmod or any .more
durable material upon land where the fides of the
drains are not likely to crumble in. He aflerts that
drains formed in this manner, through the tough and
retentive clays, will be found m a fhort time after tne
work is finifhed, to aftord over the Hraw, with vhrch
the drain was filled, an arch of iuihcient flrength to
fupport the incumbent weight of the foil, and the cafual
traffic of the field. “ In 12 or 18 months it may be ob-
ferved that the Hraw, being of one uniform fubflan.ee,
is all rotted, and carried away, leaving a clear pipe
through the laud in every drain, into which tne p&f-
fage of the water may' have been much facilitated, by
a due attention to the filling of the drains with the
mofl friable and porous parts of the furface the field
might have afforded.”
An improvement in filling hollow drains with Hraw,
confifls of twilling the Hraw into a rope, faid to have
been devifed by Mr Bedwell, of Effex. The rope of
ft raw is formed as large as a man’s arm, and is placed
at the bottom of the drain. The expence of draining
an Englilh acre of land rvith this material in Effex, i$
faid to Hand thus 5
For cutting and raking together an acre of
wheat Hubblej generally fufficient for an
acre of drains, - _ -
Digging eight fcore rods of drains,
Filling them up with Hubble,
Extra work wuth the common fpade, bn an
average a day’s work for a man,
L.o
2
13
2
L.o 19 4
As in fome fituations it is an objebl of great import¬
ance to fave the expence of materials commonly ufed in
filling drains, a variety of devices have with that view
been adopted. One of thefe is of the following nature.
A drain is firft dug to the neceffary depth, narrow' at
bottom. Into the trench is laid a fmooth tree, or cy¬
lindrical piece of wood, 12 feet long, 6 inches diame¬
ter at the one end, and 5 at the other, having a ring
faftened into the thickeft end. After ftrewing a little
fand upon the upper fide of the tree, the clay or tougheft
part of the contents of the trench, is firft thrown in
upon it, and thereafter the remainder of the earth is
fully trod down. By means of a rope through the
ring the tree is then drawn out to within a foot or two
of the fmall or hinder end, and the fame operation is
repeated till the whole drain is complete. Such a drain
is faid to have conduced a fmall run of water a con-
Hderable way under ground for more than 20 years
without any fign of failure. . U5 .
What is called the fod or pipe drain confifts of a SoV’r l’1**5
trench dug to a proper depth ; after which a laft fpade-1 IlUIlS’
ful is taken out in fuch a way as to leave a narrow chan¬
nel, which can be covered by a fod or turf dug in grafs
land and laid over it, the grafs fide downwards. Such
Y y drains
354
PofPArnd°nfraInS arC faId t0 contIllue follow, and to difcharge well
  tor _a great number of years. Mofl'es are faid to be
diained in Lancafhire nearly in the fame manner, by
leaving fhoulders about a foot and a half from the bot¬
tom of the trench, and laying acrofs thele pieces of dry-
ed peat or turf, cut into lengths of 16 inches, and 8 or
9 inches in breadth.
In Buckinghamfhire, in grafs lands, the fod drain is
thus, made : Vv hen the line of drain is marked out, a
fod in foim of a wedge is cut, the grafs fide being the
narrowed, and the fods being from 12 to 18 inches in
length. The drain is then cut to the depth required,
but is contraffed to a very narrow bottom. The fods
aie whh the grafs fide downwards, and
preffed as far as they will go. As the figure of the
drain does not fuffer them to go to the bottom, a ca¬
vity is left, which ferves as a water couife } and the
fpace above is filled with the earth thrown out.
Another invention for draining land is defcribed in
the agricultural report of the county of Effex. It con-
fifts of a draining wheel of call iron, that weighs about
4 cwt.. It is 4 feet in diameter, the cutting edge or
extremity of the circumference of the wheel is half an
an inch thick, and it increafes in thicknefs towards the
centre. At i j inches deep it will cut a drain, one half
of an inch wide at the bottom, and 4 inches wide at
the top. The wheel is fo placed in a frame, that it
may be loaded at pleafure, and made to operate to a
gleaner or ieis deptn, according to the refiftance made
by the ground. It is ufed, in winter, when the foil is
to.it; and the wheel tracks are either immediately filled
with ftraw ropes and lightly covered over with earth,
or. they are left to crack wider and deeper till the en-
luing fummer; after which the fifTures are filled with
ropes of draw or of twided twigs, and lightly covered
with the mod porous earth that is at hand. Thus,
upon grafs or ley lands, hollow drains are formed at a
trifling expence, which anfwer extremely well, It is
laid that 12 acres may be fully gone over with this
draining wheel in one day, fo as to make cuts at all
neceilary didances.
^ On fheep padures a dill fimpler mode of removing
furface water is faid to be praftifed in fome places.
. herever the water is apt to dagnate, a deep furrow
is turned up with a dout plough. Thereafter, a man
with a fpade pares off the loofe foil from the inverted
K>d, and leaders it over the field, or calls it into hoi-
low places. I he fod thus pared and rendered thin,
01 brought to the thicknefs of about three inches, is
redored to its original fituation, with the graffy fide up-
permoft,. as if no furrow had been made. A pipe or
opening is thus formed beneath it two or three inches
deep in the bottom of the furrow, which is fafficient
to difcharge a confiderable quantity of furface water
which readily finks into it. Thefe furrows, indeed,
ar- eafily choked up by any preffure, or by the growth
of the roots of the grafs; but they are alfo eafily redor-
J7p ed, and no furface is loll by means of them.
Duration of ^ With regard to the duration of hollow drains or
honow the length of time that the water will continue to flow
CiriiaS‘ bn them, and thereby to preferve the foil in a proper
;tate of drynefs, it mud neceffarily depend, in a great
negree, upon the nature of the materials with which
they are filled, and the care that has been taken to
prevent their being choked up by any accefficn of foft
agriculture.
Practice.
foil. Independent of this lad circumdance, a drain Preparation
filled with dones, like the channel which fupplies a Land,
natural fpring, may endure for ever. Wood, with
which many drains have of late years been filled, pe-
ridies at certain periods according to its nature 5 but
it does by no means follmv, that the drain diould lofe
its effect in confequence of the dedruciion of the
wood. If the earth over it form itfelf into an arch,
the water will dill continue to flow. Accordingly, it
is faid, that drains filled with bullies and draw have
been known to run well after 40 years. lS;j
Having thus dated the various modes that have been Drains
mod fuccefsfully adopted for draining lands of a fuper- w^ien the
abundant moidure caufed by rain or furface water," etJie/s.
we diall proceed to confider the way in which a foUSls X
may be drained when its undue wetnefs is the confe- 1 ° ’
quence of natural fprings, or of water arifing out of the
bowels of the earth; and alfo when the foil, whether
injured by fpring or rain water, is fo completely fur-
rounded by higher grounds, as to prevent the podibility,
at a moderate expence, of obtaining a level by which
the water may be conducted away, either by open or
by artificial hollow drains. ^
To underdand the principles upon which land, ren-Nature of
dered wet by fprings, may be drained for the purpofesfPrinSs-
ot agriculture, it is neceffary to attend to the materials
of which the globe we inhabit is compofed, and to the
manner in. which large quantities of water find their
way into its bowels. The earth upon which we tread
is by no means an uniform mafs of matter. It ccnfids
of various layers or drata of different fubdances, one
placed over the other. Thefe layers or drata are fel-
dom fituated horizontally, but almod always defeend
towards one fide or the other. One part of a dratum
or layer often afeends and appears on the furface,
while the other end or fide of it defeends obliquely to
a great depth into the earth. Having done fo, it fre¬
quently again bends upwards towards the furface 5 and
indeed affumes almod all the variety of irregular forms
ana bearings that the imagination can conceive 5 fome-
times fuddenly breaking off and giving place to other
ftrata or layers, and iometimes continuing at one cor¬
ner while the greater part of it ceafes. Thefe drata
or layers, of which the earth is compofed, may be con-
fidered, with a view to the explanation of our prefent
fuojed:, as Oi two kinds. Some of them are porous, and
allow water to pafs through their fubdance, and to
fill up all their cavities and interdices, fuch as fand,
gravel, fome marls, and various kinds of porous rocks.
Other layers, on the contrary, do not fuffer water to
enter into them; fuch as clay, or gravel with much
clay mixed with it, and rocks of a clofe and compaff
nature, without any fiffures or clefts in them.
. It is next to be remarked, that it is chiefly upon
high mountains tnat water exifts, or is formed, in very
great abundance. Not only do they catch and break
the palling clouds, which depofite upon them the great-
eft portion of their watery contents, but they would
leem to have a power, when neither rain nor clouds
appear in the Iky, of condenfing, attracting, or lome-
how forming water from the atmofphere. In the
great burning deferts of Africa rain is fcarcely known.
I he inhabitants build their houfes of clods of earth or
of lumps of fait. A drizzling fliower, which is apt to
come once in feveral years, endangers every dwelling 5
and
Part I. A . G R. I C
Preparation and two liOurs of lieavy rain would lay a whole city in
of Land. ruins j yet even there, wTherever mountains exift, that
*—11 ’ is to fay, naked rocks, which abound in a few diltriiSts
of this wildernefs, water is almoft always found in
their vicinity ; and, in confequence of the water, fpots
covered with the moft luxuriant verdure are feen like
iilands amidtt the dreary tradts of moveable and un¬
productive fand.
The upper part of mountains is very frequently co¬
vered with a layer of gravel, or loofe and open rock,
into which water readily penetrates. Thefe porous
layers or ftrata defcend gradually into the bowTels of
the earth, and convey along with them the water
which they contain, and have received from the clouds.
Under the porous ftratum or layer of gravel are ufual-
ly layers of clay or of folid rock, through which the
rvater cannot pafs, but along the upper part of which
it flows. After defcending, however, a certain length
obliquely down towards the plain country, layers or
Itrata of clay and other iirtpervious materials ufually
come to be placed above the layers of porous gravel.
Thus, as the water in the gravel is confined between
clay above and clay or rock below, and mull defcend
along the gravelly channel which is pervious to it,
ftreams of water are formed in the borvels of the earth,
w hich have their origin in high gravelly foils, and their
outlets at any place in the low country, where any part
of the beds of gravel or porous rock, along which they
flow, happens to approach the furface, forming fprings
and rivulets, and, by their union or conflux, mighty
rivers, which continue fteadily to water the furface of
earth. Hence alfo, in very many fituations, by dig-
ing pits into the earth, we at laft reach a layer of per¬
vious gravel or rock, containing a ftream of water
brought, perhaps, from the fummit of a diftant moun¬
tain ; and fuch pits can be ufed as wells for fupplying
wrater for every domeilic purpofe.
We have faid that the upper part of the face of a
mountain is often covered with a bed of porous or
gravelly fubftances capable of taking in water. Upon
the furface, at a certain diftance down the hill, a bed
of clay begins. The water received above into the
layer of gravel continues to defcend with that layer
for a confiderable fpace below the bed of clay ; and
thereafter the gravel fuddenly flops, and the clay above
unites with the clay beneath, or with fome other im¬
pervious ftrata upon which the gravel all the -way refl¬
ed. In this fituation, as the water contained in the
gravel can proceed no farther, it hangs within the fide
of the hill as in a bag of clay } and a refervoir is form¬
ed of water within the earth. When this bag or na¬
tural refervoir is full, the water contained in it is pref-
fed upwards again A the clay by which it is covered.
It moiflens this clay, and finds its way by chinks
through all its weaker parts or pores. Thus a belt of
iS2 foft and fpouty land is formed upon the fide of the hill;
Principleonthe mode of draining which is very eafy. If a hole is
which land dug into the earth near the bottom of the bag or re-
’ ‘ fervoir of water, fo as to reach the layer of gravel, the
water will inftantly flow freely out, and, being no
longer reftrained, it will ceafe to prefs upon the layer
or flratum of clay that covers it, or to force a paflage
through its chinks ; and the foil will confequently be
drained.
Let it be fuppofed, that the porous ftratum or layer
made wet
by fprings
» drained.
U L T U R E. 355
of gravel, inftead of flopping on the fide of a hill, de- Preparation
feends into the plain or level country, the water all _ 0l ' .
the while pafling along in its bow'els ; and that the
gravel has a layer of clay below and another layer ot
clay above it. After it has reached and paffed to a
confiderable diftance along the valley, if the layer of
gravel either fuddenly flop and allow the layers of
clay to come together, or if the gravel have too little
thicknefs and capacity to allow the water which flows
within it to pafs eafily along, it will neceflarily, from
the new fupplies of water which are continually de¬
fcending, be prefled upwards againrt the layer of clay
which covers it : as in the former cafe, the clay will
be foftened, and the water will filtrate through all its
weaker parts till it reach the lurface, which it will
keep conftantly wet, and where it will ftagnate in con¬
fequence of the flat and level form of the country.
Over the fofteft places, a coarfe verdure will fpread,
and the roots of the plants intertwining, will form
fhaking quagmires. In other places, the mofs plants,
being the only ones which can thrive in the moift and
ungenial foil which is thus produced, will rapidly
fpring up, and a mofs will be formed altogether unfit
for any purpofe of agriculture. To drain iuch a foil,
it is evidently only neceffary to dig a pit or hole
through the upper flratum of clay into the gravel, to
give a free vent or iflue to the water ; which having
thus found an eafy paffage to the open air, will ceafe.
to prefs upon the incumbent layer of clay, or to render
it moift. This clay will therefore fpeedily become
dry and collapfe ; the mofs plants will wither, provided
the furface is properly drained; and the whole foil will
become folid and fit to be cultivated.
It fometimes happens, as already noticed, that a piece
of territory which lies low, is rendered extremely wet
by rain and fpring water coming from adjacent high
grounds, and lodging upon its furface, while, at the fame
time, it is fo completely furrounded by eminences, or
land-locked,that it cannot be drained at a moderate coft;
the confequence of which is, that the water ftagnates,
and a mofs or bog is formed. The principles which
we have already ftated concerning the manner in which
the globe is made up of various ftrata, indicate the way
in which fuch a bog may be drained at a cheap rate.
It is only neceffary to dig a pit at the loweft part of it,
down through the clay, or other impervious layer that
holds up the water, till a porous ftratum is reached ca¬
pable of conveying away the furface water down the
country below ground to the lea, or to fuch rivers as
it may chance to be connefted with.
The whole art of draining land where the wetnefs
is occafioned by water prefling, upwards from the
bowrels of the earth, depends upon thefe principles.
It is an art whofe importance is not yet fufficiently ap-
pretiated, becaufe imperfectly underftood, and becaufe
it has not yet been carried in praCtice to its full extent.
It is probable, however, that at no remote period it
wall be held in univerfal eftimation, on account ol the
command of thofe hidden ftreams that are contained in D;fp;ite a-
the bow'els of the earth, which it will give to mankind bout the
for the purpofes of an improved agriculture, and for the ^ f of the
fervice of commerce in filling canals and giving motion
to every kind of machinery. A difpute exifts about draining
the original difeovery of this art. The celebrated land made
writer upon agriculture, Dr James Anderfon of Aber- wet by
& Y v 2 deen,fPnnS5-
356 A G R I C U
preparation deen, in his “ EiTays on Agriculture and Rural Affairs,”
.of JLan(1, publidied m 1775, was undoubtedly the firft perron
- " who explained to the world the nature of the art of
draining land rendered wet by fprings, and the princi¬
ples upon which it ought to proceed ; having been led
to the inveftigation many years before, by his having
fortunately lucceeded in draining a bog by finking a
pit in it through the clay till an opening was made in¬
to the gravel or porous llratum, from which the water
rufhed up vehemently. In the mean while, it had hap¬
pened that Mr Jofeph Elkington, poffeffcr of a farm
in England called Princethorp, in the pariili of Stret-
ton upon Dunfmore, and county of Warwick, almoft as
early as Dr Anderfon, had accidentally difcovered that
land might be drained in many fituations by making a
fmali hole into the earth Being a man of confrderable
natural ingenuity, though, it is laid, of little literature,
he had the addrefs to take advantage of the difcovery he
had made, with a view to the improvement of his affairs.
He therefore commenced the trade of a drainer of
lands } and by the novelty of draining land by a fmali
hole bored often at a coniiderable dillance from the
wetted part of it, and by conducing himfelf in a
mylterious manner, he acquired great reputation, and
was extenlively employed. This employment he ap¬
pears to have merited, as his operations were attended
with very great fuccefs. After the edablilhment of
the Board of Agriculture, its members, who appear to
have been unacquainted with Dr Anderfon’s publica¬
tion, fuppofed Mr Elkington to be the only difeoverer
and poflellor of the art of draining land wet by fprings
in the way now mentioned ) and upon their recom-
mendation, parliament bedowed a reward of 1000I.
upon him. It was furely an unfortunate circumdance,
that the fird premium granted upon the recommenda¬
tion of this board, drould have proceeded upon an error,
as it undoubtedly did ; for, although Mr Elkington
had the merit of being the fird who introduced this art
extenfively into pra&ice, there is no doubt that Dr
Anderfon, by whom alfo it wTas difcovered, was the
fird who explained its principles to the public, and
that at a period when Mr Elkington’s fecret remained
with himlelf. After all, however, it is not to be fup¬
pofed that the theory of this art wTas abfolutely un¬
known, although thefe perfons appear to have been the
fird who propofed to apply it extenfively to the pur-
poles of agriculture. It is find that the pra£lice is
very ancient in Italy, when a well is dug, to avoid
the expence of going to a great depth, by boring with
an auger in the bottom of the pit, in the hope of reach¬
ing the porous dratum which contains the water. And
in Germany it appears, as will be afterwards noticed,
that the pra&ice has long exified of draining land¬
locked bogs, by letting down the w^ater by means of a
pit through the impervious clay, to a porous fubdra-
tum. We drall now proceed to date the mod ap¬
proved modes of draining land that is rendered wet by
iprings, or water afeending out of the earth j and as
the Board of Agriculture indrufted Mr John Johndon,
land furveyor, to infpedl Mr Elkington’s principal drain¬
ings of this fort, and to give an account of them, we
{hall give all due attention to the contents of the re¬
port made out by that gentleman, which is underdood
to nave been executed with much fidelity and accuracy j
_ L T U R E. Practice.
though tve (hall alfo exhibit, at the fame time, the prac- Preparation
tice of other intelligent perfons upon the fame fubjedl. °fLand.
In the praftice of this art it will readily occur, '
that it is of the utmod importance to obtain a know- pr c^q
ledge of the internal druiffure of the earth, and of the rules for
manner in which its various layers or drata fucceed, draining
and are ufually intermingled with each other. This ^anc* ma<fe
objedf, however, can only be attained in any confi- W-i '’Z
derable degree of perfection by obfervation and expe- ^ * a "
nence. There are feveral ways, however, by which
a , man of fagacity and refieftion may greatly abridge
the difficulty of this dudy, fo as in a diort time to
enable himfelf to praclife the art of draining with con-
fiderable fuccefs. The lured way of afeertaining the
inclination of the different drata, or the way in which
they he upon each other, and the direction in which
they defeend into the earth, confids of examining the
bed of the neared rivers, and the appearance of their
banks when deep and broken, fo as to lay bare the
different drata oi earth adjoining to them. Pits, quar¬
ries, and wells, that may have been dug in the neigh¬
bourhood, may alfo be examined with the fame view.
Rubies, fmali elder budies, and other plants which
grow on the wetted foils, alfo frequently afford fymp-
toms of the line under which an internal refervoir of
wrater is placed, and is preffing upwards from wanting
a free paffage below ground. ^
It is often of much importance, even in ffieep coun- To drain
tries, to drain the fide of a hill, not only becaufe wet the fide of
land is more unproduftive than that which is properly a khl.
drained, but becaufe the fuperabundance of moidure is
apt to introduce and to keep up among the flock that
dedruClive and incurable difeafe, the rot, for which
draining is an almod infallible preventive. It is
cheaply executed in fuch fituations, becaufe the drains
for collecting and leading off the water, may ufually
be left uncovered. Let it be fuppofed then, that in
confequence of internal fprings at a certain didance
down the declivity of a hill, or upon any other de-
feending furface, the ground becomes w^et and fpouty,
and unwffiolefome for ffieep, and unfit for agriculture 5
the bed mode of proceeding with a view to drain it is
this. It ought to be recolle&ed, that the reafon of the
wetnefs is this : The rain water at the fummit of the
ground is received into a porous dratum of gra¬
vel, with which it defeends down the fide of the hill,
till it comes to be covered with a clayey foil. After
defeending under the covering of clay to fome didance,
the gravel or porous under foil fuddenly ceafes; the clay
becomes deeper, and touches the rock or another in¬
ferior bed of clay. In this fituation, the w^ater, unable
to defeend farther, regorges and preffes upwards upon
the clayey foil which covers it, rendering it moid and
fwampy in every part, and oozing through all its-
weaker crannies. Thus it forms a belt of moid ground
along the face of the hill, from which the water perhaps
defeends and damages every part. To drain this de¬
clivity, begin at the bottom and carry up a ditch to¬
wards the w^et ground. As the objeff is to let out the
water at the lowed point of the refervoir or natural
bag in which it is contained, by making an opening
into the gravel there, it will be proper, as the ditch
proceeds upwards, frequently to bore holes with an
auger of about two inches diameter to a confiderable
depth,
Parti. A G R I C U
Preparation depth, that is, about 15 feet, though fometimes it is
of Land. neceffary to go to twice that depth. As long as the
V..—y—water is not found by boring, the ditch mull be car¬
ried upwards, and new auger holes formed 5 when at
laft the auger by boring reaches the lowed part of the
gravel or refervoir of water, the water will immediate¬
ly ruih forth with considerable violence at tne hole
formed by it, and will continue ever after to run with¬
out any danger of choking up. W hen the bottom of
the refervoir of water or layer of gravel is thus found,
another ditch ought to be drawn acrofs the head of
the former along the face of the hill, fo as to form the
figure of the letter 1. In the upper ditch or drain
that runs along the face of the hill, auger holes ought
to be bored at Ihort diftanees, to let out the whole wa¬
ter from the interior refervoir or Stratum of gravel.
The whole procefs will be eaiily underhood from con-
Plate XII. fidering the figure 3- Care ought always to be taken
in digging the upper drain along the face of tiie hill,
to form it in fuch a way as that the water may defeend
in it towards the ditch firft formed, which is intended
to convey it down the hill to the neareit; brook. The
old practice or mode of draining ground in this fitua-
tion before the ufe of the auger was understood, and
before men had reflected upon the way in which water
is often confined in the earth, confiSted of digging a
trench wherever the fpouty land commenced. As this
was not deep enough to reach the evil, that is, to pe¬
netrate to the refervoir of water, it produced only a
partial remedy. Other parallel ditches of the Same
kind were therefore cut the whole way down tne de¬
clivity, and being filled with loofe Hones and connedf-
ed with a defeending ditch, each carried off only a
portion of furface water, leaving the foil Hill cold in
confequence of the wetnefs of the bottom.
In performing the operation already deferibed, fome
difficulties are apt to occur in confequence oi the irre¬
gularities with which the Strata are often placed in the
earth. In boring in the afeending trench, in the firft part
of the operation, with a view to discover the lowxft point
at which the water may be let out from the internal
refervoir, the operator is fometimes apt to be milled by
finding water before he has come high enough to reach
the place at which the porous Slratum Slops. This
ariies from its fometimes happening that at the bottom
of the refervoir final! leakages occur, and a portion of
the water finds its way downwards through crannies
in the earth to fome distance from the main .refervoir.
When the auger in boring meets thefe leakages, they
are apt to be mistaken for the main body of water,
and the operator can only guard himfelf againft fuch
errors, by forming an eftimate 01 the quantity of wa¬
ter which the adjoining high grounds ought to af¬
ford. If the quantity of water that follows the auger
be very trifling while the extent of high ground is
great, 'he may’be affured that he has not yet reached
the great caufe of the wetnefs of the loil. It alio Some¬
times happens that the crofs drain carried along the face
of thehiil, may in fome places be below the level of the
refervoir of water, while it is upon it at other places.
In this cafe, when the auger by boring in the crofs
trench brings no wTater, it will be neceffary to bore
above it, and to conduit the wrater that is there obtained
by a finall cut into the general crofs trench.
It fometimes happens that hills are compofed of al¬
ii T U R E. 357
ternate Strata, of rock and fand and clay, which reft Preparation
horizontally or nearly fo upon each other, and pene- , °* ‘1“ “ .
trate and form the mafs of the hill. In fuch cafes tne
foil above the fand or rock is often dry and produdtive,
while the clay is wret and fwampy. In this cafe, the
higheit part of the hill being generally porous, re¬
ceives the rain water, which defeends through it till it
meets the impervious clay, which forces it to flow to
the furface, which it renders wet. Having*overflowed
the upper clay lurface, it is immediately abforbed by
the next porous Stratum } and delcending into it in like
manner, again iffues at the lower fide of it, and in¬
jures the furface of the next bed of clay, as it did that
of the firft. To drain a hill fide of this defeription, it
is neceifary to make a trench along the upper fide ef
every belt of ruftiy or boggy foil to receive the water
from the fuperior porous toil, and to lead the whole
water thus obtained by one or more ditches downwards
to the bottom.
Where a foil is compofed of intermixed varieties, with
clay predominating, it is iometimes very difficult to
drain, as it is apt to form itfeif into a variety of hollow
refervoirs, each of which holds water like a cup, while,
at the fame time, thefe hollows being full of porous
materials, the furface of the foil is fufticiently regular.
Thus in wret feafons, patches of moift unwholefome
foil are formed, not by fprings for which they may Ire
raiftaken, but by rain water held up by clay in thefe •
disjoined cavities. They can only be drained by fe-
parate covered cuts, communicating in the ftioiteii way
poffible with one or more main drains. l85
With regard to the drainage of bogs, it has already To drain a
been remarked, that they are either fuch as can have bog by let-
their water carried off by a communication, at a tolera-
ble expence, with fome adjoining lower ground; or they £recjy<
are land-locked, fo as not to admit of being drained
in this way. With regard to the former, or thofe
which can be drained by trenches for conducing the
water to an adjoining low country or river, they may
be rendered wet in two wrays : ift, By fprings oozing
out of the adjoining higher ground, in a regular line
along the upper fide of the ivet furface, which afford
water that ftagnates upon the furface of the inferior-
ground, forming it into a bog. To render free from
water a bog of this kind, nothing more is neceffary
than merely to drain the upper adjoining fwampy ground
in the way that has been already ftated, and to convey
away to a diftance the water produced by it, in regular,
open, or hollow drains.—The fecond clafs of bogs ren¬
dered wet by fprings, confifts of thofe in which the
many iprings that appear are not confined to one regu¬
lar direction along the upper fide, but burft out every¬
where, forming {baking quagmires, over which it is
dangerous for cattle to pafs. The upper part of fuch
bogs ufually confifts of peat-earth. Below that is
found a bed of clay, extremely wet and foft, through
the crannies of which fmall quantities of water are con¬
tinually oozing. W hen the low-eft part of Inch a bog
is found, or the place in which it will be moft conve¬
nient to convey away the water, little more is ufually
neceffary than to dig proper trenches, and to bore with
the auger through the ftratum of clay to the porous
ftratum containing the water. To drain an extenfive bog,
it will ufually be neceffary to dig a trench from end to
end of it, with crofs trenches at confiderable diftances,
.358 AGRICULTURE; Practice.
PofPLand°n t'ie 'bottomo^ being frequently penetrated with
» the auger, fo as to allow a free paffage for the water
to alcend} the effect of which will be, that the nature
of the furrounding foft foil will fpeedily be altered, in
confequence of the water being removed from beneath
it. It will become dry and lolid, and foon fit for bearing
the plough. 7 he fame effedt would follow although only
a Angle perforation were made through the inferior
ftratum of the bog ; and accordingly Mr Elkington is
laid fometimes to have fucceeded, while he drained a
j-*og, in railing the water from it confiderably above
its own level, for any purpofe for which it may be re¬
quired. This was done by rearing around the perfora¬
tion, a building of brick, puddled around and within
with clay, to the top of which the water rofe, and was
187 from thence conveyed away in pipes or otherwife.
Dr AnJer- r] hat the whole of this important fubjedi, of draining
for draininglanci ren^ereci wet by fprings, may be better under-
fpouty land! we ^rdh giye an account of it as defcribed by
Dr Anderfon, in his Effays publilhed in 1775, already
mentioned. Suppofimg, fays he, a defcending ftratum
of fand or gravel Ihould be difcontinued, and that the
ftratum above it Ihould be of a coherent clayey nature 5
in this cafe, the w-ater being pent in on every fide, and
being accumulated in great quantities, murt at length
force a paflage for itfelf in fome way, and prefling
ftrongly upon the upper furface, if any one part is
weaker than the reft, it would burft forth, and form a
fpring ; but it the texture of every part of this ftratum
were equally ftrong, the water would fqueeze through
many finall crannies, and would ooze out in number-
lefs places, fo as to occafion that kind of wetnefs that
is known by the name of a fpouting clayey foil.
The cure in this cafe is eafily effedted.—For if a
ditch of a confiderable fize is opened towards the lower-
moft part of the fpouting ground, fo deep as to pene¬
trate through the upper ftratum of clay, and reach to
the gravel, the water will rife up through it at firft
with very great violence, which will gradually decreafe
as the preffure from the wTater behind is diminilhed ;
and wdien the wdiole of the wrater accumulated in the
fubterraneous refervoir is run off, there being no longer
any preffure upon the clay above it, the w'hole foon be¬
comes as dry as could be defired, and continues fo
ever afterwards, if the ditch is aftvays kept open. This
the dodtor fays he can affert from experience, having
rendered fome fields of this kind that were very wet
quite dry by this method of treating them. The at¬
tentive obferver, he adds, will readily perceive, that
if any field that is wTet from this caufe admits of being
ploughed, it will be in equal danger of being hurt by
being raifed into high ridges, with the other kind of
damp ground before mentioned. For as the depth of
earth above the refervoir wrould be fmaller in the deep
iurrow s than anywftiere elfe, there would of confequence
be lefs refiftance to the water in that place, fo that it
would arife there in greater abundance. And if, in this
cafe, a farmer ihould dig a drain in each furrow, as a
confiderable quantity of water wmuld rife into them, in
fome cafes the ground might be improved, or even
quite drained thereby, efpecially if they ihould have
accidentally reached the gravel in any one place ; al¬
though at an expence much greater than was neceffary.
“ I take notice of this circumftance, fays he, in fome
meafure to prevent the 'prejudice that fome inattentive
obfervers might entertain againft W’hat was faid before of Preparation
this method of draining, from their having accidentally 01
feen fome fields that may have been bettered by it. —y——'
“ Togs are only a variety of this laft-mentioned
kind of wet ground ; and, therefore, ought in general
to be drained after the fame manner with them. Clay
is a fubftance that ftrongly refifts the entrance of winter
into it: but when it is long drenched with it, it is, in
procefs of time, in fome meafure diffolved thereby j
lofes its original firmnefs of texture and confiftence; and
becomes a fort of femi-fluid mafs, which is called a
bog; and as thefe are fometimes covered with a ftrong
fcurf of a particular kind of grafs, with very matted
roots, which is ftrong enough to bear a fmall weight
without breaking, although it yields very much, it is
in thefe circumitances called a./waggle. But, what¬
ever be the nature of the bog, it is invariably occa-
fioned by water being forced up through a bed of clay,
as juft nowr defcribed, and diffolving or foftening, if
you will, a part thereof. I fay only a part; becaufe
whatever may be thy depth of the bog or fwaggle, it
generally has a partition of folid clay between it and
the refervoir of water under it, from whence it original¬
ly proceeds : for if this were not the cafe, and the
quantity of water wrere confiderable, it would meet
with no fufticient refiftance from the bog, and would
iffue through it with violence, and carry the whole femi-
fluid mafs along with it. But this would more ine¬
vitably be the cafe, if there was a cruft at the bottom
of the bog, and if the cruft ihould ever be broken,
efpecially if the quantity of w^ater under it were very
confiderable : and as it is probable, that, in many cafes
of this fort, the water fiowly diflblves more and more
of this under cruft, I make no doubt but that, in the
revolution of many ages, a great many eruptions of
this kind may have happened, although they may not
have been deemed of importance enough to have the
hiftory of them tranfmitted to pofterity. Of this kind,
although formed of a different fubftance, I confider the
flow of the Solway mofs in Northumberland to have
been ; which, upon the 16th of November 1771, burft
its former boundaries, and poured forth a prodigious
ftream of femi-fluid matter, which in a fhort time co¬
vered feveral hundred acres of very fine arable ground.
Nor wall any one, wEo is acquainted with the nature
of mofs,—who knows its refemblance to clay in its
quality of abforbing and retaining water, and its very
eafy diffufibility therein, be furprifed at this; as from
all thefe properties, it is much better adapted for form¬
ing an extenfive bog, and therefore in greater danger
of producing an extenfive devaftation by an irruption of
the water into it, than thofe that are formed of any kind
of clay whatever.
“ If the bog, or fwampy ground, is upon a declivity,
the ditch ought to be carried acrofs the field about
the place where the loweft fprings arife. But if
the furface of the ground is level or nearly fo, fo as
to form foft quagmires, interfperfed through the whole
of the field, it will be of little confequence in what
part the drain is opened 5 for if it is dug up fo deep
as to allow7 the water to rife in it with freedom, it will
iffue through that opening, and the field wall be left -
perfectly dry.
“ But as it may frequently happen that the ftratum
of gravel fhould be at a confiderable depth beneath the
fur face
Part I.
A G R I C U
Preparation furface of the earth, and as it may be fometimes even
of Land, the level of the place into which the drain muft
' v be emptied, it might fometimes be extremely difficult to
make a ditch fo deep as to reach the bed of fund or
gravel. But it is lucky for us that this is not abfolute-
ly neceffary in the prefent cafe *, as a drain of two
or three feet deep, will be equally eftectual with one
that fhould go to the gravel. All that is neceiTary, in
this cafe, is to fink pits in the courfe of the'drain, at a
moderate diftance from one another, which go fo deep
as ter reach the gravel; for as the water there meets
with no refifiance, it readily flows out at thefe open¬
ings, and is carried off by the drain without being for¬
ced up through the earth ; fo that the ground is left
entirely dry ever after.
“ I have likewife drained feveral fields in this way :
and as I have generally found the appearances pretty
much alike, I (hall, for the information of the inexpe¬
rienced reader, give a ihort account of them.
“ If you attempt to make your pit in one of thefe
foft quaggy places where the water is tound in great
abundance, you will meet with very great difficulty in
forming it; for as the fubftance of which it is compo-
fed is foft, it will always flow into the hole as faff as
you dig it } on which account I would advife, not to
attempt to make the pit in the fwaggle, but as near it
in the folid earth as you conveniently can. However,
if it is pretty firm, and of no great extent, it is fome¬
times practicable to make a pit in the foft bog at the
drieft time of the year. This I have fometimes prac-
tifed, which gave me an opportunity of obferving the
nature of thefe bogs more perfectly than I otherwife
would have had. In the trials of this kind that I have
made, this foft quaggy ground has feldom been above
three or four feet deep ; below which I have always
found a ftratum of hard tough clay ufually mixed with
Hones, and fo firm that nothing but a mattock or
pickaxe could penetrate it : and as this is compara¬
tively fo much drier than the ground above it, an in¬
experienced operator is very apt to imagine that this is
the bottom that he is in fearch of. In digging through
this ftratum, you will frequently meet with fmall
firings oozing out in all directions •, feme of them that
might fill the tube of a frnall quill, and others fo fmall
as to be fcarce perceptible : but without regarding
thefe, you muft continue to dig on without intermif-
fion till you come to the main body of the refervoir, if
I may fo call it, that is contained in the rock, gravel,
or fand ; which you will generally find from twm to
four feet below the bottom of the fwaggle, and which
you will be in no danger of miftaking vffien you come
to it : for, if there has been no opening made before
that in the field, as foon as you break the cruft imme¬
diately above the gravel or rock, the v/ater burfts forth
like a torrent, and’ on fome occafions rifes like a jet
d'eau, to a confiderable height above the bottom of
the ditch ; and continues to flow off with great impe-
tuofity for fome time, till the pent-up w^ater being
drained off, the violent boiling up begins to fubfide,
and the ftrength of the current to abate ; and, in a
ihort time, it flows gently out like any ordinary fpring;
—allowing it to remain in this ftate, the quaggy earth
begins to fubfide, and gradually becomes firmer and
firmer every day; fo that, in the fpace of a few
months, thofe bogs which v,Teie formerly fo foft as
L T U R E. 359'
hardly to fupport the weight of a finall dog, become Preparation
fo firm that oxen and horfes may tread upon them with- °‘ ^anu‘ ^
out any danger of finking, at the very wetteft fealon
of the year. I have had a field of this nature, that,
by having only one fuch pit as I have now deferibed
opened in it, vTas %rtirely drained to the diftance of
above a hundred yards around it in every direction.
But as it is poffible that the ftratum in which the wa¬
ter runs may be in fome places interrupted, it wdll be
in general expedient to make feveral of thefe pits, if
the field is of great extent *, always carrying the drain
forward through the lowermoft part of the field, or as
near the quag as you conveniently can 5 and finking a
pit wherever you may judge it wdll be moil neceffary.
But if the ftratum of gravel is not interrupted, there
wdll be no violent burft: of water at opening any of
thefe after the firft, as I have frequently experienced.
To keep thefe wrells from clofing up after they are
made, it is always expedient to fill them up with fmall
ftones immediately after they are made, which ought
to rife to the height of the bottom of the drain.
“ I have often imagined that the expence of digging
thefe pits might be faved by boring a hole through
this folid ftratum of clay with a large wdmble made
on purpofe ; but as I never experienced this, I can¬
not fay whether or not it would anfwer the defired end
exactly.
“ If the whole field that is to be drained confifts of
one extenfive bog, it wdll require a long time before
the whole wrork can be entirely finished, as it will be
impoffible to open a drain through it till one part of
it is firft: drained and become folid ground. In a fttu-
ation of this kind, the mrdertaker, after having opened
a drain to convey the water from the low-eft: part of the
bog, muft approach as near to the fwampy ground as
be can, and there make his firft pit which wdll drain
oft' the w-ater from the neareft parts of the bog. When
this has continued open for fome time, and that part of
the bog is become fo folid as to admit of being work¬
ed, let him continue the ditch as far forw-ard through
it as the fituation it is in wdll admit of, and there fink
another pit; and proceed gradually forward in the fame
manner ; making crofs cuts wdiere neceffary, till the
whole be finifhed.
“ In this manner may any bog or tradl of fpout-
ing ground of this nature be rendered dry at a very
inconfiderable expence ; and as there can be no other,
method of draining ground of this fort effeftually, I.
recommend the ftudy of it to the -attention of every di¬
ligent farmer who may have occafion for it. Let him
firft: be extremely cautious in examining all the circum-
ftances of his particular fields, that he may be certain
which of the clafies above enumerated it may be rank¬
ed with ; and when he is perfectly fare of that, he
may proceed without fear, being morally certain of
fuccefs..
We (hall add the fubftance of a paper on this fub-
jeft, for which the author received the filver medal of
the Society inftituted for the encouragement of Arts,
Manufa6tures, and Commerce. That author is Mr. T V\SS1,.„,.
John Wedge of Bickenhill, near Coventry, who i&modeof^ 3
not only a great farmer himfelf, but had likewifedraiiung,
been employed by-the earl of Aylesford in the manage¬
ment of feveral eftates. Encouraged by his lordfhip’s
liberality, Mr Wedge informs the fociety, that he had
been...
360 AGRICULTURE. Pra&ic^
preparation been employed for fome years in draining large portions
of Land. 0£ [an(}? Df which part was in the earl’s occupation, and
part in his own, as tenant to his lordflup. The prin¬
ciples upon which he proceeded, as well as his mode of
procedure, he dates in the following terms :
In every country there are lar^ portions of land
that, in wet feafons, have always what may be called a
dry furface, and other portions of land that have always
a jnoijl or voet furface; the former of thele admitting all
the water which falls upon them to fink freely through
their pores to various depths, till falling on clay, or
fome other uniduous earth, whofe pores will not permit
it to pafs through, it is there held up to a height pro¬
portioned to the quantity of water which comes upon
it, and the facility with which that water is difehar-
gecl. Thus, held up to various heights, it ferves as
a fountain to diftribute its ivater (either by veins of
fand, pebbles, or rock, according to the formation of
the different under fir at a) on the neighbouring lands ;
and there forms bogs and other varieties of wet furface,
on a bafis that will be always found to confifi of marl
or clay, or fome mixture thereof. The efl'eft of wra-
ter thus diftributed may be divided into tivo claffes.
The firfl: clafs, 'where the water is thrown out by a
body of marl or clay, &c. upon the furface of defeend-
ing ground, and in the valley (there held up by clay
alio) forms bogs or frvamps. The fecond clafs, where
the water is held up by marl or clay, as before, having
above that marl or clay a llratum of fand, or pebbles,
through which the water paffes $ and above thofe fands
or pebbles another ftratum of marl or clay, through
the wreakeft parts of which the water, by a continual
preffure from its fountain, forces a paffage upvTardsq
and thus, through the weakefb parts of the marl or
clay, furnithes a continual fupply of water on the fur¬
face, for the formation or growth of bogs, &c. in pro¬
portion as this water is more or leis abundantly fupplied
by its fountain or head, namely, the higher lands, into
which rain-water freely paffes, as before deferibed.
There are alfo different foils, under different circum-
ftances, which may form a third clafs of land for drain¬
ing ; fuch as ftrong deep foils, or open light foils, ha¬
ving near the furface a body of marl or clay. In either
of thefe cafes, the water which falls on the furface muff,
for reafons which are felf-evident, keep fuch lands, in
rainy feafons, conftantly wret and cold; and it fhould be
obferved, that a mixture of all the three before-deferibed
claffes of wret land fometimes occurs in one field, by fud-
den alterations of the under ftrata, and thereby perplexes
the operator, by requiring all the different modes of
draining in the lame field.
If it be admitted that bogs are thus fontred and fed,
their cure may be effected with certainty : The firff
clafs, by cutting through the ffratum (be it fand, peb¬
bles, or rock,) that conveys the wrater to the bog, and
carrying off that water by a clofe drain to fome proper
place, where the level admits of its difeharge : The fe¬
cond clafs, by finking a drain to any convenient depth
in the upper clay 5 and then digging or boring with
a large auger, at a fmall diftance on one fide of this
drain, through the remaining part, be it (the upper
clay) ever fo deep, into the under ftratum of fand, peb¬
bles, or rock, through wdiich the water paffes ; wdiich
wall then rufh up into the drain fo made, with a veloci¬
ty proportioned to the height of the land or fountain
3
whence it is fupplied. As this drain advances through Preparation
the land, holes muft be dug or bored, as before, every ot
feven yards, or at fuch diftance as the ftrength of the y—»»
fprings may require ; and the whole of the w'ater thus
brought up by tapping the fprings, is carried off by the
drain made in the upper clay, which muft be a clofe
one, to its proper level, and there difeharged.
By both thefe methods of draining, large trafts of
land, under favourable circumftances, may be cured with
one drain. The beft place for fixing thefe drains is
where the ftratum that conveys the water comes ne. reft
to the furface; and the beft method of afeertaining that,
is to bore or dig in difterent parts through the differ¬
ent under ftrata. |
1'he third clafs may be eafily cured by clofe drains,
at fuch diftances and depths as will beft carry oft' the
lurface-water. It may not be improper to obferve, that
where the different ftrata or meafures crop out, that is,
become gradually more and more fhallow in fome cer¬
tain direclion (as is often the cafe, till, one after the
other, they all prefent themfelves in fucceflion on the
furface of the earth), draining may often be much more
eafily and better effefted by crofting wdth the drain the
different ftrata or meaftires, where the levels and other
circumftances will admit.
Some of the land drained was part of a common, in
the pariffi of Church Bickenhill, in the county of War¬
wick ; part of it was covered with mofs and ling, had
a peaty furface, about fix inches deep, and produced
little or no grafs : in all wet feafons it was filled quite to
the furface, and often overflowTed, with water. Some
of the land was much more unfound, deeper of peat,
and covered with mofs, in inoft parts nine inches long j
another part was an abfolute bog in all feafons.
Having dug or bored wdth a large auger into feveral
parts of the land, Mr Wedge found peat, gravel, and
fand'mixed, and a quick fand aim oft uniformly. The
quickfand -in every part, after getting an inch or tvro
into it, feemed almoft as fluid as wTater. Judging from
this, that no materials for a drain could be laid in the
quickfand, but what it wuuld immediately bury, he
dug a trench almoft to the quickfand, leaving gravel,
&c. of fufficient ftrength to bear up the materials for a
hollow drain j thefe materials wrere two fides and a co-
verer of ftone, with a peat-turf on the top to keep out
the foil. At every feven yards forward, by the fide of
this drain, he dug a hole in the quickfand as deep as
it would permit. From thefe holes the wrater rofe free¬
ly into the hollow drain, and was by it difeharged at a
proper level. It may be proper to remark, that the
ftone made ufe of for this drain, and all others here
mentioned, was a red fand and rag-ftone, which eafily
fplit into proper fizes for the purpofe, and is very du¬
rable j it coft about fixpence per ton getting, exclufive
of carriage. The drain thus formed ran on the whole
rather freely, and made the land dry for afewryardson
each fide thereof, but was far from having the effeft he
improperly expected \ for it evidently appears that the
drain could only take a very fmall portion of the W’ater
from fo large a quickfand, which it did not penetrate
more than two inches j and that it could drain only to
its own depth, or, at moft, to that depth in the fountain
which fupplied the quickfand. His purpofe was then
defeated 5 and his motive for mentioning this error can-i
not, he hopes, be miftaken.
He
Part I. A G R I C U
Preparation He now did wliat lie fays he ought to have done be-
of Land. forej that is, he examined the difterent ftrata to a greater
wj-'v—-^ particularly on the bog, and at the upper edges
thereof, and found the bog to be what has beendefcri-
bed under the firft clafs. ' He therefore determined to
attempt the cure in the manner before prefcnbed for
that clafs, namely, to cut through the whole of the ilra-
tum (in this inftance, of quickland), through which
he found the water pafs. This he effedled as follows:
The fummer being dry, and favourable for the puipofe,
and having previoufly made his main open drain, he began
his main clofe drain the firft wreek in June 179^ three
feet wide, on the declivity near the edge of the great
bog. In the firft operation he dug through the peat,
the hard fand, and gravel and one ipade’s graft (about
nine inches deep, and feven inches wride) into the quick-
fand the whole length of this drain,_ which was 73
perches, of eight yards to the perch, in length. 1 he
drain thus dug ran copioufly, not lefs than 60 gallons
per minute. In this ftate he left it about nine days :
the effect of it was rapid, both above the drain and on
the bog below. Upon examination, he now found about
■three inches on the top of the fpade’s graft, which had
been made into the quickfand, perfe&ly dry. He then
dug out thefe three inches of dry fand, to nearly the
whole width of the drain, three feet} and at the lame
time dug out, as before, another fpade’s graft, from the
top of the quickfand, as near the middle of the drain
as poflible. This was left to run a few days, as before,
and had the fame effeft, namely, three or four inches
more of the top of the quickfand became dry and hard.
The fame operation was repeated again and again with
the fame effeH, till the purpofe of getting through this
quickfand was completed, fo far at leaft as the level of
the main open drain would permit. The ftream of wa¬
ter continued increafing during the whole operation 5
the bog below the drain w7as quite dry, and the land
above perfeftly fo. The drain which was firft made,
and continued running for fome time during the pro-
grefs of the main clofe drain, became gradually dry ;
and has not, fince that drain was finilhed, difcharged
one fingle drop of water. Great care was neceffary, in
making the main clofe drain, to keep the ftream of wa¬
ter in the middle of it, otherwife the current would have
undermined the fides, as it fometimes had done, and
caufed them to fall in. For this reafon it wTas necef¬
fary, when the dry fand wras taken from the top of the
quickfand, immediately to take out a fpade’s graft from
the middle thereof, in order to divert the current from
the fides.
The main clofe drain thus made was three feet wide
at top, about nine feet deep on the average, and, bevel¬
ling a little from the top, it was about one foot ten
inches wide at the bottom. The ftone and other ma¬
terials were put into this drain in the rollowing manner:
I. Where the drain went through the quickfand into
the ftratum of clay below It, as in moft places it did,
the bottom, and in fome inftances the fides, wanted no
particular fecurity; but wThere it did not go quite
through the quickfand, which the level of his main
open drain in fome places wTould not admit, the bottom
of the drain was covered half an inch thick with ling ;
then peat turfs, one foot wide and three or four inches
thick, were cut in convenient lengths, and placed on
their edges on each fide of the bottom of the drain,
Vol. I. Part I.
L T U R K 3$*
forming two fides of a trough of peat; then nde ftonest reparation
about eight inches high, and a ftone coverer, were put l,‘ .
in upon the ling between the peat turfs; a large peat-
turf, near two feet wide and four inches thick, was
then cut and firmly placed over the whole : this left in
the bottom of the drain an open fpace, of more than
fix inches fquare, for the water to pafs. The whole
was then completed by filling in the upper part of the
drain.
In this wTay the author drained for about 8oi.
thirty acres of land, wdiich from being of no value,
whatever, became worth at leaft 14 (hillings per acre of
Yearly rent. He likewnfe hollow-drained nine acres by
the method prefenbed for the third clafs of wet land.
Thefe drains wTere made a few yards below7 that part oi
each field where the dry and wet land leparate, about
22 inches deep, with fides and a coverer ol ftone, and
ling on the top of it, to keep the earth from running
in. The length of thefe drains was 880 yards, and the
expence of labour and materials three halfpence/)-??’
yard. The drains, in wet weather, difeharge a large
quantity of wrater } and will, he has no doubt, anlw7er
the intended purpofe. Thus far relates to land in his
own occupation.
Nine acres of the land in the earl of Aylesford’s oc¬
cupation was almoft an entire pulp. I his bog w7as of
the fecond clafs, namely, water paffmg through a
a quickfand, and confined by a ftratum of clay below,
and another ftratum of clay above it. The water thus
confined, being preffed by its fountain, and forced up
through the w7eakeft parts of the clay, had formed a
bog of irregular thicknefs on the furface, in fome places
fix feet deep, in others not more than tw7o. As there
is a confiderable fall in this land from eaft to weft, he
thought it expedient to put tw7o drains into it 5 and
this appears to him to have been neceffary, from a con-
fideration that both thefe drains continue to run in the
fame proportions as when firft opened. The manner
in which thefe drains were executed was, by digging
through the different upper ftrata, and as deep into the
clay As the main open drain wrould admit ; then dig¬
ging or boring through the remaining part of that clay
into the quickfand, at the diftance of about fix yards,
in a progreffive manner.
The water rifing rapidly through thefe holes into
the clofe drains, has effefted a complete cure of this
land, every part of which wdll now bear a horfe to
gallop upon it. Thefe drains difeharge 3660 gallons
an hour •, which is much lefs than they did at firft, as
muft be the cafe in all bogs. This land wall be worth
20s. per acre. The draining coft 25I. j and the length
of the under-ground drains is eight hundred and four¬
teen yards.
Mr Wedge had juft finifhed (January 1792) drain¬
ing another piece of land, about forty-three acres. As
this w7as intended to anfwer tw7o purpofes, one, to drain
the land, the other to give an additional fupply of wa¬
ter to a mill-pool, and as a circumftance arofe in the
execution of the w7ork which frequently happens in
draining land, namely, a hidden alteration in the po-
fition of the under ftrata j a defeription thereof will
not probably be thought tedious. This draining was
begun at the level of a mill-pool, and continued, with¬
out any great difficulty, to the diftance of about thirty-
two chains, in the manner before deferibed as a cure
Z z for
362 A G R I c
Po'fPUnd°° r,'r t"c, i’t'c0"'! clafs of boggy land : but at or near that
. ‘nC\ Piace the under ftrata altered their pofition 5 the quick-
land which conveyed the water now became of twice
its former thicknefs j and the clay, which had hitherto
been above that quickfand, for fome diftance dilap-
peared. From the quickfand thus becoming fo much
deeper, he could not, with the level of the mill-pool,
cut through it , nor indeed, from the wetnefs of the
feafon, would fuch an operation have been proper. He
therefore continued a lhallow dram to fome diftance,
making fide-holes into the quickfand, which ran freely ■
but as this could not cure the whole of the bog below,
he branched out another drain (which was made by
the method defcribed for curing the fecond clafs of wet
or boggy land), by linking a clofe drain through the
upper Itrata into the upper clay, and then, at a fmall
diftance on one fide of this clofe drain, boring a hole
with an auger through the remaining part of that clay
into the quickfand } and at every eight yards, as this
ciofe drain advanced, Itill boring other holes,, in the
manner before defcribed : through many of thefe holes
the water rufhed with great rapidity. The water dif-
charged by thefe drains into the mill-pool is 168 gal¬
lons per minute, or 3780 hoglheads in a day j which is
after the rate of 1,379,700 hoglheads in a year.
About lix acres of this land were always found j a-
bout twelve acres on the north fide were an abfolute
pulp, and the remaining twenty-fix acres very unfound.
1 he whole is now found, and will when cultivated be
worth 16s. per acre. This land would have been
drained at a much lefs expence into the main open
drain ; but then the water, which was much wanted
for the mill, would have been loft. Thefe clofe drains
are in length 14.52 yards, and coft lool.-of which
t8<> about 30b ought to be charged to, the mill.
'Draining- of With regard to the drainage of land-locked bogs,
k- i-.ocxed which are often fttuated fo much lower than the ground
* around them, that the cutting a main drain would
coft more than the value of the land when drained 5
the mode of proceeding, with a view at once cheaply
and elFeclualiy to relieve them from the fuperfluous
moifture which renders them ufelefs to agriculture, is
the following : A fpot in the middle or loweft part of
the bog muft be felefled, towards which all the drains
inuft be conducted, as radii to a common centre.
When this central fpot is properly cleared out to the
top oi the clay, or retentive fubftratum, which in this
cafe muft not be afteifted by water from below, but
only by fur face or rain water, a number of perforations
inuft be made with the auger, to give an outlet down¬
wards Tor the water, which will be abforbed by the
porous ftratum below. A conduit fhould be formed
over the auger holes, by loofe ftones, placed in fuch a
manner as to prevent their being afterwards filled up
by any rubbifti: or rather auger holes may not be fuffi-
cient ; and it may be a preferable plan to make a
large pit, or well, in the loweft part of the" bog, dug
through into the porous fubftrata. This pit ought to
be filled with large ftones, and the drains from the reft
of the field condadled to that fpot, as mentioned in the
following quotation from the Agricultural Report of
Hertfordftiire,—“ If a pit is funk 20 or 30 feet deep
in the middle of a field, through the Hertfordfhire red,
flinty, ^and impervious clay, into the chalk below ^
when the ufual quantity of chalk is taken outj the pit
u l t u r e. Pra£&e,
fhaft is filled up with the flint taken out of the chalk Preparation
and clay, and the top drainage of this part of the field of Land,
is much fliortened for ever afterwards, by making prin-
cipal drains from the part of the field above the level of
the top of the pit terminate therein, as the fuperabun-
dant moifture will efcape through the flints in the pit
Ihaft to the chalk below. And if a drain is carried in¬
to a limeftone quarry, it is feldom neceflary to carry it
further.
“ In dells or hollows, of confiderable extent, cover¬
ed with an impervious ftratum, and from which there
is no natural drainage, fuch as the valley between
Mold, the {hire-town of Ilintfliire, and the adjoining
high land, a pit about four feet diameter, and 15 feet-
deep, more or lefs, as the cafe may require, is funk-
through the impervious fuperftratum, into a pervious
ftratum of gravel, and the rain water, and that of fome
adjoining fprings, are carried from the furface thereby j
the pit is railed round to prevent cattle from falling
mt° it. ^ I muft here remark, that though in this, as
well as in many other inftances that may be given, the
top water efcapsd through the pervious fubftratum, the
effedl might have been diredlly the contrary. I there¬
fore recommend the impervious fuperftratum, in all fuch
cafes, to be perforated by bore-rods, as the hole made
by them is eafily flopped up.”
In Dr Nugent’s travels through Germany, publiflied German
in 1768, a mode of draining marfhesupon fimilar prin-m°de of
ciples is defcribed, as having been pradlifed in thatdraInin£
country. He had only feen it performed on moor
grounds, though it is alfo fuccefsful with regard to ^
lakes. “ It is the nature, fays he, of moors in general,
that beneath the turf or mofs there is a loam which
hinders the moifture from penetrating ; and this in¬
deed is what makes the mar ft, and caufes the luxuri¬
ant growth of the turf or mofs : but this loam or clay
is only a ftratum, and far from being of an immenfo
depth ; under it is generally a fand, or fome other fto-
ny or loofe foil..
“ Here reafon readily informs us, that a middling,*-
morafs may be drained by perforating the clay, and
thus making way for the moifture to penetrate. In or¬
der to this, a pit is dug in the deepeft part of the moor,
till they come below the obftrudling clay, and meet
with fuch a fpongy ftratum as, in all appearance, will
be fufficient to imbibe the moifture of the marfli
above it. Into this pit the ebbing of the morafs is
conveyed through a trench, and both the trench and
the pit are filled up after J;he firft drain with large
broad ftones, fetting them edgewife, fo as to leave in-
terftices for carrying off the water; then fuch ftones
are laid over breadthwife, and thefe covered with loofe
earth like that on the lurface : when no fuch ftones
are to be had, ftrong piles are rammed down the fides
of the trench, and broad boards laid acrofs \ and thefe.
are covered with earth to a height fit for culture.
This is a matter of no great expence, the pit being as
near the morafs as the water will admit, and the
trenches but fhort j then the” have a drain unperceived,
which leaves the furface of the trenches for the plough j
and in middling marlhes, efpecially in fuch moors as are
only wet and damp, this method, though fometimes
flow, never fails taking effect; and many trafts are
thereby made ferviceable to the farmer or grazier.” IftI
The writer of the Roxburghftxire Agricultural Reportr^xbur^if
reprefcnts flare, 8
Part L A C R 1 C 13
rreparation represents liimfelf as having fuccefsfully^ adopted a li-
of Land, milar mode of draining. In that part of the country,
fuch of the wafte lands, as are capable of being drained
fo as to become arablej have, at the diftance of irom one
to fix feet below the Surface, a large ftratum or feam
'©f a black flaty or metallic fubftance, generally from
20 to 25 feet in thicknefs. Below this is a layer of
whinftone rock of unknown depth. The black llaty
or metallic fubftance has no chinks or fiflures, and is
impenetrable to water •, but the whinftone rock beneath
it abounds with chinks and fiflures, and will fwallow up
any quantity of water poured into its bofomi The
uppermoft furface of the foil is of a light mofly nature,
upon which the water ftagnates in winter, fo as to fwell
and enlarge it to a confiderable degree. In the Spring
months, when dried by the fun and the wind, the mofs
becomes tolerably firm, and produces a coarfe unpro¬
fitable grafs, mixed with ftiort heather j neither of
■which are of any value as food for Iheep or cattle. In
the year 1784 the waiter of the Report ploughed up
20 acres of the wafte lands of the above defcription, a
part of them being fituated on a level. This laft part
was gathered in fmall ridges, and ploughed pretty deep,
and the ftones removed. Thus it lay till midfummer
1785 ; but, during the Spring, the (heep and cattle were
frequently driven upon it to tread it to a firm con-
fiftence. At midfummer it wras gathered up again;
and, to get the w^ater out of the hollow’s of the ridges,
a pair of boring rods ware obtained, w’hich w'ere put
down through the flaty fubftance to the whinftone rock
at Sundry places. This effeftually anfwared the pur-
pofe. The tops of the holes were kept open with bafkets
of loofe ftones over them, vftiich were allowed to remain
or removed at pleafure, as the weather proved more or
lefs wat. In fpring 1786 the land Was in a condition
to fow almoft as early as any other part of the farm,
the winter rains having found their way down into the
whinftone rock through the flaty fubftance, and the land
fpeedily became and continued Very valuable.
-9-20. f We may here add, that the modes of draining now
quarries'and ftated are alfo valuable for other purpofes than thofe of
■.mines. agriculture. Quarries, for example, and marl pits may
often be cleared of water, by cutting oft" the Iprings by
•which they are incommoded, or by letting dowm the
water into the next porous ftratum. The fame may be
-often done, with regard to deep mines, the working of
W’hich may frequently be thus greatly facilitated. A
colliery, for example, in Yorkfhire had been wrought
for Several years, and the water was railed from it about
•60 yards by a fteam engine. The proprietors having
bored about ten yards farther, to afcertain the thick¬
nefs of a feam of coals ; as foon as the boring rods
were withdrawn, the w’ater from the works, which ufu-
rdly ran acrofs that place, began to fink into the holes
made by the rods; and, continuing to do fo, the fteam
■engine became ufelefs, as its pump had no longer any
water to draw. It muft be obferved, that the fituation
was higher than the neareft valleys, or the level of the
fea ; but this example fhow’S of what extenfive im¬
portance a knowledge of the principles upon w’hich
the above inodes of draining proceed may hereafter
become.
3. Of rendering Mosses fit for Cultivation.
In many parts of the country a very ferkms obftruc-
L T U ft £,
36
3
tion to the cultivation of large portions of territory arifes Preparation
from the exiftence of mofles. It is, therefore, of much t ^ 1~w~ ,
importance to confider their nature, and how' they are
to be rendered fertile. 193
With regard to the nature and origin of mofs, the Nature and
celebrated Dr Anderfon, w’hofe w’orks wa have already
frequently quoted, advances this opinion, that mofs is a™011” ’
vegetable, or an affemblage of vegetables, growing or
living below, while at the top it is dead. Hence, he
diftinguilh.es mofs into two kinds ; quick mofs, from
which peats are dug, on which no vegetables grow’, aiid
in which no animals exift, while in its natural fituation;
and dead mofs, which frequently covers the former, and
upon which heath and fog and coarfe grafles grow,
and infects and other animals are found. Mr Head- Communha*
rick ftates various objections to this opinion, fome If*
which appear to have great force. Thus, it is °b- J^hulture-.
ferved, that the mofs here fuppofed to be alive below V(q_ ^
the foil, has every mark of utter deadnefs and partial
diffolution. When tofled about in a very dark night,
it emits light like half rotten wood, giving rife to fre¬
quent terrors in thofe who live in the vicinity of peat
bogs. It alfo feenis a ftrange circumftance, and con¬
trary to the whole analogy of nature, to fuppofe that a
vegetable Ihould grow, Ihould form ligneous fibres, and
acquire inflammability, without the influence of the fun,
or contact wuth the air, during any period of its
growth. The true hiftory of the origin of mofles feems
to be this : What are called the mofs plants, amount
to about three hundred in number. They are extreme¬
ly hardy, and are capable of floUrifliing in the moft cold
and bleak fituations, providing only they are furrounded
by abundance df flagnating water. Accordingly, where-
Cver water ftagnates in a. moderate quantity, they grow
up, and, by fpreading themfelves around, they increafe
the ft agnation. When they have arifen in this manner,
with the W'ater around them, to a confiderable height,
the lower part of their Hems being continually foaked
or macerated in water, ceafe to vegetate, and give forth
their juices to the furrounding fluid. As the mofs
plants are extremely aftringent, and contain large quan¬
tities of the gallic acid and tanning principle, the mofs
water acquires thefe qualities, or becomes aftringent, in
a great degree, and prevents any procefs of putrefaction
from taking place, or the ftems of the mofs plants from
fuftering any proper procefs of rottennefs, or chemical
decompofitiom Hence it is,- that mofs water has foine-
times been ufed for tattning leather, in the fame manner
as the liquor of oak bark. In the mean time, while
the ftems of the mofs plants remain in this manner dead,
but prevented from rotting, or becoming the habitation
of animals which cannot live in a vegetable aliringent
liquor, the tops of the plants that are at the furface of
the water continue to grow, or new plants rife upon the
fummits of the dead ones, and continue their afeending
progrefs ; the whole being perhaps a fort of parafitical
plants, which can grow upon each other.
In this way, a mofs proceeds, rifing higher and higher,
till from the nature ol the adjoining country, and the
declivities in it, the water cannot ftagnate to any greater
depth. After the mofs has come to this height, its
farther growth is prevented, its plants, unable to live
or grow without abundance of water, wither and die;
the upper part of them being expofed to the a£lion of
the air, fuffers an ordinary procefs of decornpofition;
Z z 2 like
3 ^4
Preparation ]ike other vegetable remains, and is converted into a
. ^tn ' , fort foil, upon which a few plants and reptiles are
r fometimes found; while at a fmall depth, that is to
lay, below the furface of the ftagnating wrater, the
whole ftems of the ancient mofs plants continue mace¬
rated in their own liquor, and preferred from putre-
194 _ faction by it.
There are, however, two general kinds of molTes j
inufs. black mofs, and whitifh or yellow mofs. The black
mofs is originally of a mahogany colour, but fpeedily
becomes black upon expofure to the air. The yellowr-
ifh, or f°g&y m°fs, is much lefs compaft than the for¬
mer, and retains a light or yellowifh colour after it is
dried. It does not appear to be in fuch a perfeft: ftate
of maceration as the black mofs, has lefs variety of
plants, and is never fo folid. It is ufually produced in
low warm lltuations, and appears to have grown ra¬
pidly ; whereas, the black mofs is moft commonly found
in cold elevated lands, and feems to have confided of
a greater number of lefs luxuriant plants. Thus, mofs
may be regarded as bearing fome refemblance to timber,
which is always of a compafl grain, and clofe texture,
in proportion to the feverity of the climate of wdrich it
is the produel, or rather in proportion to the length of
time which it has taken to grow.
From what has been here ftated, it will not be diffi¬
cult to underftand the mode in which moffes come ori¬
ginally to find an exiftence, or to cover a piece of ter¬
ritory in any country. When a pool of water is fpee¬
dily, or in a ffiort time, formed to a great depth, no
mofs appears j but wffien a gradual ftagnation to a fmall
depth takes place, upon any fpot, elpecially in a cold
and expofed fituation, there the mofs plants (being the
only ones capable of fubf iting on fuch a foil) fpeedily
grow up, and occupy the place of every other. Though
the quantity of water that originally ftagnated there
might not be great, it is increafed by degrees, in con-
fequence of the additional obftruftion produced by the
roots, Items, and leaves of the mofs plants, till at lad
it forms a bog of very great depth.—We have already
mentioned the nature and caufes of the dagnation of
water. It may either occur in confequence of the fi¬
gure and quality of the foil making it tenacioully to re¬
tain the falling rains, or it may be the confequence of
fprings or refervoirs of water pent up or confined in the
bowels of the earth by an incumbent mafs of clay.
Struggling to rife up through this clay, it will wet
every part of it, and will dowly ooze through all its lefs
adhefive parts, and will form a foil fit only for the re¬
ception of mofs plants, which wall there, by obdrufting
the departure of the moidure, which is condantly rifing,
in the courfe of years rear up the furface into a complete
and perfect peat-bog.
But moffes not only arife in particular fituatiens, in
confequence of thefe operations of nature : They are
195 produced as the refult of certain exertions of human
Moffes pro-indudry. In almod all our moffes in this country great
cutdn ^ numbers of trees of various forts are found. They remain,
down S t^e inferior parts or roots of mofs plants, infufed
krefts. and macerated in the mofs w^ater, but not rotted. The
trees and Ihrubs found at the bottom of moffes in Scot¬
land, exhibit, perhaps, the whole variety of the native
trees and ffirubs. Of trees, are found the oak, the
elm, the birch, the wallow, the alder, and the fir. Of
fkrubs, we find the hazel, the dwarf willow, the gall
Practice.
plant, and ladly, the heath plant. This lad is bf fo Preparation
hardy a nature, that it often continues to rife upon the of'LamL
mofs daring the whole period of its exiftence. Nowq' 
if it diould be fuppofed, that at any time extenfive fo-
refts of thefe trees were fuddenly cut down by the ex¬
ertions of man, they would undoubtedly produce a
ftagnation of w'ater, and a bleaknefs cf climate, that
would render the fituation fit only to be inhabited by
mofs plants, wffiich wrould, therefore, fpeedily rife up,
and form a peat-bog, in which multitudes of trees and
ffirubs W’ould be found foaked in their own juice, and
in the aftringent liquor refulting from the maceration
of the ftems of the mofs plants. That in ancient times
old forefts were thus deftroyed by the efforts of man,
we have every reafon to believe. Not only in this
country, but alfo in England and Ireland, there are
found in moffes vaft numbers of trees ftanding with
their dumps ereft, and their roots piercing the ground
in a natural pofture as when growing. Many of thole
trees are broken or cut off near the roots, and lie alomr,
and this ufually in a north-eaft direction. People who
have been willing to account for this, have uiually re-
folved it into the tffecl of the deluge in the days of
Noah; but this is a very wild conjefture, and is proved
falfe by many unanfwerable arguments. The waters of
this deluge might indeed have waftied together a great
number of trees, and buried bhem under loads of earth ;
but then they would have lain irregularly and at ran¬
dom ; whereas, in this cafe, the trees all lie lengthwife
from fouth-weft to north-eaft, and the roots all ftand in
their natural perpendicular podure, as clofe as the roots
of trees in a foreft.
Befides, thefe trees are not all in their natural date,
but many of them have the evident marks of human
workmandup upon them,,fome being cut down with an
axe ; fome fplit, and the wedges dill remaining in them;
fome burnt in different parts, and fome bored through
with holes. Thefe things are alfo proved to be of a
later date than the deluge, by other matters found
among them, fuch as utenfils of ancient people, and
coins of the Roman emperors.
It appears from the whole, that all the trees which
we find in this foffil ftate, originally grew in the very
places where we now find them, and have only been
thrown down and buried there, not brought from elfe-
where. It may appear indeed an objeftion to this opi¬
nion, that mod of thefe foffil trees are of the fir kind ;
and that Caefar fays exprefsly, that no firs grew in Bri¬
tain in his time : but this is eafily anfwered by ob-
ferving that thefe trees, though of the fir kind, yet are
not the fpecies ufually called the Jlrr but pitch tree ;
and Caefar has nowhere faid that pitch trees did not
grow in England. Norway and Sweden yet abound
with thefe trees ; and therp are at this time whole fo¬
refts of them in many parts of Scotland, and a large
number of them wild upon a hill at Wareton in Staf-
fordthire to this day.
In Hatfield marfti, where fuch vaft numbers of the
foffil trees are now found, there has evidently once
been a whole foreft of them growing. The laft of
thefe was found alive, and growing in that place
within 70 years laft paft, and cut down for fome com¬
mon ufe.
It is alfo objefted by fome to the fyftem of the firs
growing where they are found foffil, that thefe coun¬
tries
AGRICULTURE.
Parti. AGRICULTURE. 365
Preparation tries are all bogs and moors, whereas thefe forts of
of Land. trees grow only in mountainous places. But this is
founded on an error 5 for though in Norway and Swe¬
den, and fome other cold countries, the fir kinds all
grow upon barren and dry rocky mountains, yet in
warmer places they are found to thrive as well on wet
plains. Such are found plentifully in Pomerania, Li¬
vonia, Courland, &c. •, and in the weft parts of New
England there are vaft numbers of fine ftately trees of
them in low grounds. The -whole truth feems to be,
that thefe trees love a fandy foil; and fuch as is found
at the bottoms of all the mofles where thefe trees are
found foflil. The roots of the fir kind are always
found fixed in thefe ; and thofe of oaks, where they
are found foflil in this manner, are ufually found fixed
in clay : fo that each kind of tree is always found root¬
ed in the places where they ftand in their proper foil j
and there is no doubt to be made but that they origi¬
nally grew there. When we have thus found that all
the foflil trees we meet with once grew in the places
where drey are now buried, it is plain that in thefe
places there were once noble forefts, which have been
deftroyed at fome time } and the queftion only remains
how and by whom they were deftroyed. This wTe have
reafon to believe, by the Roman coins found among
them, was done by the people of that empire, and that
at the time wdren they were eftabliftred or eftabliftring
themfelves here.
Their own hiftorian tells us, that when their armies
purfued the wild Britons, thefe people always ftrelter-
ed themfelves in the miry woods and low watery fo-
refts. Caefar exprefsly fays this; and obferves, that
Caflibelan and his Britons, after their defeat, paffed
the Thames, and fled into fuch low moraffes and
Woods that there was no purfuing them : and we find
that the Silures fecrured themfelves in the fame man¬
ner wrhen attacked by Oftorius and Agricola. The
fame thing is recorded of Venutius king of the Bri-
gantes, who fled to fecure himfelf into the boggy fo¬
refts of the midland part of this kingdom : and Hero-
dian exprefsly fays, that in the time of the Romans
puftiing their conquefts in thefe iflands, it was the cu-
ftom of the Britons to fecure themfelves in the thick
forefts which grew in their boggy and wet places, and
when opportunity offered, to iffue out thence and fall
upon the Romans. The confequence of all this was
the deftroying all thefe forefts y the Romans finding
themfelves fo plagued with parties of the natives iffuing
out upon them at times from the forefts, that they
gave orders for the cutting down and deftroying all
the forefts in Britain which grew on boggy and wet
grounds. Thefe orders were punctually executed y
and to this it is owing that at this day we can hardly
be brought to believe that fuch fdrefts ever grew with
us as are now found buried.
The Roman hiftories all join in telling us, that when
Suetonius Paulinus conquered Anglefea, he ordered
all the woods to be cut down there, in the manner of
the Roman generals in England : and Galen tells us,
that the Romans, after their conqueft in Britain, kept
their foldiers conftantly employed in cutting down fo¬
refts, draining of marfties, and pawng .of bogs. Not
only the Roman foldiers wrere Employed in this man¬
ner, but all the native Britons made captives in the
Avars were obliged to afiltl in it : and Dion Caflius
tells us, that the emperor Severus loft no left than Preparation
50,000 men in a few years time in cutting down the t Laiid-
woods and draining the bogs of this ifland. It is not ‘ 1 ‘
to be wondered at, that fuch numbers executed the
immenfe deftruclion which we find in thefe buried fo¬
refts. One of the greateft fubterranean treafures of
wood is that near Hatfield $ and it is eafy to prove,
that thefe people, to whom this havock is thus attri¬
buted, were upon the fpot where thefe trees now lie
buried. The common road of the Romans out of the
fouth into the north, wTas formerly from Lindum (Lin¬
coln) to Segelochum (Little Burrow upon Trent).,
and from thence to Danum (Doncafter), where they
kept a Handing garrifon of Crifpinian horfe. A little
off on the eaft, and north-eaft of their road, between
the two laft named towns, lay the borders of the great-
eft foreft, which fwarmed with wild Britons, who were
continually making their fallies put, and their retreats
into it again, intercepting their provifions, taking and
deftroying their carriages, killing their allies and paf-
fengers, and difturbing their garrifons. This at length
fo exafperated the Romans, that they wrere determined
to deftroy it j and to do this fafely and effectually,
they marched againft it with a great army, and en -
camped on a great moor not far from Finningly : this
is evident from their fortifications yet remaining.
There is a fmall town in the neighbourhood called
OJierJield; and as the termination field feems to have
been given only in remembrance of battles fought near
the towns whole names ended with it, it is not impro¬
bable that a battle was fought here between all the
Britons who inhabited this foreft and the Roman
troops under Oftorius. The Romans flew many of
the Britons, and drove the reft back into this foreft,
which at that time overfpread all this low country..
On this the conquerors taking advantage of a ftrong
fouth-weft wind, fet fire to the pitch-trees, of which
this foreft was principally compofed j and when the
greater part of the trees wras thus deftroyed, the Ro¬
man foldiers and captive Britons cut dowm the re¬
mainder, except a few large ones which they left
Handing as remembrances of the deftru&ion of the
reft. Thefe Angle trees, however, could not ftand
long againft the wands, and thefe falling into the rivers
which ran through the country, interrupted their cur¬
rents j and the water then overfpreading the level
country, made one great lake,, and gave origin to the
moffes or moory bogs, which were afterwards formed
there, by the workings of the waters, the precipita¬
tion of earthy matter from them, and the putrefaction
of rotten boughs and branches of trees, and the vaft
increafe of w-ater mofs and other fuch plants which
. grow in prodigious abundance in all thefe forts of
places. Thus were thefe burnt and felled trees buried
under a new formed fpongy and wntery earth, and af¬
terwards found on the draining and digging through
this earth again.
Hence it is not ftrange that Roman weapons and
Roman coins are found among thefe buried trees •, and"
hence it is that among the buried trees fome are found
burnt, fome chopped and hewn j and hence alfo it is that
the bodies of the trees all lie by their proper roots, and
with their tops lying north-eaft, that is, in that direc¬
tion in which a fouth-wreft wind would, have blown
them down : hence alfo it is, that fome of the trees
are
366 AGRICULTURE. , Piadice,
Preparation are found with their roots lying flat, thefe being not
of Land. cu^ or burned down, but blown up by the roots after-
wards when left Angle *, and it is not wonderful, that
fuch trees as thefe fliould have continued to grow even
after their fall, and flioot up branches from their Ades
which might eaAly grow into high trees. (Fbi/. Franf.
N° 275.)
By this fyftem it is alfo eaAly explained why the
moor foil in the country is in fome places two or three
yards thicker than in others, or higher than it was for¬
merly, Ance the growing up of peat earth or bog
ground £ompofed of mofs plants is well known, and the
foil added by overflowing of waters is not a little.
As the' Romans were the deflroyers of this great
and noble far eft, fo they were probably alfo of the fe-
veral other ancient forefts 5 the ruins of which fur-
niflr us with the bog wood of Staffbrdfhire, Lanca-
fhire, Yorkfture, and other counties. But as the Ro¬
mans were not much in Wales, in the Ifle of Man, or
in Ireland, it is not to be fuppofed that forefts cut down
by thefe people gave origin to the foflil wood found
there; hut though they did not cut down thefe fo¬
refts, others did; and the origin of the bog wood is
the fame with them and with us.. Holinfhead in¬
forms, that Edward I. being not able to get at the
Welfli becaufe of their hiding themfelves in boggy
woods, gave orders at length that they ihould all be
deftroyed by fire and by the axe j and doubtlefs the
roots and bodies of trees found in Pembrokelhire un¬
der ground, are the remains of the execution of this
order. The foflil wood in the fbogs of the ifland of
Man is doubtlefs of the fame origin, though we have
not any accounts extant of the time or occafion of the
forefts there being deftroyed ; but as to the foflil trees
of the bogs of Ireland, we are exprefsly told, that
Henry II. when he conquered that country, ordered
all the woods to be cut down that grew in the low
parts of it, to fecure his eonquefts, by cutting away
the places of refort of rebels.
The tendency of our climate to produce in cold and
damp fituations mofs plants, which gradually form
around themfelves a liquor which is the enemy of all
putrefaftion, may be conAdered as a fortunate circum-
ftance, upon the whole, for the prefervation of the
health of men and animals, as well as contributing to
other valuable purpofes. In conAdering the nature of
mofs, “ I cannot difmifs the fubjeft (fays Mr Head¬
rick) without fuggefting my admiration at the benefi¬
cence of Providence, in having provided the mofs plants
for the fituations in which they grow : they afford an
immediate fupply of fuel, and are the fource from which
pit-coal derives its origin, though trees, and all the
plants which abound in oils and carbon alfo contribute
to the fupply of pit-coal. Were the places now occu¬
pied by moffes divefted of vegetables, or ftored with
vegetables of a different character, they would become
noifome fens, which, by the emiflion of putrid gaffes,
would fpread all around them peftilence and death.
Moffes emit no noxious gaffes, but rather, by growing
at the furface, where the plants are a&ed upon by the
fun’s rays, they perpetually throw out oxygen, and
thus contribute to the falubrity of the atmofphere.
The only defe& with which they are chargeable is,
forming magazines of moifture, which by its exhala¬
tion generates cold, and fpreads rheumatifra and inter-
3
mitting fevers among all the animals within its reach. Preparation
The perpetual evaporation of this moifture not only °f Land,
tends to chill the mofs, but it defcends in hoar-froft * ‘ ' YmW'
and mildews upon all the lands that are lower in point
of fituation. Thefe laft mentioned difadvantages are
more than amply compenfated by the confideration
that mofs is not only an inexhauftible magazine of ma¬
nure for other foils, but may be converted into a moft
fertile foil itfelf. After it is ft) converted, none of the
defeats already ftated are any longer applicable to it.”
This gentleman analyzed chemically fome fpecimens
of mefs. He found that a fmall portion of Berkftiire
peat of great hardnefs exhibited, wdien pounded in a
mortar and infufed in warm water, a liquor that had
fome flight marks of acidity by teft paper. Gypfum
and fulphat of magnefia appeared to exift in it. A pu¬
rified potafh produced an abundant precipitation of va¬
rious fubftances. A portion of this peat being burned,
gave forth at the clofe of the operation a fulphureous
fmell and flame. The white afhes, after fome days,
affumed a rufty colour, from iron contained in them.
Being wafhed, the liquor appeared to contain fulphates
of lime, magnefia, alumine, and iron. Black hard peat
of Swinridge moor, in Ayrftiire, wdien burned, gave
brown allies which were attrafted by the magnet. An
infuAhn of them in water exhibited no mark of acid or
of alkali, and the ingredients contained in it appeared
to be the fame as in the Berklhire peat. Foggy or
yellow peat yielded a fmaller quantity of allies, which
were white, and did not obey the magnet.
Mofs water obtained by fqueezing light peats con¬
tained gallic acid and tanning principle in great quan¬
tities. Quicklime appeared to be the moft powerful
agent in precipitating every fubftance from the mofs
water, and in rendering mofs a compaft and folid fub¬
ftance ; a faff which, as will be afterwards noticed, has
been fuccefsfully taken advantage of in pra&ice.
There are two ways in wrhich a traft of territory
that is covered by hiofs may be reduced under the do¬
minion of the plough, or rendered fit for the purpofes
of agriculture. The one confifts of altogether remov¬
ing the moffy fubftance, or the whole wrecks of the
mofs plants that have been accumulating for ages, and
endeavouring thereafter to cultivate the fubfoil. The
other mode confifts of converting the fubftance of the
mofs into vegetable xnould fit for bearing crops of
grain.
The firft of thefe plans has been adopted with re¬
gard to the mofs of Kincardine, and the other has
been fuccefsfully praclifed by Mr Smith of Swinridge-
muir, in Ayrlhire ; and in imitation of him by various ^
other perfons in different diftri&s of the country. To
each of thefe we ftiall give attention.
The mofs of Kincardine is a remarkable traft of The mols
ground in the Ihire of Perth, in Scotland, which de-
ferves particular notice, both as a topographical curi- V£j\ry
ofity or fubje& of natural hiftory, and for the informa- man labour,
tion, equally uncommon and important, which it af¬
fords, refpefHng agricultural improvement, and the
promotion of induftry and population.
The mofs of Kincardine is fituated in the parifh of
the fame name, comprehended between the rivers Forth
and Teith, and in that diftrid of Perthfhire called
Monteith. The mofs begins about a mile above the
confluence of thefe rivers; from theqce it extends- in
length
Parti. A G R I C U
Preparation length about four miles, and from one to two in breadth 5
of Land. and before the commencement of the operations (an
v—V ' account of which is to be given), comprehended near
2000 Scots acres, of wdiich about 1500 belong to the
eftate of Blair Drummond, the property of the late Lord
Kames, by his marriage with Mrs Drummond of Blair
Drummond.
As moffes are extremely various in their nature;
before entering upon the improvements made in Kin¬
cardine mofs, it will be proper to give a (hort defcrip-
tion of that mofs, and of the fubjacent foil which is the
obieft of thofe improvements.
The mofs lies upon a field of clay, which is a con¬
tinuation of thofe rich extenfive flats in the neighbour¬
hood of Falkirk and Stirling, diftinguifhed by the name
of carfes. This clay, which is one uniform homoge¬
neous ”mafs finking to a great depth, is found near the
furface, confifts of different colours, and is difpofed in
layers. The uppermoft is gray 5 the next is reddiih ^
and the loweft, which is the moft fertile, is blue.
Through the whole mafs not a pebble is to be found .-
The only extraneous bodies it contains are fea-lhells,
which occur in all the varieties peculiar to the eaftern
coaft of Scotland. They are difpofed fometimes in
beds, fometimes fcattered irregularly at different depths.
By attending to thefe eircumftances, it cannot be
doubted that the fea has been the means of' the whole
accumulation, and that it was carried on in a gradual
by the ordinary eob and dow of the tide.
Upon any other fuppofition, why fliould there not have
been a congeries of all the different materials that com-
pofe the furface of the furrounding heights ? But to
whatever caufe the origin of this accumulation may be
afcribed, certain it is that no foil whatever is more fa¬
vourable to vegetation, or carries more abundant crops
of every kind.*
The furfaee of the clay, which, upon the retreat of
the lea, had been left in an almoft level plane, is every¬
where thickly covered with trees, chiefly oak and
birch, many of them of a great fize. Thefe trees leem
to have been the firft remarkable produce of the cane 5
and it is probable they were propagated by difiemina-
tion from the furrounding eminences. They are found
lying in all direftions befide their roots,) which Hill
continue firm in the ground in their natural pontion y
and from impreflions ftill vifible, it is evident they have
been cut with an axe or fome fimilar inftrument. For
the cutting of wood* the two common purpofes are, ei¬
ther to apply it to its proper ufe, or that the ground it
occupies may be cultivated. In the prefent cafe, how¬
ever, neither of thele ends had been propofed,- fince the
trees, by being left juft as they were cut, were not on¬
ly entirely loft, but" the ground was rendered totally
unfit for cultivation. Hence it is evident, that the
downfal of this wood muff be afcribed to fome more
extraordinary caufe * and to none more probaoly than
to that expedient, which, as we learn from Dion Caf-
fius and other hiliorians, the Romans put fo extenfive-
ly in practice to diflodge from their forells the ancient
inhabitants of the Britifh iflands, as already explained.
This hypothefis acquires no fmall degree of force
from a circumftance that occurred in May 1768, when-
a large round veffelof thin brafs and curious workman-
fhip, 25 inches in diameter, and 16 inches in height.
L T U R E. 367
was difcovered upon the furface of the clay buried uti- Preparation
der the mofs. This veffel, found upon the eftate of. 01 ~‘‘1‘ ^.
John Ramfay, Efq. of Ochtertyre, was by that gentle¬
man prefented to the Antiquarian Society of Edin¬
burgh j in whofe mufeum it remains depoftted for pre-
fervation. And in*t lift of the various donations pre¬
fented to that fociety, publiftied by them in 1782, it is
there denominated a Roman camp kettle.
Between the clay and the moTs is found a ftratum
nine inches thick, partly dark brown and partly of a
colour approaching to black. This is a vegetable
mould, accumulated probably by the plants that cover¬
ed the ground previous to the growth of the wood, and
by leaves from the trees thereafter. The difference of
colour rnuft be owing, to a difference in the vegetable
ftibftances that compofe it. The brown mould is high¬
ly fertile ; the other, efpecially in a dry feafon, is very
unproductive. The crop that had occupied this mould
when the trees wTere felled is found ftill entire. It
confifts chiefly of heath 5 but feveral other fmaller
plants are alfo very diftinguifhable.
Immediately above this ftratum lies the mofs, to the
height, upon an average, of feven feet. It is com-
pofed of different vegetables arranged in three diitinCl
ftrata. Of thefe the firft is three feet thick. It is
black and heavy, and preferable to the others for the
purpofe of fuel.- It confifts of bent grafs (agrq/lis),.
which feems to have grown up luxuriantly among the
trees after they ■were felled. rI he fecond ftratum alfo
is three feet thick. It is compofed of various kinds
of moffes, but principally of bog-mofs (fphagnum). It
is of a fallow or iron colour, and remarkably elaftic. It
is commonly called white peat; and for fuel is confi-
dered as much inferior to that above mentioned. The
third ftratum is compofed of heath and a little bent
grafs, but chiefly of the deciduous parts of the former.
It is about a foot thick, and black.-
By far the greateft part of the mofs in queftion is,
upon an average, full feven feet deep, and has in all pro¬
bability lain undifturbed fince its formation : this is call¬
ed the High Mofs. The remainder, called the Low
Mofs, lies to a confiderable breadth around the extremi¬
ties of the high p and is, upon an average, not above
three feet in depth, to which it has been reduced by the
digging of peats, ft hefe are formed of that ftratum of
the mofs only that lies four feet below the furface and-
downwards 1 the reft is improper for the purpofe, and
is thrown afide.
Before the Introduftion of the plan which is now
purfued, two methods chiefly wTere employed to gain
land from the mofs. ift, The furrounding farmers mark¬
ed off yearly a portion of the low mols next to their
arable land, about 1 ^ feet broad. 1 his they removed
with carts and fpread upon their fields, fome. acres of
■which they for that end left unfown. Here if lay till
I^Iay or June j wrhen, being thoroughly dry, it was
burnt to afhes to ferve as a manure. By this means,
they added to their farms about half a rood ot land
yearly. But this plan proved unfuccefsful j for by the
repeated application of thefe allies, the foil was ren¬
dered fo loofe that the crops generally failed. 2dly,
Many farmers were wont to trench down the low7 mols,,
and to cover it furrow deep with clay taken out of the
trench. This, though commendable as an attempt to-
improve.
m AGRICULTURE. Praaice.
Preparation improve, f roved likewife an unavailing method-, be-
O. Land. caufe in a Jry feafon the fuperficial covering of clay
retains fQ little moifture that the crop commonly fails.
It has been attempted to cover the mofs with clay
brought from the adjacent grounds. But what from
the neceffary irnpoverhhment of tl^ ground from which
the clay was carried, and the foftnefs of the mofs, this
was foon found to be impradlicable.
Draining has alfo been propofed as another mode of
improvement and it mult be acknowledged, that, by
means of draining, many moffes have been converted
both into arable and meadow grounds, which in the
end became interefting improvements. But in a mofs,
Inch as that of Kincardine, this method would be in-
effeftual; as for feveral feet deep it is of fuch a na¬
ture, that upon being dry, and divided into parts, it
would blow with the wind like chaff; and when thrown
afide in the operation of digging peats, it lies for years
without producing. a fmgle vegetable, except only a
tew plants of forrel.
Hence it was thought evident, that all attempts to m-
prove this mofs mull ever prove abortive 5 and that the
objeft to be had in view was the acquifition of the va¬
luable foil lying underneath 5 to which end nothing lefs
•was requifite than the total abolition of the mofs.
By the methods above defcribed from 100 to 2CO
acres of mofs had been removed. When the pre-
fent plan was introduced, there Hill remained covered
with mofs from 1300 to 1400 acres of carfe clay—a
treafure for which it mull be ever interefting to dig.
In the year 1766 Lord Karnes entered into poffef-
fion of the eftate of Blair Drummond. Long before
that period he was well acquainted with the mofs, and
often lamented that no attempt had ever been made to
.turn it to advantage. Many different plans were now
propofed at length it was refolved to attempt, by
means of water as the moft powerful agent, entirely to
fweep off the whole body of mofs.
That mofs might be floated in water, was abundant¬
ly obvious but to find water in fufficient quantity
was difficult, the only ftream at hand being employed
to turn a corn mill. Convinced of the fuperior con-
fequence of dedicating this ftream to the purpofe of
floating off the mofs, Lord Karnes having made an
agreement with the tenant who farmed the mill, and
the tenants thirled confenting to pay the rent, he im¬
mediately threw down the mill, and applied the water
to the above purpofe.
In order to determine the heft manner of conduct¬
ing the operation, workmen were now employed for
a confiderable time upon the low mofs both by the
day and by the piece, to afcertain the expence for
which a given quantity of mofs could be removed.
It was then agreed to operate at a certain rate per
acre 5 and in this manner feveral acres were removed.
But this was to be a very expenfive procefs. The
-ground gained might, indeed, be afterwards let to te¬
nants j but every acre would require an expenditure
from 12I. to 15I. before it could be ready for fowing;
fo that the acquifition of the whole, computing it at a
medium to be 1350 acres, would fink a capital of near¬
ly 20,oool. fterling.
One other method ftill remained 5 namely, to atr
tempt letting portions of the mofs, as it lay, for a
'term of years fufficient to indemnify tenants for the
1
expences incurred in removing it. For fome time-both Preparation
thefe plans were adopted ; but feveral reafons made ut
the latter preferable : 1. The quantity of water to be '
had was fmall} and being alfo uncertain, it was very
inconvenient for an undertaker 5 neither were there
any houfes near the fpot, which occafioned a great
lofs of time in going and coming : but when a man
ffiould live upon the fpot, then he could be ready to
feize every opportunity. 2. The mofs was an ufelefs
wafte. To let it to tenants would increafe the popula¬
tion of the eftate, and afford to a number of indu-
itrious people the means of making to themfelves a
comfortable livelihood.
In the mean time it was determined, till as many
tenants fhould be got as could occupy the whole wa¬
ter, to carry on the work by means of undertakers.
But before proceeding farther, it will be neceffary to
defcribe the manner of applying water to the purpofe
of floating the mofs.
A ftream of water fufficient to turn a common corn-
mill will carry off as much mofs as 20 men can throw
into it, provided they be ftationed at the diftance of
IOO yards from each other. The firft ftep is to make
in the clay, alongfide of the mofs, a drain to convey
the water : and for this operation the carfe clay below
the mofs is peculiarly favourable, being perfeftly free
from ftones and all other extraneous fubftances, and at
the fame time, when moift, ilippery as foap ; fo that not
only is it eafily dug, but its lubricity greatly facilitates
the progrefs of the water when loaded with mofs.
The dimenfions proper for the drain are found to be
two feet for the breadth and the fame for the depth.
If fmaller, it could not conveniently receive the fpade-
fuls of mofs 5 if larger, the water would efcape, leav¬
ing the mofs behind. The drain has an inclination
of one foot in 100 yards j the more regularly this in¬
clination is obferved throughout, the left will the mofs
be liable to obftruftions in its progrefs with the water.
The drain being formed, the operator marks off to a
convenient extent alongfide of it a feftion of mofs,
10 feet broad-, the greateft diftance from which he
can heave his fpadeful into the drain. This he re¬
peatedly does till the entire mafs be removed down to
the clay. He then digs a new drain at the foot of
the moft bank, turns the water into it, and proceeds as
before, leaving the mofs to purfue its courfe into the
river Forth, a receptacle equally convenient and capa¬
cious -, upon the fortunate fituation of which, happily
forming for feveral miles the fouthern boundary of the
eftate, without the interpofition of any neighbouring
proprietor, depended the very exiftence of the -whole
operations.
When the mofs is entirely removed, the clay is
found to be encumbered with the roots of different
kinds of trees ftanding in it as they grew, often very
large : their trunks alfo are frequently found lying
befide them. All thefe the tenants remove, often with
great labour. In the courfe of their operations they
purpofely leave upon the clay a ftratum of mofs fix
inches thick. This, in fpring, when the feafon offers,
they .reduce to alhes, which in a great mcafure enfures
the firft crop. The ground thus cleared is turned over,
where the drynefs admits, with a plough, and, where
too foft, with a fpade. A month’s expofure to the
fun, wind, and froft, reduces the clay to a powder
fitting
Parti. ’ AGRICULTURE. 3^9
Preparation fitting it for the feed in March and April. A crop of
of Land. Q^s js tfig firftj which feldom fails of being plentiful,
yielding from eight to ten bolls after one.
In the year 1767 an agreement was made with one
tenant for a portion of the low mofs.^ This, as being
the firft Hep towards the intended plan, was then view¬
ed as a confiderable acquifition. The fame terms agreed
upon with this tenant have ever fince been, obferved
with all the reft. They are as follow :
The tenant holds eight acres of mofs by a tack of
38 years ; he is allowed a proper quantity of timber,
■and two bolls of oatmeal to fupport him while employ¬
ed in rearing a houfe ; the firft feven years he pays no
rent; the eighth year he pays one merk Scots; the
ninth year two merks ; and fo on with the addition of
one merk yearly till the end of the firft 19 years ; dur¬
ing the laft five years of which he alfo pays a hen yearly.
Upon the commencement of the fecond 19 years, he
begins to pay a yearly rent of 12s. for each acre of
land cleared from mofs, and 2s. 6d. for each acre not
cleared, alfo two hens yearly : A low rent indeed for
fo fine a foil; but no more than a proper reward, for
his laborious exertions in acquiring it.
In the year 1768 another tenant was fettled. Thefe
two were tradefmen ; to whom the preference was al¬
ways given, as having this great advantage to recom¬
mend them, that even when deprived of water they
need never wrant employment. The motives that indu¬
ced thefe people to become fettlers wrere, ift, The prc-
fpeft of an independent eftablilhment for a number of
years. 2dly, The mofs afforded them great abundance
of excellent fuel; to wdrich w'as added the comfortable
confideration, that, while bufied in providing that ne-
ceflary article, they had the double advantage of pro¬
moting, at the fame time, the principal objedt of their
fettlement.
Notwithftanding thefe inducements, ftill fettlers of¬
fered Howdy : to which two circumftances chiefly con¬
tributed: 1 ft, The wdiole farmers furrounding the mofs
threw every poflible obftruftion in their wray. 2dly, By
people of all denaminations the fcheme was view’ed as
a chimerical projeft, and became a common topic of
ridicule. The plan, however fupported itfelf; and
in the year 1769 five more tenants agreed for eight
acres each; and thus 56 acres of lowr mofs were dif-
pofed of. From the progrefs made by the firft fettlers,
and the addition of thefe, the obloquy of becoming
a mofs tenant gradually became lefs regarded ; fo that
in the year 1772 twro more w-ere added; in 1773, three ;
and in 1774, one; in all 13: which difpofed of 104
acres; all the low mofs to which water could then be
conveyed. As water is the main fpring of the opera¬
tion, every tenant, befides the attention neceffary to
his (hare of the principal ftream, collefted w^ater by
every poflible means, making ditches round his por¬
tion of the mofs, and a refervoir therein to retain it till
wanted.
^ The tenants in the low mofs having now begun to
raife good crops, in the year 1774 feveral perfons of¬
fered to take poffeflions in the high mofs, upon con¬
dition that accefs to it fliould be rendered practicable.
The high mofs wanted many advantages that the low
poffeffed. To the low mofs, lying contiguous to the
furrounding arable lands, the accefs was tolerably good;
but from the arable lands the high, mofs was feparat-
Vol. I. Part I.
ed by 300 or 400 yards of the low, which, even to a Preparation
man, affords but indifferent footing, and to horfes is ot ^aiK*'
altogether impracticable. The low mofs is in general
only three feet deep ; the high mofs is from fix to
twelve feet in depth.
It will appear at firft fight, that without a road of
communication the high mofs muft forever have proved
unconquerable. Without delay, therefore, a road was
opened to the breadth of 12 feet, for feveral hundred
yards in length, by floating oft the mofs down to the
clay.
This being effeded, and at the fame time an opening-
given to admit water, in the year 1775 twelve tenants
agreed for eight acres of high mofs each. In confider¬
ation of the greater depth of this part of the mofs, it
was agreed, that during the firft 19 years they ftiould
pay no rent ; but for the fecond 19 years the terms of
agreement were the fame as thofe made with the tenants
in the low mofs. To the above-mentioned tenants
every degree of encouragement was given ; as upon
their fuccefs depended, in a great mealure, the difpofal
of the great quantity of mofs ftill remaining. But
their fuccefs, however problematical, was fuch, that
next year, 1776, fix more took eight acres each; in
1777, one; in 1778, four; in 1779, three; in 178c,
one; in 1781, one; 101782, one:—In all, including
thofe upon the low mofs, 42 tenants, occupying 336
acres.
Though for fome time the difpofal of the high mofs
went but flowly on, it was not for want of tenants ;
but the number of operators was already fufficient for
the quantity of water ; to have added more would evi¬
dently have been imprudent.
In the year 1783 Mr Drummond entered into the pof-
feflion of the eftate of Blair Drummond, and went
fully into the plan adopted by his predeceffor for fub-
duing the mofs. At this time there ftill remained
undifpofed of about 1000 acres of high mofs. As
water was the great defideratum, it was determined,
that to obtain that neceffary article neither pains nor
expence fhould be wanting. Steps were accordingly
taken to afeertain in what manner it might be procur¬
ed to moft advantage.
Meanrdrile, to prepare for new tenants, a fecond
road parallel to the former, at the diftance of half a
mile, was immediately begun and cut, with what wa¬
ter could be got, down to the clay, 12 feet broad and
2670 yards long, quite acrofs the mofs. This open¬
ing was previoufly neceffary, that operators might get
a drain formed in the clay to diredl the water; and it
was to remain as a road that was abfolutely neceffary,
and which relieved fettlers from an expence they were
unable to fupport. Thefe preparations, the progrefs
of the former tenants, and the profpecl of a farther
fupply of water, induced 10 more to take pofieflions in
in the year 1783 : in the year I7.S4> more took
poffeflions; and in 1785 no fewer than 27:—in all
5 5 tenants in three years : which difpofed of 440 acres
more of the high mofs.
As the introduction of an additional ftream to the
mofs was to be a work both of nicety and expence, it
was neceffary to proceed with caution. For this reafon
feveral engineers were employed to make furveys and
plans of the different modes by which it might be pro¬
cured. In one point they all agreed, that the pro-
3 A per
70 AGRICULTURE. Pra&ice.
Preparation per xburce for fitrnifhmg that fupply was the river
^ of Land. rpeit}lj a large and copious ftream that paffes within a
mile of the mofs j but various modes were propofed
for effecting that purpofe.
To carry a ftream from the river by a cut or canal
into the mofs was found to be imprafticable j and Mr
Whitworth (b) gave in a plan of a pumping machine,
which he was of opinion would anfwTer the purpofe ex¬
tremely well.
Soon after this Mr George Meikle of Alloa, a very
fkilful and ingenious millwright, gave in a model of
a wheel for railing water entirely of a new conftruc-
tion, of his own and his father’s invention jointly.
This machine is fo exceedingly Ample, and ads in a
manner fo eafy, natural, and uniform, that a common
obferver is apt to undervalue the invention : But per-
fons ikilled in mechanics view machinery with a very
different eye } for to them fimplicity is the firft recom¬
mendation a machine can poffefs. Accordingly, up¬
on feeing the model fet to work, Mr Whitworth,
with that candour and liberality of mind that gene¬
rally accompany genius and knowledge, not only gave
it the greateft praife, but declared that, for the pur¬
pofe required, it wras fuperior to the machine recom¬
mended by himfelf, and advifed it to be adopted with¬
out helitation.
The better to explain this machine, two Iketches are
annexed, to the firft of which the following letters re-
ter. The explanation of the fecond will be found up¬
on the fketch.
plate xm. ai Sluice through which is admitted the v/ater that
moves the wheel.
b, by Two fluices through which is admitted the
water railed by the wheel.
c, c, A part of one of two wooden troughs and an
aperture in the wall, through which the above water is
ponveyed into the buckets. [The other trough is hid
by two ftone walls that fupport the wheel.]
dy dy dy Buckets, of which So are arranged on each
fide of the arms of the wheels 160.
e, e, e, A ciftern, into which the water raifedby the
buckets is difeharged.
Wooden barrel pipes, through which the
water defeends from the ciftern under ground to avoid
the high road from Stirling, and the private approach
to the houfe.
Sketch lecond contains a plan of the ciftern, and ex¬
hibits the manner in which the water is filled into the
buckets.
The diameter of the wheel to the extremities of the
fioat-boards is 28 feet \ the length of the float-boards
10 feet. The wheel makes nearly four revolutions per
minute j in which time it difeharges into the ciftem
40 hoglheads of water. But this is not all the wheel
is capable of performing \ for by feveral accurate trials
by Meffrs Whitworth and Meikle, in the refult of
which, though made feparately, they perfedlly agreed,
it was found that the wheel was able to lift no Id's than
60 hogfheads per minute ; but that the diameter of the
pipes through which the water defeends from the ci¬
ftern would not admit a greater quantity than what Preparation
they already receive. of Land.
To a perfon at all converfant in hydraulics, the re-'-
femblance of this to the Perfian wheel muft be obvious :
and indeed it is probable, that from the Perfian wheel
the firft idea of this machine was derived. But admit¬
ting this, ftill the fuperiority of the prefent wheel is,
in moft refpeds, fo confpicuous, as to entitle it to little
lefs praife than the firft invention. For, ift, In the
Perfian wheel, the buckets being all moveable, muft be
conftantly going out of order : In this wheel they are
all immoveable, confequently never can be out of order,
adly, Inftead of lifting the water from the bottom
of the fall, as in the Perfian wheel, this wheel lifts it
from the top of the fall, being from four to five feet
higher ; by which means fome additional power is gam¬
ed. 3dly, By means of the three ft dices (#, and by b%
fig. 1.) in whatever fituation the river may be, the
quantity of the water to be raifed is fo nicely adjufted
to that of the moving power, as conftantly to preferve
the wheel in a fteady and equable motion. In fliort,
as a regulator is to a watch, fo are thefe fiuices to this
wheel, whofe movements would otherwife be lo various,
as fometimes to carry the water clear over the ciftern,
fometimes to drop it entirely behind, but feldom fo as
fully to difeharge the whole contents of the buckets into
the ciftern.
It is however but candid to remark, that this machine
labours under a fin all defecl, which did not efcape the
obfervation of Mr Whitworth $ namely, that by railing
the water about 3d feet higher than the ciftern where
it is ultimately delivered, a final! degree of power is
loft. To this, indeed, he propofed a remedy $ but can¬
didly confeffed, that as it would render the machine
fomewhat more complex, and would alfo increafe the
fri&ion, he thought it more advifable to keep it in it#
prefent ftate. As the fame time he juftly obferved,,
that as the ftream by which the wheel is mot ed is at
all times copious and powerful, the fmall lol’s of power
occalioned by the above circumilance w as of little or
no avail.
This ftream is detached from the Teith at the place
where that river approaches neareft to the m ofs. The
furfacc of the latter is about 15 feet higher than that
of the former 5 the ciftern is therefore placed 17 feet \
above the furface of the ftream, fo as to leave a decli¬
vity fufficient to deliver the water upon the furface of
■the mois.
The pipes through which the w-ater defeends from'
the ciftern are compofedof wooden barrels hooped w ith
iron, 4 feet long and 18 inches in diameter within.
In thefe pipes, having been conveyed under ground
for 354 yards from the ciftern, the water at once emer¬
ges into an open aqueduct. This aqueduft, which wras
formed according to a plan by Mr Whitworth, is con-
ftructed wholly of earth or clay $ and in order to keep
the wrater on a level with the furface of the mols, it is-
for nearly two-thirds of its courfe elevated from 8 to-
10 feet above the level of the adjacent grounds j the
bafe being 40 feet broad, the fummit 18 feet, and the
water
(b) This gentleman was fuperintendant of the London water wrorks, and an engineer of great reputation in
England. He was feveral years employed in Scotland in completing the great canal.
Part I.
Preparation water courfe io feet broad. It commences at tbe ter-
of Land. mination of the pipes from whence extending above
v*—yards, it difcharges the tvater into a canal formed
for its reception on the fiirface of the mofs.
■ For raising the water to this height there were two
reafons : ift, That not only where it was delivered on
the mofs, but even after being conveyed to tbe mod
diftant comers, it might ftill retain fufhcient power to
tranfport the mofs to the river Forth. 2dly, I hat re-
fervoirs of a fufficient height might be formed in the
mofs to retain the water delivered during night.
In confequence of Mr Whitworth’s advice, a con¬
trail was entered into with Mr Meikle in fpring 1787 ;
and by the end of O&ober in that year, the wheel,
pipes, and aqueduft, were all completely finilhed •, and
what, in fo complex and extensive an undertaking,
is by no means common, the different branches of the
work were fo completely executed, and fo happily ad-
juffed to each other, that unon trial the effeit anfwered
the moft fanguine expectations. The total expence ex¬
ceeded lOOOl. fterling. .
To induce the proprietor to embark in this under¬
taking, the mofs tenants had of their own accord pre-
vioufly come under a formal engagement to pay the
intereft of any fum that might be expended in procur¬
ing a fupply of water. But he was determined they
fnould not enjoy by halves the fweets of this long
wifiled for acquisition* With a view, therefore, not
only to reward their paft induftry, but to roufe them
to future exertions, he at once fet them free from
their engagement 5 nor has any intereft ever been de¬
manded.
This new fupply was a moft acceptable boon to.the
mofs tenants. In order to make an equitable diftribu-
tion, the water raifed through the day was allotted
to one divifton of operators j that railed during the
night to another. To retain tne ratter, a canal was
formed, extending ahnoft three miles through the
centre of the mofs. From place to place along the.Tides
are inferted fluices to admit water to the reier\oirs of
the poffeffors $ each fluice having an aperture, propor¬
tioned to the number of operators to be fupplied irom
tlie refer voir which it fills. For the water raifed through
the day no refervoirs are neceffary j as it is immediate¬
ly ufed by the divifion to which it is alloted.
This additional ftream, though highly beneficial, yet
is not more than fufficient to keep 4® men conflant
work. But fuch a quantity as would give conftant
work is not neceffary : the operators muft be often
emoloyed in making and repairing their drains, grub¬
bing up roots of trees, &c.; fo that a quantity fuffi¬
cient to give five or fix hours work per day to the
Whole inhabitants is as much as would be wanted.
But as the quantity procured was ftill infufficient for
this purpofe, a fmall ftream that, defeended from the
higher grounds waS diverted from its courfe and brought
into the mofs. From want of level this ftream could
not be delivered to the greateft advantage; namely, up¬
on the fiirface of the mofs. Yet by making, at a confi-
derable expence, a drain half a mile long, and a reler-
voir for the night water, it was rendered ox much im-
portance : and during the whole winter months, as
well as in funnier, after every fall of rain, it keeps 15
perfon? fully employed.
371
In the year 1787, two more tenants agreed for Preparation
eight acres each j in 1788, four-, in 1789, eight j in oi L*nd- ,
1790, four tenants, all agreed for the fame number of
acres* ,
The whole mofs was now dilpofed of-^ceprVhat
part called Flow Mofs, which comprehenJfa about \oo
acres. Here it is twice the ufual breadthlfo fluid that
a pole may be thruft with one hand to ire bottom ;
and the interior part, tor near a mile hrqfad, is three
feet above the level of all the reft of the mofs.. Hi¬
therto the many and various difficulties that prefented
themfelves had been overcome by perfeverance and.
expence. But here the extraordinary elevation of
the morafs, joined to its great fluidity, feemed to ex¬
clude all poffibility of admitting a ftream of water 5
and it was the general opinion that the mofs opera¬
tions had now arrived at their ne plus ultra, and that
this morafs was doomed to remain a nuifance for ages
to come. .
But the proprietor had now advanced fo far that he
could not fubmit to retreat : and he confidered himfelf
as, in fpme meaiure, pledged to the country tor the
completion of this undertaking. r o detail tne va¬
rious methods praflifed to introduce a ftream of water
into that morafs, would prove tedious.. It is fufficient
to fay, that after a thoufand unfuccefsful eitorts, at¬
tended with much trouble and confiderable expence,
the point at laft was gained, and a ftream of water was
brought in, and carried fairly acrois the centre of the
morafs.
The greateft obftacle was now indeed overcome
but ftill another remained of no fmall moment, namely,
the difeouragement given to fettlers from the total im-
poffibility of ere&ing habitations upon the furface of
this morafs. To find a remedy for this evil was dif¬
ficult. Happily a refource at laft occurred. This was
to bargain with a certain number of the old tenants,
whofe habitations were neareft, to take leafes of por¬
tions of the morafs. But as fome additional aid was
here neceffary, it was agreed that 12I. fterling ftiould
be gradually advanced to each tenant till he ihould ac-
cOmpliffi the clearing of an acre, for which he or his
fucceffor is bound to pay 12s. of yearly rent, equal.to
five per cent, upon the fum advanced. When this point
fliall be gained, they are bound to diipole, as moft a-
greeable to themfelves, either of their old or of their
new poffeffion j for which, when once an acre iscleai-
ed, purchaferS will not oe wanting.
In confequence of the above arrangement, during
the year 1791 no fewer than 35 of the old tenants
agreed, upon the foreiaid conditions, for eight ncies
each of the flow mofs. Thus 1200 acres are now
difpofed of to 115 tenants. But when thefe 3 5 tenants
{hall each have cleared their acre, then, accoiding to
agreement, 35 additional tenants will, fpeedily be ac¬
quired } and the mofs will then contain in all 15® fa¬
milies. . 1 • T_
To the leafes at firft granted to the tenants m the high
mofs, it was afterwards determined to add a further pe¬
riod of 19 years (making in all 57 years), during which
they are to pay one guinea per acre ; a rent not great¬
er than the land is worth even at prefent, but greatly
below its probable value at that diftant period. . I his,
it is hoped, will prove to the tenants a fuflicient incite-
3 A 2
griculture.
A G R. I C U
Pre^ration m6nt to continue their operations till their pofleflions
, f 1 ctn are completely cleared from mofs.
' Having now gone through, in detail, the whole pro-
grefs of the colony for many years after its firft fettle-
ment in the year 1767, it dill remains to take a gene¬
ral view of the efrecfs produced by that eilabliihment.
For fever al years, at fir ft, the water was ufed chiefly
to carry oft mofs, in the forming of new roads, and
preparing refervoirs j which confiderably retarded the
principal objecl, of gaining land. Neverthelefs there
have been cleared full 300 acres of excellent land, pro¬
ducing wheat, barley, oats, and clover, yielding from
fix to twelve bolls after one.
From the nature of the undertaking, there is good
reafon to fuppofe that the operations will yearly ad¬
vance with greater rapidity ; efpecially as the greater
number of the fettlers have only of late begun to ope¬
rate. Many, befides maintaining their families other-
tvife by occafional employments, have in the high
mofs cleared in a year one rood of land ; fome have
cleared two, fome three roods, and in the low mofs
an acre.
It was a remark often made, even by perfons of fome
obfervation, that by colledling together fuch a num¬
ber of people, Kincardine would be overftocked ; and
the confequence would be their becoming a burden on
the parifti : for as the bulk of them were labourers not
hred to any trade, and poflefled of little ftock, it was
roreieen, that, for fome time, they could not afford
to confine themfelves folely to the mofs, from which
the return muft be flow 5 but behoved, for immediate
fubfiftence, to work for daily hire. Happily thefe pre-
diflions have proved entirely groundlefs; for fuch is
the growing demand for hands in this country, that
not only do the whole of thefe people find employment
whenever they choofe to look for it, but their wages
have been yearly increafing from the time of their firft
eftabiifhment. In Ihort, they have proved to the
corner where they are fet down a moft ufeful nurfery
of labourers •, and thofe very farmers who, at firft, fo
ftrongly oppofed their fettlement, now fly to them as
a lure refource for every purpofe of agriculture. Still
they confider the mofs operations as their principal
bufinefs ; none pay them fo well ; and when they do
leave it to earn a little money, they return with cheer-
fulnefs to their proper employment. Many of them
already raife from 10 to 60 bolls of grain, and have no
occafion to go off to other wmrk ; which will foon be
the cafe with the whole. Their original ftock, indeed,
did not often exceed 25I. and fome had not even
lol.j but what was wanting in ftock is compenfated
by induftry.
Of the whole inhabitants full-nine tenths are High¬
landers, from the neighbouring parifhes of Callander,
Balquhidder, &c. 5 a fober, frugal, and induftrious
people, who, inured to hardfhips in their own country,
are peculiarly qualified to encounter fo arduous an un¬
dertaking. From this circumftance, too, arifes a very
happy confequence 5 that wearing a different garb and
fpeaking a different language from the people amongft
LI UR E. Pra£lice#
whom they axe fettled, they confider themfelves in a Preparation
manner as one family tranfported to a foreign land : ot Larid-
and hence upon all occafions of difficulty, they fly   ^—'
with alacrity to each others relief. Neither outfit it
to be forgotten, that, from their firft fettlement to
the prefent day, not a Angle inftance has occurred a-
mongft them of theft, bad neighbourhood, or of anv
other mifdemeanour, that required the interpofition of
the civil magiftrate. Nor, however poor in circum-
ftances, has any one of them ever ftooped to folicit af-
fiftance from the funds of the parifti appropriated to
fchat purpofe.
Though few of the tenants entered with a large
ftock, one only has been obliged to leave the mofs
from incapacity to proceed. Many indeed have fpent
their fmall ftocks, and even run a little in debt : but
in this cafe they have been permitted to fell their tacks
upon the following conditions : iff, That the purchafer
ftiall be a good man 5 2dly, That the feller fhall take
another poffeflion. By this manoeuvre a new inhabi¬
tant is gained 5 while the old one, relieved from debt,
and aided by paft experience, recommences his opera¬
tions with double fpirit upon a new poffeflion. The
monied man again has at once a houfe and a piece of
ground, the want of which chiefly ftartled new be¬
ginners.
Some have even made a kind of trade of felling j
infomuch, that from the year 1774 to the year 1792,
no fewer than fifty fales have taken place, produ¬
cing in all the fum of 849I. fterling. This proved
from time to time a moft feafonable recruit to the co¬
lony, and gave new vigour and fpirits to the whole.
The number of the fettlers is productive of an ex¬
cellent effeCt 5 that although fome are generally abfent,
enough ftill remain to occupy the w^ater conftantly.
In a favourable day, there may be feen hundreds, men,
women, and children, labouring with the utmoft affi-
duity. The women declare they can make more by
working at the mofs than at their wheel 5 and fuch is
the general attachment to that employment, that they
have frequently been difcovered working by moonlight.
Another happy confequence arifing from their num¬
bers is the great quantity of mofs they confume for
fuel. There are in all 115 families. Each family re¬
quires at an average 10 dargues (c) of peats yearly.
Each dargue uncovers a fpace equal to lofquare yards
of clay: fo that, by calling peats, the mofs tenants
gain yearly about 6 roods of land.
The advantage, too, of providing their fuel wdth fo
little trouble, is very great. They require yearly 1150
dargues of peats ; which, as each dargue when dried
and flacked is valued at five {hillings, are worth 287I.
I os. fterling ; a fum which otherwife muft have been
expended on the prime coft and carriage of coals.—
Many of them call peats for fale •, and iool. worth are
yearly difpofed of in the town of Stirling, the village of
Down, &c.
Though mofs work be laborious, it is at the fame
time amufing. The operator moves the mofs five feet
only at a medium 3 and the water, like carts in other
cafes
(c) A dargue (or darg) of peats, is the quantity that one man can call and two can wffieel in a day to the field
Where they are fpread out to dryt
Part I.
A G R I C U L T U II E.
Preparation cafes, carrying it off as fail as it is thrown in, excites
of Land, him to a&ivity. Still he muft fubmit to be wet from
’ morning to night. But habit reconciles him to this
inconvenience , while his houie and arable land fill his
eye and cheer his' mind. Nor is it found that the
health of the inhabitants is in the fmalleft degree in¬
jured either by the nature of the work or the vicinity
of the mofs.
The quantity of mofs that one man can move in a
day is furprifing } when he meets with no interruption,
feldom lefs than 48 cubic yards, each weighing 90
Hones. The weight, then, of mofs moved per day is
no lefs than 4320 Hones. A cubic yard is moved into
the water, and of courfe carried into the river Forth
for one farthing. It follows, that the expence of
moving 48 cubic yards is one llrllhng. But the fame
quantity moved to the fame diflance by carts would
cofl 24 {hillings. Hence the advantage derived from
the pofiibility of floating mols in water, and the great
importance of having water for that purpofe.
The mofs, when contraHed with the rich lands fur¬
rounding, appeared, efpecially before the improve¬
ments, a very dreary fpot} one rvide unvaried wild,
totally unproduclive, unfit even to furnifh lufienance
to any animal, except here and there a feu wretched
flraggling flieep. Befides, it entirely cut off all con¬
nexion betwixt the farms on either fide ; among which
no intercourfe was practicable but by a circuit of ic-
veral miles.
The feene is already greatly changed. The follow¬
ing are the numbers of the inhabitants who lome years
ago refided in the m6fs j alio of their cows and horfes,
and of the acres gained by them from the mofs, to¬
gether with their produce.
Men - - - 115
Women - - 113
Boys - - ~ 199
Girls - - I93
Total 620
Number of cows, at leaft, - 115
Ditto of horfes and carts - - 34
Ditto of acres cleared from mofs - 300
The produce in bolls cannot be exaftly afeertained :
but, confidering the goodnefs of the foil, may be fairly
Hated at 8 bolls per acre, hide 2400 bolls.
As oats are the flaple commodity, the calculation
{hall be confined to that grain. According to the fiars
of Stirlingfhire, crop 179c, carfe oats are valued at
14s. per boll, hide 2400 bolls at 14s. is 1680I. Of
late this price has at times been doubled.
A. trad! of ground fo confiderable, formerly a nur-
fance to the country, thus converted into a fertile field,
filled with inhabitants, comfortable and happy, cannot
Purely be furveyed with an eye of indifference by any
perfon whofe mind is at all fufceptible of feeling or of
public fpirit.
An excellent gravelled road, 20 feet wide and a
mile and a half long, is now carried quite acrofs the
mofs. By this means, in the firff place, a fliort and Ere;,
eafy intercourfe is effablifued between two confider- _
able parts of the eilate, formerly as little connected as if
feparated by a lake or an arm of the fea.^ . Secondly,
The inhabitants of the mofs, to whom, nitherto, ail
paffage with carts or horfes was impracticable for at
leaf! one half of the year, have now obtained the
effential advantage of being able, with cafe, to tranf-
port all the different commodities at every feafon of
the year. This road was entirely formed by the hands
of the mofs tenants, and gravelled by their own carts
and horfes : a work which, it will not be doubted,
they performed with much alacrity } when it is con-
fidered that, to the profpect of procuring a lafling and
material benefit to tliemfelves, there was joined the
additional inducement of receiving an immediate rap-
ply of money, the whole being done at the proprietor s
expence. in./'
The poffeflions are laid off in the manner beff fitted
for the operations 5 and are divided by lanes running
in ffraight lines parallel to each other. I arailel to-
thefe again the drains are carried j and this ffraight
direction greatly facilitates the progrefs of the water
with its load of mofs. Upon the bank of mofs front¬
ing the lanes, the operation of floating is begun 5 and
twenty or thirty people are fometimes feen heaving
mofs into the fame drain. That the water may be
the more conveniently applied, the lanes include^ be¬
tween them the breadth of two poffeffions only. Fne
new houfes are erefted upon each fide of thefc lanes
at the diflance of 100 yards from each other.
Before the formation of lanes and roads, and while
yet no ground was cleared, the firff fettlers were obliged
to ere£t their houfes upon the furface of the mofs. its
foftnefs denied all accefs to ftones; which, tat any rate,
are at fuch a diffance as would render them too ex-
penfive. Settlers, therefore, were obliged to conftruft
their houfes of other materials. Upon the low mols
there is found for this purpofe great plenty of fod or
turf, which accordingly the tenants ufe for the walls
of their houfes. For the rudenefs of the fabric nature
in fome meafure compenfates, by overfpreading the
outfide with a luxuriant coating of heath and other
moorifh plants, which have a very pifturefque appear-
But upon the high mofs there is no fod to he found.
There the tenant muft go differently to work. Ha¬
ving chofen a proper fituation for his houfe, he firff
digs four trenches down to the clay, fo as to j'eparate
from the reft of the mofs a folxd mafs, containing an
oblong re£langular area, fufficiently large for his in¬
tended houfe. This being done, he then fcoops out
the middle of the mafs, leaving on all fides the thick-
nefs of three feet for walls *, over which he throws a
roof, fuch as that by which other cottages are cqm-
monly covered. r
Upon the fofteft parts of the mofs, even thefe walls
cannot be obtained. In fuch places the houfes are
built with peat dug out of the mofs, and clofely com-
preffed together while in a humid ftate (d). It is ne-
(„) This does not apply to the morafi, upon the furface of which, It has already been obferved, It Is inn
foflible to ereft houfes in any fhape.
374
PofLdTfnCeirary tVen t0 uPon the furface a platform of
boards to prevent the walls from finking 5 which they
have frequently done when that precaution was ne-
glefted. After all, to ftamp with the foot will (hake
the whole fabric as well as the mofs for fifty yards
around. This, at fir ft, ftartled the people a-good deal}
but cuftom foon rendered it familiar.
The colonifts have now made confiderable advance¬
ment in rearing better habitations for their comfort
and convenience. Their huts of turf are but tempo¬
rary lodgings. As foon as they have cleared a little
ground, they build houfes of bride : when the proprie¬
tor a fecond time furnifhes them with timber gratis.
It has alfo been found neceffary to relieve them en¬
tirely from the payment of the burdenfome tax upon
bricks } a tax which furely was never intended to fall
on fuch poor induftrious adventurers 3 and which, with¬
out this afiiftance, would have proved a moft effectual
bar to the employment of thefe materials.
There are now erected in the mofs 69 brick houfes,
fubftantially built with lime. The total expence a-
*iounted to 1033I. fterling. And it is a very comfort¬
able circumftance, that the money expended upon
thefe houfes is moftly kept in circulation among the
inhabitants themfelves 3 for as a number of them have
learned not only to manufacture but alfo to build
bricks, and as others who have horfes and carts fur-
niih the carriage of lime and coals, they thus inter¬
change fervices with each other.
With a view to excite the exertion of the colonifts,
the following premiums were alfo offered: 1. To
the perfon who lhall in the fpace of one year remove
the greateft quantity of mofs down to the clay, a plough
of the belt conftru&ion. 2. To the perfon who (hall
remove the next greateft quantity, a pair of harrows of
the beft kind. 3. For the next greateft quantity, a
fpade of the beft kind, and lolb. of red clover feed.
But as thefe premiums, if contefted for by the whole in¬
habitants, could reach but a very few of the number,
they were therefore divided into fix diftrifts according
to their fituation} and the above premiums were offered
to each diftrift.
The eftablhhment of this colony was no doubt at¬
tended with a very confiderable {hare of expence and
difficulty 3 for the undertaking was altogether new,
and there were many prejudices againft it, which it
was neceffary to overcome. At the fame time it was
noble and interefting : it was to make a valuable addi¬
tion to private property : it was to increafe the popu¬
lation of the country, and to give bread to a number
of people ; many of whom having been turned out of
"their farms and cottaries in the Highlands, might other-
wife, by emigration, have been loft to their country }
and that too at a time when, owing to the great en¬
largement of farms, depopulation prevails but too
much even in the low countries. And it wns to add
to the arable lands of the kingdom, making many
thoufand bolls of grain to grow7 where none ever grew
before.
Thefe confiderations have hitherto preponderated
with the proprietors againft the various obftacles that
prefent themlelves to the execution of fo extenfive an
undertaking. Should their example tend in any de¬
gree to ftimulate others, who both in Scotland and in
■England poffefs much ground equally ufelefs to the
Practice.
country, to commence fimilar improvements, it would Preparation
be a moft grateful confideration fuperadded to the of Land,
pleafure already arifing from the progrefs of the infant '
colony.
Alter all, it will probably hereafter be thought, that
the great efforts of ingenuity, and of perfevering in-
duftry, which were requifite in the above operation,
might all have been avoided, and the work much eafier
performed, had the art been found out of converting
mofs into fruitful foil, according to the plan pratftifed,
and undoubtedly brought to great perfedlion in Ayr-
fhire, by the gentleman already mentioned, John Smith, Mr Smith’*
Efq. of Swinridge Muir, near Reith. On a part of a mode of
mois in this gentleman’s property, a quantity of lime 'mpm'vmg
had been fpread in confequence of the miring of fome1”015*
carts in wet weather } to relieve which, their load was
laid over the ground in their neighbourhood, though
this was accounted at that period an abl’urd operation,
as it was believed that lime would have the effetft of
confuming and rendering moffy ground ufelefs for ever.
The proprietor, Mr Smith, was then in the army, to¬
wards the clofe of the American war. On returning
home the fucceeding furnmer, and being informed of
the accident, he was furprifed to find that as good a
crop grew upon the patch of mofs on which the lime
had been fcattered, as upon another fpot that had been
pared and burned, in confequence of inftruflions that
he had tranfmitted home for that purpofe, from having
perufed fome treatifes in which burning of mofs was re¬
commended. He alfo remarked, that upon the places
which had neither been burned nor lifned, nothing
grew7, and that the crop upon the burned foil was in¬
ferior to that where the lime had been laid, being al-
ffioft choked with forrel. Mr Smith purlued the hint
thus obtained : He reclaimed by means of lime every
portion of mofs in his own poffeffion, and having fatis-
fied his tenants of the utility cf the pradlice, he allowed
them to dig limeftone gratis, and gave them the refufe
of his coal at prime coft to burn it. Thus, in a fliort
time, every part of the mofs upon his eftate wTas redu¬
ced under cultivation, and rendered highly valuable.
When Mr Smith began his operations, he met the
fate of innovators in agriculture, that is, he was ridi¬
culed by all his neighbours. His fuccefs, however, at
length made fome converts, and though the newfyftem at
firfl advanced {lowly, it was at laft univerfally approved
of, and extenfively imitated. The refult has been, that
what was once the worft land in the country, is now7
become the moft produftive and fertile.
I he following is a concife ftatement of Mr Smith’s
praftice, and confequently of the Ayrfhire praftice, of
aftually converting mofs into vegetable mould, capa¬
ble of bearing rich crops of corn, hay, potatoes, &c.
which we {hall give in the words of Mr Headrick.
“ I. When they enter upon the improvement of a Commun'et-
mofs in its natural ftate, the firft thing to be done is,t,ons to the
to mark and cut main cr mafter drains, eight feet in B°ard °f
width, by four and a half in depth, and declining to
tw7o and a half at bottom} thefe coft 1 s. per fall of
fix Scots ells. In fome inftances, it will be found ne¬
ceffary to cut thofe drains much deeper, confequently
at a greater expence. Thefe drains almoft in every in-
ftance can be, and are fo conduced, as to divide the field
into regular and proper enclofures. They always make
it. a rule to finfth off as much of a drain as they have
- broken
AGRICULTURE.
Part I. A G R I C
Preparation broken np, before they leave it at nigbt *, becaufe, if
of Land. a part is left dug, fuppofe half , way, the oozing of wa-
ter from the fides would render the bottom fo foft,
that they could neither Hand upon it nor lift it with
the fpade. When the mofs is to very foft, that the
preffure of what is thrown out of the drain may caufe
its fides to fall in again, they throw- the clods from the
drain a conliderable way back, and fometimes have a
man to throw them Hill further back, by a fpade or
the hand ; for this reafon too, they always throw the
Huff taken from a drain as equally as pcdible on each
fide of it. In digging the drains, the workmen Hand
N upon fmall boards to prevent them from finking, and
move them forward as the work advances.^
“ When the mofs lies in a hollow-, with only one
outlet, it is neceffary to lead up a drain, fo as to let -
the water pafs this outlet, and then conduct it along
the lowed; or wetteft part of the mofs : this middle
drain is afterwards Hoped, and the fluff thrown back
into the hollows that may occur j upon it the ridges
are made to terminate on each iide, while a ring drain,
ferving the purpofe of a fence, is thrown round the
irofs at the line where the riling ground commences.
This can generally be fo managed as to. divine the
mofs into a fquare field, leaving ftraight lines. for the
fides of the contiguous fields. The ring drain inter¬
cepts the farface water from the higher grounds, and
ccndu&s it into the lower part of the cutlet, while the
Hoped drain in the centre receives and difcharges all
the water that falls upon the mofs.
“ After the mofs collapfes in confequence of liming
and culture, it is often neceffary to clean out theie
drains a fecond time, and to dig them to a greater
depth : their fides become at laft like a wall of peat,
which few animals will venture to pais.
44 2. The drains being thus completed, they mark
out the ridges, either with a long firing or with three
poles fet in a line. Mr Smith has tried ieverai breadths
of ridges, but now gives a decided preference to tuofe
that are feven yards in breadth. The ridges are form¬
ed with the fpade in the following manner : In the
centre of each intended ridge, a fpace of about two
feet is allowed to remain untouched •, on eacL fide of
that fpace a furrow is opened, which is turned over
fo as completely to cover that fpace, like what is call¬
ed veering or feering of a gathered ridge ; the work,
thus begun, is continued by cutting furrows with the
fpade, and turning them over from end to end of the
ridge on eafth fide, until they arrive at the cnvifion fur¬
rows. The breadth of the flices thus cut, may be
about 12 inches, and each piece is made as long as it
may fuit to turn over : the ridge when finifhed, has
the appearance of having been done with a plough.
The divifion furrow is tw-o feet m breadth, which if
necefTary to draw off fuperfluous waters is partly cut
and thrown upon the fides, or into noilows in the
ridges on each fide. The depth of the divifion fur¬
rows is regulated by circumftances fo as not to lay
the ridges at firft too dry, but at the fame time, to
bleed, as it were, the mofs, ana conducl tlie ioperflu-
ous water into the mafter drains. _ _
44 3. The next operation is to top-drefs the ridges wutn
lime. The fooner this is done alter the ridges are
formed, the better. When the mofs appears dry, ex¬
perienced farmers throw on the lime,, but do not clean
U L T U R E. 375
out the divificn furrows until the enfuing winter. Preparation
When it is foaked in water, they clean the divilion ^
furrows as foon as the lime is ready, and after the. wa¬
ter has run off apply the lime immediately. It is cf
great importance to have the lime applied while the
inofs is Hill moifi, and the lime in as cauftic a dale as
poffible. For this purpofe, they have the lime con¬
veyed from the kiln in parcels, flaked and laid on as
fail as the ridges are formed. Being dropped from
carts, and flaked at the neareft acceflible ftation, it is
carried to the mofs by two men on light handbarrows,
having a hopper and bottom of thin boards, and there
fpread with iliovels as equally as poffible. During the
firft and fecond years, the crop is generally carried off
in the fame way. In fome places where a mofs is co¬
vered with coarfe herbage, and acceflible by carts in
dry weather, I faw them give a good dofe of lime to
the mofs before it was turned up with the ipade, ana
another after the ridges were formed. It is furprifing
how quickly they execute thefe operations with the
handbarrows. In other places where coarfe boaius
can be procured, they lay a line of them along the-
crown of a ridge, and convey the lime upon them in
wheelbarrows.”
44 The proportion of lime allowed to the acre is va¬
rious, being from three to eight chalders. Improvers
are much Id’s fparing of this ingredient now than for¬
merly, and much greater proportions have been ap¬
plied with good effea. Suppofe 120 bolls, or 480
Winchefter buihels of flaked or powdered lime allowed
to every Scots acre, this would coil at the fale kilns
40s.; and thus the reader may be enabled to calculate
the expence of lime in this diftrift at every given pro¬
portion : But moft of the farmers here burn lime for
themfelves in vaft kilns of fod, and think they have it
much cheaper than it could be got from a fale kiln.
In many places, limeflone abounds lo much, that
houfes, fences, and roads are conftrufted with it) and
when a farmer bui'ns the hmeftone within nis piemiles,
he at leaft faves the expence of carriage.
44 In fome cafes, after the limeftone is laid on, they
go over the ground with hoes, or with ipades, hacking-
and mangling the clods, and mixing the lime more
completely with the fuperficial foil} but where there
is much to do, and. hands are icarce, they nevei think
of thefe operations.
44 4. The field thus prepared is ready to receive the
feed, which is fown at the proper feafon whether it be
wet or dry, and harrowed in with a fmall harrow drawn
by two men. Four men will with e<ue harrow at itall
five or fix roods per day, two and two aragging the
harrow by turns, and two breaking and dividing the
mould with fpades. When the lime has been applied
early the preceding fummer, a good crop of oats may
generally be expetled ; but if it has been recently ap¬
plied, the firft crop of oats frequently mifgives, as the
lime has not time to combine with the mofs, and form
it into a foil.
44 The early Dutch or Polith oats are always prefer¬
red by mofs improvers, as the common Scots or late
oats are too apt to run into ftraw, and lodge before the
grain arrives at maturity. The ^fame proportion of
feed is allowed per acre that is ufual in other places.
The great defideratum is, to procure plants which will
throw up a fufEcient quantity of herbage, fo as to fhie.ld
37'3 A G R I C
i'Vep^ration the furface from the winds and fun’s rays, and thus to
 1 keep it moilt during the find fummer after a mofs is
— reclaimed. »
“ 1 his defideratum is effeflually fupplied by the po¬
tato, which thrives well oh mofs at all times, whether
recently opened up and limed, or at any future period
of its cultivation 5 only it requires a proportion of
ftable dung. It is now become the general practice
•in Ayr (hire, to plant potatoes on thofe modes which
have been but recently turned up and limed 5 and
where dung can be procured, it is generally the firit
■crop on all their modes.
“ I he method of planting potatoes, whether they
be the firft crop or fucceed the firft crop of oats, is by
lazy beds. If they be the firft crop, the mofs having
been delved into ridges, and limed as before diretted^
fpaces of from five to fix feet in breadth are marked
out acrofs the ridges, having intervals of about two
feet, from which the mofs is taken to cover the fets.
1 hefe fpaces or beds are covered over with a thin^rrt-
tum of dung, laid upon the furface of the lime at the
rate of about fixteen tons to the Scots acre. The cut¬
tings of the potatoes are laid or placed upon the faid
beds, about ten or twelve inches ^funder 5 and the
whole are covered over with mofs, taken from the in¬
tervals wrhich are thus converted into ditches, to be
followed by another covering about the time the po¬
tato plants begin to make their appearance, the cover¬
ing in the wdiole amounting to about four or five
inches; at the fame time, the divifion furrows are
cleaned out to cover the fets that are contiguous to
them. The whole field is thus divided into fpaces or
lazy beds, like a chequered board. During fummer,
they cut the mofs with hoes, and draw it up a little
toivards the ftems of the plants. Few weeds appear,
except what are conveyed by the dung. This is the
pradlice univerfally followed wThen potatoes are plant¬
ed on mofs for the firft time ; but after the mofs is
finely pulverized and reduced, they either plant them
in rows acrofs the ridges, or plant and drefs them with
the plough in the ufual manner.
“ Potatoes planted as the firft crop never mifgive,
and they are the beft and moft certain method at once
to reclaim a mofs, not owing fo much perhaps to the
dung aiding the putrid fermentation vdiich the lime
has already excited, as to their roots pufhing and divi¬
ding the mofs, -while their leaves fhelter it froth the
fun, caufe a ftagnation of air, and thus keep it in that
degree of moifture which is moft .favourable to the ac¬
tion of lime upon mofs. The praiftice of making po¬
tatoes the firft crop is now univerfally-followed, in fo
far as the farmers can command dung. The produce
is from 40 to 60 bolls per acre, the potato meafure be¬
ing eight Winchefter bulhels a little heaped to the
boll. Mofies that are fully reclaimed yield from 60
to 70 bolls of potatoes at an average, and in fome
places w’here manures are abundant, they have been
known to yield from 80 to 100 bolls per acre, of the
above meafure.
“ Mr Smith is about to try yams upon his molfes,
irom the opinion that prevails among fome of the Mid-
Lothian farmers, wFere this plant is much cultivated,
that they require little or no dung, and that the fupe-
rior breadth of their leaves, will prove more favourable
ib'an thofe of potatoes, for flickering the ground. «
U L T U R E. Practice.
‘‘ When the potato crop is removed, the ridges are Preparation
again put into their original form j in doing which, care ot Land,
is taken to preferve the mould that is acquired upper-^
moft 5 this is done by moving the fubfurrow on each
fide with a llrong fpade, half way into the intermedi¬
ate ditch from which the lazy beds were covered, and
feathering the mould equally over the whole furface.
This operation cofts i8s./>er acre. It is not eafy to
calculate the expence of planting the potatoes forming
the la^y beds, &c. as this is feldom executed by con-
traft ; but the lazy beds being thus reduced, the land
is ready for a crop of corn.
“ I hough.a crop of oats frequently mifgives upon
mofs that has been but recently limed, yet in other
cafes, when the lime has lain feveral months upon the
land, it proves a good crop, and is fufficient to cover
all the expence with a little profit. The crops of fuc-
ceeding years are fufficient to afford from their ftraw
putrefeent manure for fuch land in order that it may
be cleaned with potatoes, and prepared for grafs feeds.
“ But after potatoes of the firft year, with the flight
operation of reducing the lazy-beds, from 10 to 12 bolls
of oats are at an average produced per acre. The oats
are excellent, and yield from 18 to 20 pecks of meal
per boll ; they wrould fell upon the ground for 10I.
or 12I. per acre. The ground continues to yield oats
of the fame quality for feveral years, without any appa¬
rent diminution of fertility, and without receiving any
additional manure : the only apparent bar to the con¬
tinuance of this crop is, the foil becoming graffy.
V, hen the grafs begins to contend with the crop for
pre-eminence, the land is thrown into pafture, and
would let ever after in that ftate at from 20s. to 25s.
per acre. Dailies, white clover, &c. &c. now fpring
up in moffes, where their exiftence wras never before
fufpedled ; at the fame time, thiftles and other W'eeds
for fome time infeft the pafture.
“ The better pra&ice is, to take another crop of po¬
tatoes with a little dung and lime, and give it a trench-
delving, to bury the w^eeds and bring up new foil j
after the potatoes, to ftuv barley and grafs feeds.
“ Rye-grafs is univerfally fown here, and it attains
amazing perfeftion upon mofs properly prepared 5 alonv
■with this, white and yellow clover are fometimes fown,
and thrive remarkably well. Red clover has been
tried, but did not fucceed, and is hence diferedited
for mofs-lands : perhaps it may have been unjuftly cen-
fured, becaufe it is certain that the feafons in which
it was tried, proved very unfavourable to red clover in
all parts of the country, moft of it having died during
winter.
“ 5. We have already deferibed the levelling of the
lazy beds. All future delvings of the mofs are per¬
formed from one end of the ridge to the other 5 by this
method the flices that had been cut and turned over in
the firft operation of forming the ridge, are again cut
acrofs, and conftantly reduced into fmaller pieces, till
they moulder into earth.
“ The expence of delving a mofs for the firft time,
where the furface is tolerably fmooth, is per fall,
or il. 13s. per Scots acre 5 but where inequalities
occur, which muft be thrown down by the fpade into
hollows, it cofts about t\. per acre. If there be emi¬
nences, which muft be removed into hollows by wheel¬
barrows running upon boards, the firft expence is great-
Part I. A G R I C U
-Preparation er according to circumftances. The fecond delving,
of Land. where potatoes have not intervened, colts from il. to
-v—- jp pcr gcots acre? the divihon-furrows being at
the fame time cleaned out. "The third delving and
cleaning of the divifion-furrows colts il. per acre 5 but
the mofs is now fo friable, that it may be wrought with
the greatelt eafe and rapidity. At the above rates, an
ordinary workman will earn is. 6d. per day, and an
able and experienced one, from that to 2s. 6d. per day.
They ufe a Itrong fpade, edged with lleel, and have
always a gritftone near them for Iharpening the fpade.
In the evenings they repair its edge upon a grindltone 5
and when the Iteel is worn away, they lay it again
with new Iteel. Sometimes the mofs is fo foft that they
walk upon boards while they are turning it over.
“ Mr Smith has found, by long experience, that
it is improper to make the ridges too high or too nar¬
row : when they are too high, they throw the water
off from their Tides without admitting it to penetrate
their fubftance 5 the top of courfe gets too dry : when
too narrow, there is a lofs of furface from too many di¬
vifion-furrows : the breadth already mentioned is found
Lo. be the bell: and when the improvement is com¬
pleted, the ridges appear like fegments of wdde circles,
with a clean well defined divifion-furrow between each
of them. The moiffure is thus caufed (lowly to filtrate
through the mofs rendered friable by lime until it
reaches the divifion-furrows, and is difcharged. As
the mofs fubfides for fome time, and clofes in torvards
the furrows, it is generally neceffary to clean thefe out
before winter, and at the time the crop is fown, until
the mofs acquire folidity.
“ Some moffes may be ploughed the fecond year to
within two bouts or four flices of the divifion-furrows,
and every operation performed by the force of horfes,
except turning over with the fpade the narrow (tripes
next to the divifion-furrows. In other moffes it re¬
quires three years before this can be done •, and it
feldorn happens but every mofs may be wrought by the
plough after it has been wrought four years by the
fpade. When mofs is wrought by the fpade, it feems
of no confequence whether it be wrought wet or dry \
but when it is wrought by the plough, opportunities
muff be watched, as horfes cannot walk upon it for
fome years during wet weather.
<• 6. With refpcA to the quality of the potatoes thus
produced upon moffes, I do not fcruple to pronounce
It mod excellent. Potatoes have been tried with dung
alone ; but they are always watery, and frequently
hollow or rotten in the heart : thofe raifed upon moffes
that have been well limed, are frequently fo dry and
farinaceous, that it is difficult to boil them without re¬
ducing them to powder \ and they are often obliged to
lift them with fpoons : they come clean out of the
ground ; keep remarkably well in heaps covered with
mofs in the field ; and are remarkably well flavoured.
“ No fuch difeafe as the curl was ever known among
mofs potatoes 5 and, indeed, if Dr Coventry’s opinion
be true, that the curl is caufed by overloading the
fets with too much earth, or from the earth becoming
too hard around them *, no fuch thing can take place
in mofs. But to whatever caufe the curl may be ow¬
ing, it is certainly propagated by difeafed feed ; it
would, therefore, appear advantageous to transfer the
potatoes raifed upon mofs as feed for folid land. They
Von. I. Part I.
L T U R £. 377
have a remarkably good fpecies of potato in this di- Prenaratiow
drift, which was brought from Virginia to Largs.of LantL ,
about eight years ago} and whether it be owing to :in—*'
the beneficial nature of a moffy foil, or to its own in-
trinfic merits, this potato has long been fo much di-
dinguifhed by the good quality and large quantity of
its produce, that it has fuperfeded the ufe of every
other fpecies. There feems to be no occafion for mofs
improvers to change their feed. Some perfons in this
diftrift, who have but fmall patches of mofs, have kept
them condarttly in potatoes more than ten years, with¬
out changing the feed, and without any (enfible dimi¬
nution either in the quantity or quality of the crop.”
4. Of bringing Land into Culture from a State of
Nature.
ipS
To improve a moor, let it be opened, if poffible, in A moor,
winter, when'it is wet, which has one convenience, fi°w to
that the plough cannot be employed in any other ('u tiva c
work. It is always fuppofed, however, that the moif-
ture has been fufficiently removed by draining, to ren¬
der this prafticable. In fpring, after the froft is over,
a (light harrowing will fill up the interftices with
mould, to keep out the air and rot the fod. Thus it
may be differed to lie during the following dimmer
and winter, which will tend more to rot the turf than
if laid open to the air by ploughing. Next April, let
it be crofs-ploughed, braked, and harrowed, till it be
fufficiently pulverized for turnip-feed, to be fown broad-
caff, or in drills, after being manured, and the ma¬
nure mixed with the foil by repeated harrowings.
It fometimes happens, however, that the heath which
grows upon a moorifli foil, is fo ftrong and vigorous as
to be fubdued with great difficulty. It has been
obferved, that after land is drained and the heath burnt
upon the furface, this plant is in time extirpated by
(beep. Thefe animals are extremely fond of the ten¬
der (hoots and flowers of heath, but they will not taffe
it after it runs into feed, unlefs compelled by extreme
hunger. For fubduing it by a fliorter procefs, lime
is the heft remedy, as it feems a mortal enemy to heath.
A ftrong dofe of cauftic lime therefore laid upon the
furface of the land after it is firft ploughed, is attended
with the beft effeft in confirming the roots of heath
and of coarfe graffes, and rendering the foil friable,
Avhich it accompliffies in about fix months. Economy
in the ufe of this ingredient, therefore, at the firft break¬
ing up of moor land, is extremely mifapplied. Ac¬
cordingly fome (kilful farmers lay one dofe of lime
upon the land before it is ploughed, and another after it,
that the furrow dices, being wholly furrounded by it,
may be fooner brought into a friable (late. But, al¬
though a very confiderable dofe of lime is ablolutely
neceffary, when fuch land is newly reduced from a
(late of nature, it ought not to be folely trufted to.
To render the land permanently fertile, it foon becomes
neceflary to aid the foil, by vegetable or putrefeent
manure.
The turnip crop may be confumed upon the ground
by ftieep, which affords an excellent preparation for
laying down the field with grafs feeds ; a point which
every improver ought to have in view, on account of
the command of dung which it gives him. It is even
faid to be an improvement upon this method, to take
two or even three fucceffive ^rops of turnips, all con-
3 B fumed
378
A G R I C U
PrepamiQn fumed in the fame way. No dung will be necelTary for
.01 two laft crops, and the foil will be greatly thick¬
ened and enriched.
Swampy With regard to fwampy lands and a foil covered with
lands, how rulhes, ant hills, and coarfe graffes; after draining, the
to be cuiti- belt procedure which can be adopted, conlifts of par-
vated' ing and burning. When land is pared, a thin fod is
taken elf, either by a paring fpade or paring plough,
over the whole furface. The fods being dried, are
collected into fmall heaps and burned, and the allies
are Mattered over the field. Swampy land that is
overrun with rulhes and coarfe graiTes, and lands that
are covered with heath and other coarfe plants, fuit
belt for paring and burning. In this way thefe coarfe
plants are deltroyed at once, and the land may be
ploughed and cropped immediately, without waiting for
the rotting of the turf, as in the former cafe. It is alfo
faid, that this practice deltroys all Hugs and other ver¬
min that infelt the foil. It is more efpecially va¬
luable in fituations w’here lime and other manures can¬
not be procured. Where lime is to be found in abund¬
ance, however, it might probably be a better praftice,
inltead of burning the turf that has been cut from the
furface of the coarfe land, to colledt it all into heaps
in different parts of the field, and make it up into com¬
port with lime. The whole heaps in fuch cafes ought
to be thoroughly moiilened, and the mafs to be fre¬
quently turned and mixed. In this way, by ufing lime
in place of fire, the whole roots and coarfe herbage would
200 be dertroyed, and reduced at once into a moft valuable
Parris and manure for enriching the foil. In the mean time it is
to be obferved, that paring and burning is fo evidently
ufeful. advantageous to the immediately fucceeding crops,
that it has fometimes been abided by overcropping af¬
ter it, and by extending it, perhaps unneceilarily, to all
foils, upon breaking them up from grafs, though for¬
merly cultivated and in good order: though even
in fiuch cafes it may be found valuable, where lime
cannot eafily be obtained. The following remarks
upon the fubjeft, in the Report of the Agricul¬
ture of the county of Northumberland, by J. Bayley
and G. Culley, are worthy of attention. “ Paring
and burning is not much praflifed in the eaftern and
northern parts of the county : in the middle and fouth-
ern parts it is moil prevalent; but, even there, it is
confined to old fwards, and coarfe, rough, rufihy, and
heathy lands. For the firft breaking up of fuch ground,
it is certainly very convenient, and preferable to any
other mode w7e have ever feen ; but though we are
fully convinced of its beneficial effedfs in fuch fitua¬
tions, yet we have our doubts whether it could be ufed
with advantage upon lands that have lain a few7 years
in grafs, and that would produce good crops of grain
immediately on being ploughed out, which is not the
cafe w’ith coarfe rough heathy lands, or even very old
fwards on rich fertile foils ; it being found that crops
on the latter are frequently very much injured by
leaping for twTo or three years, which paring and burn¬
ing entirely obviate, and enfure full crops to the far¬
mer, who need not be under any apprehenfion of his
foil being ruined by it, provided he purfue the follow¬
ing courfe: I. Turnips j 2. Oats y 3. Fallow7 well limed
for turnips ^ 4. Barley fown up with clover and grafs
feeds, and departured with flieep for three or four
years. It is the injudiciaus cropping, more than the
LI U R E. Pra&iee*
ill efie&s derived from paring and burning, that hasPreparaticn
been the chief caufe of bringing fuch an odium on this of Land,
pradlice, which is certainly an excellent one in feme v——v—
fituations, and when properly conduced j but, like the
fermented juice of the grape, may be too often repeated
and improperly applied.
“ The popular clamour againft this pra&ice, “ that
it deftroys the foil,” we can by no means admit; and
are inclined to believe, that not a fingle atom of foil
is abftrafted, though the bulk of the fod or turf be
diminifhed. 1 his arifes from the burning of the roots
or vegetable fijbftances, which, by this procefs, afford a
conhderable portion of alkaline falls, phlogirtic or car¬
bonic matter, and probably other principles friendly
to vegetation j as we find thofe allies produce abundant
crops of turnips, which fatten flock much quicker
than thofe after any other drefling or manure we have
ever feen j and the fucceeding crops of corn are fo
very luxuriant as to tempt the injudicious cultivator to
purfue it too far j who, for the fake of a temporary
gain, may be laid to rip it up, as the boy did hij
goole that laid golden eggs.”
But where the ground is dry, and the foil fo thin as
that the furface cannot be pared, the beft way of bring¬
ing it into tilth from the ftate of nature, as mentioned
above, is to plough it with a feathered fock, laying the-
graffy furface under. After the new furface is mel¬
lowed with froft, fill up all the Teams by harrowing
crofs the field, which by excluding the air will effec¬
tually rot the fod. In this ftate let it lie fummer and
winter. In the beginning of May after, a crofs
ploughing will reduce all to fmall fquare pieces, which
muft be pulverized with the brake, and make it ready
for a May or June crop. If thefe fquare pieces be al¬
lowed to lie long in the fap without breaking, they
will become tough, and not be eafiiy reduced.
5. Forming Ridges.
20 r
The firft thing that occurs on this head, is to con-Of ridgea,
fider what grounds ought to be formed into ridges, and
what ought to be tilled with a flat furface. Dry foils,
which fuffer by lack of moiflure, ought to be tilled fiat,
which tends to retain moifture. And the method for
fuch tilling, is to go round and round from the cir¬
cumference to the centre, or from the centre to the
circumference. This method is advantageous in point
of expedition, as the whole is finifhed without once
turning the plough. At the fame time, every inch of
the foil is moved, inftead of leaving either the crown
or the furrow unmoved, as is commonly done in tilling
ridges. Clay foil, which fuffers by water Handing on
it, ought to be laid as dry as poflille by proper ridges.
A loamy foil is the middle between the two mentioned.
It ought to be tilled flat in a dry country, efpecially
if it incline to the foil firft mentioned. In a moift
country, it ought to be formed into ridges, high or
low7 according to the degree of moifture and tendency
to clay.
In grounds that require ridging, an error prevails,
that ridges cannot be raifed too high, Fligh ridges
labour under feveral difadvantages. The foil is heap¬
ed upon the crown, leaving the furrows bare : the
crown is too dry, and the furrows too wet : the crop,
which is always beft on the crown, is more readily fha-
ken with the wind; than where the whole crop is of an
Part I. AGRICULTURE.
preparation equal height: the half of the ridge is often covered to be concluded in one fummer.
of Land, from the fun, a difadvantage which is far from being
flight in a cold climate. High ridges labour under
another difadvantage, in groufid that has no more level
than barely fufficient to carry off water : they link the
furrows below the level of the ground j and confe-
quently retain water at the end of every ridge. The
furrows ought never to be funk below the level of the
ground. Water will more effectually be carried off
by leffening the ridges both in height and breadth : a
narrow ridge, the crown of which is but 18 inches
higher than the furrow, has a greater flope than a very
broad ridge where the difference is three or four feet.
Next, of forming ridges where the ground hangs
' conliderably. Ridges may be too fteep as well as too
horizontal: and if to the ridges be given all the fteep-
nefs of a field, a heavy flio-wer may do irreparable mif-
chief. To prevent fuch mifchief, the ridges ought to
be fo direCted crofs the field, as to have a gentle Hope
for carrying off water flowly, and ho more. In that
refpeCt, a hanging field has greatly the advantage of
one that is nearly horizontal j becaufe, in the latter,
there is no opportunity of a choice in forming the
ridges. A hill is of all the belt adapted for directing
the ridges properly. If the foil be gravelly, it may be
ploughed round and round, beginning at the bottom
and afcending gradually to the top in a fpiral line.
This method of ploughing a hill requires no more
force than ploughing on a level ^ and at the fame time
removes the great inconvenience of a gravelly hill, that
fains go off too quickly 5 for the rain is retained in
every furrow. If the foil be fuch as to require ridges,
they may be direCted to any flope that is proper.
In order to form a field into ridges that has not been
formerly cultivated, the rules mentioned are eafily put
in execution. But what if ridges be already formed,
that are either crooked or too high ? After feeing the
advantage of forming a field into ridges, people were
naturally led into an error, that the higher the better.
But what could tempt them to make their ridges
crooked ? Certainly this method did not originate
from defign j but from the lazinefs of the driver fuf-
fering the cattle to turn too haftily, inffead of making
them finifh the ridge without turning. There is more
than one difadvantage in this flovenly pfaftice. Firft,
the water is kept in by the curve at the end of every
ridge, and fours the ground. Next, as a plough has
the lead friCHon poflible in a ftraight line, the friClion
muff be increafed in a curve, the back part of the
mouldboard prefling hard on the one hand, and the
coulter prefling hard on the other. In the third place,
the plough moving in a ftraight line, has the greateft
command in laying the earth over. But where the
•ftraight line of the plough is applied to the curvathre
of a ridge in order to heighten it by gathering, the
fcarth moved by the plough is continually falling back,
in fpite of the molt Ikilful ploughman.
The inconveniences of ridges high and crooked are
fo many, that one would be tempted to apply a reme¬
dy at any rilk. And yet, if the foil be clay, it wrould
not be advifable for a tenant to apply the remedy upon
a leafe fhorter than tw^o nineteen years. In a dry gra¬
velly foil, the wrork is not difficult nor hazardous.
When the ridges are cleaved two or three years fuc-
'Ceflively in the courfe of cropping, the operation ought
379
The earth, by feite-Ptepamioti
rated ploughings, flrould be accumulated upon the fur- ofrLan«L
rows, fo as to raife them higher than the crowms : they ' ' ~v
cannot be raifed too high, for the accumulated earth
will fubfide by its own weight. Crofs ploughing once
or twice, will reduce the ground to a flat furface, and
give opportunity to form ridges at will. The fame
method brings down ridges in clay foil: only let care
be taken to carry on the work with expedition •, be¬
caufe a hearty (hower, before the new ridges are form¬
ed, would foak the ground in water, and make the far-,
mer fufpend his wrork for the retnainder of that year at
leaft. In a ftrorig clay, we would not venture to alter
the ridges, unlefs it can be done to perfection in one * E([ays
feafon. On this fubjeCt Mr Anderfon has the follow- A£r!Culture>
ing obfervations *. ^ . v0‘-,'oPJ 4
“ The difficulty of performing this operation pro-Inconveni-
perly with the common implements of hufbandry, andences in the
the obvious benefit that accrues to the farmer from ha- ^
ving his fields level, has oroduced many new inventions ievening,
of ploughs, harrows, drags, &c. calculated for fpeedily
reducing the fields to that ftate ; none of which have
as yet been found fully to anfwer the purpofe fcr
w’hich they wrere intended, as they all indifcriminately
carry the earth that w^as on the high places into thofe
that were lowrer j which, although it may in feme ca¬
fes render the furface of the ground tolerably fmooth
and level, is ufually attended with inconveniences far
greater, for a confiderable length of time, than that
■Which it was intended to remove; 203
“ For experience fufficiently fhows, that even the VeRtta,),e
beft vegetable mould, if buried for any length of timemoul^.'je“,
fo far beneath the furface as to be deprived of the be- hylbeing61
nign influences of the atmofphere., lofes its vis vita’, if long bulled*
I may be allowed that expreflion j becomes an inert,
lifelefs mafs, little fitted for nourifliing vegetables 5 and
conftitutes a foil very improper for the purpofes of the
farmer. It therefore behoves him, as much as in him
lies, to preferve, on every part of his fields, an equal
covering of that vegetable mould that has long been
uppermoft, and rendered fertile by the meliorating in¬
fluence of the atmofphere. But, if he fuddenly levels
his high ridges by any of thefe mechanical contrivan¬
ces, he of neceffity buries all the good mould that was
on the top of the ridges in the old furrows •, by which
he greatly impoverifhes one part of his field, while he
too much enriches another j infomuch that it is a mat¬
ter of great difficulty, for many years thereafter, to get
the field brought to an equal degree of fertility in dif¬
ferent places ; which makes it impoffible for the far¬
mer to get an equal crop over the whole of his field by
any management whatever : and he has the mortifica¬
tion frequently, by this means, to fee the one half of
his crop rotted by an over-luxuriance, while other parts
of it are weak and fickly, or one part ripe and ready
for reaping, vffiile the other is not properly filled j fo
that it were, on many occafions, better for him to have
his whole field reduced at once to the fame degreeypf
poornefs as the pooreft of it, than have it in this ftate.
An almoft impra&icable degree of attention in fpread-
ing the manures may indeed in fome meafure get the
better of this : but it is fo difficult to perform this pro¬
perly, that I have frequently feen fields that had been
thus levelled, in which, after thirty years of continued
culture and repeated dreffings, the marks of the old
3 B 2 ridges
3§o A G R I G U
Preparation ridges could be diftinftly traced when the corn was
^ of Land. ^ gr0wing? although the furface was fo level that no
v * traces of them could be perceived when the com was
off the ground.
“ But this is a degree of perfection in levelling that
cannot be ufually attained by following this mode of
praCtice ; and, therefore, is but feldom feen. For all
that can be expeCted to be done by any levelling ma¬
chine, is to render the furface perfectly fmooth and
even in every part, at the time that the operation is
performed : but as, in this cafe, the eld hollows are
fuddenly filled up with loofe mould to a great depth,
while the earth below the furface upon the heights of
the old ridges remains firm and compaft, the new raifed
earth after a fhort time fubfides very much, while the
other parts of the field do not fink at all j fo that in
a ftiort time the old furrows come to be again below
the level of the other parts of the field, and the water,
of courfe is fuffered in fome degree to ftagnate upon
them $ infomuch that, in a few years, it becomes ne-
ceffary once more to repeat the fame levelling procefs,
and thus renew the damage that the farmer fuftains by
304 this pernicious operation.
iLeveliino' “ On thefe accounts, if the farmer has not a long
fometimes leafe, it will be found in general to be much his intereft
»ot to be t0 ieave the ridges as he found them, rather than to
a .emp e . attempt to alter their direClion •, and, if he attends with
due caution to moderate the height of thefe old ridges,
he may reap very good crops, although perhaps at a
fomewhat greater expence of labour than he would
have been put to upon the fame field, if it had been re¬
duced to a proper level furface, and divided into ftraight
and parallel ridges.
“ But, where a man is fecure of poffefling his ground
for any confiderable length of time, the advantages
that he wall reap from having level and well laid out
fields, are fo confiderable as to be worth purchafing, if
it Ihould even be at a confiderable expence. But the
lofs that is fuftained at the beginning, by this mecha¬
nical mode of levelling ridges, if they are of confider¬
able height, is fo very great, that it is perhaps doubt¬
ful if any future advantages can ever fully compenfate
it. I would therefore advife, that all this levelling
apparatus fhould be laid afide ; and the following more
eificacious practice be fubftituted in its ftead : A prac¬
tice that I have long followed with fuccefs, and can
fafely recommend as the very bell that has yet come to
my knowledge.
Be a men- “ If the ridges have been raifed to a very great
tliod of height, as a preparation for the enfuing operations,
levelling, they may be firft cloven, or fcalded out, as it is called
in different places •, that is, ploughed fo as to lay the
earth on each ridge from the middle towards the fur¬
rows. But if they are only of a moderate degree of
height, this operation may be omitted. When you
mean to proceed to level the ground, let a number of
men be colie ft ed, with fpades, more or fewer as the
nature of the ground requires, and then fet a plough
to draw a furrow direftly acrofs the ridges of the wdrole
field intended to be levelled. Divide this line into as
many parts as you have labourers, allotting to each
one ridge or two, or more or lefs, according to their
number, height, and other circumftances. Let each
of the labourers have orders, as foon as the plough has
paffed that part affigned him, to begin to dig in. the
L T U R E. Practice.
bottom of the furrowr that the plough has juft made, Preparation
about the middle of the fide of the old ridge, keeping _ of LancI- ^
his face towards the old furrow, working backwards
till he comes to the height of the ridge ; and then turn
towards the other furrow, and repeat the fame on the
other fide of the ridge, always throwing the earth that
he digs up into the deep old furrow between the ridges,
that is direftly before him j taking care not to dig
deep wftiere he firft begins, but to go deeper and deeper
as he advances to the height of the ridge, fo as to leave
the bottom of the trench he thus makes acrofs the
ridge entirely level, or as nearly fo as poflible. And
when he has finiftied that part of the furrow allotted to
him that the plough has made in going, let him then
go and finifti in the fame manner his own portion of
the furrow that the plough makes in returning. In this-
manner, each man performs his own talk through the
wiiole field, gradually railing the old furrows as the
old heights are depreffed. And, if an attentive over-
feer is at hand, to fee that the whole is equally well
done, and that each furrow is raifed to a greater height
than the middle of the old ridges, fo as to allow for the
fubfiding of that loofe earth, the operation will be en¬
tirely finilhed at once, and never again need to be re¬
peated.
“ In performing tbis operation, it will ahvays be
proper to make the ridges, formed for the purpofe of
levelling, which go acrofs the old ridges, as broad as
poflible j becaufe the deep trench that is thus made in
each of the furrows are an impediment in the future
operations, as well as the height that is accumulated
in the middle of each of thefe ridges •, fo that the fewer
there are of thefe, the better it is. The farmer, there¬
fore, will do W'dl tcy advert to this in time, and begin
by forming a ridge by always turning the plough to
the right hand, till it becomes of fuch a breadth as
makes it very inconvenient to turn longer in that man¬
ner ; and then, at the diftance of twfice the breadth of
this new'-formed ridge from the middle of it, mark off
a furrow for the middle of another ridge, turning
round it to the right hand, in the fame manner as w’as
done in the former, till it becomes of the fame breadth
with it; and then, turning to the left hand, plough
out the interval that was left betwxen the two new-
formed ridges. By this mode of ploughing, each ridge
may be made of 40, 50, or 60 yards in breadth, with¬
out any great inconvenience j for although fome^ time
will be loft in turning at the ends of thefe broad ridges,
yet as this operation is only to be once performed^ in
this manner, the advantage that is reaped by having
few open furrows, is more than fufficient to counter¬
balance it. And, in order to moderate the height
that would be formed in the middle of each of thefe
great ridges, it will always be proper to mark out the
ridges, and draw the furrow that is to be the middle of
each, fome days before you colleft your labourers to
level the field j that you may, without any hurry or
lofs of labour, clear out a good trench through the
middle of each of the old ridges j as the plough, at this
time, going and returning nearly in the fame track, pre¬
vents the labourers from working properly without this
precaution,
“ If thefe rules are attended to, your field will be at
once reduced to a proper level, and the rich earth that
formed the furface of the: old ridges be ftill kept upon
the
Parti. AGRICULTURE. 381
Preparation the furface of your field j fb that the only lofs that the
_ of Land. . p0flfe{yor Qf fuch ground can fuftain by this operation,
* is merely the expence of performing it.”
He afterwards makes a calculation of the different
expences of levelling by the plough and by the fpade,
in which he finds the latter by far the cheapeit me-
2o(S thod.
Proper di- Let it be a rule to dire£l the ridges north and fouth,
°f ^ t^le ground will permit. In this diredlion, the eait
e n ges. an{j we^ t}le dividing the fun equally
20^ between them, will ripen at the fame time.
Narrow It is a great advantage in agriculture, to form ridges
ridges an f0 narrow, and fo low, as to admit the crowns and fur-
a vantage. rows t0 be changed alternately every crop. The foil
neareft the furface is the beft ; and by fuch ploughing,
it is always kept near the furface, and never buried.
In high ridges, the foil is accumulated at the crown
and the furrows left bare. Such alteration of crown
and furrow is eafy where the ridges are no more but
leven or eight feet broad. This mode of ploughing
anfwers perfe&ly well in fandy and gravelly foils, and
even in loam j but it is not fafe in clay foil. In that
foil, the ridges ought to be 12 feet wide, and 20 inches
high j to be preferved always in the fame form by cart¬
ing, that is, by ploughing two ridges together, be¬
ginning at the furrow that ieparates them, and plough¬
ing round and round till the two ridges be finifhed.
By this method, the feparating furrow is raifed a little
higher than the furrows that bound the two ridges.
But at the next ploughing, that inequality is corredled,
by beginning at the bounding furrows, and going round
and round till the ploughing of the two ridges be com¬
pleted at the feparating furrow.
6. Clearing Ground of Weeds.
208
Cleaning For this purpofe a new inftrument, termed & cleaning
harrow. harrow, has been introduced by Lord Kames, and is
g at£ ‘ ftrongly recommended (e). It is one entire piece
like the firft of thole mentioned above, confifting of
feven bulls, four feet long each, two and one-fourth
inches broad, two and three-fourths deep. The bulls
are united together by ftieths, limilar to what are men¬
tioned above. The intervals between the bulls being
three and three-fourths inches, the breadth of the whole
harrow is three feet five inches. In each bull are in-
ferted eight teeth, each nine inches free below the
wood, and diftant from each other fix inches. The
weight of each tooth is a pound, or near it. The
whole is firmly bound by an iron plate from corner to
corner in the line of thfe draught. The reft as in the
harrows mentioned above. The fize, however, is not
invariable. The cleaning harrow ought to be larger
or lefs according as the foil is ftiff or free.
To give this inftrument its full effeft, ftones of fuch
a fize as not to pafs freely between the teeth ought to
be carried off, and clods of that fize ought to be bro¬
ken. The ground ought to be dry,, which it commonly
is in the month of May.
In preparing for barley, turnip, or other fummer-
©rop, begin with ploughing and crofs ploughing. If
the ground-be not fufficiently pulverized, let the great
brake be applied, to be followed fucceflively with the Preparation
ift and 2d harrows. In ftiff foil, rolling may be pro- _ oi Land-1
per, ©nee of twice between the a£ts. Thefe operations
will loofen every root, and bring fome of them to the ^ ^ s
furface. This is the time for the 3d harrow, conduced ’
by a boy mounted on one of the horfes, who trots ^ 5'
fmartly along the field, and brings all the roots to the
furface : there they are to lie for a day or two, till
perfe&ly dry. If any ftones or clods remain, they
muft be carried off in a cart. And now fucceeds the
operation of the cleaning harrow. It is drawn by a
fingle horfe, directed by reins, which the man at the
oppofite corner puts over his head, in order to have
both hands free. In this corner is fixed a rope, with
which the man from time to time raifes the harrow
from the ground, to let the w’eeds drop. For the fake
of expedition, the weeds ought to be dropt in a ftraight
line crofs the field, whether the hayow be full or
not} and feldom is a field fo dirty, but that the har¬
row may go 30 yards before the teeth are filled. The
weeds will be thus laid in parallel rows, like thofe of
hay raked together for drying. A harrow may be
drawn fwiftly along the rows, in order to ftiake out
all the duft ; and then the weeds may be carried clean
oft’ the field in carts. But we are not yet done with
thefe weeds : inftead of burning, which is the ordinary
praftice, they may be converted into ufeful manure,
by laying them in a heap with a mixture of hot dung
to begin, fermentation. At firft view, this way of
cleaning land wall appear operofe \ but, upon trial,
neither the labour nor expence will be found immode¬
rate. At any rate, the labour and expence ought
not lo be grudged j for if a field be- once thoroughly
cleaned, the fealbns muft be very crofs, or the farmer
very indolent, to make it neceffary to renew the ope¬
ration in lefs than 20 years. In the worft feafons, a
few years pafture is always under command ; which.
effe&ually deftroys triennial plants, fuch as thirties and
couch grafs.
7. On the Nature of different.Kinds of Soils, and'
the Plants proper to each.
r. Clay, which is in general the ftiffeft of all foils, ciayfoTu
and contains an unctuous quality. But under the
term clays, earths of different forts and colours are
included. One kind is fo obftinate, that fcarcely any
thing will fubdue it j another is fo hungry and poor,
that it abforbs whatever is applied, and turns it into
its own quality. Some clays are fatter than others,
and the fatteft are the beft > fome are more foft and
flippery. But all of them retain water poured on
their furface, where it ftagnates, and chills the plants, .
without finking into the foil. The clofenefs of clay
prevents the roots and fibres of plants from fpreading
in fearch of nouriftiment. The blue, the red, and the
white clay, if ftrong,. are unfavourable to vegetationi
The ftony and loofer forts are lefs fo j but none of
them are wrOrth any thing till their texture is fo loofen-
ed by a mixture of other fubftances, and opened, as to
admit the influence of the fun, the air, and frofts. A-
mong the manures recommended, for clay, fand is of
all
00 his Gentleman Farmer ; to which performance the practical part of this article is materially indebted*
A C R I C
Prep:irati°n all others to he preferred ; and fea fand Is the heft of all
. . JM( \ ^'here it can be obtained : This moll exFedtually breaks
the cohefion.
The reafon for preferring fea fand is, that it is not
formed wholly (as moll other fands are) of fmall Hones;
but contains a great deal of calcareous matter in it,
fuch as ihells grated and broken to pieces by the tide,
and alio of falts. The fmaller the fand is, the more
eafily it penetrates the clay ; but it abides lefs time in
it than the larger.
1 he next beft fand is that walked down by rains on
gravelly foils. i hofe which are dry and light are the
word. Small gritty gravel has alfo been recommend¬
ed by the bell writers on agriculture for thefe foils 5
and in many inltances we have found it to anfwer the
purpofe.
Shell marl, allies, and all animal and vegetable fub-
llances, are very good manures for clay j but they have
been lound molt beneficial when fand is mixed with
them. Lime has been often ufed j but the writer of
this feflion would not recommend it, for he never
found any advantage from it fingly, when applied to
edavs.
The crops moll fuitable for fuch lands are, wheat,
beans, cabbages, and rye-grafs. Clover feldom fuc-
ceeds, nor indeed any plants whofe roots require depth
210 and a widq fpread in the earth.
Chalky foil. 2. Chalk. Chalky foils are generally dry and warm,
and if there be a tolerable depth ox mould, fruitful j
producing great crops of barley, rye, peafe, vetches,
clover, trefoil, burnet, and particularly fainfoin. The
latter plant Houriihes in a chalky foil better than any
other. But if the lurface of mould be very thin, this
foil requires good manuring with clay, marl, loam, or
dung. As thefe lands are dry, they may be fown ear¬
lier than others.
When your barley is three inches high, throw In
iclb. of clover, or xylb. of trefoil, and roll it well.
The next fummer mow the crop for hay ; feed off the
aftermath with fheep ; and in winter give it a top-dref-
fing of dung. This will produce a crop the fecond
fpring, which fhould be cut for hay. As foon as this
crop is carried off, plough up the land, and in the be¬
ginning of September fow three bulhels of rye per
acre, either to feed off with iheep in the fpring or to
ftand for harvell. If you feed it off, low winter vetches
in Augud or September, and make them into hay the
following fummer. Then get the land into as fine tilth
as poflible, and fow it with fainfoin, which, with a
little manure once in two or three years, will remain
2x1 and produce good crops for 20 years together.
Lisjht poor 3. Light poor land, which feldom produces good
1011, crops of any thing till well manured. After it is well
ploughed, fow three bufiiels of buck-wheat per acre,
in April or IVIay : When in bloom, let your cattle in
a few days to eat off the bell, and tread the other
down ; this done, plough in what remains immediate¬
ly. This will foon ferment and rot in the ground j
then lay it fine, and fow three bulhels of rye per acre,
if this can be got off early enough, fow turnips j if
not, winter vetches to cut for hay. Then get it into
good tilth, and fow turnip-rooted cabbages, in rows
three feet apart. This plant feldom fails, if it has
fuihcient room, and the intervals be wTeil horfe-hoed^
3
U L T U R E,
Pradticef
and you will find it the bell fpring feed for flxeep when Preparation
turnips are over. of Land.
The horfe-hoeing will clean and prepare the land
for fainfoin j for the fowing of w hich April is
reckoned the beft feafon. The ufual way is to fow
it broad-caft, four bufhels to an acre •, but the writer
prefers fowing it in drills two feet afunder; for then
it may be horfe-hoed, and half the feed will be fuffi-
cient.
The horfe-hoeing will not only clean the crop, but
earth up the plants, and render them more luxuriant
and lafting.
If you fow it broad-caft, give it a top-dreflmg in
December or January, of rotten dung or afhes, or,
wkich is ftill better, of both mixed up in compoft.
From various trials, it is found that taking only
one crop in a year, and feeding the after-growth, is
better than to mow' it twice. Cut it as 1'oon as it is in
full bloom, if the weather wall permit. The hay will
be the fweeter, and the ftrength of the plants lefs im¬
paired, than if it ftand till the feed is formed.
4. Light rich land, being the moft eafy to cultivate LAn ruir
to advantage, and capable of bearing moft kinds of land,
graih, pulfe, and herbage, little need be faid upon it.
One thing however is very proper to be obferved, that
fuch lands are the beft adapted to the drill hufhandry,
efpecially w here machines are ufed, which require {hal¬
low furrows to be made for the reception of the feed.
This, if not prone to couch grafs, is the beft of all foils
for lucerne ; w hich, if fown in two feet drills, and kept
clean, will yield an aftonifhing quantity of the moft ex¬
cellent herbage. But lucerne will never be cultivated
to advantage where couch grafs and weeds are very
plentiful ; nor in the broad-caft method, even where
they are not fo $ becaufe horfe-hoeing is effential to
the vigorous growrth of this plant.
5. Coarfe rough land. Plough deep in autumn ^CoarIeJ
when it has lain two weeks, crofs-plough it, and let it rough land.'
lie rough through the winter. In March give it ano¬
ther good ploughing ; drag, rake, and harrow? it well,
to get out the rubbifh, and fow four bulhels of black
oats per acre if the foil be wet, and white oats if dry.
When about four inches high, roll them well after a
fhowxr : This will break the clods 5 and the fine mould
falling among the roots of the plants will promote their
growth greatly.
Some fowr clover and rye-grafs among the oats, but
this appears to be bad hufbandry. If you defign it
for clover, fow it fingle, and let a coat of dung be laid
on in December. The fnow and rain will then dilute
its falts and oil, and carry them down among the roots
of the plants. 'Phis is far better than mixing the
crops on fuch land, for the oats wall exhauft the foil
fo much that the clover will be impoveriflied. The fol-
lowung fummer you wall have a good crop of clover j
which cut once, and feed the after-growth. In the
wanter plough it in, and let it lie till February : I hen
plough and harrow it well; and in March, if the foil
be moift, plant beans in drills of three feet, to admit
the horfe-hoe freely. When you horfe-hoe them a fe
cond time, fow a row of turnips in each interval, and
they wall fucceed very well. But if the land be ftrong
enough for fowing wheat as foon as the beans are off,
the turnips may be omitted.
Sect. HL
Part I. A G R I G
Culture of
Pr£*r Sect‘ HL Culture °f particular Plants.
Th e aiticles hitherto infifted on, are all of them
preparatory to the capital objett of a farm, that of
railing plants for the nourilhment of man and of
other animals. Thefe are of two kinds j culmiferous
and leguminous; differing widely from each other.
"Wheat, rye, barley, oats, rye-grafs, are of the firft
kind : of the other kind are, peafe, beans, clover, cab-
114 kage> and many others.
Culmife- Culmiferous plants, fays Bonnet, have three fets of
reus plants, roots. The firft iffue from the feed, and pulh to the
furface an upright ftem ; another let iffue from a knot
in that ftem ; and a third from another knot, nearer
the furface. Hence the advantage of laying feed fo
2I^ deep in the ground as to afford fpace for all the fets.
Eegumi- Leguminous plants form their roots differently,
nous plants. Peafe, beans", cabbage, have ftore of fmall roots, all
iffuing from the feed, like the undermoft fet of culmi¬
ferous roots j and they have no other roots. A potato
and a turnip have bulbous roots. Red clover has a
ftrong tap-root. The difference between culmiferous
and leguminous plants with refpeft to the effedts they
produce in the foil, will be infilled on afterward, in
the feclion concerning rotation o»f crops. As the pre-
fent fedlion is confined to the propagation of plants,
it falls naturally to be divided into three articles ; firft,
Plants cultivated for fruit j fecond, Plants cultivated
for roots } third, Plants cultivated for leaves.
I. Plants Cultivated for Fruit,
i. Wheat and Rye.
Fallowing Any time from the middle of April to the middle of
for wheat. May, the fallowing for wheat may commence. The
moment Ihould be chofen, when the ground, beginning
to dry, has yet fome remaining foftnefs : in that con¬
dition, the foil divides ealily by the plough, and falls
into fmall parts. This is an effential article, deferving
the ftridleft attention of the farmer. Ground plough¬
ed too wet, rifes, as we fay, whole-fur, as when pafture-
ground is ploughed: where ploughed too dry, it rifes
in great lumps, which are not reduced by fubfequent
ploughings; not to mention, that it requires double
force to plough ground too dry, and that the plough is
often broken to pieces. When the ground is in proper
order, the farmer can have no excufe for delaying a
fingle minute. This firft courfe of fallow muft, it is
true, yield to the barley-feed \ but as the barley-feed
is commonly over the firft week of May, or fooner, the
feafon muft be unfavourable if the fallow cannot be
reached by the middle of May.
As clay foil reaprres high ridges, thefe ought to be
cleaved at the firlt ploughing, beginning at the furrow,
and ending at the crown. This ploughing ought to
be as deep as the foil will admit: and water-furrowing
ought inftantly to follow ; for if rain happen before
water-furrowing, it ftagnates in the furrow, neceffarily
delays the fecond ploughing till that part of the ridge
be dry, and prevents the furrow from being mellowed
and roafted by the fun. If this firft ploughing be well
executed, annual weeds will rife in plenty.
About the firft week of June, the great brake will
loofen and reduce the foil, encourage a fecond crop of
II L T U R E. 383
annuals, and raife to the furface the roots of weeds Culture of
moved by the plough. Give the weeds time to fpring, Ppjt^ar
which may be in two or three weeks. Then proceed , ia” s' .
to the fecond ploughing about the beginning of July \
which muft be crofs the ridges, in order to reach all
the flips of the former ploughing. By crofs-ploughing
the furro-ws will be filled up, and water-furrowing be
ftill more neceffary than before. Employ the brake
again about the 10th of Auguft, to deftroy the annuals
.that have fprung fince the laft ftirring. The deftruc-
tion of weeds is a capital article in fallowing : yet fo
blind are people to their intereft, that nothing is more
common than a fallow field covered with charlock and
wildmuftard, all in flower, and 10 or 12 inches high.
The field having now received two harrowings and
two brakings is prepared for manure, whether lime
or dung, which without delay ought to be incorpora¬
ted with the foil by a repeated harrowing and a gather¬
ing furrow. This ought to be about the beginning of
September, and as foon after as you pleafe the feed
may be fown.
As in ploughing a clay foil it is of importance to
prevent poaching, the hinting furrows ought to be
done with two horfes in a line. If four ploughs be
employed in the fame field, to one of them may be
allotted the care of finiftiing the hinting furrows. 2I^
Loam, being a medium between fand and clay, is Dreffing-
of all foils the fitteft for culture, and the leaft fubjeftloam for
to chances. It does not hold water like clay •, andw*ieat*
when wet, it dries fooner. At the fame time, it is
more retentive than fand of that degree of moifture
which, promotes vegetation. On the other hand, it is
more fubjecft to couch-grafs than clay, and to other
weeds ; to deftroy which, fallowing is ftill more necef¬
fary than in clay.
Beginning the fallow about the firft of May, or as
• foon as barley feed is over, take as deep a furrow as
the foil will admit. Where the ridges are fo low and
narrow as that the crown and furrow can be changed
alternately, there is little or no occafion for water¬
furrowing. Where the ridges are fo high as to make
it proper to cleave them, water-furrowing is proper;
The fecond ploughing may be at the diftance of five
weeks. Two crops of annuals may be got in the in¬
terim, the firft by the brake and the next by the har¬
row and by the fame means eight crops may be got
in the feafon. The ground muft be cleared of couch
grafs and knot grafs roots, by the cleaning harrow de-
Icribed above. The time for this operation is imme¬
diately before the manure is laid on. The ground at
that time being in its loofeft ftate, parts with its grafs
roots more freely than at any other time. After the
manure is fpread, and incorporated with the foil by
braking or harrowing, the feed may be fown under
furrow, if the ground hang fo as eafily to carry off
the moifture. To leave it rough without harrowing
has two advantages : it is not apt to cake with moi¬
fture, and the inequalities make a fort of (belter to the
young plants againft froft. But if it lie flat, it ought to
be fmoothed with a (light harrow after the feed is fown,
which will facilitate the courfe of the; rain from the
crown to the furrow. 2i8'
A fandy foil is too loofe for wheat. The only chance Dreffing a-
for a crop is after red clover, the roots of which bind
the foil j and the- inffrudions above given for loam are
applicable
3'54
Culture of applicable Here.
particular
Plants.
A G R 1 C U
Rye is a crop much fitter for Tandy
L T u R E.
219
Time for
fowing.
220
Setting of
wheat,
221
■a capital
improve¬
ment in a-
griculture.
222
Tfethod.
foil than wheat; and like wheat, it is generally fown
after a fummer fallow.
Laftly, Sow wheat as foon in the month of Odlober
as the ground is ready. When fown a month more
early, it is too forward in the fpring and apt to be
hurt by froft : when fown a month later, it has not
time to root before froft: corties on; and froft fpews it out
of the ground.
Setting of wheat, a method which by fome is reckon¬
ed one of the greateft improvements in hufbandry that
has taken place this century. It feems to have been
firft fuggefted by planting grains in a garden from mere
curiofity, by perfons who had no thought or opportunity
of extending it to a lucrative pufpofe. Nor was it
attempted on a larger fcale, till a little farmer near
Norwich began it, about 25 years lince, upon lefs than
an acre of land. For two or three years only a few
followed his example ; and thefe were generally the
butt of their neighbours merriment for adopting fo
Angular a pradlice. They had, however, confiderably
better corn and larger crops than their neighbours :
this, together with the faving in feed, engaged more
to follow them : while fome ingenious perfons, ob-
ferving its great advantage, recommended and pub-
lilhed its utility in the Norwich papers. Thefe re¬
commendations had their effedl. The curiofity and
inquiry of the Norfolk farmers (particularly round
Norwich) were excited, and they found fufficient rea-
fon to make general experiments. Among the reft was
one of the largeft occupiers of lands in that county,
who fet 57 acres in one year. His fuccefs, from the
vifible fuperiority of his crop, both in quantity and
quality, was fo great, that the following autumn he ‘
fet 300 acres, and has continued the pra&ice ever
fince. This noble experiment eftablifhed the pradlice,
and was the means of introducing it generally among
the intelligent farmers in a very large dirt rift of land 5
there being few who now fow any wheat, if they can
procure hands to fet it. It has been generally obfer-
ved, that although the fet crops appear Very thin du¬
ring the autumn and winter, the plants fide-lhoot and
fpread prodigiouily in the fpring. The ears are indif-
putably larger, without any dwarfiih or fmall corn •
the grain is of a larger bulk, and fpeeifically heavier
per bulhel than when fown.
The lands on which this method is particularly pro-
fperous, are either after a clover ftubble, or on which
trefoil and grafs feed were fown the fpring before the
laft. Thefe grounds, after the ufual manuring, are
once turned over by the plough in an extended flag or
turf, at ten inches wide ; along which a man, who is
called a dibbler, with two fetting irons, fomewhat big¬
ger than ramrods, but confiderably bigger at the lower
end, and pointed at the extremity, fteps backwards
along the turf, and makes the holes about four inches
afunder every way, and an inch deep. Into thefe holes
the droppers (women, boys, and girls) drop two grains,
•which is quite fufficient. After this, a gate bullied
with thorns is drarvn by one horfe over the laird, and
clofes up the holes. By this mode, three pecks of
grain is fufficient for an acre *, and being immediately
buried, it is equally removed from vermin or the power
of froft. The regularity of its riling gives the bell
1
Sir I ho- Peculiar
Practice..
opportunity of keeping it clear from weeds, by weed- Culture of
ing or hand-hoeing. particular
Wheat-fetting is a method peculiarly beneficial when . ■plants"
corn is dear; and, if the feafon be favourable, may be
praftifed with great benefit to the farmer. Sir T
mas Beevor of Hethel-Hall in Norfolk, found the advantages,
produce to be two bufhels per acre more than from the
wheat which is fown ; but having much lefs fmall corn-
intermixed with it, the fample is better, and always
letches a higher price, to the amount generally «f two
fhillings per quarter.
This method, too, faves to the farmer and to the
public fix pecks of leed wheat in every acre \ which, if
nationally adopted, would of itfelf afford bread for
more than half a million of people.
Add to thefe confiderations, the great fupport given
to the poor by thisharveft, as it may be called,
which enables them to difcharge their rents and main¬
tain their families without having recourfe to the pa-
rilh.-—The expence of fetting by hand is now reduced
to about fix Ihillings per acre ; which, in good wea¬
ther, may be done by one dibbler, attended by three
droppers, in two days. This is five {hillings per day ;
of which if the dibbler gives to the children fixpence
each, he will have himfelf three ihillings and fixpence
for his day’s work, which is much more than he can
poffibly earn by any other labour fo eafy to himfelf.
But put the cafe, that the man has a wife who dibbles
with him, and two or three of his own children to drop
to him, you fee his gains rvill then be prodigious, and
enough to enfure a plenty of candidates for that work,
even in the leaft populous parts of the country.
It is, however, to be obferved with regard to this
method, that in feafons when feed-corn is very cheap,
or the autumn particularly unfavourable to the praftice,
it muft certainly be leflened. In light lands, for in-
ftance, a very dry time prevents dibbling ; as the holes
made with the inftruments will be filled up again by
the mould as fait as the inftrument is withdrawn. So,
again, in a very wet feafon, on ftrong and ftiff clays, the
feeds in the holes cannot be well and properly covered
by the bullies drawn over them. But thefe extremes of
dry and wet do not often happen, nor do they affeft
lands of a moderately confiftent texture, or both light
and heavy foils at the fame time 5 fo that the general
praftice is in faft never greatly impeded by them.
Propagating of wheat by dividing and tranfplanting Pro ^
its roots. In the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1768, ting of
we meet with a very important experiment, of which wheat by
the following is an abftraft. On the 2d of June dividing
1766, Mr C. Miller fowed fome grains of the common ^ root'
red wheat 5 and on the 8th of Auguft a fingle plant
was taken up and feparated into 18 parts, and each
part planted feparately. Thefe plants having pufhed
out feveral fide-fhoots, by about the middle of Sep¬
tember ; fome of them were then taken up and divided,
and the reft of them betiveen that time and the middle
of Oftober. This fecond divifion produced 67 plants.
Thefe plants remained through the winter, and another
divifiqn of them, made betw een the middle of March
and the 12th of April, produced 500 plants. They
wTere then divided no further, but permitted to remain.
The plants were in general ftronger than any of the
wheat in the fields. Some of them produced upwards
of
particular
Plants.
Method
Part I.
Culture of of ioo ears from a {ingle root.
fared {’even inclies in length, and contained between
60 and 70 grains.
The whole number of ears whichg- by the procefs
above mentioned, were produced from one grain of
wbeat, was 21,109, which yielded three pecks and
three quarters of clean corn, the weight of which was
471b. 7 ounces } and from a calculation made by count¬
ing the number of grains in an ounce, the whole num¬
ber of grains was about 576,840.
By this account we find, that there was only one
general divifion of the plants made in tne fpring. Had
a fecond been made, Mr Miller thinks the number of
plants would have amounted to 2000 inftead of 500,
and the produce thereby been much enlarged.
The ground was a light blackilh foil, upon a gra¬
velly bottom } and, coniequently, a bad foil for wheat.
One half of the ground was well dunged, the other
half had no manure. There was, however, not any
difference difcoverable in the vigour, or growth, or
produce, of the plants.
It muff be evident, that the expence and labour of
fetting in the above manner by the hand, will render it
fcarcely practicable upon a large fcale fo as to be pro-
duftive of any utility. A correfpondent of the Bath So¬
ciety, therefore, (Robert Bogle, Eiq. of Daldowin,near
Glafgow), with a view to extend the pra&ice, has
propofed the ufe of the harrow and roller until fome
ivieuiou better implements be invented. This method occurred
propofed by to him from attending to the practice ufual \\ ifh far-
Mr Bogle, f mers on certain occafions, of harrowing their fields af¬
ter the grain is iprung up. Upon inveftigating the
principles upon which theie practices are founded, he
found them confined merely to that of pulverizing the
' earth, without any attention to Mr Miller’s doftrine.
They faid, “ that after very heavy rains, and then ex-
ceflive dry weather, the furface of their lands was apt
to be caked, the tender fibres of the young roots were
thereby prevented from puihing, and of courfe the
vegetation was greatly obilrufled j in fuch inftances,
they found very great benefit from harrowing and roll-
ing.”
Thefe principles he acknowledges to be well found¬
ed, fo far as relates to pulverizing •, but contends, that
the benefit arifing from harrowing and rolling is not
derived from pulverizing entirely, but alfo from fub-
dividing and enabling the plants to tiller (as it is term¬
ed). “ The harrow (he obferves) certainly breaks the
incruftation on the furface, and the roller crumbles the
clods } but it is alfo obvious, that the harrow removes
a great many of the plants from their original ftations •,
and that if the corn has begun to tiller at the time it is
ufed, the roots will be, in many inftances, fubdivided,
and then the application of my fyftem of divifibility
comes into play, d he roller then ferves to plant the
roots which have been tom up by the harrow.”
But on this the Society obferve, that the teeth of a
harrow are too large to divide roots fo fmall and tena¬
cious as are thofe of grain $ and whenever fuch roots
(however tillered) ftand in the line any tooth makes,
they will, if fmall, be only turned on one. fide by the
earth yielding to their lateral preffure, or,.if large, the
whole root wdll probably be drawn out of tne ground.
The principal ufes, therefore, derived from harrowing
and rolling thefe crops are, opening the foil between
Voi.. I. Part I.
GRICULTURE. 38s
Many of the ears mca- the plants, earthing them up, breaking the clods, and
226
Objections
doling the earth about their roots. . ^Plants.
In a fubfequent letter, Mr Bogle, without conteft-. , _^ *
xng thefe points, further urges the fcheme of propaga¬
ting wheat by dividing and tranfplanting its roots. “ I
have converfed (fays he) much with many practical
farmers, who all admit that my plan has the appearance
not only of being practical, but advantageous. I have
alfo feen, in the ninth number of Mr Young’s Annals
of Agriculture, the account of an experiment rvhich
ftrongly corroborates my theory. It was.made by the
Rev. Mr Pike of Edmonton. From this, and other
experiments which have been made under my own eye,
I forefee clearly, that the fyftem is praaicable, and
will certainly be prodruftive of great benefit, ftttmld it 227
become general. Befides the faving of nine-tenths ofPratficabi¬
feed in the land fown broad-caft, other very important
advantages will attend the fetting out of wheat from a j-erte(j>
feed-bed : fuch as an early crop ; the certainty of good
crops } rendering a fummer-fallow unneceflary 5 faving
dung 5 and having your wheat perfedtly free from weeds
without either hand or horfe-hoeing. Five hundred
plants in April produced almoft a bufhel of grain. My
gardener fays, he can fet one thoufand plants in a day,
which is confirmed by the opinion of two other gar¬
deners. Mr Miller found no difference in the produce
of what was planted on lands that had dung, and on.
what had none, excdpt where the land was improper
for wheat at all.” 228
On this letter we have the following note by the fo- Bath Socies.
ciety : “ Mr Bogle will fee, by the fociety’s premium ty’sobfer-
book this year, that by having offered feveral premiums vatlonfc
for experiments of the kind he fo earneftly recom¬
mends, we wifti to have his theory brought to the teft
of practice. Our reafon for this, as well as tor print¬
ing Mr B’s letter, was rather to excite decifive trials
by ingenious perfons, than from any expeflation of tne
pradtice ever becoming a general one. General, in¬
deed, it never can be. A fufficient number of hands
could not be found to do it. Unkindly ieafons at the
time of tranfplanting and dividing the roots would fre¬
quently endanger and injure, if not deftroy, the crops.
But adnjitting the mode generally pradhcable, we very
much doubt whether all the advantages he has enume¬
rated would be derived from this mode 01 culture.
Why fhould dividing and tranfplanting the roots of
wheat caufe the crop to be early, or afford a certainty
of its being a (rood one? We cannot think that lefs
manure is neceffary in this method than either in drill-
ling or broad-caft^j nor can we by any means admit,
fuch crops would ‘ be perfectly free from weeds with¬
out either hand or horfe-hoeing.’ We readily agree
with Mr Bogle, that by this mode of culture on a ge¬
neral fcale, an immenfe quantity of feed-corn would be
annually faved to the nation ; and in this, we . believe,
the advantage, were it practicable, would principally
confift.” 229
Upon the fame fubjeft, and that of harrowing all Further oh-
kinds of corn, we are informed, Mr Bogle afterwards ^rvations
communicated to the Society his thoughts. more at jg0g|e>
large, together with authentic accounts which were
made at °his inftance, and which were attended with
very great fuccefs. Thefe muft undoubtedly be re¬
garded as of very great importance, and accordingly
the focietv, conceiving his lyftem may be attended
3 C with
386 A G R I C U
Culture of wltli confide ruble advantages if brought into general
^Plant<ar Pra^ce» ^ave given» at end of their third volume,
'■ a few of his leading principles. Mr Bogle Hates, I.
That he has known many inftances of very great crops
having been obtained by harrowing fields of corn after
they were fprouted $ and therefore recommends the
practice very warmly.
2. That he has alfo received an authentic account of
one inftance where the fame good effe&s were produced
by ploughing the field. i
3. On the fyftem of tranfplanting, he Hates, that a
very great proportion of the feed will be faved, as a
farmer may have a nurfery, or fmall patch of plants,
from which his fields may be fupplied ; he calculates
that one acre will yield plants fufficient for 100 acres.
4. That a very great increafe of crops may be ob¬
tained by this method, probably a double crop, nay
perhaps a triple quantity of what is reaped either by
drilling or by the broad-caH hulbandry.
5. That a great part of the labour may be perform¬
ed by infirm men and women, and alfo by children,
who are at prefent fupported by the parilh charity ;
and that of courfe the poor’s rates may be confiderably
reduced.
6. That the expence will not exceed from 20s. to
30s. per acre, if the wrork be performed by able bodied
men and women ; but that it will be much lower, if
that proportion of the work which may be done by
employing young boys and girls fliould be allotted to
them.
7. That in general he has found the diflance of nine
inches every way a very proper diHance for fetting out
the plants at ; but recommends them to be tried at
other fpaces, fuch as 6, 8, or even 12 inches.
8. That he conceives an earlier crop may be obtain¬
ed in this manner than can be obtained by any other
mode of cultivation.
q. That a clean crop may alfo be procured in this
way, becaufe if the land be ploughed immediately be¬
fore the plants are fet out, the corn will fpring much
quicker from the plants than the weeds will do from
their feeds ; and the corn will thereby bear down the
growth of the weeds.
10. That fuch lands as are overflowed in the winter
and fpring, and are of courfe unfit for fowing with
wheat in the autumn, may be rendered fit for crops of
wheat by planting them in the fpring, or even in the
fummer.
11. That he has known inHances of wheat being
tranfplanted in September, Odlober, November, Febru¬
ary, March, April, and even as late as the middle of
May, which have all anfwered very well.
12. That he has known an early kind of wheat Town
as late as the middle of May, which has ripened in very
good time •, and from that circumHance he conceives,
if the plants fliould be taken from that early kind, the
feafon of tranfplanting might be prolonged at leafl till
the ifl of July, perhaps even later.
13. That he has reafon to think wheat, oats, and
barley, are not annuals, but are perennials, provided
they are eaten down by cattle and fheep, or are kept
low by the fcythe or fickle 5 and are prevented from
fpindling or coming to the ear.
14. That one very prevalent motive with him in
froflxuting this plan, is, that he is of opinion it may
L T U R E.
Plants.
230
Pra£hce.
enable government to devife means of fupporting the Culture of
vagrant poor, both old and young, who are now to be Paiticular
met with everywhere, both in towns and in the country, ,
and who are at prefent a burden on the community :
but if fuch employment could be flruck out for them, a
comfortable fubfiflence might be provided for them by
means of their own labour and induflry j and not only
lave the public and private charitable contributions, but
may allb render that clafs of people uleful and profit¬
able fubjefts j inflead of their remaining in a ufelefs,
wretched, and perhaps a profligate and vicious courfe
of life.
I.aflly, Mr Bogle has hinted at a fecondary objeft
which he has in view, from this mode of cultivation,
which he apprehends may in time, with a fmall degree
of attention, prove extremely advantageous to agricul¬
ture.—It is, that, in the firfl place, the real and intrin-
fic value of different kinds of grain may be more ac¬
curately afeertained by making acomparifon of it with
a few plants of each kind fet out at the fame time,
than can be done when fown in drills or broad-caff j
and when the moff valuable kinds of wheat, oats, or
barley, are difeovered, he Hates, that in a very fhort
time (not exceeding four or five years) a fufficient
quantity of that valuable kind may be procured to fup-
ply the kingdom with feed from a fingle grain of each
kind j for he calculates, that 47,000 grains of wheat
may be produced by divilibility in two years and three
months.
Upon thefe propofitions the Society obferves, “ That Obferva-
although Mr Bogle appears to be too fanguine in histion of tlie
expectations of feeing his plan realized in generalprac- B.atil So“
tice, it certainly merits the attention of gentlemen far-UCtJ’
mers. We with them to make fair experiments, and re¬
port their fuccefs. F.very grand improvement has been,
and ever will be, progreffive. They muff neceffarily
originate with gentlemen ; and thence the circle is ex¬
tended by almofl imperceptible degrees over provinces
and countries. At all events, Mr Bogle is juffly en¬
titled to the thanks of the Society, and of the public,
for the great attention he has paid to the fubjeft.”
There is perhaps no part of Great Britain where this Culture o£
fpecies of grain is cultivated to more perfeftion than wheat in
in Norfolk. Mr Marflial informs us, that the fpecies Norfolk-
raifed in that county is called the Norfolk ref and
weighs heavier than any other which has yet been in¬
troduced, though he owns that its appearance is much
againff the affertion, it being a long thin grain, re-
fembling rye more than well bodied wheat. About 1 c
or 20 years ago a new fpecies was introduced, named
the Kentifh coffj ; againff which the millers were at firff
very much prejudiced, though this prejudice is now got
over. A remarkable circumftance refpefting this grain
is, that though upon its introduction into the county
the cojk or hulk be perfectly white, yet fuch is the
power either of the foil or of the mode of cultivation
to produce what the botanifts call varieties, that the
grain in queftion is faid to lofe every year fomewhat of
the whitenefs of its hulks, until they become at lall
equally red with thofe of the former kind. The
fonthern and fouth-eaftern parts of the county general¬
ly enjoy a ftronger and richer foil than the more north¬
erly, and therefore are more proper for the cultivation
of that fpecies of grain. In the northern parts are
fome farms of very light foil, where the farmers fow
only
Fart L A G R I C U
Culture of only a fmall quantity of wheat j and thefe light lands
particular are calleci barley farms.
Plants. Tke greateft part of the wheat in Norfolk is fown
upon a fecond year’s ley j fometimes it is fown upon
Succeffion a firft year’s ley } fometimes on a fummer fallow } af-
of crops, ter peas, turnips, or buck harvefted or ploughed un-
der. The pra£lice adopted by thofe who are^looked
upon as fuperior hulbandmen in the county of Norfolk
is as follows: The fecond year’s leys having finifhed
the bullocks, and brought the flock cattle and horfes
through the fore part of futnmer, and the firft year s
leys having been made ready to receive his dock, the
farmer begins to break up his old land or ley ground
Rice-balk- by a peculiar mode of cultivation named rice-balking^
ing, a parti- in which the furrow is always turned toward the un-
cular mode piou„hed ground, the edge of the coulter paffing al-
of c,ultuI7’ ways clofe by the edge of the flag lad turned. This
CXP is done at firfl: with an even regular furrow *, opportu¬
nity being taken for performing the operation after the
furface has been moiftened by a fummer fhower. In
this date his fummer leys remain until towards the end
of harved, when he harrows and afterwards ploughs
them acrofs the balks of the former ploughing, bring¬
ing them now up to the full depth of the foil. On
this ploughing he immediately harrows the manure,
and ploughs it in with a fhallow furrow. The effefts
of this third ploughing are to mix and effectually pul¬
verize the foil and manure 5 to cut oft and pulverize the
upper furfaces of the furrows of the fecond ploughing*,
and thus, in the mod effectual manner, to eradicate or
fmother the weeds which had elcaped the two former
ones. Thus it lies until the feed time, when it is har¬
rowed, rolled, fown, and gathered up into ridges of
fuch width as the farmer thinks mod proper. Thofe
oft fix furrows are mod common, though^ fome very
good farmers lay their wheat land into four furron,
and others into ten furrow ridges *, “ which lad. (fays
out author) they execute^in a dyle much fuperior to
what might be expe&ed from wheel ploughs.” They
excel, however, in the fix-furrow ploughing j of which
Mr Marfhal gives a particular achount. When plough¬
ing in this manner, they carry Very narrow furrows •,
fo that a fix-furrow ridge, fet out by letting the off-
horfe return in the fird-made furrow, does not meafure
more than three feet eight or nine inches.
When wheat is cultivated after the firft year’s lay,
the feed is generally fown upon the flag or furrow
turned over. After peafe, one or two ploughings are
given 5 the other parts of the management being the
fame with that after the fecond year’s ley already men¬
tioned. After buck harvefted he feldom gives more
than two, and fometimes but one, ploughing. In the
former cafe he fpreads his manure On the ftubble, and
ploughs it in with a (hallow furrow 5 harrows, rolls,
fows^ and gathers up the foil into narrow work. The
manure is in like manner ipread on the ftubble after
once ploughing, and the feed is then fown among the
manure ; the whole ploughed in together, and the foil
gathered up into narrow ridges, as if it had undergone
the operations of a fallow. An inconvenience attend-
ing this £ra£Uce is, that the buck which is necefiarily
(bed in harveding fprings up among the wheat, and
becomes a weed to it, at the fame time that the.rooks,
if numerous, pull up both buck and wheat, leaving fe-
-veral patches quite bare. 1 his is obviated in a great
L T U R E. 387
meafure by firft ploughing in the manure and felf-iown Culture of
buck with a (hallow furrow j in confequence of which I
the buck vegetates beiore the wheat. .
It is likewife a favourite practice with the Norfolk
farmers to raife wheat alter buck ploughed under. I hey
plough under the buck by means of a uroom made
rough bullies fixed to the fore tackle ot the plough be¬
tween the wheels, which bears down the plant with¬
out lifting the wheels from the ground. . Sometimes,
when the buck is ftrong, they firft break it dowm with
a roller going the fame way that the plough is intend¬
ed to go ; afterwards a good ploughman wall coyer it
fo effeclually that fcarce a ftalk.can be feen. Some¬
times the furface of the ground is.left rough, but it iS
more eligible to harrow and roll it. I he practice o-
fummer fallowing feldom occurs in Norfolk ) though
fometimes, when the foil has been much worn down by
cropping, and overrun by weeds, it is efteemed a ju¬
dicious praflice by many excellent hulbandmen, and
the praftice feems to be daily gaining ground. Alter
turnips the foil is ploughed to a moderate depth, and
the feed fown over the (irft ploughing : but if the tur¬
nips be got in early, the weeds are fometimes firft
ploughed in with a (hallow furrow, and the feed plough¬
ed under with a fecond ploughing, gathering the (oil
into narrow7 ridges* 234
With regard to the manuring of the ground for Manuring
wheat in Norfolk, thatw'hich has been recently clayed
or marled is fuppofed to need no other preparation
any more than that which has received 15 °r 2C loads
of dung and mould for turnips j the firft yea* s ley
having been teathed in autumn, and the fecond fed
off. Where the foil is good, and the wheat apt to
run too much to draw, it is the ptaclice of fome judi¬
cious farmers to fet their manure upon the young clo¬
ver, thereby depriving the wheat in fome degree of its
ranknefs j but it is moft common to ipread it upon
the broken ground or if the feed be fowTn upon the
turned furrow, to fpread it on the turf and plough it
under } or to fpread it on the ploughed (urface, and
harrow7 it in with the feed as a top-drefling. A imall-
er quantity of manure is generally made ufe of for
w7heat than for turnips. From eight to ten cart loads
(as much as three hotfes can conveniently draw7) arc
reckoned fufficient for an acre •, three or four chaldrons
of lime to one acre, or 40 buftiels of foot to the fame
quantity of ground j or about a ton of rape-cake to
three acres. 235
In this county they never begin to fow wheat till Time of
after the 17th of Oftober, and -continue, till the be-Cowing,
ginning of December, fometimes even till Chriftmas.
They give as a reafon for this late fow'ing, that the
wheat treated in this manner is lefs apt to run to draw
than when fown earlier. The leed is generally pre¬
pared with brine, and candied in the uftfal manner w k.i
lime. The following method of preparing it is laid ^
to be effe&ual in preventing the fmut. “ The fait is Of prena-
diffolved in a very fmall quantity of water, barely fuf-nng the
ficient for the purpofe. The lime is flaked with this
folution, and the wheat candied with it in its hotted
(late, having been previoufiy moiftened with pure wa¬
ter.” According to our author’s obfervation, the
crops of thofe farmers who ufe this preparation are in
general more free from fmut than thofe who make ule
of any other. _.
J 3 C 2 Th»
<
583 A G R I C U
Culture of The practice of dibbling or fetting of wheat has not
as yet become general throughout Norfolk, the com-
y mon broad-caft method being ufually followed, except
on the Suftolk fide of the county. Some few make
7-Iethod of ufe of dibbling and fluting rollers •, but drilling is al-
fowi
mg.
23 3.
Ploughing
the feed
under fur¬
row de-
fcribed.
moff entirely unknown, notwithflanding the great ap¬
titude of foil for the praclice. Ploughing in the feed
under furrow is the favourite mode of the Norfolk far¬
mers, and is performed in the following manner:
“ The land having been harrowed down level, and the
furface rendered fmooth by the roller, the head plough¬
man (if at leifure) marks out the whole piece in nar¬
row flips of about a flatute rood in width. This he
does by hanging up the plough in fuch a manner, that
no part of it except the heel touches the ground ; and
tills makes a fure mark for the feedfman, which he
cannot by any means miflake. In cafe the ploughs
are all employed, the feedfman himfelf marks the
ground, by drawing a piece of wood or other heavy
body behind him.” Mr Marfhall prefers this to the
Kentifh method of fetting up flicks in the form of a
2 iq lane, as being lets liable to produce miftakes.
Inttruments In tho!e places where wheat is dibbled, they make
de”^ U^e ^r0r)l ^n^ruments ^or the purpofe. The adling
feribed" Part is an egg-fhaped knob, feme what larger than a
pigeon’s egg j the fmaller end is the point of the
dibble, the larger having a rod of iron riling from it
about half an inch fquare, and two feet and an half
long; the head being received into a crofs piece of
■wood refembling the crutch of a fpade or fhovel, which
forms the handle. The dibbler ufes two of thefe in-
llruments, one in each hand ; and, bending over them,
walks backward upon the turned furrows, making two
rows of holes in each of them. Thofe rows are ufually
made at the diftance of four inches from each other j
the holes being two and a half or three inches diflant,
viz. four in each length of the foot of the dibbler. The
great art in making thefe lies in leaving them firm and
•fmooth in the fides, fo that the loofe mould may not run
in to fill them up before the feeds are depofited. This is
done by a circular motion of the hand and wrifl j making
a femi-revolution every ftroke } the circular motion be¬
ginning as the bit enters, and continuing until it is en¬
tirely difengaged from the mould. The operation is not
perfeft unlefs the dibbles come out clean and wear
bright. It is fomewhat difficult to make the holes at
equal diflcmcesg but more efpecially to keep the twro
itraight and parallel to each other, feme practice being
required to guide the inllruments in fuch a manner as
to correfpond exactly with each other 5 but though
couples have been invented to remedy ‘this inconve¬
nience to keep them at a proper diflance, the other
method is flill found to be preferable. A middling
workman will make four holes in a fecond. One dib¬
bler is fufficient for three droppers j whence one man
and three children are called a Jet. The dibbler car¬
ries on three flags or turned furrows ; going on feme
yards upon one of the outfide furrows, and returning
upon the other, after which he takes the middle one ,
and thus keeps his three dibblers conrtantly employed,
and at the fame time is in no danger of filling up the
holes with his feet. The droppers put in two or three
grains of wheat into each hole j but much time and
patience is neceifary to teach them to perform the bu-
fmefs properly and quickly. An expert dibbler wiil
Practice*
Plants.
L T U R E.
hole half an acre in a day; though one third of an Culture of
acre is ufually reckoned a good day’s work. The feed particular
is covered by means of a bufh harrow ^ and from one
bufhel to fix pecks is the ufual quantity for an acre.
Notwithflanding the advantages of laving feed, as well
as feme others which are generally reckoned undeni¬
able, it is here afferted by feme very judicious farmeis,
that dibbling of wheat on the whole is not really a pro¬
fitable prattice. It is particularly faki to be prcduc- Objections
live of weeds unlefs dibbled very thick : which indeed againft the
may probably be the cafe, as the weeds are thus al- praclice of
lowed a greater fpace to vegetate in. Mr Marfhall him-^^iinS’
felf is of opinion, that “ the dibbling of wheat ap¬
pears to be peculiarly adapted to rich deep foils, on
which three or four pecks dibbled early may fpread
fufficiently for a full crop 5 whereas light, weak, (hal¬
low foils, which have lain two or three years, and have
become grafly, require an additional quantity of feed,
and confequently an addition of labour, otherwife the
plants are not able to reach each other, and the graf-
fes of courfe find their way up between them, by
which means the crop is injured and the foil rendered
foui.” ... 241
The fame author has likewiie given an account of Culture of
the method of cultivating wheat pradfifed in other En-wheaNu
glifli counties. In the midland difirifl, including part
of Staffordfhire, Derbyfhire, Warwick, and Leicefter- a
fhire, we are informed that the fpecies ufually fown is
that called Red Lemmas, the ordinary red wheat of
the kingdom: but of late a fpecies named the Ejjcx
dun, fimilar to the Kentifh white cojl) of Norfolk, and
tivzllertfordjhire brown oi'SioxV.hinz, has been coming
into vogue. Cone-wheat, formerly in ufe in this di-
ftrift, is now out of fafhion. Spring wheat is cultiva¬
ted with remarkable fuccefs, owing principally to the
time of fowing •, vi%. the dole of April. Our author
was informed by an excellent farmer in thefe parts,
that by fowing early, as in the beginning of March,
the grain was liable to be ihrivelled, and the ftraw to
be blighted ; while that which was fown towards the
end of April, or even in the beginning of May, pro¬
duced clean plump corn. At the time he vifited this
county, however, it feemed to be falling into difre-
pute ; though he looks upon it, in feme fituations,
efpecially in a turnip country, to be eligible. In the
ordinary fucceffion in this part of the kingdom, wheat
comes after oats} and there is perhaps nine-tenths of
the wheat in this diftrifl fown upon oat-ftubble. Our
author has alfo feen a few examples of wheat being
fown upon turf of fix or feven years laying 5 and fe-
veral others on clover ley once plowed, as well as feme
after turnips. The beft crops, however, produced in
this, or perhaps in any ether dill rid, are after fum-
mer fallow. The time of fowing is the month of Oc¬
tober, little being fown before Michaelmas j and in a
favourable feafon, little after the clofe of the month.
Much feed is fown here without preparation. "When
any is made ufe of, it is the common one of brine can¬
died with lime. The produce is very great, the me¬
dium being full three quarters per acre, fometimes
four or five j and one farmer, in the year 17845 had
on 50 acres of land together, no lefs than 45 bulhels
per acre. 242
In the Vale of Gloucefter, the cone-wheat, a variety In the vale
of the tritkum turgidum, is cultivated, as well as the lain-°f^louc*’
mas
Part I.
M3
Remark¬
ably fmall
fiieaves.
2 44
In the Cotf-
- 24S ,
Inftance of
the good ef¬
fects of
hoeing
wheat.
246
Of cutting
mildewed
wheat very
jgreen.
A G R I C U
mas and fpring wheats. It is not, however, the true
cone wheat which is cultivated here, the ears being
nearly cylindrical ; but our author met with the true
fpecies in North-Wiltfhire. Beans in this country are
the common predeceffors of wheat, and fometimes
peafe •, but here the farmers cultivate wheat upon every
fpecies of foil. The time of fowing is in November
and December, and the feed is thought to be fown in
fufficient time if it is done before Chriftmas. In this
country it is thought that late fown crops always pro¬
duce better than thofe which are fown early j but Mr
Marihall accounts for this by the vaft quantity of weeds
the latter have to encounter, and which the late fown
crops efcape by reafon of the weaknefs of vegetation
at that time of the year. The produce, however,
throughout the Vale of Gloucefter, is but very indiffe¬
rent.—Setting of wheat is not praftifed, but hoeing
univerfally.—In harvefting, Mr Marfhall obferves, that
the grain is allowed to Hand until it be unreafonably
ripe, and that it is bound up into very fmall ftieaves.
The pra&ice of making double bands is unknown in
this diftrift ; fo that the {heaves are no bigger than can
be contained in the length of Angle ftraw. The in¬
conveniences of this method are, that the crop re¬
quires more time to ftook, load and unload, and ftack:
the advantages are, that the trouble of making bands
is avoided 5 and that if rainy weather happens to inter¬
vene, the fmall fheaves dry much fooner than the large
ones. Here the crop is cut very high, the ftubble and
weeds being mown off in fwaths for litter foon after
the crop is cut; and fometimes fold as high as 5s. per
acre.—Mr Marlhall is at a lofs to account for the little
quantity produced in this country: it being hardly
poffible to derive it from the nature of the foil, almoft
all of it being proper for the cultivation of the grain.
Among the Cotfwold hills of Gloucefter the lam-
mas and cone wheats are fown; and a new variety of
the latter was raifed not long ago by picking out a
Angle grain of feed from among a parcel. The body
is very long and large, but not Aghtly.—The Cotf¬
wold hills are almoft: proverbial for early fowing of
wheat. The general rule is to begin ploughing in July,
and fowing the Arft wet weather in Auguft 5 fo that here
the feed-time and harveft of wheat coincide. If, in
confequenee of this early fowing the blade becomes
rank in autumn, it is fuppofed to be proper to eat it
down by putting a large dock of ftieep upon it at once.
Eating it in fpring is conftdered as pernicious. It is
ufually weeded with fpud-hooks} not hoed, as in the
Vale. One inftance, however, is mentioned by our
author, in which a very thin crop full of feed-weeds
hoed in abtumn with uncommon fuccefs, occurred in
the practice of a fuperior manager in this diftrift ;
as well as others in which wheat has been weeded in
autumn with great advantage. He alfo met with an¬
other well authenticated inftance of the good effedl of
cutting mildewed wheat while very green. “ A Ane
piece of wheat being lodged by heavy rains, and be¬
ing foon after perceived to be infected with the mil¬
dew, was cut, though ftill in a perfectly green ftate j
namely, about three weeks before the ufual time of cut¬
ting. It lay fpread abroad upon the ftubble until it
became dry enough to prevent its caking in the ftieaf;
"when it was bound and fet up in {hocks. The refult
©f this treatment was, that the grain, though fmall,
L T U R E. 3S9
was of a Ane colour, and the heavieft wheat which Culture of
grew upon the fame farm that feafonj owing, no doubt, Particular
to the thinnefs of its {kin. What appears much more a”ts' .
remarkable, the ftraw was perfeftly bright, not a
fpeck upon it.—In this part of the country, the pro¬
duce of wheat is fuperior to that in the Vale } but Mr
Marftiall is of opinion, that the foil is much more At
for barley than wheat.
In Yorkfhire, though generally a grafs land coun- Cultivation
try, and where of confequence corn is only a fecon-of wheat in
dary concern, yet feveral kinds of wheat are culti-^orkfbire>
vated, particularly Zealand, Downy Kent, Common
White, Hertfordjhire Brown, Yellow Kent, Common
Red. All thefe are varieties of winter wheat j beAdes
which they cultivate alfo the fpring or fummer wheat.
Here our author makes feveral curious obfervations 2 s
concerning the raifmg of varieties of plants. “ It is obferva-
probable, fays he, that time has the fame effeft up- tionson rai*
on the varieties of wheat and other grains as it has on Apg va-
thofe of cultivated fruits, potatoes, and other vegeta-T1,etl®sof"
ble productions. Thus to produce an early pea, theP
gardener marks the plants which open Arft into bloffom
among the moft early kind he has in cultivation. Next
year he fows the produce of thofe plants, and goes
over the coming crop in the manner he had done the
preceding year, marking the earlier of this early kind.
In a ftmilar manner new varieties of apples are raifed,
by chooftng the broadeft leaved plants among a bed of
feedlings riftng promifcuoufly from pippins. Hufband-
men, it is probable, have heretofore been equally in-
duftrious in producing frelh varieties of corn j or
whenCe the endlefs variety of winter wheats ? If they
be naturally of one fpecies, as Linnaeus has deemed
them, they muft have been produced by climature9
foil-, or induftry j for although nature fports with in¬
dividuals, the induftry of man is requiAte to raife, efta-
blifh, and continue a permanent variety. The only
inftance in which I have had an opportunity of tracing,
the variety down to the parent individual, has occurred
to me in this diftrift. A man of acute obfervation,
having, in a piece of wheat, perceived a plant of un¬
common ftrength and luxuriance, diffuftng its branches
on every Ade, and fetting its clofely-furrounding neigh¬
bours at deAance \ marked it j and at harveft removed
it feparately. The produce was 15 ears, yielding 604
grains of a ftrong-bodied liver-coloured wheat, differ¬
ent, in general appearance, from every other variety he
had feen. The chaff was fmooth, without awns, and
of the colour of the grain j the ftraw flout and reedy.
Thefe 604 grains were planted Angly, nine inches
afunder, Ailing about 40 Iquare yards of ground, on
a clover ftubble, the remainder of the ground being
fown with wheat in the ordinary way j by which means
extraordinary trouble and deftruftion by birds were
avoided. The produce was twro gallons and a half,
weighing 20J lb. of prime grain for feed, beftdes fomp
pounds of feconds. One grain produced 35 ears, yield¬
ing 1235 grains j fo that the fecond year’s produce was
fufficient to plant an acre of ground. What deters far¬
mers from improvements of this nature is probably the
mifehievoufnefs of birds : from which at harveft it is
fcarcely poffible to preferve a fmall patch of corn, ef-
pecially in a garden or other ground Atuated near a
habitation 5 but by carrying on the improvement in a
field of corn of the fiune nature, that inconvenience is
got.
39°
Culture of g^t nd o£. In this fituation, however, the botanift
P Plants!^ wili be aPPrehenfive of danger from the floral farina
 -’j—the furrounding crop. But from what obfervations
I have made, I am of opinion his fears will be ground-
lefs.. No evil of this kind occurred, though the cul¬
tivation of the above variety was carried on among
’white wheat. But this need not be brought as an evi¬
dence : it is not uncommon here to fow a mixture of
red and white wheats together j and this, it is confi¬
dently aflerted, without impairing even the colour of
either of them. The fame mode of culture is appli¬
cable to the improvement of varieties ; which perhaps
■would be more profitable to the hufbandman than raif-
249 ing new ones, and more expeditious.”
iPreparation In Yorklhire the very Angular preparation of feed
witlarfc wbeat Preva^s which we formerly mentioned, viz. the
nP-/ ‘ " keeping it in a folution of arfenic, as a preventive of
fmut. Marfhall was informed by one farmer, that
he had made ufe of this preparation for 20 years
with fuccefs, having never during that long fpace
of time fuffered any fenfible injury from fmut. Our
author feems inclined to believe the efficacy of this
preparation; but thinks there may be feme reafon
to apprehend danger in the ufe of fuch a perni¬
cious mineral, either through the careleffhefs of
fervants, or handling of the feed by the perfon who
fows it. The farmer above mentioned, however,
during all the time he ufed it, never experienced any
inconvenience either to himfelf, the feedfman, or even
to the poultry; though thefe laft, we fliould have
thought, would have been peculiarly liable to accidents
from arfenicated feed. The preparation is made by
pounding the arfenic extremely fine, boiling it in wa¬
ter, and drenching the feed -with the decodlion. “ In
Hri&nefs, fays Mr Marfhall* the arfenic flrould be
levigated fufficiently fine, to be taken up and waffied
over with water, reducing the fediment until it be fine
enough to be carried over in the fame manner. The
ufual method of preparing the liquor is to boil one
ounce of white arfenic, finely pow’dered, in a gallon
of water, from one to two hours; and to add to the
decoftion as much water or Hale urine as will increafe
the liquor to two gallons. In this liquor the feed is,
■ or ought to be, immerged, ftirring k about in fuch a
manner as to faturate effe&ually the downy end of each
grain. This done, and the liquor drawn off, the feed
is confidered as fit for the feed balket, without being
candied with lime, or any other preparation. A
bulhel of wheat has been obferved to take up about a
gallon of liquor. The price of arfenic is about 6d.
per pound •, which, on this calculation, will cure four
quarters of feed. If no more than three quarters
be prepared with it, the coft: will be only a farthing
per buffiel; but to this muff be added the labour
of pounding and boiling. Neverthelefs, it is by much
the cheapeft, and perhaps, upon the wffiole, adds
Mr Marftiall, the beft preparation we are at prefent
acquainted with. In this county it is believed, that a
mixture o: wheat and rye, formerly a very common
•crop in thefe parts, is never affefled with mildew; but
2S0 our author does not vouch for the truth of this affertion.
'‘Wheat and We muff not here omit to take notice of a new mode
turnips of cultivating wffieat contrived by Mr E. Walker of
Town toge- Harpley, Norfolk 5 which mode of culture we (hall alfo
.afterwards have occafion to notice when we come to
treat of the culture of turnips. Mr Walker thus ex- Culture of
plains his mode of procedure in a letter addreffed to the Particular
publither of the Annals of Agriculture. “ I fow in Piants-
broad-caff, after the turnips have been once hoed, two
buftiels of wheat or two buffiels of rye per acre 5 and ° ' IX‘
then hoe the fame in with the fecond hoeing : if it be
hoed by the day it may be beft, as it will be better
done by the fliort ftrokes or cuts with the hoes than
otherwife.- It is recommended to be done foon after
the firff hoeing, for many reafons : It becomes a fine
herbage, and keeps the land very clean, without any
injury to the turnips, or to the wheat or rye. I
began to feed in laft September, the turnips, &c. the
firft of the month, and ffiall continue till all are done.
I have fed off with all forts of rtock mixed, and have
drawn out the turnips in lines to fet the hurdles, as is
ufual, and fed off the turnips and growing corn in wet
and dry weather 5 but find that dry weather, and fheep,
is the propereft time and ftock $ and that fheep and
light beafts are the beft for light lands, which, on the
whole, this method will greatly improve.
“ All my experiments have been made without
mucking, or any manure, for the turnip and wheat
crop j and on thole parts where I have fed off at the
time it has been dry weather, though with all forts of
ftock mixed, and drawing as above, I have growm at
the rate of five coomb of wheat per acre, and at the
rate of eight coomb of rye per acre ; and fome was al-
moft totally deftroyed by feeding off in wet weather,
as I w’as determined not to defift, that I might know
the bad or good effefts from feeding off the turnips
with the corn in different weather, as well as the dif¬
ferent months; all which I fhall be able to give infor¬
mation of next year, to thofe who wifli to known I
find the feed nearly wmrth the coft of the feed corn,
which is a material confideration in cafe you plough
the land for barley or other fummer corn ; but if the
wheat or rye Hands a crop to your mind, it will do
better to harrow it in the fpring, at which time you
may fow your grafs feeds, which I find anfwer very
Vvell; or plough the ftubble early in the autumn, and
fow with clover or other feeds.-”
The well-knowm author of the Annals of Agricul¬
ture has given a farther accoimt of this method of cul¬
tivation. The idea which led to Mr Walker’s experi¬
ments was this : Wheat requires a certain degree of
ftiffnefs and compaftnefs in the foil upon which it is
reared. Of this compatftnefs, fandy foils are apt to be
deficient in proportion to the degree of tillage they re¬
ceive. Hence it occurred to Mr Walker, that if
wheat could be' fown without any ploughing at all,
there would be a better chance of a crop upon certain
foils, than after the moft expenfive fyftem of tillage.
Accordingly, in 17^41 be executed his fcheme on fix
acres of turnips, which w’ere fed during the fucceeding
winter by bullocks and iheep, like the reft of his tur¬
nip fields, without making the leaft diftinflion on ac¬
count of the wheat that had been fown and was grow¬
ing among them. It is knowm, that turnip-land, when
fed off, is left highly manured and much trodden 5 and
the queftion was, whether the firft of thefe circumftances
wmuld not counterbalance the laft ? and, whether even
the treading itfelf might not prove advantageous. The
fuccefs juftified the project, and, in 1785, Mr Walker
extended it to 35 acres, a part of which was fowfr with
rye.
AGRICULTURE.
Parti. - A G R I C U
Culture of rye. The management was the fame as before ; the
particular wheat did better than the rye, and the belt crop was
^ Plants. w^ere rbc turnips were eaten in the dried weather,
iju —„ ■ - ■ iy86, the fame culture wras extended to 70, and in
1797 to 100 acres, with complete fuccefs j but the
crop was not better than that raifed in the common
way, though in general as good. I he effeft of this
mode of culture, or the profit arifing from it, confided
chiefly in this, that upon a farm of 600 ^ acres, the.
labour of five horfes was faved, and at tne time of
the barley-fowing, when all his neighbours were
in the greated hurry, he rvas at his eaie quietly du¬
ring his turnip fallows. The chief difficulty attend¬
ing this mode of cultivating wheat arole from the wet-
nefs of the feafon at the time of feeding, as the ground
was apt to be too much trodden and poached, particu¬
larly when the crop of turnips was very large fo as
to keep the cattle long upon them. On the contrary,
in dry or frody weather nothing of this kind happened.
T he greater the crop of turnips, and the more treading
that occurred, the crop of wheat Teemed afterwards to
profper the better. In a wet feafon, however, the evil
arifing from the treading was diminifhed when flieep
alone without bullocks were introduced to confume the
turnips. Under this hufbandry, the following rotation
was ufed : Two years grafs put in among the wheat-
ftubble, ploughed once, and harrowed both in autumn
and fpring with the whole dung of the farm } I bird
year, oats \ Fourth, turnips ; Fifth, wheat.
2. Oats.
AS winter-ploughing enters into the culture of oats,
froft^pon we mud remind the reader of the effect of frod upon
•tilled land, tilled land. Providence has neglected no region in¬
tended for the habitation of man. If in warm climates
the foil be meliorated by the fun, it is no lefs meliora¬
ted by frod in cold climates. Fred afts upon water, by
expanding it into a larger fpace. Frofl has no effect
upon dry earth j witnefs fand, upon which it makes
no impreffion. But upon wet eartn it a£ts mod vigo-
roufly } it expands the moidure, which requiring more
fpace puts every particle of the earth out of its place,
and feparates them from each other. In that view,
frod may be confidered as a plough fuperior to any
that is made, or can be made, by the hand of man :
its action reaches the minuted particles j and, by di¬
viding and feparating them, it renders the foil loofe
and friable. This operation is the mod remarkable in
tilled land, which gives free accefs to frod. With re-
fpeft to clay foil in particular, there is no rule m huf¬
bandry more effential than to open it before winter in
hopes of frod. It is even advifable m a clay foil to
leave the dubble rank ; which, when ploughed m be-
fore winter, keeps the clay loofe, and admits the froit
into every cranny.
To apply this doftrine, it is dangerous to plough
clay foil when wet j becaufe wTater is a cement for clay,
and binds it fo as to render it unfit for vegetation. It
is, however, lefs dangerous to plough wet clay before
winter than after. A fucceeding frod correfts the bad
effefts of fuch ploughing 5 a fucceeding drought in-
creafes them.
Culture of The common method is, to fow oats on new-plough-
eats. ed land in the month of March, as foon as the ground
is tolerably dry. If it continues wet all the month of
L T U R E. 39*
March, it is too late to venture them after. It is much Culture o?
better to fummer-fallow, and to fow wheat in the au- ^p^^siar
tumn. But the preferable method, efp'ecially in clay L| |—,
foil, is to turn over the field after harved,_ and to lay it
open to the influences of frod and air, which leffen the
tenacity of clay, and reduce it to a free mould. The
furface-foil by’ this means is finely mellowed for recep¬
tion of the feed y and it would be a pity to bury it by
a fecond ploughing before fowing. In general, the
bulk of clay foils are rich > and fkilful ploughing with¬
out dung, will probably give a better crop, than un-
Ikilful ploughing with dung.
Hitherto of natural clays. We mud add a word 01
carfe clays which are artificial, whether left by the
fea, or fweeped down from higher grounds by rain.
The method commonly ufed of dreffing carfe clay for
oats, is, not to dir it till the ground be dry in the
fpring, which feldorn happens before the id of March,
and the feed is fown as foon after as the ground is dif¬
fidently dry for its reception. Frod has a dronger ef-
fed on fuch clays than on natural clay. And if the field
be laid open before winter, it is rendered fo loofe by
frod as to be foon drenched in water. The particles at
the fame time are fo fmall, as that the fird drought in
fpring makes the furface cake or crud. I he difficulty
of reducing this crud into mould for covering the oat-
feed, has led farmers to delay ploughing till the month
of March. But we are taught by experience, that this
foil ploughed before winter, is fooner dry than when
the ploughing is delayed till fpring j and as early low¬
ing is a great advantage, the objedion of the fuperficial
eroding is eafily removed by the fird barrow above de-
feribed, which will produce abundance of mould for
covering the feed. The ploughing before winter not
only procures early fowing, but has another advantage.
the furface-foil that had been mellowed during winter
by the fun, frod, and wind, is kept above.
TTlic dreffing a. loamy foil for oats difters little from
dreding a clay foil, except in the following particular,
that being lels hurt by rain, it requires not high ridges,
and therefore ought to be ploughed crown and furrow
alternately.
Where there is both clay and loam m a iarm, it: is
obvious, from what is faid above, that the ploughing
of the clay after harved ought fird to be defpatched. It
both cannot be overtaken that feafon, the loam may be
delayed till the fpring with lefs hurt.
Next of a gravelly foil} which is the icverfe of clay^
as it never fuffers but from want of moidure. Such a
foil ought to have no ridges } but be ploughed cncu-
larly from the centre to the circumference, 01 from the
circumference to the centre. It ought to be tilled al¬
ter harved : and the fird dry weather in fpring ought
to be laid hold of to fow, harrow, and roll} which will
preferve it in fap. , r .. .
The culture of oats is the fimpled ot all.. lliat
grain is probably a native of Britain : it will grow on
the word foil with very little preparation. For that
reafon, as already noticed, before turnip was introdu¬
ced, it was always the fird crop upon land broken up
from the date of nature.
Upon fuch land, may it not be a good method, to
build upon the crown of every ridge, m the form ot
a wall, all the furface-earth, one fod above another,
as in a fold for fceep > After Handing in tbs form
au
:-3-9'
AGRICULTURE.
Practice,
254
down oats.
Culture of 'all t’he fummcr and winter, let the wTalls be thrown
P--!- anci the ground prepared for oats. This will fe-
. cure one or twro good crops after which the land may
be dunged for a crop of barley and grafs-feeds. This
oj^ method may anfwer in a farm where manure is fcarce.
STorfolk In Norfolk this kind of grain is much lefs cultiva-
eultivation tec} barley j and the only fpecies obferved by
•® oa s* ]\.lr Marfhall is a kind of white oat, which grows quick¬
ly, and feems to be of Dutch extraftion. Oats are
cultivated occalionally on all kinds of foils, but more
efpecially on cold heavy land, or on very light, unpro¬
ductive, heathy foils. They moll frequently fucceed
wheat, or ley ground barley : “ but (fays our author
there are no ellablilhed rules refpe&ing any part of the
culture of this time-ferving crop.” The culture of
the ground is ufually the fame with that of barley ; the
-ground generally undergoing a winter fallow of three
or four ploughings, though fometimes they are fown
after one ploughing. They are more commonly fown
above furrow than barley. The ieed-time is made
fubfervient to that of barley, being fometimes fooner
and fometimes later than barley feed-time : and Mr
Marfhall obferves, that he has fometimes feen them
fown in June ; it being obfervable, that oats fown late
ripen earlier than barley fown at the fame time. The
quantity of feed in Norfolk is from four to five bufhcls
per acre j but he does not acquaint us with the pro¬
duce. He mentions a very fingular method of culture
Method of fometimes pradtifed in this county, vix. ploughing down
ploughing tbe oats after they begin to vegetate, but before they
have got above ground ; which is,attended with great
fuccefs, even though the ground is turned over with a
full furrow7. By this method weeds of every kind are
deflroyed, or at leaft checked in fuch a manner as to
give the crop an opportunity of getting above them $
and the porofity communicated to the foil is excellent¬
ly wTell adapted to the infant plants of barley j wdiich
probably might frequently receive benefit from this
operation.
In the Vale of Gloucefter, Mr Marfhall obferves,
that the wild oat is a very troublefome weed, as well
as in Yorkfhire *, and he is of opinion, that it is as
er. ^uly a native of Great Britain as any other arable
weed, and is perhaps the moft difficult to be extir¬
pated. It will lie a century in the foil without lofing
its vegetative quality. Ground which has lain in a
Hate of grafs time immemorial, both in Gloucefter and
Yorkfhire, has produced it in abundance on being
broken up. It is alfo endowed with the fame feem-
ingly inftinflive choice of feafocs and ftate of the foil
as other feeds of w7eeds appear to have. Hence it is\
exceffively difficult to be overcome} for as it ripens
before any crop of grain, it fheds its feed on the foil,
where the roughnefs of its coat probably fecures it
from birds. The only methods of extirpating this
plant are fallowung, hoeing, and handweeding, where
ac<j the laft is practicable, after it has fhot its panicle.
-Qate not No oats are cultivated in the \'ale of Gloucefter j
cultivated though the wild oat growrs everywffiere as already faid.
Va,re Marfhall is of opinion that it is better adapted to
oats than to barley. The reafon he affigns for the
preference given to the latter is, that in this part of
the country the monks w7ere formerly very numerous,
who probably preferred ale to oaten cake.—He now7,
however, recommends a trial of the grain on the ftrong-
2>
255
Wild oats
a weed in
t he Yale of
of Gloucef¬
ter
Plants.
er cold lands in the area of the Vale, as they feldom Culture of
can be got fufficiently fine for barley. The fodder P^ticu'ar
from oats he accounts much more valuable than that
from barley to a dairy country ; and the grain would
more than balance in quantity the comparative differ¬
ence in price. 257
In the midland diftrift the Poland oaty which was Cultivation
formerly in vogue, has now given place to the Dutch
or Friejland kind. It is conftantly fown after turf j
one ploughing being given inFebruary, March, or April.
The feed-time is the latter end of March and begin¬
ning of April, from four to feven buftiels an acre 5
the produce is in proportion to the feed, the medium
being about fix quarters. 2.8
In Yorkflnre the Friefiand oats are likewife pre-inYork-
ferred to the Poland, as affording more ftraw7, and be-fhire.
ing thinner Ikinned than the latter. The Siberian, or
Tart avian oat, a fpecies unnoticed by Linnseus, is like¬
wife cultivated in this country : the reed oat is known,
but has not yet come into any great eftimation. The
grain is light, and the ftraw too ready to be affefled
by cattle.
Oats are particularly cultivated in the wreftern divi-
fion of the Vale of Yorklhire \ where the foil is chiefly
a rich fandy loam, unproductive of wheat. Five or
fix bufliels, or even a quarter of oats, are fometimes
fown upon an acre j the produce from feven to ten 2£;9
quarters. In this country they are threflied in the Singular
open air, and frequently even upon the bare ground, method of
without even the ceremony of interpofing a cloth. The threflung.
reafons affigned for this feemingly ftrange praftice are,
that if pigs and poultry be employed to eat up the
grain which efcapes the broom, there w7ill be little or
no wafte. Here the market is always very great for
new oats, the manufaCluring parts of Weft Yorkftiire
ufing principally oat-bread. The only objection to
this praClice is the chance of bad weather j but there
is always plenty of ftraw to cover up the threfhed corn,
and it is found that a little rain upon the ftraw does
not make it lefs agreeable to cattle.
In an experiment made by Mr. Bartley near Briftol, Bath Fc-
upon black oats, we are informed that be bad the pro-pen, vol. iv.
digious increafe of 98^ Wincbefter buffiels from fourP- 2Sl-
on the acre : the land v/as a deep, mellow, fandy Exp^r^rient
loam. It had carried potatoes the former year, and on black
received one ploughing for a winter fallow. Another oats,
ploughing wras given it in February, and the feed was
fown on the 27th and 28th of the month. The fuccefs
of the experiment was fuppofed to be owing partly to
the early fowing and partly to a good deep tillage.
3. Barley.
a5i
This is a culmiferous plant that requires a mellow Culture of
foil. Upon that account, extraordinary care is requi-barley-
fite where it is to be fown in clay. Hie land ought to
be ftirred immediately after the foregoing crop is re¬
moved, which lays it open to be mellowed with the
froft and air. In that view, a peculiar fort of plough-
ing has been introduced, termedby which the Ribbing,
greateft quantity of furface poffible is expofed to the
air and froft. The obvious objeftion to this method
is, that half of the ridge is left unmoved. And to ob¬
viate that objeflion, the following method is offered,
wffiich moves the whole foil, and at the fame time ex-
pofes the fame quantity of furface to the froft and air.
As
Part I.
Culture of
particular
Plant'.
263
A better
method.
A G R I C
164
Advanta¬
ges of this
gcethod.
265
Manage¬
ment of
feed in a
dry feafon
As foon as tlie former crop is off lire field, let the
ridges be gathered with as deep a furrow as the foil
will admit, beginning at the crown and ending at the
furrows. This ploughing loofens the whole ioil, giv¬
ing free accefs to the air and froft. Soon after, begin
a fecond ploughing in the following manner : Let the
field be divided by parallel lines crofs the ridges, with
intervals of thirty feet or fo. Plough once round an
interval, beginning at the edges, and turning the earth
towTard the middle of the interval } wdiich covers a foot
or fo of the ground formerly ploughed. Within that
foot plough another round fimilar to the former 5 and,
after that, other rounds, till the whole interval be fi-
niihed, ending at the middle. Initead of beginning al
the edges, and ploughing toward the middle, it will
have the fame eflfeft to begin at the middle, and to
plough toward the edges. Plough the other intervals
in the fame manner. As by this operation the furrows
of the ridges will be pretty much filled up, let them
be cleared and water-furrowed without delay. By this
method, the field will be left waving like a plot in a
kitchen garden, ridged up for winter. In this form,
the field is kept perfe£tly dry 5 for befide the capital
furrows that feparate the ridges, every ridge has a
number of crofs furrows that carry the ram mftantly
to the capital furrowrs. In hanging grounds retentive
of moifture, the parallel lines above mentioned ought
not to be perpendicular to the furrows of the ridges,
but to be directed a little dowmward, in order to cairy
rain water the more haftily to thefe furrows. If the
crround be clean, it may lie in that ftate winter and
fpring, till the time of feed-furrowing. If weeds hap¬
pen to rife, they mull be deftroyed by ploughing, or
braking, or both *, for there cannot be worfe huihan-
dry, than to put the feed into dirty ground. .
This method refembles common ribbing in appear¬
ance, but is very different in reality. As the common
ribbing is not preceded by a gathering furrow', the
half of the field is left untilled, compaft as when the
former crop wTas removed, impervious in a great mea-
fare to air or froft. The common ribbing at the fame
time lodges the rain-water on every ridge,_ preventing
it from defcending to the furrow's} w’hich is hurtful m
all foils, and poifonous in a clay foil. TYie Jtitching
here defcribed, or ribbing, if you pleafe to call it fo,
prevents thefe noxious effeas. By the two ploughings
the whole foil is opened, admitting freely air and froft ;
and the multitude of furrows.lays the furface perfeftly
dry, giving an early opportunity for the barley-feed.
But further, as to the advantage of. this method :
When it is proper to fow' the feed, all is laid flat with
the brake, which is an eafy operation upon foil that is
dry and pulverized ; and the feed-furrow which fuc-
ceeds, is fo {hallow as to bury little or none of the fur-
face earth : w'hereas the ftirring for barley is common¬
ly done with the deepeft furrow j and confequently bu¬
ries all the furface foil that was mellowed by the froft
and air. Nor is this method more expenfive becaufe
the common ribbing muft always be followed with a
ftirring furrow, which is faved in the method recom¬
mended. Nay, it is lefs expenfive *, for after common
ribbing, which keeps in the rain-water, the ground is
commonly fo foured, as to make the ftirring a labo¬
rious work. _ .
It is well known that barley is lefs valuable when it
Vol. I. Part I.
U L T U R E. 393
does not ripen equally 5 and that barley which comes
up fpeedily in a dufky foil, muft gain a great advantage pjants>
over feed-weeds. Therefore, firft take out about one-,
third of the contents of the facks of leed barley or
bear, to allow for the fwelling of the grain. Lay the
facks with the grain to fteep in clean water } let it lie
covered with it for at leaft 24 hours. _ When the
ground is fo dry as at prefent, and no likelihood of
rain for 10 days, it is better to lie 36 hours. Sow the
grain wet from fteeping, without any addition or pow¬
dered quicklime, which, though often recommended in
print, can only poifon the feed, fuck up part cf its ufe-
ful moifture, and burn the hancV of the low'er. The
feed will fcatter well, as clean water has no tenacity j
only the fower muft put in a fourth or a taird more
feed in bulk than ufual of dry grain, as the grain is
fwelled in that proportion : harrow it in as quickly as
poflible after it is fbwn j and though notneceffary, give
it the benefit of frefti-furrow', if convenient. T ou may
expeft it up in a fortnight at fartheft.
The following experiment by a correfpondent of the
Bath Society being confidered as a very intererting
one, is here fubjoined.
“ The laft fpring (1783) being remarkably dry, l^P™1
foaked my feed-barley in the black water taken .rom a merits on
refervoir W'hich conftantly receives the draining of my fCed-tmrley.
dung heap and ftables. As the light corn floated on
the top, I ikimmed it off, and let the reft Hand. 24
hours. On taking it from the water, I mixed the feed
grain wdth a fufficient quantity of lifted wood-aihes,.to
make it fpread regularly, and fowred three fields with
it. I began fowing the 16th, and finiftied the 23d of
April. The produce was 60 bufhels />er acre, of good
clean barley, without zny/mail or green corn, or weeds,
at harveft. No perfon in this country had better
gram.
I fowed alfo feveral other fields with the lame leed
dry, and without any preparation *, but the crop, like
thofe of my neighbours, wras very poor.; net more than
twenty bulhels per acre, and much mixed with green
corn and W'eeds w7hen harvefted. I alfo fow'ed lome of
the feed dry on one ridge in each, of my former fields,
but the produce was very poor in companion of me
other parts of the field.” _ 2<57
Where the land is in good order, and free of weeds, Time of
April is the month for fowing barley. Every day is KmilT-
proper, from the firft to the laft.
The dreffing loamy foil and light foil for barley, is
the fame with that defcribed ; only that to plough dry
is not altogether fo effential as in orefling chi)- foil.
Loam or fand may be ftirred a little moift : better,
however, delay a week or twTo, than to ftir. a loam
wdien w7et. Clay muft never be ploughed moift, even
though the feafon Ihould efcape altogether. But this
will feidom be neceffary ; for not in one year o 20
will it happen, but that clay is dry enough for plough¬
ing fome time in May. Froft may correft clay plough¬
ed wet after harveft ; but when ploughed wet m the
fpring, it unites into a hard mafs, not to be dnlolved
but by very hard labour. # .2^8
On the cultivation of this grain wfe have the follow- Mifcellane-
ing obfervations by a Norfolk farmer. .“too,,-
The beft loil, he obferves,. is that which is ( > cerning the
healthy, rather light than ftiff, but yet of iufhcient cujtivat;oa
tenacity and ftrength to retain the moifture. On^this 0f barley.
394 AGRICULTURE. Practice.
Culture of kind of land tlie grain is always the belt bodied and
particular coloul-ed, the nimbleft in the hand, and has the thin-
w _ ' nefl rind. Thefe are qualities which recommend it moil
to the maltfter. If the land is poor, it ihould be dry
and warm 5 and when fo, it will often bear better corn
than richer land in a cold and wet iituation.
In the choice of your feed, it is needful to obferve,
that the beft is of a pale lively colour, and brightiih
call, without any deep rednefs or black tinge at the
tail. If the rind be a little ihrivelled, it is the better j
for that flight flirivelling proves it to have a thin ikin,
and to have fweated in the mow. The neceffity of a
change of feed by not flowing two years together what
grew on the fame foil, is not in any part of hufbandry
more evident than in the culture of this grain, which,
if not frequently changed, will grow courier and cour¬
ier every fucceeding year.
It has generally been thought, that feed-barley
would be benefited by fteeping j but liming it has, in
many inltances, been found prejudicial. Sprinkling a
little foot with the water in which it is fleeped has
been of great fervice, as it will fecure the feed from
infefts. In a very dry feed time, barley that has been
wetted for malting, and begins to fprout, will come up
fooner, and produce as good a crop as any other.
If you fow after a fallow, plough three times at lead.
At the firlt ploughing, lay your land up in fmall ridges,
and let it remain fo during the winter, for the froft to
mellow it ; the fecond ploughing Ihould be the begin¬
ning of February. In March fplit the ridges, and lay
the land as flat as poflible, at the fame time harrowing
it fine. But in ftrong wret lands (if you have no other
for barley) lay it round, and make deep furrows to re¬
ceive the water.
“ I have often (continues he), taken the following
method with fuccefs : On lands tolerably manured, I
flowed clover with my barley, which I reaped at har-
vefl:} and fed the clover all the following winter, and
from fpring to July, when I fallowed it till the fol¬
lowing fpring, and then fowed it with barley and clo¬
ver as before. Repeating this method every year, I
had very large crops, but would not recommend this
practice on poor light land.
“ We fow on our lighted: lands in April, on our
moifl: lands in May •, finding that thofe lands which
are the rnoil: fubjeet to weeds produce the belt crops
when fown late.
“ The common method is to fow the barley-feed
broad-caft at two fowings •, the firft harrowed in once,
the fecond twice j the ufual allowance from three to
four bufhels per acre. But if farmers could be pre¬
vailed on to alter this pra&ice, they would foon find
their account in it. Were only half the quantity fown
equally, the produce would be greater, and the corn
iefs liable to lodge : For when corn Hands very clofe,
the ftalks are drawn up weak \ and on that account are
lefs capable of refilling the force of winds, or fupport-
ing themfelves under heavy rains.
“ From our great fuccefs in fetting and drilling
wheat, fome of our farmers tried thefe methods with
barley \ but did not find it anfwer their expeflations,
except on very rich land.
“ I have myfelf had 80 ftalks on one root of barley,
which all produced good and lc»g ears, and the grain
was better than any other y but the method is too ex-
penfive for general practice. In poor land, fow thin, C Imre of
or your crop will be worth little.' Farmers who do Particular
not reafon on the matter will be of a different opi-.: ^liints‘
nion } but the fa£l is indifputable.” , *
When the barley is fowed and harrowed in, he ad-
vifes that the land be rolled after the firft flu owe r of rain,
to break the clods. This will clofe the earth about
the roots, which will be a great advantage to it in dry
weather.
When the barley has been up three weeks or a
month, it is a very good way to roll it’ again with a
heavy roller, which will prevent the fun and air from
penetrating the ground to the injury of the roots.
This rolling, before it branches out, will alio caufe it
to tiller into a greater number of ftalks •, fo that if the
plants be thin, the ground will be thereby filled, and
the ftalks ftrengthened.
If the blade grows too rank, as it fometimes will in
a warm wet fpring, mowing is a much better method
than feeding it down with iheep; becauie the icythe
takes off only the rank tops, but the iheep being fond
of the fweet end of the ftalk next the root, will often
bite fo clofe as to injure its future growth.
The county of Norfolk, according to Mr Marlhall, Cultivatiosr
is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of this grain, b®r|ey ^
the ftrongeft foil not being too heavy, and the lighteft or 1
being able to bear it } and fo well verfed are the Nor¬
folk farmers in the cultivation of it, that the barley
di this county is defined for feed throughout thewhole
kingdom. It is here fown after wheat or turnips, and
in fome very light lands it is fown after the fecond
year’s ley. After wheat, the feed time of the latter
being finiftied, and the ftubble trampled down with
bullocks, the land is ploughed with a ihallow furrow
for a winter fallow for barley. In the beginning of
March the land is harrowed and crofs-ploughed ; or if
it be wet, the ridges are reverfed. In April it receives
another ploughing lengthwife; and at feed time it is
harrowed, rolled, fowed, and the furface rendered as
fmooth and level as poflible. After turnips the foil is
broken up as fait as the turnips are taken off; if early
in winter by rice-balking, a- praftice already explaiu-
en 5 but if late, by a plain ploughing. It is com¬
mon, if time will permit, to plough three times ; the firft
{hallow, the fecond full’,, and the third a mean depth j.
with which laft the feed is ploughed in. Sometimes,
however, the ground is ploughed only once, and the
feed fown above, but more frequently by three plough-
ings, though, perhaps, the farmer has not above a
week to perform them in. After ley, the turf is ge¬
nerally broken by a winter fallow, and the foil treated
as after wheat.
This grain is feldom manured for, except when
fown after ley, when it is treated as wheat. No
manure is requifite after turnips or wheat, if the lat¬
ter has been manured for. If not, the turnip crop
following immediately, the barley is left to take its
chance, unlefs the opportunity be embraced for win¬
ter marling.
Little barley is fown by the Norfolk farmers be¬
fore the middle of April, and the feed time generally
continues till the middle of May \ though this mull in
fome meafure depend on the feafon } which, fays
Mr Marfhall, is more attended to in Norfolk than per¬
haps in all the world befides.” In the very backward
fpring
Parti. A G R I C U
Culture oi fpring of 1782, barley was fown in June with fuccefs.
particular preparation is ufed. It is all fown broadcast, and
Plants. alrnoft all under furrow •, that is, the furface having
’ been fmoothed by the harrow and roller, the feed is
fown and ploughed under with a {hallow furrow ; but n
the feafon be wet, and the foil cold and heavy, it is
fometimes fown above j but, if the fpring be forward
and the laft piece of turnips eaten off late, the ground
is fometimes obliged to be ploughed °nl/ 0,^ce’ ai, . J°
be fown above •, though in this cafe Mr Marfhall thinks
it the moil eligible management, inftead of turning
over the whole thicknefs of the foil, to two-furrow it,
and fow between. This is done by only fkimmmg the
furface with the firft plough, fowmg the feed upon this,
and then covering it with the bottom furrow brought
up by the fecond plough. Three bulhels are ufually
fufficient for an acre. • -nt r n • i
The barley, as well as the wheat, in Norfolk, is al¬
lowed to ft and till very ripe. It is um ve Tally mown
into fwath, with a fmall bow fixed at the heel of the
fcythe If it receive wet in the fwath m this count),
it is not turned, but lifted; that is, the heads or ears
are raifed from the ground, either with a fork or the
teeth of a rake, thereby admitting the air underneath
the fwaths} which will not fall down again to the
ground fo clofe aS before, fo that the air has free ac-
cefs to the under fide •, and this method of luting is
fuppofed not to be inferior to that, of turning, which
requires more labour, befides breaking and ruffling the
^ Tn the Vale of Gloucefter the quantity of barley cul-
of Gloucef- tivated is very inconMerable; the only fpectes is the
1  j ur-i..i.aTT ’y.mrritOTii In this
ter.
271
In Cots-
wald.
tivatea is very ^ \ T un¬
common long-eared hzx\zy,hordeumxeocrtton. In this
county the |rain we fpeak of is ufed on the every
year’s lands, as a cleanfmg crop. It is fown very late,
viz. in the middle or end of May *, fometimes the be¬
ginning or even the middle of June. Fhe reafon Oi
this is, that the people of the Vale think that if a week
or ten days of fine weather can be had for the opera¬
tion of harrowing out couch, and it after this a fil l
crop of barley fucceed, efpecially if it ftiouid fortunate-
lv take a reclining pofture, the bufmefs of fallowing is
effectually done, infomuch that the foil is cleaned to a
fufficient degree to laft for a number of years. A great
quantity of feed is made ufe of Viz. from three to
four bufhels to an acre-, under the idea, that a fu
crop of barley, efpecially if it lodge, fmothers all kinds
of weeds, couch-grafs itfelf not excepted. Our author
acknowledges this effeT in fome degree but does not
recommend the practice. “ H the land fays he, be
tolerably clean, and the feafon favourable a barley
fallow may no doubt be of effential fervice. But there
is not one year in five in which even land which is to¬
lerably clean can be fown m feafon, and at the fame
time be much benefited by it for future crops. The
barley in this county is all hand-weeded. It is harveft-
ed loofe, mown with the naked fcythe, lies m Bvat i,
till the day of carrying, and is cocked with common
hav forks. The medium produce is three quarters per
acre. Its quality is preferable to that o. die hid-
ba The' common long-eared fpecks b fown among the
Cotfwold hills. It is fown m the latter end of March
and beginning of April, in the quantity of three bufhe
to an acre, producing from 20 bufflels to four quarters
L T U R E, 395
to an acre j « which, fays our author is a low produce. Cto ot
It muft be obferved, however, that this produce is hom I plants_
land deficient in tillage j and that barley delights m a   .
fine pulverous tilth.” - c •,
In the midland diftria they cultivate two fpecies ollnthe imd-
barley, viz. the zeoefiton or common long-eared, and^
the dijlichon or fprat barley -, the latter not being of
more than 50 years {landing, but the former of much
older date. The fprat is the more hardy, and requires
to be more early fown j but the long-ear yie s t ie
better produce. It fucceeds wheat and turnips -, but
on the ftrong lands of this diftria, the crop after wheat
is much lefs produaive, as well as left certain than al¬
ter turnips -, which circumftance is likewife obferved m
Norfolk. It is fometimes alfo fown wlth.iucceft upon
' turf. When fown after wheat, the foil is winter tal¬
lowed by three ploughings -, tffe firft iengthwife m No¬
vember ;#the fecond acrois m March-, the laft, uhich
is the feed-ploughing, lengthwiie. Between the two
laft ploughings the foil is harrowed, and the twitch {ha-
ken out with forks j after which it is left, loofe and
light to die upon the ftirface, without being either
burnt or carried off. After turnips the foil has com¬
monly three ploughings the reafon of which is, that
the turnips being commonly folded off with (beep, the
foil, naturally of a clofe texture, receives a ftill greater
degree of compaanefs, which it is proper to break
down, to render it porous. The feed, time is the
two laft weeks of April and the firft ot Mayfrom
two bulhels and a half to three bufflels an acre, iome-
times even as much as four bufhels : the produce very
great, .fometimes as high as feven or even eight quar-
ms an acre; but the medium may be reckoned from of
four to four and a half quarters. Mr Marihall diffi
marks, that the culture of barley is extremely difficult. culu
“ Something, fays he, depends on the nature of the Ion,
much on the preparation, much on the feafon of low¬
ing, and much on harvefting. Upon the whole it may
be deemed, of corn crops, the moil difficult to be cul- ^
tivated with certainty. r , . in Yorfc-
In Yorkffiire there are four kinds of barley culti-^.
rated, viz. the zeocriton or long-eHred 5 the dfichon
or fprat \ the vulgare, big, four-rowed or Ipring bar¬
ley ; and the hexajlichon, fix-rowed or iprmg barley.
The firft and third forts are principally, cultivated 5 the
winter barley is as yet new to the diftria. Bactledoor
barley was formerly very common, but is now almoft
entirely difufed. Mr Marfhall obferves, that lefs than a
century ago, barley was not faleable until it was malt¬
ed ; there were neither maltfters nor public houfes, but
every farmer malted his own gram, or fold it to a
neighbour who had a malt kiln. Brakes cut from the
neighbouring commons were the fuel commonly uk
upon this occafion j and a certain day for cutting them %
was fixed, in order to prevent any one from taking more
than his fhare. The cafe is now totally reverfed, even
public malt houfes being unknown, and the bufme^
of malting entirely performed oy maltfters, who buy
theTarley from, the farmer, and fell him what malt he
may want for his family. _ : • Importance
To give fome idea of the importance ol this 6^bf Jarley t0
we {hall here ftate the amount of the revenue Much hg ^ve_
the public draws from an acre of land when cultivated^
for barley, independent altogether of the profits reaped
from it by the landlord and tenant. Suppofmg an
q D 2
396
Culture of
particular
Plants.
A G R I C U L T
acre to produce eight bolls of barley, and the whole
to be made into ordinary fmall beer, the taxes paid by
275
Cup -e of
buck-
wucac.
1 IV
Advanta¬
ges of this
cropping.
it Hand thus in 1802.
L. s. d.
8 bolls of barley made into malt, alloiving
7 built els per boll, at is. 7^d. per bulhel
of malt duty - - 412
The whole may produce 40 barrels of fmall
beer, the duty upon each of which is 2s. 4 o
Borough impoft which is impofed in Scot¬
land, but not in England, at is. 3d. per
barrel - - - 2 10
L. 11 2 2
4. Buck-Wheat.
The ufes of this plant have already been fuffici-
ently noticed. It delights in a mellow fandy foil 7 but
fucceeds well in any dry loofe healthy land, and mo¬
derately fo in a free loamy Hone bralh. A ftiff clay
is its averfiojt, and it is entirely labour loft to fow
it in wet poachy ground. The proper feafon for fotv-
ing is from the laft week of May or the beginning of
June. It has been fowm, however, fo early as the be¬
ginning of April, and fo late as the 22d of July, by
way of experiment 5 but the latter w’as rather extreme
to be choien, and the former was in danger from froft.
In an experiment upon a fmall piece of ground, the
grain of two different crops wTas brought to maturity
in the fummer 1787.—After fpring feedings, a crop
of turnip-rooted cabbage, or vetches, there will be
lufficient time to fow the land with buck-wheat. Pro¬
bably, in hot dry fummers, a crop of vetches might
even be mown for hay early enough to introduce a
crop of this grain after it.
In the year 1780, about feven acres of a fandy foil
on Briflington common (f), having been firft tolerably
well cleanfed from brambles, furze, &c. received one
ploughing. To reduce the irregularities of the furface,
it w?as rolled ; and on the pth of June in that year,
two bulhels and a half of buck-wheat per acre fown,
the ground rolled again without harrow ing.
The vegetation appeared in five or fix days, as is
conftantly the cafe, be the weather wet or dry. The
growth was fo rapid, that the fern, with which this
land greatly abounded, wras completely kept under.
About the middle of September the crop w*as mown ;
but by reafen of a great deal of rain about that' time,
it was not fecured until the beginning of October ;
hence a lofs of a great part of the grain by ftiedding,
as well as fome eaten by birds. However, there were
faved about 24 \\ inchefter bufhels per acre 5 and, not-
withftanding its long expofure to the weather, received
no fort of damage, only perhaps that the find! and moft
perfect grain was the firft to fall from the plant.. The
ground after this had almoft the appearance of a fallow',
and was immediately ploughed.
When it had lain a moderate time to meliorate, and
to receive the influences of the atmofphere, it was har¬
rowed, fown with Lammas wheat, and ploughed in
under furrow, in a contrary diieciion to the firft
U R E. Pradice.
ploughing. Thus a piece of land, which in the Culture of
month of April was altogether in a ftate of nature, in particular
the following November was feen under a promifing pl;ints-
crop of what is well ftyled the king of grain, and this
without the aid of manure, or of any very great degree
of tillage. Nor was the harveft by any means defi¬
cient ; for feveral perfons converfant in Inch things efti-
mated the produce from 26 to 30 bufliels per acre.
As foon as the wheat crop was taken off, the ground
had one ploughing, and on the firft of September fol¬
lowing was fown with turnip feed. The turnips were
not large, but of an herbage fo abundant as in the fol¬
lowing fpring to fupport 120 ewes with their lambs,
which w'ere fed on it by folding four weeks. After
this it was manured with a compofition of rotten dung
and natural earth, about 20 putt loads per acre, and
planted with potatoes. The crop fold for 13 81. be-
fides a confiderabie number ufed in the family, and a
quantity referved with which ten acres were planted
the following feafon. The enfumg autumn it was again
fown with wheat, and produced an excellent crop. In
the fpring of 1784, it was manured and planted with
potatoes, as in the preceding inftance ; the crop
(though tolerably good) by no means equal to the for¬
mer, producing about 100 facks per acre only. In
fpring 1785, the land was now for a third time under
a crop of wheat, it being intended to try how far this
mode of alternate cropping, one year with potatoes
and another with wheat, may be carried.
From the fuccefs of the preceding and other experi¬
ments, by Nehemiah Bartley, Efq. of Briftol, as de¬
tailed in the Bath Society Papers, it would feem, that
the culture »f this plant ought in many cafes to be
adopted inftead of a fummer fallowing : for the crop
produced appears not only to be fo much clear gain in
refpect to fuch practice, but alfo affords a confiderabie
quantity of ftraw for fodder and manure ; beiide that
a fummer fallowing is far from being fo advantageous
a preparation for a fucceeding crop.
5. Pease.
Peafe are of two kinds 5 the white and the gray. Culture or
1 he cultivation of the latter only belongs to this place, peafe.
There are two fpecies of the gray kind, diftinguiffi-
ed by their time of ripening. One ripens foon, and for
that reafon is termed hot feed: the other, which is
flower in ripening, is termed coldfeed.
Peafe, a leguminous crop, is proper to intervene be¬
tween two cuimiferous crops; lefs for the profit of a
peafe crop than for meliorating the ground. Peafe,
however, in a dry feafon, will produce fix or feven bolls
each acre } but, in an ordinary lealon, they feldom
reach above two, or two and a half. Hence, in a
moift climate, which all the weft of Britain is, red
clover feems a more beneficial crop than peafe y as it
makes as good winter food as peafe, and can be cut
green thrice during fummer.
A field intended for cold feed ought to be ploughed
m Oflober or November 5 and in February, as foon as
the ground is dry, the feed ought to be fown on the
winter furrow. A field intended for hot feed ought to
be
(f) A very rough piece of land, at that time juft enclofed,.
Part I.
On letting
peafe in
■bills.
A G R I C U
be ploughed in March or April, immediately before
fowing. But if infefted with weeds, it ought to be al-
fo ploughed in Odlober or November.
Peafe laid a foot below the furface will vegetate; but
the moft approved depth is fix inches in light foil, and
four inches in clay foil 5 for which reafon, they ought
to be fown under furrow when the ploughing is de¬
layed till fpring. Of all grain, beans excepted, they
are the leafl in danger of being buried.
Peafe differ from beans, ip loving a dry foil and a
dry feafon. Horfe-hoeing would be a great benefit,
could it be performed to any advantage) but peafe
grow expeditioufly, and foon fall over and cover the
ground, which bars ploughing. Horfe-hoeing has
little effedl when the plants are new fprung $ and when
they are advanced to be benefited by that culture, their
length prevents it. Faft growing at the fame time is
the caufe of their carrying fo little feed : the feed is
buried among the leaves j and the fun cannot penetrate
to make it grow and ripen. The only practicable re¬
medy to obtain grain, is thin fowing ; but thick fowdng
produces more ftraw, and mellows the ground more.
Half a boll for an Englilh acre, may be reckoned thin
fowing •, three firlots thick fowing.
Notwithftanding what is faid above, Mr Hunter, a
noted farmer in Berwickfhire, began fome time ago to
low all his peafe in drills •, and never failed to have great
crops of corn as well as of ftraw. He fowed double
rows at a foot interval, and two feet and a half be¬
tween the double rows, which admit horfe-hoeing. By
that method, he had alfo good crops of beans on light
land.
Peafe and beans mixed are often fown together, in
order to catch different feafons. In a moift feafon, the
beans make a good crop ; in a dry feafon, the peafe.
The growth of plants is commonly checked by
drought in the month of July ; but promoted by rain
in Auguft. In July, grafs is parched ; in Auguft, it
recovers verdure. Where peafe are fo far advanced in
the dry feafon as that the feed begins to form, their
growth is indeed checked, but the feed continues to fill.
If only in the bloffom at that feafon, their growth is
checked a little j but they become vigorous again in
Auguft, and continue growing without filling till Hop¬
ped by froft. Hence it is, that cold feed, which is
early fown, has the beft chance to produce corn : hot
feed, which is late fown, has the beft; chance to pro¬
duce ftraw’.
The following method is praclifed in Norfolk, for
fowing peafe upon a dry light foil, immediately opened
from pafture. The ground is pared with a plough ex¬
tremely thin, and every fod is laid exadtly on. its back.
In every fod a double row of holes is made. A pea
dropt in every hole lodges in the flay’d ground imme¬
diately below the fod, thyufts its roots horizontally, and
has fufficient moifture. This method enabled Norfolk
farmers, in the barren year 1740, to furniftr white peafe
at 12s per boll.
In the Bath'Papers, vol. i. p, 148, we have an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of an experiment by Mr Pavier
near Taunton, on fowihg peafe in drills. The fcale
on which this experiment was made, however, being
fo fmall, it would perhaps be rafh to infer from it
what might be the event of planting a large piece
L T U R E. 397
of ground in the fame manner. The fpace was only Culture of
16 fquare yards, but the produce fo great, that by cal-
culating from it, a ftatute acre would yield 600, or at ' .
the leaft 500 pecks of green peafe at the firft gathering j
which, at the high price they bore at that time in the
country about Taunton, viz. i6d. per peck, would
have amounted to 33I. 6s. 8d. On this the fociety
obferve, that though they doubt not the truth of the
calculation, they are of opinion, that fuch a quanti¬
ty as 500 or 600 pecks of green peafe would immedi¬
ately reduce the price in any country market. “ If
the above-mentioned crop (fay they) were fold only at
nine pence per peck, the farmer would be well paid
for his trouble.” In a letter on the drill hufbandry by
Mr Whitmore, for which the thanks of the fociety
were returned, he informs us, that drilled peafe muft
not be fown too thin, or they will always be foul: and
in an experiment of this kind, notwithftanding careful
hoeing, they turned out fo foul, that the produce was 280
only eight bufhels to the acre.—From an experiment Peafe nnife
related in the 5th volume of the fame work, it appears
that peafe, however meliorating they may be to the0^”0°°
ground at firft, will at the laft totally exhauft it, at the fame-
leaft with regard to themfelves. In this- experiment ipot.
they were fown on the fame fpot for ten years running.
After the firft two years the crop became gradually
lefs and lefs, until at laft the feed would not vegetate,
but became putrid. Strawberries were then planted
without any manure, and yielded an excellent crop. 281
On the Norfolk culture of peafe,: Mr Marlhall Mr Mar-~
makes two obfervations. “ Leys are feldom ploughed ftial|’s.ob"
more than once for peafe ; and the feed is in general -va 10n ’
dibbled in upon the flag of this one ploughing. But
ftubbles are in general broken by a winter-fallow of
three or four ploughings j the feed being fown broad-
caft and ploughed in about three inches deep with the
laft'ploughing.”—In the Vale of Gloucefter they are
planted by wromen, and hoed by women and children,
once, twice, and fometimes thrice 5 which gives the
crop, when the foil is fufficiently free from, root-weeds,
the appearance of a garden in the fummer time, and
produces a plentiful crop in harveft. The diftance
between the row’s varies from 10 to 14 inches, but 12
may be conlidered as the medium j the diftance in the
rows two inches. In the Cheltenham quarter of the
diftrift, they fet the peas not in continued lines, but
in clumps; making the holes eight or ten inches di-
ftant from one another, putting a number of peafe in¬
to each hole. Thus the hoe has undoubtedly greater
freedom; all the difadvantage is, that in this/ cafe
the foil is not fo evenly and fully occupied by the roots
as wThen they are difpofed in continued lines.—In
Yorkftiire it is common to fow beans and gray peafe'
together, under the name of blendings \ and fometimes
fitches (probably, fays Mr Marlhall, a gigantic varie¬
ty of the ervum lens') are fowm among beans. Such
mixtures are found to augment the crop, and the dif¬
ferent fpecies are eafily feparated by the fieve.
6. Beaks.
The propereft foil for beans is a moift and deep clay,,
but they may alfo be raifed upon all heavy foils. They
are cultivatfed in two ways, either in the old way by'
broad caft, or, according to the more recent practice,
they
/
/
39s
Culture of
particular
Plants.
282
Culture of
beans by
broad-calt.
283
Culture of
beans in
•drills.
A G R I C U
they are drilled in diiHnft rows. Of each of thefe we
fliall give a very (hort account.
When the mode of cultivating beans by broad-calf
is adopted, it is to be obferved, that as this grain is early
fown, the ground intended for it fhould be ploughed
before winter, to give accefs to the froft and air ; be¬
neficial in all foils, and neceffary in a clay foil. Take
the firft opportunity after J anuary, when the ground is
dry, to loofen the foil with the harrow firft defcribed,
till a mould be brought upon it. Sow the feed, and
cover it with the fecond harrow. The third will fmooth
the furface, and cover the feed equally. Thefe har¬
rows make the very beft figure in fowing beans : which
ought to be laid deep in the ground, not lefs than fix
inches. In clay foil, the common harrows are altoge¬
ther infufficient. The foil, which has refted long after
ploughing, is rendered compacl and folid s the common
harrows Ikim the furface : the feed is not covered j and
the firft hearty Ihower of rain lays it above ground.
Where the farmer overtakes not the ploughing after
harvcft, and is reduced to plough immediately before
fowing, the plough anfwers thepurpofeof the firft har¬
row j and the other two will complete the work. But
the labour of the firft harrow is ill faved ; as the plough¬
ing before winter is a fine preparation, not only for beans,
but for grain of every kind. If the ground ploughed be¬
fore winter happen by fuperfluity of moifture to coke,
the firft harrow going along the ridges,' and crofting
them, will loofen the furface, and give accefs to the air
for drying. As foon as the ground is dry, fow with¬
out delaying a moment. If rain happen in the interim,
there is no remedy but patience till a dry day or two
come.
Carfe clay, ploughed before winter, feldom fails to
cake. Upon that account, a fecond ploughing is ne-
ceifary before fowing : which ought to be performed
with an ebb furrow, in Order to keep the froft-mould
as near the furface as poftible. To cover the feed with
the plough is, with regard to this as well as other grain,
exprefled by the phrafe to fow under furrow. The
clods raifed in this ploughing are a fort of fhelter to
the young plants in the chilly fpring months.
The foregoing method will anfwer for loam. And
as for a fandy or gravelly foil, it is altogether impro¬
per for beans.
Previous to the year 1770, beans were feldom fown
in Scotland, unlefs upon the very rich clays j but fmce
that time, by adopting the plan of raifing them in
drills, or diftinfi; rows, they have been fuccefsfully cul¬
tivated upon all the heavy loams, and in many farms
they now conftitute a regular branch of rotation. With
very few exceptions, beans are conftantly drilled at in¬
tervals of from 20 to 27 inches. Of thefe modes, the
laft is the moft prevalent, becaufe it admits the ground
to be ploughed with a horfe, in the moft fufficient man¬
ner. Very little hand-hoing is given *, nor is it required,
as the kind of land which is beft adapted for their
growth, and upon which they are commonly fown, has
not naturally a tendency to the produflion of an¬
nual weeds, and fine crops of wheat-generally follow,
provided due attention has been given to working the
bean crop. The neceffity of fummer fallow, which the
prefent high price of labour, and the lofs of a year’s
crop, render an expenfive affair to the farmer, is con¬
sequently much leffened for if land is once thoroughly
1
L T U R E. Praftkc.
cleaned, and afterwards kept in an alternate courfe of Culture of
leguminous and cidmiferous crops, it will remain in good
order for a confiderable number of years. ^
As beans delight in a moift foil, and have no end
of growing in a moift feafon, they cover the ground
totally when fown broadcaft, keep in the dew, and ex¬
clude the fun and air : the plants grow to a great
height; but carry little feed, and that little not well
ripened. This difplays the advantage of drilling j
which gives free accefs to the fun and air, dries the
ground, and affords plenty of ripe feed.
II. Plants Cultivated for Roots.
1. Potatoes.
Thefe, next to the different kinds of grain, may be
looked upon as the crop moft generally ufeful for the
hufbandman affording not only a moft excellent food
for cattle, but for the human fpecies alfo ; and they are
perhaps the only fubftitute that could be ufed for bread 2g^
with any probability of fuccefs. In the anfwer by Dr Are not
Tiffot to M. Linguet already mentioned, the foPmer prejudicial
objects to the coniiant ufe of them as food j not becaufe ^^an“
they are pernicious to the body, but becaufe they hurt
the faculties of the mind. He owns, that thofe who
eat maize, potatoes, or even millet, may grow tall and
acquire a large fr/.e ; but doubts if any fuch ever pro¬
duced a literary work of merit. It does not, however,
by any means appear, that the very general ufe of po¬
tatoes in our own country has at all impaired either the
health of body or vigour of mind of its inhabitants.
The queftion then, as they have already been Ihown to
be an excellent food for cattle, comes to be merely
with regard to the profit of cultivating them ^ and this
feems already to be fo well determined by innumerable
experiments, as well as by the general practice ol the
country, that no room appears left for doubt. 2gi.
The choice of foil is not of greater importance in General
any other plant than in a potato. This plant in clay culture,
foil, or in rank black loam lying low without ventila¬
tion, never makes palatable food. In a gravelly or
fandy foil, expofed to the fun and free air, it thrives
to perfection, and has a good relifti. But a rank black
loam, though improper to raife potatoes for the table,
produces them in great plenty j and the produCt is, as
already obferved, a palatable food for horned cattle,
hogs, and poultry.
The fpade is a proper inftrument for raifing a fmall
quantity, or for preparing corners or other places inac-
ceftible to the plough j but for raifing potatoes in
quantities, the plough is the only inftrument.
As two great advantages of a drilled crop are, to
deftroy weeds, and to have a fallow at the fame time
with the crop, no judicious farmer will think of raifing
potatoes in any other way. In September or OClober,
as foon as that year’s crop is removed, let the field have
a roufing furrow, a crofs-braking next, and then be
cleared of weeds by the cleaning harrow. lorm it into
three-feet ridges, in that ftate to lie till April, which
is the proper time for planting potatoes. Crofs-brake
it, to raife the furrows a little. Then lay well digefted
horfe-dung along the furrows, upon which lay the roots
at eight inches diftance. Cover up thefe roots with
the plough, going once round every row. This makes
a warm bed for the potatoes j hot dung below, and
Parti. A G R I C U
Culture of a loofe covering above, that admits every ray of the
particular fun> As foon as the plants appear above ground, go
, PlaPt:s‘ , round every row a fecond time with the plough, which
"v ^ will lay upon the plants an additional inch or two of
mould, and at the fame time bury all the annuals; and
this will complete the ploughing of the ridges. When
the potatoes are fix inches high, the plough, with the
deepefi furrow, mult go twice along'the middle of each
interval in oppofite directions, laying earth firit to one
row, and next to the other. And to perform this work,
a plough with a double mouldboard will be more ex¬
peditious. But as the earth cannot be laid clofe to
the roots by the plough, the fpade muft fucceed, with
which four inches of the plants muft be covered, leav-
ving little more but the tops above ground 5 and this
operation will at the fame time bury all the weeds that
have fprung fince the former ploughing. What weeds
arife after muft be pulled up with the hand. A hoe
is never to be ufed here : it cannot go fo deep as to
deftroy the weeds without cutting the fibres of the
plants j and if it Ikim the furface, it only cuts off the
heads of the w'eeds, and does not prevent their pufhing
its again.
Farticular In the Bath Society Papers, we have the following
methods, praftical obfervations on the culture and ufe of pota¬
toes, given as the refult of various experiments made
for five years fucceffively on that valuable root, the
growth of which cannot be too much encouraged.
When the potato crop has been the only objeCl in
view, the following method is the moft eligible.
The land being well pulverized by two or three good
harrowings and ploughings, is then manured with 15
or 20 cart loads of dung per acre, before it receives its
laft earth. Then it is thrown into what the Suffolk
farmers call the trench balk, which is narrow and deep
ridge-work, about 15 inches from the centre of one
ridge to the centre of the other. Women and children
drop the fets in the bottom of every furrow 15 inches
apart 5 men follow and cover them with large hoes, a
foot in width, pulling the mould down fo as to bury
the fets five inches deep; they muft receive two or
three hand-hoeings, and be kept free from weeds ; al¬
ways oblerving to draw the earth as much as poflible
to the ftems of the young plants. By repeated trials,
the firft or fecond week in April is found the moft ad¬
vantageous time for planting;.
In the end of September or the beginning of Octo¬
ber, when the haulm becomes withered, they fhould be
ploughed up with a ftrong double-breafted plough.
The workman muft be cautioned to fet his plough very
dteep, that he may ftrike below all the potatoes^ to a-
void damaging the crop. The women who pick them
up* if not carefully attended to, will leave many in the
ground, which will prove detrimental to any fucceedmg
corn, whether wheat or barley. To avoid which in¬
convenience, let the land be harrowed, and turn the
fwine in to glean the few that may be left by their ne¬
gligence.
By this method, the fets will be 15 fquare inches
from each other j it will take 18 bufliels to plant an
acre j and the produce, if on a good mixed loamy foil,
will amount to 300 buftiels.
If the potatoes are grown as a preparation for wheat,
it is preferable to have the rows two feet two inches
from.-each other, hand-hoeing only the fpace from plant
L T U R E.
399
to plant in each row} then turning a frnall furrow from Culture of
the infide of each row by a common light plough, and
afterwards, with a double breafted plough with one .
horfe, fplit the ridge formed by the firft -ploughing
thoroughly to clean the intervals. This work ftiould
not be done too deep the firft time, to avoid burying
the tender plants} but the laft earth fhculd be plough¬
ed as deep as poflible; and the clofer the mould is
thrown to the ftems of the plants, the more advanta¬
geous it will prove. Thus 15 bufhels will plant an acre,
and the produce will be about 300 buftiels *, but the
land, by the fummer ploughings, will be prepared to
receive feed wheat immediately, and almoft enfure a
plentiful crop. 2gy
The potato fets ftiould be cut a wreek before plant-To prevent'
ing, with One or two eyes to each, and the pieces not ^ grub*
very fmall j two bufhels of frefh-flaked lime fhould be
fown over the furface of the land as foon as planted,
which will effectually prevent the attacks of the grub.
The expence attending an acre of potatoes well cul¬
tivated in the firft method, fuppofing the rent 20 (hil¬
lings, tithe and town charges rather high (as in Suf¬
folk), taking up, and every thing included, will be a-
bout fix pounds. ‘ In the laft method, it would be fome-
what reduced.
“ When predileCUons for old cnftoms are fubdued
(adds the author), I hope to fee the potato admitted in
the conftant courfe of crops by every fpirited hufband-
man. The moft beneficial effeCts will, I am certain,
accrue from fuch a fyftem. The advantages in my
neighbourhood are apparent j I cultivated and fed my
own children upon them, and my poorer neighbours
fenfibly followed the example. A great proportion.of
every cottager’s garden is now occupied by this root,
and it forms a principal part of their diet. Potatoes
are cheap and excellent iubftitutes for peafe in foups .and
broths, allowing double the quantity. -88
“ Although it is nearly a tranfcript of the direc-A.cheap
tions given by a very ingenious author, yet I fliall take jpPj^atlo:r
the liberty of inferting a receipt for making a potato- p001.1
foup, which I have weekly diftributed among the poor1
to their great relief.
s. d.
An ox’s head - - 2 9
Two pecks of potatoes - - 06
Quarter of a peck of onions - 0 3
Three quarters of a pound of fait - o 1 ’
An ounce and a half of pepper - 03
Total 3 10
Ninety pints.of water to be boiled with the above in¬
gredients on a flow fire until reduced to 60, which re¬
quire one peck of coals, value threepence. I have ad¬
ded the expence of every article according to their
prices with me, that gentlemen may clearly perceive at
how eafy a rate they can feed 60 of their poor neigh¬
bours. I find from experience, a pint of this foup, with •
a finall piece of the meat, is fufficient to fatisfy a hear¬
ty working man with a good meal. If vegetables are
plentiful, fome of every fort may be added, with a few
jfweet herbs.
“ I hope my inferting the above will not be efteem- -
ed improper 5 though fomewhat deviating from the cul¬
ture of potatoes, it may poffibly be a means of render¬
ing them more extenflvely ufefiijl.”
400
Culture of A premium having been offered by the above-men-
panicuhir tioned fociety for the cultivation of potatoes by far-
. ' mers, &c. whofe rent does not exceed 40!. per an¬
num, the following methods were communicated, by
which thofe who have only a fmall fpot of ground may
289 obtain a plentiful crop.
Methods of Firft, then, the earth fhould be dug 11 inches deep,
if the foil wall allow of it ; after this, a hole fliould be
dnall'fpots1 °Pene^ about 6 inches deep, horfe dung or long lit¬
ter fhould- be put therein about 3 inches thick 5 this
hole Ihould not be more than 12 inches in diameter ;
upon this dung or litter a potato fhould be planted
whole, upon which a little more dung fhould be caft,
and then earth muft be put thereon. In like manner
the whole plot of ground muft be planted, taking care
that each potato be atleaft 16 inches apart \ and when
the young fhoots mak'e their appearance, they fhould
have frefh mould drawn round them with a hoe j and
if the tender fhoots are covered, it wdll prevent the
froft from injuring them : they fhould again be earth¬
ed when the Ihoots make a fecond appearance, but not
be covered, as in all probability the feafon wdll then
■be lefs fevere. A plentiful fupply of mould fhould be
given them, and the perfon who performs this bufinefs
fhould never tread upon the plant, or the hillock that
is raifed round it; as the lighter the earth is, the more
room the potato will have to expand. From a fingle
root thus planted, very near 40 pounds weight of large
potatoes were obtained, and from almoft every other
root upon the fame plot of ground from 15 or 20
pounds wreight 5 and except the foil be ftoney or
gravelly, 10 pounds or half a peck of potatoes may al¬
moft always be obtained from each root, by purfuing
the foregoing method. But note, cuttings or fmall fets
2p0 will not do for this purpofe.
Methods of The fecond method wall fuit the indolent, or thofe
culture a- have not time to dig their ground j and that is,
dapted to weecjs much abound and have not been cleared
iiii all farms.... . .
m the winter, a trench may be opened m a ftraight
line the whole length of the ground, and about 6 inches
deep : in .this trench the potatoes fhould be planted
about ten inches apart; cuttings or fmall potatoes will
do for this method. When they are laid in the trench,
the weeds that are on the furface may be pared off on
each fide about ten inches from it, and be turned upon
the plants; another trench fhould then be dug, and the
mould that comes out of it turned carefully on the
weeds. It muft not be forgot, that each trench fhould
be regularly dug, that the potatoes may be through¬
out the plot 10 or 12 inches from each other. This
flovenly method will in general raife more potatoes
than can be produced by digging the ground twice,
and dibbling in the plants ; and the reafon is, that the
weeds lighten the foil, and give the roots room to ex¬
pand. They fhould be twice hoed, and earthed up in
rows. And here note, that if cut potatoes are to be
planted, every cutting fhould have twyo eyes, for though
fewer fets wull be obtained, there wall be a greater cer¬
tainty of a crop, as one eye often fails or is deftroyed
by grubs in the earth.
Where a crop of potatoes fails in part (as wall fome-
times be the cafe in a dry feafon), amends may ftill be
made by laying a little dung upon the knots of the
flraw or haulm of thofe potatoes that do appear, and
covering them with mould ; each knot or joint thus
Pra&ice*
ordered will, if the wreather prove wet afterwards, pro- Culture of
duce more potatoes than the original roots. particular
From the fmalleft potatoes planted whole, from four -
to fix pounds at a root were obtained, and feme of the
fingle potatoes weighed near two pounds. Thefe w^ere
dug in as before mentioned, in trenches where the
ground wras covered with weeds, and the foil was a ftiff
loamy clay.
A good crop may be obtained by laying potatoes
upon turf at about 12 or 14 inches apart, and upon
beds of about fix feet wide; on each fide of which a
trench fhould be opened about three feet wide, and the
turf that comes from thence Ihould be laid with the
graffy fide downwards upon the potatoes; a fpit of
mould ftiould next be taken from the trenches, and be
fpread over the turf; and in like manner the whole plot
of ground that is defigned to be planted muft be treat¬
ed. And remark, that when the young (hoots appear,
another fpit of mould from the trenches fhould be
ftrewed over the beds fo as to cover the fhoots ; this
will prevent the froft from injuring them, encourage
them to expand, and totally deftroy the young weeds;
and when the potatoes are taken up in the autumn, a
careful perfon may turn the earth again into the tren¬
ches, fo as to make the furface level; and it wall be
right to remark, that from the fame ground a much bet¬
ter crop of potatoes may be obtained the following year.
For field planting, a good (if not the beft) method
is to dung the land, which fliould be once ploughed
previous thereto; and when it is ploughed a fecond
time, a careful perfon fhould drop the potato plants be¬
fore the plough in every third furrow at about eight or
ten inches apart. Plants that are cut with two eyes are
beft for this purpofe. The reafon for planting them at
fo great a diftance as every third furrow7, is, that when
the fhoots appear, a horfe-hoe may go upon the two
vacant furnnvs to keep them dean ; and after they are
thus hoed, they fhould be moulded up in ridges ; and if
this crop-be be taken up about Oftober or November,
the land w7ill be in excellent condition to receive a crop
of wheat. Lands that are full of twitch or couch-grafs
may be made clean by this method, as the horfe-hoe-
ing is as good as a fummer fallow; and if, w7hen the
potatoes are taken up, wromen and children were to
pick out fuch filth, not any traces of it w7ould remain;
and by laying it on heaps and burning it, a quantity of -
afhes w7ould be produced for manure.
After ploughing, none fhould ever dibble in pota¬
toes, as the perfons who dibble, plant, or hoe them,
w7ill all tread the ground; by which means it wfill be-'
come fo bound, that the young fibres cannot expand,
as has been already obferved. Good crops have .in¬
deed been obtained by ploughing the land twdee, and
dropping the plants in every other furrow7, and by
hand-hoeing and earthing them up afterwards as the
gardeners do peafe; but This method is not equal to
the other.
Vacant places in hedge-rows might be grubbed and
planted wuth potatoes, and a good crop might be ex-
pe&ed, as the leaves of trees, thorns, &c. are a good
manure, and wall furprifingly encourage their growth,
and gratify the wifhes of the planter ; who by cultiva¬
ting fuch places, will then make the moft of his ground,
and it will be in fine order to receive a crop of corn
the following year.
AGRICULTURE.
Account
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